Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

List of statues in Kollam

2023-07-20T13:32:05Z

Doctor:

[[Kollam]] is a city in Kerala, India, with a rich history and culture. The city is home to a number of statues, which commemorate important figures and events in the city's history. The following is a list of some of the most notable statues in Kollam.

{{Maplink|frame=yes|zoom=13|frame-lat=8.89|frame-long=76.59|text=Statues in Kollam|type=named}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! data-sort-type="number"|Number
! Statue
! class="unsortable"|Image
! Sculpter
! Location
! class="unsortable"|Notes
! Coordinates
|-
| 1
| [[C. Kesavan|C Keshavan]]
| [[File:C Keshavan Statue, Kollam Town hall July 2023.jpg|100px|none]]
|
| Infront of Town Hall
|
| {{coord|8.882058|76.597981|name=C. Kesavan}}
|-
| 2
| [[Ayyankali]]
| [[File:Ayyankali Statue Kollam Cantonment.jpg|100px|none]]
|
| [[Kollam Cantonment|Cantonment Ground]]
|
| {{coord|8.88093031680777|76.60054935550806|name=Ayyankali}}
|-
| 3
| [[R. Sankar|R Shankar]]
| [[File:R Shankar statue SN College Kollam.jpg|100px|none]]
|
| Infront of SN College
|
| {{coord|8.880836239920848|76.60082294081963|name=R. Sankar}}
|-
| 4
| Kundalini
| [[File:Kundalini.JPG|100px|none]]
| K. Jayapala Panicker
| Sopanam Auditiorium
|
| {{coord|8.88270372343936|76.5935352959786|name=Kundalini}}
|-
| 5
| Murals & Statues at Karthika Hotel
|
| K. Jayapala Panicker
| Karthika Hotel, Chinnakkada
|
| {{coord|8.88450860702383|76.58989109584587|name=Karthika Hotel}}
|-
| 6
| Murals at Pranavam Theatre
|
|
| Pranavam theatre, Near Railway station
|
| {{coord|8.884463316550388|76.59459387399802|name=Pranavam Theatre}}
|-
| 7
| Murals at Archana & Aradhana
|
| K. Jayapala Panicker
| Archana Theatre
|
| {{coord|8.889476655109302|76.58755371028839}}
|-
| 8
| [[Jayan]]
|
|
| Olayil Road, Infront of Nani Hospital
|
| {{coord|8.893556330129588|76.5806290284103|name=Jayan}}
|-
| 9
| [[R. Sankar|R Shankar]]
|
|
| Near PWD Rest House, Chinnakkada
|
| {{coord|8.882058|76.597981|name=Sankar}}
|-
| 10
| Jalakanyaka
|
|
| [[Mahatma Gandhi Park]], Kollam Beach
|
| {{coord|8.873675034740408|76.59405958692375|name=Jalakanyaka}}
|-
| 11
| Goddess of Light
|
|
| [[Kureepuzha|Kureeppuzha]]
|
| {{coord|8.90601688092032|76.57318122361936|name=Goddess of Light}}
|-
| 12
| Dr. M. Sreenivasan Statue
|
|
| SN College
|
| {{coord|8.881355617513123|76.60185088927419|name=M. Sreenivasan}}
|-
| 13
| Ammayum Kunjum
|
|
| TK Divakaran Park
|
| {{coord|8.881622098937346|76.59765267164883|name=Ammayum Kunjum}}
|-
| 14
| Chithramathil
|
|
| TK Divakaran Park
| [[Namboothiri (artist)|Artist Nampoothiri]]
| {{coord|8.881689402801214|76.59736296250105|name=Chithramathil}}
|-
| 15
| [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
|
|
| Nehrupark, Opposite Town Hall
|
| {{coord|8.881375744431914|76.59799132751955|name=Jawaharlal Nehru}}
|-
| 16
| Kuravanum Kurathiyum
| [[File:Ashramam Ashashillam, Kuravanum Kurathiyum.jpg|100px|none]]
|
| [[Asramam Maidan|Ashramam Maithanam]]
| Ashtashilpam
|
|-
| 17
| Nature of my Mother
| [[File:Ashramam Ashtashilpam, Nature of my Mother.jpg|100px|none]]
|
| [[Asramam Maidan|Ashramam Maithanam]]
|
|
|-
| 18
| Winter Morning
| [[File:Ashramam Ashtashilpam, Winter Morning.jpg|100px|none]]
|
| [[Asramam Maidan|Ashramam Maithanam]]
|
|
|-
| 19
| Metal Relief in Ramavarma Club
| [[File:ജയപാലപ്പണിക്കരുടെ മെറ്റൽ റിലീഫ്.jpg|100px]]
| K. Jayapala Panicker
| Ramavarma Club, [[Thevally]]
|
|
|-
| 20
| Meditation
| [[File:Meditation statue Ashramam adventure park.jpg|100px]]
| Aryanad Rajendran
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
| {{coord|8.897237317493436|76.58497973878615|name=Adventure Park}}
|-
| 21
| Story Teller
| [[File:Storyteller Ashramam adventure park.jpg|100px]]
| V. Satheesan
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
|
|-
| 22
| Bundle of slogans
| [[File:Bundle of Slogans Ashramam adventure park.jpg|100px]]
| Sivan
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
|
|-
| 23
| She
|
| Saju Mannathur
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
|
|-
| 24
| Do not disturb
| [[File:Do not disturb Ashramam adveture park.jpg|100px]]
| Shenlay
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
|
|-
| 25
| Love without heart and brain
|
| Guruprasad
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
|
|-
| 26
| Buddha 99
|
| Chavara Vijayan
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
|
|-
| 27
| Love without heart and brain
|
| Guruprasad
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
|
|-
| 28
| Victim
|
| Biju Bharatan
| [[Adventure Park, Kollam|Asramam Adventure Park]]
|
|
|-
| 29
| Two Horses
|
| KRT Tinu
| Asramam
|
|
|-
| 30
| One of Us
|
| Pramod Gopalakrishnan
| Asramam
|
|
|-
| 31
| Peache Ki Or
|
| Sanu Ramakrishnan
| Asramam
|
|
|-
| 32
| Imagining Human
|
| Giri Vasudevan
| Asramam
|
|
|-
| 33
| From The Margin
|
| Schenley
| Asramam
|
|
|-
| 34
| [[Kollam Port|Kollam Port construction]]
| [[File:Ashramam Relief, Kollam port.jpg|100px]]
|
| Asramam Relief
|
| {{coord|8.893532933235852|76.59131792422686|name=Asramam Relief}}
|-
| 35
| [[Battle of Quilon]]
| [[File:Ashramam Relief, Battle of Quilon.jpg|100px]]
|
| Asramam Relief
|
| {{coord|8.893532933235852|76.59131792422686}}
|-
| 36
| [[Punalur Suspension Bridge|Punalur Hanging Bridge]]
| [[File:Ashramam Relief, Punalur Hanging bridge.jpg|100px]]
|
| Asramam Relief
|
| {{coord|8.893532933235852|76.59131792422686}}
|-
| 37
| [[Cashew business in Kollam|Old Age Cashew Processing]]
| [[File:Ashramam Relief, Old age Cashew Processing.jpg|100px]]
|
| Asramam Relief
|
| {{coord|8.893532933235852|76.59131792422686}}
|-
| 37
| [[O. Madhavan]]
|
|
| Asramam Relief
|
| {{coord|8.880077480442981|76.60508357613865|name=O. Madhavan}}
|}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Kollam]]
[[Category:Statues in India]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Kollam]]
[[Category:Culture of Kerala]]

Pathankot airstrike

2023-07-20T08:46:02Z

Doctor: Shared a valuable publication.

{{expert|reason=The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] article describes this action as an "unmitigated disaster". This account would appear to be at odds with that...}}

{{Short description|Key aerial operation of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965}}
{{Orphan}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Pathankot airstrike
| place = Pathankot, Punjab, India
| partof = [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] and [[Indo-Pakistani Air War of 1965]]
| date = 6 September 1965
| result = Decisive Pakistani victory,<br/>destruction of Pathankot airbase
| combatant1 = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|India}}
| commander1 = Air Marshall [[Malik Nur Khan]]<br/>Squadron Leader [[Sajad Haider]]<br/>Wing Commander [[Muhammad Ghulam Tawab]]
| commander2 = Air Marshall Subramaniam Raghavendran
| units1 = [[Pakistan Air Force]]<br/>(No. 19 Squadron)
| units2 = [[Indian Air Force]]<br/>(No. 220 Squadron)
| strength1 = 8 F-86 Sabres
| strength2 = unknown, planes remained grounded
| casualties1 = none
| casualties2 = 13 aircraft destroyed<br/>(7 MiG-21, 5 Mysteres, 1 C-119)
| image = North American F-86 Sabre of No 19 Squadron PAF.jpg
| caption = Pakistani F-86 Sabre team of the No.19 Squadron (picture taken after Pathankot strike)
}}

The '''Pathankot airstrike''' was a key aerial operation of the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]. It took place on the evening of September 6th, 1965 when the No. 19 Squadron of the [[Pakistan Air Force|Pakistan Air Force (PAF)]] attacked and destroyed the [[Indian Air Force|Indian Air Force (IAF)]] base at [[Pathankot]]. It is the PAF's most successful air raid to date, as well as one of the most successful post-[[World War II|WW2]] air raids.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=www.webspider.pk |first=Web Spider (pvt) Ltd |title=The Eagles Ruled the Skies.. |url=https://www.hilal.gov.pk/eng-article/detail/NDky.html |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=www.hilal.gov.pk |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=www.webspider.pk |first=Web Spider (pvt) Ltd |title=Glorious September: 1965 War |url=https://www.hilal.gov.pk/eng-article/detail/NDkw.html |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=www.hilal.gov.pk |language=en}}</ref>

== Background ==
On 6 September 1965, [[India]] invaded [[Pakistan]], with a large [[Lahore Front|offensive]] directed towards [[Lahore]], Pakistan's second largest city and the provincial capital of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]. This was done in order to alleviate the pressure in [[Kashmir]], where Pakistan's [[Operation Grand Slam]] had inflicted [[Battle of Chumb (1965)|heavy defeats]] on the [[Indian Army]]. Pakistan was forced to abandon the operation in Kashmir and counter the Indians in Punjab.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Haider |first=Air Commodore (Retd) S. Sajad |title=Straight shooting on the 1965 war |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1204925 |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=DAWN.COM |language=en}}</ref> Aerial operations by both sides became more common following this, with the most significant one being the PAF attack on [[Pathankot]] on the evening of 6 September.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=The day the PAF got away – Bharat Rakshak |url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1965war/sr-pathankot/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Planning ==
The attack on Pathankot was part of a larger, three-pronged aerial operation planned by the [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]], with the other two targets being at [[Halwara Air Force Station|Halwara]] and [[Adampur]]. While the Pathankot mission was a great success, the other two attacks could not meet their objectives. The Adampur strike, led by the legendary fighter pilot [[Muhammad Mahmood Alam|M. M. Alam]], turned around before it could reach the base while the attack on Halwara, led by [[Sarfaraz Ahmed Rafiqui|S. A. Rafiqui]] was intercepted by IAF aircraft. In the resulting dogfight, the IAF lost 4 aircraft (2 [[Hawker Hunter|Hawker Hunters]] and 2 [[De Havilland Vampire|De Havilland Vampires]]) while the PAF only lost 2 [[North American F-86 Sabre|F-86 Sabres]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistani Air-to-Air Victories |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221231409/http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_324.shtml |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=web.archive.org}}</ref> however the attack on the airbase was prevented.<ref name=":2" />

According to Squadron Leader [[Sajad Haider]], who led the raid on Pathankot, the attack was risky as the target was 257 miles away while the operational range of the F-86 was only 180 miles. He also said that the decision to strike Pathankot came as a surprise, as they had been preparing for a strike on [[Ambala]].<ref name=":0" /> He stated in an interview that:
[[File:Pakistani Sherdil Pilots Planning Pathankot Airstrikes (1965 War).jpg|thumb|207x207px|Squadron leader Sajad Haider briefing his junior pilots about the mission shortly before take-off]]
<blockquote>"It was around 12 o’clock when our Station Commander came rushing inside our bunker. He handed me a Flash Top Secret signal. It read something like: ''“No.19 Squadron to strike IAF airfield at Pathankot with 8 aircraft. Guns only. Destroy aircraft on the ground. Light anti-aircraft.”'' I looked back in surprise and bit of consternation at the Commanding Officer and asked, “But Sir, our target assigned by Air Marshal Asghar Khan earlier in June was Ambala, and you know we have been training day and night for 2 months for Ambala as target. Where on earth is Pathankot?” He said it was east of Shakargarh. Not being sure about the location and layout I asked the Commanding Officer to kindly get us a photo of the airfield in order to brief the formation. To arrive precisely at the altered target, we needed to carry out thorough planning. A lot of calculation had to be done to reach the target and a photograph of the airfield layout for allocation of precise targets to each ''formation'' member was imperative. We could not loiter around looking for the airfield and then deciding who targets what. In highly defended target systems with anti-aircraft weapons and enemy interceptors in combat air patrol, attackers are extremely vulnerable, as the tragedy at Halwara proved the point. No photo of the airfield was made available. Thus my briefing for the strike was simple, but ''ad hoc'' as we had to figure it all out once we arrived at the target." <ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

== Attack on Pathankot Airbase ==
[[File:Pathankot Airport.jpg|thumb|Smoke rising from Pathankot airbase following the PAF raid (picture captured by a Pakistani recon aircraft)]]
The attack was launched on the evening of 6 September 1965. A formation of 8 F-86 Sabres of the PAF's 19th Squadron (nicknamed ''Sherdils'' which translates to Lionhearts), led by Squadron Leader [[Sajad Haider]] and wing commander [[Muhammad Ghulam Tawab|M. G. Tawab]], took off from [[Peshawar]] towards Pathankot. The formation reached the target airfield at 5:30 in the afternoon and unleashed heavy fire upon the base.<ref name=":3" /> The attack proved to be a resounding success<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" />. The airbase was severely damaged and inoperable for the remainder of the war<ref name=":4">https://www.paf.gov.pk/about/feats-of-coverage</ref>, and over a dozen IAF aircraft were destroyed, including several state-of-the-art [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG-21]] fighter aircraft,<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Khan |first=Moiz |title=The 1965 Air War and the PAF’s Air Dominance by Moiz Khan - CASS Publications |url=https://casstt.com/the-1965-air-war-and-the-pafs-air-dominance/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=CASS |language=en-US}}</ref> freshly acquired by India from the [[Soviet Union]].

None of the Pakistani aircraft involved in the airstrike were shot down despite heavy [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft]] fire by the Indians.<ref name=":3" /> All 8 F-86 Sabres returned home safely. According to Sajad Haider, the true credit for the successes at Pathankot and another PAF strike at [[Wagah]] should go to the younger pilots, stating that "even at our firing range in peace time in Peshawar, such accuracy was rare."<ref name=":0" />

The PAF faced almost no air-to-air resistance from the IAF during the mission, as most of the aircraft in Pathankot remained grounded throughout the strike. According to IAF Air Marshal Raghavendran, the pilots failed to scramble their aircraft in time, and instead had to hide in nearby trenches to dodge fire from the Sabres<ref name=":3" />. He provides an account of the attack:<blockquote>"There was pandemonium. Bullets were flying all around. We all rushed to the nearest trench and dived in, not sitting and crouching as we should have been but piling ourselves flat on top of each other!! We could hear and see the Pakistani Sabres going round and round, as though in range practice, and picking off all the possible aircraft, including the MiG-21s, in spite of the anti-aircraft guns blazing away."<ref name=":3" /></blockquote>

== Casualties & Losses ==
The mission was a great success for the [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]], and an equally devastating loss for the [[Indian Air Force|IAF]]<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />. Pathankot airfield was rendered inoperable for the remainder of the war<ref name=":4" />. 13 Indian aircraft were destroyed, which included 7 [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG-21]], 5 [[Dassault Mystère IV|Mysteres]] and 1 [[C-119]] transport aircraft.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> The loss of the MiG-21 jets was particularly noteworthy, as they were the most advanced fighter jet in service with the IAF, and had been freshly acquired by the [[Indian Air Force|IAF]] from the [[Soviet Union]].

The PAF experienced zero casualties during the raid; all 8 of the Sabres returned home safely despite heavy anti-air fire from the Indians.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" />

== Gallantry Awards ==
[[Sitara-e-Jurat]] (Star of Courage), Pakistan's third highest military honor, was awarded to Squadron Leader [[Sajad Haider]] and Wing Commander [[Muhammad Ghulam Tawab]] for their leadership and acts of gallantry during the Pathankot mission.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heroes |url=https://www.pafmuseum.com.pk/heroes/ |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=Pakistan Air Force Museum |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Battles of Indo-Pakistani wars]]
[[Category:Aerial operations and battles involving India]]
[[Category:Aerial operations and battles involving Pakistan]]
[[Category:Aerial operations and battles of Indo-Pakistani Wars]]
[[Category:Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]
[[Category:Pakistan Air Force]]
[[Category:Indian Air Force]]
[[Category:Airstrikes by war]]

Pitambari Products

2023-07-19T09:57:39Z

Doctor: Shared a valuable guide.

{{Short description|Indian Consumer goods company}}
{{Orphan}}

{{Infobox company
| name =
| logo =
| logo_size =
| type = [[Private company|Private]]
| industry = [[Fast-moving consumer goods]]
| foundation = 1989
| founder = Ravindra Vaman Prabhudesai ( Founder & MD)
| location = [[Thane]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| products = Detergent, Soaps
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| num_employees =
| parent =
| subsid =
| homepage = {{URL|https://pitambari.com}}
| footnotes =
}}'''Pitambari Products''' is a group of companies based in the Indian city of [[Thane]], [[Maharashtra]] that manufactures products ranging from [[detergent]]s, [[soap]]s, [[Home care]], [[Health care|Healthcare]], [[Agriculture in India|Agri Care]], [[Food cart|Food Care]], [[Incense in India|Agarbatti]], [[Perfume]]ry, [[Antivirus software|Digicare]] & [[Solar panel|Solar Division]] Mr. Ravindra Prabhudesai & his father Late Mr. Vamanrao Prabhudesai started Pitambari Products in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pitambari Products Private Limited Information - Pitambari Products Private Limited Company Profile, Pitambari Products Private Limited News on The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/company/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=The Economic Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=India Utensil Cleaner Market Outlook, 2021 - Marketing War Between Multinationals - Research and Markets |url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20160511005577/en/India-Utensil-Cleaner-Market-Outlook-2021---Marketing-War-Between-Multinationals---Research-and-Markets |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=www.businesswire.com |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
Pitambari Products Pvt. Ltd is a leading manufacturer and exporter that began its business journey in 1989 under the visionary leadership of Mr. Ravindra Prabhudesai and his late father, Mr. Vamanrao Prabhudesai.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Glimmer man of Pitambari |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/business/report-glimmer-man-of-pitambari-1196855 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=DNA India |language=en}}</ref> The company's foundation was built on the principles of hard work, integrity, honesty, and continuous improvement.<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |title=Failure is said to be the first step to success |url=https://maeeshat.in/failure-is-said-to-be-the-first-step-to-success/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Maeeshat |language=en-US}}</ref> Over the past nearly 30 years, Pitambari has emerged as a prominent player in the industry, offering a diverse range of high-quality products across various segments including Home care, Healthcare, Agri Care, Food Care, Agarbatti, Perfumery, Digicare,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Household Cleaners Market Size in India 2023, Industry Growth, Demand and Forecast Till 2028 |url=https://www.digitaljournal.com/pr/news/household-cleaners-market-size-in-india-2023-industry-growth-demand-and-forecast-till-2028 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=www.digitaljournal.com}}</ref> and Solar Division. With ISO 9001:2008 certification, Pitambari serves over 5 million customers in India and abroad, consistently striving to meet customer expectations through innovation and superior service.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Parnerkar Economics awards announced |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/parnerkar-economics-awards-announced/articleshow/50409380.cms |access-date=2023-07-18 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The company's commitment to quality is evident through rigorous testing and adherence to strict quality standards, ensuring the delivery of breakthrough products and services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latest Marathi News- Breaking News Today {{!}} Read Marathi Batmya from Maharashtra, India ब्रेकींग मराठी न्यूज at https://loksatta.com/ |url=https://www.loksatta.com/kutumbkatta/stress-management-ravindra-prabhudesai-md-of-pitambari-products-1649358/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=Loksatta |language=mr}}</ref>

== Products ==

* '''Home care products''': Floor cleaners, dishwashing liquids, glass cleaners, toilet cleaners, bathroom cleaners, kitchen cleaners.
* '''Healthcare products''': Ayurvedic medicines, herbal supplements, pain relief balms, digestive syrups, Ayurvedic oils.
* '''Agri Care products''': Organic fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, plant growth promoters, seed treatment products.
* '''Food Care products''': Food additives, food colorings, food preservatives, flavored syrups.
* '''Agarbatti products''': Incense sticks, incense cones, incense coils.
* '''Perfumery products''': Fragrances, perfume oils, aromatic oils.
* '''Digicare products''': Digital healthcare devices, diagnostic kits, health monitoring equipment.
* '''Solar Division products''': Solar panels, solar water heaters, solar lighting solutions.

== Reference links ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [https://www.pitambari.com/ Official Pitambari Company Website]

[[Category:Chemical companies of India]]
[[Category:Laundry detergents]]
[[Category:Indian brands]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1989]]
[[Category:1989 establishments in Maharashtra]]

History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia

2022-12-29T14:57:58Z

Doctor: Shared an engaging piece.

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Indian_cultural_zone.svg|thumb|300px|right|Historic [[Indosphere]] cultural influence zone of [[Greater India]] for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the [[Indian honorifics|honorific titles]], [[Indian name#Global Indian influence in names|naming of people]], [[Place names in India#Global Indian influence in place name|naming of places]], [[loanword|lingustic borrowings]], mottos of [[List of institutions with Sanskrit mottos|organisations]] and [[List of educational institutions with Sanskrit mottos|educational institutes]] as well as adoption of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hindu temple architecture#Southeast Asia as part of Greater India|Indian architecture]], [[Indian martial arts#Influence|martial arts]], [[Music of India#Globalization of Indian music|Indian music and dance]], [[Clothing in India|traditional Indian clothing]], and [[Indian cuisine#Outside India|Indian cuisine]], a process which has been also aided by the ongoing historic expansion of [[Indian diaspora]].<ref name=diasind1>{{Cite book|title=A history of India|first=Hermann|last=Kulke|publisher=Routledge|others=Rothermund, Dietmar, 1933–|isbn=0203391268|edition= 4th|location=New York|oclc=57054139}}</ref>]]

[[Southeast Asia]] was in the [[Greater India|Indian sphere of cultural influence]] from 290 BCE to the 15th century CE, when [[Hinduism|Hindu]]-[[Buddhism|Buddhist]] influences were incorporated into local political systems. Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the Indian Subcontinent had established trade, cultural and political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in [[Burma]], [[Bhutan]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], the [[Sunda Islands]], [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Philippines]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], and [[Champa]]. This led to the [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indianisation]] and [[Sanskritisation]] of Southeast Asia within the [[Indosphere]], Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist [[Mandala (political model)|Mandala]] (polities, city states and confederacies).{{Citation needed}}

Indian culture itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also including early Southeast Asian, specifically [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] influence onto early Indians.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|language=en}}</ref> A reason for the acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian culture already had similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which can be explained by earlier Southeast Asian (specifically [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]], such as early [[Munda languages|Munda]] and [[Mon Khmer]] groups), as well as later Himalayan ([[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]) cultural and linguistic influence onto various Indian groups. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and traditions. India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous traditions. This distinctly Indian cultural system was later adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity, which rulers gained power and stability, transforming small chieftains into regional powers.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|language=en|quote=It has been further proved that not only linguistic but also certain cultural and political facts of ancient India, can be explained by Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) elements.}}</ref>

Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava empire]] which ruled the southeastern coast of the Indian peninsula did not impose cultural restrictions on people who wished to cross the sea.{{citation needed}} The [[Chola dynasty|Chola empire]], which executed the [[South-East Asian campaign of Rajendra Chola I]] and the [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]], profoundly impacted Southeast Asia. This impact led to more exchanges with Southeast Asia on the sea routes. Whereas Buddhism thrived and became the main religion in many countries of Southeast Asia, it became a minority religion in India.

The peoples of [[maritime Southeast Asia]] — present-day [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]] — are thought to have migrated southward from [[South China]] sometime between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of the civilization which existed on the Indian Subcontinent gradually became predominant among them, and it also became predominant among the peoples which lived on the Southeast Asian mainland.

Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the dominating influences in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to these states from India and for many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration. Eventually the states of the mainland mainly became Buddhist.

==Drivers of the Indianization of Southeast Asia==
The key drivers of the [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indianisation]] of Southeast Asia were the [[Austronesian maritime trade network|Austronesian]]<ref name="Bellina2014"/><ref name="Mahdi1999"/> and [[Indian maritime history|Indian maritime trade]] especially the [[Spice trade]] and the [[Maritime Silk Road]], the emissaries of [[Ashoka]], and the [[Ashoka#Buddhist missions|Buddhist missions]] of [[Ashoka|Emperor Ashoka the Great]].

==Indian maritime trade with Southeast Asia==
[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|thumb|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and [[Maritime Silk Road|historic]] maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<ref name="Manguin2016">{{cite book|first1=Pierre-Yves |last1=Manguin|editor1-first=Gwyn |editor1-last=Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World |chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages=51–76|isbn =9783319338224|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50}}</ref>]]
{{see also |Austronesian maritime trade network| Indian maritime history | Spice trade |Maritime silk road}}
[[File:Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Indian ship on lead coin of [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi]], testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.]]
[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] sailors from [[Island Southeast Asia]] first established contact and trade with [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]] as early as 500 BCE. This resulted in the introduction of Southeast Asian material culture and [[cultigen]]s to South Asia; as well as connecting the material cultures of India and [[China]]. These early Austronesian trade routes linking Island Southeast Asia with India also became the maritime aspect of the wider [[spice trade]] network, which were later also used by [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Arab]] maritime trade. The sustained contact between Southeast Asia and South Asia resulted in cultural exchange, in addition to the exchange of commodities.<ref name="Bellina2014">{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina |editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =9781588395245|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref><ref name="Manguin2016"/><ref name="BlenchFruits">{{cite journal |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |volume=24 |issue=The Taipei Papers (Volume 2) |pages=31–50 |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496}}</ref>

The first clear mention of a navy occurs in the [[Hindu mythology|mythological epic]] the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref name=Chakravarti>Chakravarti (1930)</ref> Historically, however, the first attested attempt to organise a navy in India, as described by [[Megasthenes]] (c. 350—290 BCE), is attributed to [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (reign 322—298 BCE).<ref name=Chakravarti/> The [[Mauryan empire]] (322–185 BCE) navy continued till the times of emperor [[Ashoka]] (reign 273—232 BCE), who used it to send massive diplomatic missions to Greece, [[Syria]], Egypt, [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] and [[Epirus]].<ref name=Chakravarti/> Following nomadic interference in [[Siberia]]—one of the sources for India's bullion—India diverted its attention to the [[Malay peninsula]], which became its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the world via a series of maritime [[trade route]]s.<ref name=shaffer309>Shaffer, 309</ref> The period under the Mauryan empire also witnessed various other regions of the world engage increasingly in the Indian Ocean maritime voyages.<ref name=shaffer309 />

=== Buddhist missions ===
In the Sri Lankan tradition, [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]] – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}} To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}

The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}

* Mahinda to Sri Lanka
* Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara
* Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)
* Rakkhita to Vanavasa
* Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India)
* Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra
* Maharakkhita to the Greek country
* Majjhima to the Himalayas
* Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)

The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}}{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}

Scholars, such as [[Erich Frauwallner]] and [[Richard Gombrich]], believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=11}} According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the ''Vinaya Nidana'' mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at [[Bhilsa]] (near [[Vidisha]]). These caskets have been dated to early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}} The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|pp=11–12}}

According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=12}} Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=12}}

Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=32}}

===Early Common Era—High Middle Ages===
{{main | Greater India | Indosphere | Chola invasion of Srivijaya | Maritime history of Odisha }}
{{See also | Sanskritisation |Chola dynasty|Chera dynasty|Pandya dynasty|Pallava dynasty}}
[[Image:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|right|300px|Chola territories during [[Rajendra Chola I]], c. 1030 CE.]]
During this era, [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Buddhist]] religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with [[Greater India|economic activity and commerce]] as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading activities.<ref name=Donkin67>Donkin, 67</ref> [[Buddhism]], in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.<ref name=Donkin69>Donkin, 69</ref>

In [[Java]] and [[Borneo]], the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics, and trading posts here later served Chinese and Arab markets.<ref name=Donkin1>Donkin, 59</ref> The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' names several Indian ports from where large ships sailed in an easterly direction to ''[[Chryse (placename)|Chryse]]''.<ref>Donkin, 64</ref> Products from the [[Maluku Islands]] that were shipped across the ports of Arabia to the [[Near East]] passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka.<ref name=Donkin4>Donkin, 92</ref> After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports, products were sometimes shipped to [[East Africa]], where they were used for a variety of purposes including burial rites.<ref name=Donkin4/>

[[Maritime history of Odisha]], known as [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] in ancient times, started before 350 BC according to early sources. The people of this region of eastern [[India]] along the coast of the [[Bay of Bengal]] sailed up and down the [[Coastal India|Indian coast]], and travelled to [[Indo China]] and throughout [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], [[Indosphere|introducing elements]] of [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|their culture]] to the [[Greater India|people with whom they traded]]. The 6th century ''[[Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa|Manjusrimulakalpa]]'' mentions the [[Bay of Bengal]] as 'Kalingodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kalinga Sagara' (both Kalingodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the [[Indian maritime history|maritime trade]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-IbAQAAMAAJ |title=The Journal of Orissan History, Volumes 13-15 |publisher=Orissa History Congress |year=1995 |page=54 }}</ref> The old traditions are still celebrated in the annual [[Bali Jatra]], or Boita-Bandana festival held for five days in October / November.<ref name=orissatourism>{{cite web
|url=http://www.orissatourism.in/Bali-Yatra.html
|title=Bali Yatra
|work=Orissa Tourism
|access-date=16 November 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180800/http://www.orissatourism.in/Bali-Yatra.html
|archive-date=21 July 2011
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

The [[Chola dynasty]] (200—1279) reached the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.<ref name=sastri5>Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 5
</ref> Emperors [[Rajaraja Chola I]] (reigned 985–1014) and [[Rajendra Chola I]] (reigned 1012–1044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits.<ref name=kulke115>Kulke & Rothermund, 115</ref> At its peak, the [[Chola Empire]] stretched from the island of [[Sri Lanka]] in the south to the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] basin in the north.<ref name=sastric194>Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V. Nilakanta Sastri, ''The CōĻas'' pp 194–210.</ref> The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.<ref name=majumdar407>Majumdar, 407</ref> Chola navies [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|invaded and conquered Srivijaya]] and [[Srivijaya]] was the largest empire in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].<ref>The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman—'''Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, 211–220'''.</ref> Goods and ideas from India began to play a major role in the "[[Greater India|Indianization]]" of the wider world from this period.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Shaffer
| first1 = Lynda Noreen
| chapter = Southernization
| editor1-last = Adas
| editor1-first = Michael
| editor1-link = Michael Adas
| title = Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qcSsoJ0IXawC
| series = Critical perspectives on the past
| others = American Historical Association
| year = 2001
| publisher = Temple University Press
| publication-date = 2001
| page = 308
| isbn = 9781566398329
| access-date = 2013-12-24
| quote = The term 'southernization' [...] is used [...] to refer to a multifaceted process that began in Southern Asia and spread from there [...]. The process included [...] many interrelated strands of development[:] [...] the metallurgical, the medical, [...] the literary [...] the development of mathematics; the production and marketing of subtropical or tropical spices; the pioneering of new trade routes; the cultivation, processing, and marketing of southern crops such as sugar and cotton; and the development of various related technologies. [...] Southernization was well under way in Southern Asia by the fifth century C.E.
}}</ref>

[[Kollam|Quilon or Kollam]] in [[Kerala]] coast, once called Desinganadu, has had a high commercial reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and Romans.<ref>{{cite book |first=K. A. Nilakanta |last=Sastri |title=History of South India |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1958 |orig-year=1935}}</ref> Fed by the Chinese trade, it was mentioned by [[Ibn Battuta]] in the 14th century as one of the five Indian ports he had seen in the course of his travels during twenty-four years.<ref>[http://www.mathrubhumi.com/travel/article/destination/kollam/1095/ Kollam - Mathrubhumi] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009210850/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/travel/article/destination/kollam/1095/ }}</ref> The Kollam Port become operational in AD.825.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&dq=Marco+polo+Quilon&pg=PA710 |title=Page No.710, International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |isbn=9781136639791 |access-date=23 November 2016|last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |last2=Watson |first2=Noelle |last3=Schellinger |first3=Paul }}</ref> opened Desinganadu's rulers were used to exchange the embassies with Chinese rulers and there was flourishing Chinese settlement at [[Quilon]]. The Indian commercial connection with [[Southeast Asia]] proved vital to the merchants of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and [[Iran|Persia]] between the 7th and 8th centuries CE.<ref name=Donkin1/>

The kingdoms of [[Vijaynagara]] and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] established footholds in Malaya, [[Sumatra]] and Western [[Java]].<ref name=indiannavy>[http://indiannavy.nic.in/ ''Early History'' (Indian Navy)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928143945/http://www.indiannavy.nic.in/ }}, [[National Informatics Center]], [[Government of India]].</ref>

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 116–117.</ref> Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 12</ref><ref name=kulke118>Kulke & Rothermund, 118</ref> The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 124</ref><ref>Tripathi, 465</ref><ref>Tripathi, 477</ref> The [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) of China, the [[Srivijaya]] empire in Maritime Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and the [[Abbasid]] [[caliphate]] at [[Baghdad]] were the main trading partners.<ref name="trade">Nilakanta Sastri, ''The CōĻas'', 604</ref>

During the reign of [[Pandya]] Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765–790), the [[Chera dynasty]] were a close ally of the [[Pallavas]].<ref name=ahosi/> Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king.<ref name=ahosi/> Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.<ref name=ahosi>See ''A History of South India'' – pp 146 – 147</ref> Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150 CE), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century).<ref name=Donkin4/> Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] mentions the town of [[Puri]] where "merchants depart for distant countries."<ref name=Donkin2>Donkin, 65</ref>

==Late Middle Ages==
{{further | Maratha Navy | Shivaji }}
[[Image:WorldShips1460. Indian ships..jpg|thumb|300px|right|Indian vessel as shown in the [[Fra Mauro map]] (1460).]]

[[Ma Huan]] (1413–51) reached [[Cochin]] and noted that [[Indian coinage|Indian coins]], known as ''fanam'', were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of one ''fen'' and one ''li'' according to the Chinese standards.<ref name=Chaudhuri223>Chaudhuri, 223</ref> They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-''li'' weight each.<ref name=Chaudhuri223/>

===Maritime route===
{{main|Maritime Silk Road}}

Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the [[wikt:maritime|maritime]] section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia, [[Indonesia|Indonesian archipelago]], [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Arabian peninsula]], all the way to Egypt and finally Europe.<ref>{{cite web| title = Maritime Silk Road| work = SEAArch| url =https://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/tag/maritime-silk-route/| url-status=live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140105043328/http://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/tag/maritime-silk-route/| archive-date = 5 January 2014}}</ref>

The trade route encompassed numbers of bodies of waters; including [[South China Sea]], [[Strait of Malacca]], [[Indian Ocean]], [[Gulf of Bengal]], [[Arabian Sea]], [[Persian Gulf]] and the Red Sea. The maritime route overlaps with historic Southeast Asian maritime trade, [[Spice trade]], [[Indian Ocean trade]] and after 8th century – the Arabian naval trade network. The network also extend eastward to [[East China Sea]] and [[Yellow Sea]] to connect China with [[Korean Peninsula]] and [[Japanese archipelago]].

===Expansion of religions===
[[File:Nestorian-Stele-Budge-plate-X.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Xi'an Stele]], created in 781, describes the introduction of Christianity to China]]

[[Richard Foltz]], [[Xinru Liu]], and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture, notably in the area of religions. [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Judaism]], Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions.<ref>[[Richard Foltz]], ''Religions of the Silk Road'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd edition, 2010, {{ISBN|978-0-230-62125-1}}</ref> Notably, established Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road offered a haven, as well as a new religion for foreigners.<ref>Xinru Liu, The Silk Road in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 77.</ref>

The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads, according to [[Jerry H. Bentley]], also led to [[syncretism]]. One example was the encounter with the Chinese and [[Xiongnu]] nomads. These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative. The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques, dress style, and lifestyle, while the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques, some dress style, music, and dance.<ref name="Jerry H 1993">[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 38.</ref> Perhaps most surprising of the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu, Chinese soldiers sometimes defected and converted to the Xiongnu way of life, and stayed in the steppes for fear of punishment.<ref name="Jerry H 1993"/>

Nomadic mobility played a key role in facilitating inter-regional contacts and cultural exchanges along the ancient Silk Roads.<ref name="hermes_2018">{{cite journal|last1=Hermes|first1=Taylor R.|last2=Frachetti|first2=Michael D.|last3=Bullion|first3=Elissa A.|last4=Maksudov|first4=Farhod|last5=Mustafokulov|first5=Samariddin|last6=Makarewicz|first6=Cheryl A.|title=Urban and nomadic isotopic niches reveal dietary connectivities along Central Asia's Silk Roads|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=8|issue=1|page=5177|doi=10.1038/s41598-018-22995-2|pmid=29581431|language=En|issn=2045-2322|bibcode=2018NatSR...8.5177H|pmc=5979964}}</ref><ref name="frachetti_2017">{{cite journal|last1=Frachetti|first1=Michael D.|last2=Smith|first2=C. Evan|last3=Traub|first3=Cynthia M.|last4=Williams|first4=Tim|title=Nomadic ecology shaped the highland geography of Asia's Silk Roads|journal=Nature|volume=543|issue=7644|pages=193–98|doi=10.1038/nature21696|pmid=28277506|language=En|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2017Natur.543..193F|s2cid=4408149|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1544288/}}</ref>

====Transmission of Buddhism====
{{Main|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Greco-Buddhism}}
[[File:Buddha of Miran.png|thumb|upright|Fragment of a wall painting depicting [[Buddha]] from a [[stupa]] in [[Miran (Xinjiang)|Miran]] along the Silk Road (200AD - 400AD)]]

[[File:Central Asian Buddhist Monks.jpeg|thumb|upright|A blue-eyed [[Buddhism in Central Asia|Central Asian monk]] teaching an East-Asian monk, [[Bezeklik]], [[Turfan]], eastern [[Tarim Basin]], China, 9th century; the monk on the right is possibly [[Tocharians|Tocharian]],<ref>[[Albert von Le Coq|von Le Coq, Albert]]. (1913). [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/LFc-42/V-1/page/0003.html.en ''Chotscho: Facsimile-Wiedergaben der Wichtigeren Funde der Ersten Königlich Preussischen Expedition nach Turfan in Ost-Turkistan''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915144010/http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/LFc-42/V-1/page/0003.html.en }}. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer (Ernst Vohsen), im Auftrage der Gernalverwaltung der Königlichen Museen aus Mitteln des Baessler-Institutes, [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-B-31/V-1/page-hr/0107.html.en Tafel 19] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915183256/http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-B-31/V-1/page-hr/0107.html.en }}. (Accessed 3 September 2016).</ref> although more likely [[Sogdia]]n.<ref name="gasparini 2014 pp134-163">Ethnic [[Sogdia]]ns have been identified as the [[:File:BezeklikSogdianMerchants.jpg|Caucasian figures seen in the same cave temple]] (No. 9). See the following source: Gasparini, Mariachiara. "[http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525084750/http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711 }}" in Rudolf G. Wagner and Monica Juneja (eds), ''Transcultural Studies'', Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg, No 1 (2014), pp. 134–63. {{ISSN|2191-6411}}. See also [http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 endnote #32] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525084750/http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 }} . (Accessed 3 September 2016.)</ref><ref>For information on the Sogdians, an [[Eastern Iranian people]], and their inhabitation of [[Turfan]] as an ethnic minority community during the phases of [[Tang dynasty|Tang Chinese]] (7th–8th century) and [[Kingdom of Qocho|Uyghur rule]] (9th–13th century), see Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref>]]

The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE, according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor [[Emperor Ming of Han|Ming]] (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast, East, and Central Asia.<ref>[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 69, 73.</ref> Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=James A. |title=China's Southwestern Silk Road in World History |url=http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/6.1/anderson.html |journal=World History Connected |volume=6 |issue=1 |access-date=2 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209152743/http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/6.1/anderson.html |archive-date=9 February 2014 }}</ref>

The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs together.<ref>Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 16.</ref> Buddha's community of followers, the [[Sangha]], consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard C.|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=St Martin's Press|location=New York|page=37}}</ref> As the number of members within the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having the Buddha and his disciples visit.<ref>Xinru Liu, "The Silk Road in World History" (New york: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 51.</ref> It is believed that under the control of the [[Kushan]]s, Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to the middle of the third century.<ref>Xinru Liu, "The Silk Road in World History" (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 42.</ref> Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the Chinese territory of the [[Tarim Basin]], due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan, [[Sogdiana|Sogdian]], or [[Kuchean]].<ref>Foltz, "Religions of the Silk Road", pp. 37–58</ref>

[[File:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|upright|Bilingual edict ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by Indian Buddhist King Ashoka, 3rd century BCE; ''see'' [[Edicts of Ashoka]], from [[Kandahar]]. This edict advocates the adoption of "godliness" using the Greek term [[Eusebeia]] for [[Dharma]]. [[Kabul]] Museum.]]

One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk. Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first Buddhist text translations into the Chinese language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of [[Merv]], in due course and with the coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard C.|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=St Martin's Press|location=New York|page=47}}</ref> Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.<ref name="Foltz 1999 38">{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard C.|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=St Martin's Press|location=New York|page=38}}</ref>

From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with [[Fa-hsien]]'s pilgrimage to India (395–414), and later [[Xuanzang]] (629–644) and [[Hyecho]], who traveled from Korea to India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml|title=Ancient Silk Road Travellers|author1=Silkroad Foundation|author2=Adela C.Y. Lee|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806070134/http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml|archive-date=6 August 2009}}</ref> The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy adventure novel called ''[[Journey to the West]]'', which told of trials with demons and the aid given by various disciples on the journey.

[[File:A statue depicting Buddha giving sermon, from Sarnath, now at Museum of Asian Art, Dahem Berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|A statue depicting Buddha giving a sermon, from [[Sarnath]], {{convert|3000|km|0|abbr=on}} southwest of Ürümqi, Xinjiang, 8th century]]

There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in the [[Khotan]] region.<ref name="Foltz 1999 38"/> The Mahayana, which was more of a "pan-Buddhist movement" than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle" are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard C.|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=St Martin's Press|location=New York|page=41}}</ref> With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality, including material wealth." It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point; this was often difficult for followers to understand.<ref>Xinru Liu, "The Silk Road in World History" (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 21.</ref>

During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, [[merchants]] played a large role in the spread of religion, in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism an appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled.<ref>[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 43–44.</ref> Merchants also helped to establish [[diaspora]] within the communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. As a result, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized marketplaces, lodging, and storage.<ref>[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 48.</ref> The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese society.<ref>[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 50.</ref> The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the rise of Islam in Central Asia.

==Brunei==
{{main | History_of_Brunei#Indianised | l1=Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Brunei }}

===Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms (? - ~1400)===
The history of Brunei before the arrival of [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]]'s ships in 1519-1522 CE is based on the interpretation of Chinese sources and local legends. Historians believe that there was a forerunner Indianised Hindu-Buddhist state to the present day Brunei Sultanate. One predecessor state was called Vijayapura, which possibly existed in northwest [[Borneo]] in the 7th century.{{efn|1=Not to be confused with the [[Vijayapura|Indian state of the same name]].}} It was probably a subject state of the powerful Indianised Hindu-Buddhist [[Srivijaya]] empire based in [[Sumatra]]. One predecessor state was called Po-ni (pinyin: Boni).<ref>This view recently has been challenged. See Johannes L. Kurz "Boni in Chinese Sources: Translations of Relevant Texts from the Song to the Qing Dynasties", paper accessible under http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/article_view.asp?id=172 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018034702/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/article_view.asp?id=172 }} (2006)</ref> By the 10th century Po-ni had contacts with first the [[Song Dynasty|Song]] dynasty and at some point even entered into a tributary relationship with China. By the 14th century Po-ni also fell under the influence of the Indianised Hindu [[Java]]nese [[Majapahit]] Empire. The book of [[Nagarakretagama]], canto 14, written by Prapanca in 1365 mentioned ''Berune'' as a vassal state of Majahpahit.<ref>{{cite web | title=Naskah Nagarakretagama | publisher=Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia | url=http://kelembagaan.pnri.go.id/Digital_Docs/homepage_folders/activities/highlight/naskah_nagara_kretagama/isi.htm | language=id | access-date=13 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523163555/http://kelembagaan.pnri.go.id/Digital_Docs/homepage_folders/activities/highlight/naskah_nagara_kretagama/isi.htm | archive-date=23 May 2017 | url-status=dead }}</ref> However this may have been nothing more than a symbolic relationship, as one account of the annual tribute owed each year to Majahpahit was a jar of [[areca]] juice obtained from the young green nuts of the areca palm. The Ming dynasty resumed communications with Po-ni in the 1370s and the Po-ni ruler Ma-na-jih-chia-na visited the Ming capital Nanjing in 1408 and died there; [[Tomb of the King of Boni|his tomb]] was rediscovered in the 20th century, and is now a protected monument.

===Indianised Islamic sultanate (~1400 - present day)===
In 1402, [[Muhammad Shah of Brunei|Sultan Muhammad Shah]] died, he was first to convert from Hindu-Buddhism to Islam, and his pre-conversion name was Awang Alak Betatar.

==Burma (Myanmar)==
At the western end of the South East Asian mainland, Lower Burma was occupied by the Mon peoples who are thought to have come originally from western China. In Lower Burma they supplanted an earlier people: the Pyu, of whom little is known except that they practised Hinduism.

===Arrival of Buddhism and impact of Indian literature (3rd century CE onward)===
The Mons strongly influenced by their contacts with Indian traders during the 3rd century B.C adopted Indian literature and art and the Buddhist religion. The Mons were the earliest known civilization in Southeast Asia. They consisted of several [[Mon kingdoms]], spreading from Lower Burma into much of Thailand, where they founded the kingdom of [[Dvaravati]]. Their principal settlements in Burma were [[Thaton Kingdom]] and Pegu.

===Tibeto-Burman Buddhist kingdoms (11th - 13th century CE )===
From about the 9th century onward Tibeto-Burman tribes moved south from the hills east of Tibet into the Irrawaddy plain. They founded their capital at [[Bagan]] in Upper Burma in the 10th century. They eventually absorbed the Mons, their cities and adopted the Mon civilization and Buddhism. The [[Bagan Kingdom]] united all Burma under one rule for 200 years - from the 11th to 13th centuries. The zenith of its power occurred during the reign of King Anawratha (1044–1077), who conquered the Mon kingdom of Thaton. King Anawratha built many of the temples for which Bagan is famous. It is estimated that some 13,000 temples once existed within the city, which some 5,000 still stand.

===13th-21st century===
{{empty section}}
In the 14th century, the Delhi sultanate controlled nearly all the territory that comprises present-day India. However, invaders from Central Asia weakened and broke up the sultanate's empire before it was swept aside by the Mughals in 1526.<ref>https://study.com/academy/lesson/india-1000-1300-ce-dynasties-religions.html#:~:text=In%20the%2014th%20century%2C%20the,by%20the%20Mughals%20in%201526 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126130442/https://study.com/academy/lesson/india-1000-1300-ce-dynasties-religions.html#:~:text=In%20the%2014th%20century%2C%20the,by%20the%20Mughals%20in%201526 }}. {{Bare URL inline}}</ref>

==Cambodia==
===Funan===
[[File:Siem Reap Reflections (CAMBODIA-REFLECTION-ANGKOR WAT) VI (1070423631).jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]]]]
The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread importance was the [[Kingdom of Funan]] founded in the 1st century CE in what is now [[Cambodia]] — according to legend, after the marriage of a merchant Brahmin [[Kaundinya I]] with princess [[Queen Soma|Soma]] who was the daughter of the chieftain of the local [[Nāga]] clan. These local inhabitants were [[:th:ขอม|Khom]], referring to a group of people in the Chao Phraya River Basin in Thailand to Mae Kong river in Laos and Cambodia. Funan flourished for some 500 years. It carried on a prosperous trade with India and China, and its engineers developed an extensive canal system. An elite practised statecraft, art and science, based on Indian culture. Vassal kingdoms spread to southern Vietnam in the east and to the [[Malay Peninsula]] in the west.{{citation needed}}

In late 6th century CE, Funan empire is collapse and descendent of Funan Dynasty evacuated to the sea in the South to Java Island, currently Indonesia and established [[Shailendra dynasty|The Shailendra dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Society |first=Greater India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=onEZAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya |title=Journal |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7v_XAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya |title=Chamber's Encyclopaedia |publisher=International Learnings Systems |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbYPAAAAMAAJ&q=774+787+srivijaya |title=The Encyclopedia Americana |publisher=Americana Corporation |isbn=978-0-7172-0107-5 |language=en}}</ref>

===Chenla and Angkor===
In late 6th century CE, dynastic struggles caused the collapse of the Funan empire. It was succeeded by another Hindu-Khmer state, [[Chenla]], which lasted until the 9th century. Then a [[:th:ขอม|Khom]] king, Jayavarman II (about 800–850) established a capital at [[Angkor]] in central Cambodia. He founded a cult which identified the king with the Hindu God Shiva – one of the triad of Hindu gods, Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the god symbolising destruction and reproduction. The Angkor empire flourished from the 9th to the early 13th century. It reached the peak of its fame under Jayavarman VII at the end of the 12th century, when The Influence from Indian architectures come through [[Ancient Khmer Highway]] from [[Lavo Kingdom]], Mon kingdom of Dwaravati of Thailand in the west and into Champa in the east. Its most celebrated memorial is the great temple of [[Angkor Wat]], built early in the 12th century. This summarises the position on the South East Asian mainland until about the 12th century. Meanwhile, from about the 6th century, and until the 14th century, there was a series of great maritime empires based on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. In early days these Indians came mostly from the ancient kingdom of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]], on the southeastern coast of India. Indians in Indonesia are still known as "Klings", derived from Kalinga.

==East Timor==
The later Timorese were not seafarers, rather they were land focused peoples who did not make contact with other islands and peoples by sea. Timor was part of a region of small islands with small populations of similarly land-focused peoples that now make up eastern Indonesia. Contact with the outside world was via networks of foreign seafaring traders from as far as China and India that served the archipelago. Outside products brought to the region included metal goods, rice, fine textiles, and coins exchanged for local spices, [[sandalwood]], deer horn, bees' wax, and slaves.<ref name="Taylor 2003 page 378">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |url-access=registration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/378 378]|publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=0-300-10518-5}}</ref>

===Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms===

====Indianised Javanese Hindu-Buddhist Srivijaya empire (7th - 12th century) ====
{{expand section}}

Oral traditions of people of [[Wehali]] principality of East Timor mention their migration from Sina Mutin Malaka or ''"Chinese White [[Malacca]]"'' (part of [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indianised]] Hindu-Buddhist [[Srivijaya empire]]) in ancient times.<ref>H.J. Grijzen (1904), 'Mededeelingen omtrent Beloe of Midden-Timor', ''Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap'' 54, pp. 18-25.</ref>

====As a vassal of the Indianized Javanese Hindu empire of Majapahit (12th - 16th century) ====
{{See also | Majapahit empire }}

[[Nagarakretagama]], the chronicles of the [[Majapahit]] empire called Timor a tributary,<ref name="Taylor 2003 page 377">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |url-access=registration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/377 377]|publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=0-300-10518-5}}</ref> but as Portuguese chronologist [[Tomé Pires]] wrote in the 16th century, all islands east of Java were called "Timor".<ref>[http://www.uc.pt/timor/CURSO1A.HTM Population Settlements in East Timor and Indonesia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990202035244/http://www.uc.pt/Timor/CURSO1A.HTM }} – University of Coimbra</ref> Indonesian nationalist used the Majapahit chronicles to claim East Timor as part of Indonesia.<ref>[http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cesa/History_of_Timor.pdf History of Timor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324213447/http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cesa/History_of_Timor.pdf }} – Technical University Lisbon (PDF-Datei; 805 kB)</ref>

=====Trade with China=====
Timor is mentioned in the 13th-century Chinese ''[[Zhu Fan Zhi]]'', where it is called ''Ti-wu'' and is noted for its sandalwood. It is called ''Ti-men'' in the ''[[History of Song (Yuan dynasty)|History of Song]]'' of 1345. Writing towards 1350, [[Wang Dayuan]] refers to a ''Ku-li Ti-men'', which is a corruption of ''Giri Timor'', meaning island of Timor.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ptak | first1 = Roderich | year = 1983 | title = Some References to Timor in Old Chinese Records | journal = Ming Studies | volume = 1 | pages = 37–48 | doi = 10.1179/014703783788755502 }}</ref> Giri from "mountain" in [[Sanskrit]], thus "mountainous island of Timor".

=====Chiefdoms or polities=====
{{see also | Mandala (political model)| l1=Mandala}}
Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is the [[Wehali]] or [[Wehale kingdom]] in central Timor, to which the [[Tetum]], [[Bunak]] and [[Kemak people|Kemak]] ethnic groups were aligned.

===European colonisation and Christianisation (16th century onward)===
Beginning in the early sixteenth century, European colonialists—the Dutch in the island's west, and Portuguese in the east—would divide the island, isolating the East Timorese from the histories of the surrounding archipelago.<ref name="Taylor 2003 page 377"/>

==Indonesia==
{{main|History of Indonesia#Hindu-Buddhist civilisations}}
[[File:Prajnaparamita Java Side Detail.JPG|thumb|upright|An exquisite statue of [[Prajnaparamita of Java|Prajñāpāramitā]] from 13th century [[Singhasari]], East Java, seated in lotus position on a [[lotus throne]] performing ''dharmachakra-[[mudra]]''.]]
Approximately for more than a millennia, between 5th to 15th centuries, the various Indianised states and empires flourished in the [[Indonesian archipelago]]; from the era of [[Tarumanagara]] to [[Majapahit]]. Though founded possibly by either early Indian settlers or by native polities that adopted Indian culture, and have maintaining diplomatic contacts with India, these archipelagic Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms remained politically independent from the kingdoms of Indian subcontinent.

===Srivijaya empire===
The Indonesian archipelago saw the rise of Hindu-Buddhist empires of [[Sumatra]] and [[Java]]. In the islands of Southeast Asia, one of the first organised state to achieve fame was the Buddhist Malay kingdom of [[Srivijaya]], with its capital at Palembang in southern [[Sumatra]]. Its commercial pre-eminence was based on command of the sea route from India to China between Sumatra and the Malay peninsula (later known as the Straits of [[Malacca]]). In the 6th – 7th centuries [[Srivijaya]] succeeded Funan as the leading state in Southeast Asia. Its ruler was the overlord of the Malay peninsula and western [[Java]] as well as [[Sumatra]]. During the era of Srivijaya, Buddhism became firmly entrenched there.

===Sailendra dynasty===
[[File:Panoramic views of Borobudur.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of 9th century [[Borobudur]], the elaborate [[stupa]]s took the form of a [[step pyramid]] and [[mandala]] plan, built by King Samaratungga of [[Shailendra dynasty|Shailendra]] dynasty, ruler of [[Mataram Kingdom]].]]
The expansion of Srivijaya was resisted in eastern Java, where the powerful Buddhist [[Sailendra]] dynasty arose. From the 7th century onwards there was great activity in temple building in central Java. The most impressive of the ruins is at [[Borobudur]], considered to have been the largest Buddhist temple in the world. Sailendra rule spread to southern Sumatra, and up to Malay peninsula to [[Cambodia]] (where it was replaced by the [[Angkor]]ian kingdom). In the 9th century, the Sailendras moved to Sumatra, and a union of Srivijaya and the Sailendras formed an empire which dominated much of Southeast Asia for the next five centuries. After 500 Years of supremacy, Srivijaya was superseded by Majapahit.

===Mataram kingdom===
[[File:Prambanan Complex 1.jpg|thumb|The 9th-century Shivaistic temple of [[Prambanan]] in [[Central Java]] near [[Yogyakarta]], the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia]]
In the 10th century, [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] to the challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting in the destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century. Restored by King [[Airlangga]] (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death and the new state of Kediri was formed in eastern Java.

===Kediri kingdom===
[[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] kingdom, spread its influence to the eastern part of Southeast Asia and became the centre of Javanese culture for the next two centuries. The spice trade was now becoming of increasing importance, as the demand by European countries for spices grew. Before they learned to keep sheep and cattle alive in the winter, they had to eat salted meat, made palatable by the addition of spices. One of the main sources was the [[Maluku Islands]] (or "Spice Islands") in Indonesia, and Kediri became a strong trading nation.

===Singhasari kingdom===
In the 13th century, however, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown by a revolution, and [[Singhasari]] arose in east Java. The domains of this new state expanded under the rule of its warrior-king [[Kertanegara]]. He was killed by a prince of the previous Kediri dynasty, who then established the last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom, Majapahit.

===Majapahit empire===
With the departure of the Sailendras and the fall of Singhasari, a new [[Majapahit]] kingdom appeared in eastern Java, which reverted from Buddhism to Hinduism. By the middle of the 14th century, Majapahit controlled most of Java, Sumatra and the Malay peninsula, part of [[Borneo]], the southern [[Celebes]] and the Moluccas. It also exerted considerable influence on the mainland.

==Laos==
{{See also | History of Laos#Indianisation | l1= Indianised early kingdoms of Laos }}

===Funan kingdom ===

The first indigenous kingdom to emerge in [[Indochina]] was referred to in Chinese histories as the [[Kingdom of Funan]] and encompassed an area of modern [[Cambodia]], and the coasts of southern [[Vietnam]] and southern [[Thailand]] since the 1st century CE. [[Funan Kingdom|Funan]] was an [[Greater India|Indianised kingdom]],
that had incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture and engaged in profitable Indian Ocean trade.<ref name=funan>{{cite journal |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/view/9966/0 |title= Trade and Exchange Networks in Iron Age Cambodia: Preliminary Results from a Compositional Analysis of Glass Beads |last=Carter |first=Alison Kyra |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |volume=30 |publisher= Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |access-date=12 February 2017|doi=10.7152/bippa.v30i0.9966}}</ref><ref name="Hal1985">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hal|title=Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqGAAAAIAAJ&q=funan+mountain+kings|year=1985|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-0843-3|page=63}}</ref>

=== Champa kingdom ===
By the 2nd century CE, Austronesian settlers had established an Indianised kingdom known as [[Champa]] along modern central Vietnam. The [[Cham people]] established the first settlements near modern [[Champasak Province|Champasak]] in Laos. [[Funan]] expanded and incorporated the [[Champasak Province|Champasak]] region by the sixth century CE, when it was replaced by its successor polity [[Chenla]]. Chenla occupied large areas of modern-day Laos as it accounts for the earliest kingdom on Laotian soil.<ref name="Hal1985"/><ref>National Library of Australia. [http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html Asia's French Connection : George Coedes and the Coedes Collection] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021052224/http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html }}</ref>

=== Chenla kingdom===
The capital of early [[Chenla]] was Shrestapura which was located in the vicinity of [[Champasak Province|Champasak]] and the [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] of [[Wat Phu]]. [[Wat Phu]] is a vast temple complex in southern Laos which combined natural surroundings with ornate sandstone structures, which were maintained and embellished by the [[Chenla]] peoples until 900 CE, and were subsequently rediscovered and embellished by the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] in the 10th century. By the 8th century CE [[Chenla]] had divided into “Land Chenla” located in Laos, and “Water Chenla” founded by Mahendravarman near [[Sambor Prei Kuk]] in [[Cambodia]]. Land [[Chenla]] was known to the Chinese as “Po Lou” or “Wen Dan” and dispatched a trade mission to the [[Tang Dynasty]] court in 717 CE. Water [[Chenla]], would come under repeated attack from [[Champa]], the [[Medang Kingdom|Medang]] sea kingdoms in Indonesia based in Java, and finally pirates. From the instability the Khmer emerged.<ref name=ljam1/>

===Khmer kingdom ===
Under the king [[Jayavarman II]] the [[Khmer Empire]] began to take shape in the 9th century CE.<ref name=ljam1>{{cite web |url=http://www.e-reading.club/bookreader.php/142071/Encyclopedia_of_ancient_Asian_civilizations.pdf |title= Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations by Charles F. W. Higham – Chenla – Chinese histories record that a state called Chenla... | publisher= Library of Congress |access-date=13 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |title=Considerations on the Chronology and History of 9th Century Cambodia by Dr. Karl-Heinz Golzio, Epigraphist – ...the realm called Zhenla by the Chinese. Their contents are not uniform but they do not contradict each other. |publisher=Khmer Studies |access-date=5 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524140459/http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |archive-date=24 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Dvaravati city state kingdoms ===
In the area which is modern northern and central Laos, and northeast [[Thailand]] the [[Mon people]] established their own kingdoms during the 8th century CE, outside the reach of the contracting [[Chenla]] kingdoms. By the 6th century in the [[Chao Phraya River]] Valley, [[Mon people]]s had coalesced to create the [[Dvaravati|Dvaravati kingdoms]]. In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introduced [[Therevada Buddhism]] from [[Sri Lanka]]n missionaries throughout the region.<ref name="Viravond">{{cite web |url = http://www.reninc.org/bookshelf/history_of_laos_viravong.pdf |title = HISTORY OF LAOS |author = Maha Sila Viravond |access-date = December 29, 2017 |publisher = Refugee Educators' Network }}</ref><ref name="Manich">{{cite web |url = http://www.reninc.org/bookshelf/history_of_laos_manich.pdf |title = HISTORY OF LAOS (includlng the hlstory of Lonnathai, Chiangmai) |author = M.L. Manich |access-date = December 29, 2017 |publisher = Refugee Educators' Network }}</ref>

==Malaysia==
The Malay peninsula was settled by prehistoric people 80,000 years ago. Another batch of peoples the deutro Malay migrated from southern China within 10,000 years ago. Upon arrival in the peninsular some of them mix with the Australoid. This gave the appearance of the Malays. It was suggested that the visiting ancient Dravidians named the peoples of Malaysia peninsular and Sumatera as "Malay ur" meant hills and city based on the geographical terrain of Peninsular Malay and Sumatera. Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος; c. 90 – c. 168), known in English as Ptolemy, was a Greek geographer, astronomer, and astrologer who had written about Golden Chersonese, which indicates trade with the Indian Sub-Continent and China has existed since the 1st century AD.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zZCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Golden+Chersonese%22+malay&pg=PA71|title=Imago Mvndi|year=1958|publisher=Brill Archive|language=en}}</ref> Archeologist have found relic and ruin in [[Bujang Valley]] settlement dating back at 110AD. The settlement is believed to be the oldest civilization in Southeast Asia influenced by ancient Indians. Today, Malaysians of direct Indian descent account for approximately 7 per cent of the total population of Malaysia (approximately. 2 million) {{citation needed}}

[[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] from [[India]] dominated early regional history, reaching their peak during the reign of the [[Sumatra]]-based [[Srivijaya]] civilisation, whose influence extended through [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], the [[Malay Peninsula]] and much of [[Borneo]] from the 7th to the 13th centuries, which later gradually defeated and converted to Islam in 14th and 15th century before the European colonisation began in 16th century.

===Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms (3rd century BCE to 14th century CE)===
====Early trade and Indian settlements ====
In the first millennium CE, Malays became the dominant race on the peninsula. The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia.<ref name="Marshall">{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72VwCFtYHCgC|year=2007|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7642-9}}</ref> [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indian influence in the region]] dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE. Tamil culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the Tamil [[Pallava dynasty]] in the 4th and 5th century.<ref>History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. by Sigfried J. de Laet p.395</ref>

[[File:BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg|thumb|200px|The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating to the 4th–5th century CE, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant, Buddha Gupta, as an expression of gratitude for his safe arrival after a voyage to the Malay peninsula. It was found in Seberang Perai, Malaysia and is kept in the National Museum, Calcutta, India.]]
In ancient Indian literature, the term ''[[Suvarnadvipa]]'' or the "Golden Peninsula" is used in ''[[Ramayana]]'', and some argued that it may be a reference to the Malay Peninsula. The ancient Indian text ''[[Vayu Purana]]'' also mentioned a place named ''[[Malayadvipa]]'' where gold mines may be found, and this term has been proposed to mean possibly Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=41559897 |title=An Introduction to the Study of Ancient Times in the Malay Peninsula and the Straits of Malacca |first=Roland |last= Braddell|journal=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume= 15|number= 3 (129) |pages= 64–126 }}</ref> The Malay Peninsula was shown on [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Ptolemy's world map|map]] as the "[[Golden Chersonese|Golden Khersonese]]". He referred to the Straits of Malacca as ''Sinus Sabaricus''.<ref>[http://www.cebu-online.com/makeitcebu/12thaseansummit/members/malaysia.php ASEAN Member: Malaysia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219192107/http://www.cebu-online.com/makeitcebu/12thaseansummit/members/malaysia.php }} Retrieved 29 May 2008.</ref>

Trade relations with China and India were established in the 1st century BC.<ref>{{cite book|author=Derek Heng|title=Sino–Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLE_ToRyuLsC&pg=PT39|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-89680-475-3|pages=39–}}</ref> Shards of Chinese pottery have been found in [[Borneo]] dating from the 1st century following the [[southward expansion of the Han Dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Jacques|last=Gernet|title=A History of Chinese Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-49781-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/127 127]}}</ref> In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], religions which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ishtiaq Ahmed|author2=Professor Emeritus of Political Science Ishtiaq Ahmed|title=The Politics of Religion in South and Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2T8oSfy3GZgC&pg=PA129|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-72703-0|pages=129–}}</ref> The [[Sanskrit]] writing system was used as early as the 4th century.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Stephen Adolphe Wurm|author2=Peter Mühlhäusler|author3=Darrell T. Tryon|title=Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCx0D0iE2QoC|year=1996|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-013417-9}}</ref>

====Indianised Hindu Malay kingdoms (3rd century to 7th century)====
There were numerous Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd century, as many as 30, mainly based on the Eastern side of the Malay peninsula.<ref name="Marshall"/> Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based in the Malay Peninsula is the ancient kingdom of [[Langkasuka]], located in the northern Malay Peninsula and based somewhere on the west coast.<ref name="Marshall"/> It was closely tied to [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan]] in Cambodia, which also ruled part of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. In the 5th century, the [[Old Pahang Kingdom|Kingdom of Pahang]] was mentioned in the ''[[Book of Song]]''. According to the [[Sejarah Melayu]] ("Malay Annals"), the [[Khmer people|Khmer]] prince Raja Ganji Sarjuna founded the kingdom of [[Gangga Negara]] (modern-day [[Beruas]], [[Perak]]) in the 700s. Chinese chronicles of the 5th century CE speak of a great port in the south called [[Kantoli|Guantoli]], which is thought to have been in the [[Straits of Malacca]]. In the 7th century, a new port called Shilifoshi is mentioned, and this is believed to be a Chinese rendering of [[Srivijaya]].

====Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Malay kingdoms as vassal of Srivijaya empire (7th - 13th century)====
{{main | Srivijaya empire }}
Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the [[Malay peninsula]] was under the Buddhist [[Srivijaya]] empire. The site of Srivijaya's centre is thought be at a [[River delta|river mouth]] in eastern [[Sumatra]], based near what is now Palembang.<ref name="state.gov">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2777.htm |title=Malaysia |publisher=State.gov |access-date=14 September 2010}}</ref> For over six centuries the [[Maharajah]]s of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the archipelago. The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community leaders) swearing allegiance to the central lord for mutual profit.<ref name="History">{{cite book|author1=Barbara Watson Andaya|author2=Leonard Y. Andaya|title=A History of Malaysia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GSBCcNn1fsC|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-38121-9}}</ref>

=====Relationship of the Srivijaya empire with the Tamil Chola empire=====
{{see also | South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I | Chola invasion of Srivijaya}}

[[Chola dynasty|Chola empire]] also had profound impact on Southeast Asia, who executed [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I]] and [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]].

The relation between Srivijaya and the [[Chola Empire]] of south India was friendly during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]] but during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] the Chola Empire [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I|invaded Srivijaya cities]].<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref>
In 1025 and 1026 Gangga Negara was attacked by [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola Empire]], the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil]] emperor who is now thought to have laid [[Kota Gelanggi]] to waste. Kedah—known as ''Kedaram'', ''Cheh-Cha'' (according to ''I-Ching'') or ''Kataha'', in ancient [[Pallava]] or [[Sanskrit]]—was in the direct route of the invasions and was ruled by the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] from 1025. A second invasion was led by [[Virarajendra Chola]] of the [[Chola dynasty]] who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century.<ref>''History of Asia'' by B. V. Rao (2005), p. 211</ref> The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of [[Srivijaya]], which had exerted influence over [[Kedah]], [[Patani (historical region)|Pattani]] and as far as [[Nakhon Si Thammarat|Ligor]]. During the reign of [[Kulothunga Chola I]] Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya province [[kedah]] in the late 11th century.<ref>Singapore in Global History by Derek Thiam Soon Heng, Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied p.40</ref> The expedition of the [[Chola]] Emperors had such a great impression to the [[Malay people]] of the medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya.<ref>History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000–1800 by Geoffrey C. Gunn p.43</ref><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref><ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226</ref> Even today the Chola rule is remembered in [[Malaysia]] as many [[Malaysians|Malaysian]] princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja of [[Perak]] called [[Raja Chulan]].<ref>Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans, by A. Kalyanaraman p.158</ref><ref>India and Malaya Through the Ages: by S. Durai Raja Singam</ref>

[[File:Muzium Negara KL67.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Avalokiteshvara statue found in Perak, 8th–9th century bronze.]]
[[Paṭṭiṉappālai|Pattinapalai]], a Tamil poem of the 2nd century CE, describes goods from [[Early history of Kedah|Kedaram]] heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Indian drama, ''Kaumudhimahotsva'', refers to Kedah as Kataha-nagari. The ''Agnipurana'' also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha with one of its boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe is [[Gunung Jerai]]. Stories from the ''Katasaritasagaram'' describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The Buddhist [[Nakhon Si Thammarat kingdom|kingdom of Ligor]] took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king [[Chandrabhanu]] used it as a base to attack [[Sri Lanka]] in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in [[Tamil Nadu]] and in the Sri Lankan chronicles, ''[[Mahavamsa]]''.

=====Decline of the Srivijaya empire and conflicts between its capital and its former vassal states (12th - 13th century)=====
At times, the Khmer kingdom, the Siamese kingdom, and even the Chola kingdom tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states.<ref name="Marshall"/> The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th century as the relationship between the capital and its vassal states broke down. Wars with the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and it may have also waged wars with the Indian states. In the 11th century, the centre of power shifted to [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]], a port which was possibly located further up the Sumatran coast near the [[Batang Hari River|Jambi River]].<ref name="History"/> The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by the [[The spread of Islam in Indonesia|spread of Islam]]. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such as [[Aceh]], broke away from Srivijaya's control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of [[Sukhothai kingdom|Sukhothai]] had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the 14th century, the Hindu Java-based [[Majapahit]] empire came into possession of the peninsula.<ref name="state.gov"/>

===Defeat and conversion to Islamic sultanates in 14th and 15th century===
In the 14th century that first [[Islam]]ic sultanate was established. The adoption of Islam in the 14th century saw the rise of a number of sultanates, the most prominent of which was the [[Sultanate of Malacca]]. Islam had a profound influence on the [[Malay people]]. The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were the first European colonial powers to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula and [[Southeast Asia]], capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641. However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases at [[Jesselton]], [[Kuching]], [[Penang]] and [[Singapore]], ultimately secured their hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. The [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]] defined the boundaries between [[British Malaya]] and the [[Netherlands East Indies]] (which became Indonesia). A fourth phase of foreign influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.<ref>Annual Report on the Federation of Malaya: 1951 in C.C. Chin and Karl Hack, Dialogues with Chin Peng pp. 380, 81.</ref>

===European colonisation and modern era (16th century - present day)===
Colonisation commenced form European colonisation from 16th century and ended in 19th century.

==Philippines ==
{{main | Indian influences in early Philippine polities | History_of_the_Philippines#Pre-colonial_period_(900_AD_to_1565)| l2=Indianised kingdoms of Philippines | List of India-related topics in the Philippines | l3= India-related topics in the Philippines }}

===Indianised kingdoms in Philippines ===

** Super kingdoms spanning several present day nations
*** [[Srivijaya empire]]: a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom also included Luzon and Visayas, rival of Mataram who also ruled Mindanao
*** [[Kingdom of Mataram]]: a Hindu kingdom rival of Buddhist Srivijara, its king was [[Balitung]] mentioned in the [[Balitung inscription]], spread across Java in southern Indonesia and Sulu/Mindanao in southern Philippines

<section begin=pushpin map />
{{location map+ |Philippines | AlternativeMap =|float=right |height=1000|width=500 |caption=Locations of pre-colonial principalities, polities, kingdoms and sultanates in the Philippine archipelago |places=
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=8 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=20.35 |long=121.54 |label=[[Idjang]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.35 |long=120.58 |label=[[Rajahnate of Maynila|Maynila]] |position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=11.09 |long=122.29 |label=[[Kedatuan of Madja-as]] |position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=8.57 |long=125.32 |label=[[Rajahnate of Butuan]] |position=bottom right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=6.03 |long=121.00 |label=[[Sultanate of Sulu]] |position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=6.42 |long=121.98 |label=[[Kingdom of Kumalarang|Kumalarang]] |position=left}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=6.92 |long=122.07 |label=[[Sanmalan|Rajahnate of Sanmalan]]|position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=12.55 |long=121.05 |label=[[Ma-i]] |position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat= 11.53|long=120.13 |label=[[Sandao]] |position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=9.39 |long=123.51 |label=[[Kedatuan of Dapitan]] |position=left}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=7.13 |long=124.15 |label=[[Sultanate of Maguindanao]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=10.18 |long=123.54 |label=[[Rajahnate of Cebu]] |position=top right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.35 |long=121.01 |label=[[Namayan]] |position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.37 |long=120.58 |label=[[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]] |position=left}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.73 |long=121.92 |label=[[Pulilu]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=8.02 |long=124.00 |label=[[Confederation of sultanates in Lanao|Sultanate of Lanao]]|position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.35 |long=121.06 |label=[[Cainta (historical polity)|Cainta]] |position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=15.55 |long=120.20 |label=[[Caboloan]] |position=left}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=12.50 |long=123.51 |label=[[Ibalon]] |position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=17.20 |long=120.35 |label=[[Ilocos Sur#Precolonial Era|Samtoy]] |position=left}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=10.49 |long=119.31 |label=[[Taytay, Palawan#History|Chiefdom of Taytay]] |position=bottom}}
}}
<section end=pushpin map />
{{further|Ancient barangay|Dambana|Suyat}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width =
| image1 = Naturales 4.png
| caption1 = A Tagalog couple of the ''[[Maginoo]]'' nobility class depicted in the 16th-century [[Boxer Codex]].
| image2 =
| caption2 =
}}

** Luzon
*** Around Manila and [[Pasig river]] were 3 polities which were earlier Hindu-Buddhist, later Islamic and then subsumed and converted to Catholicism by Spanish in 16th century
**** [[Namayan]] polity was confederation of barangays
**** [[Maynila (historical entity)]]
***** [[Rajah Sulayman]] (also Sulayman III, 1558–1575), Indianized [[Maynila (historical entity)|Kingdom of Maynila]]
***** [[Rajah Matanda]] (1480–1572), ruler of the Indianized [[Maynila (historical entity)|Kingdom of Maynila]], together with [[Rajah Sulayman]] was co-ruled Maynila, their cousin [[Lakan Dula]] ruled Tondo. Rajah Sulayman was one of three kings that ruled parts of present-day Manila, and fought against the Spanish Empire's colonisation of the Philippines
**** [[Tondo (Historical State)]] on Pasig river near Manila
***** [[Lakan Dula]], was a raja who was cousin of Rajah Sulayman and Rajah Matanda
***** [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], earliest known written document found in the Philippines, in [[Sanskritisation|Indianized]] [[Kawi script]] with [[Sanskrit]] loanwords
*** [[Ma-i]] Buddhist kingdom of [[Mindoro]] island, from before 10th century till 14th century
*** [[Sandao]] neighboring vassal-state of Ma-i in Palawan
*** [[Pulilu]] another vassal-state of Ma-i but located in Quezon Province
*** 1406–1576 [[Caboloan]],<ref>Flores, Marot Nelmida-. The cattle caravans of ancient Caboloan : interior plains of Pangasinan : connecting history, culture, and commerce by cartwheel. National Historical Institute. Ermita: c2007. http://www.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/978-5-88431-174-9/978-5-88431-174-9_20.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225193807/https://www.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/978-5-88431-174-9/978-5-88431-174-9_20.pdf }}</ref> was a sovereign [[History of the Philippines (900–1565)|pre-colonial Philippine]] [[Mandala (political model)|polity]] located in the fertile [[Agno River]] basin and delta, with [[San Carlos, Pangasinan|Binalatongan]] as the capital.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://anaknabinalatongan.wixsite.com/anaknabinalatongan/single-post/2014/12/21/History-of-Binalatongan|title = Single Post}}</ref> The polity of Pangasinan sent emissaries to China in 1406–1411.<ref name=scott1989p8>{{cite web|url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-21-1983/scott.pdf|title=Filipinos in China in 1500|last=Scott|first=William Henry|work=China Studies Program|page=8|publisher=De la Salle University|year=1989}}</ref>

** Visayas
*** [[Rajahnate of Cebu]] at [[Singhapala]] (Mabolo in Cebu city on Mahinga creej) capital city in southern Cebu island was a Hindu kingdom founded by [[Sri Lumay]] or Rajamuda Lumaya, a minor prince of the [[Chola dynasty]] of Tamilakam which occupied [[Sumatra]]. He was sent by the [[[[Chola dynasty|Chola Emperor]]]] to establish a base for expeditionary forces, but he rebelled and established his own independent rajahnate.<ref name="ReferenceA">Jovito Abellana, Aginid, Bayok sa Atong Tawarik, 1952</ref> Subsumed by Spanish in 16th century.
**** King Sri Lumay was half [[Tamils|Tamil]] and half Malay, noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro Muslim raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbu (literally "that of Sri Lumay's great fire") to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbu ("scorched earth").
**** Sri Bantug, king and successor son of Sri Lumay
**** [[Rajah Humabon]], king and successor son of Sri Batung
***** [[Battle of Mactan]] on 27 April 1521 between Rajah Humabon and Ferdinand Magellan in which Lapulapu fought on side of Rajah, resulting in the death of Ferdinand Magellan.
***** [[Lapulapu]], warrior under Rajah Humabon, Lapulapu fought Spanish{{clarify}}
***** [[Ferdinand Magellan]], Portuguese explorer on hired by Spanish empire
**** [[Rajah Tupas]] (Sri Tupas), nephew and successor of Rajah Humabon, last to rule the kingdom before subsumed by Spanish [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] in the battle of Cebu during 1565.
**** Caste system: Below the rulers were the [[Timawa]], the feudal warrior class of the ancient Visayan societies of the Philippines who were regarded as higher than the ''[[uripon]]'' (commoners, [[serf]]s, and slaves) but below the ''[[Tumao]]'' (royal [[nobility]]) in the Visayan social hierarchy. They were roughly similar to the [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]] ''[[maharlika]]'' caste. Lapu Lapu was a [[Timawa]].
**** A crude Buddhist medallion and a copper statue of a Hindu Deity, [[Ganesha]], has been found by Henry Otley Beyer in 1921 in ancient sites in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and in Mactan, Cebu.<ref name="asj.upd.edu.ph">http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-15-1977/francisco-indian-prespanish-philippines.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219150123/http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-15-1977/francisco-indian-prespanish-philippines.pdf }} {{Bare URL PDF}}</ref> The crudeness of the artifacts indicates they are of local reproduction. Unfortunately, these icons were destroyed during World War II. However, black and white photographs of these icons survive.
*** [[Kedatuan of Madja-as]] of [[Panay island]] was a supra-baranganic polity from 14th century till 16th century until subsumed by Spanish, were migrants from North Sumatra in Indonesia where they were rulers of Buddhist Srivihayan "kingdom of [[Pannai]]" (ruled 10 to 14th century) which was defeated by Majapahit.
** Mindanao
*** [[Rajahnate of Butuan]] in northeast Mindanao, a Hindu kingdom that existed earlier than the 10th century. According to researcher Eric Casino, its first King who was named Rajah Kiling was not a native Filipino and was in fact from India as Kiling is the local term for Indians. In nearby Malaysia the similarly worded [[Keling]] means an immigrant from India. Butuan flourished until being subsumed by the Spanish in 16th century
*** Rajahnate of [[Sanmalan]] in the Zamboanga peninsula, it was a Hindu kingdom that might be literally ruled by the South Indian Chola dynasty as the name of the first Rajah in Sanmalan was Rajah Chulan, the local pronunciation of the [[Chola Dynasty|Chola]] surname.
**** [[Mount Diwata]]: named after [[Anito|diwata]] concept of Philippines based on the [[devata]] deity concept of Hinduism
*** [[Kingdom of Kumalarang]] in Basilan, a kingdom established by [[Yakan people|Yakans]] whose ancestors came from the [[Champa|Champa Civilization]] in central Vietnam, it subsisted as a vassal-state to the Sulu Sultanate
*** [[Confederate States of Lanao|Sultanates of Lanao]] of Muslims in Maguindanao in northwestern Mindanao from 15th century till present day
*** [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]] in Cotabato in far west Mindanao from split from Srivijaya Hindu ancestors in 16th century and ruled till early 20th century, originally converted by sultan of Johor in 16th century but maintained informal kinship with Hindu siblings who are now likely Christians
*** [[Sultanate of Sulu]] in southwestern Mindanao, established in 1405 by a Johore-born Muslim explorer, gained independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578 and lasted till 1986. It also covered the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay to Tepian Durian in present-day Kalimantan.
*** [[Lupah Sug|Lupah Su]] sultanate, predecessor Islamic state before the establishment of Sultanate of Sulu.<ref name="Genealogy of Sultan Sharif Ul-Hashim of Sulu Sultanate">{{cite web|last=Julkarnain |first=Datu Albi Ahmad |title=Genealogy of Sultan Sharif Ul-Hashim of Sulu Sultanate |url=http://www.zambotoday.com/archives/7439-Genealogy-of-Sultan-Sharif-Ul-Hashim-of-Sulu-Sultanate.html |access-date=21 December 2010 |newspaper=Zambo Times |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718151329/http://www.zambotoday.com/archives/7439-Genealogy-of-Sultan-Sharif-Ul-Hashim-of-Sulu-Sultanate.html |archive-date=18 July 2011 }}</ref>
*** Maimbung principality: Hindu polity, predecessor of Lupah Su Muslim sultanate. [[Sulu]] that time was called ''Lupah Sug''<ref name="Genealogy of Sultan Sharif Ul-Hashim of Sulu Sultanate"/> The Principality of Maimbung, populated by [[Buranun people]] (or ''Budanon'', literally means "mountain-dwellers"), was first ruled by a certain [[rajah]] who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title ''rajah sipad'' originated from the Hindu [[sri]] pada, which symbolises authority.<ref name="ibrahim 51">{{Harvnb|Ibrahim|1985|p=51}}</ref> The Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger.

===Indians in Philippines during colonial era ===
* 1762–1764 [[British Manila]]
** [[Battle of Manila (1762)]] by the [[East India Company]]'s Indian soldiers during [[Anglo-Spanish War (1761–63)]]
** [[Cainta]] in [[Rizal Province|Rizal]]: historic colonial era settlement of escaped Indians [[sepoy]]s of British East India Company
* [[Indian Filipino]]: Filipino citizens with part or whole Indian blood

===Key Indianised Hindu-Buddhist artifacts found in Philippines ===
* Luzon
** [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]] in Luzon, earliest known written document found in the Philippines, in [[Sanskritisation|Indianized]] [[Kawi script]] with [[Sanskrit]] loanwords
** Palawan [[Tabon Caves#Tabon Caves Garuda Gold Pendant|Tabon Caves Garuda Gold Pendant]] found in the [[Tabon caves]] in the island of [[Palawan]], is an image of [[Garuda]], the eagle bird who is the mount of [[Hindu]] deity [[Vishnu]]<ref name=TabonGaruda>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oocities.org/lppsec/pp/palawan.htm |title=Palawan Tabon garuda |access-date=2020-04-05 |archive-date=2021-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224152835/http://www.oocities.org/lppsec/pp/palawan.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Visayas
** [[Rajahnate of Cebu]] Buddhist medallion and copper statue of Hindu Deity: A crude Buddhist medallion and a copper statue of a Hindu Deity, [[Ganesha]], has been found by Henry Otley Beyer in 1921 in ancient sites in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and in Mactan, Cebu.<ref name="asj.upd.edu.ph"/> The crudeness of the artifacts indicates they are of local reproduction. Unfortunately, these icons were destroyed during World War II. However, black and white photographs of these icons survive.
* Mindanao
** [[Golden Tara]] ([[Agusan image]]) from [[Kingdom of Butuan]] in northeast Mindanao is a golden statue that was found in [[Agusan del Sur]] in northeast Mindanao.

==Singapore==
{{Main|Early history of Singapore}}
{{see also|Timeline of Singaporean history|Kingdom of Singapura}}

The Greco-Roman astronomer [[Ptolemy]] (90{{ndash}}168) identified a place called ''Sabana'' at the tip of [[Golden Chersonese]] (believed to be the [[Malay Peninsula]]) in the second and third century.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hack|first=Karl|url=http://www.hsse.nie.edu.sg/staff/kahack/cc%202.3%20(Little%20India).htm|title=Records of Ancient Links between India and Singapore|publisher=National Institute of Education, Singapore|access-date=4 August 2006|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426231828/http://www.hsse.nie.edu.sg/staff/kahack/cc%202.3%20%28Little%20India%29.htm|archive-date=26 April 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The earliest written record of Singapore may be in a Chinese account from the third century, describing the island of ''Pu Luo Chung'' ([[wikt:蒲|蒲]] [[wiktionary:羅|羅]] [[wikt:中|中]]). This is thought to be a [[Transcription into Chinese characters|transcription]] from the [[Malay language|Malay]] name ''"[[Pulau Ujong]]"'', or "island at the end" (of the [[Malay Peninsula]]).<ref name=utexas>{{cite web|title=Singapore: History, Singapore 1994|url=http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/countries/singapore/Singapore-History.html|publisher=Asian Studies @ University of Texas at Austin|access-date=7 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323095958/http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/countries/Singapore/Singapore-History.html|archive-date=23 March 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1025 CE, [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola Empire]] led forces across the [[Indian Ocean]] and invaded the [[Srivijaya empire|Srivijayan empire]], attacking several places in [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]].<ref name=Coedes>{{cite book|last=Coedès|first=George|author-link=George Coedès|editor=Walter F. Vella|others=trans. Susan Brown Cowing|title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1|pages=142–143}}</ref><ref name="Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41">''Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41''</ref> The Chola forces were said to have controlled [[Temasek]] (now [[Singapore]]) for a couple of decades.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sar Desai, D. R. |title=Southeast Asia: Past and Present|page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|isbn=9780813348384}}</ref> The name Temasek however did not appear in Chola records, but a tale involving a Raja Chulan (assumed to be Rajendra Chola) and Temasek was mentioned in the semi-historical ''[[Malay Annals]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/2683a39c-55bf-4627-8e95-2d6870e29478|title=Sri Vijaya-Malayu: Singapore and Sumatran Kingdoms|work=History SG}}</ref>

The [[Nagarakretagama]], a [[Java (island)|Javanese]] epic poem written in 1365, referred to a settlement on the island called ''[[Temasek|Tumasik]]'' (possibly meaning "''Sea Town''" or "''Sea Port''").<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DTOJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA381|title=Singapore Street Names: A Study of Toponymics|authors=Victor R Savage, Brenda Yeoh|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2013|isbn=978-9814484749|page=381}}</ref>

===Hindu-Buddhist kingdom (? - ~1511)===

The name [[Temasek]] is also given in [[Sejarah Melayu]] (''Malay Annals''), which contains a tale of the founding of Temasek by a prince of [[Srivijaya]], Sri Tri Buana (also known as [[Sang Nila Utama]]) in the 13th century. Sri Tri Buana landed on Temasek on a hunting trip, and saw a strange beast said to be a lion. The prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" in Sanskrit. The actual origin of the [[Names of Singapore|name Singapura]] however is unclear according to scholars.<ref name=turnbull>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9yvBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|title=A History of Modern Singapore, 1819–2005|author=C.M. Turnbull| author-link = Mary Turnbull | pages=21–22|publisher=NUS Press|year=2009|isbn= 978-9971694302}}</ref>

[[File:Mao Kun map - Singapore.png|thumb|The [[Mao Kun map]] from [[Wubei Zhi]] which is based on the early 15th century maps of [[Zheng He]] showing Temasek (淡馬錫) at the top left, and Long Ya Men (龍牙門) on the right panel.]]

In 1320, the [[Mongol Empire]] sent a trade mission to a place called ''[[Long Ya Men]]'' (or ''Dragon's Teeth Gate''), which is believed to be [[Keppel Harbour]] at the southern part of the island.<ref>{{cite web|title=Singapore: Relations with Malaysia|url=https://www.pbs.org/nbr/site/research/educators/060106_15a/|author=Community Television Foundation of South Florida|publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061222073109/http://www.pbs.org/nbr/site/research/educators/060106_15a/|archive-date=22 December 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Chinese traveller [[Wang Dayuan]], visiting the island around 1330, described ''[[Long Ya Men]]'' as one of the two distinct settlements in ''[[Temasek|Dan Ma Xi]]'' (from Malay ''[[Temasek]]''), the other being ''[[Ban Zu]]'' (from Malay ''pancur''). ''Ban Zu'' is thought to be present day [[Fort Canning]] Hill, and [[Archaeology in Singapore|recent excavations]] in Fort Canning found evidence indicating that Singapore was an important settlement in the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archaeology in Singapore – Fort Canning Site|url=http://www.seaarchaeology.com/v1/html/sg/fort_canning.html|publisher=Southeast-Asian Archaeology|access-date=9 July 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429114614/http://www.seaarchaeology.com/v1/html/sg/fort_canning.html|archive-date=29 April 2007|df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Reconstructing Banzu, a Fourteenth-Century Port Settlement in Singapore|author=Derek Heng Thiam Soon|journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume= 75, No. 1|issue=282|pages= 69–90}}</ref> Wang mentioned that the natives of ''Long Ya Men'' (thought to be the ''[[Orang Laut]]'') and Chinese residents lived together in ''Long Ya Men''.<ref name=wheatley>{{cite book|author=Paul Wheatley|author-link=w:Paul Wheatley (geographer)|title=The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500|location=Kuala Lumpur|publisher=[[w:University of Malaya|University of Malaya Press]]|year=1961|oclc=504030596|pages= 82–85}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hybrid Identities in the Fifteenth-Century Straits of Malacca|url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/wps/wps06_067.pdf|publisher=Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore|access-date=24 October 2017}}</ref> Singapore is one of the oldest locations where a Chinese community is known to exist outside China, and the oldest corroborated by archaeological evidence.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|page=120|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|author1-link=John N. Miksic |author=John Miksic|publisher=NUS Press|year=2013|isbn=978-9971695743}}</ref>

Sometime in its history, the name of Temasek was changed to Singapura. The ''[[Sejarah Melayu]]'' (''Malay Annals'') contains a tale of a prince of [[Srivijaya]], Sri Tri Buana (also known as [[Sang Nila Utama]]), who landed on Temasek after surviving a storm in the 13th century. According to the tale, the prince saw a strange creature, which he was told was a [[Asiatic lion|lion]]; believing this to be an auspicious sign, he decided to found a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" in [[Sanskrit]]. It is unlikely there ever were lions in Singapore, though [[tiger]]s continued to roam the island until the early 20th century. However, the lion motif is common in Hindu mythology, which was dominant in the region during that period (one of the words for "throne" in the [[Malay language]] is "singgasana", meaning "lion's seat" in Sanskrit), and it has been speculated that the "Singapura" name, and the tale of the lion, were invented by court historians of the [[Malacca Sultanate]] to glorify Sang Nila Utama and his line of descent.<ref name="baker">{{cite book | last = Baker | first = Jim | title = Crossroads: A Popular History of Malaysia and Singapore | publisher = Marshall Cavendish International Asia | date = 2008 }}</ref>

Different versions of its history are told in Portuguese sources, suggesting that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed by [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]] from Palembang.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300_1800|author= John N. Miksic |publisher=NUS Press |isbn= 978-9971695743|pages=155–163 }}</ref> Historians believe that during the late 14th century, [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]], the last Srivijayan prince, fled to Temasek from [[Palembang]] after being deposed by the [[Majapahit Empire]]. According to Portuguese accounts, Parameswara killed the local chief with the title Sang Aji eight days after being welcomed into Temasek.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|author= John N. Miksic |publisher=NUS Press |isbn= 978-9971695743|pages=155–156 }}</ref>

[[File:SingaporeStone-bwphoto.jpg|thumb|right|A fragment of the [[Singapore Stone]], inscribed with an [[Indic script]], c. 10th to 13th century.]]
By the 14th century, the empire of [[Srivijaya]] had already declined, and Singapore was caught in the struggle between Siam (now [[Thailand]]) and the Java-based Majapahit Empire for control over the Malay Peninsula. According to the [[Malay Annals]], Singapore was defeated in one Majapahit attack. The last king, [[Parameswara (king)|Sultan Iskandar Shah]] (a prince of Srivijaya empire, his Hindu name Parameswara before he was converted to Islam) ruled the island for several years, before being forced to [[Melaka]] where he founded the [[Sultanate of Malacca]].<ref name=uslcPrecolonial>{{cite web|title=Singapore – Precolonial Era|url=http://countrystudies.us/singapore/3.htm|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=18 June 2006}}</ref> Portuguese sources however indicated that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed by [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]] (thought to be the same person as Sultan Iskandar Shah) from Palembang, and Parameswara was then driven to Malacca, either by the Siamese or the Majapahit, where he founded the [[Malacca Sultanate]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300_1800|author= John N. Miksic|publisher=NUS Press |year=2013|isbn= 978-9971695743|pages=155–163}}</ref> Modern archaeological evidence suggests that the settlement on [[Fort Canning]] was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards.<ref name=turnbull/>

===Islamic sultanate (1511 - 1613)===
The Malacca Sultanate extended its authority over the island and Singapore became a part of the Malacca Sultanate.<ref name=utexas/> However, by the time the Portuguese arrived in the early 16th century, Singapura had already become "great ruins" according to [[Alfonso de Albuquerque]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/3be6e35b-321c-4961-83a7-0ef0ffa44f24|title=Singapura as "Falsa Demora"|work=Singapore SG|publisher=National Library Board Singapore}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUhjKE8APSYC&pg=PA73|title=The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque, Second Viceroy of India|author=Afonso de Albuquerque|page=73|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 2010|isbn=978-1108011549}}</ref> In 1511, the Portuguese seized Malacca; the sultan of Malacca escaped south and established the [[Johor Sultanate]], and Singapore then became part of the sultanate which was destroyed in 1613.<ref name=Borschbergp157-158/>

===British colony and modern era (19th century - present)===

The Portuguese however destroyed the settlement in Singapore in 1613, and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries.<ref name=Borschbergp157-158>{{cite book|last=Borschberg|first =P.|title=The Singapore and Melaka Straits. Violence, Security and Diplomacy in the 17th century|publisher=NUS Press|year=2010 |location=Singapore|pages=157–158 |isbn = 978-9971694647}}</ref><ref name=countrystudies>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/singapore/3.htm|title=Country Studies: Singapore: History|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=1 May 2007}}</ref>

==Thailand==
[[File:Map-of-southeast-asia 1400 CE km.PNG|thumb|281x281px|Map of South-east Asia c. 1300 CE, showing the Sukhothai kingdom[[File:Phimai temple Wikimedia Commons.jpg|thumb|'''Phimai historical park''']]'''Phimai historical park established around 11th-12th Century CE.''']]
Thailand's relationship with India spans over a thousand years and understandably resulted in an adaptation of Hindu culture to suit the Thai environment. Evidence of strong religious, cultural and linguistic links abound.

===Propagation of Buddhism in Thailand by emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE)===
Historically, the cultural and economic interaction between the two countries can be traced to roughly around the 6th century B.C. The single most significant cultural contribution of India, for which Thailand is greatly indebted to India, is [[Buddhism]]. Propagated in Thailand in the 3rd century B.C. by Buddhist monks sent by [[King Asoka]], it was adopted as the state religion of Thailand and has ruled the hearts and minds of Thais ever since. Presently 58,000,000 Thais, an overwhelming 94% of the total Thai populace adheres to Buddhism. However, direct contact can be said to have begun only in the 3rd century B.C. when King Asoka sent Buddhist monks to propagate Buddhism in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Besides Buddhism, Thailand has also adopted other typically Indian religious and cultural traditions. The ceremonies and rites especially as regards the Monarchy evidence a strong Hindu influence.

One of the strongest evidence is [[Phimai Historical Park]] in [[Nakhon Ratchasima province|Nakhon Ratchasima]] established around 11th-12th Century CE.

===Sukhothai period: Settlement of Indian traders and Brahmins in Thailand (1275–1350) ===
The Indians who moved into Thailand in the [[Sukhothai period]] (1275–1350) were either merchants who came to Siam or Thailand, for the purpose of trading or [[Brahmans]] who played an important role in the Siamese court as experts in astrology and in conducting ceremonies. The first group of Brahmans who entered Siam before the founding of Sukhothai as the first capital of Siam (1275–1350) popularized Hindu beliefs and traditions. During the Sukhothai period Brahman temples already existed. Brahmans conducted ceremonies in the court. The concepts of divine kingship and royal ceremonies are clear examples of the influence of Brahmanism.

The [[Coronation of the Thai monarch]] are practiced more or less in its original form even up to the present reign. The Thai idea that the king is a reincarnation of the Hindu deity [[Vishnu]] was adopted from Indian tradition. (Though this belief no longer exists today, the tradition to call each Thai king of the present Chakri dynasty Rama (Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu) with an ordinal number, such as Rama I, Rama II etc. is still in practice.)

===Ayutthaya period: Settlement of more Indian Tamil traders in Thailand (1350–1767 CE) ===
In the [[Ayutthaya kingdom]] era (1350–1767), more Tamil merchants entered the South of the country by boat as evidenced by the statues of Hindu gods excavated in the South.

===Later migration of Indians to Thailand (1855 CE - present day) ===
After the year 1855, the Tamils who migrated to Thailand can be classified into three groups according to the religion they believed in, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.

===Indian cultural influence on Thailand===
====Dance====
[[Thai literature]] and [[Thai art|drama]] draws great inspiration from [[Indian art]]s and [[Hindu mythology|legend]]. The Hindu epic of [[Ramayana]] is as popular in Thailand as it is in India. Thailand has adapted the Ramayana to suit the Thai lifestyle in the past and has come up with its own version of the Ramayana, namely, the [[Ramakien]].

Two of the most popular classical dances the [[Khon]], performed by men wearing ferocious masks, and the [[Dance in Thailand#Lakhon|Lakhon]] ([[Lakhon nai]], [[Lakhon chatri]] and [[Lakhon nok]]), performed by women who play both male and female roles draws inspiration primarily from the Ramakien. Percussion instruments and [[Piphat]], a type of woodwind accompany the dance.<ref name="indthai">{{cite web | url=http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Historical-Ties-India-and-Thailand-1.aspx | title=Historical Ties India and Thailand }}</ref>

In addition, there are [[shadow play]] called [[nang talung]] in Thai. This is a show in which shadows of pieces of cow or water buffalo hide cut to represent human figures with movable arms and legs are thrown on a screen for the entertainment of spectators. In [[South India]], this kind of show is called Bommalattam.

====Language====

[[Thai language]] too bears close affinity with Sanskrit and Dravidian languages. An indication of the close linguistic affiliation between India and Thailand is found in common Thai words like Ratha Mantri, Vidhya, Samuthra, Karuna, Gulab, Prannee etc. which are almost identical to their Indian counterparts. Thai language basically consists of monosyllabic words that are individually complete in meaning. His Majesty King [[Ram Khamhaeng]] the Great created the [[Thai script|Thai alphabet]] in 1283. He modeled it on the ancient Indian alphabets of [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] through the medium of the [[Khmer script|old Khmer characters]]. Like most world languages, the Thai language is a complicated mixture derived from several sources. Many Thai words used today were derived from [[Pali]], [[Sanskrit]], Khmer, Malay, English and Chinese.<ref name="indthai" />

====Religious ceremonies and festivals====
Several Thai ceremonies have been adopted from Indian tradition. These include ceremonies related to ordination, marriage, merit making and cremation. Though the Lord Buddha is the prime inspiration of Thailand, Brahma and other Hindu deities are widely worshipped among the Thais, due in part to the popularity of the Hindu ceremonial rites, which are used especially for royal ceremonies.

(1) The '''[[Triyampawai ceremony|Triyampawai Ceremony]] or the Giant Swing Ceremony'''. Originally a [[Brahmin]] ceremony performed to pay homage to the God [[Shiva]], it was traditionally held front of [[Wat Suthat]], while the King and Queen watched the ceremony from a gold silk pavilion. Though the ceremony was abolished during the reign of King [[Rama VII]] due to a severe economic fall, Brahman priests are still allocated money to make offerings to God Shiva.

(2) The '''[[Royal Ploughing Ceremony]]''', which is officiated by H.M. the king at [[Sanam Luang]] in May every year with pomp. Originally a Brahmanic rite, it was adopted to mark the beginning of the farming season as also to bless all farmers with fertility for the year.

(3) The '''Royal Ceremony for preparing Celestial Rice''' or [[Glutinous rice#Thai|Khao thip]] which was said to be originally prepared by celestial beings in honor of God Indra. A portion of the celestial rice is offered to monks while the remainder was divided in varying quantities among the royal family, courtiers and household members. The making of the ambrosial dish has come to a natural end since custom demanded that virgins alone should perform the preparation and stirring of celestial rice.

(4) The '''[[Kathina]] Ceremony''' or the period during which Buddhist monks receive new robes, which generally falls in the months of October- November.

(5) '''[[Loy Krathong]]''' – the Festival of Lights which is celebrated on the full moon night of the twelfth lunar month. The [[Loi Krathong|floating of Loi Krathong lanterns]], which began in the [[Sukhothai Kingdom]] period, continued throughout the different stages of Thai history. The present day understanding is that the festival is celebrated as an act of worship to [[Phra Mae Thorani|Chao Mae Kangka]], the Goddess of the Waters, for providing the water much needed throughout the year, and as a way of asking forgiveness if they have polluted it or used it carelessly.

(6) '''[[Songkran]] Festival''': Songkran day marks Thai New Year day. "Songkran" signifies the sun's move into the first house of the zodiac. It is similar to Indian [[Holi]].

(7) '''[[Vesak|Visakha]] Puja Day''' which is considered as the greatest Buddhist holy day as it commemorates the birth, enlightenment and death of the Lord Buddha.

Other famous ceremonial holy days include [[Māgha Pūjā|Magha Puja]] day, in February and [[Asalha Puja]] day in July which commemorates the day on which Lord Buddha delivered the [[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta|First Sermon]] to his five disciples, namely, Konthanya, Vassapa, Bhattiya, [[Mahanama (arhat)|Mahanama]] and Assashi at [[Sarnath|Esipatanamaruekathayawan]] (Isipatana forest at Sarnath in India) and there explained his concept of the [[Four Noble Truths]] (Ariyasai).<ref name="indthai" />

====Hindu astrology====
[[Hindu astrology]] still has a great impact on several important stages of Thai life. Thai people still seek advice from knowledgeable Buddhist monks or Brahman astrologers about the auspicious or inauspicious days for conducting or abstaining from ceremonies for moving house or getting married.

====Influence of Ayurveda on Thai traditional medicine and massage ====
According to the Thai monk Venerable [[Buddhadasa]] Bhikku's writing, ‘India's Benevolence to Thailand’, the Thais also obtained the methods of making [[Ayurveda|herbal medicines]] (Ayurveda) from the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of family [[Clusiaceae|Guttiferae]], kanika or [[Parijata|harsinghar]], phikun or ''[[Mimusops elengi]]'' and bunnak or the [[Mesua ferrea|rose chestnut]] etc. were brought from India.<ref name="indthai" />

====Influence of Indian cuisine and spices on Thai cuisine ====
Thai monk [[Buddhadasa]] Bhikku's pointed out that [[Thai cuisine]] too was influenced by [[Indian cuisine]]. He wrote that Thai people learned how to use [[Ayurveda|spices]] in their food in various ways from Indians.<ref name="indthai" />

==Vietnam==
===Early Chinese vassal states===
At the eastern extremity of mainland Southeast Asia, northern [[Vietnam]] was originally occupied by Austro-Asiatic peoples. However, when regional power structures shifted [[Baiyue|tribes from Southern China]] began to settle in these lands. About 207 BC, [[Triệu Đà]], a [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] general, taking advantage of the temporary fragmentation of the Chinese Empire on the collapse of the Ch’in dynasty, created in northern Vietnam the kingdom of [[Nanyue]]. During the 1st century BC, Nanyue was incorporated in the Chinese Empire of the Han dynasty; and it remained a province of the empire until the fall of the Tang dynasty early in the 10th century. It then regained its independence, often as a nominal tributary kingdom of the Chinese Emperor.

===Establishment of Indianised Hindu kingdom of Champa by Indonesian rulers (10th century -) ===
In south-central Vietnam the Chams, a people of Indonesian stock, established the Hinduised kingdom of [[Champa]] c. 400. Subject to periodic invasions by the Annamese and by the Khmers of Cambodia, Champa survived and prospered. In 1471, a Vietnamese army of approximately 260,000, invaded Champa under Emperor [[Lê Thánh Tông]] (黎聖宗). The invasion began as a consequence of Cham King's [[Bàn La Trà Toàn|Trà Toàn]] attack on Vietnam in 1470. The Vietnamese committed genocide against the Cham slaughtering approximately 60,000. The Vietnamese destroyed, burnt and raided massive parts of Champa, seizing the entire kingdom. Thousands of Cham escaped to Cambodia, the remaining were forced to assimilate into [[Vietnamese culture]]. Today, only 80,000 Cham remain in Vietnam.

===Influence of Indian-origin Buddhism on Vietnam via Chinese culture===
Vietnam, or then known as [[Annam (Chinese province)|Annam]] ([[wikt:安|安]][[wikt:南|南]]; pinyin: Ānnán), experienced little Hindu influence – usually via Champa. Unlike other Southeast Asian countries (except for Singapore and the Philippines), Vietnam was influenced by the Indian-origin religion Buddhism via the strong impact of [[East Asian cultural sphere|culture of China]].

==See also==
* Spread of Indian influence
** [[Greater India]]
** [[Indosphere]]
** [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia]]
** [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia]]
** [[Indianization of Southeast Asia]]
* Trading routes
** [[Indian maritime history]]
** [[Silk Road]]
** [[Ancient maritime history]]
* Other related
** [[List of Southeast Asian leaders]]
** [[Southeast Asian Games]]
** [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]]
** [[Tiger Cub Economies]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Cœdès|first= George|author-link= George Cœdès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}
*Lokesh, Chandra, & International Academy of Indian Culture. (2000). Society and culture of Southeast Asia: Continuities and changes. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.
*R. C. Majumdar, Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia
*[[R. C. Majumdar]], ''India and South-East Asia'', I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6, 1979, {{ISBN|81-7018-046-5}}.
*R. C. Majumdar, ''Champa'', ''Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East'', Vol.I, Lahore, 1927. {{ISBN|0-8364-2802-1}}
*R. C. Majumdar, ''Suvarnadvipa'', ''Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East'', Vol.II, Calcutta,
*R. C. Majumdar, ''Kambuja Desa Or An Ancient Hindu Colony In Cambodia'', Madras, 1944
*R. C. Majumdar, ''Hindu Colonies in the Far East'', Calcutta, 1944, {{ISBN|99910-0-001-1}} Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia.
*[[R. C. Majumdar]], History of the Hindu Colonization and Hindu Culture in South-East Asia
* {{cite book|author=Daigorō Chihara|title=Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-10512-3}}
*K.P. Rao, ''Early Trade and Contacts between South India and Southeast Asia (300 B.C.-A.D. 200)'', ''East and West'' Vol. 51, No. 3/4 (December 2001), pp. 385–394

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=Gombrich |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Gombrich |chapter=Aśoka – The Great Upāsaka |title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies |editor=Anuradha Seneviratna |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |isbn=978-955-24-0065-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |access-date=26 November 2019}}
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Guruge, Unresolved|1995}} |last=Guruge |first=Ananda W. P. |author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge |chapter=Emperor Aśoka and Buddhism: Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist Tradition & Aśokan Inscriptions |title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies |editor=Anuradha Seneviratna |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |isbn=978-955-24-0065-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1995}}
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Ibrahim|1985}} |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Ahmad |first2=Sharon |last2=Siddique |first3=Yasmin |last3=Hussain |title=Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1985 |isbn=978-9971-988-08-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BeDKqPTeHnUC}}
* {{cite book |last=Strong |first=John S. |author-link=John S. Strong |chapter=Images of Aśoka: Some Indian and Sri Lankan Legends and their Development |title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies |editor=Anuradha Seneviratna |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |isbn=978-955-24-0065-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |access-date=26 November 2019}}
* {{cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |chapter=Aśoka and Buddhism as Reflected in the Aśokan Edicts |title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies |editor=Anuradha Seneviratna |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |isbn=978-955-24-0065-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |access-date=26 November 2019}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090611115235/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/graphics/ref_maps/pdf/southeast_asia.pdf Topography of Southeast Asia in detail] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
* [https://archive.today/20121212135345/http://www.lib.uci.edu/libraries/collections/sea/sasian.html Southeast Asian Archive] at the University of California, Irvine.
* [https://archive.today/20030225003006/http://www.lib.uci.edu/libraries/collections/sea/seaexhibit/ "Documenting the Southeast Asian Refugee Experience"], exhibit at the [[University of California, Irvine]], Library.
* [http://seasiavisions.library.cornell.edu Southeast Asia Visions, a collection of historical travel narratives] Cornell University Library Digital Collection
* [http://www.southeastasia.org www.southeastasia.org] Official website of the ASEAN Tourism Association
* [http://vimeo.com/20278207/ Southeast Asia Time Lapse Video] Southeast Asia Time Lapse Video
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/42850/rec/1 Art of Island Southeast Asia], a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
* [http://aero-comlab.stanford.edu/jameson/world_history/A_Short_History_of_South_East_Asia1.pdf A Short History of South East Asia] {{Update after|2014|2|27}}

{{India-related topics in Philippines}}
{{Former and present states in the Philippines}}
{{Historic Filipino monarchs}}
{{Hinduism (compact)}}
{{Asia in topic|Hinduism in}}
{{Southeast Asia}}
{{Regions of Asia}}

[[Category:Ancient international relations]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of ancient India]]
[[Category:History of India|.]]
[[Category:History of Southeast Asia|*]]
[[Category:Medieval international relations]]
[[Category:Indosphere]]

Mahatma Gandhi (New) Series

2022-11-25T06:26:12Z

Doctor: Created an influential manuscript.

#REDIRECT [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]]

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Ramchandra Das Paramhans

2022-04-29T08:41:12Z

Doctor: Just published a comprehensive piece.

#REDIRECT [[Ramchandra Paramhans]]

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One Rank One Pension Scheme

2022-03-11T02:30:40Z

Doctor: Added a new release to the collection.

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