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Scotland

2023-10-11T22:01:41Z

Deepaksuhag: ce

{{Short description|Country within the United Kingdom}}
{{About|the country|other uses}}

{{Use British English|date=May 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox UK country
| native_name = {{Native name|sco|Scotland}} {{Native name|gd|Alba}}
| image_flag = Flag of Scotland.svg
| flag_caption =
| image_coat = Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (Scotland).svg
| symbol_width =
| symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of the United Kingdom#In Scotland|Coat of arms]]
| national_motto =
| englishmotto =
| national_anthem = [[National anthem of Scotland|various]], predominantly "[[Flower of Scotland]]"
| image_map2 = 
| status = [[Countries of the United Kingdom|Country]]
| capital = [[Edinburgh]]
| coordinates = {{coord|55|57|11|N|3|11|20|W|type:city|display=inline}}
| largest_city = [[Glasgow]] {{Coord|55|51|40|N|4|15|00|W|type:city_region:GB|display=inline}}
| languages_type = Official languages<ref name="Scottish official languages">{{Cite web |title=Fact: Scotland's official languages are English, Scots, Gaelic & British Sign Language |url=https://www.scotland.org/about-scotland/facts/scotlands-languages |access-date=April 19, 2022 |website=Scotland.org}}</ref>
| languages = {{Unbulleted list
| [[Scottish English|English]]
| [[Scots language|Scots]]
| [[Scottish Gaelic]]
| [[British Sign Language]]
}}
| ethnic_groups =
{{unbulleted list
| 96.0% [[White people in the United Kingdom|White]]
| 2.7% [[Scottish Asians|Asian]]
| 0.7% [[Black Scottish people|Black]]
| 0.4% [[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Mixed]]
| 0.3% [[Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom|other]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_year = [[2011 United Kingdom census|2011]]<ref name="2011 census statistical Bulletin">{{cite web |url=https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/media/p4ac0tiv/statsbulletin2.pdf |title=2011 Census: Key Results from Releases 2A to 2D |author= |date=15 May 2014 |website=Scottish Government |publisher= |access-date=15 August 2023 }}</ref>
| religion =
{{unbulleted list
| {{Tree list}}
* 53.8% [[Religion in Scotland#Christianity|Christianity]]
** 32.4% [[Church of Scotland]]
** 15.9% [[Catholic Church in Scotland|Roman Catholic]]
** 5.5% other Christian
{{Tree list/end}}
| 36.7% [[Religion in Scotland#Irreligion|no religion]]
| 1.4% [[Islam in Scotland|Islam]]
| 0.3% [[Hinduism in Scotland|Hinduism]]
| 0.2% [[Sikhism in Scotland|Sikhism]]
| 0.2% [[Buddhism in Scotland|Buddhism]]
| 0.1% [[History of the Jews in Scotland|Judaism]]
| 0.3% [[Religion in Scotland|other]]
| 7.0% not stated
}}
| religion_year = 2011<ref name="2011 census statistical Bulletin"/>
| demonym = {{Hlist | Scots | [[Scottish people|Scottish]] }}
| type =
| legal_jurisdiction = [[Scots law|Scotland]]
| government_type = [[Scottish devolution|Devolved]] [[Parliament|parliamentary legislature]] within a [[constitutional monarchy]]
| monarch = [[Charles III]]
| first_minister = [[Humza Yousaf]]
| deputy_first_minister = [[Shona Robison]]
| secretary_of_state = [[Alister Jack]]
| number_of_mps = 59
| legislature = [[Scottish Parliament]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Scotland|Formation]]
| established_event1 = [[Origins of the Kingdom of Alba|Established]]
| established_date1 = 9th century ([[National myth|traditionally]] 843)
| established_event2 = [[Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton]]
| established_date2 = 17 March 1328
| established_event3 = [[Treaty of Berwick (1357)|Treaty of Berwick]]
| established_date3 = 3 October 1357<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 October 2020 |title=The Treaty of Berwick was signed – On this day in Scottish history |url=https://www.historyscotland.com/history/the-treaty-of-berwick-was-signed-on-this-day-in-scottish-history |website=History Scotland}}</ref>
| established_event4 = [[Acts of Union 1707|Union with England]]
| established_date4 = 1 May 1707
| established_event5 = [[Scotland Act 1998|Devolution]]
| established_date5 = 19 November 1998
| area_rank =
| area_label = Total{{ref label|footnote_a|a}}
| area_km2 = 80231
| area_sq_mi = auto
| area_footnote =<ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement">{{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-2021-for-administrative-areas-in-the-united-kingdom-v2/about |title=Standard Area Measurements (2021) for Administrative Areas in the United Kingdom (V2) |author= |date=10 March 2023 |website=Open Geography Portal |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=16 August 2023 }}</ref>
| area_label2 = Land{{ref label|footnote_b|b}}
| area_data2 = {{convert|77901|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement"/>
| percent_water =
| population_census = {{increaseNeutral}} 5,436,600
| population_census_year = 2022
| population_density_km2 = 70
| population_density_sq_mi = auto
| population_density_rank =
| pop_den_footnote =<ref name="census2022">{{Cite web |date=14 September 2023 |title=Scotland's Census 2022 - Rounded population estimates |url=https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/2022-results/scotland-s-census-2022-rounded-population-estimates/ |access-date=14 September 2023}}</ref>
| GVA = £149.9 billion
| GVA_rank =
| GVA_year = 2021
| GVA_per_capita = £27,361<ref name="ONS GVA">{{Cite web |last=Fenton |first=Trevor |date=25 April 2023 |title=Regional gross value added (balanced) per head and income components |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/datasets/nominalregionalgrossvalueaddedbalancedperheadandincomecomponents |access-date=14 August 2023 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref>
| GVA_per_capita_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_rank =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| GDP_PPP_per_capita =
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
| GDP_nominal = £181.0 billion
| GDP_nominal_rank =
| GDP_nominal_year = 2021
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = £33,033<ref name="Scot Gov GDP">{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.scot/binaries/content/documents/govscot/publications/statistics/2023/02/gdp-quarterly-national-accounts-2022-q3/documents/quarterly-national-accounts-2022-q3-full-publication/quarterly-national-accounts-2022-q3-full-publication/govscot%3Adocument/GDP%2BQNAS%2B-%2B2022%2BQ3%2B-%2BPublication.pdf |title=Quarterly National Accounts 2022 Q3: full publication |author= |date=1 February 2023 |website=Scottish Government |publisher= |access-date=15 August 2023 }}</ref>{{ref label|footnote_d|d}}
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
| Gini_year = 2019-22
| Gini_change = decrease
| Gini = 31
| Gini_ref =<ref name="Scot Gov GINI">{{cite web |url=https://data.gov.scot/poverty/index.html |title=Poverty and Income Inequality in Scotland 2019-22 |author= |date=23 March 2023 |website=Scottish Government |publisher= |access-date=15 August 2023 }}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI_year = 2021
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI = 0.921 
| HDI_ref =<ref name ="HDI">{{cite web |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/table/shdi/GBR/?levels=1+4&extrapolation=0 |title=Subnational HDI |author= |date= |website=Global Data Lab |publisher= |access-date=15 August 2023 }}</ref>
| HDI_rank =
| utc_offset = +0
| patron_saints =
{{Unbulleted list
| [[Saint Andrew]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=''St Andrew—Quick Facts'' |url=http://www.scotland.org/about/history-tradition-and-roots/features/culture/st-andrews.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111134544/http://scotland.org/about/history-tradition-and-roots/features/culture/st-andrews.html |archive-date=11 November 2007 |access-date=2 December 2007 |website=Scotland. org—The Official Online Gateway}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=St Andrew |url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=109 |access-date=15 November 2011 |website=Catholic Online}}</ref>
| [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Saint Margaret]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=St Margaret of Scotland |url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=304 |access-date=15 November 2011 |website=Catholic Online}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Patron saints |url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/patron.php?letter=S |access-date=15 November 2011 |website=Catholic Online}}</ref>
| [[Saint Columba]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=St Columba |url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=419 |access-date=15 November 2011 |website=Catholic Online}}</ref>}}
| cctld = [[.scot]]{{Ref label|footnote_c|c}}
| official_website =
| footnote_a = {{note|footnote_a}}[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]] Standard Area Measurement, 'Total Extent of the Realm'
| footnote_b = {{note|footnote_b}}ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'Area to Mean High Water Excluding Inland Water'
| footnote_c = {{Note|footnote_c}}.scot is not a [[ccTLD]], but a [[GeoTLD]], open to use by all with a connection to Scotland or Scottish culture. [[.uk]] as part of the [[United Kingdom]] is also used. [[ISO 3166-1]] is [[Great Britain|GB]], but [[.gb]] is unused.
| footnote_d = {{Note|footnote_d}}Scottish Government figures include oil and gas revenues generated beyond UK territorial waters in the [[United Kingdom Continental Shelf|country's continental shelf region]]
| footnote_e =
| footnote_f =
}}
'''Scotland''' ({{Lang-sco|Scotland}}; {{Lang-gd|[[Alba]]}} {{IPA-gd|ˈal̪ˠapə||Alba-gd.ogg}}) is a [[Countries of the United Kingdom|country]] that is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. Covering the northern third of the island of [[Great Britain]],<ref name="ONS Geography Guide">{{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/documents/a-beginners-guide-to-uk-geography-2021-v1-0-1/explore |title=A Beginner's Guide to UK Geography |author= |date=25 October 2022 |website=Open Geography Portal |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=19 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="Country">{{Cite web |title=Countries within a country |url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416083521/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-date=16 April 2010 |access-date=24 August 2008 |website=10 Downing Street |quote=The United Kingdom is made up of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ISO 3166-2 Newsletter Date: 28 November 2007 No I-9. "Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements" (Page 11) |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/newsletter_i-9.pdf |access-date=31 May 2008 |website=[[International Organization for Standardization]] codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 2: Country subdivision codes |quote=SCT Scotland ''country''}}</ref> Scotland is the second-largest country in the United Kingdom, and accounted for 8% of the population in 2019.<ref name="ONS Geography Guide"/> Scotland's only land border is a {{Convert|96|mi|km|adj=on|abbr=off}} [[Anglo-Scottish border|border with England]] to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the north and west, the [[North Sea]] to the northeast and east, and the [[Irish Sea]] to the south. Scotland is divided into 32 [[Subdivisions of Scotland|administrative subdivisions]]<ref name="cosla.gov.uk">{{Cite web |title=Scottish Local Government |url=http://www.cosla.gov.uk/scottish-local-government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113100338/http://www.cosla.gov.uk/scottish-local-government |archive-date=13 January 2019 |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=cosla.gov.uk}}</ref> and contains more than 790 [[Islands of Scotland|islands]],<ref name="Scottish Executive">{{Cite web |date=17 February 2007 |title=Scottish Executive Resources |url=http://www.gov.scot/Resource/Doc/923/0010669.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627070727/http://www.gov.scot/Resource/Doc/923/0010669.pdf |archive-date=27 June 2015 |access-date=14 September 2006 |website=Scotland in Short |publisher=Scottish Executive}}</ref> principally in the archipelagos of the [[Hebrides]] and the [[Northern Isles]]. Most of the population, including the capital [[Edinburgh]], is concentrated in the [[Central Belt]]—the plain between the [[Scottish Highlands]] and the [[Southern Uplands]]—in the [[Scottish Lowlands]].

The [[Kingdom of Scotland]] emerged in the 9th century, from the merging of the [[Gaels|Gaelic]] Kingdom of [[Dál Riata]] and the [[Picts|Kingdom of the Picts]], and continued to exist as an independent [[sovereign state]] until 1707. In 1603, [[James VI of Scotland|James VI]] inherited [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], forming a [[personal union]] of the [[Union of the Crowns|three kingdoms]]. Scotland subsequently entered into a [[political union]] with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new [[Kingdom of Great Britain]],<ref name=Keay/><ref name=Mackie/> with the [[Parliament of Scotland]] subsumed into the [[Parliament of Great Britain]]. In 1999, a [[Scottish Parliament]] was re-established, in the form of a [[Devolution in the United Kingdom|devolved]] [[unicameral legislature]] comprising 129 [[Member of the Scottish Parliament|members]], having authority over many areas of [[domestic policy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Devolution Settlement, Scotland |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/devolution-settlement-scotland |access-date=7 May 2017 |publisher=gov.uk}}</ref> The head of the [[Scottish Government]] is the [[First Minister of Scotland|first minister]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cabinet and ministers |url=https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=Gov.scot}}</ref> Scotland is represented in the [[United Kingdom Parliament]] by 59 [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|members of parliament]] (MPs). Scotland is a member of the [[British–Irish Council]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 December 2011 |title=Scotland / Alba |url=http://www.britishirishcouncil.org/member-administrations/scotland-alba |access-date=4 May 2013 |publisher=British-Irish Council}}</ref> the [[British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Members |url=http://www.britishirish.org/members-2 |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=British-Irish Parliamentary Assembly}}</ref> and the [[Joint Ministerial Committee (UK)|Heads of Government Council]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 December 2017 |title=StackPath |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/devolution-joint-ministerial-committee |website=www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk}}</ref>

Within Scotland, the [[monarchy of the United Kingdom|monarchy]] has continued to use various styles, titles and other royal symbols of statehood specific to the pre-union Kingdom of Scotland. The [[Scots law|legal system within Scotland]] has also remained separate from those of [[English law|England and Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland law|Northern Ireland]]; Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law.<ref>Collier, J. G. (2001) [http://assets.cambridge.org/052178/2600/sample/0521782600ws.pdf ''Conflict of Laws (Third edition)''](pdf) [[Cambridge University Press]]. "For the purposes of the English [[conflict of laws]], every country in the world which is not part of [[England and Wales]] is a foreign country and its foreign laws. This means that not only totally foreign independent countries such as France or Russia ... are foreign countries but also [[British Colonies]] such as the [[Falkland Islands]]. Moreover, the other parts of the United Kingdom{{Spaced en dash}}Scotland and Northern Ireland{{Spaced en dash}}are foreign countries for present purposes, as are the other [[British Islands]], the [[Isle of Man]], [[Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]]."</ref> The continued existence of legal, [[Education in Scotland|educational]], [[Religion in Scotland|religious]] and other institutions distinct from those in the remainder of the UK have all contributed to the continuation of [[Culture of Scotland|Scottish culture]] and [[Scottish national identity|national identity]] since the 1707 [[Political union#Incorporating union|incorporating]] union with England.<ref name="administrative control">Devine, T. M. (1999), ''The Scottish Nation 1700–2000'', P.288–289, {{ISBN|0-14-023004-1}} ''"created a new and powerful ''local state'' run by the Scottish bourgeoisie and reflecting their political and religious values. It was this local state, rather than a distant and usually indifferent Westminster authority, that in effect routinely governed Scotland"''</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Etymology ==
{{Main|Etymology of Scotland}}

''Scotland'' comes from {{Lang|la|[[Scoti]]}}, the Latin name for the [[Gaels]]. [[Philip Freeman]] has speculated on the likelihood of a group of raiders adopting a name from an [[Indo-European root]], *''skot'', citing the parallel in Greek {{Lang|el-latn|skotos}} ({{Lang|el|σκότος|italic=no}}), meaning "darkness, gloom".<ref>P. Freeman, ''Ireland and the Classical World'', Austin, 2001, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSHhfOM-5AEC&pg=PA93 93].</ref> The [[Late Latin]] word {{Lang|la|[[Scotia]]}} ('land of the Gaels') was initially used to refer to Ireland,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gwynn |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2RlF7sq48n4C&pg=PA16 |title=The History Of Ireland |date=July 2009 |isbn=9781113155177 |page=16 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> and likewise in early [[Old English language|Old English]] {{Lang|ang|Scotland}} was used for Ireland.<ref>Lemke, Andreas: [https://www.univerlag.uni-goettingen.de/bitstream/handle/3/isbn-978-3-86395-189-4/GSEP8_lemke.pdf?sequence=1 The Old English Translation of Bede's ''Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum'' in its Historical and Cultural Context], Chapter II: The ''OEHE'': The Material Evidence; page 71 (Universitätsdrucke Göttingen, 2015)</ref> By the 11th century at the latest, ''Scotia'' was being used to refer to (Gaelic-speaking) Scotland north of the [[River Forth]], alongside ''Albania'' or ''Albany'', both derived from the Gaelic {{Lang|gd|[[Alba]]}}.<ref name="Brewer">{{Cite book |last=Ayto |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/brewersbritainir0000unse |title=Brewer's Britain & Ireland: The History, Culture, Folklore and Etymology of 7500 Places in These Islands |last2=Ian Crofton |publisher=WN |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-304-35385-9 |url-access=registration}}</ref> The use of the words ''Scots'' and ''Scotland'' to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the [[Scotland in the Late Middle Ages|Late Middle Ages]].<ref name=Keay/>

==History==
{{Main|History of Scotland}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Scottish history}}
===Prehistory===
[[Prehistoric Scotland]], before the arrival of the Roman Empire, was a complex society. Repeated glaciations, which covered the entire land mass of modern Scotland, destroyed any traces of [[human habitation]] that may have existed before the [[Mesolithic period]]. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of [[hunter-gatherer]]s arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, as the ice sheet retreated after the [[Last glacial period|last glaciation]].<ref>The earliest known evidence is a flint arrowhead from [[Islay]]. See Moffat, Alistair (2005) ''Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland Before History''. London. Thames & Hudson. Page 42.</ref> At the time, Scotland was covered in forests, had more bog-land, and the main form of transport was by water.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|9}} These settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of [[Skara Brae]] on the mainland of [[Orkney]] dates from this period. [[Neolithic]] habitation, burial, and ritual sites are particularly common and well preserved in the [[Northern Isles]] and [[Western Isles]], where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pryor |first=Francis |title=Britain BC |publisher=HarperPerennial |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-00-712693-4 |location=London |pages=98–104 & 246–250 |author-link=Francis Pryor}}</ref> Evidence of sophisticated pre-Christian belief systems is demonstrated by sites such as the [[Callanish Stones]] on [[Isle of Lewis|Lewis]] and the [[Maes Howe]] on [[Orkney]], which were built in the third millennium BC.<ref name="short" />{{Rp|38}}

===Early history===
{{Main|Scotland during the Roman Empire|Roman Britain|Pictland}}
[[File:Village néolithique de Skara Brae dans les îles Orcades en Écosse.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Skara Brae]], Europe's most complete [[Neolithic]] village, occupied from roughly 3180 BC – 2500 BC]]
The first written reference to Scotland was in 320 BC by Greek sailor [[Pytheas]], who called the northern tip of Britain "Orcas", the source of the name of the Orkney islands.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|10}}

Most of modern Scotland was not [[Roman conquest of Britain|incorporated]] into the [[Roman Empire]] with Roman control over the area fluctuating. The first Roman incursion into Scotland occurred in 79 AD, when [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]] invaded Scotland; he defeated a Caledonian army at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]] in 83 AD.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|12}} After the Roman victory, Roman forts were briefly set along the [[Gask Ridge]] close to the [[Highland Boundary Fault|Highland line]], but by three years after the battle, the Roman armies had withdrawn to the [[Southern Uplands]].<ref>Hanson, William S. ''The Roman Presence: Brief Interludes'', in Edwards, Kevin J. & Ralston, Ian B.M. (Eds) (2003). ''Scotland After the Ice Age: Environment, Archeology and History, 8000 BC—AD 1000.'' Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press.</ref> Remains of Roman forts established in the 1st century have been found as far north as the [[Moray Firth]].<ref name=":4">{{Citation |last=Richmond |first=Ian Archibald |title=Caledonia |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1258 |work=Oxford Classical Dictionary |year=2012 |editor-last=Hornblower |editor-first=Simon |access-date=16 November 2020 |edition=4th online |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001 |isbn=9780199545568 |last2=Millett |first2=Martin |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther}}</ref> By the reign of the [[Roman emperor]] [[Trajan]] ({{Reign|98|117}}), Roman control had lapsed to Britain south of a line between the [[River Tyne]] and the [[Solway Firth]].<ref name=":8">{{Citation |last=Millett |first=Martin J. |title=Britain, Roman |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-1178 |work=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |year=2012 |editor-last=Hornblower |editor-first=Simon |access-date=16 November 2020 |edition=4th online |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-954556-8 |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther}}</ref> Along this line, Trajan's successor [[Hadrian]] ({{Reign|117|138}}) erected [[Hadrian's Wall]] in northern England<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|12}} and the ''[[Limes Britannicus]]'' became the northern border of the Roman Empire.<ref>Robertson, Anne S. (1960). ''The Antonine Wall''. Glasgow Archaeological Society.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Keys |first=David |date=27 June 2018 |title=Ancient Roman 'hand of god' discovered near Hadrian's Wall sheds light on biggest combat operation ever in UK |agency=Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/hand-of-god-ancient-roman-hadrians-wall-sculpture-bronze-found-latest-a8419131.html |access-date=6 July 2018}}</ref> The Roman influence on the southern part of the country was considerable, and they introduced [[Christianity]] to Scotland.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|13–14}}<ref name="short" />{{Rp|38}}

The [[Antonine Wall]] was built from 142 at the order of Hadrian's successor [[Antoninus Pius]] ({{Reign|138|161}}), defending the Roman part of Scotland from the unadministered part of the island, north of a line between the [[Firth of Clyde]] and the [[Firth of Forth]]. The [[Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210]] was undertaken by emperors of the imperial [[Severan dynasty]] in response to the breaking of treaty by the Caledonians in 197,<ref name=":4" /> but permanent conquest of the whole of Great Britain was forestalled by Roman forces becoming bogged down in punishing [[guerrilla warfare]] and the death of the senior emperor [[Septimius Severus]] ({{Reign|193|211}}) at [[Eboracum]] ([[York]]) after taking ill while on campaign. Although forts erected by the [[Roman army]] of the Severan campaign were placed near those established by Agricola and were clustered at the mouths of the [[glens]] in the Highlands, the Caledonians were again in revolt in 210–211 and these were overrun.<ref name=":4" />

[[File:Callanish at sunset - geograph.org.uk - 820680.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Callanish Stones]], erected in the late [[Neolithic]] era]]

To the Roman historians [[Tacitus]] and [[Cassius Dio]], the [[Scottish Highlands]] and the area north of the [[River Forth]] was called [[Caledonia]].<ref name=":4" /> According to Cassius Dio, the inhabitants of Caledonia were the [[Caledonians]] and the [[Maeatae]].<ref name=":4" /> Other ancient authors used the adjective "Caledonian" to pertain to anywhere in northern or inland Britain, often mentioning the region's people and animals, its cold climate, its pearls, and a noteworthy region of wooded hills ({{Lang-la|saltus}}) which the 2nd-century AD Roman philosopher [[Ptolemy]], in his [[Geography (Ptolemy)|''Geography'']], described as being south-west of the [[Beauly Firth]].<ref name=":4" /> The name Caledonia is echoed in the place names of [[Dunkeld]], [[Rohallion]], and [[Schiehallion]].<ref name=":4" />

The [[Great Conspiracy]] constituted a seemingly coordinated invasion against Roman rule in Britain in the later 4th century, which included the participation of the Gaelic [[Scoti]] and the Caledonians, who were then known as [[Picts]] by the Romans. This was defeated by the [[Comes Theodosius|''comes'' Theodosius]], however, Roman military government was withdrawn from the island altogether by the early 5th century, resulting in the [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain]] and the immigration of the [[Saxons]] to southeastern Scotland and the rest of eastern Great Britain.<ref name=":8" />

=== Kingdom of Scotland ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland in the Early Middle Ages|Scotland in the High Middle Ages|Scotland in the Late Middle Ages}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 400
| image1 = Early Medieval Scotland areas.png
| caption1 = Political divisions in early medieval Scotland
| image2 = Kingdom of Mann and the Isles-en.svg
| caption2 = Norse kingdoms at the end of the eleventh century
}}
Beginning in the sixth century, the area that is now Scotland was divided into three areas: [[Pictland]], a patchwork of small lordships in central Scotland;<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|25–26}} the [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[Kingdom of Northumbria]], which had conquered southeastern Scotland;<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|18–20}} and [[Dál Riata]], which included territory in western Scotland and northern Ireland, and spread Gaelic language and culture into Scotland.<ref>{{Citation |last=Woolf |first=Alex |title=Ancient Kindred? Dál Riata and the Cruthin" |date=2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1502702 |work=academia.edu |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> These societies were based on the family unit and had sharp divisions in wealth, although the vast majority were poor and worked full-time in [[subsistence agriculture]]. The Picts kept slaves (mostly captured in war) through the ninth century.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|26–27}}

Gaelic influence over Pictland and Northumbria was facilitated by the large number of [[Celtic Church|Gaelic-speaking clerics]] working as missionaries.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|23–24}} Operating in the sixth century on the island of [[Iona]], [[Saint Columba]] was one of the earliest and best-known missionaries.<ref name="short">{{Cite book |last=Houston |first=Rab |title=Scotland: A Very Short Introduction |date=2008 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191578861 |location=Oxford |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|39}} The [[Vikings]] began to raid Scotland in the eighth century. Although the raiders sought slaves and luxury items, their main motivation was to acquire land. The oldest [[Norse Scotland|Norse]] settlements were in northwest Scotland, but they eventually conquered many areas along the coast. [[Old Norse]] entirely displaced Gaelic in the [[Northern Isles]].<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|29–30}}

In the ninth century, the Norse threat allowed a Gael named [[Kenneth I of Scotland|Cináed mac Ailpín]] (Kenneth I) to seize power over Pictland, establishing a royal dynasty to which the modern monarchs trace their lineage, and marking the beginning of the end of Pictish culture.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|31–32}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Dauvit |title=The Oxford Companion to Scottish History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-211696-3 |editor-last=M. Lynch |location=Oxford |page=359 |chapter=Kenneth mac Alpin}}</ref> The kingdom of Cináed and his descendants, called Alba, was Gaelic in character but existed on the same area as Pictland. By the end of the tenth century, the [[Pictish language]] went extinct as its speakers shifted to Gaelic.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|32–33}} From a base in eastern Scotland north of the [[River Forth]] and south of the [[River Spey]], the kingdom expanded first southwards, into the former Northumbrian lands, and northwards into [[Province of Moray|Moray]].<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|34–35}} Around the turn of the millennium, there was a centralization in agricultural lands and the first towns began to be established.<ref name="Forsyth"/>{{Rp|36–37}}

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, much of Scotland was under the control of a single ruler. Initially, Gaelic culture predominated, but immigrants from France, England and Flanders steadily created a more diverse society, with the Gaelic language starting to be replaced by Scots. Altogether, a modern nation-state emerged from this. At the end of this period, war against England started the growth of a [[Scottish nationalism|Scottish national consciousness]].{{R|Stringer|p=37-39}}<ref name="Barrell 2000">{{Cite book |last=Barrell |first=A. D. M. |title=Medieval Scotland |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-58602-3 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>{{Rp|at=ch 1}} [[David I of Scotland|David I]] (1124–1153) and his successors centralized royal power<ref name="Stringer"/>{{Rp|41–42}} and united mainland Scotland, capturing regions such as Moray, [[Galloway]], and [[Caithness]], although he did not succeed at extending his power over the [[Hebrides]], which had been ruled by various [[Scottish clans]] following the death of [[Somerled]] in 1164.<ref name="Stringer"/>{{Rp|48–49}} The system of [[feudalism]] was consolidated, with both Anglo-Norman incomers and native Gaelic chieftains being granted land in exchange for serving the king.<ref name="Stringer"/>{{Rp|53–54}} The complex relationship with Scotland's southern neighbour over this period is characterised by Scottish kings making successful and unsuccessful attempts to exploit English political turmoil, followed by the longest period of peace between Scotland and England in the mediaeval period: from 1217{{En dash}}1296.{{R|Stringer|p=45-46}}

===Wars of Scottish Independence===
{{main|Wars of Scottish Independence|First War of Scottish Independence|Second War of Scottish Independence}}
[[File:Battle of Bannockburn - Bruce addresses troops.jpg|thumb|right|[[King of Scots]] [[Robert the Bruce|Robert I]] addresses his troops before the [[Battle of Bannockburn]]. Drawing from c. 1900.]]
The death of [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] in March 1286 broke the succession line of Scotland's kings. [[Edward I of England]] arbitrated between various claimants for the Scottish crown. In return for surrendering Scotland's nominal independence, [[John Balliol]] was pronounced king in 1292.<ref name="Stringer"/>{{Rp|47}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland Conquered, 1174–1296 |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/utk/scotland/conquered.htm |publisher=National Archives}}</ref> In 1294, Balliol and other Scottish lords refused Edward's demands to serve in his army against the French. Scotland and France sealed a treaty on 23 October 1295, known as the [[Auld Alliance]]. War ensued, and John was deposed by Edward who took personal control of Scotland. [[Andrew Moray]] and [[William Wallace]] initially emerged as the principal leaders of the resistance to English rule in the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland Regained, 1297–1328 |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/utk/scotland/regained.htm |publisher=National Archives of the United Kingdom}}</ref> until [[Robert the Bruce]] was crowned king of Scotland in 1306.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Murison |first=A. F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iMEMc45g9s8C |title=King Robert the Bruce |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=1899 |isbn=978-1-4179-1494-4 |edition=reprint 2005 |page=30}}</ref> Victory at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in 1314 proved the Scots had regained control of their kingdom. In 1320 the world's first documented declaration of independence, the [[Declaration of Arbroath]], won the support of [[Pope John XXII]], leading to the legal recognition of Scottish sovereignty by the English Crown.
<ref name="Brown"/>{{Rp|70, 72}}

A civil war between the [[Bruce dynasty]] and their long-term rivals of the [[House of Comyn]] and [[House of Balliol]] lasted until the middle of the 14th century. Although the Bruce faction was successful, [[David II of Scotland|David II's]] lack of an heir allowed his half-nephew [[Robert II of Scotland|Robert II]], the [[Lord High Steward of Scotland]], to come to the throne and establish the [[House of Stewart]].<ref name="Brown"/>{{Rp|77}} The Stewarts ruled Scotland for the remainder of the [[Middle Ages]]. The country they ruled experienced greater prosperity from the end of the 14th century through the Scottish Renaissance to the [[Scottish Reformation|Reformation]],<ref name="Mason">{{Cite book |last=Mason |first=Roger |title=Scotland: A History |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199601646 |editor-last=Wormald |editor-first=Jenny |editor-link=Jenny Wormald |location=Oxford |language=en |chapter=Renaissance and Reformation: The Sixteenth Century |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/scotland00jenn |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>{{Rp|93}} despite the effects of the [[Black Death]] in 1349<ref name="Brown"/>{{Rp|76}} and increasing division between [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] and [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlands]].<ref name="Brown"/>{{Rp|78}} Multiple truces reduced warfare on the southern border.<ref name="Brown"/>{{Rp|76, 83}}

===Union of the Crowns===
{{Main|Scotland in the early modern period|Union of the Crowns}}
[[File:James-VI-1586-Age-20.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[James VI and I|James VI]], [[King of Scotland]], succeeded to the English and Irish thrones in 1603.]]

The [[Treaty of Perpetual Peace]] was signed in 1502 by [[James IV of Scotland]] and [[Henry VII of England]]. James married Henry's daughter, [[Margaret Tudor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=James IV, King of Scots 1488–1513 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/james_iv |publisher=BBC}}</ref> James invaded England in support of France under the terms of the [[Auld Alliance]] and became the last British monarch to die in battle, at [[Battle of Flodden|Flodden]] in 1513.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of Flodden, (Sept. 9, 1513) |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/210431/Battle-of-Flodden |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The war with England during the minority years of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] between 1543 and 1551 is known as the [[Rough Wooing]].<ref>[[Marcus Merriman]], ''The Rough Wooings'' (East Linton: Tuckwell, 2000), p. 6.</ref>

In 1560, the [[Treaty of Edinburgh]] brought an end to the [[Siege of Leith]] and recognized the Protestant [[Elizabeth I]] as Queen of England.<ref name="Mason" />{{Rp|112}} The [[Scottish Reformation Parliament|Parliament of Scotland]] met and immediately adopted the [[Scots Confession]], which signalled the [[Scottish Reformation]]'s sharp break from papal authority and Roman Catholic teaching.<ref name="short" />{{Rp|44}} The Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to [[Act Anent the demission of the Crown in favour of our Sovereign Lord, and his Majesty's Coronation 1567|abdicate in 1567]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religion, Marriage and Power in Scotland, 1503–1603 |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/utk/scotland/religion.htm |publisher=The National Archives of the United Kingdom}}</ref>

In 1603, [[James VI and I|James VI, King of Scots]] inherited the thrones of the [[Kingdom of England]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] in the [[Union of the Crowns]], and moved to London.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=David |title=Chronology of Scottish History |publisher=Geddes & Grosset |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-85534-380-1 |page=56 |quote='''1603:''' James VI becomes [[James I of England]] in the [[Union of the Crowns]], and leaves Edinburgh for London}}</ref> This was a so called [[personal union]] as despite having the same monarch the kingdoms retained their own parliaments, laws and other institutions. The first [[Union Jack]] was designed at James's behest, to be flown in addition to the [[Flag of Scotland|St Andrew's Cross]] on Scots vessels at sea. James VI and I intended to create a single kingdom of Great Britain, but was thwarted in his attempt to do so by the [[Parliament of England]], which supported the wrecking proposal that a full legal union be sought instead, a proposal to which the Scots Parliament would not assent, causing the king to withdraw the plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=On this Day: 21 November 1606: The proposed union between England and Scotland {{!}} History of Parliament Online |url=https://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/periods/stuarts/day-21-november-1606-proposed-union-between-england-and-scotland |access-date=16 November 2020 |website=www.historyofparliamentonline.org}}</ref>

With the exception of a short period under [[the Protectorate]], Scotland remained a separate state in the 17th century, but there was considerable conflict between the crown and the [[Covenanters]] over the form of [[Presbyterian church governance|church government]].<ref name="Wormald"/>{{Rp|124}} The military was strengthened, allowing the imposition of royal authority on the western Highland clans. The 1609 [[Statutes of Iona]] compelled the cultural integration of Hebridean clan leaders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devine |first=T M |title=The Scottish Clearances: A History of the Dispossessed, 1600–1900 |date=2018 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0241304105 |location=London}}</ref>{{Rp|37–40}} In 1641 and again in 1643, the Parliament of Scotland unsuccessfully sought a union with England which was "federative" and not "incorporating", in which Scotland would retain a separate parliament.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=BBC – History – British History in depth: Acts of Union: The creation of the United Kingdom |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/acts_of_union_01.shtml |access-date=16 November 2020 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> The issue of union split the parliament in 1648.<ref name=":5" />

After the execution of the Scottish king at [[Whitehall]] in 1649, amid the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] and [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|its events in Scotland]], [[Oliver Cromwell]], the victorious [[Lord Protector]], imposed the British Isles' first written constitution – the [[Instrument of Government]] – on Scotland in 1652 as part of the republican [[Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland]].<ref name=":5" /> The Protectorate Parliament was the first Westminster parliament to include representatives nominally from Scotland. The monarchy of the [[House of Stuart]] was resumed with the [[Restoration in Scotland]] in 1660.

The Parliament of Scotland sought a commercial union with England in 1664; the proposal was rejected in 1668.<ref name=":5" /> In 1670 the Parliament of England rejected a proposed political union with Scotland.<ref name=":5" /> English proposals along the same lines were abandoned in 1674 and in 1685.<ref name=":5" /> The [[Battle of Altimarlach]] in 1680 was the last significant clan battle fought between [[Scottish clan|highland clans]].<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3amnMPTPP5MC&pg=PA41 Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A-E]''". Dennis E. Showalter (2007). Springer. p.41</ref> After the fall and flight into exile of the Catholic Stuart king, [[James VII and II]] the [[Glorious Revolution in Scotland]] and the [[Convention of Estates (1689)|Convention of Estates]] replaced the House of Stuart in favour of [[William III of England|William III]] and [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] who was Mary Stuart.<ref name="Wormald"/>{{Rp|142}} The Scots Parliament rejected proposals for a political union in 1689.<ref name=":5" /> [[Jacobitism]], the political support for the exiled Catholic Stuart dynasty, remained a threat to the security of the British state under the Protestant [[House of Orange]] and the succeeding [[House of Hanover]] until the defeat of the [[Jacobite rising of 1745]].<ref name=":5" />

In common with countries such as France, Norway, Sweden and Finland, Scotland experienced [[Seven ill years|famine]]s during the 1690s. Mortality, reduced childbirths and increased emigration reduced the population of parts of the country about 10–15%.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cullen |first=Karen J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6oOCfHxQDtwC&pg=PA152 |title=Famine in Scotland: The 'ill Years' of The 1690s |date=15 February 2010 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0748638871 |pages=152–153}}</ref> In 1698, the [[Company of Scotland]] attempted a project to secure a trading colony on the [[Isthmus of Panama]]. Almost every Scottish landowner who had money to spare is said to have invested in the [[Darien scheme]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Why did the Scottish parliament accept the Treaty of Union? |url=http://www.scottishaffairs.org/backiss/pdfs/sa52/Sa52_Scott.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003123611/http://www.scottishaffairs.org/backiss/pdfs/sa52/Sa52_Scott.pdf |archive-date=3 October 2011 |access-date=1 May 2013 |publisher=Scottish Affairs}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Popular Opposition to the Ratification of the Treaty of Anglo-Scottish Union in 1706–7 |url=https://scottishhistorysociety.com/popular-opposition-to-the-ratification-of-the-treaty-of-anglo-scottish-union-in-1706-7 |access-date=23 March 2017 |website=scottishhistorysociety.com |publisher=Scottish Historical Society}}</ref>

===Treaty of Union===
{{main|Treaty of Union}}
{{see|Kingdom of Great Britain}}
[[File:Treaty of Union.jpg|thumb|Scottish Exemplification (official copy) of the Treaty of Union of 1707]]
After another proposal from the English House of Lords was rejected in 1695, and a further Lords motion was voted down in the House of Commons in 1700, the Parliament of Scotland again rejected union in 1702.<ref name=":5" /> The failure of the Darien Scheme bankrupted the landowners who had invested, though not the burghs. Nevertheless, the nobles' bankruptcy, along with the threat of an English invasion, played a leading role in convincing the Scots elite to back a union with England.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /> On 22 July 1706, the [[Treaty of Union]] was agreed between representatives of the [[Parliament of Scotland|Scots Parliament]] and the [[Parliament of England]]. The following year, twin [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] were passed by both parliaments to create the united [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] with effect from 1 May 1707<ref name="Mackie" /> with popular opposition and anti-union riots in [[Edinburgh]], [[Glasgow]], and elsewhere.<ref name="1707 protests">{{Cite book |last=Devine |first=T. M. |title=The Scottish Nation 1700–2000 |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-14-023004-8 |page=9 |quote=From that point on anti-union demonstrations were common in the capital. In November rioting spread to the south west, that stronghold of strict Calvinism and covenanting tradition. The Glasgow mob rose against union sympathisers in disturbances that lasted intermittently for over a month}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |year=2007 |title=Act of Union 1707 Mob unrest and disorder |url=http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/06_03_mob.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080101193416/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/06_03_mob.html |archive-date=1 January 2008 |access-date=23 December 2007 |publisher=The House of Lords |location=London}}</ref> The union also created the [[Parliament of Great Britain]], which succeeded both the [[Parliament of Scotland]] and the [[Parliament of England]], which rejected proposals from the [[Parliament of Ireland]] that the third kingdom be incorporated in the union.<ref name=":5" />

With trade tariffs with England abolished, trade blossomed, especially with [[Colonial America]]. The clippers belonging to the Glasgow [[Tobacco Lords]] were the fastest ships on the route to [[Virginia]]. Until the [[American War of Independence]] in 1776, Glasgow was the world's premier tobacco port, dominating world trade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robert |first=Joseph C |year=1976 |title=The Tobacco Lords: A study of the Tobacco Merchants of Glasgow and their Activities |journal=The Virginia Magazine of History and biography |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=100–102 |jstor=4248011}}</ref> The disparity between the wealth of the merchant classes of the Scottish Lowlands and the ancient clans of the Scottish Highlands grew, amplifying centuries of division.

The deposed [[Jacobitism|Jacobite Stuart]] claimants had remained popular in the Highlands and north-east, particularly among non-[[Presbyterian]]s, including Roman Catholics and [[Episcopalian Protestants]]. Two major Jacobite risings launched in [[Jacobite rising of 1715|1715]] and [[Jacobite rising of 1745|1745]] failed to remove the [[House of Hanover]] from the British throne. The threat of the Jacobite movement to the United Kingdom and its monarchs effectively ended at the [[Battle of Culloden]], Great Britain's last [[pitched battle]].

In the Highlands, clan chiefs gradually started to think of themselves more as commercial landlords than leaders of their people. These social and economic changes included the first phase of the [[Highland Clearances]] and, ultimately, the demise of clanship.<ref name="Devine 1994">{{Cite book |last=Devine |first=T M |title=Clanship to Crofters' War: The social transformation of the Scottish Highlands |date=1994 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-9076-9 |edition=2013}}</ref>{{Rp|32–53, ''passim''}}

=== Industrial age and the Scottish Enlightenment ===
{{Main|Scotland in the modern era}}
[[File:Tourists posing at the National Monument of Scotland.jpg|thumb|right|The [[National Monument of Scotland]] on [[Calton Hill]] in Edinburgh is the national memorial to Scottish soldiers lost in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].]]

The [[Scottish Enlightenment]] and the [[Industrial Revolution]] turned Scotland into an intellectual, commercial and industrial powerhouse<ref>"[http://www.uiowa.edu/%7Ec008224b/scotline2.htm Some Dates in Scottish History from 1745 to 1914] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031090022/http://www.uiowa.edu/~c008224b/scotline2.htm |date=31 October 2013 }}", The University of Iowa.</ref> — so much so [[Voltaire]] said "We look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilisation."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Enlightenment Scotland |url=http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/scottishenlightenment/scotland/index.asp |publisher=Learning and Teaching Scotland}}</ref> With the demise of Jacobitism and the advent of the Union, thousands of Scots, mainly Lowlanders, took up numerous positions of power in politics, civil service, the army and navy, trade, economics, colonial enterprises and other areas across the nascent [[British Empire]]. Historian Neil Davidson notes "after 1746 there was an entirely new level of participation by Scots in political life, particularly outside Scotland." Davidson also states "far from being 'peripheral' to the British economy, Scotland – or more precisely, the Lowlands – lay at its core."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neil Davidson(2000) |title=The Origins of Scottish Nationhood |publisher=Pluto Press |location=London |pages=94–95}}</ref>

The [[Scottish Reform Act 1832]] increased the number of Scottish MPs and widened the franchise to include more of the middle classes.<ref name="Devine&Finlay1996pp64-5">T. M. Devine and R. J. Finlay, ''Scotland in the Twentieth Century'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1996), pp. 64–65.</ref> From the mid-century, there were increasing calls for Home Rule for Scotland and the post of [[Secretary of State for Scotland]] was revived.<ref>F. Requejo and K-J Nagel, ''Federalism Beyond Federations: Asymmetry and Processes of Re-symmetrization in Europe'' (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2011), p. 39.</ref> Towards the end of the century Prime Ministers of Scottish descent included [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]],<ref name="Quinault2007">R. Quinault, "Scots on Top? Tartan Power at Westminster 1707–2007", ''History Today'', 2007 57(7): 30–36. {{ISSN|0018-2753}} Fulltext: [[Ebsco]].</ref> and [[Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery|the Earl of Rosebery]].<ref>K. Kumar, ''The Making of English National Identity'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 183.</ref> In the late 19th century the growing importance of the working classes was marked by [[Keir Hardie]]'s success in the [[Mid Lanarkshire by-election, 1888]], leading to the foundation of the [[Scottish Labour Party (1888)|Scottish Labour Party]], which was absorbed into the [[Independent Labour Party]] in 1895, with Hardie as its first leader.<ref>D. Howell, ''British Workers and the Independent Labour Party, 1888–1906'' (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), p. 144.</ref> Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world and known as "the [[Second City of the Empire]]" after London.<ref>J. F. MacKenzie, "The second city of the Empire: Glasgow – imperial municipality", in F. Driver and D. Gilbert, eds, ''Imperial Cities: Landscape, Display and Identity'' (2003), pp. 215–223.</ref> After 1860, the Clydeside shipyards specialised in steamships made of iron (after 1870, made of steel), which rapidly replaced the wooden sailing vessels of both the merchant fleets and the battle fleets of the world. It became the world's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre.<ref name="Shields1949">J. Shields, ''Clyde Built: a History of Ship-Building on the River Clyde'' (1949).</ref> The industrial developments, while they brought work and wealth, were so rapid that housing, town-planning, and provision for public health did not keep pace with them, and for a time living conditions in some of the towns and cities were notoriously bad, with overcrowding, high infant mortality, and growing rates of tuberculosis.<ref>C. H. Lee, ''Scotland and the United Kingdom: the Economy and the Union in the Twentieth Century'' (1995), p. 43.</ref>

[[File:Sir Henry Raeburn - Portrait of Sir Walter Scott.jpg|thumb|left|160px|[[Walter Scott]], whose [[Waverley Novels]] helped define Scottish identity in the 19th century]]
While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century,<ref name="Magnusson">{{Citation |last=M. Magnusson |title=Review of James Buchan, ''Capital of the Mind: how Edinburgh Changed the World'' |date=10 November 2003 |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |work=New Statesman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606015918/http://www.newstatesman.com/200311100040 |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 June 2011}}</ref> disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more, thanks to such figures as the physicists [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]], and the engineers and inventors [[James Watt]] and [[William Murdoch]], whose work was critical to the technological developments of the Industrial Revolution throughout Britain.<ref>E. Wills, ''Scottish Firsts: a Celebration of Innovation and Achievement'' (Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2002).</ref> In literature, the most successful figure of the mid-19th century was [[Walter Scott]]. His first prose work, ''[[Waverley (novel)|Waverley]]'' in 1814, is often called the first historical novel.<ref>{{Citation |last=K. S. Whetter |title=Understanding Genre and Medieval Romance |page=28 |year=2008 |publisher=Ashgate}}</ref> It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity.<ref>{{Citation |last=N. Davidson |title=The Origins of Scottish Nationhood |page=136 |year=2000 |publisher=Pluto Press}}</ref> In the late 19th century, a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations, such as [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], [[J. M. Barrie]] and [[George MacDonald]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Cultural Profile: 19th and early 20th century developments |url=http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5402.html |work=Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034445/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5402.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 September 2011}}</ref> Scotland also played a major part in the development of art and architecture. The [[Glasgow School]], which developed in the late 19th century, and flourished in the early 20th century, produced a distinctive blend of influences including the [[Celtic Revival]] the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], and [[Japonism]], which found favour throughout the [[modern art]] world of continental Europe and helped define the [[Art Nouveau]] style. Proponents included architect and artist [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]].<ref>Stephan Tschudi-Madsen, ''The Art Nouveau Style: a Comprehensive Guide'' (Courier Dover, 2002), pp. 283–284.</ref>

This period saw a process of rehabilitation for Highland culture. In the 1820s, as part of the [[Romanticism|Romantic revival]], [[tartan]] and the [[kilt]] were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland, but across Europe,<ref>J. L. Roberts, [https://books.google.com/books?id=WlnNUCS4R_MC&dq=clans+tartan+laws+jacobite&pg=PA193 ''The Jacobite Wars''], pp. 193–195.</ref><ref name="Sievers2007">M. Sievers, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_U-5sq5MDBQC&dq=tartan+highland+romantic&pg=PA23 ''The Highland Myth as an Invented Tradition of 18th and 19th century and Its Significance for the Image of Scotland''] (GRIN Verlag, 2007), pp. 22–25.</ref> prompted by the popularity of Macpherson's [[Ossian]] cycle<ref>P. Morère, ''Scotland and France in the Enlightenment'' (Bucknell University Press, 2004), pp. 75–76.</ref><ref>William Ferguson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nPpp6ED8c3EC&dq=ossian+macpherson&pg=PA227 ''The identity of the Scottish Nation: an Historic Quest''] (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998), p. 227.</ref> and then Walter Scott's Waverley novels.<ref>Divine, ''Scottish Nation'' pp. 292–295.</ref> The Highlands remained poor and the only part of mainland Britain with a recurrent famine. A small range of products were exported from the region, which had negligible industrial production and a continued population growth that tested the subsistence agriculture. These problems, and the desire to improve agriculture and profits were the driving forces of the ongoing [[Highland Clearances]], in which many of the population of the Highlands suffered eviction as lands were enclosed, principally so that they could be used for sheep farming. The first phase of the clearances followed patterns of agricultural change throughout Britain. The second phase was driven by overpopulation, the [[Highland Potato Famine]] and the collapse of industries that had relied on the wartime economy of the Napoleonic Wars.<ref>E. Richards, ''The Highland Clearances: People, Landlords and Rural Turmoil'' (2008).</ref> The population of Scotland grew steadily in the 19th century, from 1,608,000 in the census of 1801 to 2,889,000 in 1851 and 4,472,000 in 1901.<ref>A. K. Cairncross, ''The Scottish Economy: A Statistical Account of Scottish Life by Members of the Staff of Glasgow University'' (Glasgow: Glasgow University Press, 1953), p. 10.</ref> Even with the development of industry, there were not enough good jobs. As a result, during the period 1841–1931, about 2 million Scots migrated to North America and Australia, and another 750,000 Scots relocated to England.<ref name="Huston&Knox2001pxxxii">R. A. Houston and W. W. Knox, eds, ''The New Penguin History of Scotland'' (Penguin, 2001), p. xxxii.</ref> Caused by the advent of [[refrigeration]] and imports of lamb, mutton and wool from overseas, the 1870s brought with them a collapse of sheep prices and an abrupt halt in the previous sheep farming boom.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Warren |first=Charles R. |url=https://archive.org/details/managingscotland00warr |title=Managing Scotland's environment |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780748630639 |edition=2nd ed., completely rev. and updated |location=Edinburgh |pages=[https://archive.org/details/managingscotland00warr/page/n73 45] ff., 179 ff |oclc=647881331 |url-access=limited}}</ref> Land prices subsequently plummeted, too, and accelerated the process of the so-called "Balmoralisation" of Scotland, an era in the second half of the 19th century that saw an increase in tourism and the establishment of large estates dedicated to [[Hunting|field sports]] like [[deer stalking]] and [[Driven grouse shooting|grouse shooting]], especially in the Scottish Highlands.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Glass |first=Jayne |title=Lairds, Land and Sustainability: Scottish Perspectives on Upland Management |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780748685882 |location=Edinburgh |pages=45 ff., 77 f |oclc=859160940}}</ref>

=== World wars and industrial modernization ===
[[File:Rudolf Hess - Bf 110D Werk Nr 3869 - Wreckage - Bonnyton Moor.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rudolf Hess]], [[Deputy Führer|Deputy Führer of Nazi Germany]], crashed his plane at [[Eaglesham|Bonnyton Moor]] in the Scottish central belt in an attempt to make peace.]]
Scotland played a major role in the [[History of the United Kingdom during the First World War|British effort]] in the [[First World War]]. It especially provided manpower, ships, machinery, fish and money.<ref>Richard J. Finlay, ''Modern Scotland 1914–2000'' (2006), pp 1–33</ref> With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent over half a million men to the war, of whom over a quarter died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded.<ref>R. A. Houston and W. W. J. Knox, eds. ''The New Penguin History of Scotland'' (2001) p 426.[https://books.google.com/books?id=VI5nAAAAMAAJ&q=casualties] [[Niall Ferguson]] points out in "The Pity of War" that the proportion of enlisted Scots who died was third highest in the war behind Serbia and Turkey and a much higher proportion than in other parts of the UK.[https://books.google.com/books?id=QrYhAQAAIAAJ&q=enlisted] [http://news.scotsman.com/worldwarone/39Savage-Scots39-wish-you-weren39t.6487746.jp]</ref> [[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] [[Douglas Haig|Sir Douglas Haig]] was Britain's commander on the Western Front.

[[File:Ravenscraig Steel Works - shortly before it close in the mid-1990s - geograph.org.uk - 1324585.jpg|thumb|right|Much of Scotland's traditional industries, such as [[steel]] and [[coal mining]], had closed by the 1980s as a result of the [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher government policies]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 May 2019 |title=Margaret Thatcher's legacy forced Motherwell and Wishaw to work twice as hard to move forward |publisher=[[Politics Home]] |url=https://www.politicshome.com/thehouse/article/margaret-thatchers-legacy-forced-motherwell-and-wishaw-to-work-twice-as-hard-to-move-forward}}</ref>]]

The war saw the emergence of a radical movement called "[[Red Clydeside]]" led by militant trades unionists. Formerly a [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] stronghold, the industrial districts switched to [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] by 1922, with a base among the [[Irish Catholic]] working-class districts. Women were especially active in building neighbourhood solidarity on housing issues. The "Reds" operated within the Labour Party with little influence in Parliament and the mood changed to passive despair by the late 1920s.<ref>Iain McLean, ''The Legend of Red Clydeside'' (1983)</ref>

During the Second World War, Scotland was targeted by [[Nazi Germany]] largely due to its factories, shipyards, and coal mines.<ref name="blitz">{{Cite web |title=Primary History – World War 2 – Scotland's Blitz |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/primaryhistory/world_war2/scotlands_blitz |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> Cities such as [[Glasgow]] and [[Edinburgh]] were targeted by German bombers, as were smaller towns mostly located in the central belt of the country.<ref name="blitz" /> Perhaps the most significant air-raid in Scotland was the [[Clydebank Blitz]] of March 1941, which intended to destroy naval shipbuilding in the area.<ref name="Clydebank blitz">{{Cite web |title=Scotland's Landscape : Clydebank Blitz |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/landscapes/clydebank_blitz |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> 528 people were killed and 4,000 homes totally destroyed.<ref name="Clydebank blitz" /> Perhaps Scotland's most unusual wartime episode occurred in 1941 when [[Rudolf Hess]] flew to Renfrewshire, possibly intending to broker a peace deal through the [[Duke of Hamilton]].<ref>J. Leasor ''Rudolf Hess: The Uninvited Envoy'' (Kelly Bray: House of Stratus, 2001), {{ISBN|0-7551-0041-7}}, p. 15.</ref> Before his departure from Germany, Hess had given his adjutant, [[Karlheinz Pintsch]], a letter addressed to [[Adolf Hitler]] that detailed his intentions to open peace negotiations with the British. Pintsch delivered the letter to Hitler at the Berghof around noon on 11 May.{{Sfn|Evans|2008|p=168}} [[Albert Speer]] later said Hitler described Hess's departure as one of the worst personal blows of his life, as he considered it a personal betrayal.{{Sfn|Sereny|1996|p=240}} Hitler worried that his allies, Italy and Japan, would perceive Hess's act as an attempt by Hitler to secretly open peace negotiations with the British.

As in World War I, [[Scapa Flow]] in Orkney served as an important [[Royal Navy]] base. Attacks on Scapa Flow and [[Rosyth]] gave RAF fighters their first successes downing bombers in the [[Firth of Forth]] and [[East Lothian]].<ref>P. Wykeham, ''Fighter Command'' (Manchester: Ayer, rpt., 1979), {{ISBN|0-405-12209-8}}, p. 87.</ref> The shipyards and heavy engineering factories in [[Glasgow]] and Clydeside played a key part in the war effort, and suffered attacks from the [[Luftwaffe]], enduring great destruction and loss of life.<ref name="Buchanan2003p51">J. Buchanan, ''Scotland'' (Langenscheidt, 3rd edn., 2003), {{ISBN|981-234-950-2}}, p. 51.</ref> As transatlantic voyages involved negotiating north-west Britain, Scotland played a key part in the battle of the North Atlantic.<ref>J. Creswell, ''Sea Warfare 1939–1945'' (Berkeley, University of California Press, 2nd edn., 1967), p. 52.</ref> [[Shetland]]'s relative proximity to occupied Norway resulted in the [[Shetland bus]] by which fishing boats helped Norwegians flee the [[Nazis]], and expeditions across the [[North Sea]] to assist resistance.<ref>D. Howarth, ''The Shetland Bus: A WWII Epic of Escape, Survival, and Adventure'' (Guilford, Delaware: Lyons Press, 2008), {{ISBN|1-59921-321-4}}.</ref>

After 1945, Scotland's economic situation worsened due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes.<ref>Harvie, Christopher ''No Gods and Precious Few Heroes'' (Edward Arnold, 1989) pp 54–63.</ref> Only in recent decades has the country enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance. Economic factors contributing to this recovery included a resurgent financial services industry, [[electronics manufacturing]], (see [[Silicon Glen]]),<ref>{{Cite news |last=Stewart |first=Heather |date=6 May 2007 |title=Celtic Tiger Burns Brighter at Holyrood |work=The Guardian |url=http://politics.guardian.co.uk/scotland/comment/0,,2073303,00.html}}</ref> and the [[North Sea oil]] and gas industry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Planning Framework for Scotland |url=http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2004/04/19170/35326 |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Gov.scot}}</ref> The introduction in 1989 by Margaret Thatcher's government of the [[Poll tax (Great Britain)|Community Charge]] (widely known as the Poll Tax) one year before the rest of Great Britain,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Torrance |first=David |author-link=David Torrance (journalist) |date=30 March 2009 |title=Modern myth of a poll tax test-bed lives on |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/david-torrance-modern-myth-of-a-poll-tax-test-bed-lives-on-1-1031968 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920044226/http://www.scotsman.com/news/david-torrance-modern-myth-of-a-poll-tax-test-bed-lives-on-1-1031968 |archive-date=20 September 2017 |access-date=19 September 2017 |newspaper=The Scotsman}}</ref> contributed to a growing movement for Scottish control over domestic affairs.<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 April 2009 |title=The poll tax in Scotland 20 years on |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/7976782.stm |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref>

Following a [[Scottish devolution referendum, 1997|referendum on devolution proposals in 1997]], the [[Scotland Act 1998]]<ref>[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/Acts/acts1998/ukpga_19980046_en_1 "Scotland Act 1998"], Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 22 April 2008.</ref> was passed by the British Parliament, which established a devolved [[Scottish Parliament]] and [[Scottish Government]] with responsibility for most laws specific to Scotland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.scot/About/Factfile/18060/11552 |url-status=dead |title=Devolution > Scottish responsibilities |website=Scottish Government |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301080012/http://www.gov.scot/About/Factfile/18060/11552 |archive-date=Mar 1, 2017}}</ref> The Scottish Parliament was reconvened in [[Edinburgh]] on 4 July 1999.<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 July 1999 |title=Special Report | 1999 | 06/99 | Scottish Parliament opening | Scotland's day of history |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/06/99/scottish_parliament_opening/382490.stm |access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> The first to hold the office of [[first minister of Scotland]] was [[Donald Dewar]], who served until his sudden death in 2000.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 October 2000 |title=Donald Dewar dies after fall |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/donald-dewar-dies-after-fall-634695.html |access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref>

[[File:Opening of the Scottish Parliament, 1999.jpg|thumb|right|The official reconvening of the [[Scottish Parliament]] in July 1999 with [[Donald Dewar]], then [[first minister of Scotland]] (left) with [[Queen Elizabeth II]] (centre)]]

=== 21st century ===

The [[Scottish Parliament Building]] at Holyrood opened in October 2004 after lengthy construction delays and running over budget.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 October 2004 |title=UK | Scotland | Guide to opening of Scottish Parliament |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3719396.stm |access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> The Scottish Parliament's form of [[proportional representation]] (the [[additional member system]]) resulted in no one party having an overall majority for the first three Scottish parliament elections.

The pro-[[Scottish independence|independence]] [[Scottish National Party]] led by [[Alex Salmond]] achieved an overall majority in the [[Scottish Parliament election|2011 election]], winning 69 of the 129 seats available.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carrell |first=Severin |date=6 May 2011 |title=Salmond hails 'historic' victory as SNP secures Holyrood's first ever majority | Politics |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2011/may/06/scottish-elections-salmond-historic-victory-snp |access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> The success of the SNP in achieving a majority in the Scottish Parliament paved the way for the [[Scottish independence referendum, 2014|September 2014 referendum on Scottish independence]]. The majority voted against the proposition, with 55% voting no to independence.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 September 2014 |title=Scottish independence referendum – Results |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/results |access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> More powers, particularly in relation to taxation, were devolved to the Scottish Parliament after the referendum, following cross-party talks in the [[Smith Commission]].

Since the 2014 referendum, events such as the UK leaving the European Union, despite a majority of voters in Scotland voting to remain a member, has led to calls for a [[Proposed second Scottish independence referendum|second referendum on independence]]. In 2022, the [[Lord Advocate]] [[Dorothy Bain]] argued the case for the Scottish Government to hold another referendum on the issue, with the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] later ruling against the argument.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 November 2022 |title=Supreme court rules against Scottish parliament holding new independence referendum |publisher=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/nov/23/scottish-independence-supreme-court-scottish-parliament-second-referendum-indyref2}}</ref> Following the Supreme Court decision, the Scottish Government stated that it wished to make amendments to the [[Scotland Act 1998]] that would allow a referendum to be held in 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=Faye |date=14 December 2022 |title=SNP reveals new plan to secure indyref2 without Westminster backing |language=en |work=Sky News |url=https://news.sky.com/story/snp-reveals-new-plan-to-secure-indyref2-without-westminster-backing-12767700 |access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref>

== Geography and natural history ==
{{Main|Geography of Scotland}}

[[File:Iona Aerial 05.jpg|thumb|left|[[Iona]] in the [[Inner Hebrides]]]]
The mainland of Scotland comprises the northern third of the land mass of the island of Great Britain, which lies off the north-west coast of [[Continental Europe]]. The total area is {{Convert|78772|km2|0|order=flip}},<ref name="Whitaker">''Whitaker's Almanack'' (1991) London. J. Whitaker and Sons.</ref> comparable to the size of the Czech Republic. Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for {{Convert|96|mi|km|0}} between the basin of the [[River Tweed]] on the east coast and the [[Solway Firth]] in the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the [[North Sea]] is to the east. The island of Ireland lies only {{Convert|21|km|mi|0|order=flip}} from the south-western peninsula of [[Kintyre]];<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/place/North-Channel-strait North Channel], Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 May 2016.</ref> Norway is {{Convert|305|km|mi|0|order=flip}} to the east and the [[Faroe Islands]], {{Convert|270|km|mi|0|order=flip}} to the north.

The territorial extent of Scotland is generally that established by the 1237 [[Treaty of York]] between Scotland and the Kingdom of England<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uniting the Kingdoms? |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/utk/scotland/conquered.htm |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref> and the 1266 [[Treaty of Perth]] between Scotland and Norway.<ref name="Mackie">Mackie, J.D. (1969) ''A History of Scotland''. London. Penguin.</ref> Important exceptions include the [[Isle of Man]], which having been lost to England in the 14th century is now a [[crown dependency]] outside of the United Kingdom; the island groups [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]], which were acquired from Norway in 1472;<ref name=Whitaker/> and [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]], lost to England in 1482

The geographical [[centre of Scotland]] lies a few miles from the village of [[Newtonmore]] in [[Badenoch]].<ref>See [http://www.newtonmore.com/our-community/centre-of-scotland.html "Centre of Scotland"] Newtonmore.com. Retrieved 7 September 2012.</ref> Rising to {{Convert|1344|m|ft|0}} above sea level, Scotland's highest point is the summit of [[Ben Nevis]], in [[Lochaber]], while Scotland's longest river, the [[River Tay]], flows for a distance of {{Convert|190|km|mi|0|order=flip}}.<ref>Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) ''Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland''. London. HarperCollins. Pages 734 and 930.</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Tay |encyclopedia=Encarta |url=http://ca.encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561508579/Tay.html |access-date=21 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517013951/http://ca.encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561508579/Tay.html |archive-date=17 May 2008}}</ref>

=== Geology and geomorphology ===

{{Main|Geology of Scotland}}

[[File:Loch Torridon, Scotland.jpg|thumb|right|290px| Upper [[Loch Torridon]], west coast Scotland|alt=]]

The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the [[Pleistocene]] [[ice ages]] and the landscape is much affected by glaciation. From a geological perspective, the country has three main sub-divisions.

The [[Highlands and Islands]] lie to the north and west of the [[Highland Boundary Fault]], which runs from [[Isle of Arran|Arran]] to [[Stonehaven]]. This part of Scotland largely comprises ancient rocks from the [[Cambrian]] and [[Precambrian]], which were uplifted during the later [[Caledonian orogeny]]. It is interspersed with [[igneous]] intrusions of a more recent age, remnants of which formed mountain massifs such as the [[Cairngorms]] and [[Skye]] [[Cuillins]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} In north-eastern mainland Scotland [[weathering]] of rock that occurred before the [[Last Glacial Period|Last Ice Age]] has shaped much of the landscape.<ref name="Hall1986">{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=Adian M. |year=1986 |title=Deep weathering patterns in north-east Scotland and their geomorphological significance |journal=[[Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie]] |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=407–422 |doi=10.1127/zfg/30/1987/407}}</ref>

[[File:Eilean Donan at Dusk.jpg|thumb|290px|The [[Scottish Highlands]], located in the north and west of Scotland|alt=|left]]

A significant exception to the above are the fossil-bearing beds of [[Old Red Sandstone]]s found principally along the [[Moray Firth]] coast. The [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] are generally mountainous and the highest elevations in the British Isles are found here. Scotland has over 790 islands divided into four main groups: [[Shetland]], [[Orkney]], and the [[Inner Hebrides]] and [[Outer Hebrides]]. There are numerous bodies of freshwater including [[Loch Lomond]] and [[Loch Ness]]. Some parts of the coastline consist of [[machair (geography)|machair]], a low-lying dune pasture land.

The [[Central Lowlands]] is a [[rift valley]] mainly comprising [[Paleozoic]] formations. Many of these sediments have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fuelled Scotland's [[industrial revolution]] are found. This area has also experienced intense volcanism, [[Arthur's Seat]] in Edinburgh being the remnant of a once much larger volcano. This area is relatively low-lying, although even here hills such as the [[Ochil Hills|Ochils]] and [[Campsie Fells]] are rarely far from view.

The [[Southern Uplands]] are a range of hills almost {{Convert|200|km|mi|round=5|order=flip}} long, interspersed with broad valleys. They lie south of a second [[fault (geology)|fault line]] (the Southern Uplands fault) that runs from [[Girvan]] to [[Dunbar]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 November 1990 |title=Southern Uplands |url=http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0029160.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041128062644/http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0029160.html |archive-date=28 November 2004 |access-date=11 June 2009 |publisher=Tiscali.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Education Scotland – Standard Grade Bitesize Revision – Ask a Teacher – Geography – Physical – Question From PN |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/bitesize/standard/other/sos/geography/physical/answerphysical_59.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202071454/http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/bitesize/standard/other/sos/geography/physical/answerphysical_59.shtml |archive-date=2 December 2010 |access-date=11 June 2009 |publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref name="Scotland Today » ITKT">{{Cite web |date=28 December 2006 |title=Scotland Today " ITKT |url=http://www.intheknowtraveler.com/1144 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106204251/http://www.intheknowtraveler.com/1144 |archive-date=6 January 2007 |access-date=11 June 2009 |publisher=Intheknowtraveler.com}}</ref> The geological foundations largely comprise [[Silurian]] deposits laid down some 400 to 500 million years ago. The high point of the Southern Uplands is [[Merrick, Galloway|Merrick]] with an elevation of {{Convert|843|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Keay">Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) ''Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland''. London. HarperCollins.</ref><ref>Murray, W.H. (1973) ''The Islands of Western Scotland''. London. Eyre Methuen {{ISBN|978-0-413-30380-6}}</ref><ref>Murray, W.H. (1968) ''The Companion Guide to the West Highlands of Scotland''. London. Collins. {{ISBN|0-00-211135-7}}</ref><ref>Johnstone, Scott ''et al.'' (1990) ''The Corbetts and Other Scottish Hills''. Edinburgh. Scottish Mountaineering Trust. Page 9.</ref> The Southern Uplands is home to Scotland's highest village, [[Wanlockhead]] ({{Convert|430|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}} above sea level).<ref name="Scotland Today » ITKT" />

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Scotland}}

[[File:Traigh Bail, Tiree - geograph.org.uk - 7983.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tiree]] in the [[Inner Hebrides]] is one of the sunniest locations in Scotland.]]
The climate of most of Scotland is [[temperate]] and [[oceanic climate|oceanic]], and tends to be very changeable. As it is warmed by the [[Gulf Stream]] from the Atlantic, it has much milder winters (but cooler, wetter summers) than areas on similar latitudes, such as [[Labrador]], southern [[Scandinavia]], the [[Moscow region]] in [[Russia]], and the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] on the opposite side of [[Eurasia]]. Temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the UK, with the temperature of {{Convert|-27.2|°C|°F|1}} recorded at [[Braemar]] in the [[Grampian Mountains]], on 11 February 1895, the coldest ever recorded anywhere in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Weather: UK Records |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/uk_records.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202071307/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/uk_records.shtml |archive-date=2 December 2010 |access-date=21 September 2007 |publisher=BBC.co.uk.}} The same temperature was also recorded in Braemar on 10 January 1982 and at [[Altnaharra]], [[Highland (council area)|Highland]], on 30 December 1995.</ref> Winter maxima average {{Convert|6|°C|°F|0}} in the Lowlands, with summer maxima averaging {{Convert|18|°C|°F|0}}. The highest temperature recorded was {{Convert|35.1|°C|°F|1}} at [[Floors Castle]], [[Scottish Borders]] on 19 July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Loudon |first=Calum |date=20 July 2022 |title=Temperature reached 35.1C in Scotland as hottest ever day confirmed |url=https://news.stv.tv/scotland/hottest-day-in-scotland-officially-recorded-as-temperatures-reach-35-1c-at-floors-castle |website=STV News}}</ref>

The west of Scotland is usually warmer than the east, owing to the influence of Atlantic [[ocean currents]] and the colder surface temperatures of the [[North Sea]]. [[Tiree]], in the Inner Hebrides, is one of the sunniest places in the country: it had more than 300 hours of sunshine in May 1975.<ref name="Metext">{{Cite web |title=Weather extremes |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate-extremes/#?tab=climateExtremes |access-date=23 March 2017 |publisher=Met Office}}</ref> Rainfall varies widely across Scotland. The western highlands of Scotland are the wettest, with annual rainfall in a few places exceeding {{Convert|3000|mm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Western Scotland: climate |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/ws |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008091252/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/ws |archive-date=8 October 2014 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> In comparison, much of lowland Scotland receives less than {{Convert|800|mm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} annually.<ref name="Meteast">{{Cite web |title=Eastern Scotland: climate |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008085154/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/es |archive-date=8 October 2014 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> Heavy snowfall is not common in the lowlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Braemar has an average of 59 snow days per year,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish Weather Part One |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/scotland_01.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126064338/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/scotland_01.shtml |archive-date=26 January 2011 |access-date=21 September 2007 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> while many coastal areas average fewer than 10 days of lying snow per year.<ref name=Meteast/>

=== Flora and fauna ===

{{Main|Fauna of Scotland|Flora of Scotland}}
[[File:Haliaeetus-albicilla-002.jpg|thumb|left|[[White-tailed sea eagle]]]]
Scotland's wildlife is typical of the north-west of Europe, although several of the larger mammals such as the lynx, brown bear, wolf, elk and walrus were hunted to extinction in historic times. There are important populations of seals and internationally significant nesting grounds for a variety of seabirds such as [[Northern gannet|gannets]].<ref>[[Frank Fraser Darling|Fraser Darling]], F. & Boyd, J. M. (1969) ''Natural History in the Highlands and Islands.'' London. Bloomsbury.</ref> The [[golden eagle]] is something of a national icon.<ref>Benvie, Neil (2004) ''Scotland's Wildlife''. London. Aurum Press. {{ISBN|1-85410-978-2}} p. 12.</ref>

On the high mountain tops, species including [[rock ptarmigan|ptarmigan]], [[mountain hare]] and [[stoat]] can be seen in their white colour phase during winter months.<ref>[http://www.cairngorms.co.uk/resource/docs/publications/CNPA.Paper.225.State%20of%20the%20Park%20Report%20-%20Chapter%202%20Natural%20Resources.pdf "State of the Park Report. Chapter 2: Natural Resources"](pdf) (2006) Cairngorms National Park Authority. Retrieved 14 October 2007.</ref> Remnants of the native [[Scots pine]] forest exist<ref>Preston, C. D., Pearman, D. A., & Dines, T. D. (2002) ''New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora''. Oxford University Press.</ref> and within these areas the [[Scottish crossbill]], the UK's only [[endemism|endemic]] bird species and [[vertebrate]], can be found alongside [[western capercaillie|capercaillie]], [[Scottish wildcat]], [[red squirrel]] and [[pine marten]].<ref>Gooders, J. (1994) ''Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Ireland''. London. Kingfisher.</ref><ref>Matthews, L. H. (1968) ''British Mammals''. London. Bloomsbury.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=WM Adams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxlN8YJQWQsC&q=future+nature:+a+vision+for+conservation |title=Future nature:a vision for conservation |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85383-998-6 |page=30 |access-date=10 January 2011}}</ref> Various animals have been re-introduced, including the [[white-tailed eagle]] in 1975, the [[red kite]] in the 1980s,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110420032140/http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/projects/details/274707-east-scotland-sea-eagles-esse "East Scotland Sea Eagles"] RSPB. Retrieved 3 January 2014.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ross |first=John |date=29 December 2006 |title=Mass slaughter of the red kites |work=The Scotsman |location=Edinburgh}}</ref> and there have been experimental projects involving the [[European beaver|beaver]] and [[wild boar]]. Today, much of the remaining native [[Caledonian Forest]] lies within the [[Cairngorms National Park]] and remnants of the forest remain at 84 locations across Scotland. On the west coast, remnants of ancient Celtic Rainforest still remain, particularly on the Taynish peninsula in [[Argyll]], these forests are particularly rare due to high rates of deforestation throughout Scottish history.<ref>Ross, David (26 November 2009) "Wild Boar: our new eco warriors" ''The Herald.'' Glasgow.</ref><ref name="BBC News">{{Cite news |date=29 May 2009 |title=Beavers return after 400-year gap |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/glasgow_and_west/8072443.stm |access-date=5 December 2009}}</ref>

The flora of the country is varied incorporating both [[deciduous]] and [[coniferous]] woodland as well as [[moorland]] and [[tundra]] species. Large-scale commercial tree planting and management of upland moorland habitat for the grazing of sheep and [[Field sports|field sport]] activities like [[deer stalking]] and [[driven grouse shooting]] impacts the distribution of [[indigenous (ecology)|indigenous]] plants and animals.<ref>''[https://web.archive.org/web/20191004122226/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.382.9320&rep=rep1&type=pdf Integrated Upland Management for Wildlife, Field Sports, Agriculture & Public Enjoyment]'' (pdf) (September 1999) [[NatureScot|Scottish Natural Heritage]]. Retrieved 14 October 2007.</ref> The UK's tallest tree is a [[Abies grandis|grand fir]] planted beside [[Loch Fyne]], Argyll in the 1870s, and the [[Fortingall Yew]] may be 5,000 years old and is probably the oldest living thing in Europe.{{Dubious|date=April 2017}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Fortingall Yew |url=http://www.treefestscotland.org.uk/forestry/INFD-6UFC5F |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206060744/http://www.treefestscotland.org.uk/forestry/INFD-6UFC5F |archive-date=6 December 2008 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland remains home to Britain's tallest tree as Dughall Mor reaches new heights |url=http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/3EEE4838BED1F155802570D8003965E9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003182505/http://www.forestry.gov.uk/newsrele.nsf/WebPressReleases/3EEE4838BED1F155802570D8003965E9 |archive-date=3 October 2012 |access-date=26 April 2008 |publisher=Forestry Commission}}</ref><ref>Copping, Jasper (4 June 2011) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110607184948/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/countryside/8557126/Britains-record-breaking-trees-identified.html "Britain's record-breaking trees identified"] London. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved 10 July 2011.</ref> Although the number of native [[vascular plant]]s is low by world standards, Scotland's substantial [[bryophyte]] flora is of global importance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Scotland has so many mosses and liverworts |url=http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/naturallyscottish/mossesliverworts/whyscotland.asp |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Snh.org.uk}}</ref><ref name="RBGE">{{Cite web |title=Bryology (mosses, liverworts and hornworts) |url=http://www.rbge.org.uk/science/cryptogamic-plants-and-fungi/bryology |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Rbge.org.uk}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demography of Scotland}}
{{See also|Languages of Scotland|Religion in Scotland|Scottish people}}
===Population===
[[File:Scotland population cartogram.svg|thumb|right|Scotland population [[cartogram]]. The size of councils is in proportion to their population.]]
The population of Scotland at the 2022 Census was 5,436,600, the highest ever,<ref name="census2022" /> beating the previous record of 5,295,400 at the 2011 Census. It was 5,062,011 at the 2001 Census.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web |date=30 April 2015 |title=Scotland's Population at its Highest Ever |url=http://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/news/2015/scotlands-population-at-its-highest-ever |access-date=12 February 2015 |publisher=National Records of Scotland}}</ref> An ONS estimate for mid-2021 was 5,480,000.<ref name="ONS mid-year pop est">{{cite web |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/mid2021 |title=Population estimates for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland: mid-2021 |last=Park |first=Neil |date=21 December 2022 |website=Office for National Statistics |publisher= |access-date=14 August 2023}}</ref>

In the 2011 Census, 62% of Scotland's population stated their [[national identity]] as '[[Scottish people|Scottish]] only', 18% as 'Scottish and British', 8% as 'British only', and 4% chose 'other identity only'.<ref>[http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-detailed-characteristics-ethnicity-identity-language-and-religion-scotland-%E2%80%93 Census 2011: Detailed characteristics on Ethnicity, Identity, Language and Religion in Scotland – Release 3A]. Scotland Census 2011. Retrieved 20 September 2014.</ref>

In August 2012, the Scottish population reached an all-time high of 5.25 million people.<ref name="thecourier1">{{Cite web |date=3 August 2012 |title=Scotland's population reaches record of high of 5.25 million |url=http://www.thecourier.co.uk/news/scotland-s-population-reaches-record-of-high-of-5-25-million-1.57049 |access-date=3 January 2014 |publisher=The Courier}}</ref> The reasons given were that, in Scotland, births were outnumbering the number of deaths, and immigrants were moving to Scotland from overseas. In 2011, 43,700 people moved from Wales, Northern Ireland or England to live in Scotland.<ref name="thecourier1"/>

Mid-2020 Scottish Government estimates the population of Scotland to stand at 5,470,824 inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://statistics.gov.scot/slice?dataset=http://statistics.gov.scot/data/population-projections-2020-based&http://purl.org/linked-data/sdmx/2009/dimension#refPeriod=http://reference.data.gov.uk/id/year/2022&http://statistics.gov.scot/def/dimension/age=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/concept/age/all&http://statistics.gov.scot/def/dimension/sex=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/concept/sex/all|title=statistics.gov.scot|website=statistics.gov.scot}}</ref> The [[2021 United Kingdom census#2022 Census for Scotland|most recent census in Scotland]] was conducted by the Scottish Government and the [[National Records of Scotland]] in March 2022.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/about/2022-census/2022-timeline/key-milestones/ | title=Scotland's Census 2022 - key milestones }}</ref>

Over the course of its history, Scotland has long had a tradition of migration from Scotland and immigration into Scotland. In 2021, the Scottish Government released figures showing that an estimated 41,000 people had immigrated from other international countries into Scotland, while an average of 22,100 people had migrated from Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://statistics.gov.scot/slice?dataset=http://statistics.gov.scot/data/migration-to-and-from-scotland&http://purl.org/linked-data/cube#measureType=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/measure-properties/count&http://purl.org/linked-data/sdmx/2009/dimension#refPeriod=http://reference.data.gov.uk/id/year/2021&http://statistics.gov.scot/def/dimension/age=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/concept/age/all&http://statistics.gov.scot/def/dimension/migrationSource=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/concept/migration-source/to-from-international&http://statistics.gov.scot/def/dimension/sex=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/concept/sex/all|title=statistics.gov.scot|website=statistics.gov.scot}}</ref> Scottish Government data from 2002 shows that by 2021, there had been a sharp increase in immigration to Scotland, with 2002 estimates standing at 27,800 immigrants. While immigration had increased from 2002, migration from Scotland had dropped, with 2002 estimates standing at 26,200 people migrating from Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://statistics.gov.scot/slice?dataset=http://statistics.gov.scot/data/migration-to-and-from-scotland&http://purl.org/linked-data/cube#measureType=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/measure-properties/count&http://purl.org/linked-data/sdmx/2009/dimension#refPeriod=http://reference.data.gov.uk/id/year/2002&http://statistics.gov.scot/def/dimension/age=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/concept/age/all&http://statistics.gov.scot/def/dimension/migrationSource=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/concept/migration-source/to-from-international&http://statistics.gov.scot/def/dimension/sex=http://statistics.gov.scot/def/concept/sex/all|title=statistics.gov.scot|website=statistics.gov.scot}}</ref>

===Urbanisation===

Although [[Edinburgh]] is the capital of Scotland, the largest city is Glasgow, which has just over 584,000 inhabitants. The [[Greater Glasgow]] conurbation, with a population of almost 1.2 million, is home to nearly a quarter of Scotland's population.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Did You Know?—Scotland's Cities |url=http://rampantscotland.com/know/blknow_cities.htm |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Rampantscotland.com}}</ref> The [[Central Belt]] is where most of the main towns and cities are located, including Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dundee, and Perth. Scotland's only major city outside the Central Belt is Aberdeen. The [[Scottish Lowlands]] host 80% of the total population, where the [[Central Belt]] accounts for 3.5 million people.

In general, only the more accessible and larger islands remain inhabited. Currently, fewer than 90 remain inhabited. The Southern Uplands are essentially rural in nature and dominated by agriculture and forestry.<ref>Clapperton, C.M. (ed) (1983) ''Scotland: A New Study''. London. David & Charles.</ref><ref>Miller, J. (2004) ''Inverness''. Edinburgh. Birlinn. {{ISBN|978-1-84158-296-2}}</ref> Because of housing problems in Glasgow and Edinburgh, [[New towns in the United Kingdom#Scotland|five new towns]] were designated between 1947 and 1966. They are [[East Kilbride]], [[Glenrothes]], [[Cumbernauld]], [[Livingston, West Lothian|Livingston]], and [[Irvine, North Ayrshire|Irvine]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Towns |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/as/sixties/standard/rural/new_towns.shtml |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

The largest council area by population is [[Glasgow City Council|Glasgow City]], with [[Highland (council area)|Highland]] being the largest in terms of geographical area.

{{Largest cities
| country = Scotland
| stat_ref = [[United Kingdom census, 2011#2011 Census for Scotland|Scotland's Census 2011]]<ref name="2011 census">{{Cite web |title=2011 Census population data for localities in Scotland |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-analyser/jsf/tableView/crosstabTableView.xhtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728164340/https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-analyser/jsf/login.xhtml?invalidSession=true&reason=Session+not+established. |archive-date=28 July 2020 |access-date=10 July 2014 |website=Scotlandscensus.gov.uk}}</ref>
| list_by_pop = List of towns and cities in Scotland by population
| div_name = Council area
| city_1 = Glasgow | div_1 = Glasgow{{!}}Glasgow City | pop_1 = 590,507 | img_1 = Glasgow University (48813349211).jpg
| city_2 = Edinburgh | div_2 = City of Edinburgh | pop_2 = 459,366 | img_2 = 00 3331 Edinburgh - Schottland.jpg
| city_3 = Aberdeen | div_3 = Aberdeen | pop_3 = 195,021 | img_3 = Aberdeen from Torry - geograph.org.uk - 1454885.jpg
| city_4 = Dundee | div_4 = Dundee City | pop_4 = 147,285 | img_4 = Dundee from over the Tay geograph-3335266-by-William-Starkey.jpg
| city_5 = Paisley, Renfrewshire{{!}}Paisley | div_5 = Renfrewshire | pop_5 = 76,834
| city_6 = East Kilbride | div_6 = South Lanarkshire | pop_6 = 74,395
| city_7 = Livingston, West Lothian{{!}}Livingston | div_7 = West Lothian | pop_7 = 56,269
| city_8 = Hamilton, South Lanarkshire{{!}}Hamilton | div_8 = South Lanarkshire| pop_8 = 53,188
| city_9 = Cumbernauld | div_9 = North Lanarkshire | pop_9 = 52,270
| city_10 = Kirkcaldy | div_10 = Fife | pop_10 = 49,709
| city_11 = Dunfermline | div_11 = Fife | pop_11 = 49,706
| city_12 = Inverness | div_12 = Highland (council area){{!}}Highland | pop_12 = 48,201
| city_13 = Perth, Scotland{{!}}Perth | div_13 = Perth and Kinross | pop_13 = 46,970
| city_14 = Ayr | div_14 = South Ayrshire | pop_14 = 46,849
| city_15 = Kilmarnock| div_15 = East Ayrshire | pop_15 = 46,159
| city_16 = Greenock| div_16 = Inverclyde | pop_16 = 44,248
| city_17 = Coatbridge| div_17 = North Lanarkshire | pop_17 = 43,841
| city_18 = Glenrothes| div_18 = Fife | pop_18 = 39,277
| city_19 = Airdrie, North Lanarkshire{{!}}Airdrie| div_19 = North Lanarkshire | pop_19 = 37,132
| city_20 = Stirling | div_20 = Stirling (council area){{!}}Stirling | pop_20 = 36,142
}}

===Languages===

Scotland has three officially recognised languages: English, [[Scots language|Scots]], and [[Scottish Gaelic]].<ref>[http://www.gov.scot/Topics/ArtsCultureSport/arts/GaelicLanguage/languageplan Gaelic Language Plan, www.gov.scot]. Retrieved 2 October 2014</ref><ref>[http://www.gov.scot/Topics/ArtsCultureSport/arts/Scots/ScotsLanguagePolicy Scots Language Policy], Gov.scot, Retrieved 2 October 2014</ref> Scottish Standard English, a variety of English as spoken in Scotland, is at one end of a bipolar [[linguistic continuum]], with broad [[Scots language|Scots]] at the other.<ref>Stuart-Smith J. ''Scottish English: Phonology'' in Varieties of English: The British Isles, Kortman & Upton (Eds), Mouton de Gruyter, New York 2008. p. 47</ref> Scottish Standard English may have been influenced to varying degrees by Scots.<ref name="Stuart-Smith J. 2008. p.48">Stuart-Smith J. ''Scottish English: Phonology'' in Varieties of English: The British Isles, Kortman & Upton (Eds), Mouton de Gruyter, New York 2008. p.48</ref><ref>Macafee C. ''Scots'' in Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 11, Elsevier, Oxford, 2005. p. 33</ref> The 2011 census indicated that 63% of the population had "no skills in Scots".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland's Census 2011 |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-analyser/jsf/tableView/crosstabTableView.xhtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728164340/https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/ods-analyser/jsf/login.xhtml?invalidSession=true&reason=Session+not+established. |archive-date=28 July 2020 |access-date=27 May 2014 |publisher=National Records of Scotland}}</ref> Others speak [[Highland English]]. Gaelic is mostly spoken in the [[Western Isles]], where a large proportion of people still speak it. Nationally, its use is confined to 1% of the population.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kenneth MacKinnon |title=A Century on the Census—Gaelic in Twentieth Century Focus |url=http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/SESLL/STELLA/STARN/lang/GAELIC/focus.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070905013846/http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/SESLL/STELLA/STARN/lang/GAELIC/focus.htm |archive-date=5 September 2007 |access-date=26 September 2007 |publisher=[[University of Glasgow]]}}</ref> The number of Gaelic speakers in Scotland dropped from 250,000 in 1881 to 60,000 in 2008.<ref>"[http://news.scotsman.com/gaelic/Can-TV39s-evolution-ignite-a.4494029.jp Can TV's evolution ignite a Gaelic revolution?]". ''The Scotsman''. 16 September 2008.</ref>

Immigration since World War II has given Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dundee small South Asian communities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland speaks Urdu |url=http://www.urdustan.net/2004/11/scotland-speaks-urdu.html |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Urdustan.net}}</ref> In 2011, there were an estimated 49,000 ethnically Pakistani people living in Scotland, making them the largest non-White ethnic group.<ref name="ethnicity">{{Cite web |year=2013 |title=Ethnic groups, Scotland, 2001 and 2011 |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/rel2asbtable2.pdf |access-date=9 December 2013 |publisher=The Scottish Government}}</ref> Since the [[enlargement of the European Union]] more people from [[Central Europe|Central]] and Eastern Europe have moved to Scotland, and the 2011 census indicated that 61,000 [[Polish people|Poles]] live there.<ref name="ethnicity"/><ref>''The Pole Position'' (6 August 2005). Glasgow. Sunday Herald newspaper.</ref>

There are many more people with Scottish ancestry living abroad than the total population of Scotland. In the 2000 Census, 9.2 million Americans self-reported some degree of [[Scottish American|Scottish]] descent.<ref>The [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_QTP13&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-_sse=on US Census 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108032342/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_QTP13&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-_sse=on|date=8 January 2012}}. The [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2004_EST_G00_DP2&-ds_name=ACS_2004_EST_G00_&-_lang=en&-_sse=on] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103071250/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2004_EST_G00_DP2&-ds_name=ACS_2004_EST_G00_&-_lang=en&-_sse=on|date=3 November 2011}} American Community Survey 2004 by the US Census Bureau estimates 5,752,571 people claiming Scottish ancestry and 5,323,888 people claiming [[Ulster Scots people|Scotch-Irish]] ancestry. {{Cite web |title=Explore Census Data |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_QTP13&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-_sse=on |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108032342/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_QTP13&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-_sse=on |archive-date=8 January 2012 |access-date=5 February 2016}}</ref> [[Ulster]]'s Protestant population is mainly of lowland Scottish descent,<ref>{{Cite journal |date=December 1970 |title=The Scotch-Irish |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1970/1/1970_1_28.shtml |journal=[[American Heritage Magazine]] |volume=22 |issue=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101020035635/http://americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1970/1/1970_1_28.shtml |archive-date=20 October 2010}}</ref> and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million descendants of the [[Ulster Scots people|Scots-Irish]] migration now living in the US.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 August 2009 |title=Born Fighting: How the Scots-Irish Shaped America |url=http://www.powells.com/biblio/1-9780767916899-1 |access-date=30 April 2010 |publisher=Powells.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scots-Irish By Alister McReynolds, writer and lecturer in Ulster-Scots studies |url=http://www.nitakeacloserlook.gov.uk/index/american-connections/scots-irish.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216090343/http://www.nitakeacloserlook.gov.uk/index/american-connections/scots-irish.htm |archive-date=16 February 2009 |access-date=30 April 2010 |publisher=Nitakeacloserlook.gov.uk}}</ref> In Canada, the [[Scottish-Canadian]] community accounts for 4.7 million people.<ref name="cancensus">{{Cite web |date=2 April 2008 |title=2006 Canadian Census |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723224016/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/index-eng.cfm |archive-date=23 July 2013 |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=12.statcan.ca}}</ref> About 20% of the original European settler population of New Zealand came from Scotland.<ref>Linguistic Archaeology: The Scottish Input to [[New Zealand English]] Phonology Trudgill et al. Journal of English Linguistics.2003; 31: 103–124</ref>

===Living and healthcare standards===

The [[total fertility rate]] (TFR) in Scotland is below the replacement rate of 2.1 (the TFR was 1.73 in 2011<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland's Population 2011: The Registrar General's Annual Review of Demographic Trends 157th Edition |url=http://www.gro-gov.scot/files2/stats/annual-review-2011/j21285204.htm |access-date=1 May 2013 |publisher=Gro-gov.scot}}</ref>). The majority of births are to unmarried women (51.3% of births were outside of marriage in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |title=Table Q1: Births, stillbirths, deaths, marriages and civil partnerships, numbers and rates, Scotland, quarterly, 2002 to 2012 |url=http://www.gro-gov.scot/files2/stats/births-marriages-deaths-quarterly/ve-2012-q4-tableq1.pdf |access-date=1 May 2013 |publisher=General Register Office for Scotland}}</ref>).

Life expectancy for those born in Scotland between 2012 and 2014 is 77.1 years for males and 81.1 years for females.<ref name="life expectancy 2015">{{Cite report |url=https://www.nrscotland.gov.uk/files//statistics/life-expectancy-areas-in-scotland/12-14/life-exp-in-scotland-2012-to-2014.pdf |title=Life Expectancy for Areas within Scotland 2012–2014 |date=13 October 2015 |publisher=National Records of Scotland |page=5 |access-date=22 March 2017}}</ref> This is the lowest of any of the four countries of the UK.<ref name="life expectancy 2015"/> The number of hospital admissions in Scotland for diseases such as cancer was 2,528 in 2002. Over the next ten years, by 2012, this had increased to 2,669.<ref name="hospitaladmissions">[https://statistics.gov.scot/slice?dataset=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdata%2Fhospital-admissions&http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Flinked-data%2Fcube%23measureType=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fmeasure-properties%2Fratio&http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fdimension%2FadmissionType=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fconcept%2Fadmission-type%2Fcancer&http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fdimension%2Fage=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fconcept%2Fage%2Fall&http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fdimension%2Fgender=http%3A%2F%2Fstatistics.gov.scot%2Fdef%2Fconcept%2Fgender%2Fall Hospital Admissions: a data cube spreadsheet], Scottish Government</ref> Hospital admissions for other diseases, such as coronary heart disease (CHD) were lower, with 727 admissions in 2002, and decreasing to 489 in 2012.<ref name="hospitaladmissions"/>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Scotland}}

[[File:St.Giles Cathedral - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|[[High Kirk of Edinburgh]]]]
Forms of [[History of Christianity in Scotland|Christianity]] have dominated religious life in what is now Scotland for more than 1,400 years.<ref>L. Alcock, ''Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain AD 550–850'' (Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland), {{ISBN|0-903903-24-5}}, p. 63.</ref><ref>Lucas Quensel von Kalben, "The British Church and the Emergence of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom", in T. Dickinson and D. Griffiths, eds, ''Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History, 10: Papers for the 47th Sachsensymposium, York, September 1996'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), {{ISBN|086054138X}}, p. 93.</ref>
In 2011 just over half (54%) of the Scottish population reported being a [[Christianity|Christian]] while nearly 37% reported not having a religion.<ref name="2011 census religion">{{Cite web |title=Scotland's Census 2011 |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/documents/censusresults/release2a/scotland/KS209SCb.pdf |access-date=11 August 2016 |publisher=National Records of Scotland}}</ref>
Since the [[Scottish Reformation]] of 1560, the [[national church]] (the [[Church of Scotland]], also known as [[Kirk|The Kirk]]) has been [[Protestant]] in classification and [[Reformed theology|Reformed]] in theology. Since 1689 it has had a [[Presbyterian]] system of church government independent from the state.<ref name=Keay/> Its membership dropped just below 300,000 in 2020 (5% of the total population)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://churchofscotland.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/80744/Order-of-Proceedings-2021.pdf|title=Church of Scotland General Assembly 2021 CONGREGATIONAL STATISTICS 2020 Summary Page 75|access-date=27 April 2022|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602190154/https://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/80744/Order-of-Proceedings-2021.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="scotsman.com">{{Cite web |title=Church of Scotland 'struggling to stay alive' |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/top-stories/church-of-scotland-struggling-to-stay-alive-1-3391152 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005055504/http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/top-stories/church-of-scotland-struggling-to-stay-alive-1-3391152 |archive-date=5 October 2015 |access-date=28 June 2016 |website=scotsman.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Survey indicates 1.5 million Scots identify with Church |url=http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/news_and_events/news/archive/articles/survey_indicates_1.5_million_scots_identify_with_church |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207160336/http://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/news_and_events/news/archive/articles/survey_indicates_1.5_million_scots_identify_with_church |archive-date=7 December 2016 |access-date=29 September 2016 |website=Churchofscotland.org.uk}}</ref> The Church operates a territorial parish structure, with every community in Scotland having a local congregation.

Scotland also has a significant [[Roman Catholic Church in Scotland|Roman Catholic]] population, 19% professing that faith, particularly in Greater Glasgow and the north-west.<ref>Andrew Collier, "Scotland's Confident Catholics", ''[[The Tablet]]'' 10 January 2009, 16.</ref> After the Reformation, Roman Catholicism in Scotland continued in the Highlands and some western islands like [[Uist]] and [[Barra]], and it was strengthened during the 19th century by immigration from Ireland. Other Christian denominations in Scotland include the [[Free Church of Scotland (since 1900)|Free Church of Scotland]], and various other Presbyterian offshoots. Scotland's third largest church is the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2016 |title=Scottish Episcopal Church could be first in UK to conduct same-sex weddings |url=http://www.scottishlegal.com/2016/05/20/scottish-episcopal-church-could-be-first-in-uk-to-conduct-same-sex-weddings |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913144202/http://www.scottishlegal.com/2016/05/20/scottish-episcopal-church-could-be-first-in-uk-to-conduct-same-sex-weddings |archive-date=13 September 2017 |access-date=1 October 2016 |website=Scottish Legal News}}</ref>

There are an estimated 75,000 Muslims in Scotland (about 1.4% of the population),<ref name="2011 census religion"/><ref name="GROSCOT">{{Cite web |title=Analysis of Religion in the 2001 Census |url=http://www.gro-gov.scot/press/news2005/analysis-of-religion-in-the-2001-census.html |access-date=26 September 2007 |publisher=General Register Office for Scotland}}</ref> and significant but smaller [[History of the Jews in Scotland|Jewish]], [[Hinduism in Scotland|Hindu]] and [[Sikh]] communities, especially in Glasgow.<ref name="GROSCOT"/> The [[Samyé Ling]] monastery near [[Eskdalemuir]], which celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2007, is the first [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastery in western Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=In the Scottish Lowlands, Europe's first Buddhist monastery turns 40 |url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=3,4102,0,0,1,0 |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Buddhistchannel.tv}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Scotland}}
[[File:University of St Andrews Courtyard.jpg|thumb|left|190px|Founded in 1413, the [[University of St. Andrews]] is the oldest in Scotland and one of the oldest worldwide]]
The [[Education in Scotland|Scottish education system]] has always had a characteristic emphasis on a [[Liberal education|broad education]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Guide to Education and Training in Scotland – "the broad education long regarded as characteristic of Scotland" |url=http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2003/03/16743/19914 |access-date=18 October 2007 |publisher=Scottish Government}}</ref> In the 15th century, the Humanist emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the [[Education Act 1496]], which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn "perfyct Latyne", resulting in an increase in literacy among a male and wealthy elite.<ref name="Bawcutt&Williams2006pp29-30">P. J. Bawcutt and J. H. Williams, ''A Companion to Medieval Scottish Poetry'' (Woodbridge: Brewer, 2006), {{ISBN|1-84384-096-0}}, pp. 29–30.</ref> In the Reformation, the 1560 ''[[First Book of Discipline]]'' set out a plan for a school in every parish, but this proved financially impossible.<ref>R. A. Houston, ''Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), {{ISBN|0-521-89088-8}}, p. 5.</ref> In 1616 an [[School Establishment Act 1616|act in Privy council]] commanded every parish to establish a school.<ref>{{Citation |title=School education prior to 1873 |url=http://www.scan.org.uk/knowledgebase/topics/education_box1.htm |work=Scottish Archive Network |year=2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928100213/http://www.scan.org.uk/knowledgebase/topics/education_box1.htm |archive-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas.<ref name="Anderson2003">R. Anderson, "The history of Scottish Education pre-1980", in T. G. K. Bryce and W. M. Humes, eds, ''Scottish Education: Post-Devolution'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2nd edn., 2003), {{ISBN|0-7486-1625-X}}, pp. 219–228.</ref> Education remained a matter for the church rather than the state until the [[Education (Scotland) Act 1872]].<ref>"Schools and schooling" in M. Lynch (ed.), ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'', (Oxford, 2001), pp. 561–563.</ref>

Education in Scotland is the responsibility of the [[Scottish Government]] and is overseen by its executive agency [[Education Scotland]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://education.gov.scot/|title=Education Scotland | Education Scotland|website=education.gov.scot}}</ref> The ''[[Curriculum for Excellence]]'', Scotland's national school curriculum, presently provides the curricular framework for children and young people from age 3 to 18.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Curriculum for Excellence – Aims, Purposes and Principles |url=http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/curriculumforexcellence/index.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100801110701/http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/curriculumforexcellence/index.asp |archive-date=1 August 2010 |publisher=Scottish Government}}</ref> All 3- and 4-year-old children in Scotland are entitled to a free nursery place. Formal primary education begins at approximately 5 years old and lasts for 7 years (P1–P7); children in Scotland study National Qualifications of the [[Curriculum for Excellence]] between the ages of 14 and 18. The school leaving age is 16, after which students may choose to remain at school and study further qualifications. A small number of students at certain [[List of private schools in Scotland|private schools]] may follow the [[Education in England|English system]] and study towards [[GCSE]]s and [[Advanced Level (UK)|A]] and [[Advanced Level (UK)|AS-Levels]] instead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Scottish Exam System |url=http://www.scis.org.uk/genInfo/genInfo_scott_exam.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214084916/http://www.scis.org.uk/genInfo/genInfo_scott_exam.html |archive-date=14 February 2008 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref>

There are fifteen [[Scottish universities]], some of which are among the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest in the world]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland |url=http://www.carnegie-trust.org/what_we_do.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011070532/http://www.carnegie-trust.org/what_we_do.htm  |archive-date=11 October 2007 |access-date=18 October 2007 |publisher=Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Understanding Scottish Qualifications |url=http://www.sac.ac.uk/learning/prospective/international/ireland/IrelandScotsqual |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522144025/http://www.sac.ac.uk/learning/prospective/international/ireland/IrelandScotsqual |archive-date=22 May 2012 |access-date=18 October 2007 |publisher=Scottish Agricultural College}}</ref> The four universities founded before the end of the 16th century – the [[University of St Andrews]], the [[University of Glasgow]], the [[University of Aberdeen]] and the [[University of Edinburgh]] – are collectively known as the [[ancient universities of Scotland]], all of which rank among the 200 best universities in the world in the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings|THE rankings]], with Edinburgh placing in the top 50.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 August 2019 |title=World University Rankings |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2020/world-ranking |access-date=1 August 2020 |website=Times Higher Education (THE) |language=en}}</ref> Scotland had more universities per capita in [[QS World University Rankings|QS' World University Rankings']] top 100 in 2012 than any other nation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2012 |title=Scotland tops global university rankings |url=http://www.newsnetscotland.com/index.php/scottish-news/5813-scotland-tops-global-university-rankings |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309062707/http://www.newsnetscotland.com/index.php/scottish-news/5813-scotland-tops-global-university-rankings |archive-date=9 March 2013 |access-date=11 January 2013 |publisher=Newsnet Scotland}}</ref> The country produces 1% of the world's [[Academic publishing|published research]] with less than 0.1% of the world's population, and higher education institutions account for 9% of Scotland's service sector exports.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Framework for Higher Education in Scotland: Higher Education Review Phase 2 |url=http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2003/03/16786/20354 |access-date=18 October 2007 |publisher=Scottish Government}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is higher education? |url=http://www.universities-scotland.ac.uk/Facts%20and%20Figures/HigherEducation.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040316132403/http://www.universities-scotland.ac.uk/Facts%20and%20Figures/HigherEducation.pdf |archive-date=16 March 2004 |access-date=18 October 2007 |publisher=Universities Scotland}}</ref> Scotland's University Courts are the only bodies in Scotland authorised to award degrees.

=== Health care ===
{{Main|Healthcare in Scotland}}
{{further|List of hospitals in Scotland|Social care in Scotland}}
[[File:View along the access road towards the new Southern General Hospital (geograph 4542089).jpg|thumb|right|[[NHS Scotland]]'s [[Queen Elizabeth University Hospital]], Glasgow. It is the largest hospital campus in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotshield wins hospital fire system contract |url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/business_hq/13078939.scotshield-wins-hospital-fire-system-contract |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=HeraldScotland|date=30 October 2012 }}</ref>]]
Health care in Scotland is mainly provided by [[NHS Scotland]], Scotland's public health care system. This was founded by the [[National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1947]] (later repealed by the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978) that took effect on 5 July 1948 to coincide with the launch of the NHS in England and Wales. Prior to 1948, half of Scotland's landmass was already covered by state-funded health care, provided by the [[Highlands and Islands Medical Service]].<ref>[http://www.60yearsofnhsscotland.co.uk/history/birth-of-nhs-scotland/highlands-and-islands-medical-service.html Highlands and Islands Medical Service (HIMS)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114040031/http://www.60yearsofnhsscotland.co.uk/history/birth-of-nhs-scotland/highlands-and-islands-medical-service.html |date=14 January 2013 }} www.60yearsofnhsscotland.co.uk. Retrieved 28 July 2008.</ref> Healthcare policy and funding is the responsibility of the Scottish Government's [[Scottish Government Health Directorates|Health Directorates]].

In 2014, the NHS in Scotland had around 140,000 staff.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the NHS in Scotland |url=http://www.show.scot.nhs.uk/introduction.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628224652/http://www.show.scot.nhs.uk/introduction.aspx |archive-date=28 June 2014 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Politics and government ==
{{Main|Politics of Scotland|Scottish Parliament|Scottish Government}}
{{further|Political parties in Scotland|Elections in Scotland|Electoral system of Scotland}}
{{Multiple image
| total_width = 270
| image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg
| image2 = First Minister of Scotland, Humza Yousaf.jpg
| caption1 = [[King Charles III]] [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Monarch]] since 2022
| caption2 = [[Humza Yousaf]] [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] since 2023
| image3 =
| caption3 = [[John Swinney]] [[Deputy First Minister of Scotland|Deputy First Minister]] since 2014
}}

As a country of the United Kingdom, Scotland's monarch is [[King Charles III]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kindelan, Magee |title=Queen Elizabeth, longest-reigning British monarch, dies at 96 |url=https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/News/queen-elizabeth-longest-reigning-british-monarch-dies-96/story?id=18641713 |access-date=8 September 2022 |website=ABC News}}</ref> The monarchy in Scotland continues to use a variety of styles, titles and other royal symbols of statehood specific to pre-union Scotland, including: the [[Royal Standard of Scotland]], the [[Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom|Royal coat of arms]] used in Scotland together with its associated [[Royal Standard of the United Kingdom|Royal Standard]], royal titles including that of [[Duke of Rothesay]], certain [[Great Officer of State|Great Officers of State]], the [[chivalric order|chivalric]] [[Order of the Thistle]] and, since 1999, reinstating a ceremonial role for the [[Crown of Scotland]] after a 292-year hiatus.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2016 |title=Opening of Parliament: Procession of the Crown of Scotland |url=http://www.parliament.scot/newsandmediacentre/100237.aspx |access-date=9 July 2016 |publisher=Scottish Parliament}}</ref> [[Queen Elizabeth II]]'s [[regnal number]]ing caused [[List of titles and honours of Elizabeth II#Royal titles and styles|controversy]] in 1953 because there had never been an Elizabeth I in Scotland. [[MacCormick v Lord Advocate]] was a legal action was brought in Scotland's [[Court of Session]] by the [[Scottish Covenant Association]] to contest the right of the Queen to entitle herself "Elizabeth II" within Scotland, but [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|the Crown]] won the appeal against the case's dismissal, as royal titulature was legislated for by the Royal Titles Act 1953 and a matter of [[Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom|royal prerogative]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 May 1953 |title=Judge dismisses petition on Queen's title. Covenant Association to Appeal |page=3 |work=[[The Glasgow Herald]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=W0ZAAAAAIBAJ&pg=1722%2C4938361 |access-date=20 April 2017}}</ref>

Executive and legislative powers respectively have been devolved to the [[Scottish Government]] and the [[Scottish Parliament]] at [[Holyrood, Edinburgh|Holyrood]] in Edinburgh since 1999. The British Parliament retains control over [[Reserved and excepted matters|reserved matters]] specified in the [[Scotland Act 1998]], including taxes, social security, defence, international relations and broadcasting.<ref name="Gate">{{Cite web |title=Government of Scotland Facts |url=http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/government/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503130512/http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/government/index.html |archive-date=3 May 2010 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all other areas relating to Scotland. It initially had only a limited power to [[Scottish variable rate|vary income tax]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 February 2008 |title=Brown opens door to Holyrood tax powers |work=Sunday Herald |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/brown-opens-door-to-holyrood-tax-powers-1.828436 |access-date=4 January 2014}}</ref> but powers over taxation and social security were significantly expanded by the Scotland Acts of [[Scotland Act 2012|2012]] and [[Scotland Act 2016|2016]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fraser |first=Douglas |date=2 February 2016 |title=Scotland's tax powers: What it has and what's coming? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-35470086 |access-date=27 April 2017 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC}}</ref> The 2016 Act gave the Scottish Government powers to manage the affairs of the [[Crown Estate]] in Scotland, leading to the creation of [[Crown Estate Scotland]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2016 |title=Holyrood gives approval to devolved powers Scotland Bill |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-35815426 |access-date=16 November 2020}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Bute House, Charlotte Square - geograph.org.uk - 3150922.jpg
| caption1 = [[Bute House]] is the official residence and workplace of the first minister.
| image2 = Edinburgh Scottish Parliament-20110902-RM-155721.jpg
| caption2 = [[Scottish Parliament Building|Holyrood]] is the seat of the [[Scottish Parliament|national parliament of Scotland]].
}}

The Scottish Parliament is a [[unicameral]] legislature with 129 members (MSPs): 73 of them represent individual constituencies and are elected on a [[first-past-the-post]] system; the other 56 are elected in eight different electoral regions by the [[additional member system (Scottish Parliament)|additional member system]]. MSPs normally serve for a five-year period.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2020 |title=Parliamentary and local election terms extended |url=https://www.gov.scot/news/parliamentary-and-local-election-terms-extended |access-date=16 September 2020 |website=www.gov.scot |publisher=Scottish Government}}</ref> The Parliament nominates one of its Members, who is then appointed by the monarch to serve as first minister. Other ministers are appointed by the first minister and serve at his/her discretion. Together they make up the Scottish Government, the executive arm of the devolved government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2014 |title=People: Who runs the Scottish Government |url=http://www.gov.scot/About/People |access-date=11 January 2015 |publisher=Scottish Government}}</ref> The Scottish Government is headed by the first minister, who is accountable to the [[Scottish Parliament]] and is the minister of charge of the Scottish Government. The first minister is also the political leader of Scotland. The Scottish Government also comprises the [[Deputy First Minister of Scotland|deputy first minister]], who deputises for the first minister during a period of absence. Alongside the deputy first minister's requirements as Deputy, the minister also has a cabinet ministerial responsibility.<ref>{{Cite news |date=18 May 2021 |title=John Swinney to be minister for Covid recovery |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-57161751 |access-date=18 May 2021}}</ref> The [[Yousaf government|current Scottish Government]] has nine cabinet secretaries and there are 15 other ministers who work alongside the cabinet secretaries in their appointed areas.<ref name="ScotParliament">{{Cite web |date=18 May 2021 |title=Business Motion |url=https://archive2021.parliament.scot/parliamentarybusiness/report.aspx?r=13227&mode=pdf#Business%20Motion |access-date=19 May 2021 |website=The Scottish Parliament |publisher=The Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body}}</ref>

In the [[2021 Scottish Parliament election|2021 election]], the [[Scottish National Party]] (SNP) won 64 of the 129 seats available.<ref name="2016 results">{{Cite web |title=Scottish Parliament election 2021 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/topics/c37d28xdn99t/scottish-parliament-election-2021 |access-date=9 May 2021 |website=BBC News}}</ref> [[Humza Yousaf]], the leader of the SNP, has been the first minister since March 2023. The [[Scottish Conservatives]], [[Scottish Labour]], the [[Scottish Liberal Democrats]] and the [[Scottish Greens]] also have representation in the Parliament.<ref name="2016 results"/> The [[next Scottish Parliament election]] is due to be held on 7 May 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish Elections (Reform) Act 2020 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2020/12/enacted#:~:text=Scottish%20Elections%20%28Reform%29%20Act%202020%202020%20asp%2012,and%20received%20Royal%20Assent%20on%208th%20July%202020 |access-date=9 May 2021 |website=www.legislation.gov.uk}}</ref>

Scotland is represented in the British [[House of Commons]] by 59 MPs elected from territory-based Scottish constituencies. The [[Scotland Office]] represents the British government in Scotland on reserved matters and represents Scottish interests within the government.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 August 2004 |title=Scotland Office Charter |url=http://www.scotlandoffice.gov.uk/our-communications/doc.php?id=11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030185025/http://www.scotlandoffice.gov.uk/our-communications/doc.php?id=11 |archive-date=30 October 2007 |access-date=22 December 2007 |website=Scotland Office website}}</ref> The Scotland Office is led by the [[Secretary of State for Scotland]], who sits in the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom]].<ref name="jack"/> Conservative MP [[Alister Jack]] has held the position since July 2019.<ref name="jack">{{Cite web |date=24 July 2019 |title=Alister Jack: What do we know about the new Scottish Secretary? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-49103859 |access-date=18 December 2019 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC}}</ref>

=== Diplomacy and relations ===
{{Main|Intergovernmental relations in the United Kingdom}}
{{further|British-Irish Council|Devolution in the United Kingdom|Scottish devolution}}
[[File:Bush&McConnell.jpg|thumb|right|190px|First Minister [[Jack McConnell]] greets U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] ahead of the [[31st G8 summit]], July 2005.]]

While foreign policy remains a reserved matter,<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 February 2017 |title=Devolved and Reserved Matters – Visit & Learn |url=http://www.parliament.scot/visitandlearn/Education/18642.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722092046/http://www.parliament.scot/visitandlearn/Education/18642.aspx |archive-date=22 July 2017 |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=Scottish Parliament}}</ref> the Scottish Government may promote the economy and Scottish interests on the world stage and encourage foreign businesses, international devolved, regional and central governments to invest in Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=International |url=http://www.gov.scot/Topics/International |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=gov.scot}}</ref> While the first minister usually undertakes a number of international visits to promote Scotland, international relations, European and Commonwealth relations are also included within the portfolios of the [[Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Tourism and External Affairs]] (responsible for international development)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Tourism and External Affairs |url=https://beta.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/cabinet-secretary-culture-tourism-external-affairs |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180801221257/https://beta.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/cabinet-secretary-culture-tourism-external-affairs |archive-date=1 August 2018 |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=gov.scot}}</ref> and the [[Minister for International Development and Europe]] (responsible for European Union relations and international relations).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minister for Europe, Migration and International Development |url=https://beta.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/minister-international-development-europe |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=gov.scot}}</ref> Overall, accountability for intergovernmental relations is the responsibility of the First Minister.<ref name="assets.publishing.service.gov.uk">{{cite web |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1046083/The_Review_of_Intergovernmental_Relations.pdf |title=The Review of Intergovernmental Relations |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> The First Minister is a member of the [[Intergovernmental relations in the United Kingdom|Heads of Government Council]] ("The Council") (previously the Joint Ministerial Committee). Other cabinet secretaries and junior ministers within the Scottish Government participate in tier two (the Inter-ministerial Standing Committee) and tier 3 (the Inter-ministerial Group) of The Council which may include areas including education, finance and economy, investment and trade and rural affairs.<ref name="assets.publishing.service.gov.uk"/>

While an independent sovereign nation, Scotland had a close "special relationship" with France (known then as the [[Kingdom of France]]). In 1295, Scotland and France signed what became known as the [[Auld Alliance]] in Paris, which acted as a military and diplomatic alliance between English invasion and expansion.<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{Cite web |title=Scotland's History – The Auld Alliance |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/history/articles/auld_alliance |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 January 2023}}</ref> The French military sought the assistance of Scotland in 1415 during the [[Battle of Agincourt]] which was close to bringing the Kingdom of France to collapse.<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/> It is argued that the Auld Alliance was never formally ended by either Scotland or France, meaning many elements of the treaty may remain in place today.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Franco-Scottish alliance against England one of longest in history |url=https://www.manchester.ac.uk/discover/news/franco-scottish-alliance-against-england-one-of-longest-in-history |publisher=University of Manchester |date=12 August 2011 |access-date=27 January 2023}}</ref> Scotland and France continue to have a special relationship, with a Statement of Intent being signed in 2013 between the Scottish Government and the [[Government of France]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish & French Connections |url=https://www.scotland.org/events/lorient-celtic-festival/scottish-french-connections |website=Scotland.org}}</ref>

First Minister Jack McConnell and the then Scottish Executive pioneered the way forward to launch what would become the [[Scotland Malawi Partnership]] which co-ordinates Scottish activities to strengthen existing links with [[Malawi]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 November 2005 |title=About us |url=https://www.scotland-malawipartnership.org/who-we-are/about-us |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=Scotland Malawi Partnership}}</ref> During McConnell's time as first minister, several relations with Scotland, including Scottish and Russian relations strengthened following a visit by [[President of Russia]] [[Vladimir Putin]] to [[Edinburgh]]. McConnell, speaking at the end, highlighted that the visit by Putin was a "post-devolution" step towards "Scotland regaining its international identity".<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 June 2003 |title=Putin in Scottish capital |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3018692.stm |access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> During an official visit to the [[Republic of Ireland]] in 2016, Sturgeon became the first head of government to address the [[Seanad Éireann]], the [[upper house]] of the [[Oireachtas]] (the Irish parliament).<ref name="firstminister.gov.scot">{{Cite web |date=29 November 2016 |title=First Minister in Dublin: Day 2 |url=https://firstminister.gov.scot/first-minister-in-dublin-day-2 |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=First Minister of Scotland}}</ref> Scotland has forged international relations in a number of countries and territories such as the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Germany]], [[France]], [[Iceland]], [[Denmark]] and [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.scot/policies/international-relations/|title=International relations - gov.scot|website=gov.scot}}</ref>

Scotland has [[Scandinavian Scotland|historical and cultural]] ties with northern countries outside the British Isles, such as the countries of [[Scandinavia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fitzpatrick |first=Tara |date=2022-09-29 |title=Arts festival celebrates Scotland's ties to Canada and Scandinavia |url=https://news.stv.tv/highlands-islands/highlands-arts-festival-celebrates-scotlands-ties-to-canada-and-scandinavia |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=STV News |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=How DNA reveals Vikings never left Scotland – BBC REEL |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dw3VbJ0RTcQ |language=en |access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref> Scottish Government policy advocates for stronger political relations with the [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] and [[Baltic states|Baltic]] countries, which has resulted in some Nordic-inspired policies being adopted such as baby boxes.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=Heather |first=Alistair |date=17 May 2020 |title=Why Finns believe Scotland could become Nordic nation number six |url=https://www.scotsman.com/news/opinion/columnists/alistair-heather-why-finns-believe-scotland-could-become-nordic-nation-number-six-2855748 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201165903/https://www.scotsman.com/news/opinion/columnists/alistair-heather-why-finns-believe-scotland-could-become-nordic-nation-number-six-2855748 |archive-date=1 December 2022 |access-date=25 September 2022 |website=[[The Scotsman]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nordic Baltic Policy Statement |url=https://www.gov.scot/policies/europe/nordic-baltic-policy-statement/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=gov.scot |language=en}}</ref> There have been calls for Scotland to be granted permanent member status of the [[Nordic Council]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenational.scot/news/20063282.scottish-links-nordic-council-strengthened-following-international-talks/|title=Scottish links to the Nordic Council strengthened following international talks|date=12 April 2022|first=Ninian|last=Wilson|website=thenational.scot}}</ref> Representatives from the Scottish Parliament attended the Nordic Council for the first time in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.parliament.scot/about/news/news-listing/presiding-officer-leads-holyrood-delegation-to-strengthen-links-with-nordic-council|title=Presiding Officer leads Holyrood delegation to strengthen links with Nordic Council|date=31 October 2022|website=parliament.scot}}</ref>

=== Constitutional changes ===

A policy of [[devolution]] had been advocated by the three main British political parties with varying enthusiasm during recent history. A previous Labour leader, [[John Smith (Labour Party leader)|John Smith]], described the revival of a Scottish parliament as the "settled will of the Scottish people".<ref>Cavanagh, Michael (2001) ''[http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/aspect/docs/aspectcampaigns.htm The Campaigns for a Scottish Parliament]''. [[University of Strathclyde]]. Retrieved 12 April 2008.</ref> The devolved Scottish Parliament was created after a [[Scottish devolution referendum, 1997|referendum in 1997]] found majority support for both creating the Parliament and granting it limited powers to [[Scottish variable rate|vary income tax]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kerr |first=Andrew |date=8 September 2017 |title=Scottish devolution referendum: The birth of a parliament |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-41189455 |access-date=3 January 2019}}</ref>

The Scottish National Party (SNP), which supports [[Scottish independence]], was first elected to form the Scottish Government in [[Scottish Parliament general election, 2007|2007]]. The new government established a "[[National Conversation]]" on constitutional issues, proposing a number of options such as increasing the powers of the Scottish Parliament, [[federation|federalism]], or a referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom. In rejecting the last option, the three main opposition parties in the Scottish Parliament created a [[Calman Commission|commission]] to investigate the distribution of powers between devolved Scottish and UK-wide bodies.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Party people confront new realities |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7195800.stm |access-date=18 January 2008 |first=David |last=Porter |date=18 January 2008}}</ref> The [[Scotland Act 2012]], based on proposals by the commission, was subsequently enacted devolving additional powers to the Scottish Parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 2011 |title=Commons clears transfer of power |url=http://breakingnews.heraldscotland.com/breaking-news/?mode=article&site=hs&id=N0403941296156340260A |access-date=4 October 2011 |website=The Herald |location=Glasgow |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812205427/http://breakingnews.heraldscotland.com/breaking-news/?mode=article&site=hs&id=N0403941296156340260A |archive-date=Aug 12, 2011}}</ref>

In August 2009 the SNP proposed a bill to hold a referendum on independence in November 2010. Opposition from all other major parties led to an expected defeat.<ref name="ReferendumBill2010">{{Cite web |date=2 September 2009 |title=Referendum Bill |url=http://www.gov.scot/About/programme-for-government/2009-10/summary-of-bills/referendum-bill |archive-url=http://www.gov.scot/About/Factfile/18060/11552 |archive-date=10 September 2009 |access-date=10 September 2009 |website= |publisher=[[Scottish Government]]}}</ref><ref name="Times3Sep09">{{Cite news |last=MacLeod |first=Angus |date=3 September 2009 |title=Salmond to push ahead with referendum Bill |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article6820542.ece |url-status=dead |access-date=10 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531170941/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article6820542.ece |archive-date=31 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 September 2010 |title=Scottish independence plan 'an election issue' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-11196967}}</ref> After the [[2011 Scottish Parliament election]] gave the SNP an overall majority in the Scottish Parliament, the [[2014 Scottish independence referendum]] was held on 18 September.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Black |first=Andrew |date=21 March 2013 |title=Scottish independence: Referendum to be held on 18 September, 2014 |work=BBC News |location=London |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-21828424 |access-date=21 March 2013}}</ref> The referendum resulted in a rejection of independence, by 55.3% to 44.7%.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 September 2014 |title=Scotland votes no: the union has survived, but the questions for the left are profound |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/19/scottish-independence-union-survived-put-away-flags}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland decides |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/live |access-date=19 September 2014 |website=BBC}}</ref> During the campaign, the three main parties in the British Parliament pledged to extend the powers of the Scottish Parliament.<ref>[https://www.gov.uk/government/news/scottish-independence-referendum-statement-by-the-prime-minister Scottish Independence Referendum: statement by the Prime Minister], UK Government</ref><ref name="kelvin"/> An all-party [[Smith Commission|commission]] chaired by [[Robert Smith, Baron Smith of Kelvin]] was formed,<ref name="kelvin">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-29273177 Scottish referendum: Who is Lord Smith of Kelvin?], BBC News</ref> which led to a further devolution of powers through the [[Scotland Act 2016]].<ref>{{Cite act | url = https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/11/contents/enacted | title = Scotland Act 2016 | legislature = Parliament of the United Kingdom | date = 23 March 2016 | language = English}}</ref>

Following the [[European Union Referendum Act 2015]], the [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum]] was held on 23 June 2016 on Britain's membership of the [[European Union]]. A majority in the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the EU, while a majority within Scotland voted to remain a member.<ref name=":2"/> The first minister, Nicola Sturgeon, announced the following day that as a result a [[Proposed second Scottish independence referendum|new independence referendum]] was "highly likely".<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=24 June 2016 |title=Scottish Leader Nicola Sturgeon Announces Plans for Second Independence Referendum |url=http://time.com/4381327/brexit-nicole-sturgeon-scotland-referendum |magazine=Time |access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=24 June 2016 |title=Brexit: Nicola Sturgeon says second Scottish independence vote 'highly likely' |agency=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-36621030 |access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> On 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom formally withdrew from the European Union. Because constitutional affairs are reserved matters under the Scotland Act, the Scottish Parliament would again have to be granted temporary additional powers under Section 30 to hold a legally binding vote.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=Glenn |author-link=Glenn Campbell (broadcaster) |date=6 November 2020 |title=Indyref2: Scottish Secretary rejects new vote 'for a generation' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-54827100 |access-date=16 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sim |first=Philip |date=19 December 2019 |title=Scottish independence: What is a section 30 order? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-politics-50744526 |access-date=16 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=6 December 2019 |title=General election 2019: Sturgeon says legal indyref2 is a 'hard truth' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election-2019-50687876 |access-date=16 November 2020}}</ref>

=== Administrative subdivisions ===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Scotland}}
[[File:Glasgow City Chambers Exterior.jpg|thumb|right|[[Glasgow City Chambers]], seat of [[Glasgow City Council]]]]
Historical subdivisions of Scotland included the [[mormaerdom]], [[stewartries|stewartry]], [[earldom]], [[burgh]], [[Civil parishes in Scotland|parish]], [[Counties of Scotland|county]] and [[Regions and districts of Scotland|regions and districts]]. Some of these names are still sometimes used as geographical descriptors.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Scotland – Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/methodology/geography/ukgeographies/administrativegeography/scotland |access-date=17 January 2021 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref>

Modern Scotland is subdivided in various ways depending on the purpose. In local government, there have been 32 single-tier council areas since 1996,<ref>[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1994/Ukpga_19940039_en_1.htm "Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301043228/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1994/Ukpga_19940039_en_1.htm |date=1 March 2010 }} Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 26 September 2007.</ref> whose councils are responsible for the provision of all local government services. Decisions are made by councillors who are elected at [[Elections in Scotland|local elections]] every five years. The head of each council is usually the [[Lord Provost]] alongside the Leader of the council,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Council leaders |url=http://www.cosla.gov.uk/councils/leaders |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102215306/http://www.cosla.gov.uk/councils/leaders |archive-date=2 January 2019 |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=COSLA}}</ref> with a Chief Executive being appointed as director of the council area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chief executives |url=http://www.cosla.gov.uk/councils/chief-executives |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222001121/http://www.cosla.gov.uk/councils/chief-executives |archive-date=22 December 2018 |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=Cosla.gov.uk}}</ref> Community Councils are informal organisations that represent specific sub-divisions within each council area.<ref name=":9"/>

In the Scottish Parliament, there are 73 constituencies and eight regions. For the Parliament of the United Kingdom, there are 59 constituencies. Until 2013, the Scottish fire brigades and police forces were based on a system of regions introduced in 1975. For healthcare and postal districts, and a number of other governmental and non-governmental organisations such as the churches, there are other long-standing methods of subdividing Scotland for the purposes of administration.

[[City status in the United Kingdom]] is conferred by [[letters patent]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=City status |url=http://www.dca.gov.uk/constitution/city/cityhome.htm |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Dca.gov.uk}}</ref> There are eight cities in Scotland: [[Aberdeen]], [[Dundee]], [[Dunfermline]], [[Edinburgh]], [[Glasgow]], [[Inverness]], [[Stirling]] and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Cities |url=http://www.dca.gov.uk/constitution/city/citygj.htm |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Dca.gov.uk}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|British Armed Forces|Military history of Scotland}}
[[File:Challenger2-Bergen-Hohne-Training-Area-2.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Challenger 2]] [[main battle tank]] of the [[Royal Scots Dragoon Guards]]]]
[[File:Eurofighter Typhoon, ZK312 (19451923880).jpg|thumb|right|A [[Eurofighter Typhoon|Typhoon FGR4]] in [[No. 6 Squadron RAF|No. 6 Squadron]] markings taking off from runway 23 at Lossiemouth]]
[[File:Vanguard at Faslane 02.jpg|thumb|right|Nuclear submarine [[HMS Vanguard]] arrives back at [[HM Naval Base Clyde]]]]
Of the money spent on UK defence, about £3.3 billion can be attributed to Scotland as of 2018/2019.<ref>[https://www.gov.scot/binaries/content/documents/govscot/publications/statistics/2019/08/government-expenditure-revenue-scotland-gers/documents/government-expenditure-revenue-scotland-2018-19/government-expenditure-revenue-scotland-2018-19/govscot%3Adocument/government-expenditure-revenue-scotland-2018-19.pdf?forceDownload=true ''Government Expenditure & Revenue Scotland 2018–19'']. August 2019.</ref>

Scotland had a long military tradition predating the [[Treaty of Union]] with England; the [[Scots Army]] and [[Royal Scots Navy]] were (with the exception of the [[Atholl Highlanders]], Europe's only legal [[private army]]) merged with their English counterparts to form the [[Royal Navy]] and the [[British Army]], which together form part of the [[British Armed Forces]]. Numerous [[Scottish regiment]]s have at various times existed in the British Army. Distinctively Scottish regiments in the British Army include the [[Scots Guards]], the [[Royal Scots Dragoon Guards]] and the [[154 (Scottish) Regiment RLC]], an [[Army Reserve (United Kingdom)|Army Reserve]] regiment of the [[Royal Logistic Corps]]. In 2006, as a result of the ''[[Delivering Security in a Changing World]]'' [[white paper]], the Scottish infantry regiments in the [[Scottish Division]] were amalgamated to form the [[Royal Regiment of Scotland]]. As a result of the [[Cameron–Clegg coalition]]'s [[Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010]], the Scottish regiments of the line in the [[British Army]] [[Infantry of the British Army|infantry]], having previously formed the Scottish Division, were reorganised into the [[Scottish, Welsh and Irish Division]] in 2017. Before the formation of the Scottish Division, the Scottish infantry was organised into a [[Lowland Brigade (United Kingdom)|Lowland Brigade]] and [[Highland Brigade (United Kingdom)|Highland Brigade]].

Because of their topography and perceived remoteness, parts of Scotland have housed many sensitive defence establishments.<ref>The large number of military bases in Scotland led some to use the euphemism "Fortress Scotland". See Spaven, Malcolm (1983) ''Fortress Scotland''. London. Pluto Press in association with Scottish CND.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 December 2006 |title=Pensioner, 94, in nuclear protest |work=[[BBC News Online]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/6186213.stm |url-status=live |access-date=17 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215171500/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/6186213.stm |archive-date=15 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Reprieve for RAF Lossiemouth base |work=News.bbc.co.uk |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/4083933.stm |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> Between 1960 and 1991, the [[Holy Loch]] was a base for the US fleet of [[Polaris ballistic missile|Polaris]] [[ballistic missile submarine]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dunoon and the US Navy |url=http://www.argyllonline.co.uk/places/dunoon-cowal/dunoon-and-the-us-navy |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Argyllonline.co.uk}}</ref> Today, [[Her Majesty's Naval Base Clyde]], {{Convert|25|mi|km|abbr=off}} north-west of Glasgow, is the base for the four [[Trident (missile)|Trident]]-armed {{Sclass|Vanguard|submarine|0}} [[ballistic missile submarine]]s that comprise the Britain's [[nuclear deterrent]].

Scotland's [[Scapa Flow]] was the main base for the [[Royal Navy]] in the 20th century.<ref>Angus Konstam, ''Scapa Flow: The Defences of Britain's Great Fleet Anchorage 1914–45'' (2009).</ref> As the [[Cold War]] intensified in 1961, the United States deployed [[Polaris ballistic missile]]s, and submarines, in the [[Firth of Clyde]]'s [[Holy Loch]]. Public protests from [[CND]] campaigners proved futile. The Royal Navy successfully convinced the government to allow the base because it wanted its own Polaris submarines, and it obtained them in 1963. The RN's nuclear submarine base opened with four {{Sclass|Resolution|submarine|0}} Polaris submarines at the expanded [[HMNB Clyde|Faslane Naval Base]] on the [[Gare Loch]]. The first patrol of a [[Trident missile|Trident]]-armed submarine occurred in 1994, although the US base was closed at the end of the Cold War.<ref>Andrew Marr, ''A History of Modern Britain'' (2009), p. 211.</ref>

A single front-line [[Royal Air Force]] base is located in Scotland. [[RAF Lossiemouth]], located in [[Moray]], is the most northerly [[Anti-aircraft warfare|air defence]] [[fighter aircraft|fighter]] base in the United Kingdom and is home to three fast-jet squadrons equipped with the [[Eurofighter Typhoon]].

=== Law and criminal justice ===
{{Main|Scots law}}

[[File:High Court of Justiciary.jpg|thumb|left|160px|The [[High Court of Justiciary]] building, Edinburgh, the supreme criminal court in Scotland]]
Scots law has a basis derived from [[Roman law]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Faculty of Law |url=http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/history/chpt4.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071122202314/http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/history/chpt4.aspx |archive-date=22 November 2007 |access-date=22 October 2007 |publisher=The University of Edinburgh School of Law}}</ref> combining features of both uncodified [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]], dating back to the {{Lang|la|[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]}}, and [[common law]] with [[Legal institutions of Scotland in the High Middle Ages|medieval sources]]. The terms of the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 guaranteed the continued existence of a separate legal system in Scotland from that of England and Wales.<ref>The Articles: legal and miscellaneous, UK Parliament House of Lords (2007). "Article 19: The Scottish legal system and its courts was to remain unchanged":{{Cite web |title=Act of Union 1707 |url=http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/04_05_legal.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114022831/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/04_05_legal.html |archive-date=14 November 2007 |access-date=22 October 2007 |publisher=House of Lords}}</ref> Prior to 1611, there were several regional law systems in Scotland, most notably [[Udal law]] in [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]], based on old Norse law. Various other systems derived from common [[Celtic law|Celtic]] or [[Brehon laws]] survived in the Highlands until the 1800s.<ref>"Law and institutions, Gaelic" & "Law and lawyers" in M. Lynch (ed.), ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'', (Oxford, 2001), pp. 381–382 & 382–386. Udal Law remains relevant to land law in Orkney and Shetland: {{Cite web |title=A General History of Scots Law (20th century) |url=http://www.lawscot.org.uk/uploads/Ad-Hoc/AGeneralHistoryofScotsLaw_20thCentury.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925220347/http://www.lawscot.org.uk/uploads/Ad-Hoc/AGeneralHistoryofScotsLaw_20thCentury.pdf  |archive-date=25 September 2007 |access-date=20 September 2007 |publisher=Law Society of Scotland}}</ref>
Scots law provides for three types of [[Courts of Scotland|courts]] responsible for the administration of justice: civil, criminal and [[Law of Arms|heraldic]]. The supreme civil court is the [[Court of Session]], although civil [[appeal (law)|appeals]] can be taken to the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] (or before 1 October 2009, the [[Judicial functions of the House of Lords|House of Lords]]). The [[High Court of Justiciary]] is the supreme criminal court in Scotland. The Court of Session is housed at [[Parliament House, Edinburgh|Parliament House]], in Edinburgh, which was the home of the pre-Union [[Parliament of Scotland]] with the [[High Court of Justiciary]] and the Supreme Court of Appeal currently located at the [[Lawnmarket]]. The [[sheriff court]] is the main criminal and civil court, hearing most cases. There are 49 sheriff courts throughout the country.<ref>[http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/locations/index.asp "Court Information"] www.scotcourts.gov.uk. Retrieved 26 September 207. {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320151120/http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/locations/index.asp |date=20 March 2015 }}</ref> [[District Courts of Scotland|District courts]] were introduced in 1975 for minor offences and small claims. These were gradually replaced by [[Justice of the Peace Court]]s from 2008 to 2010. The [[Court of the Lord Lyon]] regulates heraldry.

For three centuries the Scots legal system was unique for being the only national legal system without a parliament. This ended with the advent of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, which legislates for Scotland. Many features within the system have been preserved. Within criminal law, the Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts: "guilty", "not guilty" and "''[[not proven]]''".<ref>{{Cite news |title=The case for keeping 'not proven' verdict |work=Timesonline.co.uk |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article431121.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> Both "not guilty" and "not proven" result in an [[acquittal]], typically with no possibility of retrial in accordance with the rule of [[double jeopardy]]. A retrial can hear new evidence at a later date that might have proven conclusive in the earlier trial at first instance, where the person acquitted subsequently admits the offence or where it can be proved that the acquittal was tainted by an attempt to [[Perverting the course of justice|pervert the course of justice]]. Scots juries, sitting in criminal cases, consist of fifteen jurors, which is three more than is typical in many countries.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 May 2009 |title=Scotland's unique 15-strong juries will not be abolished |work=The Scotsman |url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/scotland-s-unique-15-strong-juries-will-not-be-abolished-1-1037747 |access-date=13 March 2017}}</ref>

The [[Lord Advocate]] is the chief legal officer of the [[Scottish Government]] and [[the Crown]] in Scotland. The Lord Advocate is the head of the systems in Scotland for the investigation and prosecution of crime, the investigation of deaths as well as serving as the principal legal adviser to the Scottish Government and representing the government in legal proceedings.<ref name="auto">{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/lord-advocate/ | title=Lord Advocate | date=16 August 2021 }}</ref> They are the chief [[public prosecutor]] for Scotland and all [[prosecution]]s on indictment are conducted by the [[Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service]] in the Lord Advocate's name on behalf of the Monarch.<ref name="auto"/> The officeholder is one of the [[Great Officers of State (United Kingdom)#Scotland|Great Officers of State]] of Scotland. The current Lord Advocate is [[Dorothy Bain]], who was nominated by First Minister Nicola Sturgeon and appointed in June 2021.<Ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/dorothy-bain-qc/ | title=Rt Hon Dorothy Bain KC }}</ref> The Lord Advocate is supported by the [[Solicitor General for Scotland]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.scot/about/who-runs-government/cabinet-and-ministers/solicitor-general/ | title=Solicitor General }}</ref>

The [[Scottish Prison Service]] (SPS) manages the prisons in Scotland, which collectively house over 8,500 prisoners.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prisoner Population |url=http://www.sps.gov.uk/default.aspx?documentid=7811a7f1-6c61-4667-a12c-f102bbf5b808 |access-date=8 July 2009 |publisher=Sps.gov.uk}}</ref> The [[Cabinet Secretary for Justice]] is responsible for the Scottish Prison Service within the Scottish Government.

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Scotland}}
{{further|Economic history of Scotland|Taxation in Scotland|Scottish budget}}[[File:Skyline of Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|[[Edinburgh]], the 13th-largest financial centre in the world and 4th largest in Europe in 2020<ref>{{Cite web |last=McSherry |first=Mark |title=Edinburgh 4th in Europe in new Financial Centres index – Scottish Financial Review |url=https://scottishfinancialreview.com/2020/09/25/edinburgh-4th-in-europe-in-new-financial-centres-index/}}</ref>]]
[[File:NT2673 - Rockstar North.jpg|thumb|right|Global headquarters of [[Rockstar North]]; developers of best–selling game franchise ''[[Grand Theft Auto]]'', is part of "[[Silicon Glen]]"]]

Scotland has a Western-style [[Open economy|open]] [[mixed economy]] closely linked with the rest of the UK and the wider world. Edinburgh is the financial services centre of Scotland, with many large finance firms based there, including: [[Lloyds Banking Group]], the [[Bank of Scotland]], the Government-owned [[Royal Bank of Scotland]] and [[Standard Life]]. Edinburgh was ranked 15th in the [[Global Financial Centres Index|list of world financial centres]] in 2007, but fell to 37th in 2012, following damage to its reputation,<ref>Askeland, Erikka (20 March 2012) [http://www.scotsman.com/business/scots-cities-slide-down-chart-of-the-world-s-top-financial-centres-1-2182954 "Scots Cities Slide down Chart of the World's Top Financial Centres"]. ''The Scotsman''.</ref> and in 2016 was ranked 56th out of 86.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 2016 |title=The Global Financial Centres Index 19 |url=http://www.longfinance.net/global-financial-centre-index-19/976-gfci-19-the-overall-rankings.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408123054/http://www.longfinance.net/global-financial-centre-index-19/976-gfci-19-the-overall-rankings.html |archive-date=8 April 2016 |access-date=6 July 2016 |publisher=Long Finance}}</ref> Its status had returned to 17th by 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GFCI 27 Rank – Long Finance |url=https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-27-explore-data/gfci-27-rank |website=www.longfinance.net}}</ref> Traditionally, the Scottish economy was dominated by [[heavy industry]] underpinned by shipbuilding in Glasgow, coal mining and [[steel making|steel industries]]. Petroleum related industries associated with the extraction of [[North Sea oil]] have also been important employers from the 1970s, especially in the north-east of Scotland. De-industrialisation during the 1970s and 1980s saw a shift from a manufacturing focus towards a more [[Tertiary sector of economic activity|service]]-oriented economy. The [[Scottish National Investment Bank]] was established by the Scottish Government in 2020, which uses public money to fund commercial projects across Scotland with the hope that this seed capital will encourage further private investment, to help develop a fairer, more sustainable economy. £2 billion of taxpayers money was earmarked for the bank.<ref name=bbc>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-55035520|title=Scotland's national investment bank launches|date=23 November 2020|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=23 November 2020}}</ref>

Scotland's gross domestic product (GDP), including oil and gas produced in Scottish waters, was estimated at £150 billion for the calendar year 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scottish Government |title=Key Economy Statistics |url=http://www.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Economy |access-date=22 August 2014}}</ref> In 2014, Scotland's per capita GDP was one of the highest in the EU.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Mehreen |date=12 September 2014 |title=The Scottish economy in ten essential charts |work=Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11084406/The-Scottish-economy-in-ten-essential-charts.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=1 August 2018 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11084406/The-Scottish-economy-in-ten-essential-charts.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> As of April 2019 the Scottish unemployment rate was 3.3%, below the UK's overall rate of 3.8%, and the Scottish employment rate was 75.9%.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 June 2019 |title=Scotland's employment rate hits record high |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-48594025 |access-date=24 July 2019}}</ref> In 2014, total Scottish exports (excluding intra-UK trade) were estimated to be £27.5 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scottish Government |title=Export Statistics Scotland – Publication |url=http://www.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Economy/Exports/ESSPublication |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208211027/http://www.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Economy/Exports/ESSPublication |archive-date=8 February 2016 |access-date=14 December 2014}}</ref> Scotland's primary exports include [[whisky]], electronics and financial services.<ref name="Trade">{{Cite web |date=April 2003 |title=Economy Statistics |url=http://www.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Economy/Q/pno/1 |access-date=26 May 2014 |publisher=The Scottish Government}}</ref> The United States, Netherlands, Germany, France, and Norway constitute the country's major export markets.<ref name="Trade"/> Whisky is one of Scotland's more known goods of economic activity. Exports increased by 87% in the decade to 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 April 2013 |title=Scotch Whisky Exports Hit Record Level |url=http://www.scotch-whisky.org.uk/news-publications/publications/documents/scotch-whisky-exports-hit-record-level |access-date=12 June 2013 |publisher=Scotch Whisky Association |archive-date=31 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531090235/http://www.scotch-whisky.org.uk/news-publications/publications/documents/scotch-whisky-exports-hit-record-level/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and were valued at £4.3 billion in 2013, which was 85% of Scotland's food and drink exports.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 April 2014 |title=Scotch Whisky Exports Remain Flat |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-scotland-business-26974320 |access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref> It supports around 10,000 jobs directly and 25,000 indirectly.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotch Whisky Briefing 2014 |url=http://www.scotch-whisky.org.uk/news-publications/publications/documents/scotch-whisky-briefing-2014 |access-date=30 May 2014 |publisher=Scotch Whisky Association |archive-date=31 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531090407/http://www.scotch-whisky.org.uk/news-publications/publications/documents/scotch-whisky-briefing-2014/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> It may contribute £400–682 million to Scotland, rather than several billion pounds, as more than 80% of whisky produced is owned by non-Scottish companies.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Carrell, Severin |last2=Griffiths, Ian |last3=Terry Macalister, Terry |date=29 May 2014 |title=New Doubt Cast over Alex Salmond's Claims of Scottish Wealth |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/may/29/scotland-wealth-alex-salmond-study |access-date=30 May 2014 |website=The Guardian}}</ref> A briefing published in 2002 by the Scottish Parliament Information Centre (SPICe) for the Scottish Parliament's Enterprise and Life Long Learning Committee stated that tourism accounted for up to 5% of GDP and 7.5% of employment.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2002 |title=The Economics of Tourism |url=http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/business/research/pdf_res_brief/sb02-97.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051106161727/http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/business/research/pdf_res_brief/sb02-97.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2005 |access-date=22 October 2007 |publisher=SPICe}}</ref>

Scotland was one of the industrial powerhouses of Europe from the time of the [[Industrial Revolution]] onwards, being a world leader in manufacturing.<ref>{{Cite news |last=BBC |date=17 October 2012 |title=Scotland profile |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/7219799.stm |access-date=31 October 2013}}</ref> This left a legacy in the diversity of goods and services which Scotland produces, from textiles, [[whisky]] and [[shortbread]] to jet engines, buses, computer software, [[investment management]] and other related financial services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish Goods and Services {{!}} Scotland.org {{!}} Scotland.org |url=https://www.scotland.org/business/goods-and-services |access-date=17 January 2021 |website=Scotland |language=en}}</ref> In common with most other advanced industrialised economies, Scotland has seen a decline in the importance of both manufacturing industries and primary-based extractive industries. This has been combined with a rise in the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service]] sector of the economy, which has grown to be the largest sector in Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland: a trading nation - gov.scot |url=https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotland-a-trading-nation/sectors/financial-and-business-services |access-date=17 January 2021 |website=www.gov.scot}}</ref>

===Income and poverty===
{{Main|Income tax in Scotland}}
{{further|Scottish variable rate|Scottish Consolidated Fund|Government Expenditure and Revenue Scotland}}
[[File:Museum on the mound, Edinburgh (41404375864).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Bank of Scotland]] is one of the oldest banks in the world]]
The average weekly income for workplace based employees in Scotland is £573,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://statistics.gov.scot/resource?uri=http://statistics.gov.scot/data/earnings/year/2021/S92000003/gender/all/working-pattern/all-patterns/population-group/workplace-based/pounds-gbp/mean|title=Earnings: an observation – Mean and median gross weekly earnings (£s) by gender, working pattern and workplace/residence measure: Workplace based |website=statistics.gov.scot |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> and £576 for residence based employees.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://statistics.gov.scot/resource?uri=http://statistics.gov.scot/data/earnings/year/2021/S92000003/gender/all/working-pattern/all-patterns/population-group/residence-based/pounds-gbp/mean|title=Earnings: an observation – Mean and median gross weekly earnings (£s) by gender, working pattern and workplace/residence measure: Residence based |website=statistics.gov.scot |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> Scotland has the third highest median gross salary between the [[Countries of the United Kingdom]] and regions at £26,007 and is higher than the overall UK average annual salary of £25,971.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web | url=https://digitalpublications.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefings/Report/2022/3/9/ce765259-d82e-4db7-8ecf-802683f7e56b | title=Earnings in Scotland: 2021 }}</ref> With an average of £14.28, Scotland has the third highest median hourly rate (excluding overtime working hours) of any of the countries of the United Kingdom, and like the annual salary, is higher than the average UK figure as a whole.<Ref>{{cite web | url=https://digitalpublications.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefings/Report/2022/3/9/ce765259-d82e-4db7-8ecf-802683f7e56b | title=Earnings in Scotland: 2021 }}</ref> The highest paid industries in Scotland tend of be in the [[utility]] [[electricity]], [[gas]] and [[air conditioning]] sectors,<Ref>{{cite web | url=https://digitalpublications.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefings/Report/2022/3/9/ce765259-d82e-4db7-8ecf-802683f7e56b | title=Earnings in Scotland: 2021 }}</ref> with industries like [[tourism]], accommodation and food and drink tend to be the lowest paid<ref name="auto1"/> The top [[local authorities|local authority]] for pay by where people live is [[East Renfrewshire]] (£20.87 per hour).<Ref>{{cite web | url=https://digitalpublications.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefings/Report/2022/3/9/ce765259-d82e-4db7-8ecf-802683f7e56b | title=Earnings in Scotland: 2021 }}</ref>

The top local authority for pay based on where people work are; [[East Ayrshire]] (£16.92 per hour). Scotland's cities commonly have the largest salaries in Scotland for where people work.<Ref>{{cite web | url=https://digitalpublications.parliament.scot/ResearchBriefings/Report/2022/3/9/ce765259-d82e-4db7-8ecf-802683f7e56b | title=Earnings in Scotland: 2021 }}</ref> 2021/2022 date indicates that there were 2.6 million [[dwellings]] across Scotland, with 318,369 [[local authority]] dwellings.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.scot/news/annual-housing-statistics-2020-21/ | title=Annual Housing Statistics, 2020-21 }}</ref> Typical prices for a house in Scotland was £195,391 in August 2022.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/uk-house-price-index-for-august-2022/uk-house-price-index-scotland-august-2022 | title=UK House Price Index Scotland: August 2022 }}</ref>

Between 2016 and 2020, the Scottish Government estimated that 10% of people in Scotland were in persistent poverty following housing costs, with similar rates of persistent poverty for children (10%), working-age adults (10%) and pensioners (11%).<ref name="persistentpoverty2022">{{cite web |url=https://data.gov.scot/poverty/2022/persistent.html |title=Persistent Poverty in Scotland 2010–2020 |publisher=Scottish Government |date=31 March 2022 |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> Persistent child poverty rates had seen a relatively sharp drop, however, the accuracy of this was deemed to be questionable due to a number of various factors such as households re-entering the longitudinal sample allowing data gaps to be filled.<ref name="persistentpoverty2022"/> The Scottish Government introduced the Scottish Child Payment in 2021 for low income families with children under six years of age in an attempt to reduce child poverty rates, with families receiving a payment of roughly £1,040 per year.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.scot/policies/social-security/scottish-child-payment/ | title=Scottish Child Payment }}</ref> As of October 2023, 10% of the Scottish population were estimated to be living in poverty.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-10-02 |title=One in 10 Scots living in 'very deep poverty' |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-66982168 |access-date=2023-10-02}}</ref>

=== Currency ===

{{Main|Banknotes of Scotland}}
[[File:RoyBankScotland100.jpg|thumb|Example of a [[Royal Bank of Scotland]] banknote]]
Although the [[Bank of England]] is the [[central bank]] for the UK, three Scottish [[Clearing bank (United Kingdom)|clearing banks]] issue [[Pound sterling|Sterling]] [[banknote]]s: the [[Bank of Scotland]], the [[Royal Bank of Scotland]] and the [[Clydesdale Bank]]. The issuing of banknotes by [[retail bank]]s in Scotland is subject to the [[Banking Act 2009]], which repealed all earlier legislation under which banknote issuance was regulated, and the Scottish and Northern Ireland Banknote Regulations 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 2017 |title=The Bank of England's approach to regulating Scottish and Northern Ireland commercial banknotes |url=https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/-/media/boe/files/banknotes/scottish-northern-ireland/scottish-and-northern-ireland-regime-approach.pdf |access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref>

The value of the Scottish banknotes in circulation in 2013 was £3.8 billion, underwritten by the Bank of England using funds deposited by each clearing bank, under the [[Banking Act 2009]], to cover the total value of such notes in circulation.<ref name="Banknotes">{{Cite news |title=Scottish Banknotes: The Treasury's Symbolic Hostage in the Independence Debate |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/scottish-independence-blog/2013/apr/22/scottish-independence-banknotes |access-date=26 May 2014}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

===Infrastructure and transportation===

{{See also|Nuclear power in Scotland|Renewable energy in Scotland|Transport in Scotland}}

[[File:Barra Airport Arrivals (geograph 3230484).jpg|thumb|right|[[Barra Airport]], the only airport in the world to use a [[Tide|tidal]] [[beach]] as the runway]]
[[File:ScotRail Class 170 Forth Bridge.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Forth Bridge]] in Edinburgh, a well-known structure in Scottish rail and a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]

Scotland's primary sources for energy are provided through renewable energy (61.8%), nuclear (25.7%) and fossil fuel generation (10.9%).<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=Quarterly energy statistics bulletins |url=http://www.gov.scot/publications/quarterly-energy-statistics-bulletins |access-date=2022-03-03 |website=www.gov.scot |language=en}}</ref> In Scotland, 98.6% of all electricity used was from renewable sources. This is minus net exports.<ref name=":10"/> Between October 2021 and September 2022 63.1% of all electricity generated in Scotland was from renewable sources, 83.6% was classed as low carbon and 14.5% was from fossil fuels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish Energy Statistics Hub: Proportion of electricity consumption by fuel |url=https://scotland.shinyapps.io/Energy/?Section=RenLowCarbon&Subsection=RenElec&Chart=ElecConsumptionFuel |access-date=7 October 2022 |website=scotland.shinyapps.io}}</ref> The Scottish Government has a target to have the equivalent of 50% of the energy for Scotland's heat, transport and electricity consumption to be supplied from renewable sources by 2030.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The future of energy in Scotland: Scottish energy strategy |url=https://www.gov.scot/publications/scottish-energy-strategy-future-energy-scotland-9781788515276/pages/5 |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=Gov.scot}}</ref>

Scotland has five international airports operating scheduled services to Europe, North America and Asia, as well as domestic services to England, Northern Ireland and Wales. [[Highlands and Islands Airports]] operates eleven airports across the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]], [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]] and the [[Western Isles]], which are primarily used for short distance, public service operations, although Inverness Airport has a number of scheduled flights to destinations across the UK and mainland Europe. Edinburgh Airport is currently Scotland's busiest airport handling over 13 million passengers in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Datasets – UK Civil Aviation Authority |url=https://www.caa.co.uk/Data-and-analysis/UK-aviation-market/Airports/Datasets |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=Caa.co.uk}}</ref> It is also the UK's 6th busiest airport. [[British Airways]], [[EasyJet]], [[Jet2]], and [[Ryanair]] operate the majority of flights between Scotland and other major UK and European airports.

[[Network Rail]] owns and operates the fixed infrastructure assets of the railway system in Scotland, while the Scottish Government retains overall responsibility for rail strategy and funding in Scotland.<ref name="Office of Rail Regulation">[https://web.archive.org/web/20050722065527/http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/238.pdf "Disaggregating Network Rail's expenditure and revenue allowance and future price control framework: a consultation (June 2005)"] [[Office of Rail Regulation]]. Retrieved 2 November 2007.</ref> Scotland's rail network has 359 railway stations and around {{Convert|2760|km|mi|-1|order=flip}} of track.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 March 2020 |title=Scottish Transport Statistics No 38: 2019 Edition Chapter 7: Rail Services |url=https://www.transport.gov.scot/publication/scottish-transport-statistics-no-38-2019-edition/chapter-7-rail-services |access-date=29 April 2020 |website=Transport.gov.scot |publisher=Transport Scotland}}</ref> In 2018–19 there were 102{{Spaces}}million passenger journeys on Scottish railways.<ref>{{Cite web |last=[[Office of Rail and Road]] |date=31 March 2020 |title=Regional Rail Usage 2018–19 Statistical Release |url=https://dataportal.orr.gov.uk/media/1727/regional-rail-usage-2018-19.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728164333/https://dataportal.orr.gov.uk/media/1727/regional-rail-usage-2018-19.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2020 |access-date=29 April 2020 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics (United Kingdom)|Office for National Statistics]]}}</ref>

The Scottish motorways and major [[trunk roads]] are managed by [[Transport Scotland]]. The remainder of the road network is managed by the [[Scottish local authorities]] in each of their areas.

Regular ferry services operate between the Scottish mainland and outlying islands. Ferries serving both the inner and outer [[Hebrides]] are principally operated by the [[state-owned enterprise]] [[Caledonian MacBrayne]]. Services to the [[Northern Isles]] are operated by [[Serco]]. Other routes, served by multiple companies, connect southwest Scotland to [[Northern Ireland]]. [[DFDS Seaways]] operated a freight-only [[Rosyth – Zeebrugge ferry service]], until a fire damaged the vessel DFDS were using.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 April 2018 |title=Ferry freight service axed after fire |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-43864813 |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref> A passenger service was also operated between 2002 and 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 August 2010 |title=Passenger ferry service to stop |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-11041554 |access-date=3 January 2019 |website=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

==Culture and society==
===Scottish music===
{{Main|Culture of Scotland|Music of Scotland|}}
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|image1=PG 1063Burns Naysmithcrop.jpg
| width1 = {{#expr: (180 * 540 / 537) round 0}}
| alt1 = Half-length portrait of Robert Burns by Alexander Nasmyth
|image2=Scottish piper.jpg
| width2 = {{#expr: (170 * 500 / 537) round 0}}
| alt2 = Man playing bagpipes in the Highlands
|footer=[[Robert Burns]], regarded as the national poet of Scotland is a well known and respected poet worldwide (left). The [[bagpipes]] are a well-known symbol of Scotland and an early example of popular Scottish music (right).}}

[[Scottish music]] is a significant aspect of the nation's culture, with both traditional and modern influences. A famous traditional Scottish instrument is the [[Great Highland bagpipe]], a woodwind reed instrument consisting of three drones and a melody pipe (called the chanter), which are fed continuously by a reservoir of air in a bag. The popularity of [[pipe band]]s—primarily featuring bagpipes, various types of snares and drums, and showcasing Scottish traditional dress and music—has spread throughout the world. Bagpipes are featured in holiday celebrations, parades, funerals, weddings, and other events internationally. Many military regiments have a pipe band of their own. In addition to the Great Highland pipes, several smaller, somewhat quieter [[bellows]]-blown varieties of bagpipe are played in Scotland, including the [[Scottish smallpipes|smallpipes]] and the [[Border pipes]].

[[Music of Scotland#Pop, rock and fusion|Scottish popular music]] has gained an international following, with artists such as [[Lewis Capaldi]], [[Amy Macdonald]], [[KT Tunstall]], [[Nina Nesbitt]], [[Chvrches]], [[Gerry Cinnamon]] and [[Paolo Nutini]] gaining international success. DJ [[Calvin Harris]] was one of the [[List of most-streamed artists on Spotify|most streamed artists on Spotify]] in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/artist/7CajNmpbOovFoOoasH2HaY|title=Calvin Harris {{!}} Spotify|website=[[Spotify]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discoverwalks.com/blog/united-kingdom/top-25-most-popular-scottish-singers/#:~:text=1.,help%20of%20his%20eldest%20brother.|title=Top 25 Most Popular Scottish Singers|author=Lydia|date=4 February 2023|website=discoverwalks.com}}</ref> Musical talent in Scotland is recognised via the [[Scottish Music Awards]], [[Scottish Album of the Year Award]], the [[Scots Trad Music Awards]] and the [[BBC Radio Scotland Young Traditional Musician]] award.

===Literature and media===
{{Main|Scottish literature|Media of Scotland|Scottish art}}
[[File:John Logie Baird in 1917.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Scottish inventor [[John Logie Baird]] demonstrated the first working television system on 26 January 1926.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 January 2016 |title=Who invented the television? How people reacted to John Logie Baird's creation 90 years ago |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/google-doodle/12121474/Who-invented-the-television-John-Logie-Baird-created-the-TV-in-1926.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126005621/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/google-doodle/12121474/Who-invented-the-television-John-Logie-Baird-created-the-TV-in-1926.html |archive-date=26 January 2016}}</ref>]]
Scotland has a literary heritage dating back to the early Middle Ages. The earliest extant literature composed in what is now Scotland was in [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] speech in the 6th century, but is preserved as part of [[Welsh-language literature|Welsh literature]].<ref>R. T. Lambdin and L. C. Lambdin, ''Encyclopedia of Medieval Literature'' (London: Greenwood, 2000), {{ISBN|0-313-30054-2}}, p. 508.</ref> Later medieval literature included works in Latin,<ref>I. Brown, T. Owen Clancy, M. Pittock, S. Manning, eds, ''The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: From Columba to the Union, until 1707'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), {{ISBN|0-7486-1615-2}}, p. 94.</ref> Gaelic,<ref>J. T. Koch, ''Celtic Culture: a Historical Encyclopedia'' (ABC-CLIO, 2006), {{ISBN|1-85109-440-7}}, p. 999.</ref> Old English<ref>E. M. Treharne, ''Old and Middle English c.890-c.1400: an Anthology'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2004), {{ISBN|1-4051-1313-8}}, p. 108.</ref> and French.<ref>M. Fry, ''Edinburgh'' (London: Pan Macmillan, 2011), {{ISBN|0-330-53997-3}}.</ref> The first surviving major text in [[Early Scots]] is the 14th-century poet [[John Barbour (poet)|John Barbour]]'s epic ''[[The Brus|Brus]]'', focusing on the life of Robert I,<ref>N. Jayapalan, ''History of English Literature'' (Atlantic, 2001), {{ISBN|81-269-0041-5}}, p. 23.</ref> and was soon followed by a series of vernacular romances and prose works.<ref name="Wormald1991pp60-7">J. Wormald, ''Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), {{ISBN|0-7486-0276-3}}, pp. 60–67.</ref> In the 16th century, the crown's patronage helped the development of Scots drama and poetry,<ref name="Brownetalpp256-7">I. Brown, T. Owen Clancy, M. Pittock, S. Manning, eds, ''The Edinburgh History of Scottish Literature: From Columba to the Union, until 1707'' (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), {{ISBN|0-7486-1615-2}}, pp. 256–257.</ref> but the accession of James VI to the English throne removed a major centre of literary patronage and Scots was sidelined as a literary language.<ref>[[R. D. S. Jack]], "Poetry under King James VI", in C. Cairns, ed., ''The History of Scottish Literature'' (Aberdeen University Press, 1988), vol. 1, {{ISBN|0-08-037728-9}}, pp. 137–138.</ref> Interest in Scots literature was revived in the 18th century by figures including [[James Macpherson]], whose [[Ossian|Ossian Cycle]] made him the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation and was a major influence on the European Enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=J. Buchan |url=https://archive.org/details/crowdedwithgeniu00buch/page/163 |title=Crowded with Genius |publisher=Harper Collins |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-06-055888-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/crowdedwithgeniu00buch/page/163 163]}}</ref> It was also a major influence on [[Robert Burns]], whom many consider the national poet,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=L. McIlvanney |date=Spring 2005 |title=Hugh Blair, Robert Burns, and the Invention of Scottish Literature |journal=Eighteenth-Century Life |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=25–46 |doi=10.1215/00982601-29-2-25 |s2cid=144358210}}</ref> and [[Walter Scott]], whose [[Waverley Novels]] did much to define Scottish identity in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=N. Davidson |url=https://archive.org/details/originsscottishn00davi |title=The Origins of Scottish Nationhood |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7453-1608-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/originsscottishn00davi/page/n141 136] |url-access=limited}}</ref> Towards the end of the Victorian era a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations as writers in English, including [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], [[J. M. Barrie]] and [[George MacDonald]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Cultural Profile: 19th and early 20th century developments |url=http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5402.html |url-status=dead |journal=Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034445/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5402.html |archive-date=30 September 2011}}</ref>

In the 20th century the [[Scottish Renaissance]] saw a surge of literary activity and attempts to reclaim the Scots language as a medium for serious literature.<ref name="VisitingArtsScotland">{{Cite journal |title=The Scottish 'Renaissance' and beyond |url=http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html |url-status=dead |journal=Visiting Arts: Scotland: Cultural Profile |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930034437/http://www.culturalprofiles.net/scotland/Directories/Scotland_Cultural_Profile/-5403.html |archive-date=30 September 2011}}</ref> Members of the movement were followed by a new generation of post-war poets including [[Edwin Morgan (poet)|Edwin Morgan]], who would be appointed the first [[Scots Makar]] by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004.<ref>{{Cite press release |date=16 February 2004 |title=The Scots Makar |url=http://www.gov.scot/News/Releases/2004/02/5075 |url-status=dead |publisher=The Scottish Government |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204042020/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2004/02/5075 |archive-date=4 February 2012 |access-date=28 October 2007}}</ref> From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of writers including [[Irvine Welsh]].<ref name=VisitingArtsScotland/> Scottish poets who emerged in the same period included [[Carol Ann Duffy]], who, in May 2009, was the first Scot named the monarch's [[Poet Laureate]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1 May 2009 |title=Duffy reacts to new Laureate post |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8029388.stm |url-status=dead |journal=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111030093931/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8029388.stm |archive-date=30 October 2011}}</ref>

National newspapers such as the [[Daily Record (Scotland)|''Daily Record'']], [[The Herald (Glasgow)|''The Herald'']], ''[[The Scotsman]]'' and ''[[The National (Scotland)|The National]]'' are all produced in Scotland.<ref name="Newspapers">{{Cite web |title=Newspapers and National Identity in Scotland |url=http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla68/papers/051-127e.pdf |access-date=12 December 2006 |publisher=IFLA University of Stirling}}</ref> Important regional dailies include the [[Edinburgh Evening News|Evening News]] in Edinburgh, ''[[The Courier (Dundee)|The Courier]]'' in Dundee in the east, and ''[[The Press and Journal (Scotland)|The Press and Journal]]'' serving Aberdeen and the north.<ref name="Newspapers"/> Scotland is represented at the [[Celtic Media Festival]], which showcases film and television from the Celtic countries. Scottish entrants have won many awards since the festival began in 1980.<ref name="Media 1">{{Cite web |year=2014 |title=About Us::Celtic Media Festival |url=http://www.celticmediafestival.co.uk/about |access-date=3 January 2014 |website=Celtic Media Festival website |publisher=[[Celtic Media Festival]]}}</ref>

Scotland's national broadcaster is [[BBC Scotland]], a division of the [[BBC]], which runs three national [[Scottish television stations|television stations]] [[BBC One Scotland]], [[BBC Scotland (TV channel)|BBC Scotland channel]] and the Gaelic-language broadcaster [[BBC Alba]], and the national radio stations, ''[[BBC Radio Scotland]]'' and ''[[BBC Radio nan Gàidheal]]'', among others. The main Scottish commercial television station is [[STV (TV network)|STV]] which broadcasts on two of the three [[ITV (network)|ITV]] regions of Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ITV Media – STV |url=https://www.itvmedia.co.uk/itv-regions/stv |website=www.itvmedia.co.uk}}</ref>
{{clear}}

=== Celtic connections ===
{{Further|Celtic nations}}
As one of the [[Celtic nations]], Scotland and Scottish culture are represented at inter-Celtic events at home and over the world. Scotland hosts several music festivals including [[Celtic Connections]] (Glasgow), and the [[Hebridean Celtic Festival]] (Stornoway). Festivals celebrating Celtic culture, such as [[Festival Interceltique de Lorient]] ([[Brittany]]), the [[Pan Celtic Festival]] (Ireland), and the National Celtic Festival ([[Portarlington, Victoria|Portarlington]], Australia), feature elements of Scottish culture such as language, music and dance.<ref name="Celtic connections 1">{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Celtic connections:Scotland's premier winter music festival |url=http://www.celticconnections.com |access-date=23 January 2010 |website=Celtic connections website |publisher=[[Celtic Connections]]}}</ref><ref name="Festival 1">{{Cite web |year=2009 |title=Site Officiel du Festival Interceltique de Lorient |url=http://www.festival-interceltique.com/le-monde-des-celtes-et-de-la-celtie.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305062016/http://www.festival-interceltique.com/le-monde-des-celtes-et-de-la-celtie.php |archive-date=5 March 2010 |access-date=23 January 2010 |website=Festival Interceltique de Lorient website |publisher=[[Festival Interceltique de Lorient]]}}</ref><ref name="Dingle 1">{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Welcome to the Pan Celtic 2010 Home Page |url=http://www.panceltic.ie |access-date=26 January 2010 |website=Pan Celtic Festival 2010 website |publisher=[[Fáilte Ireland]]}}</ref><ref name="Festival 3">{{Cite web |year=2009 |title=About the Festival |url=http://www.nationalcelticfestival.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24&Itemid=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119080041/http://www.nationalcelticfestival.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24&Itemid=26 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |access-date=23 January 2010 |website=National Celtic Festival website |publisher=National Celtic Festival}}</ref>

=== National identity ===
{{Further|Scottish people|National symbols of Scotland}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 320
| image_style = border:yes;

| image1 = Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland.svg
| alt1 = Royal Arms of Scotland
| caption1 = The [[Royal Arms of Scotland]]

| image2 = Scottish Thistle (Heraldry).svg
| alt2 = Scottish Thistle
| caption2 = The [[thistle]], the [[national emblem]] of Scotland
}}

The image of [[Saint Andrew|St. Andrew]], martyred while bound to an X-shaped cross, first appeared in the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] during the reign of [[William the Lion|William I]].<ref name="NAS">[http://www.nas.gov.uk/about/051124.asp "Feature: Saint Andrew seals Scotland's independence"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916085046/http://www.nas.gov.uk/about/051124.asp |date=16 September 2013 }}, ''The National Archives of Scotland'', 28 November 2007, retrieved 12 September 2009.</ref> Following the death of [[Alexander III of Scotland|King Alexander III]] in 1286 an image of Andrew was used on the [[Seal (emblem)|seal]] of the [[Guardians of Scotland]] who assumed control of the kingdom during the subsequent [[interregnum]].<ref name="autogenerated2">{{Cite web |date=28 November 2007 |title=Feature: Saint Andrew seals Scotland's independence |url=http://www.nas.gov.uk/about/051124.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130916085046/http://www.nas.gov.uk/about/051124.asp |archive-date=16 September 2013 |access-date=9 December 2009 |publisher=The National Archives of Scotland}}</ref> Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew, the [[saltire]], has its origins in the late 14th century; the [[Parliament of Scotland]] decreeing in 1385 that Scottish soldiers should wear a white Saint Andrew's Cross on the front and back of their tunics.<ref>Dickinson, Donaldson, Milne (eds.), A Source Book Of Scottish History, Nelson and Sons Ltd, Edinburgh 1952, p.205</ref> Use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century.<ref>G. Bartram, [http://www.flaginstitute.org/images/page10_large.gif www.flaginstitute.org ''British Flags & Emblems''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109055700/http://www.flaginstitute.org/images/page10_large.gif |date=9 November 2012 }} (Edinburgh: Tuckwell Press, 2004), {{ISBN|1-86232-297-X}}, p. 10.</ref> Since 1606 the saltire has also formed part of the design of the [[Union Flag]]. There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the [[thistle]], the nation's [[national emblem|floral emblem]] (celebrated in the song, [[The Thistle o' Scotland]]), the [[Declaration of Arbroath]], incorporating a statement of political independence made on 6 April 1320, the textile pattern [[tartan]] that often signifies a particular [[Scottish clan]] and the royal [[Royal Standard of Scotland|Lion Rampant]] flag.<ref>"National identity" in M. Lynch (ed.), ''The Oxford Companion to Scottish History'', (Oxford, 2001), pp. 437–444.</ref><ref>Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) ''Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland''. London. HarperCollins. Page 936.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Symbols of Scotland—Index |url=http://www.rampantscotland.com/symbols/blsymbols_index.htm |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Rampantscotland.com}}</ref> Highlanders can thank [[James Graham, 3rd Duke of Montrose]], for the repeal in 1782 of the Act of 1747 prohibiting the wearing of tartans.<ref name="Works">{{Cite book |last=Bain |first=Robert |title=Clans & Tartans of Scotland (revised) |publisher=William Collins Sons & Co., Ltd. |others=P.E. Stewart-Blacker (heralidic advisor), foreword by The R. Hon. C/refountess of Erroll |year=1959 |editor-last=Margaret O. MacDougall |page=108}}</ref>


Although there is no official [[national anthem of Scotland]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 March 2006 |title=Action call over national anthem |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/4828454.stm |access-date=3 November 2011}}</ref> ''[[Flower of Scotland]]'' is played on special occasions and sporting events such as football and rugby matches involving the Scotland national teams and since 2010 is also played at the Commonwealth Games after it was voted the overwhelming favourite by participating Scottish athletes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 January 2010 |title=Games team picks new Scots anthem |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/8449939.stm}}</ref> Other currently less popular candidates for the National Anthem of Scotland include ''[[Scotland the Brave]]'', ''[[Highland Cathedral]]'', ''[[Scots Wha Hae]]'' and ''[[A Man's A Man for A' That]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 May 2014 |title=Background Info |url=http://www.parliament.scot/gettinginvolved/petitions/PE01500-PE01599/PE01541_BackgroundInfo.aspx |access-date=17 January 2021 |website=www.parliament.scot}}</ref>

[[St Andrew's Day]], 30 November, is the [[national day]], although [[Burns' Night]] tends to be more widely observed, particularly outside Scotland. In 2006, the Scottish Parliament passed the [[St Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007]], designating the day an official [[bank holiday]].<ref>[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/en2007/2007en02.htm "Explanatory Notes to St. Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001002638/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/en2007/2007en02.htm |date=1 October 2007 }} Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 22 September 2007.</ref> [[Tartan Day]] is a recent innovation from Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tartan Day in Canada {{!}} Scotland.org |url=https://www.scotland.org/events/scotland-week/tartan-day-in-canada |access-date=17 August 2021 |website=Scotland |language=en |archive-date=25 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425221329/https://scotland.org/events/scotland-week/tartan-day-in-canada |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The national animal of Scotland is the [[unicorn]], which has been a Scottish heraldic symbol since the 12th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scottish fact of the week: Scotland's official animal, the Unicorn |url=http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/heritage/scottish-fact-of-the-week-scotland-s-official-animal-the-unicorn-1-2564399 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016033524/http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/heritage/scottish-fact-of-the-week-scotland-s-official-animal-the-unicorn-1-2564399 |archive-date=16 October 2015 |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Scotsman.com}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Scottish cuisine}}
[[File:Haggis neeps and tatties.jpg|thumb|[[Haggis]], [[Rutabaga|neeps]] and [[Potato|tatties]]]]
Scottish cuisine has distinctive attributes and recipes of its own but shares much with wider [[British cuisine|British]] and [[European cuisine]] as a result of local and foreign influences, both ancient and modern. Traditional Scottish dishes exist alongside international foodstuffs brought about by migration. Scotland's natural larder of [[Game (food)|game]], dairy products, fish, fruit, and vegetables is the chief factor in traditional Scots cooking, with a high reliance on simplicity and a lack of [[spice]]s from abroad, as these were historically rare and expensive.

[[Irn-Bru]] is the most common Scottish carbonated soft drink, often described as "Scotland's other national drink" (after whisky).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brooks |first=Libby |date=30 May 2007 |title=Scotland's other national drink |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/may/30/scotlandsothernationaldrink |access-date=5 January 2020}}</ref> During the [[Late Middle Ages]] and [[early modern era]], [[French cuisine]] played a role in Scottish cookery due to cultural exchanges brought about by the "[[Auld Alliance]]",<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gail Kilgore |title=The Auld Alliance and its Influence on Scottish Cuisine |url=http://www.historichighlanders.com/auldfood.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924030355/http://www.historichighlanders.com/auldfood.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=29 July 2006}}</ref> especially during the reign of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]]. Mary, on her return to Scotland, brought an entourage of French staff who are considered responsible for revolutionising Scots cooking and for some of Scotland's unique food terminology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Traditional Scottish Food – Brief History of Food in Scotland |url=https://www.taste-of-scotland.com/traditional-scottish-food-scotlands-cuisine |access-date=17 January 2021 |website=Taste of Scotland |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Scotland}}
[[File:Brazil v Scotland 25 (5575226993).jpg|thumb|right|Scotland's [[Scotland national football team|national football team]]'s fans are commonly known as ''The Tartan Army'']]
[[File:Old 18th tee lr.jpg|thumb|The [[Old Course at St Andrews]], the oldest [[golf]] course in the world]]
Scotland hosts its own national sporting competitions and has independent representation at several international sporting events, including the [[FIFA World Cup]], the [[UEFA Nations League]], the [[UEFA European Championship]], the [[Rugby Union World Cup]], the [[Rugby League World Cup]], the [[Cricket World Cup]], the [[Netball World Cup]] and the [[Commonwealth Games]]. Scotland has its own national governing bodies, such as the [[Scottish Football Association]] (the second oldest national football association in the world)<ref>''Soccer in South Asia: Empire, Nation, Diaspora'' by James Mills, Paul Dimeo: Page 18 – Oldest Football Association is England's FA, then Scotland and third oldest is the Indian FA.</ref> and the [[Scottish Rugby Union]]. Variations of football have been played in Scotland for centuries, with the earliest reference dating back to 1424.<ref name="FIFA">{{Cite web |last=Gerhardt, W. |title=The colourful history of a fascinating game. More than 2000 Years of Football |url=https://www.fifa.com/en/history/history/0,1283,1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810202927/http://www.fifa.com/en/history/history/0%2C1283%2C1%2C00.html |archive-date=10 August 2006 |access-date=11 August 2006 |publisher=[[FIFA]]}}</ref>

The world's first official international association football match, between [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] and [[England national football team|England]] was held in Glasgow 30 November, 1872, and resulted in a 0–0 draw.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uefa.com/insideuefa/news/027c-16b892bcfd7e-1d75251aa5cc-1000--first-ever-international-football-match-recreated-in-glasgow/|title=First ever international football match recreated in Glasgow|date=1 December 2022|website=uefa.com}}</ref> The [[Scottish Cup]] was first contested in 1873, and is the oldest trophy in association football.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scottishfa.co.uk/scottish-cup/archive/scottish-cup-history/|title=Scottish Cup History {{!}} Scottish Cup {{!}} Scottish FA|website=scottishfa.co.uk}}</ref> The [[Scottish Football Association]] (SFA) is the main [[sport governing body|governing body]] for Scottish association football, and a founding member of the [[International Football Association Board]] (IFAB) which governs the [[Laws of the Game (association football)|Laws of the Game]]. Scotland is one of only four countries to have a permanent representative on the IFAB; the other four representatives being appointed for set periods by [[FIFA]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/organisation/ip-100_04e_ifab_9481.pdf|title=IFAB Meetings 1914-2008|website=[[FIFA]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410113056/http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/organisation/ip-100_04e_ifab_9481.pdf|archive-date=10 April 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moore |first=Kevin |title=What you think you know about football is wrong |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2019 |isbn=9781472955678 |chapter=FIFA does not make the rules, and never has}}</ref> The SFA has responsibility for the [[Scotland national football team]] and the [[Scotland women's national football team|Scotland women's team]].

With the modern game of [[golf]] originating in 15th-century Scotland, the country is promoted as the [[Golf in Scotland|home of golf]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scotland is the home of golf |url=http://www.pgatour.com/2008/tourlife/travel/04/08/trans_atlantic/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828200541/http://www.pgatour.com/2008/tourlife/travel/04/08/trans_atlantic/index.html |archive-date=28 August 2008 |access-date=4 December 2008 |publisher=[[PGA Tour]] official website |quote=Scotland is the home of golf...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2007 |title=The Home of Golf |url=http://www.gov.scot/News/Releases/2007/03/06090032 |access-date=4 December 2008 |publisher=Scottish Government |quote=The Royal & Ancient and three public sector agencies are to continue using the Open Championship to promote Scotland as the worldwide home of golf.}}</ref><ref>Keay (1994) ''op cit'' page 839. "In 1834 the [[The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews|Royal and Ancient Golf Club]] declared St. Andrews 'the Alma Mater of golf'".</ref> To many golfers the [[Old Course at St Andrews|Old Course]] in the Fife town of [[St Andrews]], an ancient [[links (golf)|links]] course dating to before 1552,<ref>{{Cite web |title=1574 St Andrews – The Student Golfer |url=http://www.scottishgolfhistory.org/oldest-golf-sites/1574-st-andrews |access-date=1 August 2018 |publisher=Scottish Golf History}}</ref> is considered a site of pilgrimage.<ref>Cochrane, Alistair (ed) ''Science and Golf IV: proceedings of the World Scientific Congress of Golf''. Page 849. Routledge.</ref> In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes.<ref>Forrest L. Richardson (2002). "Routing the Golf Course: The Art & Science That Forms the Golf Journey". p. 46. John Wiley & Sons</ref> The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major, is [[The Open Championship]], which was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club, in Ayrshire, Scotland, with [[Men's major golf championships#Major championship winners|Scottish golfers winning the earliest majors]].<ref>[http://www.pgatour.com/2007/travel/07/16/trans_071607/index.html The Open Championship – More Scottish than British] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002214520/http://www.pgatour.com/2007/travel/07/16/trans_071607/index.html |date=2 October 2012 }} PGA Tour. Retrieved 23 September 2011</ref> There are many other famous [[Golf in Scotland|golf courses in Scotland]], including [[Carnoustie Golf Links|Carnoustie]], [[Gleneagles (Scotland)|Gleneagles]], [[Muirfield]], and [[Royal Troon]].

The Scottish Rugby Union is the second oldest rugby union in the world. [[Murrayfield Stadium]] in Edinburgh is the national stadium of the [[Scotland national rugby union team|Scottish national rugby team]]. The Scotland rugby team played [[1871 Scotland versus England rugby union match|their first official]] [[Test match (rugby union)|test match]], winning 1–0 against England at [[Raeburn Place]] in 1871. Scotland has competed in the [[Six Nations Championship|Six Nations]] from the inaugural tournament in 1883, winning it 14 times outright—including the last Five Nations in [[1999 Five Nations Championship|1999]]—and sharing it another 8. The Rugby World Cup was introduced in 1987 and Scotland have competed in all nine competitions, the most recent being in [[2019 Rugby World Cup]]. Scotland competes with the England rugby team annually for the [[Calcutta Cup]]. Each year, this fixture is played out as part of the Six Nations, with Scotland having last won in 2023.

Other distinctive features of the national sporting culture include the [[Highland games]], [[curling]] and [[shinty]]. In [[boxing]], Scotland has had 13 world champions, including [[Ken Buchanan]], [[Benny Lynch]] and [[Jim Watt (boxer)|Jim Watt]]. Scotland has also been successful in [[motorsport]], particularly in [[Formula One]]. Notable drivers include; [[David Coulthard]], [[Jim Clark]], [[Paul Di Resta]], and [[Jackie Stewart]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 January 2015 |title=10 Scottish motor racing great |url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/sport/other_sports/13199539.10-scottish-motor-racing-great |access-date=30 January 2015 |website=heraldscotland.com}}</ref> In [[IndyCar Series|IndyCar]], [[Dario Franchitti]] has won 4 consecutive [[IndyCar Series|IndyCar world championships]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Oreovicz |first=John |date=4 October 2010 |title=Dario Franchitti seals his place as the greatest Indy car driver of the modern era |url=https://www.espn.com/racing/racing/indycar/columns/story?columnist=oreovicz_john&id=5649822 |access-date=4 October 2010 |website=ESPN.com}}</ref>

Scotland has competed at every [[Commonwealth Games]] since 1930 and has won 356 medals in total—91 Gold, 104 Silver and 161 Bronze.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Medal Tally |url=http://www.cgcs.org.uk/team-scotland/medal-tally |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Cgcs.org.uk}}</ref> Edinburgh played host to the Commonwealth Games in [[1970 British Commonwealth Games|1970]] and [[1986 Commonwealth Games|1986]], and most recently [[Glasgow]] in [[2014 Commonwealth Games|2014]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview and History |url=http://www.cgcs.org.uk/past-games/overview-and-history |access-date=17 September 2014 |website=Cgcs.org.uk}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Celtic languages]]
* [[Celts]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe]]
* [[Outline of Scotland]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Forsyth">{{Cite book |last=Forsyth |first=Katherine |title=Scotland: A History |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199601646 |editor-last=Wormald |editor-first=Jenny |editor-link=Jenny Wormald |location=Oxford |language=en |chapter=Origins: Scotland to 1100 |author-link=Katherine Forsyth |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/scotland00jenn |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>
<ref name="Stringer">{{Cite book |last=Stringer |first=Keith |title=Scotland: A History |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199601646 |editor-last=Wormald |editor-first=Jenny |editor-link=Jenny Wormald |location=Oxford |language=en |chapter=The Emergence of a Nation-State, 1100–1300 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/scotland00jenn |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>
<ref name="Brown">{{Cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Michael |title=Scotland: A History |last2=Boardman |first2=Steve |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199601646 |editor-last=Wormald |editor-first=Jenny |editor-link=Jenny Wormald |location=Oxford |language=en |chapter=Survival and Revival: Late Medieval Scotland |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/scotland00jenn |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>
<ref name="Wormald">{{Cite book |last=Wormald |first=Jenny |title=Scotland: A History |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199601646 |editor-last=Wormald |editor-first=Jenny |location=Oxford |language=en |chapter=Confidence and Perplexity: The Seventeenth Century |author-link=Jenny Wormald |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/scotland00jenn |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>
}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Richard J. |title=The Third Reich at War |publisher=Penguin Group |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-311671-4 |location=New York |author-link=Richard J. Evans}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sereny |first=Gitta |title=Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth |publisher=Vintage |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-679-76812-8 |location=New York |author-link=Gitta Sereny |orig-year=1995}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Devine, T. M. [1999] (2000). ''The Scottish Nation 1700–2000'' (New edition). London: Penguin. {{ISBN|0-14-023004-1}}
* Donnachie, Ian and George Hewitt. ''Dictionary of Scottish History.'' (2001). 384 pp.
* Keay, John, and Julia Keay. ''Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland'' (2nd ed. 2001), 1101pp; 4000 articles; emphasis on history
* Koch, J. T. ''Celtic Culture: a Historical Encyclopedia'' (ABC-CLIO, 2006), {{ISBN|1-85109-440-7}}, 999pp.
* MacGibbon, David and Ross, Thomas, ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/65014 The ecclesiastical architecture of Scotland from the earliest Christian times to the seventeenth century; vol. 3/3]'', (1897).
* Tabraham, Chris, and Colin Baxter. ''The Illustrated History of Scotland'' (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1932573011/ excerpt and text search]
* [[Hugh Trevor-Roper|Trevor-Roper, Hugh]], ''The Invention of Scotland: Myth and History'', Yale, 2008, {{ISBN|0-300-13686-2}}
* Watson, Fiona, ''Scotland; From Prehistory to the Present''. Tempus, 2003. 286 pp.
* Wilson, Neil. ''Lonely Planet Scotland'' (2013)
* Wormald, Jenny, ''Scotland: A History'' (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198206151/ excerpt and text search]
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://www.scotland.org/|name=Scotland}} – official online gateway to Scotland managed by the Scottish Government
* [https://www.visitscotland.com/ Visit Scotland] – official site of Scotland's national tourist board
* [https://www.gov.scot/ Scottish Government] – official site of the [[Scottish Government]]
* {{GovPubs|Scotland}}.
* {{Curlie|Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Scotland}}
* {{OSM relation|58446}}

{{Scotland topics}}
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[[Category:Scotland| ]]
[[Category:Celtic nations]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Great Britain]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
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West Indies

2023-10-08T07:15:54Z

Deepaksuhag: MOS:SOB

{{Short description|Island region of the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean}}
{{About|the island region in the Caribbean and North Atlantic Ocean}}
{{Infobox Continent
|title = West Indies
|image = Antillas (orthographic projection).svg
|area = {{convert|239,681|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
|population = {{UN_Population|Caribbean}}{{UN_Population|ref}}
|density = {{convert|151.5|/km2|abbr=on}}
|GDP_nominal =
|GDP_per_capita =
|ethnic_groups = [[Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean|Amerindian]], [[Afro-Caribbean people|Afro-Caribbean]], [[White Caribbeans]], [[Indo-Caribbeans|Indo-Caribbean]], [[Latin Americans|Latino]] or [[Hispanic]] ([[Spanish people|Spanish]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Mestizo]], [[Mulatto]], [[Pardo]], and [[Zambo]]), [[Chinese Caribbeans|Chinese]], [[Jews|Jewish]], [[Arabs|Arab]], [[Javanese people|Javanese]],<ref>{{cite book |last=McWhorter |title=Defining Creole |page=379 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdxJJVY54nYC&pg=PT387 |isbn=978-0-19-516670-5|first=John H.}}</ref> [[Hmong people|Hmong]], [[Multiracial people|Multiracial]]
|religions = [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Traditional African religions]], [[Rastafari]], [[Native American religion]], [[Judaism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Chinese folk religion]] (incl. [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]]), [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]], [[Kejawèn|Kebatinan]], [[Sikhism]], [[Irreligion]], others
|demonym = [[West Indian]], [[Caribbean people|Caribbean]]
|countries = {{Collapsible list |title = [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the West Indies#Sovereign states|13]] | {{Flag|Antigua and Barbuda}} | {{Flag|Bahamas}} | {{Flag|Barbados}} | {{Flag|Cuba}} | {{Flag|Dominica}} | {{Flag|Dominican Republic}} | {{Flag|Grenada}} | {{Flag|Haiti}} | {{Flag|Jamaica}} | {{Flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}} | {{Flag|Saint Lucia}} | {{Flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}} | {{Flag|Guyana}} | {{Flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}}} |
|list_countries =
|dependencies = {{Collapsible list |title = [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the West Indies#Dependent territories|18]] | {{Flag|Anguilla}} ([[The Crown|UK]]) | {{Flag|Aruba}} ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Netherlands]]) | {{Flag|Bonaire}} ([[Netherlands]]) | {{Flag|British Virgin Islands}} ([[The Crown|UK]]) | {{Flag|Cayman Islands}} ([[The Crown|UK]]) | {{Flag|Curaçao}} ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Netherlands]]) | {{Flag|Guadeloupe|local2}} ([[French Fifth Republic|France]]) | {{Flag|Martinique|territorial}} ([[French Fifth Republic|France]]) | {{Flag|Montserrat}} ([[The Crown|UK]]) | {{Flag|Haiti}}-{{Flag|Navassa Island}} ([[United States]]) and ([[Haiti]]) | {{Flag|Puerto Rico}} ([[United States]]) | {{Flag|Saba}} ([[Netherlands]]) | {{Flag|Saint Barthélemy|local}} ([[France]]) | {{Flagicon image|Local flag of the Collectivity of Saint Martin.svg}} [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint Martin]] ([[France]]) | {{Flag|Sint Eustatius}} ([[Netherlands]]) | {{Flag|Sint Maarten}} ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Netherlands]]) | {{Flag|Turks and Caicos Islands}} ([[The Crown|UK]]) | {{Flag|US Virgin Islands}} ([[United States]])
}}
|languages = [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[French-based creole languages|French Creoles]], [[English-based creole languages|English Creoles]], [[Dutch-based creole languages|Dutch Creoles]], [[Papiamento]], [[Caribbean Hindi]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Languages of the Caribbean|among others]]
|time = [[UTC−05:00]] to [[UTC−04:00]]
|internet = [[List of Internet top-level domains|Multiple]]
|calling_code = [[List of country calling codes|Multiple]]
|cities = [[List of metropolitan areas in the Caribbean]] [[Santo Domingo]] [[Havana]] [[Port-au-Prince]] [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]] [[Santiago de Cuba]] [[Santiago de los Caballeros]] [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]] [[Camagüey]] [[Cap-Haïtien]]
|m49 = <code>029</code> – [[Caribbean]] <code>419</code> – [[Latin America]] <code>019</code> – [[Americas]] <code>001</code> – [[World]]
}}

[[File:Indies.PNG|right|thumb|300px|{{legend|#F60|'''[[East Indies]]'''}}
{{legend|#F96|[[Greater India|Indies]] ([[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Myanmar]])}}
{{legend|#F5DEB3|[[Western New Guinea]]}}
{{legend|#1E90FF|'''West Indies'''}}
{{legend|#ADD8E6|'''Countries sometimes included in West Indies'''}}]]

The '''West Indies''' is a [[Subregion#North America|subregion]] of [[North America]], surrounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Caribbean Sea]], which comprises 13 independent [[island country|island countries]] and 19 [[dependent territory|dependencies]] in three [[archipelago]]s: the [[Greater Antilles]], the [[Lesser Antilles]], and the [[Lucayan Archipelago]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Caldecott |first=Alfred |year=1898 |title=The Church in the West Indies |url=https://archive.org/details/churchinwestind00unkngoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/churchinwestind00unkngoog/page/n17 11] |location=London |publisher=[[Frank Cass and Co.]] |access-date=12 December 2013}}</ref>

The subregion includes all the islands in the [[Antilles]], plus [[The Bahamas]] and the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], which are in the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]]. Nowadays, the term West Indies is often interchangeable with the term [[Caribbean]], although the latter may also include some Central and South American mainland nations which have Caribbean coastlines or coastlines close to the Caribbean, such as [[Belize]], [[French Guiana]], [[Guyana]], and [[Suriname]], as well as the Atlantic island nations of [[Barbados]] and [[Bermuda]], all of which are geographically distinct from the three main island groups (except for Barbados, which is a part of the Lesser Antilles, but situated in the Atlantic Ocean, east of the other West Indies Islands), but culturally related.

==Origin and use of the term==
In 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] became the first European to record his arrival at the islands, where he is believed by historians to have first set foot on land in The Bahamas. After the first of the [[voyages of Christopher Columbus]] to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term ''West Indies'' to distinguish this region from both the original ''"Indies''" (i.e. [[India]]) and the ''[[East Indies]]'' of [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=gtm|title=History of the Caribbean (West Indies)|website=www.historyworld.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/west+indies|title=west+indies | Origin and meaning of phrase west+indies |website= Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/asia/southeast-asia-physical-geography/east-indies|title=East Indies|website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref>

The sport of cricket was popular in most British colonies and during the 1890s, combined [[West Indies cricket team]]s began to play international matches. In the 1920s, the [[West Indies Cricket Board]] was formed and accorded [[test status]].

The sport of cricket came packaged with a British idea of masculinity called Masculine christianity.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Levett |first=Geoffrey |date=2017-05-24 |title=The ‘White Man’s Game’? West Indian Cricket Tours of the 1900s |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09523367.2017.1377184 |journal=The International Journal of the History of Sport |language=en |volume=34 |issue=7-8 |pages=599–618 |doi=10.1080/09523367.2017.1377184 |issn=0952-3367}}</ref> The British implemented sports in the West Indies to instill their presence in the colonies. Cricket is heavily intertwined in the idea of being a morally strong Englishman.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levett |first=Geoffrey |date=2017-05-24 |title=The ‘White Man’s Game’? West Indian Cricket Tours of the 1900s |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09523367.2017.1377184 |journal=The International Journal of the History of Sport |language=en |volume=34 |issue=7-8 |pages=599–618 |doi=10.1080/09523367.2017.1377184 |issn=0952-3367}}</ref> People of color in the West Indies formed their own communal tournaments and thrived at the sport.<ref name=":6" /> Cricket ,in British colonies, challenges the notion the entitlement and superiority of the English.<ref name=":6" />

According to historian, Rosanne Adderley:

<blockquote>[T]he phrase "West Indies" distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus and claimed by Spain from discovery claims by other powers in [Asia's] "East Indies"... The term "West Indies" was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the continent of America... considering British Caribbean colonies collectively as the "West Indies" had its greatest political importance in the 1950s with the movement to create a federation of those colonies that could ultimately become an independent nation... Despite the collapse of the Federation [in the early 1960s]... the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=kp6FAgAAQBAJ&dq=phrase+%22West+Indies%22+distinguished+the+territories+encountered+by+Columbus+and+claimed+by+Spain+from+discovery+claims+by+other&pg=PA1584 Rosanne Adderly, "West Indies"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719044822/https://books.google.fi/books?id=kp6FAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1584&lpg=PA1584&dq=phrase+%22West+Indies%22+distinguished+the+territories+encountered+by+Columbus+and+claimed+by+Spain+from+discovery+claims+by+other&source=bl&ots=a739-RuWo8&sig=ACfU3U11AK2a8n4B2sx3EnCLzc2yukrjmA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwinwdONioT5AhWVHHcKHQRgBJYQ6AF6BQjDARAC#v=onepage&q=phrase%20%22West%20Indies%22%20distinguished%20the%20territories%20encountered%20by%20Columbus%20and%20claimed%20by%20Spain%20from%20discovery%20claims%20by%20other&f=false |date=2022-07-19 }}, in Encyclopedia of Contemporary Latin American and Caribbean Cultures, Volume 1: A-D (London and New York: Routledge, 2000): 1584.</ref></blockquote>

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Caribbean}}

[[History of the Caribbean#Before European contact|Many cultures]] were indigenous to these islands, with evidence dating some of them back to the mid-6th millennium BCE.

In the late sixteenth century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began operations in the [[Caribbean Sea]], attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping and coastal areas. They often took refuge and refitted their ships in the areas the Spanish could not conquer, including the islands of the Lesser Antilles, the northern coast of South America, including the mouth of the [[Orinoco]], and the Atlantic Coast of Central America. In the Lesser Antilles, they managed to establish a foothold following the colonisation of [[St Kitts]] in 1624 and [[Barbados]] in 1626, and when the Sugar Revolution took off in the mid-seventeenth century, they brought in thousands of enslaved Africans to work the fields and mills as labourers. These enslaved Africans wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as [[indentured servitude|indentured servants]].

The struggle between the northern Europeans and the Spanish spread southward in the mid to late seventeenth century, as English, Dutch, French and Spanish colonists, and in many cases, enslaved Africans first entered and then occupied the coast of [[The Guianas]] (which fell to the French, English and Dutch) and the Orinoco valley, which fell to the Spanish. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco, would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and then along the northern reaches of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]].
[[File:West Indies - Island Groups.svg|left|thumb|Island groups of the West Indies, in relation to the continental [[Americas]]]]
Since no European country had occupied much of Central America, gradually, the English of Jamaica established alliances with the [[Mosquito Coast|Miskito Kingdom]] of modern-day [[Nicaragua]] and [[Honduras]] and then began logging on the coast of modern-day [[Belize]]. These interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations comprised the [[Western Caribbean Zone]] in place in the early eighteenth century. In the Miskito Kingdom, the rise to power of the [[Miskito Sambu|Miskito-Zambos]], who originated in the survivors of a rebellion aboard a slave ship in the 1640s and the introduction of enslaved Africans by British settlers within the Miskito area and in Belize, also transformed this area into one with a high percentage of persons of African descent as was found in most of the rest of the Caribbean.

From the 17th through the 19th century, the European colonial territories of the West Indies were the [[French West Indies]], [[British West Indies]], the [[Danish West Indies]], the [[Netherlands Antilles]] (Dutch West Indies), and the [[Spanish West Indies]].

In 1916, [[Denmark]] sold the Danish West Indies to the United States<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.virgin-islands-history.org/en/history/sale-of-the-danish-west-indian-islands-to-the-usa/two-telegrams-about-the-sale/|title=Two telegrams about the sale – The Danish West-Indies|work=The Danish West-Indies|access-date=13 October 2017|language=en-US}}</ref> for US$25 million in gold, per the [[Treaty of the Danish West Indies]]. The Danish West Indies became an [[insular area]] of the U.S., called the [[United States Virgin Islands]].

Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories (except the [[British Virgin Islands]] and [[the Bahamas]]) into the [[West Indies Federation]]. They hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. However, the Federation had limited powers, numerous practical problems, and a lack of popular support; consequently, it was dissolved by the British in 1963, with nine provinces eventually becoming independent sovereign states and four becoming current [[British Overseas Territories]].

"West Indies" or "West India" was a part of the names of several [[Chartered company|companies]] of the 17th and 18th centuries, including the [[Danish West India Company]], the [[Dutch West India Company]], the [[French West India Company]], and the [[Swedish West India Company]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_JhKAgAAQBAJ&q=Danish+West+India+Company%2C+the+Dutch+West+India+Company%2C+the+French+West+India+Company%2C+and+the+Swedish+West+India+Company.&pg=PA73|title=The Transportation Experience: Policy, Planning, and Deployment|last1=Garrison|first1=William L.|last2=Levinson|first2=David M.|date=2014|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=9780199862719|language=en}}</ref>

[[West Indian]] is the official term used by the U.S. government to refer to people of the West Indies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/us/census/data/social.html|title=Info Please U.S. Social Statistics|access-date=1 October 2015}}</ref>

== Geology ==
[[File:Caribe-Político.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Caribbean Basin]] countries]]
[[File:Atlantic-trench.JPG|thumb|The subduction of the [[South American Plate]] and part of the [[North American Plate]] beneath the [[Caribbean Plate]] produces both the [[Puerto Rico Trench]], the deepest part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], as well as the active volcanoes of the [[Lesser Antilles]] (bottom left of the image, south of the [[Virgin Islands]])|alt=]]

The West Indies are a geologically complex island system consisting of 7,000 islands and [[islet]]s stretching over 3,000 km (2000 miles) from the [[Florida]] peninsula of [[North America]] south-southeast to the northern coast of [[Venezuela]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/West-Indies-island-group-Atlantic-Ocean|title=West Indies {{!}} History, Maps, Facts, & Geography|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=12 March 2019}}</ref> These islands include active [[volcano]]es, low-lying [[atoll]]s, raised [[limestone]] islands, and large fragments of [[continental crust]] containing tall mountains and insular rivers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Ricklefs Robert|last2=Bermingham Eldredge|date=27 July 2008|title=The West Indies as a laboratory of biogeography and evolution|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=363|issue=1502|pages=2393–2413|doi=10.1098/rstb.2007.2068|pmc=2606802|pmid=17446164}}</ref> Each of the three [[archipelago]]s of the West Indies has a unique origin and geologic composition.

=== Greater Antilles ===
The [[Greater Antilles]] is geologically the oldest of the three [[archipelago]]s and includes both the largest islands ([[Cuba]], [[Jamaica]], [[Hispaniola]], and [[Puerto Rico]]) and the tallest mountains ([[Pico Duarte]], [[Blue Mountains (Jamaica)|Blue Mountain]], [[Pic la Selle]], [[Pico Turquino]]) in the Caribbean.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Biogeography of the West Indies : patterns and perspectives|date=2001|publisher=CRC Press|editor-last1=Woods |editor-first1=Charles Arthur |editor-last2=Sergile |editor-first2=Florence Etienne |isbn=978-0849320019|edition=2nd|location=Boca Raton, FL|oclc=46240352}}</ref> The islands of the Greater Antilles are composed of [[Stratum|strata]] of different geological ages including [[Precambrian]] fragmented remains of the [[North American Plate]] (older than 539 million years), [[Jurassic]] aged limestone (201.3-145 million years ago), as well as [[island arc]] deposits and [[oceanic crust]] from the [[Cretaceous]] (145-66 million years ago).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://naturalhistory2.si.edu/botany/WestIndies/#physical|title=Flora of the West Indies / Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution|website=naturalhistory2.si.edu|access-date=14 April 2019}}</ref>

The Greater Antilles originated near the Isthmian region of present day [[Central America]] in the [[Late Cretaceous]] (commonly referred to as the Proto-Antilles), then drifted eastward arriving in their current location when colliding with the Bahama Platform of the North American Plate ca. 56 million years ago in the late [[Paleocene]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Graham|first=Alan|date=2003|title=Geohistory Models and Cenozoic Paleoenvironments of the Caribbean Region|journal=Systematic Botany|volume=28|issue=2|pages=378–386|issn=0363-6445|jstor=3094007|doi=10.1043/0363-6445-28.2.378|doi-broken-date=1 August 2023}}</ref> This collision caused subduction and volcanism in the Proto-Antillean area and likely resulted in continental uplift of the Bahama Platform and changes in sea level.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Santiago–Valentin|first1=Eugenio|last2=Olmstead|first2=Richard G.|date=2004|title=Historical biogeography of Caribbean plants: introduction to current knowledge and possibilities from a phylogenetic perspective|journal=Taxon|language=en|volume=53|issue=2|pages=299–319|doi=10.2307/4135610|issn=1996-8175|jstor=4135610|s2cid=16369341|url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0d1c/93e2bec81640d1b19a70fd3932075471237d.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617063241/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0d1c/93e2bec81640d1b19a70fd3932075471237d.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 June 2020}}</ref> The Greater Antilles have continuously been exposed since the start of the [[Paleocene]] or at least since the Middle [[Eocene]] (66-40 million years ago), but which areas were above sea level throughout the history of the islands remains unresolved.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Iturralde-Vinent|first=Manuel A.|date=1 September 2006|title=Meso-Cenozoic Caribbean Paleogeography: Implications for the Historical Biogeography of the Region|journal=International Geology Review|volume=48|issue=9|pages=791–827|doi=10.2747/0020-6814.48.9.791|issn=0020-6814|bibcode=2006IGRv...48..791I|s2cid=55392113}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

The oldest rocks in the Greater Antilles are located in Cuba. They consist of [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphosed]] [[Greywacke|graywacke]], [[argillite]], [[tuff]], [[mafic]] [[Igneous rock|igneous]] extrusive flows, and [[carbonate rock]].<ref>{{Citation|last1=Khudoley|first1=K. M.|title=Paleogeography and Geological History of Greater Antilles|date=1971|work=Geological Society of America Memoirs|pages=1–192|publisher=Geological Society of America|language=en|doi=10.1130/mem129-p1|isbn=978-0813711294|last2=Meyerhoff|first2=A. A.}}</ref> It is estimated that nearly 70% of Cuba consists of karst [[limestone]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.geolounge.com/caribbean-islands-greater-antilles/|title=Caribbean Islands: the Greater Antilles|last=geolounge|date=8 January 2012|website=GeoLounge: All Things Geography|language=en-US|access-date=14 April 2019}}</ref> The Blue Mountains of Jamaica are a [[granite]] outcrop rising over 2,000 meters (6000'), while the rest of the island to the west consists mainly of [[karst]] limestone.<ref name=":4" /> Much of Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands were formed by the collision of the Caribbean Plate with the North American Plate and consist of 12 [[island arc]] [[terrane]]s.<ref name=":5">{{Citation|last1=Mann|first1=Paul|title=An overview of the geologic and tectonic development of Hispaniola|date=1991|work=Geological Society of America Special Papers|pages=1–28|publisher=Geological Society of America|language=en|doi=10.1130/spe262-p1|isbn=978-0813722627|last2=Draper|first2=Grenville|last3=Lewis|first3=John F.}}</ref> These terranes consist of [[oceanic crust]], volcanic and [[Pluton|plutonic rock]].<ref name=":5" />

=== Lesser Antilles ===
The [[Lesser Antilles]] is a volcanic [[island arc]] rising along the leading edge of the [[Caribbean Plate]] due to the subduction of the Atlantic seafloor of the North American and [[South American Plate|South American plates]]. Major islands of the Lesser Antilles likely emerged less than 20 Ma, during the [[Miocene]].<ref name=":2" /> The volcanic activity that formed these islands began in the Paleogene, after a period of [[volcanism]] in the Greater Antilles ended, and continues today.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Santiago-Valentin|first1=Eugenio|last2=Olmstead|first2=Richard G.|date=2004|title=Historical Biogeography of Caribbean Plants: Introduction to Current Knowledge and Possibilities from a Phylogenetic Perspective|journal=Taxon|volume=53|issue=2|pages=299–319|doi=10.2307/4135610|issn=0040-0262|jstor=4135610}}</ref> The main arc of the Lesser Antilles runs north from the coast of [[Venezuela]] to the [[Anegada Passage]], a [[strait]] separating them from the Greater Antilles, and includes 19 active volcanoes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://uwiseismic.com/General.aspx?id=46|title=The University of the West Indies Seismic Research Centre|website=uwiseismic.com|access-date=14 April 2019|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330004626/http://uwiseismic.com/General.aspx?id=46|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Lucayan Archipelago ===
The [[Lucayan Archipelago]] includes [[The Bahamas]] and the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], a chain of [[coral reef|barrier reefs]] and low islands atop the Bahama Platform. The Bahama Platform is a carbonate block formed of marine sediments and fixed to the North American Plate.<ref name=":1" /> The emergent islands of the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos likely formed from accumulated deposits of wind-blown sediments during [[Pleistocene]] glacial periods of lower sea level.<ref name=":1" />

== Countries and territories by subregion and archipelago ==
[[File:Caribbean general map.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Political map of the West Indies]]
{{Multiple image|total_width = 300
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Life expectancy map -Caribbean -2019 -with names.png
| image2 = Life expectancy map -Caribbean -2021 -with names.png
| footer_align = center
| footer = [[Life expectancy]] in the West Indies in 2019 and 2021
}}

=== Caribbean (core area) ===
{{Main|Caribbean}}

==== Antilles ====
{{Main|Antilles}}

===== Greater Antilles =====
{{Main|Greater Antilles}}

* ''{{Flag|Cayman Islands}}'' ([[The Crown|United Kingdom]])
* {{Flag|Cuba}}
* {{Flag|Jamaica}}
* ''{{Flag|Navassa Island}}'' ([[United States]])
* ''{{Flag|Puerto Rico}}'' ([[United States]])
* [[Hispaniola]]
** {{Flag|Dominican Republic}}
** {{Flag|Haiti}}

===== Lesser Antilles =====
{{Main|Lesser Antilles}}
{{See also|Southern Caribbean}}

====== Leeward Antilles ======
{{Main|Leeward Antilles}}

* ''{{Flagicon|Kingdom of the Netherlands}} [[ABC islands (Leeward Antilles)|ABC islands]]''
** ''{{Flag|Aruba}}'' ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Netherlands]])
** ''{{Flag|Bonaire}}*'' ([[Netherlands]])
** ''{{Flag|Curaçao}}'' ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Netherlands]])
* ''{{Flag|Federal Dependencies of Venezuela}}'' ([[Venezuela]])
* ''{{Flag|Nueva Esparta}}'' ([[Venezuela]])

====== Leeward Islands ======
{{Main|Leeward Islands}}

* ''{{Flag|Anguilla}}'' ([[The Crown|United Kingdom]])
* {{Flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
* ''{{Flag|Guadeloupe|local2}}'' ([[French Fifth Republic|France]])
** ''[[La Désirade]]''
** ''[[Îles des Saintes|Les Saintes]]''
** ''[[Marie-Galante]]''
* ''{{Flag|Montserrat}}'' ([[The Crown|United Kingdom]])
* ''{{Flag|Saint Barthélemy|local}}'' ([[France]])
* {{Flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
* ''{{Flagicon image|Local flag of the Collectivity of Saint Martin.svg}} [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint Martin]]'' ([[France]])
* ''{{Flagicon|Kingdom of the Netherlands}} [[SSS islands]]''
** ''{{Flag|Saba}}*'' ([[Netherlands]])
** ''{{Flag|Sint Eustatius}}*'' ([[Netherlands]])
** ''{{Flag|Sint Maarten}}'' ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Netherlands]])
* [[Virgin Islands]]
** ''{{Flag|British Virgin Islands}}'' ([[The Crown|United Kingdom]])
** ''{{Flagicon|Puerto Rico}} [[Spanish Virgin Islands]]'' (''[[United States]]'')
** ''{{Flag|U.S. Virgin Islands}}'' ([[United States]])

====== Windward Islands ======
{{Main|Windward Islands}}

* {{Flag|Dominica}}
* {{Flag|Grenada}}
** ''[[Carriacou and Petite Martinique]]''
* ''{{Flag|Martinique|territorial}}'' ([[French Fifth Republic|France]])
* {{Flag|Saint Lucia}}
* {{Flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}

====== Isolated islands in the Lesser Antilles ======
* {{Flag|Barbados}}†
* {{Flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}†

==== Lucayan Archipelago ====
{{Main|Lucayan Archipelago}}

* {{Flag|Bahamas}}
* ''{{Flag|Turks and Caicos Islands}}'' ([[The Crown|United Kingdom]])

==== Isolated island in the Caribbean ====
{{See also|List of Caribbean islands}}

* ''{{Flagicon|Federal Dependencies of Venezuela}} [[Isla de Aves|Aves Island]]'' ([[Venezuela]])

=== Central America ===
{{Main|Central America}}
{{See also|Western Caribbean zone}}

* {{Flag|Belize}}
* {{Flag|Costa Rica}}
* {{Flag|Guatemala}}
* {{Flag|Honduras}}
* {{Flag|Nicaragua}}
* {{Flag|Panama}}
* ''{{Flag|Quintana Roo}}'' ([[Mexico]]^)
* ''{{Flag|Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina|name=San Andrés and Providencia}}'' ([[Colombia]])
** ''[[Bajo Nuevo Bank]]~''
** ''[[Serranilla Bank]]~''
* ''{{Flag|Yucatán}}'' ([[Mexico]]^)

=== Northern America ===
{{Main|Northern America}}

* ''{{Flag|Bermuda}}#'' ([[The Crown|United Kingdom]])

=== South America ===
{{Main|South America}}
{{See also|Caribbean South America}}

* {{Flag|Colombia}}
* ''{{Flag|French Guiana|local}}'' ([[French Fifth Republic|France]])
* {{Flag|Guyana}}
* {{Flag|Suriname}}
* {{Flag|Venezuela}}

'''N.B.:''' Territories in ''italics'' are parts of transregional sovereign states or non-sovereign dependencies.

* These three [[Dutch Caribbean]] territories form the [[Caribbean Netherlands|BES islands]].

† [[Physical geography|Physiographically]], these are [[Island#Continental islands|continental islands]] not part of the volcanic Windward Islands arc. However, based on proximity, these islands are sometimes grouped with the [[Windward Islands]] culturally and politically.

~ [[Territorial dispute|Disputed territories]] administered by [[Colombia]].

^ The [[United Nations geoscheme]] includes [[Mexico]] in [[Central America]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ |title=UNSD Methodology – Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49) |access-date=2020-05-04 |archive-date=2017-08-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830170949/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

# Physiographically, [[Bermuda]] is an isolated [[Island#Oceanic islands|oceanic island]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]], not a part of the Caribbean, West Indies, North American continent or South American continent. Usually grouped with Northern American countries based on proximity; sometimes grouped with the West Indies culturally.

==See also==

* [[Caribbean Basin Initiative]]
* [[Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act]]
* [[Caribbean Community]]
* [[History of the British West Indies]]
* [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Cave, Roderick, and R. Cave. 1978. "Early Printing and the Book Trade in the West Indies". ''Library Quarterly'' 48 (April): 163–92.
* Cromwell, Jesse. "More than Slaves and Sugar: Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean and Its Sinew Populations". ''History Compass'' (2014) 12#10 pp 770–783.
* Higman, Barry W. ''A Concise History of the Caribbean''. (2011)
* {{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Alfred Lewis|author-link=Alfred Lewis Jones |title=The Empire and the century |date=1905 |publisher=John Murray |location=London |pages=877–882 |chapter=[[s:The Empire and the century/The West Indies|The West Indies]]}}
* Martin, Tony, ''Caribbean History: From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present'' (2011)

{{Caribbean topic}}
{{Caribbean topics}}
{{Regions of the world}}

{{Coord|21.9833|N|79.0333|W|source:wikidata|display=title}}

[[Category:West Indies| ]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]

Wayback Machine

2023-10-08T06:49:33Z

Deepaksuhag: Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list

{{Short description|Digital archive founded by the Internet Archive}}
{{About||the time machine from Peabody's Improbable History|Wayback Machine (Peabody's Improbable History)|help citing the Wayback Machine in the English Bharatpedia|:Help:Using the Wayback Machine|and|selfref=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox website
| name = Wayback Machine
| logo = Wayback Machine logo 2010.svg
| logo_size =
| logo_alt = Stylized text saying: "INTERNET ARCHIVE WAYBACK MACHINE". The text is in black, except for "WAYBACK", which is in red.
| screenshot =
| url = {{Official URL}}
| type = Archive
| commercial = No
| registration = Optional
| programming_language = [[HTML (markup language)|HTML]], [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]], [[JavaScript (programming language)|JavaScript]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]].
| area_served = Worldwide ([[Internet censorship in China|except China]], [[Internet censorship in Russia|Russia]], [[Internet censorship in India|India]], and [[Internet censorship in Bahrain|Bahrain]])
| owner = [[Internet Archive]]
| founded = {{ubl|{{start date and age|1996|05|10}} (private)|{{start date and age|2001|10|24}} (public)}}
| current_status = Active
}}


The '''Wayback Machine''' is a [[Web archiving|digital archive]] of the [[World Wide Web]] founded by the [[Internet Archive]], a nonprofit based in [[San Francisco, California]]. Created in 1996 and launched to the public in 2001, it allows the user to go "back in time" to see how websites looked in the past. Its founders, [[Brewster Kahle]] and [[Bruce Gilliat]], developed the Wayback Machine to provide "universal access to all knowledge" by preserving archived copies of defunct web pages.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kahle |first=Brewster |date=2005-11-23 |title=Universal Access to all Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/SDForumBK |archive-date=2022-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814164546/https://archive.org/details/SDForumBK |access-date=2022-06-05 |website=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

Launched on May 10, 1996, the Wayback Machine had saved more than 38.2 billion web pages at the end of 2009. {{As of|2023|8|20}}, the Wayback Machine has archived 832 billion web pages.<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Internet Archive: Wayback Machine |url=https://web.archive.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313021854/https://archive.org/web/ |archive-date=2023-03-13 |access-date= |website=web.archive.org}} The current number of archived pages can be seen at the archive's [https://web.archive.org/ home page].</ref>

==History==
The Wayback Machine began archiving [[Cache (computing)|cached]] web pages in 1996. One of the earliest known pages was archived on May 10, 1996, at <time>2:08{{nbs}}p.m.</time> ([[UTC]]).<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19960510140808/http://www.pepsico.com/|url=http://www.pepsico.com/|title=PepsiCo Home Page|work=[[Internet Archive]]/Wayback Machine|author=[[PepsiCo]], Inc.|date=1996-05-10|archive-date=1996-05-10|access-date=2022-10-08}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[Internet Archive]] founders [[Brewster Kahle]] and [[Bruce Gilliat]] launched the Wayback Machine in [[San Francisco]], [[California]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wayback Machine General Information |url=https://help.archive.org/hc/en-us/articles/360004716091-Wayback-Machine-General-Information |access-date=March 2, 2021 |website=archive.org |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191205053755/https://help.archive.org/hc/en-us/articles/360004716091-Wayback-Machine-General-Information |archive-date=December 5, 2019}}</ref> in October 2001,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://whois.domaintools.com/waybackmachine.org |title=WayBackMachine.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools |work=[[WHOIS]] |access-date=March 13, 2016 |archive-date=May 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200514175402/http://whois.domaintools.com/waybackmachine.org |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://whois.domaintools.com/internetarchive.org|title=InternetArchive.org WHOIS, DNS, & Domain Info – DomainTools|work=[[WHOIS]]|access-date=March 13, 2016|archive-date=May 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200512114745/http://whois.domaintools.com/internetarchive.org|url-status=live}}</ref> primarily to address the problem of web content vanishing whenever it gets changed or when a website is shut down.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Notess |first=Greg R. |date=March–April 2002 |title=The Wayback Machine: The Web's Archive |journal=Online |volume=26 |pages=59–61 |id={{INIST|13517724}} }}</ref> The service enables users to see archived versions of [[web page]]s across time, which the archive calls a "three-dimensional index".<ref name="FAQ">{{citation |title=Frequently Asked Questions|chapter-url=https://archive.org/about/faqs.php#The_Wayback_Machine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918131957/https://archive.org/about/faqs.php#The_Wayback_Machine |url-status=live |chapter=The Wayback Machine |access-date=September 18, 2018 |archive-date=September 18, 2018}}</ref> Kahle and Gilliat created the machine hoping to archive the entire Internet and provide "universal access to all knowledge".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://blog.archive.org/2016/10/25/20000-hard-drives-on-a-mission/ |title=20,000 Hard Drives on a Mission {{!}} Internet Archive Blogs |website=blog.archive.org |date=October 25, 2016 |access-date=October 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020153727/https://blog.archive.org/2016/10/25/20000-hard-drives-on-a-mission/ |archive-date=October 20, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The name "Wayback Machine" is a reference to a fictional time-traveling and translation device, the "[[Wayback Machine (Peabody's Improbable History)|Wayback Machine]]", used by the characters [[Mister Peabody]] and Sherman in the animated cartoon ''[[The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends]]''.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/feb2002/tc20020228_1080.htm |title=A Library as Big as the World |last=Green |first=Heather |date=February 28, 2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220074306/http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/feb2002/tc20020228_1080.htm |archive-date=December 20, 2011 |magazine=BusinessWeek}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/08/business/responsible-party-brewster-kahle-a-library-of-the-web-on-the-web.html |title=Responsible Party – Brewster Kahle; A Library Of the Web, On the Web |last=Tong |first=Judy |date=September 8, 2002 |work=The New York Times |access-date= August 15, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110220181725/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/08/business/responsible-party-brewster-kahle-a-library-of-the-web-on-the-web.html |archive-date=February 20, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> In one of the cartoon's segments, "Peabody's Improbable History", the characters used the machine to witness, participate in, and often alter famous events in history.

From 1996 to 2001, the information was kept on digital tape, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the "clunky" [[database]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cook |first=John |title=Web site takes you way back in Internet history |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/news/article/Web-site-takes-you-way-back-in-Internet-history-1070534.php |access-date=August 15, 2011 |work=Seattle Post-Intelligencer |date=November 1, 2001 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812205508/http://www.seattlepi.com/news/article/Web-site-takes-you-way-back-in-Internet-history-1070534.php |archive-date=August 12, 2014}}</ref> When the archive reached its fifth anniversary in 2001, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/2001/10/wayback-goes-way-back-on-web/ |title=Wayback Goes Way Back on Web |magazine=Wired |date=October 28, 2001 |access-date=October 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016225914/https://www.wired.com/2001/10/wayback-goes-way-back-on-web/ |archive-date=October 16, 2017 |last1=Mayfield |first1=Kendra }}</ref> By the time the Wayback Machine launched, it already contained over 10 billion archived pages.<ref name="Arora (2015)" /> The data is stored on the Internet Archive's large cluster of [[Linux]] nodes.<ref name=":0" /> It revisits and archives new versions of websites on occasion (see technical details below).<ref name="leetaru" /> Sites can also be captured manually by entering a website's [[URL]] into the search box, provided that the website allows the Wayback Machine to "[[Web crawler|crawl]]" it and save the data.<ref name="IA: Wayback">{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/web/ |title=Internet Archive: Wayback Machine |website=archive.org |access-date=October 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103004344/https://archive.org/web/ |archive-date=January 3, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On October 30, 2020, the Wayback Machine began fact-checking content.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=Mark |date=October 30, 2020 |title=Fact Checks and Context for Wayback Machine Pages |url= http://blog.archive.org/2020/10/30/fact-checks-and-context-for-wayback-machine-pages/ |access-date=January 17, 2021 |website=Internet Archive Blogs}}</ref> As of January 2022, domains of [[ad server]]s are disabled from capturing.<ref>Attempts to 'save page now' domains such as tpc.googlesyndication.com or s0.2mdn.net or atdmt.com or adbrite.com result in "This URL is in our block list and cannot be captured."</ref>

In May 2021, for Internet Archive's 25th anniversary, the Wayback Machine introduced the "Wayforward Machine" which allows users to "travel to the Internet in 2046, where knowledge is under [[siege]]".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Internet Archive 25th Anniversary – Universal Access to All Knowledge|url=https://anniversary.archive.org/|access-date=January 13, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Wayforward Machine • Visit the future of the internet|url=https://wayforward.archive.org/|access-date=January 13, 2022|website=Way Forward Machine}}</ref>

== Technical information ==
The Wayback Machine's software has been developed to "[[Web crawler|crawl]]" the Web and download all publicly accessible information and data files on webpages, the [[Gopher (protocol)|Gopher]] hierarchy, the [[Usenet|Netnews]] (Usenet) bulletin board system, and downloadable software.<ref name=ArchivingInternet>{{cite web |last=Kahle |first=Brewster |title=Archiving the Internet |url=http://www.uibk.ac.at/voeb/texte/kahle.html |publisher=Scientific American – March 1997 Issue |access-date=August 19, 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403042627/http://www.uibk.ac.at/voeb/texte/kahle.html |archive-date=April 3, 2012}}</ref> The information collected by these "crawlers" does not include all the information available on the Internet, since much of the data is restricted by the publisher or stored in databases that are not accessible. To overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It.org was developed in 2005 by the Internet Archive as a means of allowing institutions and content creators to voluntarily harvest and preserve collections of digital content, and create digital archives.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.archive.org/2014/10/27/archive-it-crawling-the-web-together/ |title=Archive-It: Crawling the Web Together |work=Internet Archive Blogs |first=Jeff |last=Kaplan |date=October 27, 2014 |access-date=October 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012212827/http://blog.archive.org/2014/10/27/archive-it-crawling-the-web-together/ |archive-date=October 12, 2017 }}</ref>

Crawls are contributed from various sources, some imported from third parties and others generated internally by the Archive.<ref name=leetaru/> For example, crawls are contributed by the [[Sloan Foundation]] and [[Alexa Internet|Alexa]], crawls run by Internet Archive on behalf of [[National Archives and Records Administration|NARA]] and the [[Internet Memory Foundation]], mirrors of [[Common Crawl]].<ref name=leetaru/> The "Worldwide Web Crawls" have been running since 2010 and capture the global Web.<ref name=leetaru/><ref name=":3">{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/widecrawl&tab=about |title=Worldwide Web Crawls |publisher=Internet Archive |access-date=October 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019222740/https://archive.org/details/widecrawl%26tab%3Dabout |archive-date=October 19, 2017 }}</ref>

Documents and resources are stored with time stamp URLs such as <code>{{#time:YmdHis}}</code>. Pages' individual resources such as images and style sheets and scripts, as well as outgoing hyperlinks, are linked to with the time stamp of the currently viewed page, so they are redirected automatically to their individual captures that are the closest in time.<ref name="using">{{cite web |url=https://help.archive.org/help/using-the-wayback-machine/ |title=Using The Wayback Machine |website=Internet Archive |access-date=April 3, 2022}}</ref>

The frequency of snapshot captures varies per website.<ref name=leetaru/> Websites in the "Worldwide Web Crawls" are included in a "crawl list", with the site archived once per crawl.<ref name=leetaru/> A crawl can take months or even years to complete, depending on size.<ref name=leetaru/> For example, "Wide Crawl Number 13" started on January 9, 2015, and completed on July 11, 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/wide00013?&sort=-publicdate&page=3 |title=Wide Crawl Number 13 |publisher=Internet Archive |access-date=October 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019223332/https://archive.org/details/wide00013?&sort=-publicdate&page=3 |archive-date=October 19, 2017 }}</ref> However, there may be multiple crawls ongoing at any one time, and a site might be included in more than one crawl list, so how often a site is crawled varies widely.<ref name=leetaru>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2016/01/18/the-internet-archive-turns-20-a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-archiving-the-web/#222f2e5682e0 |title=The Internet Archive Turns 20: A Behind the Scenes Look at Archiving the Web |work=Forbes |first=Kalev |last=Leetaru |date=January 28, 2016 |access-date=October 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016230439/https://www.forbes.com/sites/kalevleetaru/2016/01/18/the-internet-archive-turns-20-a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-archiving-the-web/#222f2e5682e0 |archive-date=October 16, 2017 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Starting in October 2019, users are [[data cap|limited]] to 15 archival requests and retrievals per minute.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/toomanyrequests_20191110 |title=Too Many Requests |publisher=Internet Archive |date=November 10, 2019 |access-date=November 27, 2021}}</ref>{{why|date=October 2019}}

===Storage capacity and growth===
As technology has developed over the years, the storage capacity of the Wayback Machine has grown. In 2003, after only two years of public access, the Wayback Machine was growing at a rate of 12 terabytes per month. The data is stored on [[PetaBox]] rack systems custom designed by Internet Archive staff. The first 100TB rack became fully operational in June 2004, although it soon became clear that they would need much more storage than that.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/web/petabox.php |title=Internet Archive: Petabox |website=archive.org |access-date=October 25, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-5808754.html |title=Big storage on the cheap |last=Kanellos |first=Michael |date=July 29, 2005 |access-date=July 29, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403030705/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-5808754.html  |archive-date=April 3, 2007 |publisher=CNET News.com}}</ref>

The Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to [[Sun Open Storage]] in 2009, and hosts a new data centre in a [[Sun Modular Datacenter]] on [[Sun Microsystems]]' California campus.<ref>{{cite web |title=Internet Archive and Sun Microsystems Create Living History of the Internet |publisher=[[Sun Microsystems]] |date=March 25, 2009 |url=http://www.sun.com/aboutsun/pr/2009-03/sunflash.20090325.1.xml |access-date=March 27, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326200212/http://www.sun.com/aboutsun/pr/2009-03/sunflash.20090325.1.xml |archive-date=March 26, 2009}}</ref> {{As of|2009}}, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three [[petabyte]]s of data and was growing at a rate of 100 [[terabyte]]s each month.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&taxonomyName=hardware&articleId=9130081&taxonomyId=12&intsrc=kc_top |title=Internet Archive to unveil massive Wayback Machine data center |last=Mearian |first=Lucas |date=March 19, 2009 |access-date=March 22, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090323093002/http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&taxonomyName=hardware&articleId=9130081&taxonomyId=12&intsrc=kc_top |archive-date=March 23, 2009 |publisher=Computerworld.com}}</ref>

A new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and a fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing in 2011, where captures appear in a calendar layout with circles whose width visualizes the number of crawls each day, but no marking of duplicates with asterisks or an advanced search page.<ref name=WordpressArchive>{{cite web |title=Updated Wayback Machine in Beta Testing |url=http://iawebarchiving.wordpress.com/2011/01/24/updated-wayback-machine-in-beta-testing/ |access-date=August 19, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823040310/http://iawebarchiving.wordpress.com/2011/01/24/updated-wayback-machine-in-beta-testing/ |archive-date=August 23, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Advanced Search |url=https://web.archive.org/collections/web/advanced.html |website=Wayback Machine |access-date=April 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100131104918/https://web.archive.org/collections/web/advanced.html |archive-date=January 31, 2010}}</ref> A top [[toolbar]] was added to facilitate navigating between captures. A bar chart visualizes the frequency of captures per month over the years.<ref>{{cite web |title=What's the difference between the classic Wayback Machine and the new Beta version? |url=http://faq.waybackmachine.org/whats-the-difference-between-the-classic-wayback-machine-and-the-new-beta-version |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225023945/http://faq.waybackmachine.org/whats-the-difference-between-the-classic-wayback-machine-and-the-new-beta-version |access-date=November 17, 2021 |archive-date=December 25, 2010 }}</ref> Features like "Changes", "Summary", and a graphical site map were added subsequently.

In March that year, it was said on the Wayback Machine forum that "the Beta of the new Wayback Machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into 2010, and will continue to be updated regularly. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a little bit of material past 2008, and no further index updates are planned, as it will be phased out this year."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archive.org/post/350738/updated-wayback-machine-in-beta-testing |title=Beta Wayback Machine, in forum |access-date=April 16, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417082107/https://archive.org/post/350738/updated-wayback-machine-in-beta-testing |archive-date=April 17, 2014}}</ref> Also in 2011, the Internet Archive installed their sixth pair of PetaBox racks which increased the Wayback Machine's storage capacity by 700 terabytes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/post/353721/6th-pair-of-racks-go-into-service-over-2pb-of-data-space-used |title=Internet Archive Forums: 6th pair of racks go into service: over 2PB of data space used |website=archive.org |access-date=October 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024144627/https://archive.org/post/353721/6th-pair-of-racks-go-into-service-over-2pb-of-data-space-used |archive-date=October 24, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blog.archive.org/2013/01/09/updated-wayback/ |title=Wayback Machine: Now with 240,000,000,000 URLs | Internet Archive Blogs |date=January 9, 2013 |access-date=April 16, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140414221120/http://blog.archive.org/2013/01/09/updated-wayback/ |archive-date=April 14, 2014}}</ref>

In October 2013, the company introduced the "Save a Page" feature<ref name="ia-2013-10">{{cite web |url=https://blog.archive.org/2013/10/25/fixing-broken-links/ |title=Fixing Broken Links on the Internet |last=Rossi |first=Alexis |date=October 25, 2013 |website=archive.org |publisher=Collections Team, the Internet Archive |location=San Francisco, CA, US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141107193437/http://blog.archive.org/2013/10/25/fixing-broken-links/ |archive-date=November 7, 2014 |url-status=live |access-date=March 25, 2015 |quote=We have added the ability to archive a page instantly and get back a permanent URL for that page in the Wayback Machine. This service allows anyone – Bharatpedia editors, scholars, legal professionals, students, or home cooks like me – to create a stable URL to cite, share or bookmark any information they want to still have access to in the future.}}</ref><ref name=DigitalJournal>{{cite web |first=Alexander |last=Baron |title=((The new Internet Archive Wayback Machine now online)) |url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/360776 |website=Digital Journal |date=October 23, 2013 |access-date=November 19, 2020 |archive-date=November 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119071411/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/360776}}</ref> which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL, and quickly generates a [[permanent link]] unlike the preceding ''liveweb'' feature.

In December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained 435 [[billion]] web pages—almost nine petabytes of data, and was growing at about 20 terabytes a week.<ref name="Arora (2015)">{{cite journal |last1=Arora |first1=Sanjay K. |last2=Li |first2=Yin |last3=Youtie |first3=Jan |last4=Shapira |first4=Philip |date=May 5, 2015 |title=Using the wayback machine to mine websites in the social sciences: A methodological resource |journal=Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology |volume=67 |issue=8 |pages=1904–1915 |doi=10.1002/asi.23503 |issn=2330-1635|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |access-date=January 17, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021003552/https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |archive-date=October 21, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218203115/https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 18, 2014 |title=Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions |date=December 18, 2014 |access-date=December 13, 2018}}</ref>

In July 2016, the Wayback Machine reportedly contained around 15 petabytes of data.<ref>{{cite web |title=Can the manipulation of big data change the way the world thinks? |work=The National |url=http://www.thenational.ae/opinion/comment/can-the-manipulation-of-big-data-change-the-way-the-world-thinks |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112060354/http://www.thenational.ae/opinion/comment/can-the-manipulation-of-big-data-change-the-way-the-world-thinks |archive-date=January 12, 2017}}</ref>

In September 2018, the Wayback Machine contained over 25 petabytes of data.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehustle.co/inside-wayback-machine-internet-archive |title=Inside Wayback Machine, the internet's time capsule |last=Crockett |first=Zachary |date=September 28, 2018 |work=The Hustle |access-date=October 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002145800/https://thehustle.co/inside-wayback-machine-internet-archive |archive-date=October 2, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/story/wired25-virginia-heffernan-internet-archive-wayback-machine/ |title=Things Break and Decay on the Internet—That's a Good Thing |last=Heffernan |first=Virginia |date=September 18, 2018 |magazine=WIRED |access-date=October 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925130510/https://www.wired.com/story/wired25-virginia-heffernan-internet-archive-wayback-machine/ |archive-date=September 25, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

As of December 2020, the Wayback Machine contained over 70 petabytes of data.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.adafruit.com/2020/12/01/donate-to-the-internet-archive-digital-library-of-free-borrowable-books-movies-music-wayback-machine-internetarchive/ |title=Donate to the Internet Archive: Digital Library of Free & Borrowable Books, Movies, Music & Wayback Machine |publisher=adafruit |access-date=December 2, 2020 |archive-date=December 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202065323/https://blog.adafruit.com/2020/12/01/donate-to-the-internet-archive-digital-library-of-free-borrowable-books-movies-music-wayback-machine-internetarchive/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Bar chart
| title = Wayback Machine Growth<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.archive.org/2014/05/09/wayback-machine-hits-400000000000 |title=Wayback Machine Hits 400,000,000,000! |author=michelle |publisher=Internet Archive |date=May 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826191225/http://blog.archive.org/2014/05/09/wayback-machine-hits-400000000000/ |archive-date=August 26, 2014 |url-status=live |access-date=March 25, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archive.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201231000610/https://archive.org/ |title=Internet Archive |archive-date=December 31, 2020 |url-status=dead |publisher=Internet Archive |access-date=March 8, 2021}}</ref>
| label_type = Wayback Machine by Year
| data_type = Pages Archived
| bar_width = 45
| width_units = em
| data_max = 700000000000
| label1 = 2004
| data1 = 30000000000
| label2 = 2005
| data2 = 40000000000
| label3 = 2008
| data3 = 85000000000
| label4 = 2012
| data4 = 150000000000
| label5 = 2013
| data5 = 373000000000
| label6 = 2014
| data6 = 400000000000
|label7=2015|data7=452000000000|label8=2016|data8=459000000000|label9=2017|data9=279000000000|data10=310000000000|label10=2018|data11=345000000000|label11=2019|data12=405000000000|label12=2020|label13=2021|data13=514000000000|label14=2022|data14=640000000000|color1=lightblue|color2=lightblue|color3=lightblue|color4=yellow|color5=yellow|color6=yellow|color7=orange|color8=orange|color9=yellow|color10=yellow|color11=yellow|color12=yellow|color13=orange|color14=red|comment1=0-100B : Light blue|comment4=100B-450B : Yellow|comment7=450B-600B : Orange|comment14=600B- : Red}}

===Wayback Machine APIs===
The Wayback Machine service offers three public APIs, SavePageNow, Availability, and CDX.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/help/wayback_api.php|title=Wayback Machine APIs | Internet Archive|website=archive.org}}</ref> SavePageNow can be used to archive web pages. Availability API for checking the archive availability status for a web page,<ref>{{GitHub |akamhy/waybackpy}}</ref> checking whether an archive for the web page exists or not. CDX API is for complex querying, filtering, and analysis of captured data.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blog.archive.org/developers/ | title=Developers | date=August 22, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://blog.archive.org/2018/12/13/documentation-for-public-apis-at-the-internet-archive/ | title=Documentation for Public APIs at the Internet Archive | date=December 13, 2018 }}</ref>

===Website exclusion policy===
Historically, the Wayback Machine has respected the [[robots exclusion standard]] (robots.txt) in determining if a website would be crawled – or if already crawled, if its archives would be publicly viewable. Website owners had the option to opt-out of Wayback Machine through the use of robots.txt. It applied robots.txt rules retroactively; if a site blocked the Internet Archive, any previously archived pages from the domain were immediately rendered unavailable as well. In addition, the Internet Archive stated that "Sometimes, a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site. We comply with these requests."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/collections/web/faqs.html#exclusions |title=Some sites are not available because of Robots.txt or other exclusions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415130934/https://web.archive.org/collections/web/faqs.html#exclusions |archive-date=April 15, 2011}}</ref> In addition, the website says: "The Internet Archive is not interested in preserving or offering access to Web sites or other internet documents of persons who do not want their materials in the collection."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archive.org/about/faqs.php#2 |title=Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417122600/https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |archive-date=April 17, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/nekzzq/wayback-machine-deleting-evidence-flexispy |title=The Wayback Machine Is Deleting Evidence of Malware Sold to Stalkers |last=Cox |first=Joseph |date=May 22, 2018 |access-date=May 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://archive.today/2018.05.22-192132/https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/nekzzq/wayback-machine-deleting-evidence-flexispy |archive-date=May 23, 2018 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

On April 17, 2017, reports surfaced of sites that had gone defunct and became [[parked domain]]s that were using robots.txt to exclude themselves from search engines, resulting in them being inadvertently excluded from the Wayback Machine.<ref>{{cite web |title=Robots.txt meant for search engines don't work well for web archives |url=https://blog.archive.org/2017/04/17/robots-txt-meant-for-search-engines-dont-work-well-for-web-archives/ |website=Internet Archive |date=April 17, 2017 |access-date=June 29, 2019}}</ref> The Internet Archive changed the policy to now require an explicit exclusion request to remove it from the Wayback Machine.<ref name="using" />

====Oakland Archive Policy====
Wayback's retroactive exclusion policy is based in part upon ''Recommendations for Managing Removal Requests and Preserving Archival Integrity'' published by the School of Information Management and Systems at [[University of California, Berkeley]] in 2002, which gives a website owner the right to block access to the site's archives.<ref>{{cite web |title=Recommendations for Managing Removal Requests And Preserving Archival Integrity |date=December 14, 2002 |publisher=[[University of California]] |url=http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/conferences/aps/removal-policy.html |access-date=September 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170918025220/http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/conferences/aps/removal-policy.html |archive-date=September 18, 2017 }}</ref> Wayback has complied with this policy to help avoid expensive litigation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Retroactive robots.txt removal of past crawls AKA Oakland Archive Policy |date=July 7, 2014 |publisher=Internet Archive |url=https://archive.org/post/1019415/retroactive-robotstxt-removal-of-past-crawls-aka-oakland-archive-policy |access-date=September 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010124036/https://archive.org/post/1019415/retroactive-robotstxt-removal-of-past-crawls-aka-oakland-archive-policy |archive-date=October 10, 2017 }}</ref>

The Wayback retroactive exclusion policy began to relax in 2017, when it stopped honoring robots on U.S. government and military web sites for both crawling and displaying web pages. As of April 2017, Wayback is ignoring robots.txt more broadly, not just for U.S. government websites.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blog.archive.org/2017/04/17/robots-txt-meant-for-search-engines-dont-work-well-for-web-archives/ |title=Robots.txt meant for search engines don't work well for web archives |work=Internet Archive Blogs |first=Mark |last=Graham |date=April 17, 2017 |access-date=April 16, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417131508/http://blog.archive.org/2017/04/17/robots-txt-meant-for-search-engines-dont-work-well-for-web-archives/ |archive-date=April 17, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Archivierung des Internets: Internet Archive ignoriert künftig robots.txt |date=April 25, 2017 |url=https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Archivierung-des-Internets-Internet-Archive-ignoriert-kuenftig-robots-txt-3693558.html |publisher=heise online |access-date=May 14, 2017 |language=de |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427035659/https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Archivierung-des-Internets-Internet-Archive-ignoriert-kuenftig-robots-txt-3693558.html |archive-date=April 27, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Suchmaschinen: Internet Archive will künftig Robots.txt-Einträge ignorieren – Golem.de |url=https://www.golem.de/news/suchmaschinen-internet-archive-will-kuenftig-robots-txt-eintraege-ignorieren-1704-127446.html |access-date=May 14, 2017 |language=de |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619210648/https://www.golem.de/news/suchmaschinen-internet-archive-will-kuenftig-robots-txt-eintraege-ignorieren-1704-127446.html |archive-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Internet Archive will ignore robots.txt files to keep historical record accurate |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/internet-archive-robots-txt/ |newspaper=Digital Trends |access-date=May 14, 2017 |date=April 24, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516130029/https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/internet-archive-robots-txt/ |archive-date=May 16, 2017}}</ref>

==Uses==
From its public launch in 2001, the Wayback Machine has been studied by scholars both for the ways it stores and collects data as well as for the actual pages contained in its archive. As of 2013, scholars had written about 350 articles on the Wayback Machine, mostly from the information technology, library science, and social science fields. Social science scholars have used the Wayback Machine to analyze how the development of websites from the mid-1990s to the present has affected the company's growth.<ref name="Arora (2015)" />

When the Wayback Machine archives a page, it usually includes most of the hyperlinks, keeping those links active when they just as easily could have been broken by the Internet's instability. Researchers in India studied the effectiveness of the Wayback Machine's ability to save hyperlinks in online scholarly publications and found that it saved slightly more than half of them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sampath Kumar |first1=B.T. |last2=Prithviraj |first2=K.R. |date=October 21, 2014 |title=Bringing life to dead: Role of Wayback Machine in retrieving vanished URLs |journal=Journal of Information Science |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=71–81 |doi=10.1177/0165551514552752 |s2cid=28320982 |issn=0165-5515}}</ref>

"Journalists use the Wayback Machine to view dead websites, dated news reports, and changes to website contents. Its content has been used to hold politicians accountable and expose battlefield lies."<ref name="usn1">{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2016-08-17/wayback-machine-wont-censor-archive-for-taste-director-says-after-olympics-article-scrubbed |title=Wayback Machine Won't Censor Archive for Taste, Director Says After Olympics Article Scrubbed |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106151933/http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2016-08-17/wayback-machine-wont-censor-archive-for-taste-director-says-after-olympics-article-scrubbed |archive-date=January 6, 2017 |url-status=live |access-date=May 14, 2017}}</ref> In 2014, an archived social media page of [[Igor Girkin]], a separatist rebel leader in Ukraine, showed him boasting about his troops having shot down a suspected Ukrainian military airplane before it became known that the plane actually was a civilian Malaysian Airlines jet ([[Malaysia Airlines Flight 17]]), after which he deleted the post and blamed Ukraine's military for downing the plane.<ref name="usn1"/><ref name="NewYorker-2015-01-26">{{cite magazine |title=What the Web Said Yesterday |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/01/26/cobweb |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150125141230/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/01/26/cobweb |archive-date=January 25, 2015
|first=Jill |last=Lepore | author-link=Jill Lepore | date=January 26, 2015
}}</ref> In 2017, the [[March for Science]] originated from a discussion on [[Reddit]] that indicated someone had visited Archive.org and discovered that all references to [[climate change]] had been deleted from the White House website. In response, a user commented, "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington".<ref>{{cite news |title=The March for Science began with this person's 'throwaway line' on Reddit |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/04/21/the-march-for-science-began-with-this-persons-throwaway-line-on-reddit/ |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=April 23, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423081417/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/04/21/the-march-for-science-began-with-this-persons-throwaway-line-on-reddit/ |archive-date=April 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/01/24/are-scientists-going-to-march-on-washington/ |title=Are scientists going to march on Washington? |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=January 31, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131152535/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/01/24/are-scientists-going-to-march-on-washington/ |archive-date=January 31, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Foley |first1=Katherine Ellen |title=The global March for Science started with a single Reddit thread |url=https://qz.com/965485/the-global-march-for-science-started-with-a-single-reddit-thread/ |work=Quartz |access-date=April 23, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424004314/https://qz.com/965485/the-global-march-for-science-started-with-a-single-reddit-thread/ |archive-date=April 24, 2017}}</ref>

Furthermore, the site is used heavily for verification, providing access to references and content creation by [[Bharatpedia community|Bharatpedia editors]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.archive.org/2018/10/01/more-than-9-million-broken-links-on-wikipedia-are-now-rescued/|title=More than 9 million broken links on Wikipedia are now rescued|first=Mark|last=Graham|date=October 1, 2018}}</ref>

In September 2020, a partnership was announced with [[Cloudflare]] to automatically archive websites served via its "Always Online" service, which will also allow it to direct users to its copy of the site if it cannot reach the original host.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=Mark |date=September 17, 2020 |title=Cloudflare and the Wayback Machine, joining forces for a more reliable Web |url= http://blog.archive.org/2020/09/17/internet-archive-partners-with-cloudflare-to-help-make-the-web-more-useful-and-reliable/ |access-date=September 17, 2020 |website= Internet Archive Blogs}}</ref>

=== Limitations ===

In 2014 there was a six-month lag time between when a website was crawled and when it became available for viewing in the Wayback Machine.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |title=Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions |date=April 2, 2014 |website=Internet Archive |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402223358/https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |archive-date=April 2, 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=November 23, 2018}}</ref> Currently, the lag time is 3 to 10 hours.<ref name="using" /> The Wayback Machine offers only limited search facilities. Its "Site Search" feature allows users to find a site based on words describing the site, rather than words found on the web pages themselves.<ref name=":4" />

The Wayback Machine does not include every web page ever made due to the limitations of its web crawler. The Wayback Machine cannot completely archive web pages that contain interactive features such as Flash platforms and forms written in JavaScript and [[progressive web application]]s, because those functions require interaction with the host website. This means that, since approximately July 9, 2013, the Wayback Machine has been unable to display YouTube comments when saving videos' watch pages, as, according to the Archive Team, comments are no longer "loaded within the page itself."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archiveteam.org/index.php?title=YouTube#Comment_loading|website=archiveteam.org|title=YouTube - Archiveteam|access-date=August 6, 2020|archive-date=August 5, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805184742/https://www.archiveteam.org/index.php?title=YouTube#Comment_loading|url-status=live}}</ref> The Wayback Machine's web crawler has difficulty extracting anything not coded in HTML or one of its variants, which can often result in broken hyperlinks and missing images. Due to this, the web crawler cannot archive "orphan pages" that are not linked to by other pages.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last=Bates |first=Mary Ellen |date=2002 |title=The Wayback Machine |journal=Online |volume=26 |pages=80 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |title=Internet Archive Frequently Asked Questions |website=archive.org |access-date=October 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420213122/https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |archive-date=April 20, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Wayback Machine's crawler only follows a predetermined number of hyperlinks based on a preset depth limit, so it cannot archive every hyperlink on every page.<ref name=":3" />

===In legal evidence===
====Civil litigation====
=====''Netbula LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc.''=====
In a 2009 case, ''Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc.'', defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the [[robots.txt]] file on its website that was causing the Wayback Machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from Netbula's site, pages that Chordiant believed would support its case.<ref name="howard_lloyd"/>

Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbula's website and that they should have subpoenaed Internet Archive for the pages directly.<ref name="antonio_cortes">{{cite web |last=Cortes |first=Antonio |date=October 2009 |title=Motion Opposing Removal of Robots.txt |url=http://www.american-justice.org/index.cgi/Page/116/OPPOSITION-TO-MOTION-TO-COMPEL-REMOVAL-OF-ROBOT-TXT-FILE-FROM-WEBSITE/ |access-date=October 15, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027050350/http://www.american-justice.org/index.cgi/Page/116/OPPOSITION-TO-MOTION-TO-COMPEL-REMOVAL-OF-ROBOT-TXT-FILE-FROM-WEBSITE |archive-date=October 27, 2010 }}</ref> An employee of Internet Archive filed a sworn statement supporting Chordiant's motion, however, stating that it could not produce the web pages by any other means "without considerable burden, expense and disruption to its operations."<ref name="howard_lloyd"/>

Magistrate Judge Howard Lloyd in the Northern District of California, San Jose Division, rejected Netbula's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow Chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought.<ref name="howard_lloyd">{{cite web |last=Lloyd |first=Howard |date=October 2009 |title=Order to Disable Robots.txt |url=http://www.american-justice.org/upload/page/123/69/docket-187-order-on-IA-motion.pdf |access-date=October 15, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808173832/http://www.american-justice.org/upload/page/123/69/docket-187-order-on-IA-motion.pdf |archive-date=August 8, 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=====''Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite''=====
In an October 2004 case, ''[[Telewizja Polska|Telewizja Polska USA, Inc.]] v. Echostar Satellite'', No. 02 C 3293, 65 Fed. R. Evid. Serv. 673 (N.D. Ill. October 15, 2004), a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, perhaps for the first time. Telewizja Polska is the provider of [[TVP Polonia]] and [[EchoStar]] operates the [[Dish Network]]. Prior to the trial proceedings, EchoStar indicated that it intended to offer Wayback Machine snapshots as proof of the past content of Telewizja Polska's website. Telewizja Polska brought a motion ''[[in limine]]'' to suppress the snapshots on the grounds of [[hearsay]] and unauthenticated source, but Magistrate Judge Arlander Keys rejected Telewizja Polska's assertion of hearsay and denied TVP's motion ''in limine'' to exclude the evidence at trial.<ref name="gelman">{{cite journal |last=Gelman |first=Lauren |date=November 17, 2004 |title=Internet Archive's Web Page Snapshots Held Admissible as Evidence |journal=Packets |volume=2 |issue=3 |url=http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/packets002728.shtml |access-date=January 4, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430095339/http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/packets002728.shtml |archive-date=April 30, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="howell">{{cite journal |last=Howell |first=Beryl A. |date=February 2006 |title=Proving Web History: How to use the Internet Archive |journal=Journal of Internet Law |pages=3–9 |url=http://www.strozfriedberg.com/files/Publication/fee98a34-d739-478b-a7db-6af37b757714/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/aae88469-9835-4fe4-ae5f-38637924314f/BAHPROVINGWEBHISTORY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705043226/http://www.strozfriedberg.com/files/Publication/fee98a34-d739-478b-a7db-6af37b757714/Presentation/PublicationAttachment/aae88469-9835-4fe4-ae5f-38637924314f/BAHPROVINGWEBHISTORY.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 5, 2010 |access-date=August 6, 2008}}</ref> At the trial, however, District Court Judge Ronald Guzman, the trial judge, overruled Magistrate Keys' findings, and held that neither the affidavit of the Internet Archive employee nor the underlying pages (i.e., the Telewizja Polska website) were admissible as evidence. Judge Guzman reasoned that the employee's affidavit contained both hearsay and inconclusive supporting statements, and the purported web page, printouts were not self-authenticating.<ref>{{cite web |title=Looking For Evidence in Virtual Places Admissibility of Internet Evidence |url=https://www.netforlawyers.com/page/looking-evidence-virtual-places-admissibility-internet-evidence |access-date=June 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701055139/https://www.netforlawyers.com/page/looking-evidence-virtual-places-admissibility-internet-evidence |archive-date=July 1, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Levitt |first1=Carole A. |last2=Rosch |first2=Mark E. |title=Find Info Like a Pro: Mining the Internet's Publicly Available Resources for Investigative Research, Tom 1 |date=2010 |publisher=American Bar Association |isbn=978-1-60442-890-2 |pages=194–196 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SUErZdbvcOkC |access-date=June 14, 2020 |archive-date=December 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218143732/https://books.google.com/books?id=SUErZdbvcOkC |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Patent law====
{{Main|Internet as a source of prior art}}
The [[United States patent office]] and the [[European Patent Office]] will accept date stamps from the Internet Archive as evidence of when a given Web page was accessible to the public. These dates are used to determine if a Web page is available as [[prior art]] for instance in examining a patent application.<ref>{{cite web |title=Prior Art in the Field of Business Method Patents – When is an Electronic Document a Printed Publication for Prior Art Purposes? |first=Wynn W. |last=Coggins |date=Fall 2002 |url=http://www.uspto.gov/patents/resources/methods/aiplafall02paper.jsp |work=USPTO |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921083344/http://www.uspto.gov/patents/resources/methods/aiplafall02paper.jsp |archive-date=September 21, 2012 |access-date=August 15, 2012 }}</ref>

====Limitations of utility====
There are technical limitations to archiving a website, and as a consequence, opposing parties in litigation can misuse the results provided by website archives. This problem can be exacerbated by the practice of submitting screenshots of web pages in complaints, answers, or expert witness reports when the underlying links are not exposed and therefore, can contain errors. For example, archives such as the Wayback Machine do not fill out forms and therefore, do not include the contents of non-[[Semantic URL|RESTful]] e-commerce databases in their archives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.practice.com/2008/12/29/debunking-the-wayback-machine |title=Debunking the Wayback Machine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629050840/http://www.practice.com/2008/12/29/debunking-the-wayback-machine |archive-date=June 29, 2010}}</ref>

==Legal status==
In Europe, the Wayback Machine could be interpreted as violating [[copyright]] laws. Only the content creator can decide where their content is published or duplicated, so the Archive would have to delete pages from its system upon request of the creator.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bahr |first1=Martin |url=http://www.jurpc.de/aufsatz/20020029.htm |title=The Wayback Machine und Google Cache - eine Verletzung deutschen Urheberrechts? |journal=JurPC |pages=9 |year=2002 |language=de |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823062928/http://www.jurpc.de/aufsatz/20020029.htm |archive-date=August 23, 2009 |url-status=live |doi=10.7328/jurpcb/20021719}}</ref> The exclusion policies for the Wayback Machine may be found in the FAQ section of the site.<ref name=faq>{{cite web |url=https://www.archive.org/about/faqs.php |title=Internet Archive FAQ |access-date=April 16, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417122600/https://archive.org/about/faqs.php |archive-date=April 17, 2014}}</ref>

Some cases have been brought against the Internet Archive specifically for its Wayback Machine archiving efforts. 

==Archived content legal issues==

===Scientology===
{{See also|Scientology and the Internet}}

In late 2002, the Internet Archive removed various sites that were critical of [[Scientology]] from the Wayback Machine.<ref name="bowman">{{cite news |first=Lisa M |last=Bowman |title=Net archive silences Scientology critic |url=http://news.cnet.com/2100-1023-959236.html |publisher=CNET News.com |date=September 24, 2002 |access-date=January 4, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515210932/http://news.cnet.com/2100-1023-959236.html|archive-date=May 15, 2012}}</ref> An error message stated that this was in response to a "request by the site owner".<ref name="exclusions">{{cite web |url=https://www.archive.org/iathreads/post-view.php?id=778 |title=exclusions from the Wayback Machine |access-date=January 4, 2007 |author=Jeff |date=September 23, 2002 |format=Blog |work=Wayback Machine Forum |publisher=Internet Archive |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211155138/http://www.archive.org/iathreads/post-view.php?id=778 |archive-date=February 11, 2007}} ''Author and Date indicate initiation of forum thread''.</ref> Later, it was clarified that lawyers from the [[Church of Scientology]] had demanded the removal and that the site owners did not want their material removed.<ref name="miller">{{cite web |url=http://research.yale.edu/lawmeme/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=350 |title=Sherman, Set the Wayback Machine for Scientology |access-date=January 4, 2007 |last=Miller |first=Ernest |format=Blog |work=LawMeme |publisher=Yale Law School |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 16, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116072812/http://lawmeme.research.yale.edu/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=350}}</ref>

===Healthcare Advocates, Inc.===
In 2003, Harding Earley Follmer & Frailey defended a client from a trademark dispute using the Archive's Wayback Machine. The attorneys were able to demonstrate that the claims made by the plaintiff were invalid, based on the content of their website from several years prior. The plaintiff, Healthcare Advocates, then amended their complaint to include the Internet Archive, accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act|DMCA]] and the [[Computer Fraud and Abuse Act]]. Healthcare Advocates claimed that, since they had installed a [[Robots exclusion standard|robots.txt]] file on their website, even if after the initial lawsuit was filed, the Archive should have removed all previous copies of the plaintiff website from the Wayback Machine, however, some material continued to be publicly visible on Wayback.<ref name=" dye">{{cite journal |last=Dye |first=Jessica |year=2005 |title=Website Sued for Controversial Trip into Internet Past |series=28 |journal=EContent |volume=11 |pages=8–9}}</ref> The lawsuit was settled out of court after Wayback fixed the problem.<ref name="bargeman">{{cite journal |last=Bangeman |first=Eric |date=August 31, 2006 |title=Internet Archive Settles Suit Over Wayback Machine |journal=Ars Technica |url=https://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20060831-7634.html |access-date=November 29, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105205430/http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20060831-7634.html |archive-date=November 5, 2007}}</ref>

===Suzanne Shell===
Activist [[Suzanne Shell]] filed suit in December 2005, demanding Internet Archive pay her US$100,000 for archiving her website profane-justice.org between 1999 and 2004.<ref name = justia-2006-08>{{cite court |litigants=Internet Archive v. Shell |vol=505 F.Supp.2d 755 |reporter=at justia.com |opinion= |pinpoint=1:2006cv01726 |court=[[United States District Court for the District of Colorado|Colorado District Court]] |date=August 31, 2006 |url=http://dockets.justia.com/docket/colorado/codce/1:2006cv01726/98194 |access-date=April 3, 2022 |quote='April 25, 2007 Settlement agreement announced.' Filing 65, 2007-04-30: '...therefore ORDERED that this matter shall be DISMISSED WITH PREJUDICE...'}}</ref><ref name = iavs-2007-02>{{cite web |last=Babcock |first=Lewis T. |date=February 13, 2007 |url=http://blog.ericgoldman.org/archives/waybackshell.pdf |title=''Internet Archive v. Shell'' Civil Action No. 06cv01726LTBCBS |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125143809/http://blog.ericgoldman.org/archives/waybackshell.pdf |archive-date=January 25, 2014 |url-status=live |access-date=March 25, 2015 |quote=1) Internet Archive's motion to dismiss Shell's counterclaim for conversion and civil theft (Second Cause of Action) is GRANTED, 2) Internet Archive's motion to dismiss Shell's counterclaim for breach of contract (Third Cause of Action) is DENIED; 3) Internet Archive's motion to dismiss Shell's counterclaim for Racketeering under RICO and COCCA (Fourth Cause of Action) is GRANTED.}}</ref> Internet Archive filed a [[declaratory judgment]] action in the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of California]] on January 20, 2006, seeking a judicial determination that Internet Archive did not violate Shell's [[copyright]]. Shell responded and brought a [[countersuit]] against Internet Archive for archiving her site, which she alleges is in violation of her [[terms of service]].<ref name = infoweek-2007-03>{{cite news |first=Thomas |last=Claburn |title=Colorado Woman Sues To Hold Web Crawlers To Contracts |publisher=[[InformationWeek]], UBM Tech, UBM LLC |location=New York, New York, US |date=March 16, 2007 |url=http://www.informationweek.com/colorado-woman-sues-to-hold-web-crawlers-to-contracts/d/d-id/1053075 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904170742/http://www.informationweek.com/colorado-woman-sues-to-hold-web-crawlers-to-contracts/d/d-id/1053075 |archive-date=September 4, 2014 |url-status=live |access-date=March 25, 2015 |quote=Computers can enter into contracts on behalf of people. The Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA) says that a 'contract may be formed by the interaction of electronic agents of the parties, even if no individual was aware of or reviewed the electronic agents' actions or the resulting terms and agreements.'}}</ref> On February 13, 2007, a judge for the [[United States District Court for the District of Colorado]] dismissed all counterclaims except [[breach of contract]].<ref name = iavs-2007-02 /> The Internet Archive did not move to dismiss [[copyright infringement]] claims Shell asserted arising out of its copying activities, which would also go forward.<ref name = illcd-2007>{{cite web |url=http://www.internetlibrary.com/cases/lib_case456.cfm |title=Internet Archive v. Suzanne Shell |last=Samson |first=Martin H., Phillips Nizer LLP |year=2007 |website=internetlibrary.com |publisher=Internet Library of Law and Court Decisions |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803002113/http://www.internetlibrary.com/cases/lib_case456.cfm |archive-date=August 3, 2014 |url-status=live |access-date=March 25, 2015 |quote=More importantly, held the court, Internet Archive's mere copying of Shell's site, and display thereof in its database, did not constitute the requisite exercise of dominion and control over defendant's property. Importantly, noted the court, the defendant at all times owned and operated her own site. Said the Court: 'Shell has failed to allege facts showing that Internet Archive exercised dominion or control over her website, since Shell's complaint states explicitly that she continued to own and operate the website while it was archived on the Wayback machine. Shell identifies no authority supporting the notion that copying documents is by itself enough of a deprivation of use to support conversion. Conversely, numerous circuits have determined that it is not.'}}</ref>

On April 25, 2007, Internet Archive and Suzanne Shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit.<ref name = justia-2006-08 /> The Internet Archive said it "...has no interest in including materials in the Wayback Machine of persons who do not wish to have their Web content archived. We recognize that Ms. Shell has a valid and enforceable copyright in her Web site and we regret that the inclusion of her Web site in the Wayback Machine resulted in this litigation." Shell said, "I respect the historical value of Internet Archive's goal. I never intended to interfere with that goal nor cause it any harm."<ref name = a-2007-04>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/post/119669/lawsuit-settled |title=Internet Archive and Suzanne Shell Settle Lawsuit |author=brewster |date=April 25, 2007 |website=archive.org |publisher=Internet Archive |location=Denver, CO, US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205074057/https://archive.org/post/119669/lawsuit-settled |archive-date=December 5, 2010 |url-status=live |access-date=March 25, 2015 |quote=Both parties sincerely regret any turmoil that the lawsuit may have caused for the other. Neither Internet Archive nor Ms. Shell condones any conduct which may have caused harm to either party arising out of the public attention to this lawsuit. The parties have not engaged in such conduct and request that the public response to the amicable resolution of this litigation be consistent with their wishes that no further harm or turmoil be caused to either party.}}</ref>

===Daniel Davydiuk===
Between 2013 and 2016, a [[pornographic actor]] named Daniel Davydiuk tried to remove archived images of himself from the Wayback Machine's archive, first by sending multiple [[DMCA request]]s to the archive, and then by appealing to the [[Federal Court of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mondaq.com/canada/x/358282/Trade%20Secrets/Copyright%20Implications%20of%20a%20Right%20to%20be%20Forgotten%20Or%20How%20to%20TakeDown%20the%20Internet%20Archive |title=Copyright Implications Of A "Right To Be Forgotten"? Or How To Take-Down The Internet Archive. |date=December 5, 2014 |first=Richard |last=Stobbe |access-date=March 8, 2019 |work=Mondaq |archive-date=November 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118095257/http://www.mondaq.com/canada/x/358282/Trade%20Secrets/Copyright%20Implications%20of%20a%20Right%20to%20be%20Forgotten%20Or%20How%20to%20TakeDown%20the%20Internet%20Archive |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://canlii.ca/t/gf3d7 |title=Davydiuk v. Internet Archive Canada, 2014 FC 944 |date=October 16, 2014 |access-date=March 8, 2019 |work=[[CanLII]] |publisher=[[Federation of Law Societies of Canada]] |first=Glennys |last=McVeigh |author-link=Glennys McVeigh |editor-first=James |editor-last=Philpott |editor2-first=Adam |editor2-last=Weissman |editor3-first=Ren |editor3-last=Bucholz |editor4-first=Brent |editor4-last=Kettles |editor5-first=Aaron |editor5-last=Pearl |archive-date=December 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218143737/https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2014/2014fc944/2014fc944.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc1313/2016fc1313.html |title=Davydiuk v. Internet Archive Canada and Internet Archive, 2016 FC 1313 (CanLII) |date=November 30, 2016 |access-date=March 8, 2019 |location=Ottawa, Ontario |work=[[CanLII]] |first=Richard F. |last=Southcott |publisher=[[Federation of Law Societies of Canada]] |editor-first=John |editor-last=Philpott |editor2-first=Alex |editor2-last=Alton |editor3-first=Ren |editor3-last=Bucholz |archive-date=June 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629215557/https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc1313/2016fc1313.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The images were then finally removed from the website in 2017.

=== FlexiSpy ===
In 2018, archives of [[Stalkerware|stalkerware application]] FlexiSpy's website were removed from the Wayback Machine. The company claimed to have contacted the Internet Archive, presumably to remove the archives of its website.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cox|first=Joseph|date=May 22, 2018|title=The Wayback Machine Is Deleting Evidence of Malware Sold to Stalkers|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/nekzzq/wayback-machine-deleting-evidence-flexispy|access-date=January 24, 2022|website=[[Vice News|Vice]]|archive-date=January 24, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124045413/https://www.vice.com/en/article/nekzzq/wayback-machine-deleting-evidence-flexispy|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Censorship and other threats==
Archive.org is currently [[Internet censorship in China|blocked in China]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Conger |first1=Kate |title=Backing up the history of the internet in Canada to save it from Trump |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/08/backing-up-the-history-of-the-internet-in-canada-to-save-it-from-trump/ |work=TechCrunch |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227100714/https://techcrunch.com/2016/12/08/backing-up-the-history-of-the-internet-in-canada-to-save-it-from-trump/ |archive-date=December 27, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Where to find what's disappeared online, and a whole lot more: the Internet Archive |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-02-23/where-find-whats-disappeared-online-and-whole-lot-more-internet-archive |publisher=Public Radio International |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328092846/https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-02-23/where-find-whats-disappeared-online-and-whole-lot-more-internet-archive |archive-date=March 28, 2017}}</ref> After the Islamic State terrorist organization was banned, the Internet Archive had been [[Internet censorship in Russia|blocked in its entirety in Russia]] as a host of an outreach video from that organization, for a short time in 2015–16.<ref name="usn1"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Chirgwin |first1=Richard |title=There's no Wayback in Russia: Putin blocks Archive.org |website=[[The Register]] |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/09/01/russias_putin_blocks_archiveorg/ |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007165431/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/09/01/russias_putin_blocks_archiveorg |archive-date=October 7, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Russia won't go Wayback, blocks the Internet Archive |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/web/russia-censors-wayback-machines-485-billion-archived-web-pages/ |publisher=Digital Trends |access-date=May 14, 2017 |date=June 26, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417125727/http://www.digitaltrends.com/web/russia-censors-wayback-machines-485-billion-archived-web-pages/ |archive-date=April 17, 2016}}</ref>{{update inline|date=October 2020}} Since 2016, the website has been back, available in its entirety, although local commercial lobbyists are suing the Internet Archive in a local court to ban it on copyright grounds.<ref>{{Cite web|title=В России разблокирован крупнейший интернет-архив|url=https://rg.ru/2016/04/18/v-rossii-razblokirovan-krupnejshij-internet-arhiv.html|access-date=October 18, 2020|website=Российская газета|date=April 18, 2016 |language=ru|archive-date=April 5, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405031631/https://rg.ru/2016/04/18/v-rossii-razblokirovan-krupnejshij-internet-arhiv.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2015, it was published that security researchers became aware of the threat posed by the service's unintentional [[Drive-by download|hosting of malicious binaries]] from archived sites.<ref name="vt-207-241">{{cite web |author=The VirusTotal Team |date=March 25, 2015 |title=207.241.226.190 IP address information |url=https://www.virustotal.com/en/ip-address/207.241.226.190/information/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714232311/https://www.virustotal.com/en/ip-address/207.241.226.190/information/ |archive-date=July 14, 2014 |access-date=March 25, 2015 |website=virustotal.com |publisher=[[VirusTotal]] |quote=2015-03-25: Latest URLs hosted in this IP address detected by at least one URL scanner or malicious URL dataset. ... 2/62 2015-03-25 16:14:12 [complete URL redacted]/Renegotiating_TLS.pdf ... 1/62 2015-03-25 04:46:34 [complete URL redacted]/CBLightSetup.exe |location=Dublin, Ireland}}</ref><ref name="goog-sb-ia1">{{cite web |date=March 25, 2015 |title=Safe Browsing Diagnostic page for archive.org |url=https://www.google.com/safebrowsing/diagnostic?site=archive.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406101743/http://www.google.com/safebrowsing/diagnostic?site=archive.org |archive-date=April 6, 2015 |access-date=March 25, 2015 |website=google.com/safebrowsing |quote=2015-03-25: Part of this site was listed for suspicious activity 138 time(s) over the past 90 days. ... What happened when Google visited this site? ... Of the 42410 pages we tested on the site over the past 90 days, 450 page(s) resulted in malicious software being downloaded and installed without user consent. The last time Google visited this site was on 2015-03-25, and the last time suspicious content was found on this site was on 2015-03-25. ... Malicious software includes 169 trojan(s), 126 virus, 43 backdoor(s). |location=Mountain View, CA, US}}</ref>

[[Alison Macrina]], director of the [[Library Freedom Project]], notes that "while librarians deeply value individual privacy, we also strongly oppose censorship".<ref name="usn1"/>

There is at least one case in which an article was removed from the archive shortly after it had been removed from its original website. A ''[[The Daily Beast|Daily Beast]]'' reporter had written an article that outed several gay Olympian athletes in 2016 after he had made a fake profile posing as a gay man on a dating app. ''The Daily Beast'' removed the article after it was met with widespread furor; not long after, the Internet Archive soon did as well, but emphatically stated that they did so for no other reason than to protect the safety of the outed athletes.<ref name="usn1"/>

Other threats include natural disasters,<ref>{{cite web |title=Help Us Keep the Archive Free, Accessible, and Reader Private {{!}} Internet Archive Blogs |date=November 29, 2016 |url=https://blog.archive.org/2016/11/29/help-us-keep-the-archive-free-accessible-and-private/ |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521080543/http://blog.archive.org/2016/11/29/help-us-keep-the-archive-free-accessible-and-private/ |archive-date=May 21, 2017}}</ref> destruction (remote or physical),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.engadget.com/2013-11-07-wayback-machine-internet-archive-fire.html |title=Wayback Machine web archive survives destructive fire but needs help to recover |last=Sakr |first=Sharif |date=November 7, 2013 |access-date=April 3, 2022 |archive-date=November 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109025136/https://www.engadget.com/2013-11-07-wayback-machine-internet-archive-fire.html}}</ref> manipulation of the archive's contents (see also: [[cyberattack]], [[backup]]), problematic copyright laws<ref>{{cite web |title=Internet Archive: Proposed Changes To DMCA Would Make Us "Censor The Web" |url=https://consumerist.com/2016/06/07/internet-archive-proposed-changes-to-dmca-would-make-us-censor-the-web/ |publisher=Consumerist |access-date=May 14, 2017 |date=June 7, 2016 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111161239/https://consumerist.com/2016/06/07/internet-archive-proposed-changes-to-dmca-would-make-us-censor-the-web/ |archive-date=November 11, 2016}}</ref> and surveillance of the site's users.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Herb |first1=Ulrich |title=Die Trump-Angst grassiert |date=December 6, 2016 |trans-title=The Trump fear is rampant |url=https://www.heise.de/tp/features/Die-Trump-Angst-grassiert-3549579.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161207164413/https://www.heise.de/tp/features/Die-Trump-Angst-grassiert-3549579.html |archive-date=December 7, 2016 |access-date=May 14, 2017 |publisher=heise online |language=de |quote=Die Betreiber des Archives fürchten neben Zensur und Manipulation der digitalen Aufzeichnungen demnach auch die Überwachung der Archive-Nutzer. [The operators of the archive fear not only censorship and manipulation of the digital recordings, but also the surveillance of the archive users].}}</ref>

Alexander Rose, executive director of the [[Long Now Foundation]], suspects that in the long term of multiple generations "next to nothing" will survive in a useful way, stating, "If we have continuity in our technological civilization, I suspect a lot of the bare data will remain findable and searchable. But I suspect almost nothing of the format in which it was delivered will be recognizable" because sites "with deep back-ends of content-management systems like Drupal and Ruby and Django" are harder to archive.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=LaFrance |first1=Adrienne |title=The Internet's Dark Ages |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/10/raiders-of-the-lost-web/409210/ |journal=The Atlantic |date=October 14, 2015 |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507173716/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/10/raiders-of-the-lost-web/409210/ |archive-date=May 7, 2017}}</ref>

In an article reflecting on the preservation of human knowledge, ''[[The Atlantic]]'' has commented that the Internet Archive, which describes itself to be built for the long-term,<ref>{{cite web|title=The Entire Internet Will Be Archived In Canada to Protect It From Trump |url=https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/the-entire-internet-will-be-archived-in-canada-to-protect-it-from-trump |publisher=Motherboard |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516221604/https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/the-entire-internet-will-be-archived-in-canada-to-protect-it-from-trump |archive-date=May 16, 2017 |date=November 29, 2016 }}</ref> "is working furiously to capture data before it disappears without any long-term infrastructure to speak of."<ref>{{cite web|last1=LaFrance |first1=Adrienne |title=The Human Fear of Total Knowledge |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/06/knowledge-compendia/485507/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=May 14, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202040113/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/06/knowledge-compendia/485507/ |archive-date=December 2, 2016 |date=June 3, 2016 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Anna's Archive]]
* [[Heritrix]]
* [[Library Genesis]]
* [[Link rot]]
* [[List of Web archiving initiatives]]
* [[Time capsule]]
* [[Z-Library]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website}}
* {{cite video|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8I28erYFLc | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106023827/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8I28erYFLc| archive-date=January 6, 2022| title = Internet history is fragile. This archive is making sure it doesn't disappear | publisher = PBS Newshour | location = San Francisco | access-date=September 19, 2018}}

{{DigitalPreservation}}
{{Internet Archive navbox}}

[[Category:History of the Internet|Archive]]
[[Category:Internet Archive projects]]
[[Category:Web archiving initiatives]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 1996]]
[[Category:501(c)(3) organizations]]
[[Category:1996 establishments in California]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in San Francisco]]

Adil Shaikh Azmi

2023-10-06T10:05:28Z

Deepaksuhag: Created page with '{{Short description|Indian politician}} '''Adil Shaikh Azmi''' (born 17 March 1976, Hindi: आदिल शैख़ आज़मी) is an Indian politician. He was the member of 16th Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly from Didarganj.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adil Shaikh(Samajwadi Party(SP)):Constituency- DIDARGANJ(AZAMGARH) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/uttarpradesh2017/candidate.php?candi...'

{{orphan|date=October 2023}}

{{Short description|Indian politician}}{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of [[Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly]]
| nationality = [[India]]n
| term_start = March 2012
| term_end = March 2017
| party = [[Samajwadi Party]]
| constituency = [[Didarganj Assembly constituency|Didarganj]]
| country = India
| succeeded = [[Sukhdev Rajbhar]]
}}

'''Adil Shaikh Azmi''' (born 17 March 1976, [[Hindi]]: आदिल शैख़ आज़मी) is an Indian politician.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-01-27 |title=Samajwadi Party candidates list for UP Assembly Elections 2017 |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/uttar-pradesh/news/samajwadi-party-candidates-list-for-up-assembly-elections-2017/articleshow/56806622.cms |access-date=2023-10-06 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> He was the member of 16th [[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly]] from [[Didarganj Assembly constituency|Didarganj]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adil Shaikh(Samajwadi Party(SP)):Constituency- DIDARGANJ(AZAMGARH) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/uttarpradesh2017/candidate.php?candidate_id=4481 |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=myneta.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Adil Shaikh-आदिल शेख Sp Candidate Didarganj Election Result 2017 |url=https://www.amarujala.com/election/vidhan-sabha-elections/uttar-pradesh/candidates/adil-shaikh-sp-2017-didarganj-383-uttar-pradesh |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=Amar Ujala |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-10 |title=Didarganj Election Result 2022 LIVE Updates: Kamalkant of SP Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/didarganj-election-result-2022-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-4852364.html |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

== Political career ==
Adil first got elected to the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] in the year 2012 on [[Samajwadi Party]] ticket.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Didarganj, Uttar Pradesh Assembly Election 2022 – Get Didarganj constituency news updates and complete details |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/uttar-pradesh-assembly-election/didarganj-581987016 |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Didarganj Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/didarganj-uttar-pradesh-assembly-constituency |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Azmi, Adil Shaikh}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Articles with short description]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2012–2017]]
[[Category:Samajwadi Party politicians]]

England

2023-10-06T04:15:18Z

Deepaksuhag: /* Folklore */ ce

{{Short description|Country in north-west Europe; part of the United Kingdom}}{{About|the country|other uses}}
{{Good article}}

{{Use British English|date=April 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox UK country
| image_flag = Flag of England.svg
| flag_caption =
| image_coat = Royal Arms of England.svg
| symbol_width =
| symbol_type = [[Royal Arms of England|Royal Arms]]
| national_motto =
| englishmotto =
| national_anthem = [[National anthem of England|Various]] Predominantly "[[God Save the King]]" {{smaller|([[God Save the King#Use in the United Kingdom|National anthem of the United Kingdom]])}}
| image_map2 = 
| status = [[Countries of the United Kingdom|Country]]
| capital = [[London]]
| coordinates = {{coord|51|30|N|0|7|W|type:city|display=inline}}
| largest_city = London
| languages_type = National language
| languages = [[English language in England|English]]
| languages2_type = Regional languages
| languages2 = [[Cornish language|Cornish]]
| languages2_sub =
| ethnic_groups =
{{unbulleted list
| 81.0% [[White people in the United Kingdom|White]]
| 9.6% [[British Asians|Asian]]
| 4.2% [[Black British people|Black]]
| 3.0% [[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Mixed]]
| 2.2% [[Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom|other]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_year = [[2021 United Kingdom census|2021]]<ref name="2021 Nomis">{{NOMIS2021|id=E92000001|title=England Country|access-date=14 August 2023}}</ref>
| religion =
{{unbulleted list
| 46.3% [[Religion in England#Christianity|Christianity]]
| 36.7% [[Irreligion in the United Kingdom|no religion]]
| 6.7% [[Islam in England|Islam]]
| 1.8% [[Hinduism in England|Hinduism]]
| 0.9% [[Sikhism in England|Sikhism]]
| 0.5% [[Buddhism in England|Buddhism]]
| 0.5% [[History of the Jews in England|Judaism]]
| 0.6% [[Religion in England|other]]
| 6.0% not stated
}}
| religion_year = 2021<ref name="2021 Nomis" />
| demonym = [[English people|English]]
| type =
| legal_jurisdiction = [[England and Wales]]
| government_type = Part of a [[constitutional monarchy]], direct government exercised by the government of the United Kingdom
| monarch = [[Charles III]]
| number_of_mps = 533
| legislature =
| sovereignty_type = [[History of England|Establishment]]
| sovereignty_note =
| established_event1 = [[Æthelstan#King of the English|Unification of Angles, Saxons and Danes]]
| established_date1 = 12 July 927
| established_event2 = [[Acts of Union 1707|Union with Scotland]]
| established_date2 = 1 May 1707
| established_event3 =
| established_date3 =
| established_event4 =
| established_date4 =
| established_event5 =
| established_date5 =
| area_rank =
| area_label = Total{{ref label|footnote_a|a}}
| area_km2 = 132930
| area_sq_mi = auto
| area_footnote =<ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement">{{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-2021-for-administrative-areas-in-the-united-kingdom-v2/about |title=Standard Area Measurements (2021) for Administrative Areas in the United Kingdom (V2) |author= |date=10 March 2023 |website=Open Geography Portal |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=16 August 2023 }}</ref>
| area_label2 = Land{{ref label|footnote_b|b}}
| area_data2 = {{convert|130310|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name="ONS Standard Area Measurement"/>
| percent_water =
| population_estimate = {{increaseNeutral}} 56,536,000
| population_estimate_rank =
| population_estimate_year = Mid-2021
| population_census = {{increaseNeutral}} 56,490,048
| population_census_year = 2021
| population_density_km2 = 434
| population_density_sq_mi = auto
| population_density_rank =
| pop_den_footnote =<ref name="ONS mid-year pop est">{{Cite web |last=Park |first=Neil |date=21 December 2022 |title=Population estimates for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland: mid-2021 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/mid2021 |access-date=14 August 2023 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref>
| GVA = £1.760 trillion
| GVA_rank =
| GVA_year = 2021
| GVA_per_capita = £31,138<ref name="ONS GVA">{{Cite web |last=Fenton |first=Trevor |date=25 April 2023 |title=Regional gross value added (balanced) per head and income components |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/datasets/nominalregionalgrossvalueaddedbalancedperheadandincomecomponents |access-date=14 August 2023 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref>
| GVA_per_capita_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_rank =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| GDP_PPP_per_capita =
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
| GDP_nominal = £1.961 trillion
| GDP_nominal_rank =
| GDP_nominal_year = 2021
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = £34,690<ref name="ONS GDP">{{Cite web |last=Fenton |first=Trevor |date=25 April 2023 |title=Regional gross domestic product: all ITL regions |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/datasets/regionalgrossdomesticproductallnutslevelregions |access-date=15 August 2023 |website=Office for National Statistics}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
| Gini_year =
| Gini_change =
| Gini =
| Gini_ref =
| Gini_rank =
| HDI_year =
| HDI_change =
| HDI =
| HDI_ref =
| HDI_rank =
| utc_offset = +0
| patron_saint = [[Saint George]]
| cctld =
| official_website =
| footnote_a = {{note|footnote_a}}[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]] Standard Area Measurement, 'Total Extent of the Realm'
| footnote_b = {{note|footnote_b}}ONS Standard Area Measurement, 'Area to Mean High Water Excluding Inland Water'
| footnote_c =
| footnote_d =
| footnote_e =
| footnote_f =
}}

'''England''' is a [[Countries of the United Kingdom|country]] that is part of the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="ONS Geography Guide">{{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/documents/a-beginners-guide-to-uk-geography-2021-v1-0-1/explore |title=A Beginner's Guide to UK Geography |author= |date=25 October 2022 |website=Open Geography Portal |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=19 August 2023}}</ref> It shares land borders with [[Wales]] to its west and [[Scotland]] to its north, while [[Ireland]] is located across the [[Irish Sea]] to its west and northwest, and the [[Celtic Sea]] lies to its southwest. It is separated from [[continental Europe]] by the [[North Sea]] to the east and the [[English Channel]] to the south. The country covers roughly 62% of the island of [[Great Britain]], which is in the [[Atlantic Ocean#Northern Atlantic|North Atlantic]], and includes [[List of islands of England|over 100 smaller islands]] such as the [[Isles of Scilly]] and the [[Isle of Wight]].

The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the [[Upper Paleolithic]], but takes its name from the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], a [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribe who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century and has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world since the [[Age of Discovery]], which began during the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=England – Culture |url=http://www.britainusa.com/sections/index_nt1.asp?i=41105&L1=41105&L2=41105&D=0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516162153/http://www.britainusa.com/sections/index_nt1.asp?i=41105&L1=41105&L2=41105&D=0 |archive-date=16 May 2008 |access-date=1 February 2009 |website=britainusa.com}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of England]], which included Wales after 1535, ceased being a separate [[sovereign state]] on 1 May 1707 when the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] put the terms agreed in the [[Treaty of Union]] the previous year into effect; this resulted in a political union with the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] that created the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=William E. |last=Burns |title=A Brief History of Great Britain |page=[{{GBurl|id=Fjf4YynnC90C|pg=PT21}} xxi]}}; {{Cite web |title=Acts of Union 1707 |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny |access-date=27 January 2011 |website=parliament.uk}}</ref>

England is the origin of many well-known worldwide exports, including the [[English language]], the [[English law]] system (which served as the basis for the [[common law]] systems of many other countries), [[association football]] (the world's most popular sport), and the [[Anglican Communion|Church of England]]; its [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|parliamentary system of government]] has been widely adopted by other nations.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 October 2009 |title=Country profile: United Kingdom |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1038758.stm |access-date=1 February 2009}}</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Industrial Revolution |url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Global_Warming/Older/Industrial_Revolution.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080427080826/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Global_warming/older/Industrial_Revolution.html |archive-date=27 April 2008 |access-date=1 February 2009 |website=Ace.mmu.ac.uk}}</ref> England is home to [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|the two oldest universities]] in the English-speaking world: the [[University of Oxford]], founded in 1096, and the [[University of Cambridge]], founded in 1209. Both universities are ranked among the most prestigious in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-10-04 |title=What makes UK universities so popular? |url=https://camvision-edu.co.uk/what-makes-uk-universities-so-popular/ |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=CamVision Education |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-04 |title=World University Rankings |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2023/world-ranking |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=Times Higher Education (THE) |language=en}}</ref>

England's terrain chiefly consists of low hills and [[plain]]s, especially in the [[Midlands|centre]] and [[Southern England|south]]. Upland and mountainous terrain is mostly found in the [[Northern England|north]] and [[West of England|west]], including [[Dartmoor]], the [[Lake District]], the [[Pennines]], and the [[Shropshire Hills]]. The country's capital is [[London]], the [[London metropolitan area|greater metropolitan]] of which has a population of 14.2 million as of 2021, representing the United Kingdom's largest metropolitan area. England's population of 56.3 million comprises 84% of the population of the United Kingdom,<ref name="ONS-pop-ests-June2018">{{Cite web |last=Park |first=Neil |date=24 June 2020 |title=Population estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/latest#population-growth-in-england-wales-scotland-and-northern-ireland |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics (United Kingdom)]]}}</ref> largely concentrated around London, the [[South East England|southeast]], and conurbations in the centre, the [[North West England|northwest]], the [[North East England|northeast]], and [[Yorkshire]], which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.<ref name="2011 census">[http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_270487.pdf 2011 Census – Population and household estimates for England and Wales, March 2011]. Accessed 31 May 2013.</ref>

==Toponymy{{Anchor|Etymology}}==
{{See also|Toponymy of England}}

The name "England" is derived from the [[Old English]] name {{Lang|ang|Englaland}}, which means "land of the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]]".<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=England |encyclopedia=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=England |access-date=21 July 2010}}</ref> The Angles were one of the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic tribes]] that settled in Great Britain during the [[Early Middle Ages]]. The Angles came from the [[Anglia (peninsula)|Anglia]] peninsula in the [[Bay of Kiel]] area (present-day German state of [[Schleswig-Holstein]]) of the [[Baltic Sea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ripley|1869|p=570}}.</ref> The earliest recorded use of the term, as "{{Lang|ang|Engla londe}}", is in the late-ninth-century translation into Old English of [[Bede]]'s ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]''. The term was then used to mean "the land inhabited by the English", and it included English people in what is now south-east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom of [[Northumbria]]. The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' recorded that the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the ''Chronicle'' stated that King [[Malcolm III]] went "out of Scotlande into [[Lothian]] in Englaland", thus using it in the more ancient sense.{{sfn|Molyneaux|2015|pp=6–7}}

The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by [[Tacitus]], ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', in which the [[Latin]] word {{Lang|la|Anglii}} is used.<ref name="Fordham">{{Cite web |title=Germania |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/tacitus-germanygord.html |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=[[Tacitus]]}}</ref> The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an ''angular'' shape.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Angle |encyclopedia=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50075354?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=Angle&first=1&max_to_show=10 |access-date=5 September 2009}}{{dead link|date=October 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the [[Saxons]], came to be used for the entire country is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain ''Angli Saxones'' or English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald-Seaxe) of Old Saxony in Germany.<ref>{{harvnb|Crystal|2004|pp=26–27}}</ref> In [[Scottish Gaelic]], the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England ({{Lang|gd|Sasunn}});<ref>{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=John |title=The Principles of Gaelic Grammar |publisher=Oliver, Boyd and Tweeddale |year=1848 |location=Edinburgh}}</ref> similarly, the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name for the English language is "{{Lang|cy|Saesneg}}". A romantic name for England is [[Lloegyr|Loegria]], related to the Welsh word for England, {{Lang|cy|Lloegr}}, and made popular by its use in [[Arthurian legend]]. ''[[Albion]]'' is also applied to England in a more poetic capacity,<ref>{{harvnb|Foster|1988|p=9}}.</ref> though its original meaning is the island of Britain as a whole.

==History==
{{Main|History of England}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of English history}}

===Prehistory and antiquity===
{{Main|Prehistoric Britain}}
[[File:Stonehenge, Condado de Wiltshire, Inglaterra, 2014-08-12, DD 18.JPG|alt=Sun shining through row of upright standing stones with other stones horizontally on the top.|thumb|[[Stonehenge]], a [[Neolithic]] monument]]

The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of ''[[Homo antecessor]]'', dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 May 2007 |title=500,000 BC – Boxgrove |url=http://www.archaeology.co.uk/the-timeline-of-britain/boxgrove.htm |access-date=20 December 2010 |website=Current Archaeology |publisher=Current Publishing}}</ref> Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Palaeolithic Archaeology Teaching Resource Box |url=http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~sgs04rh/SWRivers/Palaeolithic%20Archaeology%20Teaching%20Resource%20Box_Lifestyles_Basic.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505012542/http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~sgs04rh/SWRivers/Palaeolithic%20Archaeology%20Teaching%20Resource%20Box_Lifestyles_Basic.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |access-date=20 December 2010 |publisher=Palaeolithic Rivers of South-West Britain Project (2006)}}; {{Cite web |title=Chalk east |url=http://www.geo-east.org.uk/special_projects/eco_culture.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305032854/http://www.geo-east.org.uk/special_projects/eco_culture.htm |archive-date=5 March 2011 |access-date=20 December 2010 |publisher=A Geo East Project}}</ref> After the [[Last glacial period|last ice age]] only large mammals such as [[mammoth]]s, [[bison]] and [[woolly rhinoceros]] remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the [[ice sheets]] began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the [[Iberian Peninsula]].{{Sfn|Oppenheimer|2006|p=173}} The sea level was lower than the present day and Britain was connected by [[land bridge]] to Ireland and [[Eurasia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tertiary Rivers: Tectonic and structural background |url=http://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/tertiaryrivers/tectonics.html |access-date=9 September 2009 |publisher=University of Cambridge}}</ref>
As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.

The [[Beaker culture]] arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Function and significance of Bell Beaker pottery according to data from residue analyses |url=http://tp.revistas.csic.es/index.php/tp/article/viewFile/5/5 |access-date=21 December 2010}}</ref> It was during this time that major [[Neolithic]] monuments such as [[Stonehenge]] and [[Avebury]] were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made [[bronze]], and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron [[smelting]] allowed the construction of better [[plough]]s, advancing agriculture (for instance, with [[Celtic field]]s), as well as the production of more effective weapons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reid |first=Struan |url={{GBurl|id=bn88JPk_Fr0C|q=inventions in trade}} |title=Inventions and Trade. P.8 |date=1994 |publisher=James Lorimer & Company |isbn=978-0-921921-30-1 |access-date=23 December 2010}}</ref>

[[File:London_-_British_Museum_-_2453.jpg|thumb|255x255px|The [[Battersea Shield]] is one of the most significant pieces of ancient [[Celtic art]] found in Britain.]]
During the [[British Iron Age|Iron Age]], [[Celts|Celtic culture]], deriving from the [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] and [[La Tène culture]]s, arrived from Central Europe. [[British language (Celtic)|Brythonic]] was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to [[Ptolemy]]'s {{Lang|la|[[Geographia]]}} there were around 20 tribes in the area. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the [[Roman Republic]] attempted to [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|invade twice]] in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a [[Roman client kingdoms in Britain|client king]] from the [[Trinovantes]].

The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor [[Claudius]], subsequently [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquering much of Britain]], and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as [[Roman Britain|Britannia province]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Jason |date=2 December 2000 |title=Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak |work=The Observer |location=London |url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,406152,00.html |url-status=dead |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031022061846/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0%2C6903%2C406152%2C00.html |archive-date=22 October 2003}}</ref> The best-known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the [[Catuvellauni]] led by [[Caratacus]]. Later, an uprising led by [[Boudica]], Queen of the [[Iceni]], ended with Boudica's suicide following her defeat at the [[Defeat of Boudica|Battle of Watling Street]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Tac.+Ann.+14.37&redirect=true |access-date=22 December 2010 |publisher=Alfred John Church, William Jackson Brudribh, Ed}}</ref> The author of one study of Roman Britain suggested that from 43 AD to 84 AD, the Roman invaders killed somewhere between 100,000 and 250,000 people from a population of perhaps 2,000,000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |title=Pax Romana: War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World |date=2016 |publisher=Hachette UK |page=276}}</ref> This era saw a [[Greco-Roman]] culture prevail with the introduction of [[Roman law]], [[Roman architecture]], [[List of aqueducts in the Roman Empire|aqueducts]], [[Sanitation in ancient Rome|sewers]], many agricultural items and silk.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bedoyere |first=Guy |title=Architecture in Roman Britain |url=http://heritage-key.com/publication/architecture-roman-britain |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703012351/http://heritage-key.com/publication/architecture-roman-britain |archive-date=3 July 2009 |access-date=23 December 2010 |website=Heritage Key}}; {{Cite book |url={{GBurl|id=bylBAAAAIAAJ|q=roman law after roman invasion of britain|p=276}} |title=The History of Progress in Great Britain |volume=2 |first=Robert |last=Philip |access-date=23 December 2010 |date=1860}}; {{Cite book |url={{GBurl|id=1qiFEQ1tAHQC|q=roman occupation brought to britain a sewage system|pg=PT119}} |title=Medicine through time |publisher=Heinemann |first1=Bob |last1=Rees |first2=Paul |last2=Shute |first3=Nigel |last3=Kelly |access-date=24 December 2010 |isbn=978-0-435-30841-4 |date=9 January 2003}}</ref> In the 3rd century, Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] died at [[Eboracum]] (now [[York]]), where [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] was subsequently proclaimed emperor a century later.{{Sfn|Rankov|1994|p=16}}

There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to [[Bede]], missionaries were sent from Rome by [[Pope Eleuterus|Eleutherius]] at the request of the chieftain [[Lucius of Britain]] in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through [[Joseph of Arimathea]], while others claim through Lucius of Britain.{{Sfn|Wright|2008|p=143}} By 410, during the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], Britain was left exposed by the [[end of Roman rule in Britain]] and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars.<ref name="james_anglosaxons" /> Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished. This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local "congregations" were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman-dominated church.<ref name="Lehane">{{Cite book |last=Lehane |first=Brendan |title=Early Christian Christianity |date=1968 |publisher=John Murray}}</ref>

===Middle Ages===
{{Main|England in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Sutton Hoo replica (face).jpg|thumb|alt=Studded and decorated metallic mask of human face.|Replica of the 7th-century ceremonial [[Sutton Hoo helmet]] from the [[Kingdom of East Anglia]]]]

[[Military of ancient Rome|Roman military]] withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north-western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons, [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Jutes]] and Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province. These groups then began to settle in increasing numbers over the course of the fifth and sixth centuries, initially in the eastern part of the country.<ref name="james_anglosaxons">{{Cite web |last=James |first=Edward |title=Overview: Anglo-Saxons, 410 to 800 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/overview_anglo_saxons_01.shtml |access-date=3 December 2010 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons' victory at the [[Battle of Badon|Battle of Mount Badon]], but subsequently resumed, overrunning the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under [[Britons (historical)|Brittonic]] control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a [[Dark Age]]. Details of the [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain]] are consequently subject to considerable disagreement; the emerging consensus is that it occurred on a large scale in the south and east but was less substantial to the north and west, where Celtic languages continued to be spoken even in areas under Anglo-Saxon control.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dark |first=Ken R. |date=2003 |title=Large-scale population movements into and from Britain south of Hadrian's Wall in the fourth to sixth centuries AD |url=https://www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/GCMS/RMS-2003-03_K._R._Dark%2C_Large-scale_population_movements_into_and_from_Britan_south_of_Hadrian%27s_Wall_in_the_fourth_to_sixth_centuries_AD.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210601080017/https://www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/GCMS/RMS-2003-03_K._R._Dark%2C_Large-scale_population_movements_into_and_from_Britan_south_of_Hadrian%27s_Wall_in_the_fourth_to_sixth_centuries_AD.pdf |archive-date=1 June 2021 |access-date=20 June 2020}}; {{Cite book |first=Toby F. |last=Martin |title=The Cruciform Brooch and Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Boydell and Brewer Press |date=2015 |pages=174–178}}; {{Cite web |last=Coates |first=Richard |title=Celtic whispers: revisiting the problems of the relation between Brittonic and Old English |url=https://ul.qucosa.de/api/qucosa%3A31804/attachment/ATT-0/ }}; {{Cite web |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |year=2018 |title=Relative Chronology |url=https://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art320e.pdf }}; {{Cite web |last=Fox |first=Bethany |title=The P-Celtic Place Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland |url=http://www.heroicage.org/issues/10/fox.html }}</ref><ref name="Härke, Heinrich 2011">{{Cite journal |last=Härke |first=Heinrich |date=2011 |title=Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis |journal=Medieval Archaeology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1179/174581711X13103897378311 |s2cid=162331501}}</ref> Roman-dominated Christianity had, in general, been replaced in the conquered territories by [[Anglo-Saxon paganism]], but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]] from 597.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Christian Tradition |url=http://www.picturesofengland.com/history/england-history-p4.html |access-date=5 September 2009 |website=PicturesofEngland.com}}</ref> Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic-dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the [[Council of Whitby]] (664), which was ostensibly about [[tonsure]]s (clerical haircuts) and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice.<ref name="Lehane" />

During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including [[Northumbria]], [[Mercia]], [[Wessex]], [[Kingdom of East Anglia|East Anglia]], [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]], [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] and [[Kingdom of Sussex|Sussex]]. Over the following centuries, this process of political consolidation continued.{{Sfn|Kirby|2000|p=4}} The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence.{{Sfn|Lyon|1960|p=23}} In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]] culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under [[Alfred the Great]] was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors, it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the [[Danelaw]]. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under [[Æthelstan]] in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by [[Eadred]] in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by [[Sweyn Forkbeard]] in 1013 and again by his son [[Cnut the Great|Cnut]] in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short-lived [[North Sea Empire]] that also included [[Kingdom of Denmark|Denmark]] and [[Norway]]. However, the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of [[Edward the Confessor]] in 1042.

[[File:King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=King Henry V at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415.|[[King Henry V of England|King Henry V]] at the [[Battle of Agincourt]], fought on [[Saint Crispin's Day]] and concluded with an English victory against a larger French army in the [[Hundred Years' War]]]]
A dispute over the succession to Edward led to the [[Norman Conquest]] in 1066, accomplished by an army led by [[William the Conqueror|Duke William of Normandy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview: The Normans, 1066–1154 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/overview_normans_01.shtml |access-date=3 December 2010 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> The [[Normans]] themselves originated from [[Scandinavia]] and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Crouch|2006|pp=2–4}}</ref> This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French-speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 February 2008 |title=Norman invasion word impact study |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/mid/7254446.stm |access-date=3 December 2010}}</ref>

Subsequently, the [[House of Plantagenet]] from Anjou inherited the English throne under [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], adding England to the budding [[Angevin Empire]] of fiefs the family had inherited in France including [[Duchy of Aquitaine|Aquitaine]].<ref name="Bartlett p124">{{harvnb|Bartlett|1999|p=124}}.</ref> They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being [[Richard I of England|Richard I]], [[Edward I of England|Edward I]], [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] and [[Henry V of England|Henry V]].<ref name="Bartlett p124" /> The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the ''[[Magna Carta]]'', an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholic [[monasticism]] flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The [[Principality of Wales]] became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edward I (r. 1272–1307) |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/OutPut/Page61.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624181028/http://www.royal.gov.uk/OutPut/Page61.asp |archive-date=24 June 2008 |access-date=21 September 2009 |website=Royal.gov.uk}}</ref> and the [[Lordship of Ireland]] was given to the English monarchy by the Pope.

During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the [[House of Valois]] both claimed to be legitimate claimants to the [[House of Capet]] and with it France; the two powers clashed in the [[Hundred Years' War]].{{Sfn|Fowler|1967|p=208}} The [[Black Death]] epidemic [[Black Death in England|hit England]]; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England's [[Medieval demography|inhabitants]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ziegler|2003|p=230}}; {{harvnb|Goldberg|1996|p=4}}.</ref> From 1453 to 1487 civil war occurred between two branches of the royal family – the [[House of York|Yorkists]] and [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrians]] – known as the [[Wars of the Roses]].{{Sfn|Crofton|2007|p=111}} Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the [[House of Tudor|Tudors]], a branch of the Lancastrians headed by [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]] who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] where the Yorkist king [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] was killed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Richard III (r. 1483–1485) |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page50.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710093939/http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page50.asp |archive-date=10 July 2008 |access-date=21 September 2009 |website=Royal.gov.uk}}</ref>

===Early modern period===
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During the [[Tudor period]], England began to develop [[English Navy|naval skills]], and exploration intensified in the [[Age of Discovery]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Navy History, Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy |url=http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118040146/http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-date=18 January 2012 |access-date=24 December 2010}}; {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Goldwin |url={{GBurl|id=RdOTQUDgH54C|q=england under the tudors by goldwin smith}} |title=England Under the Tudors |page=176 |publisher=Forgotten Books |access-date=26 December 2010 |isbn=978-1-60620-939-4}}</ref> [[Henry VIII]] broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the [[Acts of Supremacy]] in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the [[Church of England]]. In contrast with much of European [[Protestantism]], the [[English Reformation|roots of the split]] were more political than theological.{{Efn|As [[Roger Scruton]] explains, "The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the "Reformation Parliament" of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not make substantial change in doctrine until later."{{Sfn|Scruton|1982|p=470}}}} He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542|1535–1542 acts]]. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry's daughters, [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] and [[Elizabeth I]]. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of [[Anglicanism]]. The [[Elizabethan era]] is the epoch in the Tudor age of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I ("the Virgin Queen"). Historians often depict it as the [[Golden age (metaphor)|golden age]] in English history that represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of great art, drama, poetry, music and literature.<ref>From the 1944 Clark lectures by [[C. S. Lewis]]; Lewis, ''English Literature in the Sixteenth Century'' (Oxford, 1954) p. 1, {{OCLC|256072}}</ref> England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tudor Parliaments |url=https://spartacus-educational.com/TUDparliament.htm |access-date=4 April 2021 |website=Spartacus Educational |language=en}}</ref>

Competing with [[Spanish Empire|Spain]], the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer [[Walter Raleigh]] in [[Virginia]] and named [[Roanoke Colony|Roanoke]]. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony after it was found abandoned on the return of the late-arriving supply ship.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ordahl |first=Karen |url={{GBurl|id=W8cr4Vgt9ekC|q=roanoke colony}} |title=Roanak:the abandoned colony |date=25 February 2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield publishers Inc |isbn=978-0-7425-5263-0 |access-date=24 December 2010}}</ref> With the [[East India Company]], England also competed with the [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] and [[French colonial empire|French]] in the East. During the Elizabethan period, England was at war with Spain. An [[Spanish Armada|armada]] sailed from Spain in 1588 as part of a wider plan to invade England and re-establish a Catholic monarchy. The plan was thwarted by bad coordination, stormy weather and successful harrying attacks by an English fleet under [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]]. This failure did not end the threat: Spain launched two further armadas, in [[2nd Spanish Armada|1596]] and [[3rd Spanish Armada|1597]], but both were driven back by storms.

===Union with Scotland===
{{see|Union of the Crowns|Treaty of Union}}

The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the [[King of Scots]], [[James VI of Scotland|James VI]], a kingdom which had been a long-time rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I, thereby creating a [[Union of the Crowns|personal union]].<ref name="Britons">{{harvnb|Colley|1992|p=12}}.; {{Cite web |title=Making the Act of Union |url=http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/01_background.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609075346/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/01_background.html |archive-date=9 June 2008 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=Parliament}}</ref> He styled himself [[King of Great Britain]], although this had no basis in English law.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hay |first=Denys |title=The term "Great Britain" in the Middle Ages |url=http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_089/89_055_066.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325061737/http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_089/89_055_066.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |access-date=19 February 2009 |website=ads.ahds.ac.uk}}</ref> Under the auspices of James VI and I the Authorised [[King James Version]] of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.

[[File:Charles II of England.jpeg|thumb|upright|right|alt=Painting of seated male figure, with long black hair wearing a white cape and breeches.|The [[English Restoration]] restored the monarchy under King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] and peace after the [[English Civil War]].]]
Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the [[English Civil War]] was fought between the supporters of [[Long Parliament|Parliament]] and those of King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], known colloquially as [[Roundhead]]s and [[Cavalier]]s respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]], involving [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]. The Parliamentarians were victorious, [[execution of Charles I|Charles I was executed]] and the kingdom replaced by the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]]. Leader of the Parliament forces, [[Oliver Cromwell]] declared himself [[Lord Protector]] in 1653; a period of [[the Protectorate|personal rule]] followed.<ref name="O Cromwell">{{Cite web |year=2009 |title=Oliver Cromwell (English statesman) |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143822/Oliver-Cromwell |access-date=8 August 2009 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> After Cromwell's death and the resignation of his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]] as Lord Protector, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the [[English Restoration|Restoration]]. With the reopening of theatres, fine arts, literature and performing arts flourished throughout the Restoration of <nowiki>''the Merry Monarch''</nowiki> Charles II.<ref>Lyndsey Bakewell, "Changing scenes and flying machines: re-examination of spectacle and the spectacular in Restoration theatre, 1660–1714" (PhD. Diss. Loughborough University, 2016) [https://web.archive.org/web/20200212175057/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/5c52/dfd2b876951f2d9ca982a2aa2460f52c228f.pdf online].</ref> After the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the [[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights]] in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Philip J. |url={{GBurl|id=mPoqfoiIp4sC|q=with the restoration it was not constitutionally established that king and parliament should rule together|p=340}} |title=World Civilization |last2=Pouwels |first2=Randall L. |date=27 November 2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-50262-3 |page=340 |access-date=24 December 2010}}</ref> Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at the [[State Opening of Parliament]] by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/hi/guides/newsid_81000/81909.stm "Democracy Live: Black Rod"]. BBC. Retrieved 6 August 2008; {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Black Rod|volume=4}}</ref> With the founding of the [[Royal Society]] in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.

By the mid-to-late 17th century, two political factions had emerged – the [[Tory|Tories]] and [[Whig (British political faction)|Whigs]]. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king [[James II of England|James II]], some of them, along with the Whigs, during the [[Glorious Revolution|Revolution of 1688]] invited the Dutch [[Prince William of Orange]] to defeat James and become the king. Some English people, especially in the north, were [[Jacobitism|Jacobites]] and continued to support James and his sons. Under the [[House of Stuart|Stuart dynasty]] England expanded in trade, finance and prosperity. Britain developed Europe's largest merchant fleet.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History Press {{!}} The Stuarts |url=https://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/the-stuarts |access-date=11 April 2021 |website=www.thehistorypress.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed,<ref name="Union with Scotland" /> the two countries joined in [[political union]], to create the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] in 1707.<ref name="Britons" /> To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate.{{Sfn|Gallagher|2006|p=14}}

===Late modern and contemporary periods===
[[File:CanalettoSomersetHouseTerrace.jpg|thumb|The [[River Thames]] during the [[Georgian period]] from the Terrace of Somerset House looking towards St. Paul's, {{Circa|1750}}]]

Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other [[English Enlightenment|English initiatives]] combined with the [[Scottish Enlightenment]] to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in [[Triangular trade|British overseas trade]] protected by the [[Royal Navy]] paved the way for the establishment of the [[British Empire]]. Domestically it drove the [[Industrial Revolution]], a period of profound change in the [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hudson, Pat |title=The Workshop of the World |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/workshop_of_the_world_01.shtml |access-date=10 December 2010 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> The opening of Northwest England's [[Bridgewater Canal]] in 1761 ushered in the [[History of the British canal system|canal age in Britain]].<ref name="Briton20015">{{Harvnb|Office for National Statistics|2000|p=5}}; {{harvnb|McNeil|Nevell|2000|p=4}}.</ref> In 1825 the world's first permanent steam locomotive-hauled passenger railway – the [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]] – opened to the public.<ref name="Briton20015" />
[[File:Turner, The Battle of Trafalgar (1822).jpg|alt=multi-storey square industrial buildings beyond a river|thumb|The [[Battle of Trafalgar]] was a naval engagement between the British [[Royal Navy]] and the combined fleets of the French and Spanish Navies during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2014 |title=Department of History – Napoleonic Wars |url=http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728203458/http://www.westpoint.edu/history/SitePages/Napoleonic%20Wars.aspx |archive-date=28 July 2014 |access-date=8 April 2021}}</ref>]]
During the [[Industrial Revolution]], many workers moved from England's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at [[Birmingham]] and [[Manchester]],<ref>{{Harvnb|McNeil|Nevell|2000|p=9}}.; {{Cite web |last=Birmingham City Council |author-link=Birmingham City Council |title=Heritage |url=http://www.visitbirmingham.com/arts_and_culture/heritage/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426080011/http://www.visitbirmingham.com/arts_and_culture/heritage/ |archive-date=26 April 2012 |access-date=4 October 2009 |website=visitbirmingham.com}}</ref> with the latter the world's first industrial city.<ref name="Industrial city">{{Cite web |title=Manchester – the first industrial city |url=http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/energyhall/page84.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309184810/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/energyhall/page84.asp |archive-date=9 March 2012 |access-date=17 March 2012 |publisher=Entry on Sciencemuseum website}}</ref> England maintained relative stability throughout the [[French Revolution]], under [[George III]] and [[William Pitt the Younger]]. The [[Regency era|regency of George IV]] is noted for its elegance and achievements in the fine arts and architecture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regency {{!}} British Architectural Dates and Styles {{!}} Property {{!}} UK {{!}} Mayfair Office |url=https://www.mayfairoffice.co.uk/members-home/British-Architectural-Styles/British-Architectural-Styles-Regency |access-date=8 April 2021 |website=www.mayfairoffice.co.uk}}</ref> During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], [[Napoleon]] planned to [[Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom|invade from the south-east]]; however, this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British: at sea by [[Horatio Nelson]], and on land by [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]]. The major victory at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]] confirmed the naval supremacy Britain had established during the course of the eighteenth century.<ref>Bennet, Geoffrey (2004). ''The Battle of Trafalgar''. England: Pen & Sword Books Limited, CPI UK, South Yorkshire.</ref> The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of [[Britishness]] and a united national [[British people]], shared with the English, Scots and Welsh.<ref name="Colley1">{{Harvnb|Colley|1992|p=1}}.</ref>

[[File:Frith A Private View.jpg|thumb|The [[Victorian era]] is often cited as a [[Golden Age]]. Painting done by [[William Powell Frith]] to show cultural divisions. ]]
London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the [[Victorian era]], and trade within the British Empire – as well as the standing of the British military and navy – was prestigious.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haggard |first=Robert F. |url={{GBurl|id=53VUwDw_UYMC|q=prestige of the british empire in victorian times|p=13}} |title=The persistence of Victorian liberalism:The Politics of Social Reform in Britain, 1870–1900 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-313-31305-9 |page=13 |access-date=26 December 2010}}</ref> Technologically, this era saw many innovations that proved key to the United Kingdom's power and prosperity.<ref name="Atterbury 2011">{{Cite web |last=Atterbury |first=Paul |date=17 February 2011 |title=Victorian Technology |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_technology_01.shtml |access-date=13 October 2020 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> Political agitation at home from radicals such as the [[Chartism|Chartists]] and the [[suffragette]]s enabled legislative reform and [[universal suffrage]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Crawford, Elizabeth |title=Women: From Abolition to the Vote |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/abolition_women_article_01.shtml#five |access-date=10 December 2010 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>

Power shifts in east-central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]].{{Efn|Figure of 550,000 military deaths is for England and Wales.{{Sfn|Cox|1970|p=180}}}} Two decades later, in [[World War II]], the United Kingdom was again one of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]]. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air-raids during [[the Blitz]]. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid [[decolonisation]], and there was a speeding-up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and [[Frank Whittle]]'s development of the [[jet engine]] led to wider [[air travel]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Golley, John |date=10 August 1996 |title=Obituaries: Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituaries-air-commodore-sir-frank-whittle-1309015.html |access-date=2 December 2010}}</ref> Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the [[National Health Service (England)|National Health Service]] in 1948, providing [[publicly funded health care]] to all permanent residents free at the point of need. Combined, these prompted the reform of [[local government in England]] in the mid-20th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Clark|Steed|Marshall|1973|p=1}}; {{Harvnb|Wilson|Game|2002|p=55}}.</ref>

Since the 20th century, there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the [[British Isles]], but also from the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], particularly the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gallagher|2006|pp=10–11}}.</ref> Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the [[service industry]].<ref name="Thatcher" /> As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a [[common market]] initiative called the [[European Economic Community]] which became the [[European Union]]. Since the late 20th century the [[politics of the United Kingdom|administration of the United Kingdom]] has moved towards [[devolution|devolved governance]] in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keating |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Keating (political scientist) |date=1 January 1998 |title=Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom |journal=Publius: The Journal of Federalism |volume=28 |issue=1 |page=217 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948}}</ref> [[England and Wales]] continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom.<ref name="BBC Wales">{{Cite web |year=2009 |title=The coming of the Tudors and the Act of Union |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/guide/ch11_part2_coming_of_the_tudor.shtml |access-date=9 September 2009 |website=[[BBC Wales]] |publisher=BBC News}}</ref> Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English-specific identity and patriotism.<ref>{{harvnb|Kenny|English|Hayton|2008|p=3}}; {{Harvnb|Ward|2004|p=180}}.</ref> There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by [[2004 North East England devolution referendum|referendum]].<ref name="The Times 2004-11-05" />

==Governance==

===Politics===
{{Main|Politics of England}}
[[File:Palace of Westminster, London - Feb 2007.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Photograph of rectangular floodlight building, reflected in water. The building has multiple towers including one at each end. The tower on the right includes an illuminated clock face.|right|The [[Palace of Westminster]], the seat of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]]]

England is part of the United Kingdom, a [[constitutional monarchy]] with a [[parliamentary system]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ "United Kingdom"] CIA ''The World Factbook'']. Retrieved 13 April 2021</ref> There has not been a [[government of England]] since 1707, when the [[Acts of Union 1707]], putting into effect the terms of the [[Treaty of Union]], joined England and Scotland to form the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].<ref name="Union with Scotland">{{Cite web |title=The first Parliament of Great Britain |url=http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_02_great.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621165514/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_02_great.html |archive-date=21 June 2008 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=Parliament}}</ref> Before the union England was ruled by [[List of English monarchs|its monarch]] and the [[Parliament of England]]. Today England is governed directly by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], although other [[countries of the United Kingdom]] have [[Devolution|devolved]] governments.<ref name="Devolution">{{Cite web |last=Cabinet Office |author-link=Cabinet Office |date=26 March 2009 |title=Devolution in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/devolution.aspx |access-date=16 August 2009 |publisher=cabinetoffice.gov.uk}}</ref>

In the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] which is the [[lower house]] of the British Parliament based at the [[Palace of Westminster]], there are 532 members of parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lists of MPs |url=http://www.parliament.uk/mps-lords-and-offices/mps/ |access-date=21 May 2009 |publisher=Parliament.uk}}</ref> England is represented by 345 MPs from the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], 179 from the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], seven from the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]], one from the [[Green Party of England and Wales|Green Party]], and the [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker of the House]].

Since devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom – Scotland, Wales and [[Northern Ireland]] – each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various [[regions of England]] would be devolved, but following the proposal's rejection by the [[North East England|North East]] in a [[2004 North East England devolution referendum|2004 referendum]], this has not been carried out.<ref name="The Times 2004-11-05" />

===Law===
{{Main|English law}}
[[File:Royal Courts of Justice (6201094569).jpg|thumb|The [[Royal Courts of Justice]]|left]]

The [[English law]] legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of [[common law]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common Law |url=http://dictionary.law.com/Default.aspx?selected=248 |access-date=5 October 2013 |website=The People's Law Dictionary |publisher=ALM Media Properties}}</ref> legal systems used in most [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 October 2000 |title=The Common Law in the British Empire |url=http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~law/ASLH/conferences/2000conference/101900345b.htm |access-date=20 August 2011 |publisher=H-net.msu.edu}}</ref> and the United States (except [[Louisiana]]). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the [[Courts of England and Wales]] continued, under the [[Treaty of Union]], as a separate legal system from [[Scots law|the one used in Scotland]]. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of [[legal precedent]] – ''stare decisis'' – to the facts before them.<ref>{{harvnb|Fafinski|2007|p=60}}.</ref>

The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]], the [[High Court of Justice]] for civil cases, and the [[Crown Court]] for criminal cases.<ref>{{harvnb|Fafinski|2007|p=127}}.</ref> The [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in [[England and Wales]]. It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the [[judicial functions of the House of Lords]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom |url=http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090117132005/http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=DCA.gov.uk}}</ref> A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions.<ref>{{harvnb|Fafinski|2007|p=67}}.</ref>

The [[secretary of state for justice]] is the minister responsible to Parliament for the [[Judiciaries of the United Kingdom|judiciary]], the court system and prisons and probation in England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-justice |website=GOV.UK}}</ref> Crime increased between 1981 and 1995 but fell by 42% in the period 1995–2006.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crime over the last 25 years |url=http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/crime0607summ.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324214809/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs07/crime0607summ.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=HomeOffice.gov.uk}}</ref> The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it one of the [[List of countries by incarceration rate|highest incarceration rates]] in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000.<ref name="Crime BBC">{{Cite news |date=8 February 2008 |title=New record high prison population |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7235438.stm |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> [[His Majesty's Prison Service]], reporting to the [[Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Justice]], manages most prisons, housing 81,309 prisoners in England and Wales {{As of|2022|September|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Offender management statistics quarterly: April to June 2022 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/offender-management-statistics-quarterly-april-to-june-2022/offender-management-statistics-quarterly-april-to-june-2022 |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>

===Subdivisions===
{{Main|Subdivisions of England}}
{{See also|Regions of England|Combined authority|Counties of England|Districts of England}}
{{image frame
|content = {{England Ceremonial Counties Labelled Map|Londonprefix = Greater|WMsuffix = (county)}}
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The [[subdivisions of England]] consist of up to four levels of [[administrative division|subnational division]], controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of [[local government in England|local government]].

Outside the London region, England's highest tier is the 48 [[Ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial counties]].<ref name="britannicagov">{{harvnb|Encyclopædia Britannica|2002|p=100}}</ref> These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference. Of these, 38 developed gradually since the [[Middle Ages]]; these were reformed to 51 in 1974 and to their current number in 1996.<ref name="maud">{{harvnb|Redcliffe-Maud|Wood|1974}}.</ref> Each has a [[Lord Lieutenant]] and [[High Sheriff]]; these posts are used to represent the [[British monarch]] locally.<ref name="britannicagov" /> Some counties, such as [[Herefordshire]], are only divided further into civil parishes. The royal county of Berkshire and the metropolitan counties have different types of status to other ceremonial counties.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.abcounties.com |date=2013-06-26 |title=The problem of “county confusion” – and how to resolve it |url=https://abcounties.com/counties/county-confusion/ |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=Association of British Counties}}</ref>

The second tier is made up of [[combined authorities]] and the 27 [[County Council|county-tier]] [[shire counties]]. In 1974, all ceremonial counties were two-tier; and with the metropolitan county tier phased out, the 1996 reform separated the ceremonial county and the administrative county tier.

England is also divided into local government districts.<ref name="localgov">{{harvnb|Singh|2009|p=53}}.</ref> The district can align to a ceremonial county, or be a district tier within a [[shire counties|shire county]], be a [[royal borough|royal]] or [[metropolitan borough]], have [[Borough status in the United Kingdom|borough]] or [[city status in the United Kingdom|city status]], or be a [[Unitary authorities of England|unitary authority]].

At the community level, much of England is divided into [[civil parishes in England|civil parishes]] with their own [[Parish councils in England|councils]]; in Greater London only one such parish, [[Queen's Park, London|Queen's Park]], exists {{as of|2014|lc=y}} after they were [[London Government Act 1963|abolished in 1965]] until legislation [[Local Government and Public Involvement in Health Act 2007|allowed their recreation]] in 2007.

====London====
From 1994 until the early 2010s England was divided for a few purposes into regions; a [[1998 Greater London Authority referendum|1998 referendum]] for the London Region created the [[London Assembly]] two years later.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cooper |first=Hilary |date=29 March 2011 |title=Tiers shed as regional government offices disappear |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2011/mar/29/regional-government-disappears-1500-jobs-lost |access-date=16 June 2011}}</ref> A failed [[2004 North East England devolution referendum]] cancelled further [[Regional Assemblies in England|regional assembly]] devolution<ref name="The Times 2004-11-05">{{Cite news |last=Sherman |first=Jill |last2=Andrew Norfolk |date=5 November 2004 |title=Prescott's dream in tatters as North East rejects assembly |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article503255.ece |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525121618/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article503255.ece |archive-date=25 May 2010}}</ref> with the regional structure outside London abolished.

Ceremonially and administratively, the region is divided between the [[City of London]] and [[Greater London]]; these are further divided into the 32 [[London Boroughs]] and the 25 [[Wards of the City of London]].<ref>{{harvnb|Axford|2002|p=315}}.</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of England}}

===Landscape and rivers===
[[File:Malvern Hills - England.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Malvern Hills]] located in the English counties of [[Worcestershire]] and [[Herefordshire]]. The hills have been designated by the Countryside Agency as an [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]]. ]]
Geographically, England includes the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the [[Isle of Wight]] and the [[Isles of Scilly]]. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom: [[Anglo Scottish border|to the north]] by Scotland and [[Wales-England border|to the west]] by Wales.

England is closer than any other part of mainland Britain to the European continent. It is separated from [[France]] ([[Hauts-de-France]]) by a {{convert|21|mi|adj=on}}<ref name="Engchannel">{{Cite web |year=2009 |title=English Channel |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187921/English-Channel |access-date=15 August 2009 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher=britannica.com}}</ref> sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the [[Channel Tunnel]] near [[Folkestone]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcAboutUs/ukm/history.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116055538/http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcAboutUs/ukm/history.htm |archive-date=16 November 2008 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=EuroTunnel.com}}</ref> England also has shores on the [[Irish Sea]], [[North Sea]] and Atlantic Ocean.

The ports of London, [[Liverpool]], and [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] lie on the tidal rivers [[River Thames|Thames]], [[River Mersey|Mersey]] and [[River Tyne|Tyne]] respectively. At {{convert|220|mi}}, the [[River Severn|Severn]] is the longest river flowing through England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The River Severn |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/england/sevenwonders/west/severn-river/ |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> It empties into the [[Bristol Channel]] and is notable for its [[Severn Bore]] (a [[tidal bore]]), which can reach {{convert|2|m|ft}} in height.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Severn Bore and Trent Aegir |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/31439.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122125420/http://environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/31439.aspx |archive-date=22 November 2010 |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=Environment Agency}}</ref> However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is {{convert|215|mi}} in length.<ref name="Thames">{{Cite web |title=River Thames and London (England) |url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard-home/related-139-94056-articles-reviews/River+Thames-London+(England)/related.do |access-date=17 August 2009 |website=London Evening Standard |location=London}}{{dead link|date=October 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
[[File:Glenridding,_Cumbria,_England_-_June_2009.jpg|thumb|The village of [[Glenridding]] and [[Ullswater]] in [[Cumbria]].]]
There are many [[lakes in England]]; the largest is [[Windermere]], within the aptly named [[Lake District]].<ref name="metoffice_nw">{{Cite web |title=North West England & Isle of Man: climate |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/nw/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605003213/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/nw/ |archive-date=5 June 2011 |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=Met Office}}</ref> Most of England's landscape consists of low hills and plains, with upland and mountainous terrain in the north and west of the country. The northern uplands include the [[Pennines]], a chain of uplands dividing east and west, the Lake District mountains in Cumbria, and the [[Cheviot Hills]], straddling the border between England and Scotland. The highest point in England, at {{convert|978|m|ft}}, is [[Scafell Pike]] in the Lake District.<ref name="metoffice_nw" /> The [[Shropshire Hills]] are near Wales while [[Dartmoor]] and [[Exmoor]] are two upland areas in the south-west of the country. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by the [[Tees–Exe line]].<ref>{{Cite book |url={{GBurl|id=yAgGHnENHjoC|q=tees exe line england lowland upland|p=100}} |title=World Regional Geography |date=13 March 2008 |publisher=Joseph J. Hobbs |isbn=978-0-495-38950-7 |access-date=6 December 2017}}</ref>

The Pennines, known as the "backbone of England", are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the [[Paleozoic Era]] around 300 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pennines |url=http://www.summitpost.org/area/range/220026/pennines.html |access-date=8 September 2009 |publisher=Smmit Post}}</ref> Their geological composition includes, among others, [[sandstone]] and [[limestone]], and also coal. There are [[karst]] landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of [[Yorkshire]] and [[Derbyshire]]. The Pennine landscape is high [[moorland]] in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region's rivers. They contain two [[national parks in England|national parks]], the [[Yorkshire Dales]] and the [[Peak District]]. In the [[West Country]], Dartmoor and Exmoor of the Southwest Peninsula include upland moorland supported by granite.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Parks – About us |url=http://www.nationalparks.gov.uk/aboutus |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027162402/http://www.nationalparks.gov.uk/aboutus |archive-date=27 October 2010 |access-date=5 December 2010 |publisher=nationalparks.gov.uk}}</ref>

The [[English Lowlands beech forests|English Lowlands]] are in the central and southern regions of the country, consisting of green rolling hills, including the [[Cotswold Hills]], [[Chiltern Hills]], [[North Downs|North]] and [[South Downs]]; where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the [[cliffs of Dover]]. This also includes relatively flat plains such as the [[Salisbury Plain]], [[Somerset Levels]], [[South Coast Plain]] and [[The Fens]].

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of England}}

England has a [[temperate climate|temperate]] [[maritime climate]]: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than {{convert|0|°C|°F}} in winter and not much higher than {{convert|32|°C|°F}} in summer.<ref name="weather">{{Cite web |title=What is the Climate like in Britain? |url=http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/weather/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114052538/http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/weather/ |archive-date=14 January 2010 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=Woodlands Kent}}</ref> The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the [[Geography of the United Kingdom|English coast]], while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October.<ref name="weather" /> Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year.

Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the [[Atlantic Ocean]], its northern [[latitude]] and the warming of the sea by the [[Gulf Stream]].<ref name="weather" /> Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the [[Lake District]] receive more rain than anywhere else in the country.<ref name="weather" /> Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was {{convert|40.3|°C|°F}} on 19 July 2022 at [[Coningsby]], [[Lincolnshire]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Record high temperatures verified |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/press-office/news/weather-and-climate/2022/record-high-temperatures-verified |access-date=2023-03-22 |website=Met Office |language=en}}</ref> while the lowest was {{convert|−26.1|°C|°F}} on 10 January 1982 in [[Edgmond, Shropshire|Edgmond]], Shropshire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=English Climate |url=http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/#temperature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829161614/http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/ |archive-date=29 August 2008 |publisher=MetOffice.com}}</ref>

===Nature and wildlife===
{{main|Fauna of England}}
[[File:Eurasian Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes), Icklesham, Sussex.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Eurasian wren]], the most numerous species of bird in England<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 February 2020 |title=It's official – the Wren is our commonest bird |url=https://www.bto.org/press-releases/it%E2%80%99s-official-%E2%80%93-wren-our-commonest-bird#:~:text=In%20the%20latest%20report%20looking,million%20pairs%20across%20the%20UK. |access-date=2 December 2022 |website=BTO}}</ref>]]

The fauna of England is similar to that of other areas in the [[British Isles]] with a wide range of vertebrate and invertebrate life in a diverse range of habitats.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natural History Museum |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/british-wildlife.html |access-date=7 July 2020}}</ref> [[National nature reserves in England]] are designated by [[Natural England]] as key places for [[wildlife]] and natural features in England. They were established to protect the most significant areas of habitat and of geological formations. NNRs are managed on behalf of the nation, many by Natural England themselves, but also by non-governmental organisations, including the members of [[The Wildlife Trusts]] partnership, the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]], and the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]]. There are 229 NNRs in England covering {{Convert|939|km2|abbr=off}}. Often they contain rare species or nationally important populations of plants and animals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Natural England: Designated sites |url=https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/ReportConditionSummary.aspx?SiteType=NNR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825034122/https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/ReportConditionSummary.aspx?SiteType=NNR |archive-date=25 August 2021 |access-date=20 July 2020}}</ref>

The [[Environment Agency]] is a non-departmental public body, established in 1995 and sponsored by the [[Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs]] with responsibilities relating to the protection and enhancement of the environment in England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Environment Agency |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/environment-agency |access-date=3 April 2021 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> The [[Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs]] is the minister responsible for environmental protection, agriculture, fisheries and rural communities in England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs – GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-environment-food-and-rural-affairs#:~:text=Current%20role%20holder-,The%20Rt%20Hon%20George%20Eustice%20MP,Affairs%20on%2013%20February%202020. |access-date=3 April 2021 |website=www.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Richmond Park - London - England - 02102005.jpg|thumb|[[Red deer]] in [[Richmond Park]]. The park was created by [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] in the 17th century as a [[Deer park (England)|deer park]].<ref name="Pastscape">{{PastScape|mnumber=397979|mname=Richmond Park|date=2015|access-date=3 May 2015}}</ref>]]England has a [[Oceanic climate|temperate oceanic climate]] in most areas, lacking extremes of cold or heat, but does have a few small areas of [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] and warmer areas in [[South West England|the South West]]. Towards the [[Northern England|North of England]] the climate becomes colder and most of England's mountains and high hills are located here and have a major impact on the climate and thus the local fauna of the areas. [[Deciduous]] woodlands are common across all of England and provide a great habitat for much of England's wildlife, but these give way in northern and upland areas of England to [[coniferous]] forests (mainly plantations) which also benefit certain forms of wildlife. Some species have adapted to the expanded urban environment, particularly the [[red fox]], which is the most successful [[Urban wildlife|urban mammal]] after the [[brown rat]], and other animals such as [[common wood pigeon]], both of which thrive in urban and suburban areas.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 May 2012 |title=Mammals in Britain's cities: A spotter's guide – in pictures {{pipe}} Urban wildlife |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2012/may/17/mammals-britains-cities-spotters-guide}}</ref>

===Major conurbations===
{{See also|List of places in England}}

The [[Greater London Built-up Area]] is by far the largest urban area in England<ref name="BUA">{{Cite web |title=2011 Census – Built-up areas |url=http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/articles/747.aspx |access-date=5 February 2014 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]]}}</ref> and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a [[global city]] and has a population larger than any other country in the United Kingdom besides England itself.<ref name="BUA" /> Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in [[northern England]] or the [[English Midlands]].<ref name="BUA" /> There are [[List of cities in the United Kingdom|50 settlements]] which have designated [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status in England]], while the wider United Kingdom has 66.

While many cities in England are quite large, such as [[Birmingham]], [[Sheffield]], [[Manchester]], [[Liverpool]], [[City of Leeds|Leeds]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[City of Bradford|Bradford]], [[Nottingham]], population size is not a prerequisite for city status.<ref name="cathcities">{{Cite news |last=O'Brian |first=Harriet |date=24 November 2007 |title=The Complete Guide To: Cathedral cities in the UK |work=The Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-cathedral-cities-in-the-uk-760201.html |url-status=dead |access-date=8 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090812091322/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-cathedral-cities-in-the-uk-760201.html |archive-date=12 August 2009}}</ref> Traditionally the status was given to towns with [[List of cathedrals in England|diocesan cathedrals]], so there are smaller cities like [[Wells, Somerset|Wells]], [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]], [[Ripon]], [[Truro]] and [[Chichester]].
{{Largest Urban areas
| name = Largest Urban areas
| kind = conurbations
| country = England
| stat_ref = 2011 census<ref name="BUA" />
| list_by_pop = List of urban areas in the United Kingdom
| class = nav
| div_name =
| div_link = List of urban areas in the United Kingdom{{!}}Conurbation
| div_1 = Greater London Built-up Area{{!}}Greater London
| city_1 = London
| pop_1 = 9,787,426
| div_2 = Greater Manchester Built-up Area{{!}}Greater Manchester
| city_2 = Manchester
| pop_2 = 2,553,379
| div_3 = West Midlands Conurbation{{!}}West Midlands
| city_3 = Birmingham
| pop_3 = 2,440,986
| div_4 = West Yorkshire Urban Area{{!}}West Yorkshire
| city_4 = Leeds
| pop_4 = 1,777,934
| div_5 = Liverpool Urban Area{{!}}Liverpool
| city_5 = Liverpool
| pop_5 = 864,122
| img_5 =
| div_6 = South Hampshire
| city_6 = Southampton
| pop_6 = 855,569
| img_6 =
| div_7 = Tyneside
| city_7 = Newcastle upon Tyne
| pop_7 = 774,891
| img_7 =
| div_8 = Nottingham Urban Area{{!}}Nottingham
| city_8 = Nottingham
| pop_8 = 729,977
| img_8 =
| div_9 = Sheffield Urban Area{{!}}Sheffield
| city_9 = Sheffield
| pop_9 = 685,368
| img_9 =
| div_10 = Bristol Built-up Area{{!}}Bristol
| city_10 = Bristol
| pop_10 = 617,280
| img_10 =
}}

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of England}}

England's economy is one of the largest and most dynamic in the world, with an average [[GDP per capita]] of £34,690.<ref name="ONS GDP" /> [[HM Treasury]], led by the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], is responsible for developing and executing the government's [[public finance]] policy and [[economic policy]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossvalueaddedgva/bulletins/regionalgrossvalueaddedbalanceduk/1998to2017/pdf |title=Regional economic activity by gross value added (balanced), UK: 1998 to 2017 |last=Fenton |first=Trevor |date=12 December 2018 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]] |format=PDF}}</ref> Usually regarded as a [[Anglo-Saxon economy|mixed market economy]], it has adopted many [[free market]] principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Welfare State – Never Ending Reform |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/field_01.shtml |access-date=17 September 2009}}</ref>
[[File:Canary Wharf Wide View 2, London - July 2009-2.jpg|thumb|[[London]] is the financial capital of England and the United Kingdom.]]
The economy of England is the largest part of the [[economy of the United Kingdom|UK's economy]].<ref name="regionalacc">{{Cite web |last=Office for National Statistics |author-link=Office for National Statistics |title=Regional Accounts |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/hub/economy/national-accounts/regional-accounts/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826104410/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/hub/economy/national-accounts/regional-accounts/index.html |archive-date=26 August 2009 |access-date=17 September 2009 |publisher=statistics.gov.uk}}</ref> England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly [[aerospace]], the [[arms industry]], and the [[software industry]]. London, home to the [[London Stock Exchange]], the United Kingdom's main [[stock exchange]] and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Financial Centre |url=http://legacy.london.gov.uk/london-life/business-and-jobs/financial-centre.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713060624/http://legacy.london.gov.uk/london-life/business-and-jobs/financial-centre.jsp |archive-date=13 July 2011 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=London.gov.uk}}</ref> London is the largest financial centre in Europe and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |author-link=City of London Corporation |title=The Global Financial Centres Index |url=http://217.154.230.218/NR/rdonlyres/8D37DAE2-5937-4FC5-A004-C2FC4BED7742/0/BC_RS_GFCI5.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007105828/http://217.154.230.218/NR/rdonlyres/8D37DAE2-5937-4FC5-A004-C2FC4BED7742/0/BC_RS_GFCI5.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=City of London Policy Resources Committee}}</ref>

London has also been named as the fastest growing technology hub in Europe, with England having over 100 unique tech companies with a value of $1 billion or more.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-21 |title=London Has Officially Become the Technology Capital of Europe |url=https://brainstation.io/magazine/london-technology-capital-of-europe-100-unicorns |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BrainStation |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Willems |first=Michiel |date=2021-06-20 |title=Unicorn nest: UK hits milestone of 100 $1bn tech companies, more than rest of Europe combined |url=https://www.cityam.com/unicorn-nest-uk-hits-milestone-of-100-1bn-tech-companies-more-than-rest-of-europe-combined/ |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=CityAM |language=en-GB}}</ref> The [[Bank of England]], founded in 1694 as private banker to the government of England and a [[nationalisation|state-owned institution]] since 1946, is the United Kingdom's [[central bank]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Bank's relationship with Parliament |url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/parliament/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708200732/https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/parliament/index.htm |archive-date=8 July 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=BankofEngland.co.uk}}</ref> The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in [[England and Wales]], although not in other parts of the UK. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank's [[Monetary Policy Committee (United Kingdom)|Monetary Policy Committee]] for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Monetary Policy Committee |url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetarypolicy/overview.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708141658/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/monetarypolicy/overview.htm |archive-date=8 July 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=BankofEngland.co.uk}}</ref>
[[File:Aston Martin Vantage, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0660.jpg|alt=A grey coloured car.|thumb|[[Aston Martin]] manufacture luxury vehicles in England.]]
England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more [[service industry]] oriented economy.<ref name="Thatcher">{{harvnb|Reitan|2003|p=50}}.</ref> Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by [[pharmaceuticals]], automotives, [[crude oil]] and petroleum from the English parts of [[North Sea oil]] along with [[Wytch Farm]], [[aircraft engine]]s and alcoholic beverages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=England Exports |url=http://mambiz.com/main/?cat=28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105132032/http://mambiz.com/main/?cat=28 |archive-date=5 January 2012 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=EconomyWatch.com}}</ref> The [[creative industries]] accounted for 7 per cent GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 per cent per annum between 1997 and 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 March 2007 |title=From the Margins to the Mainstream – Government unveils new action plan for the creative industries |url=http://www.culture.gov.uk/reference_library/media_releases/2132.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204131529/http://www.culture.gov.uk/reference_library/media_releases/2132.aspx |archive-date=4 December 2008 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=DCMS}}</ref>

Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Guide – England – Economy Overview |url=http://www.intute.ac.uk/worldguide/html/1069_economic.html |access-date=9 September 2009 |website=World Guide |publisher=Intute}}</ref> Two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the remainder to arable crops.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Economy of the United Kingdom |url=http://www.pteducation.com/gk/UK.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091123055028/http://www.pteducation.com/gk/UK.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2009 |access-date=8 October 2009 |publisher=PTeducation}}</ref> The main crops that are grown are [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s, [[potato]]es, [[sugar beet]]s. England retains a significant fishing industry. Its fleets bring home a variety of fish, ranging from [[Sole (fish)|sole]] to [[herring]]. England is also rich in natural resources including [[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[tin]], [[limestone]], [[iron ore]], [[salt]], [[clay]], [[chalk]], [[gypsum]], [[lead]], and silica.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coal {{!}} Mines and quarries {{!}} MineralsUK |url=https://www2.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/mines/coal/home.html |access-date=7 July 2016 |website=MineralsUK}}</ref>

===Science and technology===
{{Main|List of English inventions and discoveries|Royal Society}}
[[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|alt=Torso of man with long white hair and dark coloured jacket|Sir [[Isaac Newton]] is one of the most influential figures in the [[history of science]].|232x232px]]

Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir [[Isaac Newton]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Edward Jenner]], [[Francis Crick]], [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]], [[Joseph Priestley]], [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], [[Christopher Wren]] and [[Richard Dawkins]].

England was a leading centre of the [[Scientific Revolution]] from the 17th century.<ref>Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), ''Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution''. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. {{ISBN|0-521-34804-8}}.</ref> As the birthplace of the [[Industrial Revolution]], England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], best known for the creation of the [[Great Western Railway]], a series of famous [[steamship]]s, and numerous important bridges, revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spratt |first=H. P. |year=1958 |title=Isambard Kingdom Brunel |journal=Nature |volume=181 |issue=4626 |pages=1754–1755 |bibcode=1958Natur.181.1754S |doi=10.1038/1811754a0 |s2cid=4255226 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Thomas Newcomen]]'s [[Newcomen steam engine|steam engine]] helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.<ref>{{harvnb|Oakes|2002|p=214}}</ref>

The Father of Railways, [[George Stephenson]], built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the [[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]], which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, [[Matthew Boulton]] (business partner of [[James Watt]]) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.<ref>Ronald Shillingford (2010). "The History of the World's Greatest- Entrepreneurs: Biographies of Success". p. 64–69</ref> The physician [[Edward Jenner]]'s [[smallpox vaccine]] is said to have "saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."<ref>{{harvnb|Saunders|1982|p=13}}; {{harvnb|White|1885|p=335}}; {{harvnb|Levine|1960|p=183}}</ref>

Inventions and discoveries of the English include the [[jet engine]]; the first industrial [[spinning frame|spinning machine]]; [[Analytical engine|the first computer]] and the first [[Manchester Baby|modern computer]]; the [[World Wide Web]] along with [[HTML]]; the first successful human [[blood transfusion]]; the motorised [[vacuum cleaner]];<ref name="americanheritage">{{Cite web |last=Wohleber |first=Curt |date=Spring 2006 |title=The Vacuum Cleaner |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_4.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313170420/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/it/2006/4/2006_4_4.shtml |archive-date=13 March 2010 |access-date=8 December 2010 |website=Invention & Technology Magazine |publisher=American Heritage Publishing}}</ref> the [[lawn mower]]; the [[seat belt]]; the [[hovercraft]]; the [[electric motor]]; [[steam engine]]s; and theories such as the Darwinian theory of [[evolution]] and [[atomic theory]]. Newton developed the ideas of [[universal gravitation]], [[Newtonian mechanics]], and [[calculus]], and [[Robert Hooke]] his eponymously named [[Hooke's law of elasticity|law of elasticity]]. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the [[thermosiphon]], [[Tarmacadam|tarmac]], the [[rubber band]], the [[mousetrap]], [[Cat's eye (road)|"cat's eye"]] [[raised pavement marker|road marker]], joint development of the [[light bulb]], steam [[locomotive]]s, the modern [[seed drill]] and many modern techniques and technologies used in [[precision engineering]].<ref name="invent">{{Cite web |title=English Inventors and Inventions |url=http://www.english-crafts.co.uk/history/inventors.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415212829/http://www.english-crafts.co.uk/history/inventors.htm |archive-date=15 April 2010 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=English-Crafts.co.uk}}</ref>

The [[Royal Society]], formally [[The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge]],<ref name="royalsociety.org">{{Cite web |title=The formal title as adopted in the royal charter |url=https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/history/2012-Supplemental-Charter.pdf |website=royalsociety.org}}</ref> is a [[learned society]] and the [[United Kingdom]]'s national [[academy of sciences]]. Founded on 28 November 1660,<ref name="royalsociety.org" /> It is the oldest national scientific institution in the world.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Royal Society |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Royal-Society |access-date=24 February 2018 |last=Hunter |first=Michael}}</ref> The [[Royal Institution|Royal Institution of Great Britain]] was founded in 1799 by leading English scientists, including [[Henry Cavendish]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Caroe |first=Gwendy |title=The Royal Institution : an informal history |publisher=J. Murray |others=Final chapter by Alban |year=1985 |isbn=0719542456 |location=London}}</ref> Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a [[metric system]] was invented by [[John Wilkins]] in 1668.<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 July 2007 |title=Metric system was British |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/player/nol/newsid_6890000/newsid_6898200/6898274.stm?bw=nb&mp=wm&news=1&ms3=10 |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref>

Scientific research and development remains important in the [[universities of England]], with many establishing [[science park]]s to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.<ref>Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). ''Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes''. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. {{ISBN|0-415-10015-1}}.</ref> [[Silicon Fen|Cambridge]] is the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2022 |title=Global Innovation Index 2022 |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-2000-2022-en-main-report-global-innovation-index-2022-15th-edition.pdf}}</ref> In 2022, the UK produced 6.3 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had a 10.5 per cent share of scientific citations, the third highest in the world (after the United States and China).<ref>{{Cite web |title=International comparison of the UK research base, 2022 |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305235208/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1078073/international-comparison-uk-research-base-2022-accompanying-note.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2023 |access-date=11 March 2023}} (last checked 11 March 2023)</ref> Scientific journals produced in England include ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', the ''[[BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' and ''[[The Lancet]]''. The [[Department for Science, Innovation and Technology]], [[Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology]], and [[Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation]] has responsibility for science in England.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Department for Science, Innovation and Technology |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-science-innovation-and-technology |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in England}}

The [[Department for Transport]] is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. The department is run by the [[Secretary of State for Transport]].

England has a dense and modern transportation infrastructure. There are many [[List of motorways in the United Kingdom|motorways in England]], and many other trunk roads, such as the [[A1 road (Great Britain)|A1 Great North Road]], which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle<ref name="roads">{{harvnb|UK Parliament|2007|p=175}}</ref> (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the [[M6 motorway|M6]], from [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby]] through the [[North West England|North West]] up to the [[Anglo-Scottish border]], a distance of {{convert|232|mi}}.<ref name="roads" /> Other major routes include: the [[M1 motorway|M1]] from London to Leeds, the [[M25 motorway|M25]] which encircles London, the [[M60 motorway (Great Britain)|M60]] which encircles Manchester, the [[M4 motorway|M4]] from London to South Wales, the [[M62 motorway|M62]] from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the [[M5 motorway|M5]] from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.<ref name="roads" /> [[File:St Pancras Railway Station 2012-06-23.jpg|thumb|alt=red stone building with tall clock tower in corner|[[St Pancras railway station|London St Pancras International]] is one of London's main domestic and international transport hubs providing both commuter rail and high-speed rail services across the UK and to Paris, [[Lille]] and [[Brussels]].]]Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include [[Arriva UK Bus|Arriva]], [[FirstGroup]], [[Go-Ahead Group]], [[Mobico Group]], [[Rotala]] and [[Stagecoach Group]]. [[Bus Rapid Transit]] originated in England with the [[Runcorn]] Busway opening in 1971.<ref name="Runcorn Busway JSTOR">{{Cite journal |last=Lesley |first=Lewis |date=1983 |title=Runcorn - A Rapid Transit New Town? |journal=Built Environment |volume=9 |issue=3/4 |page=234 |jstor=23286723}}</ref><ref name="RUDI 7.3 Transport">{{Cite web |title=Runcorn New Town - 7.3 Transport |url=http://www.rudi.net/books/3346 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018012240/http://www.rudi.net/books/3346 |archive-date=18 October 2014 |access-date=24 July 2020 |website=rudi.net}}</ref> The red [[double-decker bus]]es in London have become a symbol of England. [[National Cycle Route]] offers cycling routes nationally.

[[Rail transport in Great Britain|Rail transport in England]] is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825.<ref>{{Cite web |title=27 September 1825 – Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway |url=http://www.moorerail.com/history/timeline1825.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007035746/http://www.moorerail.com/history/timeline1825.asp |archive-date=7 October 2013 |access-date=5 October 2013 |publisher=The Stockton and Darlington Railway}}</ref> Much of Britain's {{convert|10000|mi}} of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the [[Channel Tunnel]], which was completed in 1994.

[[Great British Railways]] is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee [[rail transport in Great Britain]] from 2024. The [[Office of Rail and Road]] is responsible for the economic and safety regulation of England's railways.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home page {{!}} Office of Rail and Road |url=https://www.orr.gov.uk/home |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20200828151253mp_/https://www.orr.gov.uk/home |archive-date=28 August 2020 |access-date=2021-05-21 |website=www.orr.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> [[Crossrail]] was Europe's largest construction project with a £15 billion projected cost, opened in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 January 2012 |title=Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16289051}}</ref> [[High Speed 2]], a new high-speed north–south railway line, is under construction.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 February 2020 |title=HS2: When will the line open and how much will it cost? |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16473296 |access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref>

There is a [[rapid transit]] network in two English cities: the [[London Underground]], and the [[Tyne and Wear Metro]] in [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], [[Gateshead]] and [[Sunderland]].<ref name="pubwhite">{{harvnb|White|2002|p=63}}.</ref> There are several extensive tram networks, such as the [[Manchester Metrolink]], [[Sheffield Supertram]], [[West Midlands Metro]], [[Nottingham Express Transit]], and [[Tramlink]] in South London.<ref name="pubwhite" /> England also has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is [[Heathrow Airport|Heathrow]], which is the [[World's busiest airports by international passenger traffic|world's second busiest airport measured by number of international passengers]].<ref name="wsj230211">{{Cite news |date=23 February 2011 |title=Delta Expects New Slots To Foster Growth At Heathrow Airport |work=The Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20110223-710213.html |url-status=dead |access-date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513074109/http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20110223-710213.html |archive-date=13 May 2011}}</ref>

By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including from Liverpool to Ireland and the Isle of Man, and Hull to the Netherlands and Belgium.<ref name="waterworks">{{harvnb|Else|2007|p=781}}.</ref> There are around {{convert|4400|mi}} of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the [[Canal & River Trust]],<ref name="waterworks" /> however, water transport is very limited. The [[River Thames]] is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the [[Port of Tilbury]] in the [[Thames Estuary]], one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.<ref name="waterworks" />

===Energy===
{{main|Energy in the United Kingdom}}
[[File:Den_Brook_Wind_Farm_from_Main_Road.jpg|thumb|Wind turbines at [[Den Brook Wind Farm|Den Brook]], Devon. The UK is [[Wind power in the United Kingdom|one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy]], and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=BBC – Weather Centre – Climate Change – Wind Power |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/climate/adaptation/wind_power.shtml |access-date=9 June 2015 |website=bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref name="Roadmap" />|left]]

Successive governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce [[carbon dioxide]] emissions. Notably, the UK is [[Wind power in the United Kingdom|one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy]], and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.<ref name="Roadmap">{{Cite web |title=UK Renewable Energy Roadmap Crown copyright, July 2011 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/48128/2167-uk-renewable-energy-roadmap.pdf}}; {{Cite web|url=http://www.renewableuk.com/en/news/renewableuk-news.cfm/electricity-needs-of-more-than-a-quarter-of-uk-homes-powered-by-wind-in-2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509191928/http://www.renewableuk.com/en/news/renewableuk-news.cfm/electricity-needs-of-more-than-a-quarter-of-uk-homes-powered-by-wind-in-2014|url-status=dead|title=RenewableUK News website article|archive-date=9 May 2015}}</ref> Wind power contributed 26.8% of UK electricity generation in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 January 2023 |title=Britain produced record amount of wind power in 2022, National Grid says |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/britain-produced-record-amount-wind-power-2022-national-grid-2023-01-06/ |access-date=8 May 2023}}</ref> England is home to [[Hornsea Wind Farm|Hornsea 2]], the largest offshore wind farm in the world, situated in waters roughly 89 kilometres off the coast of Yorkshire.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2022 |title=The world's biggest offshore wind farm is now fully operational |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/09/01/huge-offshore-wind-farm-hornsea-2-is-fully-operational-orsted-says.html |access-date=2023-04-13 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Climate Change Act 2008]] was passed in Parliament with an overwhelming majority across political parties. It sets out emission reduction targets that the UK must comply with legally. It represents the first global legally binding climate change mitigation target set by a country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the 2008 Climate Change Act? |url=https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/explainers/what-is-the-2008-climate-change-act/ |access-date=1 April 2021 |website=Grantham Research Institute on climate change and the environment |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[Energy policy of the United Kingdom|UK government energy policy]] aims to play a key role in limiting [[greenhouse gas emissions]], while meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country's [[energy mix]] through changes in costs.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Proctor |first=Darrell |date=24 November 2020 |title=UK Undergoing "Remarkable Shift" in Power Generation |url=https://www.powermag.com/uk-undergoing-remarkable-shift-in-power-generation/ |access-date=11 April 2021 |website=POWER Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>

The current energy policy is the responsibility of the [[Department for Energy Security and Net Zero]] and [[Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Department for Energy Security & Net Zero – GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-energy-security-and-net-zero |access-date=3 April 2021 |website=www.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> The [[Minister of State for Business, Energy and Clean Growth]] is responsible for green finance, climate science and innovation, and low carbon generation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Minister of State (Minister for Business, Energy and Clean Growth) – GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-of-state--75#responsibilities |access-date=2020-10-24 |website=www.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, the United Kingdom was ranked 2 out of 180 countries in the [[Environmental Performance Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2022 EPI Results |url=https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2020/component/epi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621233539/https://epi.yale.edu/epi-results/2022/component/epi |archive-date=21 June 2023 |access-date=5 July 2023 |website=[[Environmental Performance Index]]}}</ref> A law has been passed that [[Greenhouse gas emissions|UK greenhouse gas emissions]] will be [[net zero]] by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2020 |title=UK net zero target |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/net-zero-target#:~:text=In%20June%202019%2C%20parliament%20passed,to%201990%20levels%20by%202050.&text=Prior%20to%20this%2C%20the%20UK,1990%20levels%2C%20also%20by%202050. |access-date=20 November 2020 |website=Institute for Government}}</ref>

==Healthcare==
{{Main|Healthcare in England}}
[[File:Sir W.H. Beveridge, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing left.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[William Beveridge]]'s 1942 report ''Social Insurance and Allied Services'' served as the basis for the post-[[World War II]] [[welfare state]].]]

The [[National Health Service (England)|National Health Service]] (NHS), is the publicly funded [[healthcare system]] responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the [[National Health Service Act 1946]]. It was based on the findings of the [[Beveridge Report]], prepared by economist and social reformer [[William Beveridge]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=BBC History on William Beveridge |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/beveridge_william.shtml |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including [[National Insurance]] payments,<ref>{{Cite news |title=NHS Expenditure in England |work=House of Commons Library |url=http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/briefings/snsg-00724.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423153740/http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/briefings/snsg-00724.pdf |archive-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> and it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.<ref>{{Cite news |title=NHS costs and exemptions |work=Department of Health |url=http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Healthcare/Medicinespharmacyandindustry/Prescriptions/NHScosts/DH_087013 |access-date=5 September 2009}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

The government department responsible for the NHS is the [[Department of Health (United Kingdom)|Department of Health]], headed by the [[Secretary of State for Health]]. Most of the expenditure of the department is spent on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009.<ref name="budget2008">{{Cite news |date=3 March 2008 |title=Budget 2008, Chapter C |work=HM Treasury |url=http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/7/3/bud08_chapterc.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001194628/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/7/3/bud08_chapterc.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2008}}</ref> Regulatory bodies such as the [[General Medical Council]] and the [[Nursing and Midwifery Council]] are organised on a UK-wide basis, as are non-governmental bodies such as the [[Royal College]]s.

The average [[life expectancy]] is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four [[countries of the United Kingdom]].<ref name="LifeExpect">{{Cite news |last=Office for National Statistics |author-link=Office for National Statistics |title=Life expectancy |publisher=statistics.gov.uk |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?ID=168 |url-status=dead |access-date=20 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525050617/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=168 |archive-date=25 May 2009}}</ref> The south of England has a higher life expectancy than the north, but regional differences seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991–1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years.<ref name="LifeExpect" />

==Demography==
{{Main|Demography of England}}

===Population===
{{Main|English people}}
{{See also|English diaspora|Cornish people|List of urban areas in the United Kingdom}}
[[File:England counties population (crop).png|thumb|alt=Map of England with regions shaded in different shades of blue.|The [[metropolitan county|metropolitan]] and [[Non-metropolitan county|non-metropolitan counties]], colour-coded to show population]]
[[File:England and Wales population cartogram districts.svg|thumb|Population of England and Wales by administrative areas. Their size shows their population, with some approximation. Each group of squares in the map key is 20% of total number of districts.]]

With over 56 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Office for National Statistics |author-link=Office for National Statistics |date=8 August 2013 |title=Population estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland – current datasets |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/pop-estimate/population-estimates-for-uk--england-and-wales--scotland-and-northern-ireland/mid-2011-and-mid-2012/index.html |access-date=5 October 2013 |publisher=statistics.gov.uk}}</ref> England taken as a unit and measured against international states would be the 25th largest [[List of countries by population in 2005|country by population]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |author-link=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |title=World Population Prospects: Analytical Report for the 2004 |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WPP2004/WPP2004_Volume3.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090807035831/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WPP2004/WPP2004_Volume3.htm |archive-date=7 August 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>

The [[English people]] are [[British people]].<ref name="ethnicityengl">{{Cite web |last=Office for National Statistics |author-link=Office for National Statistics |year=2011 |title=Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales 2011 |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/rpt-ethnicity.html |access-date=5 October 2013 |publisher=Statistics.gov.uk}}</ref> There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[South Africa]] and [[New Zealand]].{{Efn|For instance, in 1980 around 50 million [[United States|Americans]] claimed [[English Americans|English ancestry]].<ref>{{Cite news |year=2001 |title=Shifting Identities – statistical data on ethnic identities in the US |publisher=Bnet |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m4021/is_/ai_80408799 |url-status=dead |access-date=29 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112123723/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m4021/is_/ai_80408799 |archive-date=12 January 2016}}</ref> In Canada there are around 6.5 million [[Demographics of Canada|Canadians]] who claim [[English Canadians|English ancestry]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 April 2008 |title=Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091101151108/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000 |archive-date=1 November 2009 |access-date=29 July 2009 |publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> Around 70% of [[Demographics of Australia|Australians]] in 1999 denoted their origins as [[Anglo-Celtic]], a category which includes all peoples from Great Britain and Ireland.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre for Population and Urban Research, Monash University |title=Australian Population: Ethnic Origins |url=http://elecpress.monash.edu.au/pnp/free/pnpv7n4/v7n4_3price.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719124226/http://elecpress.monash.edu.au/pnp/free/pnpv7n4/v7n4_3price.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011 |access-date=29 July 2009}}</ref> Chileans of [[English Chilean|English descent]] are somewhat of an anomaly in that [[Chile]] itself was never part of the British Empire, but today there are around 420,000 people of English origins living there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inmigración británica en Chile |url=http://www.galeon.com/typepad/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822074242/http://www.galeon.com/typepad/ |archive-date=22 August 2009 |access-date=29 July 2009 |publisher=Galeon.com}}</ref>}} Since the late 1990s, many English people [[British migration to Spain|have migrated]] to Spain.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Burke |first=Jason |date=9 October 2005 |title=An Englishman's home is his casa as thousands go south |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/oct/09/spain.spain |access-date=5 September 2009}}; {{cite news |last=Travis |first=Alan |author2=Sarah Knapton |date=16 November 2007 |title=Record numbers leave the country for life abroad |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2007/nov/16/emigration |access-date=8 August 2009}}</ref> Due in particular to the economic prosperity of [[South East England]], it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.<ref name="ethnicityengl" /> There has been [[Irish migration to Great Britain|significant Irish migration]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2001 |title=One in four Britons claim Irish roots |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1224611.stm |access-date=26 November 2010}}</ref> The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50%, including [[British Germans|Germans]]<ref name="migra" /> and [[Polish British|Poles]].<ref name="ethnicityengl" /> Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, 6% of people living in England have family origins in the [[Indian subcontinent]], mostly [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]].<ref name="ethnicityengl" /><ref name="migra">{{Cite news |date=7 September 2005 |title=British Immigration Map Revealed |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4218740.stm |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> About 0.7% are Chinese.<ref name="ethnicityengl" /><ref name="migra" /> 2.90% of the population are black, from Africa and the [[Caribbean]], especially former British colonies.<ref name="ethnicityengl" /><ref name="migra" /> In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from [[minority group|ethnic minority]] families,<ref name="Paton">{{Cite news |last=Paton |first=Graeme |date=1 October 2007 |title=One fifth of children from ethnic minorities |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564365/One-fifth-of-children-from-ethnic-minorities.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=14 August 2014 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564365/One-fifth-of-children-from-ethnic-minorities.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%.<ref name="Shepherd">{{Cite news |last=Shepherd |first=Jessica |date=22 June 2011 |title=Almost a quarter of state school pupils are from an ethnic minority |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/jun/22/quarter-state-school-pupils-from-ethnic-minority |access-date=17 January 2014}}</ref> About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Leppard |first=David |date=10 April 2005 |title=Immigration rise increases segregation in British cities |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article379434.ece |access-date=8 August 2009}}</ref>

England contains one indigenous national minority, the [[Cornish people]], recognised by the UK government under the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]] in 2014.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite news |date=23 April 2014 |title=Cornish people formally declared a national minority along with Scots, Welsh and Irish |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/cornish-people-formally-declared-a-national-minority-along-with-scots-welsh-and-irish-9278725.html |url-status=dead |access-date=23 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424100108/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/cornish-people-formally-declared-a-national-minority-along-with-scots-welsh-and-irish-9278725.html |archive-date=24 April 2014}}</ref>

===Language===
{{further|Languages of the United Kingdom|English language in England}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
!Language
!Native speakers
(thousands)<ref>[http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/QS204EW/view/2092957699?cols=measures QS204EW – Main language], [[Office for National Statistics]] 2011 Census. Retrieved 21 July 2015.</ref>
|-
|[[English language in England|English]]
|46,937
|-
|[[Polish language|Polish]]
|529
|-
|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
|272
|-
|[[Urdu]]
|266
|-
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|216
|-
|[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|212
|-
|[[Arabic]]
|152
|-
|[[French language|French]]
|145
|-
|-
|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|131
|-
|[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
|8
|-
|[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
|0.6
|-
|Other
|2,267
|-
!Population
|'''51,006'''
|}

[[English language|English]], today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated in what is now England, where it remains the principal tongue. According to a 2011 census, it is spoken well or very well by 98% of the population.<ref name="CensusEnglish">{{Cite web |title=QS205EW – Proficiency in English |url=http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/QS205EW/view/2092957699?cols=measures |access-date=20 July 2015 |website=[[Office for National Statistics]] 2011 census |quote=Out of the 51,005,610 residents of England over the age of three, 50,161,765 (98%) can speak English "well" or "very well"}}</ref> Due in large part to the [[British Empire]], the English language is the world's unofficial ''[[lingua franca]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mujica |first=Mauro E. |date=19 June 2003 |title=English: Not America's Language? |work=The Globalist |location=Washington DC |url=http://www.theglobalist.com/DBWeb/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=3229 |access-date=1 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117232711/http://www.theglobalist.com/DBWeb/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=3229 |archive-date=17 January 2008}}</ref>

[[English as a second or foreign language|English language learning and teaching]] is an important [[Economics|economic activity]], and includes [[language schools|language schooling]], tourism spending, and publishing. There is no [[United Kingdom legislation|legislation]] mandating an [[official language]] for England,<ref>{{Cite web |title=English language history |url=http://www.yaelf.com/history.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213214406/http://www.yaelf.com/history.shtml |archive-date=13 February 2010 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=Yaelf}}</ref> but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct [[Regional accents of English speakers#England|regional accents]], and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.

As well as English, England has two other [[indigenous language]]s, [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]]. Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government Offices for the English Regions |author-link=Government Offices for the English Regions |title=Cornish language |url=http://www.gos.gov.uk/gosw/culturehome/heritage/cornish/?view=Standard |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112123830/http://www.gos.gov.uk/gosw/culturehome/heritage/cornish/?view=Standard |archive-date=12 January 2016 |access-date=22 September 2009 |publisher=gos.gov.uk}}; {{cite web |title=The Cornish Language Development Project – Evaluation – Final Report, page 20 |url=http://www.magakernow.org.uk/idoc.ashx?docid=d9bd1b63-0135-47b1-8edf-4a5e9358da06&version=-1 |publisher=Hywel Evans, Aric Lacoste / ERS |access-date=5 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007054626/http://www.magakernow.org.uk/idoc.ashx?docid=d9bd1b63-0135-47b1-8edf-4a5e9358da06&version=-1 |archive-date=7 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and is now protected under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=South West – Cornish Language |url=http://www.gos.gov.uk/gosw/culturehome/heritage/cornish/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013095206/http://www.gos.gov.uk/gosw/culturehome/heritage/cornish/ |archive-date=13 October 2008 |access-date=17 September 2009 |publisher=Government Office South West}}</ref> It is spoken by 0.1% of people in [[Cornwall]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=On being a Cornish "Celt": changing Celtic heritage and traditions |url=http://projects.exeter.ac.uk/cornishcom/documents/OnbeingaCornishcelt.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920093455/http://projects.exeter.ac.uk/cornishcom/documents/OnbeingaCornishcelt.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2009 |access-date=1 February 2009 |publisher=[[University of Exeter]]}}</ref> and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Cornish: They revolted in 1497, now they're at it again |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/the-cornish-they-revolted-in-1497-now-theyre-at-it-again-1782535.html |work=The Independent |location=London |access-date=17 September 2009 |first=Emily |last=Dugan |date=6 September 2009 |archive-date=19 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819072618/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/the-cornish-they-revolted-in-1497-now-theyre-at-it-again-1782535.html |url-status=dead }}; {{Cite web |year=2009 |title=Cornish in Schools |url=http://www.magakernow.org.uk/default.aspx?page=336 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007054858/http://www.magakernow.org.uk/default.aspx?page=336 |archive-date=7 October 2013 |access-date=5 October 2013 |website=Cornish Language Partnership}}</ref>

[[State school]]s teach students a [[second language]] or [[third language]] from the ages of seven, most commonly French, Spanish or German.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lipsett |first=Anthea |date=26 June 2008 |title=Number of primaries teaching foreign languages doubles |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2008/jun/26/schools.uk2 |access-date=23 September 2009}}</ref> It was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a [[foreign language]] at home,<ref name="Paton" /> the most common being [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and [[Urdu]]. However, following the 2011 census data released by the [[Office for National Statistics]], figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Booth |first=Robert |date=30 January 2013 |title=Polish becomes England's second language |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jan/30/polish-becomes-englands-second-language |access-date=30 January 2013}}</ref> In 2022, [[British Sign Language]] became an official language of England when the [[British Sign Language Act 2022]] came into effect.<ref>{{cite news |title=British Sign Language gets official status after 19 years of campaigning |url=https://www.itv.com/news/westcountry/2022-05-06/were-finally-recognised-british-sign-language-gets-official-status |access-date=14 June 2023 |work=ITV News |date=6 May 2022}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in England}}
{{further|History of Christianity in England}}

In the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population of England specified their religion as Christian, 24.7% answered that they had no religion, 5% specified that they were [[Muslim]], while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2% did not give an answer.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 December 2012 |title=Table KS209EW 2011 Census: Religion, local authorities in England and Wales |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/2011censuskeystatisticsforlocalauthoritiesinenglandandwales/r21ewrttableks209ewladv1_tcm77-290705.xls |access-date=22 May 2017 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}}</ref> Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England. The [[established church]] of England is the [[Church of England]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Church of England |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/cofe/cofe_1.shtml |access-date=4 December 2010 |publisher=BBC}}</ref> which left communion with [[Vatican City|Rome]] in the 1530s when [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] was unable to annul his marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]]. The church regards itself as both Catholic and [[Protestant]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=In depth history of the Church of England |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/about-us/history/detailed-history.aspx |access-date=25 January 2017 |publisher=Church of England |quote=The religious settlement that eventually emerged in the reign of Elizabeth gave the Church of England the distinctive identity that it has retained to this day. It resulted in a Church that consciously retained a large amount of continuity with the Church of the Patristic and Medieval periods in terms of its use of the catholic creeds, its pattern of ministry, its buildings and aspects of its liturgy, but which also embodied Protestant insights in its theology and in the overall shape of its liturgical practice. The way that this is often expressed is by saying that the Church of England is both 'catholic and reformed.'}}</ref>

There are [[High Church]] and [[Low Church]] traditions and some Anglicans regard themselves as [[Anglo-Catholics]], following the [[Tractarian movement]]. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the [[supreme governor of the Church of England]], which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of the [[Anglican Communion]] with the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] acting as its symbolic worldwide head.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 June 2008 |title=Global Anglicanism at a Crossroads |url=http://pewresearch.org/pubs/896/global-anglicanism-at-a-crossroads |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813045413/http://pewresearch.org/pubs/896/global-anglicanism-at-a-crossroads |archive-date=13 August 2011 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=PewResearch.org}}</ref> Many [[List of cathedrals in England|cathedrals]] and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as [[Westminster Abbey]], [[York Minster]], [[Durham Cathedral]], and [[Salisbury Cathedral]].

[[File:Westminster Abbey, west facade, August 2014.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Westminster Abbey]] is a notable example of [[English Gothic architecture]]. The [[coronation of the British monarch]] traditionally takes place at the Abbey.]]

The second-largest Christian denomination is the [[Catholic Church]]. Since its reintroduction after the [[Catholic Emancipation]], the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an [[Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales|England and Wales]] basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 February 2008 |title=People here "must obey the laws of the land" |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1578212/People-here-must-obey-the-laws-of-the-land.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1578212/People-here-must-obey-the-laws-of-the-land.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> There has been one Pope from England to date, [[Pope Adrian IV|Adrian IV]], while saints [[Bede]] and [[Anselm of Canterbury|Anselm]] are regarded as [[Doctors of the Church]].

A form of [[Protestantism]] known as [[Methodist Church of Great Britain|Methodism]] is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through [[John Wesley]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Methodist Church |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/methodist_1.shtml |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> It gained popularity in the [[mill town]]s of [[Lancashire]] and [[Yorkshire]], and among tin miners in [[Cornwall]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=AN INDEPENDENT ACADEMIC STUDY ON CORNISH |url=http://www.linguae-celticae.org/dateien/Independent_Study_on_Cornish_Language.pdf |access-date=26 December 2010 |page=8}}</ref> There are other [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|non-conformist]] minorities, such as [[Baptists]], [[Quakers]], [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]], [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] and [[The Salvation Army]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cambridge History of Christianity |url=http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521815000&ss=exc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721000044/http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521815000&ss=exc |archive-date=21 July 2012 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=Hugh McLeod}}</ref>

The patron saint of England is [[Saint George]]; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England.<ref name="flaghistory">{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom – History of the Flag |url=http://flagspot.net/flags/gb-hist.html |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=FlagSpot.net}}</ref> There are many other English and associated saints, including [[Cuthbert]], [[Edmund the Martyr|Edmund]], [[Saint Alban|Alban]], [[Wilfrid]], [[Aidan of Lindisfarne|Aidan]], [[Edward the Confessor]], [[John Fisher]], [[Thomas More]], [[Saint Petroc|Petroc]], [[Saint Piran|Piran]], [[Margaret Clitherow]] and [[Thomas Becket]]. There are non-Christian religions practised. [[Jews]] have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.<ref name="jews">{{Cite web |title=From Expulsion (1290) to Readmission (1656): Jews and England |url=http://www.gold.ac.uk/media/350th-anniversary.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721183112/http://www.gold.ac.uk/media/350th-anniversary.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2011 |access-date=1 February 2009 |publisher=Goldsmiths.ac.uk}}</ref> They were expelled from England in 1290 following the [[Edict of Expulsion]], and were allowed back in 1656.<ref name="jews" />

Especially since the 1950s, religions from the [[British Empire|former British colonies]] have grown in numbers, due to immigration. [[Islam]] is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England.<ref name="statsio">{{Cite web |last=Office for National Statistics |author-link=Office for National Statistics |title=Religion |url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/STATBASE/ssdataset.asp?vlnk=8301 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707100949/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/STATBASE/ssdataset.asp?vlnk=8301 |archive-date=7 July 2009 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=Statistics.gov.uk}}</ref> [[Hinduism]], [[Sikhism]] and [[Buddhism]] are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined,<ref name="statsio" /> introduced from India and [[South East Asia]].<ref name="statsio" />

A small minority of the population practise ancient [[Pagan religion]]s. [[Neopaganism in the United Kingdom]] is primarily represented by [[Wicca]] and [[Neopagan witchcraft]], [[Neo-Druidry|Druidry]], and [[Germanic neopaganism|Heathenry]]. According to the [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 census]], there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England,{{Efn|name=pagan|People who strictly identified as "Pagan". Other Pagan paths, such as Wicca or Druidism, have not been included in this number.<ref name="2011 ONS results">{{Cite web |title=2011 ONS results |url=http://ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/rft-table-qs210ew.xls |access-date=28 October 2017}}</ref>}} including 11,026 [[Wicca]]ns.{{Efn|People who strictly identified as "Wiccan". Other Pagan paths, such as Druidism, and general "Pagan" have not been included in this number.<ref name="2011 ONS results" />}} 24.7% of people in England declared [[Irreligion|no religion]], compared with 14.6% in 2001.<ref name="2011 ONS results" /> [[Norwich]] had the highest such proportion at 42.5%, followed by [[Brighton and Hove]] at 42.4%.

==Education==
{{Main|Education in England}}

The [[Department for Education]] is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education.<ref>{{harvnb|Gearon|2002|p=246}}.</ref> State-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.<ref>{{harvnb|West|2003|p=28}}.</ref> Education is the responsibility of the [[Secretary of State for Education]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Secretary of State for Education – GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-education |website=www.gov.uk}}</ref>

Children between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an [[Early Years Foundation Stage]] reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. State-funded schools are obliged by law to teach the [[National Curriculum for England|National Curriculum]]; basic areas of learning include English literature, English language, mathematics, science, art & design, citizenship, history, geography, religious education, design & technology, computing, ancient & modern languages, music, and physical education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Curriculum |url=https://www.gov.uk/national-curriculum |access-date=8 July 2020}}</ref>[[File:Radcliffe Camera by Fenlio.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Oxford]] was founded in 1096, making it the world's second-oldest university.]]The [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] coordinated by the [[OECD]] currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, well above the OECD average of 493.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OECD: PISA 2018 |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/Combined_Executive_Summaries_PISA_2018.pdf}}</ref>

Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, there are selective intake [[grammar school]]s to which entrance is subject to passing the [[eleven-plus]] exam. Around 7.2 per cent of English schoolchildren attend [[Independent school (UK)|private schools]], which are funded by private sources.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=Independent Schools in the United Kingdom |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580406/Independent_Schools_in_the_United_Kingdom.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090829163013/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580406/Independent_Schools_in_the_United_Kingdom.html |access-date= |archive-date=29 August 2009 }}</ref> Standards in state schools are monitored by the [[Office for Standards in Education]], and in private schools by the [[Independent Schools Inspectorate]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gearon|2002|p=102}}.</ref>

After finishing compulsory education, students take [[General Certificate of Secondary Education|GCSE]] examinations. Students may then opt to continue into [[further education]] for two years. [[List of further education colleges in England|Further education colleges]] (particularly [[sixth form colleges]]) often form part of a secondary school site. [[A-level]] examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university. Further education covers a wide curriculum of study and [[apprenticeship]]s, including [[T Level|T-levels]], [[Business and Technology Education Council|BTEC]], [[NVQ]] and others. [[Tertiary college]]s provide both academic and vocational courses.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=Judith |last2=Church |first2=Andrew |year=2009 |title=The Social Effects of Travel to Learn Patterns – A Case Study of 16-19 Year Olds in London |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02690940903166971 |journal=Local Economy: The Journal of the Local Economy Policy Unit |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=389–414 |doi=10.1080/02690940903166971 |s2cid=145187656}}</ref>

===Higher education===
Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an [[academic degree]]. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are [[Public university|public institutions]]. The [[Department for Business, Innovation and Skills]] is the government department responsible for higher education in England.<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Kingdom Parliament |author-link=Parliament of the United Kingdom |title=Innovation, Universities, Science and Skills Committee Contents |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmdius/170/17004.htm |access-date=16 September 2009 |publisher=publications.parliament.uk}}</ref> Students are generally entitled to [[student loan]]s to cover [[tuition fees]] and living costs.{{Efn|Students attending English universities now have to pay tuition fees towards the cost of their education, as do English students who choose to attend university in Scotland. Scottish students attending Scottish universities have their fees paid by the devolved Scottish Parliament.<ref name="msnmoney">{{cite web |title=Are Scottish people better off? |url=http://money.uk.msn.com/consumer/article.aspx?cp-documentid=6543296 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417222726/http://money.uk.msn.com/consumer/article.aspx?cp-documentid=6543296 |archive-date=17 April 2008 |publisher=MSN Money |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref>}} The first degree offered to undergraduates is the [[bachelor's degree]], which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or a doctorate, which takes three or more years.<ref name="FHEQ">{{Cite web |date=November 2014 |title=The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies |url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/qualifications-frameworks.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305083730/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/qualifications-frameworks.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 |access-date=4 November 2016 |page=17}}</ref>

[[List of universities in England|England's universities]] include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world. As of 2023, four England-based universities, the [[University of Cambridge]], [[University of Oxford]], [[Imperial College London]], and [[University College London]], are ranked among the top ten in the 2023 ''[[QS World University Rankings]]''. The University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, and the University of Oxford, founded in 1096, are the two [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest universities in the English-speaking world]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 2017 |title=QS World University Rankings 2023 {{pipe}} Top Universities |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited}}</ref>

The [[London School of Economics]] has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.<ref name="london_156">{{Cite news |last=Hoyle |first=Ben |date=23 September 2007 |title=The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2007 – Profile for London School of Economics |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/sunday_times_university_guide/article2496158.ece |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> The [[London Business School]] is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the ''[[Financial Times]]''.<ref name="ft">{{Cite web |title=FT Global MBA Rankings |url=http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504135153/http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-rankings |archive-date=4 May 2011 |access-date=25 January 2010 |website=Financial Times}}</ref> [[Academic degree]]s in England are usually split into classes: first class, upper second class, lower second class, third, and unclassified.<ref name="FHEQ" /> [[The King's School, Canterbury]] and [[King's School, Rochester]] are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world.<ref>{{harvnb|Webster|1937|p=383}}.</ref> Many of England's most well-known schools, such as [[Winchester College]], [[Eton College|Eton]], [[St Paul's School (London)|St Paul's School]], [[Harrow School]] and [[Rugby School]] are fee-paying institutions.<ref>{{harvnb|Lowe|1971|p=317}}.</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of England}}
{{further|English Renaissance}}

===Architecture===
Many ancient [[standing stone]] monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; among the best known are [[Stonehenge]], [[Devil's Arrows]], [[Rudston Monolith]] and [[Castlerigg stone circle|Castlerigg]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stone-circles.org.uk/stone/index.htm |publisher=Stone-Circles.org.uk |title=The Prehistoric Sites of Great Britain |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> With the introduction of [[Ancient Roman architecture]] there was a development of [[basilicas]], [[Roman baths|baths]], [[amphitheaters]], [[triumphal arch]]es, [[villa]]s, [[Roman temple]]s, [[Roman road]]s, [[Roman fort]]s, [[stockade]]s and [[aqueduct (bridge)|aqueducts]].<ref name="roman">{{cite web |url=http://www.castles.me.uk/ancient-roman-architecture-england-wales.htm |publisher=Castles.me.uk |title=Ancient Roman architecture in England and Wales |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091212033420/http://www.castles.me.uk/ancient-roman-architecture-england-wales.htm |archive-date=12 December 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is [[Hadrian's Wall]] stretching right across northern England.<ref name="roman" /> Another well-preserved example is the [[Roman Baths (Bath)|Roman Baths]] at [[Bath, Somerset]].<ref name="roman" />

[[File:Bodiam-castle-10My8-1197.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A castle of square plan surrounded by a water-filled moat. It has round corner towers and a forbidding appearance.|[[Bodiam Castle]] is a 14th-century [[moat]]ed [[castle]] near [[Robertsbridge]] in East Sussex.]]
[[Anglo-Saxon architecture|Early medieval architecture]]'s secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with [[thatch]] for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of [[Early Christian Ireland|Hiberno]]–[[Germanic Christianity|Saxon]] [[monasticism]],<ref>{{harvnb|Colgrave|1985|p=326}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pevsner|1942|p=14}}.</ref> to [[Early Christian art and architecture|Early Christian]] [[basilica]] and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various [[castles in England|castles]] were created; the best known include the [[Tower of London]], [[Warwick Castle]], [[Durham Castle]] and [[Windsor Castle]].<ref name="buildings" />

Throughout the Plantagenet era, an [[English Gothic architecture]] flourished, with prime examples including the [[Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England|medieval cathedrals]] such as [[Canterbury Cathedral]], [[Westminster Abbey]] and [[York Minster]].<ref name="buildings">{{harvnb|Atkinson|2008|p=189}}.</ref> Expanding on the [[Norman architecture|Norman base]] there was also [[castle]]s, [[palace]]s, [[List of historic houses in England|great houses]], universities and [[parish church]]es. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century [[Tudor architecture|Tudor style]]; the four-centred arch, now known as the [[Tudor arch]], was a defining feature as were [[wattle and daub]] houses domestically. In the aftermath of the [[Renaissance]] a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity synthesised with Christianity appeared, the [[English Baroque]] style of architect [[Christopher Wren]] being particularly championed.<ref>{{harvnb|Downes|2007|p=17}}.</ref>

[[Georgian architecture]] followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the [[Royal Crescent]] at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of [[romanticism]] during Victorian period, a [[Gothic Revival]] was launched. In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as [[The Crystal Palace]]. Since the 1930s various [[modernist architecture|modernist]] forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.{{Efn|While people such as [[Norman Foster (architect)|Norman Foster]] and [[Richard Rogers]] represent the modernist movement, [[Prince Charles]] since the 1980s has voiced strong views against it in favour of traditional architecture and put his ideas into practice at his [[Poundbury]] development in Dorset.<ref name=ArchCon4>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8045027.stm |work=BBC News |title=Architects to hear Prince appeal |date=12 May 2009 |access-date=20 June 2009}}</ref> Architects like [[Raymond Erith]], [[Francis Johnson (architect)|Francis Johnson]] and [[Quinlan Terry]] continued to practise in the classical style.}}
{{Clear}}

===Gardens===
{{Main|English garden}}
[[File:Stourhead lake in midsummer - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|The landscape garden at Stourhead. Inspired by the great [[landscape artists]] of the seventeenth century, the landscape garden was described as a "living work of art" when first opened in the 1750s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The history of the house at Stourhead|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/stourhead/features/the-history-of-stourhead|access-date=10 April 2021|website=National Trust|language=en}}</ref>]]

Landscape gardening, as developed by [[Capability Brown]], set an international trend for the [[English garden|English landscape garden]]. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits. The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|title=Gardens through time|url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/histories/gardens-through-time/|access-date=10 April 2021|website=English Heritage}}</ref>

By the end of the 18th century, the English garden was being imitated by the [[French landscape garden]], and as far away as [[Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg]], the gardens of the future [[Emperor Paul]]. It also had a major influence on the [[public parks]] and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century.<ref>Lucia Impelluso, ''Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes'', Mondatori Electra, Milan</ref> The English landscape garden was centred on the [[English country house]] and manor houses.<ref name=":2" />

[[English Heritage]] and the [[National Trust]] preserve great gardens and landscape parks throughout the country.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gardens & parks|url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/gardens-and-parks|access-date=10 April 2021|website=National Trust|language=en}}</ref> The [[RHS Chelsea Flower Show]] is held every year by the [[Royal Horticultural Society]] and is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rhs.org.uk/shows-events/rhs-chelsea-flower-show|title=RHS Chelsea Flower Show|website=www.rhs.org.uk}}</ref>

===Folklore===
{{Main|English folklore}}
[[File:The_King_joins_the_hands_of_Robin_Hood_and_Maid_Marian.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robin Hood]] and [[Maid Marian]] with [[Richard I of England]]]]

English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include [[pixie]]s, [[giant (mythology)|giants]], [[elf|elves]], [[bogeymen]], [[troll]]s, [[goblin]]s and [[dwarf (mythology)|dwarves]]. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales featuring [[Offa of Angel]] and [[Wayland the Smith]],<ref name="keary">{{harvnb|Keary|1882|p=50}}.</ref> others date from after the Norman invasion. The legends featuring [[Robin Hood]] and his [[Merry Men]] of [[Sherwood Forest|Sherwood]], and their battles with the [[Sheriff of Nottingham]], are among the best-known of these.<ref>{{harvnb|Pollard|2004|p=272}}.</ref>

During the [[High Middle Ages]] tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore and developed into the [[Arthurian myth]].<ref name="woodbbc">{{cite news |last=Wood |first=Michael |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/arthur_03.shtml |title=King Arthur, "Once and Future King" |work=BBC News |access-date=16 September 2009}}</ref><ref name="higham1">{{harvnb|Higham|2002|p=25}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=732}}.</ref> These were derived from [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]], Welsh and French sources,<ref name="higham1" /> featuring [[King Arthur]], [[Camelot]], [[Excalibur]], [[Merlin]] and the [[Knights of the Round Table]] such as [[Lancelot]]. These stories are most centrally brought together within [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s {{Lang|la|[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]}} (''History of the Kings of Britain'').{{Efn|These tales may have come to prominence, at least in part, as an attempt by the Norman ruling elite to legitimise their rule of the British Isles, finding [[Anglo-Saxon]] history ill-suited to the task during an era when members of the deposed [[House of Wessex]], especially [[Edgar the Ætheling]] and his nephews of the Scottish [[House of Dunkeld]], were still active in the isles.<ref name=higham1 /><ref>{{harvnb|Lacy|1986|p=649}}.</ref> Also [[Michael Wood (historian)|Michael Wood]] explains; "Over the centuries the figure of Arthur became a symbol of British history – a way of explaining the matter of Britain, the relationship between the Saxons and the Celts, and a way of exorcising ghosts and healing the wounds of the past."<ref name=woodbbc />}}

Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Briggs|2004|p=26}}.</ref> On 5 November people celebrate [[Bonfire Night]] to commemorate the foiling of the [[Gunpowder Plot]] centred on [[Guy Fawkes]]. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as [[Morris dancing]], [[Maypole dance|Maypole dancing]], [[Rapper sword]] in the North East, [[Long Sword dance]] in Yorkshire, [[Mummers Play]]s, [[bottle-kicking]] in Leicestershire, and [[Cooper's Hill Cheese-Rolling and Wake|cheese-rolling]] at [[Brockworth, Gloucestershire|Cooper's Hill]].<ref>{{harvnb|Withington|2008|p=224}}.</ref> There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the [[Pearly Kings and Queens]] associated with cockneys, the [[Queen's Guard|Royal Guard]], the [[Morris dance|Morris costume]] and [[Beefeater]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/costume.html |publisher=Woodlands-Junior.kent.sch.uk |title=What is England's national costume? |access-date=24 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505015321/http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/CUSTOMS/questions/costume.html |archive-date=5 May 2009 }}</ref>

===Cuisine===
{{Main|English cuisine}}
[[File:Fish and chips.jpg|thumb|[[Fish and chips]] is a traditionally popular dish in England.]]

Since the [[early modern period]] the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.<ref>{{harvnb|Else|2007|p=76}}.</ref> During the [[Middle Ages]] and the Renaissance, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the [[Industrial Revolution]] with increasing urbanisation. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in ''[[Restaurant (magazine)|Restaurant]]''{{'}}s [[best restaurant in the world]] charts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theworlds50best.com/module/acms_winners?group_id=1 |publisher=TheWorlds50Best.com |title=The S.Pellegrino World's 50 Best Restaurants |access-date=5 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100113043907/http://www.theworlds50best.com/module/acms_winners?group_id=1 |archive-date=13 January 2010}}</ref>

Traditional examples of English food include the [[Sunday roast]], featuring a [[roasting|roasted joint]] (usually beef, [[lamb and mutton|lamb]], chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, [[Yorkshire pudding]] and [[gravy]].<ref name="tradfood" /> Other prominent meals include [[fish and chips]] and the [[Full breakfast|full English breakfast]] (generally consisting of [[bacon]], [[sausages]], grilled tomatoes, fried bread, [[black pudding]], [[baked beans]], [[edible mushroom|mushrooms]] and eggs).<ref>{{cite news |title=How to make the perfect full English breakfast |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/11029015/How-to-make-the-perfect-full-English-breakfast.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/11029015/How-to-make-the-perfect-full-English-breakfast.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |date=25 June 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Various [[meat pie]]s are consumed, such as [[steak and kidney pie]], [[steak and ale pie]], [[cottage pie]], [[pork pie]] (usually eaten cold)<ref name="tradfood">{{cite web |url=http://www.travelsignposts.com/England/traditional-English-food-specialities.php |publisher=TravelSignPosts.com |title=Traditional English Food Specialities |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> and the [[Cornish pasty]].

Sausages are commonly eaten, either as [[bangers and mash]] or [[toad in the hole]]. [[Lancashire hotpot]] is a well-known stew originating in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are [[Cheddar cheese|Cheddar]], [[Red Leicester]], [[Wensleydale (cheese)|Wensleydale]], [[Double Gloucester]] and [[Stilton cheese|Blue Stilton]]. Many [[Anglo-Indian]] hybrid dishes, [[curries]], have been created, such as [[chicken tikka masala]] and [[balti (food)|balti]]. Traditional English dessert dishes include [[apple pie]] or other fruit pies; [[spotted dick]] – all generally served with [[custard]]; and, more recently, [[sticky toffee pudding]]. Sweet pastries include [[scones]] served with jam or cream, dried fruit loaves, [[Eccles cake]]s and [[mince pie]]s as well as sweet or spiced biscuits.

Common non-alcoholic drinks include tea<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tea.co.uk/catherine-of-braganza |publisher=Tea.co.uk |title=Catherine of Braganza |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> and coffee; frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wine, [[cider]]s and [[English beer]]s, such as [[bitter (beer)|bitter]], [[mild ale|mild]], [[stout]] and [[brown ale]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/the-pint-of-real-ale/features/types-of-beer-finished |publisher=Icons of England |title=Types of Beer |access-date=5 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030154340/http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/collection/the-pint-of-real-ale/features/types-of-beer-finished |archive-date=30 October 2009}}</ref>

===Visual arts===
{{Main|English art}}
{{See also|Arts Council England}}
{{stack begin|float=left}}
[[File:John Constable The Hay Wain.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A horse-drawn wagon crossing a river towards a cottage, with trees and fields beyond|''[[The Hay Wain]]'' by [[John Constable]], 1821, is an archetypal English painting.]]
[[File:John William Waterhouse - The Lady of Shalott - Google Art Project edit.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A painting of a red haired woman, sitting in a boat, surrounded by trees|''[[The Lady of Shalott (painting)|The Lady of Shalott]]'' by [[John William Waterhouse]], 1888, in the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] style]]
{{stack end}}

The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and [[cave art]] pieces, most prominent in [[North Yorkshire]], Northumberland and [[Cumbria]], but also feature further south, for example at [[Creswell Crags]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-836-1/dissemination/pdf/ERA_Brochure.pdf |publisher=ArchaeologyDataService.ac.uk |title=The Prehistoric Cave Art of England |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> With the arrival of [[Roman culture]] in the 1st century, various forms of art such as statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at [[Lullingstone Roman Villa|Lullingstone]] and [[Isurium Brigantum|Aldborough]].<ref>{{cite web |author=English Heritage |author-link=English Heritage |url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server.php?show=nav.17022 |publisher=english-heritage.org.uk |title=Aldborough Roman Site |access-date=5 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091022105915/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server.php?show=nav.17022 |archive-date=22 October 2009}}</ref> During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the [[Staffordshire Hoard]] discovered in 2009. Some of these blended [[Insular art|Gaelic and Anglian]] styles, such as the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] and [[Vespasian Psalter]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0023715.html |publisher=Tiscali.co.uk |title=Early Middle Ages Art |access-date=5 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227121544/http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0023715.html |archive-date=27 February 2009 }}</ref> Later [[Gothic art]] was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as [[Benedictional of St. Æthelwold]] and [[Luttrell Psalter]].<ref name="engart" />

The Tudor era saw [[Artists of the Tudor court|prominent artists]] as part of their court; portrait painting, which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Hans Holbein]], and natives such as [[Nicholas Hilliard]] built on this.<ref name="engart">{{cite web |url=http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0028010.html |publisher=Tiscali.co.uk |title=English art |access-date=5 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216224856/http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0028010.html |archive-date=16 February 2009 }}</ref> Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include [[Anthony van Dyck]], [[Peter Lely]], [[Godfrey Kneller]] and [[William Dobson]].<ref name="engart" /> The 18th century saw the founding of the [[Royal Academy]]; a [[classicism]] based on the [[Renaissance art|High Renaissance]] prevailed, with [[Thomas Gainsborough]] and [[Joshua Reynolds]] becoming two of England's most treasured artists.<ref name="engart" />

In the 19th century, [[John Constable]] and [[J. M. W. Turner]] were major landscape artists. The [[Norwich School (art movement)|Norwich School]] continued the landscape tradition, while the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]], led by artists such as [[Holman Hunt]], [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and [[John Everett Millais]], revived the [[Early Renaissance]] style with their vivid and detailed style.<ref name="engart" /> Prominent among 20th-century artists was [[Henry Moore]], regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Turner |first=Chris |title=The Bronze Age: Henry Moore and his successors |journal=Tate Magazine |issue=6 |url=http://www.tate.org.uk/magazine/issue6/moore.htm |access-date=9 September 2009 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120105222753/http://www.tate.org.uk/magazine/issue6/moore.htm |archive-date=5 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Royal Society of Arts]] is an organisation committed to the arts and culture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About the RSA – RSA|url=https://www.thersa.org/about|access-date=2021-05-08|website=www.thersa.org}}</ref>

===Literature, poetry, and philosophy===
{{Main|English literature}}
[[File:Geoffrey Chaucer (17th century).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A man dressed in grey with a beard, holding a rosary, depicted next to a coat of arms.|[[Geoffrey Chaucer]] was an English author, poet and philosopher, best remembered for his unfinished frame narrative ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''.]]

Early authors such as [[Bede]] and [[Alcuin]] wrote in Latin.<ref name="warnancmod">{{harvnb|Warner|1902|p=35}}.</ref> The period of [[Old English literature]] provided the epic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'' and the secular prose of the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|2001|p=17}}.</ref> along with Christian writings such as ''[[Judith (poem)|Judith]]'', [[Cædmon]]'s ''[[Cædmon|Hymn]]'' and [[hagiography|hagiographies]].<ref name="warnancmod" /> Following the Norman conquest [[Latin literature|Latin]] continued among the educated classes, as well as an [[Anglo-Norman literature]].

[[Middle English literature]] emerged with [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], author of ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', along with [[John Gower|Gower]], the [[Pearl Poet]] and [[William Langland|Langland]]. [[William of Ockham]] and [[Roger Bacon]], who were [[Franciscans]], were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. [[Julian of Norwich]], who wrote ''[[Revelations of Divine Love]]'', was a prominent Christian mystic. With the [[English Renaissance]] literature in the [[Early Modern English]] style appeared. [[William Shakespeare]], whose works include ''[[Hamlet]]'', ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'', ''[[Macbeth]]'', and ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.<ref>{{harvnb|Rogers|2001|p=135}}.</ref>

[[Christopher Marlowe]], [[Edmund Spenser]], [[Philip Sydney]], [[Thomas Kyd]], [[John Donne]], and [[Ben Jonson]] are other established authors of the [[Elizabethan literature|Elizabethan age]].<ref name="elizren">{{harvnb|Rowse|1971|p=48}}.</ref> [[Francis Bacon]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]] wrote on [[empiricism]] and [[materialism]], including [[scientific method]] and [[social contract]].<ref name="elizren" /> [[Robert Filmer|Filmer]] wrote on the [[Divine Right of Kings]]. [[Andrew Marvell|Marvell]] was the best-known poet of the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]],<ref>{{harvnb|Norbrook|2000|p=6}}.</ref> while [[John Milton]] authored ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' during the [[Restoration literature|Restoration]].
{{Quote box
| quote =This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, this other Eden, demi-paradise; this fortress, built by nature for herself. This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.
| source = [[William Shakespeare]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Richard II |url=http://www.users.waitrose.com/~uk1/shakespeare/sceptred.htm |publisher=[[William Shakespeare]] |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref>
| width =28%
| align =right
}}
Some of the most prominent philosophers of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] were [[John Locke]], [[Thomas Paine]], [[Samuel Johnson]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]]. More radical elements were later countered by [[Edmund Burke]] who is regarded as the founder of conservatism.<ref>{{harvnb|Heywood|2007|p=74}}.</ref> The poet [[Alexander Pope]] with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in [[romanticism]]: [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], [[Lord Byron]], [[John Keats]], [[Mary Shelley]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], [[William Blake]] and [[William Wordsworth]] were major figures.<ref>{{harvnb|Watson|1985|p=360}}.</ref>

In response to the [[Industrial Revolution]], agrarian writers sought a way between [[liberty]] and tradition; [[William Cobbett]], [[G. K. Chesterton]] and [[Hilaire Belloc]] were main exponents, while the founder of [[guild socialism]], [[Arthur Penty]], and [[cooperative movement]] advocate [[G. D. H. Cole]] are somewhat related.<ref>{{harvnb|Cole|1947|p=268}}.</ref> Empiricism continued through [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Bertrand Russell]], while [[Bernard Williams]] was involved in [[analytics]]. Authors from around the [[Victorian era]] include [[Charles Dickens]], the [[Brontë sisters]], [[Jane Austen]], [[George Eliot]], [[Rudyard Kipling]], [[Thomas Hardy]], [[H. G. Wells]] and [[Lewis Carroll]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hawkins-Dady|1996|p=970}}.</ref> Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as [[George Orwell]], [[D. H. Lawrence]], [[Virginia Woolf]], [[C. S. Lewis]], [[Enid Blyton]], [[Aldous Huxley]], [[Agatha Christie]], [[Terry Pratchett]], [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], and [[J. K. Rowling]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eccleshare|2002|p=5}}.</ref>

===Performing arts===
{{further|Folk music of England}}
{{See also|Music of the United Kingdom}}
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The traditional [[folk music of England]] is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly [[sea shanties]], [[jig]]s, [[hornpipe]]s and [[dance music]]. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Ballads featuring Robin Hood, printed by [[Wynkyn de Worde]] in the 16th century, are an important artefact, as are [[John Playford]]'s ''[[The Dancing Master]]'' and [[Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer|Robert Harley's]] ''[[Roxburghe Ballads]]'' collections.<ref>{{harvnb|Chappell|1966|p=690}}.</ref> Some of the best-known songs are ''[[Greensleeves]]'', ''[[Pastime with Good Company]]'', ''[[Maggie May (folk song)|Maggie May]]'' and ''[[Spanish Ladies]]'' among others. Many [[nursery rhymes]] are of English origin such as ''[[Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary]]'', ''[[Roses Are Red]]'', ''[[Jack and Jill (nursery rhyme)|Jack and Jill]]'', ''[[London Bridge Is Falling Down]], [[The Grand Old Duke of York]], [[Hey Diddle Diddle]]'' and ''[[Humpty Dumpty]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Lax|1989|p=7}}.</ref> Traditional English Christmas carols include "[[We Wish You a Merry Christmas]]", "[[The First Noel]]", "[[I Saw Three Ships]]" and "[[God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen]]".

Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists [[Thomas Tallis]] and [[William Byrd]], followed by [[Henry Purcell]] from the [[Baroque music|Baroque period]] and [[Thomas Arne]] who was well known for his patriotic song [[Rule, Britannia!]]. German-born [[George Frideric Handel]] spent most of his composing life in London and became a national icon in Britain, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, especially his English oratorios, ''[[Messiah (Handel)|The Messiah]]'', ''[[Solomon (Handel)|Solomon]]'', ''[[Water Music (Handel)|Water Music]]'', and ''[[Music for the Royal Fireworks]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Birth of British Music: Handel – The Conquering Hero |publisher=BBC |date=15 July 2019 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00kntl1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514114225/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00kntl1|archive-date=14 May 2017}}</ref>[[File:The Beatles in America.JPG|thumb|[[The Beatles]] are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed band in popular music.<ref>{{cite news |url={{GBurl|id=rdU1xtIWJz0C|q=The Beatles have sold around 1 billion records and cassettes}} |title=The Guinness Book of Records 1999 |isbn=9780851120706 |last1=Kynaston |first1=Nic |year=1998|publisher=Guinness }}</ref>]]

Classical music attracted much attention from 1784 with the formation of the [[Birmingham Triennial Music Festival]], which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. The [[English Musical Renaissance]] was a hypothetical development in the late 19th and early 20th century, when English composers, often those lecturing or trained at the [[Royal College of Music]], were said to have freed themselves from foreign musical influences. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by [[Edward Elgar]], [[Benjamin Britten]], [[Frederick Delius]], [[Gustav Holst]], [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]] and others.<ref>{{harvnb|Stradling|1993|p=166}}.</ref> Present-day composers from England include [[Michael Nyman]], best known for ''[[The Piano]]'', and [[Andrew Lloyd Webber]], whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the [[West End theatre|West End]] and worldwide.

In [[popular music]], many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as [[the Beatles]], [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Pink Floyd]], [[Elton John]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[David Bowie]], [[the Rolling Stones]] and [[Def Leppard]] are among the highest-selling recording artists in the world.<ref>{{cite web |author=Recording Industry Association of America |author-link=Recording Industry Association of America |title=Top Selling Artists |url=https://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?table=tblTopArt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701163039/http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?table=tblTopArt |archive-date=1 July 2007 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=riaa.com}}</ref> Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as [[British invasion]], [[progressive rock]], [[hard rock]], [[mod (subculture)|Mod]], [[glam rock]], [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[Britpop]], [[indie rock]], [[gothic rock]], [[shoegazing]], [[acid house]], [[UK garage|garage]], [[trip hop]], [[drum and bass]] and [[dubstep]].<ref>{{harvnb|Else|2007|p=65}}.</ref>

[[File:Royal Albert Hall Rear, London, England - Diliff.jpg|thumb|The [[Royal Albert Hall]]. Since the hall's opening in 1871, the world's leading artists from many performance genres have appeared on its stage. ]]
Large outdoor [[List of music festivals in the United Kingdom|music festivals]] in the summer and autumn are popular, such as [[Glastonbury Festival|Glastonbury]], [[V Festival]], and the [[Reading and Leeds Festivals]]. England was at the forefront of the illegal, free [[rave]] movement from the late 1980s, which inspired the pan-European culture of [[teknival]]s.<ref>Matthew Collin, John Godfrey (2010). "Altered State: The Story of Ecstasy Culture and Acid House" p.258.</ref> The [[Boishakhi Mela]] is a [[Bengali New Year]] festival celebrated by the [[British Bangladeshi]] community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the [[Notting Hill Carnival]], it is the second-largest street festival in the UK, attracting over 80,000 visitors.

The most prominent [[opera house]] in England is the [[Royal Opera House]] at [[Covent Garden]].<ref name="foreman">{{harvnb|Foreman|2005|p=371}}.</ref> [[The Proms]] is a major annual cultural event in the English calendar.<ref name="foreman" /> [[The Royal Ballet]] is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies. The [[Royal Academy of Music]] is the oldest [[Music school|conservatoire]] in the UK, founded in 1822, receiving its [[royal charter]] in 1830.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-08-07 |title=Royal Academy of Music- in London, England, is the oldest conservatoire in the UK |url=https://musicmeleti.com/royal-academy-of-music/ |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=Higher Studies in music |language=en-US}}</ref> England is home to numerous major orchestras such as the [[BBC Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Royal Philharmonic Orchestra]], the [[Philharmonia Orchestra]], and the [[London Symphony Orchestra]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=- PPL|url=https://www.ppluk.com/london-symphony-orchestra-tops-ppl-chart-ranking-uk-classical-ensembles/|access-date=2021-05-01|website=www.ppluk.com}}</ref> Other forms of entertainment that originated in England include the [[circus]]<ref name="CHP">[https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/may/15/chipperfields-circus-family-dynasties Great dynasties of the world: The Chipperfields] ''[[The Guardian]]'' Retrieved 18 February 2011.</ref><ref name="BBC">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/2929565.stm "The circus comes to the Circus"]. BBC News. Retrieved 13 December 2014</ref><ref>Hamilton, John (2000) ''Entertainment: A Pictorial History of the Past One Thousand Years'' p.24. Retrieved 3 February 2011.</ref> and the [[pantomime]].<ref name="Panto">David Christopher (2002). "British Culture: An Introduction". p. 74. Routledge,</ref>

===Cinema===
{{See also|Cinema of the United Kingdom}}
[[File:Peter O'Toole in Lawrence of Arabia.png|left|thumb|[[Peter O'Toole]] as T. E. Lawrence in [[David Lean]]'s 1962 epic ''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]'']]

England has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including [[Alfred Hitchcock]], [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[David Lean]], [[Laurence Olivier]], [[Vivien Leigh]], [[John Gielgud]], [[Peter Sellers]], [[Julie Andrews]], [[Michael Caine]], [[Gary Oldman]], [[Helen Mirren]], [[Kate Winslet]] and [[Daniel Day-Lewis]]. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed filmmakers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517155218/http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |archive-date=17 May 2012 |title=The Directors' Top Ten Directors |publisher=British Film Institute |url-status=dead }}</ref> Hitchcock's ''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'' (1926) helped shape the [[Thriller film|thriller]] genre in film, while his 1929 ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' is often regarded as the first British [[Sound film#Transition: Europe|sound]] feature film.<ref>{{cite book |url={{GBurl|id=AvxgFdRJ66kC|q=blackmail first british sound film|p=79}} |first=Paul Matthew |last=St. Pierre |title=Music Hall Mimesis in British Film, 1895–1960: On the Halls on the Screen |page=79 |publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |location=New Jersey |date=1 April 2009 |isbn=978-1-61147-399-5}}</ref>

Major film studios in England include [[Pinewood Studios|Pinewood]], [[Elstree Studios|Elstree]] and [[Shepperton Studios|Shepperton]]. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the [[List of highest-grossing film series|highest-grossing film franchises]] (''[[Harry Potter (film series)|Harry Potter]]'' and ''[[James Bond (film series)|James Bond]]'').<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2007/sep/11/jkjoannekathleenrowling |title=Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise |access-date=2 November 2010 |work=The Guardian |date=11 September 2007 |location=London}}</ref> [[Ealing Studios]] in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ealingstudios.com/EalingStudios/history_home.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130726040738/http://www.ealingstudios.com/EalingStudios/history_home.html |archive-date=26 July 2013 |title=History of Ealing Studios |publisher=Ealing Studios |access-date=9 March 2015}}</ref> Famous for recording many motion picture [[film scores]], the [[London Symphony Orchestra]] first performed film music in 1935.<ref>[http://lso.co.uk/page/3151/LSO-and-Film-Music London Symphony Orchestra and Film Music] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930173905/http://lso.co.uk/page/3151/LSO-and-Film-Music |date=30 September 2011 }} LSO. Retrieved 30 June 2011</ref> The [[Hammer Film Productions|Hammer Horror]] films starring [[Christopher Lee]] saw the production of the first gory horror films showing blood and guts in colour.<ref>{{cite news|title=Frankenstein: Behind the monster smash|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-42411484|agency=BBC|date=1 January 2018}}</ref>

The [[BFI Top 100 British films]] includes ''[[Monty Python's Life of Brian]]'' (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/948331.stm "Life of Brian tops comedy poll"]. BBC News (''[[Total Film]]'' magazine poll: 29 September 2000) Retrieved 27 June 2015</ref> English producers are also active in [[international co-productions]] and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council ranked [[David Yates]], [[Christopher Nolan]], [[Mike Newell (director)|Mike Newell]], [[Ridley Scott]] and [[Paul Greengrass]] the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001.<ref>[http://statisticalyearbook11.ry.com/?id=82856 Statistical Yearbook 2011: 7.3 UK directors] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615221043/http://statisticalyearbook11.ry.com/?id=82856 |date=15 June 2012 }}. UK Film Council.</ref> Other contemporary English directors include [[Sam Mendes]], [[Guy Ritchie]] and [[Richard Curtis]]. Current actors include [[Tom Hardy]], [[Daniel Craig]], [[Benedict Cumberbatch]], [[Lena Headey]], [[Felicity Jones]], [[Emilia Clarke]], [[Lashana Lynch]], and [[Emma Watson]]. Acclaimed for his motion capture work, [[Andy Serkis]] opened [[The Imaginarium Studios]] in London in 2011.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/oscars/11217293/Does-Andy-Serkiss-motion-capture-acting-deserve-an-Oscar.html "Does Andy Serkis's motion capture acting deserve an Oscar?"]. The Telegraph. Retrieves 11 January 2015</ref> The visual effects company [[Framestore]] in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film.<ref>[https://www.standard.co.uk/goingout/film/tim-webber-the-man-who-put-sandra-bullock-in-space-8804917.html "Tim Webber: the man who put Sandra Bullock in space"]. Evening Standard. Retrieved 17 January 2014</ref> Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, [[British literature|stories]] or events. The [[List of Walt Disney Animation Studios films|'English Cycle']] of Disney animated films include ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'', ''[[The Jungle Book (1967 film)|The Jungle Book]]'' and ''[[The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh|Winnie the Pooh]]''.<ref>[http://www.timeslive.co.za/sundaytimes/article600292.ece/Barry-Ronges-Classic-DVD---Alice-in-Wonderland Barry Ronge's Classic DVD : Alice in Wonderland], ''[[The Times (South Africa)|The Times]]'', It was made under the personal supervision of Walt Disney, and he took special care when animating British fantasy. He called them his "English Cycle".</ref>

===Sites and institutions===
{{Further|List of museums in England}}
[[File:London Natural History Museum Panorama.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|left|alt=A museum building entrance.|The [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] in London]]

[[English Heritage]] is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the [[Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport|Department for Culture, Media and Sport]]. The charity [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty]] holds a contrasting role. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]s fall within England.<ref>{{cite web |author=UNESCO |author-link=UNESCO |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/gb |title=United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland |website=World Heritage |publisher=whc.unesco.org |access-date=8 September 2009}}</ref> Some of the best-known of these are: [[Hadrian's Wall]], [[Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites]], [[Tower of London]], [[Jurassic Coast]], [[Saltaire]], [[Ironbridge Gorge]], and [[Studley Royal Park]].<ref>{{cite web |title=English World Heritage Sites to get strongest ever protections |url=http://www.ihbc.org.uk/news/docs/English%20World%20Heritage%20Sites%20to%20get%20strongest%20ever%20protections%20CLG%20press%20notice%2027%20May%202008.pdf |publisher=Institute of Historic Building Conservation |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref>

London's [[British Museum]] has collection of more than seven million objects,<ref>{{cite web |title=Museum in London |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/museum_in_london.aspx |publisher=BritishMuseum.org |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> it is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world,<ref>{{cite magazine |title=250 Years of the British Museum |url=http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1871956,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117100413/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1871956,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 January 2009 |magazine=Time |access-date=17 September 2009 |date=15 January 2009}}</ref> illustrating and documenting global human culture from its beginning to the present. The [[British Library]] in London is the [[national library]] and is one of the world's largest [[research libraries]], holding over 150 million items in almost all known languages and formats, including around 25 million books.<ref>{{cite web |title=British Library |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/80260/British-Library |access-date=5 September 2009 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/about-us/our-story/facts-and-figures-of-the-british-library|title=Facts and figures of the British Library|website=The British Library}}</ref> The [[National Gallery]] in [[Trafalgar Square]] houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.<ref>{{cite web |title=The National Gallery |url=http://www.artinfo.com/galleryguide/22865/9383/the-national-gallery-london/about/ |publisher=ArtInfo.com |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref> The [[Tate]] galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the [[Turner Prize]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2382373.stm |title=The art of Turner protests |last=Youngs |first=Ian |date=31 October 2002 |work=BBC News |access-date=10 August 2009}}</ref>

The [[Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport|Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport]] has overall responsibility for cultural property and heritage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport – GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-digital-culture-media-and-sport}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Arts, Heritage and Tourism – GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/parliamentary-under-secretary-of-state--81 |access-date=29 January 2020 |website=www.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> A [[blue plaque]], the oldest [[historical marker]] scheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in England to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event. In 2011 there were around 1,600 museums in England.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=A review of research and literature on museums and libraries |url=http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/media/uploads/pdf/a_review_of_research.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904133747/http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/media/uploads/pdf/a_review_of_research.pdf |archive-date=4 September 2012 |access-date=24 February 2013 |publisher=Arts Council}}</ref> Entry to most museums and galleries is free.<ref>{{cite web |date=1 December 2011 |title=Ten years of free museums |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/ten-years-of-free-museums |access-date=9 July 2020}}</ref> [[London]] is one of the world's most visited cities, regularly taking the top five most visited cities in [[Europe]]. It is considered a global centre of finance, art and culture.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 December 2019 |title=These Are the World's Most Popular City Destinations in 2019 |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-12-03/these-are-the-world-s-most-popular-city-destinations-in-2019 |access-date=3 December 2019}}; {{Cite web |title=Top 100 City Destinations: 2019 Edition |url=http://go.euromonitor.com/white-paper-travel-2019-100-cities.html |access-date=3 December 2019 |website=Euromonitor International}}</ref>

==Media==
{{Main|Media in the United Kingdom}}

The [[BBC]], founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.<ref name="MediaNewsline">{{cite web|title=BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand|url=http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005004930/http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html|archive-date=5 October 2010|access-date=23 September 2010|publisher=Media Newsline}}</ref><ref name="AboutBBC">{{cite news|title=About the BBC – What is the BBC|work=BBC Online|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/info/purpose/what.shtml|access-date=9 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116202334/http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/purpose/what.shtml|archive-date=16 January 2010}}</ref> It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the [[Television licensing in the United Kingdom|television licence]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite journal|last=Newswire7|date=13 August 2009|title=BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand|url=http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html|url-status=dead|journal=Media Newsline|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510090842/http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html|archive-date=10 May 2011|access-date=19 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=April 2010|title=TV Licence Fee: facts & figures|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/licencefee.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427080539/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/licencefee.shtml|archive-date=27 April 2011|publisher=BBC Press Office}}</ref> The [[BBC World Service]] is an [[International broadcasting|international broadcaster]] owned and operated by the [[BBC]]. It is the world's largest of any kind.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Work of the BBC World Service |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmfaff/334/334.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021001645/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmfaff/334/334.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2020 |access-date=16 February 2011}}</ref> It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.<ref>{{Cite web|title=News in your language – BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ws/languages|website=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC World Service |url=https://www.bbc.com/aboutthebbc/whatwedo/worldservice |website=bbc.com}}</ref>

London dominates the media sector in England: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although [[Manchester]] is also a significant national media centre. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|title=Publishing|url=http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/creative_industries/3280.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505104322/http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/creative_industries/3280.aspx|archive-date=5 May 2011|publisher=Department of Culture, Media and Sport}}</ref> National newspapers produced in England include ''[[The Times]]'', ''[[The Guardian]]'' and the ''[[Financial Times]]''.<ref name="paper2">{{cite news|date=10 October 2008|title=ABCs: National daily newspaper circulation September 2008|work=The Guardian|location=UK|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/table/2008/oct/10/abcs-pressandpublishing|access-date=17 October 2008}}</ref>

Magazines and journals published in England that have achieved worldwide circulation include ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', ''[[New Scientist]]'', ''[[The Spectator]]'', ''[[Prospect (magazine)|Prospect]]'', ''[[NME]]'' and ''[[The Economist]]''. The [[Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport|Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport]] has overall responsibility over media and broadcasting in England.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport – GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/secretary-of-state-for-digital-culture-media-and-sport |access-date=21 December 2020 |website=www.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref>

==Sport==
{{Main|Sport in England}}

[[File:The Queen presents the 1966 World Cup to England Captain, Bobby Moore. (7936243534).jpg|thumbnail|Queen [[Elizabeth II]] presenting the [[FIFA World Cup trophy|World Cup trophy]] to 1966 World Cup winning England captain [[Bobby Moore]]]]

England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century [[Codification (law)|codified]] many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include [[association football]],<ref name="football">{{cite web |date=24 October 2007 |title=Sheffield FC: 150 years of history |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/clubfootball/news/newsid=621801.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025033006/http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/clubfootball/news/newsid=621801.html |archive-date=25 October 2007 |access-date=5 September 2009 |publisher=[[FIFA]]}}</ref> [[cricket]], [[rugby union]], [[rugby league]], [[tennis]], [[boxing]], badminton, [[squash (sport)|squash]],<ref>{{cite web |title=History of squash |url=http://www.worldsquash2008.com/the-championships/history-of-squash.aspx |publisher=WorldSquash2008.com |access-date=5 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831081620/http://www.worldsquash2008.com/the-championships/history-of-squash.aspx |archive-date=31 August 2009 }}</ref> [[rounders]],<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the Game |url=http://www.nra-rounders.co.uk/dyncat.cfm?catid=17177 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060223211035/http://www.nra-rounders.co.uk/dyncat.cfm?catid=17177 |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 February 2006 |publisher=NRA-Rounders.co.uk }}</ref> [[field hockey|hockey]], [[snooker]], [[billiards]], [[darts]], table tennis, [[bowls]], [[netball]], [[thoroughbred]] horseracing, [[greyhound racing]] and [[fox hunting]]. It has helped the development of [[golf]], sailing and [[Formula One]].

Football is the [[Sport in the United Kingdom#Popularity|most popular]] of these sports. The [[England national football team]], whose home venue is [[Wembley Stadium]], played [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] in the first ever international football match in 1872.<ref>{{cite news |title=The first international football match |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/sportscotland/asportingnation/article/0012/index.shtml |publisher=BBC |author=Paul Mitchell |access-date=15 January 2015|author-link=Paul Mitchell (broadcaster) }}</ref> Referred to as the "home of football" by [[FIFA]], England hosted and won the [[1966 FIFA World Cup]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131220190138/http://www.fifa.com/tournaments/archive/worldcup/england1966/index.html "Hurst the hero for England in the home of football"]. FIFA.com. Retrieved 15 January 2015</ref> With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the [[1966 FIFA World Cup Final|final]] is the [[List of most-watched television broadcasts#United Kingdom|most watched television event ever]] in the UK.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-16671101 "Tracking 30 years of TV's most watched programmes"]. BBC. Retrieved 25 June 2015</ref> England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football: [[Sheffield F.C.]], founded in 1857, is the world's oldest club.<ref name="football" />

[[File:Wembley Stadium interior.jpg|thumb|left|alt=The interior of an empty stadium as viewed from its upper tier of seating. The seats are a vivid red and the pitch is a vivid green. The pale grey sky is visible through an opening in the ceiling above the pitch.|[[Wembley Stadium]], home of the [[England football team]], has a 90,000 capacity. It is the biggest stadium in the UK.]] [[Cricket]] is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the [[Weald]].<ref>{{harvnb|Underdown|2000|p=6}}.</ref> The [[England cricket team]] is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game's top rivalries is [[The Ashes]] series between England and [[Australia cricket team|Australia]], contested since 1882. [[Lord's Cricket Ground]] situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/cricket-flaw-lords-out-of-order-1166513.html |title=Cricket: Flaw Lord's out of order |last=Fay |first=Stephen |work=The Independent |location=London |date=21 June 1998 |access-date=9 September 2009 |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118130512/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/cricket-flaw-lords-out-of-order-1166513.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> After winning the [[2019 Cricket World Cup]], England became the first country to win the World Cups in football, rugby union and cricket.<ref>{{Cite web |title=England 1st country to win Cricket World Cup, Football World Cup and Rugby World Cup |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket-world-cup-2019/story/england-1st-country-to-win-cricket-world-cup-football-world-cup-and-rugby-world-cup-1569076-2019-07-15 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

[[William Penny Brookes]] was prominent in organising the format for the modern [[Olympic Games]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Father of the modern Olympics|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/articles/2006/01/31/william_penny_brookes_feature.shtml|agency=BBC|date=22 September 2017}}</ref> London has hosted the [[Summer Olympic Games]] three times, in [[1908 Summer Olympics|1908]], [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948]], and [[2012 Summer Olympics|2012]]. England competes in the [[Commonwealth Games]], held every four years. [[Sport England]] is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.

[[Rugby union]] originated in [[Rugby School]], Warwickshire in the early 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/originsofrugby.htm#2 |title=Origins of Rugby – Codification "The innovation of running with the ball was introduced some time between 1820 and 1830." |publisher=Rugbyfootballhistory.com |access-date=15 August 2011}}</ref> The top level of club participation is the [[Guinness Premiership|English Premiership]]. [[Rugby league]] was born in [[Huddersfield]] in 1895. Since 2008, the [[England national rugby league team]] has been a full test nation in lieu of the [[Great Britain national rugby league team]], which won three [[Rugby League World Cup|World Cups]]. Club sides play in [[Super League]], the present-day embodiment of the [[Rugby Football League Championship]]. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of [[Lancashire]], Yorkshire and [[Cumbria]].<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/rugbyleague/10397530/Rugby-League-World-Cup-2013-will-provide-the-sport-with-a-true-test-of-its-popularity.html "Rugby League World Cup 2013 will provide the sport with a true test of its popularity"]. The Telegraph. Retrieved 23 September 2015</ref>

[[Golf]] has been prominent in England, due in part to its [[Golf in Scotland|cultural and geographical ties to Scotland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pgatour.com/2008/tourlife/travel/04/08/trans_atlantic/index.html |title=Scotland is the home of golf |publisher=[[PGA Tour]] official website |access-date=4 December 2008 |quote=Scotland is the home of golf ... |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828200541/http://www.pgatour.com/2008/tourlife/travel/04/08/trans_atlantic/index.html |archive-date=28 August 2008}}</ref> There are professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the [[Professional Golfers' Association (Great Britain and Ireland)|PGA]] and the [[European Tour]]. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major is [[The Open Championship]], played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the [[Ryder Cup]], is named after English businessman [[Samuel Ryder]].<ref>Fry, Peter (July 2000). Samuel Ryder: The Man Behind the Ryder Cup. Wright Press.</ref>

[[Tennis]] was created in Birmingham in the late 19th century, and [[The Championships, Wimbledon|the Wimbledon Championships]] is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.<ref>{{cite news |date=5 July 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/05/sports/tennis/05wimbledon.html |title=Traditional Final: It's Nadal and Federer |work=The New York Times |access-date=5 September 2009 |first=Christopher |last=Clarey}}</ref> Wimbledon has a major place in the English cultural calendar.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaufman|Macpherson|2005|p=958}}.</ref>

[[File:Mansell in his Ferrari 641 - 1990 British GP.jpg|thumb|left|Former [[Formula One]] world champion [[Nigel Mansell]] driving at [[Silverstone Circuit|Silverstone]] in 1990. The circuit hosted the [[1950 British Grand Prix|first ever World Championship Formula One race]] in 1950.]]In [[boxing]], under the [[Marquess of Queensberry Rules]], England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies.<ref>{{cite web |title=Top 20 British Boxers |url=http://bleacherreport.com/articles/661141-the-top-20-british-boxers-of-all-time |access-date=12 April 2011 |website=[[Bleacher Report]]}}</ref>

Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the [[thoroughbred]] is a horse breed best known for its use in [[horse racing]]. The [[National Hunt]] horse race the [[Grand National]], is held annually at [[Aintree Racecourse]] in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, and three-time winner [[Red Rum]] is the most successful racehorse in the event's history.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/horse_racing/3495663.stm Red Rum: Aintree favourite] BBC. Retrieved 11 October 2011</ref>

The [[1950 British Grand Prix]] at [[Silverstone Circuit|Silverstone]] was the first race in the newly created [[Formula One World Championship]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.silverstone.co.uk/about/history/ |publisher=Silverstone.co.uk |title=The History of British Motorsport and Motor Racing at Silverstone |access-date=31 October 2009 |work=Silverstone}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/page/3421.html |work=ESPN |title=F1 Champions: Dan Wheldon killed in Las Vegas |access-date=15 December 2011}}</ref> It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations. England also has a rich heritage in [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing]], the premier championship of motorcycle [[road racing]], and produced several world champions.

[[Darts]] is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, it is a traditional [[pub game]].<ref>{{cite news |author=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/2631249.stm |title=Part relishes Taylor triumph |date=6 January 2003 |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Phil Taylor player profile |url=http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey=1 |work=Dartsdatabase |access-date=23 July 2010 |archive-date=18 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190118094449/http://www.dartsdatabase.co.uk/PlayerDetails.aspx?playerKey=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is [[snooker]], and England has produced several world champions. The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive [[sailing]]; founding and winning some of the world's most famous international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the [[match race]], a regatta, and the [[America's Cup]].

==National symbols==
{{Main|National symbols of England}}
[[File:Royal Arms of England (1198-1340).svg|thumb|upright|alt=A red shield tapers to its bottom end; on it are three stylised golden lions with blue claws.|The [[Royal Arms of England]]]]

The St George's Cross has been the national [[flag of England]] since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime [[Republic of Genoa]]. The English monarch paid a tribute to the [[Doge of Genoa]] from 1190 onwards so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean.
A red cross was a symbol for many [[Crusaders]] in the 12th and 13th centuries, and became associated with [[Saint George]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannia.com/history/stgeorge.html |title=St. George – England's Patron Saint |publisher=Britannia.com |access-date=1 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308175508/http://www.britannia.com/history/stgeorge.html |archive-date=8 March 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the [[Union Flag]], a Pan-British flag designed by King [[James I of England|James I]].<ref name="flaghistory" /> During the [[English Civil War]] and [[Interregnum (England)|Interregnum]], the [[New Model Army]]'s standards and the [[English Commonwealth|Commonwealth's]] [[Great Seal of the Realm#Commonwealth|Great Seal]] both incorporated the flag of Saint George.<ref>{{cite book|last=Good|first=Jonathan|title=The Cult of Saint George in Medieval England |url={{GBurl|id=dP8LAQAAMAAJ}} |page=149 |year=2009 |publisher=Boydell Press|isbn=978-1-84383-469-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Great Seal of the Commonwealth of England, 1651 |website=Getty Images |url=https://www.gettyimages.co.uk/detail/news-photo/the-great-seal-of-the-commonwealth-of-england-1651-news-photo/463967983 |access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

[[File:Tudor Rose.svg|left|thumb|alt=A red and white flower.|upright|The [[Tudor rose]], England's [[national flower|national floral emblem]]]]
There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the [[Tudor rose]], the nation's [[national emblem|floral emblem]], and the Three Lions featured on the [[Royal Arms of England]]. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the [[Wars of the Roses]] as a symbol of peace.<ref name="Flowers">{{cite web |url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page828 |title=National flowers |date=13 January 2003 |publisher=Number10.gov.uk |access-date=8 August 2009 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080909053639/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page828 |archive-date=9 September 2008}}</ref> It is a [[syncreticism|syncretic]] symbol in that it merged the white rose of the [[House of York|Yorkists]] and the red rose of the [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrians]]. It is also known as the ''Rose of England''.<ref name="Rose">{{cite web |url=http://www.rugbynetwork.net/main/s245/st74325.htm |title=England's Rose – The Official History |last=Smith |first=Jed |date=3 June 2005 |website=Museum of Rugby, Twickenham |publisher=RugbyNetwork.net |access-date=8 August 2009}}</ref> The [[oak]] tree is a symbol of England: the [[Royal Oak]] symbol and [[Oak Apple Day]] commemorate the escape of King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] after his father's execution, when he hid in an oak to avoid detection by the parliamentarians before safely reaching exile.

The Royal Arms of England, a national [[coat of arms]] featuring three lions, originated with [[Richard the Lionheart]] in 1198. It is [[blazon]]ed as ''gules, three lions passant guardant or'' and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England. England does not have an official national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has ''[[God Save the King]]''. However, ''[[Jerusalem (hymn)|Jerusalem]]'', ''[[Land of Hope and Glory]]'' (used for England during the [[2002 Commonwealth Games]]),<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newstatesman.com/node/143569 |title=Jason Cowley loves the Commonwealth Games |work=New Statesman |access-date=5 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011102925/https://www.newstatesman.com/node/143569 |archive-date=11 October 2013 }}</ref> and ''[[I Vow to Thee, My Country]]'' are often considered unofficial [[National anthem of England|English national anthems]]. England's [[National Day]] is 23 April which is [[St George's Day in England|Saint George's Day]]: Saint George is the patron saint of England.<ref name="St. George">{{cite news |date=23 April 1998 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/82166.stm |title=The Great Saint George Revival |work=BBC News |access-date=5 September 2009}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Outline of England]]
* [[Outline of the United Kingdom]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

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{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/ English Heritage] – national body protecting English heritage
* [http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ Natural England] – wildlife and the natural world of England
* [https://www.visitengland.com/ VisitEngland] – English tourist board
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/england/ BBC News – England] – news items from BBC News relating to England
* [https://www.gov.uk/ GOV.UK] – official website of the British Government
* {{osmrelation-inline|58447}}

{{England topics}}
{{Navboxes
|title = {{flagicon|ENG}} Articles related to England
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[[Category:England]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Great Britain]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
[[Category:United Kingdom by country]]
[[Category:Christian states]]

Rizwan Sajan

2023-09-17T13:06:13Z

Deepaksuhag: Article published.

{{Short description|Non-resident Indian entrepreneur}}
{{Tone}}

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rizwan Sajan
| image = Rizwan Sajan.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = 1963
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Mumbai]]
| occupation = Entrepreneur and Founder of Danube Group
}}
'''Rizwan Sajan''' is [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]-based [[Non-Resident Indian]] billionaire businessman and the founder of Danube Group.<ref>{{Cite web|title= |work=Arabian Businesses|url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/lists/462812-indian-power-list-2021-rizwan-sajan|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Danube founder finds his dream in Dubai |work=Arab News|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1294891/lifestyle|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref> He has appeared in the [[Forbes|Forbes Middle East]]’s list of Top 100 Indian leaders in the UAE.<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=Top Indian Business Leaders In The Middle East 2021|work=Frobes Middle East|url=https://www.forbesmiddleeast.com/lists/top-indian-business-leaders-in-the-middle-east/rizwan-sajan|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Success Stories of Entrepreneurs in the UAE |work=|url=https://www.moec.gov.ae/en/-/rizwan-sajan-is-ranked-among-top-100-richest-indian-businessmen-in-the-uae-|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>

==Early life==
Rizwan was born to a lower-middle-class family in [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=Indian Rich List 2018: Rizwan Sajan |work=Arabian Business|url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/lists/408713-indian-rich-list-2018-6-rizwan-sajan|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref> and started his career as a street vendor to support his family. After his father's death, at the age of 18, Sajan received an opportunity to work at his uncle's building materials shop in Kuwait. This opportunity marked the beginning of his journey into the business world, although the Gulf War in 1991 forced him to return to Mumbai.<ref>{{Cite web|title=From street vendor to Rs 18000 crore net worth: Meet Rizwan Sajan, one of the richest Indians in UAE |work=DNA India|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/business/report-from-street-vendor-to-rs-18000-crore-net-worth-meet-rizwan-sajan-one-of-richest-indians-in-uae-dubai-danube-3035830|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=कभी गलियों में घूमकर बेचते थे छोटी-छोटी चीजें, आज 1.3 अरब डॉलर की कंपनी के मालिक हैं रिजवान साजन |work=MoneyControl|url=https://hindi.moneycontrol.com/news/india/trends/once-rizwan-sajan-earned-as-a-street-vendor-today-he-is-owner-of-a-1-3-billion-dollar-company-1183091.html|access-date=2023-09-14|language=hi}}</ref>

==Career==
Rizwan Sajan is known as the founder and chairman of Danube Group, a conglomerate consisting of various subsidiaries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Video: Danube owner Rizwan Sajan, from street vendor to UAE-based multi-billionaire |work=Gulf News|url=https://gulfnews.com/uae-success-stories/video-danube-owner-rizwan-sajan-from-street-vendor-to-uae-based-multi-billionaire-1.1549520438711|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref> Forbes Middle East included him in the list of "Top 100 Indian leaders in the UAE, As per Gulf News he played a key role in introducing the Filmfare Awards to the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meet the man behind Filmfare Middle East Achievers Night in Dubai: Rizwan Sajan |work=Gulf News|url=https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/meet-the-man-behind-filmfare-middle-east-achievers-night-in-dubai-rizwan-sajan-1.83073263|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref> In 2021 he announced residential tower 'Fashionz' in collaboration with [[FashionTV]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Danube Properties launches Dubai’s first FashionTV-branded residential tower |work=Khaleej Times|url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/danube-properties-launches-dubais-first-fashiontv-branded-residential-tower|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref> later they also started middle east's largest indoor sports facility Danube Sports World.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Danube Sports World will open its doors soon |work=Gulf Today|url=https://www.gulftoday.ae/sport/2022/11/11/danube-sports-world-will-open-its-doors-soon|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>

==Philanthropy==
He has donated AED 5 million towards the UAE Government's 1 Billion Meals Endowment Initiative.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dubai: Danube Group donates Dh5 million to ‘1 Billion Meals’ campaign|work=Khaleej Times|url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/uae/dubai-danube-group-donates-dh5-million-to-1-billion-meals-campaign|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref> Sajan is the driving force behind Danube Welfare Center, which works to help unskilled workers improve their skills and allow them to develop their careers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Danube Welfare Centre: Unskilled workers in Dubai find way to a better life|work=Gulf News|url=https://gulfnews.com/going-out/society/danube-welfare-centre-unskilled-workers-in-dubai-find-way-to-a-better-life-1.1164325|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>

==Awards and recognitions==
* Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Business Excellence Award by [[Dubai Chamber of Commerce and Industry]] in 2012<ref>{{Cite web|title=MRM Awards: UAE best businesses honoured|work=Khaleej Times|url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/banking-and-finance/mrm-awards-uae-best-businesses-honoured|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>
* Dubai Quality Award in 2012 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Winners of Dubai Quality Award|work=Government of Dubai|url=https://ded.ae/Awards_winners/en/DQA_winners_list|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>
* Special Achievement Award by The Asia Pacific Enterprise Awards (APEA) in 2015 <ref>{{Cite web|title= |work=APEA Asia|url=https://apea.asia/uae/hall-of-fame-uae-2015/|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>
* Most Admired Retailer award by BARC Asia in 2018 <ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=|work=s|url=https://www.arabianbusiness.com/lists/424765-ipl2019-31-rizwan-sajan|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=WINNERS OF MOST ADMIRED LEADERS ASIA 2017-18|work=BARC Asia|url=http://www.barc.asia/most-admired-leaders.html|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>
*[[The Economic Times]] Global Indian Leaders in 2022<ref>{{Cite web|title=ET Global Indian Leaders 2022 recognised entrepreneurial excellence across industries|work=Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/company/corporate-trends/et-global-indian-leaders-2022-recognised-entrepreneurial-excellence-across-industries/articleshow/95013848.cms|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>
* Top 100 Indian leaders in the UAE by [[Forbes|Forbes Middle East]]<ref>{{Cite web|work=|url=https://www.forbesmiddleeast.com/list/top-100-indian-leaders-in-uae|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=Success Stories of Entrepreneurs in the UAE|work=UAE Gov|url=https://www.moec.gov.ae/en/-/rizwan-sajan-is-ranked-among-top-100-richest-indian-businessmen-in-the-uae-|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>
*Top Indian Business Leaders In The Middle East 2021 by [[Forbes|Forbes Middle East]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=Top Indian Business Leaders In The Middle East 2021|work=Frobes Middle East|url=https://www.forbesmiddleeast.com/lists/top-indian-business-leaders-in-the-middle-east/rizwan-sajan|access-date=2023-09-14}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sajan, Rizwan}}
[[Category:Indian philanthropists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United Arab Emirates]]
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:Indian billionaires]]
[[Category:Emirati businesspeople]]
[[Category:Emirati billionaires]]

Pali division

2023-08-26T05:13:37Z

Deepaksuhag: Redirected

#REDIRECT [[List of districts of Rajasthan]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from subtopic}}
}}

Avaaz

2023-01-28T03:29:15Z

Deepaksuhag: Authored a new article draft.

{{short description|Nonprofit organization to promote global activism}}
{{update}}
{{Blacklisted-links|invisible=true}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Avaaz
| logo = [[File:Avaaz Logo en.png|Logo of Avaaz]]
| focus = Global community and political activism
| founded_date = {{start date and age|2007|1}}
| num_members = 68,000,000
| area_served = Worldwide
| homepage = [http://www.avaaz.org/en/ www.avaaz.org]
}}
'''Avaaz''' is a U.S.-based [[nonprofit organization]] launched in January 2007 that promotes global [[activism]] on issues such as [[climate change]], [[human rights]], [[animal rights]], corruption, poverty, and conflict. In 2012, ''[[The Guardian]]'' referred to Avaaz as "the globe's largest and most powerful online activist network".<ref>{{cite news|last= Pilkington|first= Ed|title= Avaaz faces questions over role at centre of Syrian protest movement|url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/02/avaaz-activist-group-syria|access-date= 27 November 2012|newspaper= The Guardian}}.</ref>

<div style="display:inline-table; vertical-align:top; max-width:400px;">
'''Click on a country name on the map to go to that name in the table'''
<onlyinclude>{{Image label begin|image=Map of European countries by percent of local Avaaz members.png|width=400|alt=Labelled map of European countries color coded by percent of Avaaz members}}
{{Image label small|x=0.2389|y=0.781|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 1|Andorra ↓]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5775|y=0.863|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 37|Albania]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.4930|y=0.685|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 8|Austria]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.6975|y=0.515|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 40|Belarus]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.2810|y=0.595|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 4|Belgium]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5792|y=0.779|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 34|B&H]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.7195|y=0.782|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 22|Bulgaria]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5700|y=0.734|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 26|Croatia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5075|y=0.615|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 32|Czech Rep.]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.3775|y=0.487|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 21|Denmark]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5875|y=0.364|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 25|Estonia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5875|y=0.285|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 28|Finland]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.2695|y=0.701|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 3|France]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.3995|y=0.582|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 13|Germany]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.7175|y=0.892|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 23|Greece]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5775|y=0.683|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 29|Hungary]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.1005|y=0.163|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 5|Iceland]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.0995|y=0.492|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 15|Ireland]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.4655|y=0.795|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 14|Italy]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.6155|y=0.411|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 24|Latvia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5715|y=0.457|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 27|Lithuania]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.2075|y=0.628|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 2|Luxembourg→]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.6775|y=0.845|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 33|''Mac.'']]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5595|y=1.000|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 7|←Malta]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.7535|y=0.661|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 38|Moldova]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5775|y=0.83|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 36|''Mont.'']]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.2925|y=0.55|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 18|Netherlands]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.3975|y=0.32|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 20|Norway]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5475|y=0.567|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 30|Poland]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.0175|y=0.89|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 17|Portugal]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.6825|y=0.716|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 19|Romania]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.7975|y=0.32|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 39|Russia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.6405|y=0.765|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 35|Serbia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5775|y=0.640|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 31|Slovakia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.4655|y=0.719|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 11|Slovenia]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.1245|y=0.85|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 10|Spain]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.4925|y=0.382|scale=390|text=[[#Table row 12|Sweden]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.3675|y=0.699|scale=400|text= [[#Table row 6|Switz- erland]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.7575|y=0.6|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 41|Ukraine]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.2025|y=0.499|scale=400|text=[[#Table row 16|United Kingdom]]}}
{{Image label end}}</onlyinclude>
</div>

<div style="display:inline-table; vertical-align: top; style="margin-top:0em;">
<div style="height:29em; overflow:auto; border:1px solid; padding-right:1.5em;">
{{Static row numbers}}
{{Import-blanktable}}
{| class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers tpl-blanktable" style="margin-top:0em; text-align:right;"
|+ [[Avaaz]] members by percent of population. The list can be scrolled manually or interactively.
|-
!Country!!Population!!Avaaz!!{{abbr|%|Percent}}
|-
! !! !! !! 
|- id="Table row 1"
| style=text-align:left |Andorra||85,000||3,316|| style="background-color:white"|  3.90
|- id="Table row 2"
| style=text-align:left |Luxembourg||498,000||14,228|| style="background-color:#F0F0F0"|  2.86
|- id="Table row 3"
| style=text-align:left |France||64,768,000||1,827,517|| style="background-color:#F0F0F0"|  2.82
|- id="Table row 4"
| style=text-align:left |Belgium||10,423,000||292,530|| style="background-color:#F0F0F0"|  2.81
|- id="Table row 5"
| style=text-align:left |Iceland||309,000||7,667|| style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|2.48
|- id="Table row 6"
| style=text-align:left |Switzerland||7,623,000||182,814|| style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|2.40
|- id="Table row 7"
| style=text-align:left |Malta||407,000||9,129|| style="background-color:#D5D5D5"|2.24
|- id="Table row 8"
| style=text-align:left |Austria||8,214,000||167,132|| style="background-color:#D5D5D5"|2.03
|- id="Table row 9"
| style=text-align:left |Liechtenstein||36,000||718|| style="background-color:#B4B4B4"|1.99
|- id="Table row 10"
| style=text-align:left |Spain||46,506,000||810,680|| style="background-color:#B4B4B4"|1.74
|- id="Table row 11"
| style=text-align:left |Slovenia||2,003,000||27,780|| style="background-color:#B4B4B4"|1.39
|- id="Table row 12"
| style=text-align:left |Sweden||9,074,000||125,248|| style="background-color:#B4B4B4"|1.38
|- id="Table row 13"
| style=text-align:left |Germany||81,644,000||1,082,972|| style="background-color:#8B8B8B"|1.33
|- id="Table row 14"
| style=text-align:left |Italy||60,749,000||796,634|| style="background-color:#8B8B8B"|1.31
|- id="Table row 15"
| style=text-align:left |Ireland||4,623,000||58,504|| style="background-color:#8B8B8B"|1.27
|- id="Table row 16"
| style=text-align:left |United Kingdom||62,348,000||781,025|| style="background-color:#8B8B8B"|1.25
|- id="Table row 17"
| style=text-align:left |Portugal||10,736,000||132,219|| style="background-color:#8B8B8B"|1.23
|- id="Table row 18"
| style=text-align:left |Netherlands||16,574,000||191,608|| style="background-color:#8B8B8B"|1.16
|- id="Table row 19"
| style=text-align:left |Romania||21,959,000||211,867|| style="background-color:#8B8B8B"|0.96
|- id="Table row 20"
| style=text-align:left |Norway||4,676,000||36,483|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.78
|- id="Table row 21"
| style=text-align:left |Denmark||5,516,000||41,377|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.75
|- id="Table row 22"
| style=text-align:left |Bulgaria||7,149,000||52,296|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.73
|- id="Table row 23"
| style=text-align:left |Greece||10,750,000||78,874|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.73
|- id="Table row 24"
| style=text-align:left |Latvia||2,218,000||14,967|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.67
|- id="Table row 25"
| style=text-align:left |Estonia||1,291,000||8,535|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.66
|- id="Table row 26"
| style=text-align:left |Croatia||4,487,000||28,950|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.65
|- id="Table row 27"
| style=text-align:left |Lithuania||3,545,000||21,721|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.61
|- id="Table row 28"
| style=text-align:left |Finland||5,255,000||28,836|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.55
|- id="Table row 29"
| style=text-align:left |Hungary||9,992,000||51,684|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.52
|- id="Table row 30"
| style=text-align:left |Poland||38,464,000||162,643|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.42
|- id="Table row 31"
| style=text-align:left |Slovakia||5,470,000||22,588|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.41
|- id="Table row 32"
| style=text-align:left |Czech Republic||10,202,000||39,358|| style="background-color:#676767"|0.39
|- id="Table row 33"
| style=text-align:left |Macedonia||2,072,000||3847|| style="background-color:#414141"|0.19
|- id="Table row 34"
| style=text-align:left |Bosnia and Herz.||4,622,000||8,436|| style="background-color:#414141"|0.18
|- id="Table row 35"
| style=text-align:left |Serbia||7,345,000||12,369|| style="background-color:#414141"|0.17
|- id="Table row 36"
| style=text-align:left |Montenegro||667,000||1,101|| style="background-color:#414141"|0.17
|- id="Table row 37"
| style=text-align:left |Albania||2,987,000||3,300|| style="background-color:#414141"|0.11
|- id="Table row 38"
| style=text-align:left |Moldova||3,732,000||2,134|| style="background-color:#1E1E1E"|0.06
|- id="Table row 39"
| style=text-align:left |Russia||139,390,000||62,932|| style="background-color:#1E1E1E"|0.05
|- id="Table row 40"
| style=text-align:left |Belarus||9,613,000||2,643|| style="background-color:#1E1E1E"|0.03
|- id="Table row 41"
| style=text-align:left |Ukraine||45,416,000||13,002|| style="background-color:#1E1E1E"|0.03
|}
</div></div>

The name chosen for the community is a [[Romanization]] of a word meaning "voice" in Persian and various languages, such as
Hindi [[wikt:आवाज़#Hindi|आवाज़]] and Urdu [[wikt:آواز#Urdu|آواز]].<ref>
{{cite book
|last= Platts
|first= John T.
|title= A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English
|year= 1884
|entry= आवाज़
|entry-url= http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/search3advanced?dbname=platts&query=आवाज़&matchtype=exact&display=utf8
|location= London
|publisher= W. H. Allen & co.
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
|last= Platts
|first= John T.
|title= A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English
|year= 1884
|entry=آواز
|entry-url= http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/search3advanced?dbname=platts&query=آواز&matchtype=exact&display=utf8
|location= London
|publisher= W. H. Allen & co.
}}</ref>


==Cofounders==
===Groups===
Avaaz.org was co-founded by [[Res Publica (US)|Res Publica]], a "community of public sector professionals dedicated to promoting good governance, civic virtue and deliberative democracy",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://therespublica.org/ |title=Res Publica: Bürger machen Politik |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728100532/http://www.therespublica.org/ |archive-date=28 July 2011 }}</ref> and [[MoveOn.org]], an American non-profit progressive public policy advocacy group.<ref name=about2008/><ref name=Economist2007>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/8703047/print?story_id=8703047|title=Wakey-wakey|newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref> It was also supported by [[Service Employees International Union]], a founding partner.

===Individuals===
Avaaz's individual co-founders include [[Ricken Patel]], Tom Pravda, former Virginia congressman [[Tom Perriello]], MoveOn Executive Director [[Eli Pariser]], Australian entrepreneur [[David Madden (Australia)|David Madden]], [[Jeremy Heimans]] (co-founders of Purpose.com), and Andrea Woodhouse.<ref name="about2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.avaaz.org/en/about.php |title=About Us |access-date=17 October 2007 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110084550/http://www.avaaz.org/en/about.php |archive-date=2008-01-10 }}</ref>

===Leadership===
Avaaz's founding President and former CEO is the [[Canadian-British]] Ricken Patel.<ref name=Economist2007/> He studied PPE ([[politics, philosophy, economics]]) at [[Balliol College]], [[Oxford University]]. He received a Master's degree in Public Policy from [[Harvard University]]. He worked for the [[International Crisis Group]] around the world, including in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Sudan and Afghanistan, where he says "he learnt how to bring rebel forces to the negotiation table, to monitor elections (covertly), to restore public faith in once corrupt political systems and to spot when foreign forces were being manipulated". He returned to the USA and volunteered for MoveOn.org, where he learned how to use online tools for activism.<ref name=times>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/48808533/The-Times-profile-of-Avaaz-and-Ricken-Patel-Feb-9-2011|title=The Times profile of Avaaz and Ricken Patel|first=Sarah|last= Bentley|work=[[The Times]]}}</ref>

==Funding, campaigns selection process and management==
"Since 2009, Avaaz has not taken donations from foundations or corporations, nor has it accepted payments of more than $5,000 (£3,100)", ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported. "Instead, it relies simply on the generosity of individual members, who have now raised over $20m (£12.4m)."<ref name=slacktivism>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/20/avaaz-activism-slactivism-clicktivism|title=Avaaz: activism or 'slacktivism'?|first=Patrick |last=Kingsley|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> Prior to 2009, various foundations had funded Avaaz's staff and start-up costs.<ref name=bbc-20120229>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17199253 |title=Profile: Global campaign group Avaaz |work=BBC News |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref>

===Global campaigns selection process===
Avaaz global campaigns are managed by a team of campaigners working from over 30 countries, including the UK, India, Lebanon and Brazil. They communicate with members via email, and employ campaigning tactics including online public [[petition]]s, videos, and email-your-leader tools. In some cases Avaaz also uses advertisements and commissions legal advice to clarify how best to take a campaign forward,<ref name=slacktivism/> and stages "sit-ins, rallies, phone-ins and media friendly stunts".<ref name=times/> Examples of stunts include "taking a herd of cardboard pigs to the doors of the World Health Organization to demand an investigation into the link between swine flu and giant pig farms and creating a three-mile human chain handshake from the Dalai Lama to the doors of the Chinese Embassy in London to request dialogue between the parties".<ref name=times/>

Suggestions for campaigns come from members, supplemented by guidance from teams of specialists. Once a suggestion has been taken up as having potential, tester emails are polled to 10,000 Avaaz members; if the emails receive a sufficient response, the campaign is opened up to all Avaaz members.<ref name=slacktivism/> In 2010, ''[[The Economist]]'' suggested that "the way Avaaz bunches unlikely causes together may be an asset in a world where campaigns, like race and class, can still segregate people, not reconcile them".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/16943875?story_id=16943875|title=A town crier in the global village|newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref>

==Ideology==
Avaaz claims to unite [[practical idealism|practical idealists]] from around the world.<ref name=times/> Former director Ricken Patel said in 2011: "We have no ideology per se. Our mission is to close the gap between the world we have and the world most people everywhere want. Idealists of the world unite!"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2011/apr/24/avaaz-activist-network-rupert-murdoch|title=Avaaz – the online activist network that is targeting Rupert Murdoch's bid|first=Ed |last=Pilkington |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>
In practice, Avaaz often supports causes considered progressive, such as calling for global [[climate change mitigation|action on climate change]], challenging Monsanto, and building greater global support for refugees.<ref name=time-20140922>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/22/nyregion/new-york-city-climate-change-march.html?_r=0|title=Taking a Call for Climate Change to the Streets |first=Lisa |last=Foderaro |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=28 September 2016}}</ref><ref name=time-20160806>{{cite news |url=http://www.politico.eu/article/europes-weedkiller-wars-glyphosate-roundup-who-european-commission/ |title=How grassroots lobbying push blindsided Monsanto |first1=Jenny |last1=Hopkinson |first2=Giulia |last2=Paravicini |publisher=Politico |access-date=28 September 2016}}</ref><ref name=time-20160330>{{cite news |url=http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/latest/2016/3/56fb98dc3/un-secretary-general-says-help-needed-syrian-refugees.html |title=UN Secretary General says more help needed for Syrian refugees |first=Karin |last=de Grujil |publisher=UNHCR |access-date=28 September 2016}}</ref>

During the [[2009 Iranian presidential election protests]], Avaaz set up Internet [[proxy server]]s to allow protesters to upload videos onto public websites.<ref name=time-20120315>{{cite magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2109212,00.html |title=How a New York City-Based Activist Group Became a Player in Syria |first=Vivienne |last=Walt |magazine=Time |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref>

Avaaz supported the establishment of a [[no-fly zone]] over Libya, which led to the [[2011 military intervention in Libya|military intervention in the country]] in 2011. It was criticized for its pro-intervention stance in the media and blogs.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hilary|first=John|title=Internet activists should be careful what they wish for in Libya|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/10/internet-activists-libya-no-fly-zone|access-date=8 November 2016|work=The Guardian}}</ref>

Avaaz supported the [[Civil uprising phase of the Syrian Civil War|civil uprising preceding the Syrian Civil War]]. This included sending $1.5 million of Internet communications equipment to protesters, and training activists. Later it used smuggling routes to send over $2 million of medical equipment into rebel-held areas of Syria. It also smuggled 34 international journalists into Syria.<ref name=bbc-20120229/><ref name=guardian-20120302>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/mar/02/avaaz-activist-group-syria |title=Avaaz faces questions over role at centre of Syrian protest movement |first=Ed |last=Pilkington |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref> Avaaz coordinated the evacuation of wounded British photographer [[Paul Conroy (journalist)|Paul Conroy]] from [[Homs]]. Thirteen Syrian activists died during the evacuation operation.<ref name=bbc-20120229/><ref name=npr-20120314>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/2012/03/13/148542026/aid-groups-role-in-syria-pushes-limits |title=Aid Group's Role In Syria Pushes Limits |first=Deborah |last=Amos |publisher=National Public Radio |access-date=10 October 2016}}</ref> Some senior members of other non-governmental organizations working in the Middle East have criticized Avaaz for taking sides in a civil war.<ref name=time-20120315/> As of November 2016, Avaaz continues campaigning for no-fly zones over Syria in general and specifically [[Aleppo]]. (Gen. Dunford, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States, has said that establishing a no-fly zone means going to war against Syria and Russia.<ref name=Dunford>{{cite news |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fmE9Jj-rEVs |title=No-fly zone would 'require war with Syria and Russia' – top US general}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead Youtube links}}</ref>) It has received criticism from parts of the political [[blogosphere]] and has a single digit percentage of its users opposing the petitions, with a number of users ultimately leaving the network. The Avaaz team responded to this criticism by issuing two statements defending their decision to campaign.

In the [[2016 United States presidential election]], Avaaz campaigned against [[Donald Trump]] with the slogan "Defeat Donald Trump", and produced a software tool to simplify overseas voter registration.<ref name=wp-20160916>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/09/16/online-activists-say-this-group-could-swing-the-presidential-election/ |title=Online activists say this group could swing the presidential election |first=Steven | last=Overly |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=23 September 2016}}</ref>

Avaaz opposed [[21st Century Fox]]'s bid to take over the pan-European broadcasting company [[Sky plc]]. As part of this campaign, Avaaz brought [[Wendy Walsh]], a woman who alleges she was sexually harassed at Fox News, to London in May 2017 to testify to British media regulator [[Ofcom]].<ref>{{Cite web|title='Block Fox bid for Sky', says ex-guest claiming harassment|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-39849576|website=BBC}}</ref> In September 2017, Avaaz took legal action in the British [[High Court of Justice]], by seeking a judicial review of the regulator [[Ofcom]]'s decision not to recommend rejection of the takeover.<ref name=variety-20170929>{{cite news |url=https://variety.com/2017/tv/news/group-opposed-fox-sky-takeover-files-legal-challenge-against-regulator-decision-1202576255/ |title=Group Opposed to Fox-Sky Takeover Files Legal Challenge Against British Regulator |last=Mitchell |first=Robert |work=Variety |access-date=24 October 2017}}</ref> Bloomberg described Avaaz as "the fly in the ointment of Murdoch's Sky bid".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hellier|first=David|title=The Fly in the Ointment of Murdoch's Sky Bid|work=Bloomberg|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-09-14/murdoch-s-bid-delay-spotlights-role-of-little-known-activists|access-date=31 December 2020}}</ref> When Mr Murdoch withdrew his Sky bid, Ian Burrell commented that it "represents a victory for the civic activist group Avaaz, which has relentlessly campaigned against a takeover which seemed inevitable".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ian|first=Burrell|title=Fox Disney deal positions House of Mouse as major UK news player|work=iNews|url=https://inews.co.uk/news/media/fox-disney-deal-positions-house-mouse-major-uk-news-player-111357|access-date=31 December 2020}}</ref>

==Monsanto subpoena==
In January 2018, [[Monsanto]] requested Avaaz hand over all documents the organization held in relation to [[glyphosate]].<ref name="Guardian Monsanto Subpoena Request">{{cite web |last1=Neslen |first1=Arthur |title=Monsanto demands Avaaz hands over all of its campaign data |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/feb/23/monsanto-demands-avaaz-hands-over-all-of-its-campaign-data |website=The Guardian |access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref> Lawyers for the company said they planned to use the documentation in their defense during an upcoming court case involving two plaintiffs in Missouri who say their cancer was caused by exposure to Monsanto's "Roundup" herbicide.<ref name="DTE Monsanto Defeat">{{cite web |last1=Varshney |first1=Vibha |title=US court quashes Monsanto's 'undemocratic' plea to Avaaz to hand over internal documents |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/governance/us-court-quashes-monsanto-s-undemocratic-plea-to-avaaz-to-hand-over-internal-documents-61551 |website=DownToEarth.org |access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref><ref name="Guardian Monsanto Subpoena Request" /><ref name="Taz Monsanto defeat">{{cite news |title=Sieg gegen Monsanto |url=http://taz.de/Pestizidfirma-wollte-Papiere-von-Avaaz/!5533969/ |newspaper=Die Tageszeitung: Taz |publisher=taz.de |access-date=8 September 2018|last1=Maurin |first1=Jost }}</ref> Avaaz argued that a successful subpoena would result in a "[[chilling effect]]" on the group's work.<ref name="Guardian Monsanto Subpoena Request" />

On September 5, 2018, a New York judge sided with Avaaz. The judge stated that the subpoena "risked 'chilling' free speech and political activity",<ref name="Law360 Monsanto Defeat">{{cite web |last1=Newsham |first1=Jack |title=Monsanto Can't Round Up Chemical Docs From Advocacy Org |url=https://www.law360.com/lifesciences/articles/1080321/monsanto-can-t-round-up-chemical-docs-from-advocacy-org |website=Law360 |access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref> and argued that Monsanto's request was "anti-democratic".<ref name="Taz Monsanto defeat" />

== Reception ==
Some question whether Avaaz's focus on online petitions and email campaigns may encourage laziness, transforming potential [[activism]] into [[clicktivism]].<ref name=slacktivism/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104302141|title=Foreign Policy: Brave New World Of Slacktivism|author=Evgeny Morozov|publisher=[[NPR]]}}</ref> [[Malcolm Gladwell]] says that petition tools do not create "close-knit, disciplined and tenacious" networks of activists.<ref name=moreintelligentlife>{{cite journal|url=https://www.1843magazine.com/content/features/robert-butler/man-behind-avaaz?page=full |title=The man behind Avaaz |journal=[[1843 (magazine)|1843]] |first=Robert |last=Butler |issue=May/June 2013 |access-date=4 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/10/04/small-change-malcolm-gladwell|title=Small Change|first=Malcolm |last=Gladwell|magazine=The New Yorker}}</ref> In February 2012, Avaaz raised money for the evacuation of [[Paul Conroy (journalist)|Paul Conroy]] from Syria, a mission that led to the deaths of 13 activists in Syria.<ref name=moreintelligentlife/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/28/syrian-activists-paul-conroy-mission|title=Syrian activists killed in Paul Conroy rescue mission|first=Peter|last= Beaumont|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> A ''[[The New Republic|New Republic]]'' article accused Avaaz of making false claims about their own role in the evacuation.<ref name=moreintelligentlife/><ref>{{cite magazine|last=van Zuylen-Wood|first=Simon|title=The Great Escape: Has One NGO Been Lying About Its Role in Syria?|magazine=The New Republic|url=http://www.tnr.com/article/world/103330/syria-avaaz-activist-group-journalism|access-date=9 September 2012}}</ref> [[Jillian York]] has accused Avaaz of arrogance and lack of transparency.<ref>{{cite web|last=York|first=Jillian|title=On Avaaz|url=http://jilliancyork.com/2012/05/29/on-avaaz/|access-date=9 September 2012}}</ref> The ''Defensor Da Natureza''{{'s}} blog has accused Avaaz of taking credit for the success of the [[Ficha Limpa]] anti-corruption bill in Brazil, which Luis Nassif reposted.<ref>{{cite web|title=Petições da Avaaz rendem milhões de dólares. As campanhas são sérias ou é golpe na internet?|url=http://ra-bugio.blogspot.com.br/2011/02/peticoes-da-avaaz-rendem-milhoes-de.html|publisher=Defensor da Natureza|access-date=16 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Nassif|first=Luis|title=Avaaz, golpe ou verdade?|url=http://advivo.com.br/blog/luisnassif/avaaz-golpe-ou-verdade|access-date=17 January 2013}}</ref>

In 2008, Canadian conservative minister [[John Baird (Canadian politician)|John Baird]] labeled Avaaz a "shadowy foreign organization" tied to billionaire [[George Soros]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2010/09/20/kevin-libin-the-third-party-no-one-talks-about/ |title=Kevin Libin: The third party no one talks about |first=Kevin |last=Libin |newspaper=[[National Post]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709093050/http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2010/09/20/kevin-libin-the-third-party-no-one-talks-about/ |archive-date=9 July 2012 }}</ref>

Another Canadian, conservative media personality [[Ezra Levant]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/billionaire-soros-threatening-to-sue-sun-media/article1711183/|title=Billionaire Soros threatening to sue Sun Media |first=Steven |last=Chase|newspaper=[[The Globe and Mail]]}}</ref> tried to make a link between Soros and Avaaz.org as an indirect supporter through [[MoveOn]], but the article was later retracted as baseless and an apology was offered to Soros.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.torontosun.com/news/canada/2010/09/01/15216861.html|title=Anti-Sun TV News campaign in U.S.|first=Brian|last= Lilley, [[QMI Agency]] Parliamentary Bureau|newspaper=[[Toronto Sun]]|quote=Avaaz is backed by MoveOn.org a lobby group that has taken millions of dollars from currency speculator George Soros.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macleans.ca/tag/george-soros-controls-the-world/|title=Avaaz.ca vs. Baird: The Shadowy Foreign Organization strikes back!|author=kadyomalley}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.torontosun.com/comment/2010/09/17/15388356.html|title=Retraction and apology to George Soros|newspaper=[[Toronto Sun]]}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Internet activism]]
* [[Slacktivism]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.avaaz.org/en/ AVAAZ home page]
*{{YouTube|u=avaazorg|{{PAGENAMEBASE}}}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.vimeo.com/369614|title=Avaaz.org's Ricken Patel on BBC World's HARDtalk}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Avaaz.Org}}
[[Category:Organizations established in 2007]]
[[Category:Internet-based activism]]
[[Category:Human rights organizations]]
[[Category:International political websites]]
[[Category:American political websites]]
[[Category:Left-wing advocacy groups]]
[[Category:Left-wing activism]]
[[Category:Online petitions]]
[[Category:International organizations based in the United States]]

1993 Indian Rajya Sabha elections

2023-01-27T13:25:44Z

Deepaksuhag: Wrote an insightful manuscript.

#REDIRECT [[1993 Rajya Sabha elections]]

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1990 Indian Rajya Sabha elections

2022-12-07T21:14:10Z

Deepaksuhag: Just completed a fresh chapter.

#REDIRECT [[1990 Rajya Sabha elections]]

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Gujarat Vidhan Sabha

2022-09-04T03:27:48Z

Deepaksuhag: Fresh article draft.

#REDIRECT [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]

States General of the Netherlands

2022-02-23T14:16:47Z

Deepaksuhag: Shared an interesting publication.

{{short description|Supreme legislature of the Netherlands}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = States General
| native_name = {{native name|nl|Staten-Generaal|icon=no}}
| transcription_name =
| legislature =
| coa_pic = Coat of arms of the Staten Generaal.svg
| coa_res = 150px
| house_type = Bicameral
| body =
| houses = • [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]] • [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]]
| leader1_type = [[President of the Senate (Netherlands)|President of the Senate]]
| leader1 = [[Jan Anthonie Bruijn]]
| party1 = [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]]
| election1 = 2 July 2019
| leader2_type = [[Speaker of the House of Representatives (Netherlands)|Speaker of the House of Representatives]]
| leader2 = [[Vera Bergkamp]]
| party2 = [[Democrats 66|D66]]
| election2 = 7 April 2021
| members = '''Senate''': 75 ''' House of Representatives''': 150
| house1 = [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]]
| house2 = [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]]
| structure1 =
| structure1_res =
| structure2 = Dutch House of Representatives, 2022–present.svg
| structure2_res = 250px
| political_groups1 = '''Coalition (24)''' 
* {{color box|{{party color|People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (2020)}}|border=darkgray}} [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]] (10)
* {{color box|{{party color|Christian Democratic Appeal}}|border=darkgray}} [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] (6)
* {{color box|{{party color|Democrats 66}}|border=darkgray}} [[Democrats 66|D66]] (5)
* {{color box|{{party color|Christian Union (Netherlands)}}|border=darkgray}} [[Christian Union (Netherlands)|CU]] (3)
'''Opposition (51)'''
* {{color box|{{party color|Farmer–Citizen Movement}}|border=darkgray}} [[Farmer–Citizen Movement|BBB]] (16)
* {{color box|{{party color|PvdA–GroenLinks}}|border=darkgray}} [[PvdA–GL]] (14)
* {{color box|{{party color|Party for Freedom}}|border=darkgray}} [[Party for Freedom|PVV]] (4)
* {{color box|{{party color|Socialist Party (Netherlands)}}|border=darkgray}} [[Socialist Party (Netherlands)|SP]] (3)
* {{color box|{{party color|Party for the Animals}}|border=darkgray}} [[Party for the Animals|PvdD]] (3)
* {{color box|{{party color|JA21}}|border=darkgray}} [[JA21]] (3)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Forum for Democracy (Netherlands)}}|border=darkgray}} [[Forum for Democracy|FvD]] (2)
* {{color box|{{party color|Reformed Political Party}}|border=darkgray}} [[Reformed Political Party|SGP]] (2)
* {{color box|{{party color|Volt Netherlands}}|border=darkgray}} [[Volt Netherlands|Volt]] (2)
* {{color box|{{party color|50PLUS}}|border=darkgray}} [[50PLUS]] (1)
* {{color box|{{party color|Independent Politics Netherlands}}|border=darkgray}} [[Independent Politics Netherlands|OPNL]] (1)
| political_groups2 ='''[[Fourth Rutte cabinet|Government]] (77) ''' 
* {{Color box|{{party color|People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (2020)}}|border=silver}} [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]] (34)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Democrats 66}}|border=silver}} [[Democrats 66|D66]] (24)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Christian Democratic Appeal}}|border=silver}} [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] (14)
* {{Color box|{{party color|ChristianUnion}}|border=silver}} [[ChristianUnion|CU]] (5)
'''Opposition (73)'''
* {{Color box|{{party color|Party for Freedom}}|border=silver}} [[Party for Freedom|PVV]] (17)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Socialist Party (Netherlands)}}|border=silver}} [[Socialist Party (Netherlands)|SP]] (9)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Labour Party (Netherlands)}}|border=silver}} [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|PvdA]] (9)
* {{Color box|{{party color|GroenLinks}}|border=silver}} [[GroenLinks|GL]] (8)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Party for the Animals}}|border=silver}} [[Party for the Animals|PvdD]] (6)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Forum for Democracy}}|border=silver}} [[Forum for Democracy|FVD]] (5)
* {{Color box|{{party color|JA21}}|border=silver}} [[JA21]] (3)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Reformed Political Party}}|border=silver}} [[Reformed Political Party|SGP]] (3)
* {{Color box|{{party color|DENK (political party)}}|border=silver}} [[DENK (political party)|DENK]] (3)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Group Van Haga}}|border=silver}} [[BVNL (political party)|Group Van Haga]] (3)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Volt Netherlands}}|border=silver}} [[Volt Netherlands|Volt]] (2)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Farmer-Citizen Movement}}|border=silver}} [[Farmer-Citizen Movement|BBB]] (1)
* {{Color box|{{party color|BIJ1}}|border=silver}} [[BIJ1]] (1)
* {{Color box|{{party color|Independent}}|border=silver}} Independent (3)<ref>[[Liane den Haan]] (formerly 50+); [[Pieter Omtzigt]] (formerly CDA); [[Nilüfer Gündoğan]] (formerly Volt)</ref>

| committees1 =
| committees2 =
| joint_committees =
| voting_system1 = [[Indirect election]]
| voting_system2 = [[Party-list proportional representation]]
| last_election1 = [[2023 Dutch Senate election|31 May 2023]]
| last_election2 = [[2021 Dutch general election|17 March 2021]]
| session_room = Den Haag Binnenhof & Skyline 2.jpg
| session_res = 300px
| meeting_place = [[Binnenhof]] [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]
| website = {{url|staten-generaal.nl}}
| footnotes =
}}
The '''States General of the Netherlands''' ({{lang-nl|Staten-Generaal}} {{IPA-nl|ˌstaː.tə(n).ɣeː.nəˈraːl||Nl-Staten-Generaal.ogg}}) is the [[Parliamentary sovereignty|supreme]] [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[legislature]] of the [[Netherlands]] consisting of the [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]] ({{lang|nl|Eerste Kamer}}) and the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]] ({{lang|nl|Tweede Kamer}}). Both chambers meet at the [[Binnenhof]] in [[The Hague]].

The States General originated in the 15th century as an assembly of all the provincial states of the [[Burgundian Netherlands]]. In 1579, during the [[Dutch Revolt]], the States General split as the northern provinces openly rebelled against Philip II, and the northern States General replaced Philip II as the supreme authority of the [[Dutch Republic]] in 1581. The States General were replaced by the [[National Assembly of the Batavian Republic|National Assembly]] after the [[Batavian Revolution]] of 1795, only to be restored in 1814, when the country had regained its sovereignty. The States General was divided into a Senate and a House of Representatives in 1815, with the establishment of the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. After the constitutional amendment of 1848, members of the House of Representatives were directly elected, and the rights of the States General were vastly extended, practically establishing parliamentary democracy in the Netherlands.

Since 1918, the members of the House of Representatives are elected for four years using [[party-list proportional representation]], while the 75 members of the Senate are elected by the [[States-Provincial]] every four years. On exceptional occasions as stipulated by the [[Constitution of the Netherlands|Constitution]] or the [[Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands|Charter for the Kingdom]], the two houses form a joint session known as the United Assembly (''verenigde vergadering)''. The [[President of the Senate (Netherlands)|President of the Senate]] serves as President of the States General during a United Assembly. [[Jan Anthonie Bruijn]] ([[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]]) has been President of the Senate since 2019.

==Etymology==
The archaic Dutch word ''staten'' originally related to the feudal classes ("[[Estates of the realm|estates]]", or {{lang|nl|standen}} in Dutch) in which medieval European societies were stratified; the clergy, the nobility and the commons. The word eventually came to mean the ''political body'' in which the respective estates were represented. Each province in the [[Habsburg Netherlands]] had its own ''staten''. These representative bodies (and not their constituent estates)<ref>Unlike the [[Estates General (France)|Estates General of France]], which were organised by estate.</ref> in turn were represented in the assembly that came to be known as {{lang|nl|Staten-Generaal}} (a [[plurale tantum]]), or {{lang|nl|Algemene Staten}} (General States).<ref name=Koenigsberger>{{cite book|last=Koenigsberger|first=H.G.|title=Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments: The Netherlands in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge U.P.}}</ref>{{rp|5–15}} The English word "states" may have a similar meaning as the Dutch word ''staten'', as in e.g. [[States of Jersey]]. The English phrases "States General" is probably a literal translation of the Dutch word.<ref>In treaties, such as the [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)]], the States General were called:"Celsos Potentesque Dominos Ordines Generales Foederatarum Belgii Provinciarum", or "High and Mighty Lords States General of the united Netherlands' Provinces", where ''ordines'' corresponds with "states."</ref> Historically, the same term was used for the name of other national legislatures as, for example, the Catalan and Valencian [[Generalitat]] and the [[Estates General (France)|Estates General]] of France during the [[Ancien Régime]].

Several geographic place names are derived from the States General. In 1609, [[Henry Hudson]] established Dutch trade in [[Staten Island]], New York City and named the island {{lang|nl|Staaten Eylandt}} after the States General. [[Isla de los Estados]], now an [[List of islands of Argentina|Argentine island]], was also named after this institution, the Spanish name being a translation of the Dutch name. [[Abel Tasman]] originally gave the name [[Staten Landt]] to what would become New Zealand. [[Staaten River]] is a [[rivers of Australia|river]] in the [[Cape York Peninsula]], Australia.

==History==
===Burgundian and Habsburg rule===
Historically, the convocation of the States General consisted of delegates from the States of the several provinces, like the [[States of Brabant]], and dated from about the middle of the 15th century, under the rule of the [[Duchy of Burgundy|Dukes of Burgundy]]. The first important session was the [[Estates General of 1464]] that met on 9 January 1464 in [[Bruges]], [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], on the initiative of the [[States of Holland and West Friesland|States of Holland]], the [[States of Flanders]], and the [[States of Brabant]], with the initially reluctant agreement of [[Philip the Good]].<ref name=Koenigsberger />{{rp|31}} Later, regular sessions were held at [[Coudenberg]] in [[Brussels]], [[duchy of Brabant|Brabant]]. The next important event was the convocation of the States General by the ducal Council for 3 February 1477 after the death of [[Charles the Bold]]. In this session the States General forced the grant of the [[Great Privilege]] by [[Mary of Burgundy]] in which the right of the States General to convene on their own initiative was recognised.<ref name=Koenigsberger />{{rp|42ff.}} The main function of the States General in these early years was to form a platform for the central government to discuss matters of general importance with the States of the provinces, especially the special subsidies known as ''beden'' or ''aides''. Legislative and executive functions were still reserved for the Sovereign in these years<ref name=Koenigsberger />{{rp|29,35–36, 97}}

===Dutch Republic===
[[File:Great Assembly of the States-General in 1651 01.jpg|thumb|left|The Great Assembly of the States General in 1651.]]
At the start of the [[Dutch Revolt]] the States General (who were then not continually in session) remained loyal to the overlord of the [[Habsburg Netherlands]], [[Philip II of Spain]] (who did not have the title of King in the Netherlands, but held the title of duke and count in the several provinces, and was just a Lord of the Netherlands). In 1576 the States General as a whole, however, openly rebelled against the Spanish crown. In 1579 the States General split as a number of southern provinces, united in the [[Union of Arras]] returned to obedience, while other provinces, united in the [[Union of Utrecht]] continued the rebellion.<ref name=Koenigsberger />{{rp|260–268,288–296}} After the [[Act of Abjuration]] in 1581 the northern States General replaced Philip II as the supreme authority of the northern Netherlands, which then became known as the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]].

This was a [[confederation]] in which most government functions remained with the provincial States (and local authorities, like the [[Vroedschap]]pen). These delegated representatives to the States General as a kind of ambassadors acting with a mandate limited by instruction and obligatory consultation ({{lang|nl|last en ruggespraak}}). The States General, in which the voting was by province, each of the seven provinces having one vote,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Martin|first1=Kimberly|title=The Political Institutions of the Dutch Republic, 1572–1672|url=http://www1.umassd.edu/euro/2007papers/martin2.pdf|website=umassd.edu|publisher=University of Massachusetts Dartmouth|access-date=4 June 2014}}</ref> took on many executive functions after the [[Council of State of the Netherlands]] had temporarily come under English influence, due to the [[Treaty of Nonsuch]].<ref name=Koenigsberger />{{rp|305–315}}<ref name=Israel>{{cite book|last=Israel|first=Jonathan I.|title=The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477–1806|year=1998|publisher=Clarendon Press}}</ref>{{rp|293–294}} The States General for this reason since 1593 remained continually in session until their dissolution in 1795. The presidency rotated weekly among the senior representatives of the provinces. Under the Union of Utrecht treaty the States General formally was the sovereign power, representing the Republic in foreign affairs and making treaties with foreign monarchs.<ref name=Israel />{{rp|292–293}} As such the honorific title of the States General collectively was {{lang|nl|Hoogmogende Heren}} (mightiest, or very mighty, lords).<ref>''Hoogmogende'' ([[superlative]] of the adjective ''mogend(e)'') ''Heren'' was translated into Latin in international treaties not as ''potentissimos'' (superlative of ''potens'') ''Dominos'', as it should have been, but as ''Celsos Potentesque Dominos'', and the latter wording was rendered in English as "high and mighty lords", which is still the standard translation.</ref>

[[File:Binnenhof, The Hague -hu-1777.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Binnenhof]], seat of the ''Staten-Generaal'']]
Due to the vagaries of the [[Eighty Years' War]] in which territories were lost and (partially) reconquered, not all territories that had originally signed up for the Union of Utrecht remained represented in the States General. The [[States of Brabant]] and of [[States of Flanders|Flanders]] lost their representation after 1587 as most of their territory had been conquered by the [[Army of Flanders]], and it was not restored after part of that territory (together with parts of the [[Duchy of Limburg]]) was reconquered by the Dutch Republic. The [[Drenthe]] territory was never directly represented in the States General.
Twenty per cent of the new Republic's territory, known as the [[Generality Lands]], was so under the direct rule of the ''Generality'' ({{lang|nl|generaliteit}}).<ref name=Israel />{{rp|297–300}} The [[Dutch East India Company]] and the [[Dutch West India Company]] were also under its ''general'' supervision; for this reason [[Staten Island]] in New York City (originally [[New Amsterdam]]) and [[Staten Island, Argentina]] (Discovered by Dutchman [[Jacob le Maire]]), are among places named after the {{lang|nl|Staten-Generaal}}.

The "southern" States General after 1579 were a continuation of the States General as they had been under the Habsburg Netherlands. After the (re)conquest of most of the territory of the States of Brabant and of Flanders these States again sent representatives to these States General for the [[Southern Netherlands]], together with the "obedient" provinces of the Union of Arras. The southern States General only occasionally came in session, however. The last regular session was in 1634, when [[Philip IV of Spain]] dissolved them.<ref name=Koenigsberger />{{rp|315–321}}

The States General in both The Hague and Brussels came to an end after 1795; the South was annexed by France, and the North saw the proclamation of the [[Batavian Republic]] and the subsequent convocation of the National Assembly (1 March 1796).

===Kingdom of the Netherlands===
[[File:Delegatieoverleg Trêveszaal (7204300762).jpg|thumb|left|The Trêveszaal, where the Council of the Ministers takes place every week and foreign delegations are received]]
The name {{lang|nl|Staten-Generaal}} was resurrected in the title of subsequent Dutch parliaments in and after 1814, after the end of the annexation to the [[First French Empire]] by [[Napoleon I of France]] in 1813. These had, however, little resemblance to the States General under the Republic. Beginning with the Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands the States General was a [[unicameral]] legislature, without executive functions, in which the 55 representatives no longer represented the [[States-Provincial]] (though those newly constituted entities elected them, now acting as electoral colleges), but the entire people of the Netherlands and without {{lang|nl|last en ruggespraak}} (the Netherlands had become a [[unitary state]] under the Batavian Republic and the federal structure of the Dutch Republic was not restored).<ref name=Pot>{{cite book|last=Pot|first=C.W. van der|title=Van der Pot, Handboek van het Nederlandse staatsrecht, 15th edition|year=2006|publisher=Kluwer|display-authors=etal}}</ref>{{rp|136}} The States General became a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] legislature under the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] in 1815, in which the 50 members of the [[Senate (Netherlands)|Senate]] were appointed for life by the new King from the resurrected {{lang|nl|ridderschappen}}, representative bodies of the aristocracy, and the 110 members of the [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|House of Representatives]] (55 for the North and 55 for the South) were elected by the States-Provincial (in their new form).<ref name=Pot />{{rp|138}}

After the [[Belgian Revolution]] of 1830 under the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] the States General remained bicameral, but after the revision of the [[Constitution of the Netherlands]] in 1848, the (now 39) members of the Senate were elected by the States-Provincial, and the members of the House of Representatives were [[Direct election|directly elected]] in [[electoral district]]s (one for every 45,000 electors, so the number of members of that House became variable for a while). The House of Representatives became more powerful at the same time, as it received the important rights of inquiry and [[Amend (motion)|amendment]], while its budgetary rights were strengthened. Formally, the position of the States General was strengthened, because henceforth the ministers of the Crown became politically accountable to them, making the role of the King largely ceremonial.<ref name=Pot />{{rp|142–145}}

With the constitutional revision of 1888 the number of members of the House of Representatives was fixed at 100, while the Senate was enlarged to 50 members. The [[suffrage]] was enlarged at the same time, but still limited to male citizens possessing a certain wealth. Universal male suffrage would be granted in 1917 and women would receive suffrage in 1919. At this occasion, the electoral system was changed to [[proportional representation]]. The States General were suspended from 1940 to 1945, during the [[History of the Netherlands (1939–1945)#German occupation|German occupation]]. In 1956 the number of members of the Senate was enlarged to 75, and that of the House of Representatives to 150.<ref name=Pot />{{rp|151,153–155, 329}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="180px">
File:Algemene Politieke Beschouwingen in Eerste Kamer (10553669036).jpg|The [[Senate (Netherlands)|Dutch Senate]] ''(Eerste Kamer)''
File:Tweede Kamer 2.jpg|The [[House of Representatives (Netherlands)|Dutch House of Representatives]] ''(Tweede Kamer)''
</gallery>

==Functions==
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|-
| '''[[Tweede Kamer]]'''
* 150 members
* elected directly in general elections
* term of office: 4 years
|| '''[[Eerste Kamer]]'''
* 75 members
* elected indirectly through [[Provincial council (Netherlands)|provincial councils]]
* term 4 years
|-
| colspan="2" align="center"| '''Verenigde Vergadering'''
(joint session of both houses)
|}

[[File:Koning Willem-Alexander spreekt de Troonrede 2015 uit in de Ridderzaal.webm|thumb|[[Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands|King Willem-Alexander]] giving the annual speech from the throne in the [[Ridderzaal]], 2015]]
{{Politics of the Netherlands}}
The States General meets in joint session at least once a year, at the opening of the parliamentary year, when the [[Dutch Monarchy|king]] gives his [[Speech from the Throne]] on [[Prinsjesdag|Prince's Day]]. On special occasions, such as when a States Generate vote on a marriage of a member of the royal house, an [[Inauguration of the Dutch monarch|inauguration of the monarch]], or the death of a member of the royal house, both houses also meet in a joint session ({{lang|nl|Verenigde Vergadering}}), with the President of the Senate presiding. They take place in the [[Ridderzaal]] (Hall of Knights) in the Binnenhof, except for the [[inauguration]] of the monarch, which occurs in the [[Nieuwe Kerk (Amsterdam)|Nieuwe Kerk]] in [[Amsterdam]]. The rest of the time, the two chambers sit separately.

Constitutionally, all functions of the parliament are given to both houses, except for the rights of initiative and amendment, which only the {{lang|nl|Tweede Kamer}} has. The Joint Session also appoints the monarch if there is no heir to the throne and the regent is unable to exercise his or her powers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.houseofrepresentatives.nl/how-parliament-works/democracy-netherlands|title=Democracy in the Netherlands|website=www.houseofrepresentatives.nl}}</ref>

An important question is whether the relationship between cabinet and parliament should be [[dualism (politics)|dualistic]] or monistic. That is, whether ministers and leaders of governing parliamentary parties should prepare important political decisions. According to the dualistic position, members of parliament of governing parties should remain independent of the cabinet. The term 'monism' is used to refer to a stance that important decisions should be prepared by the people of the governing coalition in order to promote political stability.

==Oldest living members of the States General==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! № !! Name !! Born !! Party !! House of Representatives tenure !! Senate tenure !! Combined tenure !! Cabinet position !! Source
|-
|-
| 1 || Ton van Baars || {{Birth date and age|1922|03|06|df=y}} || [[Catholic People's Party]] || 15 April 1980 – 10 June 1981 ({{age in years and days|1980|04|15|1981|06|10}}) 19 January 1982 – 3 June 1986 ({{age in years and days|1982|01|19|1986|06|03}}) || || 5 years, 191 days || || <ref>{{in lang|nl}} [https://www.parlement.com/id/vg09llmyz6z2/a_w_b_ton_van_baars Drs. A.W.B. (Ton) van Baars] Parlement & Politiek</ref>
|-
| 2 || [[Jan Reehorst]] || {{Birth date and age|1923|03|21|df=y}} || [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|Labour Party]] || 23 October 1956 – 21 February 1967 ({{age in years and days|1956|10|23|1967|02|21}}) || || || || <ref>{{in lang|nl}} [https://www.parlement.com/id/vg09ll5oibya/j_jan_reehorst J. (Jan) Reehorst] Parlement & Politiek</ref>
|-
| 3 || André Mensert Spaanderman || {{Birth date and age|1924|10|10|df=y}} || [[Democratic Socialists '70]] || 11 May 1971 – 7 July 1971 ({{age in years and days|1971|05|11|1971|07|07}}) || || || || <ref>{{in lang|nl}} [https://www.parlement.com/id/vg09llhkksy2/a_p_andre_mensert_spaanderman Mr. A.P. (André) Mensert Spaanderman] Parlement & Politiek</ref>
|-
| 4 || Johan Visser || {{Birth date and age|1925|10|28|df=y}} || [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|Labour Party]] || || 5 March 1968 – 10 May 1971 ({{age in years and days|1968|03|05|1971|05|10}}) || || || <ref>{{in lang|nl}} [https://www.parlement.com/id/vg09llhe5uxu/j_johan_visser Ir. J. (Johan) Visser] Parlement & Politiek</ref>
|-
|}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Netherlands |volume=19 |pages=413–421 |first=George |last=Edmundson}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.parlement.nl/}}
**[http://www.eerstekamer.nl/begrip/english_2/ Senate]
**[http://www.houseofrepresentatives.nl/ House of Representatives]

{{Netherlands topics}}
{{National bicameral legislatures}}
{{Parliaments in Europe}}
{{coord|52.0796|N|4.3130|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

[[Category:States General of the Netherlands| ]]
[[Category:Dutch political institutions]]
[[Category:Government of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Political history of the Dutch Republic]]
[[Category:Habsburg Netherlands]]
[[Category:Bicameral legislatures|Netherlands]]
[[Category:National legislatures|Netherlands]]
[[Category:Courts and councils in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands]]

[[tk:Gollandiýanyň döwletleri]]

Voice vote

2022-02-20T02:41:03Z

Deepaksuhag: Created an enlightening write-up.

{{Short description|Manner of voting in parliamentary bodies}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
In [[parliamentary procedure]], a '''voice vote''' (from the Latin ''viva voce'', meaning "by live voice") or '''acclamation''' is a [[Voting methods in deliberative assemblies|voting method in deliberative assemblies]] (such as [[legislature]]s) in which a group [[vote]] is taken on a topic or [[Motion (parliamentary procedure)|motion]] by responding vocally.

The voice vote is considered the simplest and quickest of voting methods used by [[Deliberative assembly|deliberative assemblies]]. The [[Chair (official)|presiding officer or chair]] of the assembly will put the question to the assembly, asking first for all those in favor of the motion to indicate so orally ("aye" or "yea"), and then ask second all those opposed to the motion to indicate so verbally ("no" or "nay").<ref>Gregory Koger, ''Filibustering: A Political History of Obstruction in the House and Senate'' (2010), University of Chicago Press, p. 18.</ref><ref>Hartley R. Nathan, ''Nathan's Company Meetings Including Rules of Order'' (6th ed. 2005), CCH Canadian.</ref> The chair will then make an estimate of the count on each side and state what they believe the result to be.

Voice votes have inherent disadvantages and the method has major shortfalls in close contests. The volume of the voices are typically only estimated and not actually measured with [[sound level meter]]s, giving a chair enough [[plausible deniability]] to falsify the result if they disagree with it; even if such a vote can be objectively quantified in terms of [[decibel]]s, the method gives an unfair advantage to those who have louder voices. The need to make an audible signal also compromises any situation in which a [[secret ballot]] may be desired. The method is suitable in most cases where unanimity is required. If there is any doubt as to the outcome, any member of the assembly may request another vote by a method such as [[division of the assembly]] (a standing or rising vote), or a [[roll call vote]]. Voice votes are usually not [[recorded vote|recorded]], but sometimes are.

Voice votes are also used in non-governmental settings, such as [[Battle of the Bands|battles of the bands]] and [[spectator sport]]s where a [[most valuable player]], [[Man of the Match]] or Best in Show award is chosen by the audience.

== Ancient Greece ==
Methods of voice voting were employed in [[ancient Greece]] as early as seventh century BC. The election of the members of the [[Gerousia]], [[Sparta]]'s Council of Elders, was conducted by shouting.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook on Approval Voting|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookonapprov00lasl|url-access=limited|last=Girard|first=Charles|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=9783642028380|editor-last=Laslier|editor-first=Jean-François|series=Studies in Choice and Welfare|pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookonapprov00lasl/page/n33 15]–17|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-02839-7_2|editor-last2=Sanver|editor-first2=M. Remzi|chapter = Acclamation Voting in Sparta: An Early Use of Approval Voting|s2cid=150891267 }}</ref> From the assembly, few persons were selected and locked up in a room close to the election, so that they could only hear the noise of the audience, but not see the candidate put to vote. The candidates were then presented to the assembly one after another without speaking a word. The favor of the assembly towards one candidate was assessed by the selected persons who established a ranking of all candidates with respect to the loudness of the assembly. Those candidates who have received the most and loudest acclamations were eventually elected.

==Australia==
Members vote by saying "aye" or "no", and the Speaker of the House (or President of the Senate) judges the result. If two or more members demand a recorded vote, one must be held.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.peo.gov.au/learning/fact-sheets/voting-in-the-chambers.html |title=Voting in the Chambers {{!}} Learning {{!}} Parliamentary Education Office (vote,division,voting,parliament,chamber) |website=www.peo.gov.au |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211202029/http://www.peo.gov.au/learning/fact-sheets/voting-in-the-chambers.html |archive-date=2014-02-11}} </ref>

==Canada==
Members vote by saying "yea" or "nay", and the Speaker judges the mood of the House. If five or more members demand a recorded vote, one must be held.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ourcommons.ca/About/Compendium/DebateandVoting/c_d_voicevotes-e.htm|title=Voice Votes - Compendium of Procedure - House of Commons|website=www.ourcommons.ca}}</ref>

==New Zealand==
The initial decision on any question is by voice vote, members saying "aye" or "no", and the Speaker declaring which side has won. Members of the losing side (or abstainers), but not supporters of the side declared to have won, are entitled to demand a formal test of opinion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/parliamentary-practice-in-new-zealand/chapter-17-voting/|title=Chapter 17 Voting - New Zealand Parliament|website=www.parliament.nz}}</ref>

==India==
The voice vote (ध्वनि मत) is used in the [[Lok Sabha]], the [[Rajya Sabha]]<ref>{{cite news| title=Ayes vs Noes: How voice voting in Parliament works|
url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/politics/ayes-vs-noes-how-voice-voting-in-parliament-works-5871181.html | website=MoneyControl| date=22 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Parliament voting: Ayes vs noes, and road from manual to electronic recording
|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/parliament-voting-ayes-vs-noes-and-road-from-manual-to-electronic-recording-5797834/}}</ref> and state assemblies to vote for certain resolutions. It is used when there is a wide agreement on issues and in some cases where the house is not in order. It was used during the formation of the Indian state of [[Telangana]] in 2014.

On 20 September 2020, the Rajya Sabha passed the Farmers' Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Bill and Farmers (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement on Price Assurance and Farm Services Bill by voice vote, wherein the opposition parties alleged that the Deputy Speaker of the Rajya Sabha has abused the provision of the voice vote<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shekhar|first=Anubhav|title=How Voting to Pass Farm Bills Was a Vote to Silence the Voices|url=https://www.theleaflet.in/how-voting-to-pass-farm-bills-was-a-vote-to-silence-the-voices/|url-status=live|website=The Leaflet}}</ref> and declared both the bills to be passed despite the opposition parties asking for [[Division of the assembly|division of the votes]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dinesh |first1=Singh Rawat |title=Explained: The Global Democratic Experience of Voting by The Voice Vote |url=https://abclive.in/explained-the-global-democratic-experience-of-voting-by-the-voice-vote/ |access-date=28 September 2020 |issue=Online |publisher=ABC Live India}}</ref>

==United Kingdom==
A voice vote is held to decide if a bill can progress through to the next stage.

[[Speaker (politics)#United Kingdom|The Speaker of the House of Commons]] will then propose the question by saying, for example (second reading): "The Question is, that the Bill be now read a second time". The Speaker then invites supporters of the bill to say "aye" and then opponents say "no": "As many as are of that opinion say 'aye' [supporters say 'aye'], of the contrary 'no' [opponents say 'no']". In what is known as ''collecting the voices'' the Speaker makes a judgement as to the louder cry. A clear majority either way will prompt the response "I think the Ayes/Noes have it. The Ayes/Noes have it!" (this can be forced to a [[Division (vote)|division]] by continued cries either way). If the result is at all in doubt a division will be called and the speaker will say "Division, Clear the Lobbies!"

In the [[House of Lords]], the [[Lord Speaker]] will propose the question by saying, for example (second reading): "The Question is, that the Bill be now read a second time". The Lord Speaker then does similarly to the Commons Speaker, by saying, "As many as are of that opinion say 'Content' [supporters say 'Content'] and of the contrary 'Not Content' [opponents say 'Not Content]." The Lord Speaker then decides. In the result of a division, the Lord Speaker will say "Division. Clear the Bar".

==United States==
''[[Robert's Rules of Order|Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised]]'' (11th edition) provides that:
{{blockquote|A vote by voice is the regular method of voting on any motion that does not require more than a majority vote for its adoption. In taking a voice vote, the chair puts the question by saying, "The question is on the adoption of the motion to [or "that"] ... [repeating or clearly identifying the motion]. Those in favor of the motion, say ''aye''. [Pausing for response,] Those opposed, say ''no''." (Alternative forms are: "All those in favor..."; "All in favor..."; or the wording formerly prescribed by [[United States Congress|Congress]], "As many as are in favor...") In the case of a [[Resolution (law)|resolution]], the question may be put as follows: "The question is on the adoption of the following resolution: [reading it]. Those in favor of adopting the resolution that was just read, say ''aye''...Those opposed, say ''no''." If the question has been read very recently and there appears no desire to have it read again, the chair may use this form: "The question is on the adoption of the resolution last read. "Those in favor of adopting the resolution, say ''aye''...Those opposed, say ''no''."<ref>{{Cite book|title = Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised|last = Robert|first = Henry M.|publisher = Da Capo Press|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0-306-82020-5|location = Philadelphia, PA|pages = 45–46|edition = 11th|display-authors = etal}}</ref>}}

In Congress, "the vast majority of actions decided by a voice vote" are ones for which "a strong or even overwhelming majority favors one side," or even [[unanimous consent]]. Members can request a [[division of the assembly]] (a rising vote, where each sides rise in turn to be counted), and one-fifth of members can demand a [[recorded vote]] on any question, after the chair announces the result of a voice vote.<ref>Mark A. Smith, ''American Business and Political Power: Public Opinion, Elections, and Democracy'' (2000), University of Chicago Press, pp. 65-68.</ref>

It is estimated that more than 95 percent of the resolutions passed by [[State legislature (United States)|state legislatures]] are passed by a unanimous voice vote, many without discussion; this is because resolutions are often on routine, noncontroversial matters, such as commemorating important events or recognizing groups.<ref>Thomas H. Little and David B. Ogle, ''The Legislative Branch of State Government: People, Process, and Politics'' (2006), ABC CLIO, pp. 43-44.</ref>

==Other methods==
* [[Humming]] is used as a voice vote method at the [[IETF|IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)]] to estimate the participants' positions on some issues.<ref>{{Cite journal
| url = https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7282
| title = On Consensus and Humming in the IETF
| last = Resnick
| first = Pete
| website = tools.ietf.org
| date = June 2014
| doi = 10.17487/RFC7282
| access-date = 2016-02-25
}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Voting methods in deliberative assemblies]]
* [[Acclamation]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Voice Vote}}
[[Category:Parliamentary procedure]]

[[sv:Acklamation]]