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Piracy

2026-05-20T21:06:37Z

DeangeloSchwing: put up some details v1

{{Short description|Acts of robbery or criminality at sea}}
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[[File:Flag of Edward England.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The traditional "[[Jolly Roger]]" flag of piracy]]

'''Piracy''' is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically intending to steal cargo and valuable goods, or take [[hostage]]s. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called '''pirates''', and vessels used for piracy are called '''pirate ships'''. The earliest documented instances of piracy date to the 14th century BC, when the [[Sea Peoples]], a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the [[Aegean civilization|Aegean]] and [[Mediterranean]] civilisations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy,<ref>{{cite book|last1= Pennell|first1= C. R.|chapter= The Geography of Piracy: Northern Morocco in the Mod-Nineteenth Century|editor1-last= Pennell|editor1-first= C. R.|title= Bandits at Sea: A Pirates Reader|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uB7ODGowJ3AC|publisher= NYU Press|date=2001|page= 56 |isbn=978-0-8147-6678-1|quote= Sea raiders [...] were most active where the maritime environment gave them most opportunity. Narrow straits, which funneled shipping into places where [[ambush]] was easy, and escape less chancy, called the pirates into certain areas.}}</ref> as well as for [[privateer]]ing and [[commerce raiding]].

Historic examples of such areas include the waters of [[Gibraltar]], the [[Piracy in the Strait of Malacca|Strait of Malacca]], [[Madagascar]], the [[Piracy off the coast of Somalia|Gulf of Aden]], and the [[English Channel]], whose geographic structures facilitated pirate attacks.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Heebøll-Holm|first1= Thomas|author-link1= Thomas Heebøll-Holm|title= Ports, Piracy and Maritime War: Piracy in the English Channel and the Atlantic, c. 1280–c. 1330|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jw7OWyAN--QC|series= Medieval Law and Its Practice|location= Leiden|publisher= Brill|date= 2013|page= 67|isbn= 978-90-04-24816-8|quote= [...] through their extensive piracies the Portsmen [of the Cinque Ports] were experts in predatory actions at sea. [...] Furthermore, the geostrategic location of the [Cinque] Ports on the English coast closest to the Continent meant that the Ports [...] could effectively control the Narrow Seas.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tedxtalks.ted.com/video/What-is-Piracy-Jean-Philippe-Ve|title=TEDx Talk: What is Piracy?|access-date=October 23, 2014|archive-date=June 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618142442/http://tedxtalks.ted.com/video/What-is-Piracy-Jean-Philippe-Ve|url-status=live}}</ref> The term ''piracy'' generally refers to maritime piracy, although the term has been generalized to refer to acts committed on land,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arquilla |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XzzBvVpXXJsC |title=Insurgents, Raiders, and Bandits: How Masters of Irregular Warfare Have Shaped Our World |date=2011 |publisher=Ivan R. Dee |isbn=978-1-56663-908-8 |page=242 |quote=From ancient high seas pirates to 'road agents' and a host of other bush and mountain pass brigands, bandits have been with us for ages. |author-link1=John Arquilla |access-date=March 5, 2015 |archive-date=January 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112023509/https://books.google.com/books?id=XzzBvVpXXJsC |url-status=live }}</ref> in the air, on [[Cyberspace|computer networks]], and (in science fiction) outer space. Piracy usually excludes crimes committed by the perpetrator on their own vessel (e.g., theft) as well as [[privateer]]ing, which implies [[Letter of marque|authorization by a state government]].

Piracy, or pirating, is the name of a specific crime under [[customary international law]] and also of many crimes under the municipal law of many states. [[Piracy in the 21st century|In the 21st century]], seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue, with estimated worldwide losses of US$25 billion in 2023,<ref name="Assessment of global shipping risk">{{cite journal |title=Assessment of global shipping risk caused by maritime piracy |journal=Heliyon |date=October 14, 2023 |volume=9 |issue=10 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20988|doi-access=free |last1=He |first1=Zhaoyang |last2=Wang |first2=Chengjin |last3=Gao |first3=Jianbo |last4=Xie |first4=Yongshun |article-number=e20988 |pmid=37916124 |bibcode=2023Heliy...920988H |pmc=10616333 | issn=2405-8440}}</ref> increased from US$16 billion in 2004.<ref name="foreignaffairs.org">{{cite journal |last1=Luft |first1=Gal |last2=Korin |first2=Anne |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20041101faessay83606/gal-luft-anne-korin/terrorism-goes-to-sea.html |journal=Foreign Affairs | title=Terrorism Goes to Sea |date=November 2004 |volume=83 |issue=6 |pages=61–71 |doi=10.2307/20034137 |jstor=20034137 |access-date=December 8, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214040613/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20041101faessay83606/gal-luft-anne-korin/terrorism-goes-to-sea.html |archive-date=December 14, 2007 }}</ref>

The waters between the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Indian Ocean]], off the [[Piracy off the coast of Somalia|Somali coast]] and in the [[Strait of Malacca]] and [[Piracy and armed robbery in the Singapore Strait|Singapore]] have frequently been targeted by modern pirates armed with automatic firearms and occasionally explosive weaponry. They often use small motorboats to attack and board ships, a tactic that exploits the limited crew sizes on modern cargo and transport vessels. The [[international community]] is facing many challenges in bringing modern pirates to [[justice]], as these attacks often occur in [[international waters]].<ref>{{cite news |first=M.Chiarugi |last=D.Archibugi |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/piracy-challenges-global-governance |title=Piracy challenges global governance |date=April 9, 2009 |access-date=April 9, 2009 |publisher=[[openDemocracy]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412063756/http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/piracy-challenges-global-governance |archive-date=April 12, 2009 }}</ref> Nations have used their [[naval forces]] to repel and pursue pirates, and some private vessels use armed security guards, high-pressure [[water cannon]]s, or [[sound cannon]]s to repel boarders, and use [[radar]] to avoid potential threats.

Romanticised accounts of piracy during the [[Age of Sail]] have long been a part of Western [[pop culture]]. The two-volume ''[[A General History of the Pyrates]]'', published in London in 1724, is generally credited with bringing key piratical figures and a semi-accurate description of their milieu in the "[[Golden Age of Piracy]]" to the public's imagination. ''A General History'' inspired and informed many later fictional depictions of piracy, most notably the novels ''[[Treasure Island]]'' (1883) and ''[[Peter and Wendy|Peter Pan]]'' (1911), both of which have been adapted and readapted for stage, film, television, and other media across over a century. More recently, pirates of the "golden age" were further stereotyped and popularized by the ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean (film series)|Pirates of the Caribbean]]'' film franchise, which began in 2003.

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==Etymology==
The English word "pirate" is derived from the [[Latin]] ''pirata'' ("pirate, corsair, sea robber"), which comes from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] πειρατής (''peiratēs''), "brigand",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2380356 Peirates, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081057/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2380356&redirect=true |date=December 26, 2022 }}.</ref> from πειράομαι (peiráomai), "I attempt", from πεῖρα (''peîra''), "attempt, experience".<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2380341 Peira, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081031/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2380341&redirect=true |date=December 26, 2022 }}.</ref> The meaning of the Greek word ''peiratēs'' literally is "anyone who attempts something". Over time, it came to be used to describe anyone who committed robbery or brigandage on land or at sea.<ref>Janice J. Gabbert, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/643254 'Piracy in the Early Hellenistic Period: A Career Open to Talents,'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811163856/https://www.jstor.org/stable/643254 |date=August 11, 2022 }} [[Greece & Rome]], October 1986, Vol. 33, No. 2 pp. 156–163, p.157.</ref> The term first appeared in English {{circa}} 1300.<ref name="Online Etymology Dictionary">{{cite web |url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=pirate&searchmode=none |title= Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher= Etymonline.com |access-date= December 18, 2008 |archive-date= January 16, 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090116231058/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=pirate&searchmode=none |url-status= live }}</ref> Spelling did not become standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as "pirrot", "pyrate" and "pyrat" occurred until this period.<ref>
{{OED|pirate}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=pyrate&searchmode=none
|title= Online Etymology Dictionary
|publisher= Etymonline.com
|access-date= July 12, 2014
|archive-date= July 14, 2014
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140714201629/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=pyrate&searchmode=none
|url-status= live
}}</ref>

==History==
{{For timeline|Timeline of piracy}}{{Split section|History of piracy|date=October 2025}}

===Europe===

====Antiquity====

{{Further|Ancient Mediterranean piracy}}
[[File:Romtrireme.jpg|thumb|A [[mosaic]] of a [[Trireme|Roman trireme]] in Tunisia]]
The earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the [[Sea People]] who threatened ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean in the 14th century BC. In [[classical antiquity]], the [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Illyrians]] and [[Tyrrhenians]] were known as pirates. In the pre-classical era, the [[ancient Greeks]] condoned piracy as a viable profession; it apparently was widespread and "regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living".<ref name=mol>Møller, Bjørn. "Piracy, Maritime Terrorism and Naval Strategy." Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies, November 16, 2008. 10.</ref> References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence in many texts, including Homer's ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'', and abduction of women and children to be sold into slavery was common. By the era of [[Classical Greece]], piracy was looked upon as a "disgrace" to have as a profession.<ref name=mol/><ref>[[Thucydides]] wrote: "For in early times the Hellenes and the barbarians of the coast and islands, as communication by sea became more common, were tempted to turn pirate...indeed, this came to be the main source of their livelihood, no disgrace being yet attached to such an achievement, but even some glory."</ref>

In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on [[Olympus (Lycia)|Olympus]] in [[Lycia]] brought impoverishment. Among the most famous ancient pirating peoples were the Illyrians, who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula. Constantly raiding the [[Adriatic Sea]], the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the [[Roman Republic]]. It was not until 229 BC when the Romans decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended.<ref name="WardHeichelheim2016">{{cite book|author1=Allen M. Ward|author2=Fritz M. Heichelheim|author3=Cedric A. Yeo|title=History of the Roman People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Q83DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|date= 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-51120-7|page=100}}</ref> During the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the Anatolian coast, threatening the commerce of the [[Roman Empire]] in the eastern Mediterranean. On one voyage across the [[Aegean Sea]] in 75 BC,<ref>Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (''Julius'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#4 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081027/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius%2A.html#4 |date=December 26, 2022 }}). Plutarch (''Caesar'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1.8 1.8–2] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20180213130122/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/caesar%2A.html#1.8 |date=February 13, 2018 }}) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#41.3 2:41.3–42] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220731043323/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B%2A.html#41.3 |date=July 31, 2022 }} says merely that it happened when he was a young man.</ref> [[Julius Caesar]] was kidnapped and briefly held by [[Cilician]] pirates and held prisoner in the [[Dodecanese]] islet of [[Pharmacusa]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 1–2.</ref> The Senate invested the general [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] with powers to deal with piracy in 67 BC (the ''[[Lex Gabinia]]''), and Pompey, after three months of naval warfare, [[Pompey#Campaign against the pirates|managed to suppress the threat]].

As early as 258 AD, the [[Goths|Gothic]]-[[Heruli]]c fleet ravaged towns on the coasts of the [[Black Sea]] and [[Sea of Marmara]]. The Aegean coast suffered similar attacks a few years later. In 264, the Goths reached [[Galatia]] and [[Cappadocia]], and Gothic pirates landed on Cyprus and [[Crete]]. In the process, the Goths seized enormous booty and took thousands into captivity.{{Citation needed|date=May 2015}} In 286 AD, [[Carausius]], a Roman military commander of Gaulish origins, was appointed to command the ''[[Classis Britannica]]'', and given the responsibility of eliminating [[Franks|Frankish]] and [[Saxon]] pirates who had been raiding the coasts of [[Armorica]] and Belgic [[Gaul]]. In the Roman province of Britannia, [[Saint Patrick]] was captured and enslaved by Irish pirates.

====Middle Ages====

[[File:Viking invasion (Pierpont Morgan Library MS M.736, folio 9v) crop.jpg|thumb|right|A fleet of [[Vikings]], painted mid-12th century]]
The most widely recognized and far-reaching pirates in medieval Europe were the [[Vikings]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Golden Age of Piracy|url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/golden-age-piracy|access-date=October 13, 2021|website=Royal Museums Greenwich |language=en|archive-date=October 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027024113/https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/golden-age-piracy|url-status=live}}</ref> seaborne warriors from [[Scandinavia]] who raided and looted mainly between the 8th and 12th centuries, during the [[Viking Age]] in the [[Early Middle Ages]]. They raided the coasts, rivers, and inland cities of all Western Europe as far as [[Seville]], which was attacked by the Norse in 844. Vikings also attacked the coasts of North Africa and Italy and plundered all the coasts of the [[Baltic Sea]]. Some Vikings ascended the rivers of Eastern Europe as far as the Black Sea and Persia.

In the Late Middle Ages, the [[Frisians|Frisian]] pirates known as [[Arumer Zwarte Hoop]] led by [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] and [[Wijerd Jelckama]], fought against the troops of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] with some success.

Toward the end of the 9th century, Moorish pirate havens were established along the coast of southern France and northern Italy.<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010622192246/http://www.geocities.com/athens/troy/4040/pirates.htm |archive-date=June 22, 2001 |title=The Pirates of St. Tropez |url=http://www.geocities.com/athens/troy/4040/pirates.htm |first1=Robert W. Jr. |last1=Lebling |website=The Empty Quarter }}</ref> In 846 Moor raiders [[Arab raid against Rome|sacked]] the ''extra muros'' Basilicas of [[Old saint peter's basilica|Saint Peter]] and [[Saint Paul Outside the Walls|Saint Paul]] in Rome. In 911, the bishop of [[Narbonne]] was unable to return to France from Rome because the Moors from [[Fraxinet]] controlled all the passes in the [[Alps]]. Moor pirates operated out of the [[Balearic Islands]] in the 10th century. From 824 to 961, [[Arab]] pirates in the [[Emirate of Crete]] raided the entire Mediterranean. In the 14th century, raids by Moorish pirates forced the Venetian Duke of Crete to ask the [[Republic of Venice]] to keep its fleet on constant guard.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}}

After the [[Slavs|Slavic]] invasions of the former [[Roman province of Dalmatia]] in the 5th and 6th centuries, a tribe called the [[Narentines]] revived the old Illyrian piratical practices and often raided the Adriatic Sea from the 7th century onward. Their raids in the Adriatic increased rapidly, until the whole Sea was no longer safe for travel.

The Narentines took more liberties in their raiding quests while the Venetian Navy was abroad, as when it was campaigning in Sicilian waters in 827–882. As soon as the Venetian fleet returned to the Adriatic, the Narentines reverted to their habits, even signing a Treaty in Venice and baptising their Slavic pagan leader into Christianity. In 834 or 835, they broke the treaty, and again they raided Venetian traders returning from Benevento. All of Venice's military attempts to punish them in 839 and 840 utterly failed.

Later, they raided the Venetians more often, together with the [[Arabs]]. In 846, the Narentines broke through to Venice itself and raided its lagoon city of [[Caorle]]. This led to a Byzantine military campaign against them, which brought Christianity to them. After the [[Caliphate|Arab]] raids on the [[Adriatic coast]] circa 872 and the Imperial Navy's retreat, the Narentines continued their raids on Venetian waters, leading to new conflicts with the Italians in 887–888. The Venetians futilely continued to fight them throughout the 10th and 11th centuries.

[[Domagoj of Croatia|Domagoj]] was accused of attacking a ship which was bringing home the papal legates who had participated in [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic)|the Eighth Catholic Ecumenical Council]], after which [[Pope John VIII]] addressed Domagoj with a request that his pirates stop attacking Christians at sea.<ref>Vedran Duančić; (2008) ''Hrvatska između Bizanta i Franačke'' (in Croatian) p. 17; [https://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=82757] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113054932/https://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=82757|date=November 13, 2020}}</ref><ref>Maddalena Betti; (2013) ''The Making of Christian Moravia (858–882): Papal Power and Political Reality'' p. 129; Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|900421187X}}</ref>

[[File:Vitalienbrueder.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The Vitalienbrüder. Piracy became endemic in the [[Baltic Sea]] in the [[Middle Ages]] because of the [[Victual Brothers]].]]
In 937, Irish pirates sided with the Scots, Vikings, [[Picts]], and Welsh in their invasion of England. [[Athelstan]] drove them back.

The [[Baltic Slavic piracy|Slavic piracy]] in the Baltic Sea ended with the [[Siege of Arkona|Danish conquest]] of the [[Rani (Slavic tribe)|Rani]] stronghold of [[Cape Arkona|Arkona]] in 1168. In the 12th century, the coasts of western Scandinavia were plundered by [[Curonians]] and [[Oeselians]] from the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. In the 13th and 14th centuries, pirates threatened the [[Hanseatic]] routes and nearly brought sea trade to the brink of extinction. The [[Victual Brothers]] of [[Gotland]] were a companionship of privateers who later turned to piracy as the [[Likedeelers]]. They were especially noted for their leaders [[Klaus Störtebeker]] and [[Gödeke Michels]]. Until about 1440, maritime trade in both the [[North Sea]], the Baltic Sea, and the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] was seriously in danger of attack by pirates.

H. Thomas Milhorn mentions a certain Englishman named William Maurice, convicted of piracy in 1241, as the first person known to have been [[hanged, drawn and quartered]],<ref>H Thomas Milhorn, ''Crime: Computer Viruses to Twin Towers'', Universal Publishers, 2004. {{ISBN|1-58112-489-9}}.</ref> which would indicate that the then-ruling King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] took an especially severe view of this crime.

The [[ushkuiniks]] were [[Novgorod]]ian pirates who looted the cities on the [[Volga]] and [[Kama]] Rivers in the 14th century.

[[File:Cotes de la Mer Noire. Cosaques d'Azof abordant un corsaire Turc. (1847).jpg|thumb|''Cossacks of Azov fighting a Turk ship'' by [[Grigory Gagarin]]]]
As early as [[Byzantine]] times, the [[Maniots]] (one of Greece's toughest populations) were known as pirates. The Maniots considered piracy a legitimate response to their land's poverty, and it became their main source of income. The main victims of Maniot pirates were the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], but the Maniots also targeted ships of European countries.

[[Zaporizhian Sich]] was a pirate republic in Europe from the 16th through to the 18th century. Situated in [[Cossack]] territory in the remote [[Eurasian Steppe|steppe]] of Eastern Europe, it was populated with Ukrainian peasants who had run away from their feudal masters, outlaws, destitute gentry, run-away slaves from Turkish [[galleys]], etc. The remoteness of the place and the rapids of the [[Dnieper]] river effectively guarded it against invasions by vengeful powers.

The main target of the inhabitants of the Zaporizhian Sich who called themselves "Cossacks", were rich settlements at the Black Sea shores of Ottoman Empire and [[Crimean Khanate]].{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} By 1615 and 1625, [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] had even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of [[Istanbul]], forcing the [[Ottoman Sultan]] to flee his palace.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} [[Don Cossacks]] under [[Stenka Razin]] even ravaged the Persian coasts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cindyvallar.com/razin.html|title=Pirates & Privateers: The History of Maritime Piracy |author=Stepan Razin|website=www.cindyvallar.com|access-date=August 28, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805222255/http://www.cindyvallar.com/razin.html|archive-date=August 5, 2007}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=November 2015}}

====Mediterranean corsairs====

{{see also|Barbary pirates|Albanian piracy}}
[[File:A French Ship and Barbary Pirates (c 1615) by Aert Anthoniszoon.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|A French ship under attack by Barbary pirates, ca. 1615]]
Though less famous and romanticized than Atlantic or Caribbean pirates, corsairs in the [[Mediterranean]] were equal to or outnumbered the former at any given point in history.<ref name="Earle 2003, p. 89">Earle (2003), p. 89</ref> Mediterranean piracy was conducted almost entirely with galleys until the mid-17th century, when they were gradually replaced with highly maneuverable sailing vessels such as [[xebec]]s and [[brigantine]]s. They were of a smaller type than battle galleys, often referred to as [[galiot]]s or [[fusta]]s.<ref>Guilmartin (1974), pp. 217–219</ref>

Pirate galleys were small, nimble, lightly armed, but often crewed in large numbers to overwhelm the often minimal crews of merchant ships. In general, pirate craft were extremely difficult for patrolling craft actually to hunt down and capture. [[Anne Hilarion de Tourville]], a French admiral of the 17th century, believed that the only way to run down raiders from the infamous corsair Moroccan port of [[Salé]] was by using a captured pirate vessel of the same type.<ref>Earle (2003), p. 45</ref>
[[File:Debarquement et maltraitement de prisonniers a alger.JPG|thumb|Barbary pirates were involved in the [[Barbary slave trade]] in North Africa]]
Using oared vessels to combat pirates was common, even among the major powers in the Caribbean. Purpose-built galleys, or hybrid sailing vessels, were built by the English in Jamaica in 1683<ref>Earle (2003), p. 137</ref> and by the Spanish in the late 16th century.<ref>Glete (2000), p. 151</ref> Specially-built sailing frigates with oar-ports on the lower decks, like the ''James Galley'' and ''[[Charles Galley]]'', and oar-equipped sloops proved highly useful for pirate hunting, though they were not built in sufficient numbers to check piracy until the 1720s.<ref>Earle (2003), p. 139</ref>

The expansion of Muslim power through the Ottoman conquest of large parts of the eastern Mediterranean in the 15th and 16th centuries resulted in extensive piracy on sea trade. The so-called [[Barbary pirates]] began to operate out of North African ports in Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco, around 1500, preying primarily on the shipping of Christian powers, including massive slave raids at sea as well as on land. The Barbary pirates were nominally under Ottoman [[suzerainty]], but had considerable independence to prey on the enemies of Islam. The Muslim corsairs were technically often privateers with support from legitimate, though highly belligerent, states. They considered themselves holy Muslim warriors, or [[ghazis]],<ref>Guilmartin (1974), p. 120</ref> carrying on the tradition of resisting the incursions by Western Christians that had begun with the [[First Crusade]] in the late 11th century.<ref name="Earle 2003, pp. 39-52">Earle (2003), pp. 39–52</ref>

[[File:Anglo-Dutch fleet in the bay of Algiers as support for the ultimatum demanding the release of white slaves on august 26 1816 (Nicolaas Baur, 1818).jpg|thumb|The [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|Bombardment of Algiers]] by the Anglo-Dutch fleet in 1816 to support the ultimatum to release enslaved Europeans]]

Coastal villages and towns of Italy, Spain, and [[List of islands in the Mediterranean|islands in the Mediterranean]] were frequently attacked by Muslim corsairs, and their inhabitants almost completely abandoned long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts. After 1600, the Barbary corsairs occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were abducted by Barbary corsairs and sold into slavery in North Africa and the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries. The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman [[Albanians|Albanian]] [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Hayreddin]] and his older brother [[Oruç Reis]] (Redbeard), [[Turgut Reis]] (known as Dragut in the West), [[Kurtoglu Muslihiddin Reis|Kurtoglu]] (known as Curtogoli in the West), [[Kemal Reis]], [[Salih Reis]], and [[Koca Murat Reis]]. A few Barbary corsairs, such as the Dutch [[Jan Janszoon]] and the English [[John Ward (pirate)|John Ward]] (Muslim name Yusuf Reis), were renegade European privateers who had converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|title=When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=July 25, 2011}}</ref><ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PR14 Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081027/https://books.google.com/books?id=5q9zcB3JS40C&pg=PR14 |date=December 26, 2022 }}''". Robert Davis (2004) {{ISBN|1-4039-4551-9}}</ref>

The Barbary pirates had a direct Christian counterpart in the military order of the [[Knights of Saint John]], which operated first out of [[Rhodes]] and, after 1530, [[Malta]]. However, they were fewer in number and enslaved fewer people. Both sides waged war against the respective enemies of their faith, and both used galleys as their primary weapons. Both sides also used captured or bought [[galley slave]]s to man the oars of their ships. The Muslims relied mostly on captured Christians, the Christians used a mix of enslaved Muslims, Christian convicts, and a small contingency of ''buonavoglie'', free men who, out of desperation or poverty, had taken to rowing.<ref name="Earle 2003, pp. 39-52"/>

Historian Peter Earle has described the two sides of the Christian-Muslim Mediterranean conflict as "mirror image[s] of maritime predation, two businesslike fleets of plunderers set against each other".<ref>Earle (2003), pp. 51–52</ref> This conflict of faith in the form of privateering, piracy and [[slave raiding]] generated a complex system that was upheld/financed/operated on the trade in plunder and enslaved people that was generated from a low-intensive conflict, as well as the need for protection from violence. The system has been described as a "massive, multinational protection racket",<ref>Earle (2003), p. 83</ref> the Christian side of which did not end until 1798, during the Napoleonic Wars. The Barbary corsairs were quelled as late as the 1830s, effectively ending the last vestiges of counter-crusading [[jihad]].<ref>Earle (2003), p. 85</ref>

[[File:Amaro Pargo.jpg|thumb|[[Amaro Rodríguez Felipe|Amaro Pargo]] was one of the most famous corsairs of the [[Golden Age of Piracy]]]]
Piracy off the [[Barbary coast]] was often assisted by competition among European powers in the 17th century. France encouraged the corsairs against Spain, and later Britain and Holland supported them against France. By the second half of the 17th century, the greater European naval powers began to initiate reprisals to intimidate the Barbary States into making peace with them. The most successful of the Christian states in dealing with the corsair threat was England.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} From the 1630s onwards, England had signed peace treaties with the Barbary States on various occasions, but invariably breaches of these agreements led to renewed wars.

[[Albanian piracy]], mainly centered in the town of [[Ulcinj]] (thus came to be known as ''[[Albanian piracy|Dulcignotti]]''), flourished during the 15th to the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Canka |first=Mustafa |date=2024 |title=The Pirate Republic of Ulcinj: An Epic of Two Centuries |url=https://en.vijesti.me/culture/728069/the-pirate-republic-of-Ulcinj%2C-a-two-century-long-epic |work=Vijesti}}</ref>

France, which had recently emerged as a leading naval power, achieved comparable success soon afterwards, with bombardments of Algiers in 1682, 1683, and 1688 securing a lasting peace, while Tripoli was similarly coerced in 1686. In 1783 and 1784, the Spaniards bombarded [[Algiers]] in an effort to stem the piracy. The [[Bombardment of Algiers (1784)|second time]], [[Antonio Barceló|Admiral Barceló]] damaged the city so severely that the Algerian [[Dey]] asked Spain to negotiate a peace treaty. From then on, Spanish vessels and coasts were safe for several years.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Until the American [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] in 1776, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] treaties with the [[Northwest Africa|North African]] states protected American ships from the [[Barbary]] corsairs. [[Morocco]], which in 1777 was [[Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship|the first independent nation to recognize the United States publicly]], became, in 1784, the first Barbary power to seize an American vessel after independence. While the United States managed to secure peace treaties, these obliged it to pay tribute for protection from attack. Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20% of United States government annual expenditures in 1800,<ref>{{cite web|last=Oren|first=Michael B.|title=The Middle East and the Making of the United States, 1776 to 1815|date=November 3, 2005|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/11/michaelOren.html|access-date=February 18, 2007|archive-date=July 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715201453/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/11/michaelOren.html|url-status=live}}</ref> leading to the [[Barbary Wars]] that ended the payment of tribute. Algiers broke the 1805 peace treaty after only two years and refused to implement the 1815 treaty until Britain compelled it to do so in 1816.

In 1815, the sacking of Palma on the island of [[Sardinia]] by a Tunisian squadron, which carried off 158 inhabitants, roused widespread indignation. Britain had, by this time, [[Slave Trade Act 1807|banned the slave trade]] and was seeking to induce other countries to do likewise. This led to complaints from states that were still vulnerable to the corsairs that Britain's enthusiasm for ending the trade in [[Atlantic slave trade|enslaved Africans]] did not extend to stopping the enslavement of Europeans and Americans by the Barbary States.

[[File:Decatur Boarding the Tripolitan Gunboat.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|U.S. naval officer [[Stephen Decatur]] boarding a Tripolitan gunboat during the [[First Barbary War]], 1804]]
To neutralise this objection and further the anti-slavery campaign, in 1816 [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] was sent to secure new concessions from [[Ottoman Tripolitania|Tripoli]], [[Beylik of Tunis|Tunis]], and [[Ottoman Algeria|Algiers]], including a pledge to treat Christian captives in any future conflict as [[prisoners of war]] rather than enslaved people and the imposition of peace between Algiers and the kingdoms of [[Piedmont-Sardinia|Sardinia]] and [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies|Sicily]]. On his first visit, he negotiated satisfactory treaties and sailed for home. While he was negotiating, some Sardinian fishermen who had settled at [[Annaba|Bona]] on the Tunisian coast were brutally treated without his knowledge. As [[Sardinians]], they were technically under British protection, and the government sent Exmouth back to secure reparation. On August 17, in combination with a Dutch squadron under Admiral Van de Capellen, he bombarded Algiers.<ref name=EB1911/> Both Algiers and Tunis made fresh concessions as a result.

Securing uniform compliance with a total prohibition of slave-raiding, which was traditionally of central importance to the North African economy, presented difficulties beyond those faced in ending attacks on ships of individual nations, which had left slavers able to continue their accustomed way of life by preying on less well-protected peoples. Algiers renewed its slave-raiding, though on a smaller scale. Measures to be taken against the city's government were discussed at the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle]] in 1818. In 1820, another British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal again bombarded Algiers. Corsair activity based in Algiers did not entirely cease until its [[French Algeria#French conquest of Algeria|conquest by France in 1830]].<ref name=EB1911>{{EB1911|wstitle=Barbary Pirates|inline=1}}</ref>

===Southeast Asia===
{{See also|Slavery in Sultanates of Southeast Asia|Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas|Piracy in the Strait of Malacca|Piracy in Indonesia}}
[[File:The Iranun (Ilanun) Moro 'pirate'.jpg|upright|thumb|A 19th-century illustration of an [[Iranun]] pirate]]
In [[thalassocratic]] [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian cultures]] in [[Island Southeast Asia]], maritime raids for enslaved people and resources against rival polities have ancient origins. It was associated with prestige and prowess and often recorded in tattoos. Early European cultures recorded reciprocal raiding traditions as being prevalent throughout Island Southeast Asia.<ref name="warren"/><ref name="warren2"/><ref name="turbulent waters">{{cite journal |last1=Antony |first1=Robert J. |title=Turbulent Waters: Sea Raiding in Early Modern South East Asia |journal=The Mariner's Mirror |date=February 2013 |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |doi=10.1080/00253359.2013.766996|s2cid=162926825 }}</ref><ref name="Lobato">{{cite book|editor1-last=Sim |editor1-first=Y.H. Teddy |title=Piracy and surreptitious activities in the Malay Archipelago and adjacent seas, 1600–1840 |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-287-085-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTwNBQAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name="junker">{{cite book |last1=Junker |first1=Laura Lee |title=Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms |date=1999 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2035-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC}}</ref>
[[File:Iban Prahu.jpg|thumb|left|Iban war [[Perahu|prahu]] in Skerang river]]
[[File:Iranun lanong warship by Rafael Monleón (1890).jpg|left|thumb|1890 illustration by [[Rafael Monleón]] of a late 18th-century [[Iranun]] ''[[lanong]]'' warship. The [[Malay language|Malay]] word for "pirate", ''lanun'', originates from an [[exonym]] of the Iranun people]]
[[File:Double-barelled Lantaka of artistic design and Moro arms (c. 1900, Philippines).jpg|thumb|upright|Double-barrelled ''[[lantaka]]'' cannons, ''[[kalasag]]'' shields, armor, and various swords (including ''[[kalis]]'', ''[[panabas]]'', and ''[[kampilan]]'') used by [[Moro pirates]] in the Philippines (c. 1900)]]
With the advent of [[Islam]] and the [[Colonial Era|colonial era]], enslaved people became a valuable resource for trading with European, Arab, and Chinese slavers, and the volume of piracy and slave raids increased significantly.<ref name="junker"/> Numerous native peoples engaged in sea raiding; they include the [[Iranun]] and [[Balanguingui]] slavers of [[Sulu]], the [[Iban people|Iban]] [[headhunting|headhunter]]s of [[Borneo]], the [[Bugis]] sailors of [[South Sulawesi]], and the [[Malay people|Malays]] of western Southeast Asia. Piracy was also practiced on a smaller scale by foreign seafarers, including Chinese, Japanese, and European traders, as well as renegades and outlaws.<ref name="turbulent waters"/> The volume of piracy and raids was often dependent on the ebb and flow of trade and [[monsoon]]s, with pirate season (known colloquially as the "Pirate Wind") starting from August to September.<ref name="warren2"/>

Slave raids were of high economic importance to the Muslim Sultanates in the [[Sulu Sea]]: the [[Sultanate of Sulu]], the [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]], and the Confederation of Sultanates in Lanao (the modern [[Moro people]]). It is estimated that from 1770 to 1870, around 200,000 to 300,000 people were enslaved by [[Iranun]] and [[Banguingui]] slavers.<ref name="warren"/><ref name="warren2"/> David P. Forsythe put the estimate much higher, at around 2 million people abducted and enslaved within the first two centuries of Spanish rule of the [[Philippines]] after 1565.<ref>David P. Forsythe (2009). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC Encyclopedia of Human Rights, Volume 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081028/https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC |date=December 26, 2022 }}''". Oxford University Press. p. 464. {{ISBN|0195334027}}</ref>

[[File:Bombardment Balanguingui.jpg|thumb|left|Spanish warships bombarding the [[Moro Pirates]] of the southern Philippines in 1848]]
These enslaved people were taken from piracy on passing ships as well as coastal raids on settlements as far as the [[Malacca Strait]], [[Java]], the southern coast of China, and the islands beyond the [[Makassar Strait]]. Most of the slaves were [[Tagalogs]], [[Visayans]], and "Malays" (including [[Bugis]], [[Mandarese people|Mandarese]], [[Iban people|Iban]], and [[Makassar people|Makassar]]). There were also occasional European and Chinese captives, usually ransomed through [[Tausug people|Tausug]] intermediaries of the [[Sulu Sultanate]]. Enslaved people were the primary indicators of wealth and status, and they were the source of labor for the farms, fisheries, and workshops of the sultanates. While enslaved people were rarely sold, they were trafficked extensively in enslaved people purchased from the Iranun and Banguingui [[slave market]]s. By the 1850s, enslaved people constituted 50% or more of the population of the Sulu archipelago.<ref name="warren">{{cite book|author=James Francis Warren|title =The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State|publisher =NUS Press|year =2007|pages=257–258|isbn =978-9971-69-386-2}}</ref><ref name="turbulent waters"/><ref name="warren2">{{cite book|author =James Francis Warren|title =Iranun and Balangingi: Globalization, Maritime Raiding and the Birth of Ethnicity|publisher =NUS Press|year =2002|pages =53–56|isbn =978-9971-69-242-1|url =https://nuspress.nus.edu.sg/products/iranun-and-balangingi|access-date =July 9, 2019|archive-date =July 4, 2019|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190704132211/https://nuspress.nus.edu.sg/products/iranun-and-balangingi|url-status =live}}</ref>

The scale was so massive that the word for "pirate" in [[Malay language|Malay]] became ''lanun'', an [[exonym]] of the Iranun people. Slaves and the slave trade largely ran the economy of the Sulu sultanates. Male captives of the Iranun and the Banguingui were treated brutally; even fellow Muslim captives were not spared. They were usually forced to serve as [[galley slave]]s on the ''[[lanong]]'' and ''[[garay (ship)|garay]]'' warships of their captors. Female captives, however, were usually treated better. There were no recorded accounts of rapes, though some were starved for discipline. Within a year of capture, most of the captives of the Iranun and Banguingui would be bartered off in [[Jolo, Sulu|Jolo]] usually for rice, opium, bolts of cloth, iron bars, brassware, and weapons. The buyers were usually Tausug ''[[datu]]'' from the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] who had preferential treatment, but buyers also included European ([[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] and [[Portuguese empire|Portuguese]]) and Chinese traders as well as [[Visayan]] pirates (''renegados'').<ref name="warren2"/>
[[File:Top view Baluarte Watch Tower.jpg|thumb|236x236px|[[La Union Watchtowers|Baluarte Watchtower]], [[La Union]]. A 400-year-old Spanish-era structure built to guard against pirates, later used in [[World War II]] as a communication tower for the [[United States Army Forces in the Philippines – Northern Luzon|USAFIP-NL]] airfield.]]
[[File:Curimao Watchtower, Curimao, Ilocos Norte.jpg|thumb|237x237px|Currimao Watchtower, [[Ilocos Norte]]. '[[Currimao]]' comes from the [[Ilocano language|Iloco]] term ''cumaws'' (pirates) and the Spanish word ''correr'' (to run), reflecting the warnings given by watchmen during pirate attacks.]]
Spanish authorities and native Christian Filipinos responded to the Moro slave raids by building watchtowers and forts across the Philippine archipelago, many of which are still standing today. In [[Northern Luzon]], particularly in the [[Pangasinan]], [[Ilocos Region|Ilocos]] and [[Cagayan]], the coastal villages and towns were frequently raided by Moro and Chinese pirates, locally known as ''tírong or cumaw'' (raiders, attackers or pirates). These pirates looted and burned villages (''[[Barrio|barrios]]'') and captured women and children for enslavement. To counter these threats, Spanish authorities constructed circular adobe [[Watchtower|watchtowers]], or ''baluartes'', measuring 6 to 7 meters high. These structures, built strategically along the coastline using coral blocks bonded with a mixture of lime and egg whites, served as both lookout points and defensive fortifications, protecting villages from pirate attacks.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Meimban |first=Adriel Obar |title=La Union: The Making of a Province 1850-1921 |date=1997 |publisher=A.O. Meimban |isbn=971-91832-1-7 |edition=18 |series=La Union Before its Creation: Muslim Tirongs |location=Quezon City |publication-date=1997 |pages=22–23 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last=de los Reyes |first=Isabelo |title=History of Ilocos |date=1890 |publisher=University of the Philippines Press |isbn=978-971-542-729-6 |language=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Go |first=Antonio Calipjo |date=December 24, 2015 |title=Ghost towns and pirates |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/91426/ghost-towns-and-pirates |access-date=January 14, 2025 |website=INQUIRER.net |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:A Fight with Buginese perahu, watercolour by J.E. van Heemskerck van Beest, 1820.jpg|thumb|A fight between Filipino pirates, Bugis trading ship, and Dutch mariners.|left|240x240px]]
Some provincial capitals were also moved further inland. Major command posts were built in [[Manila]], [[Cavite City|Cavite]], [[Cebu City|Cebu]], [[Iloilo City|Iloilo]], [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]], and [[Iligan]]. Defending ships were also built by local communities, especially in the [[Visayas Islands]], including the construction of war "''barangayanes''" (''[[balangay]]'') that were faster than the Moro raiders and could give chase. As resistance against raiders increased, ''[[Lanong]]'' warships of the Iranun were eventually replaced by the smaller and faster ''[[garay (ship)|garay]]'' warships of the Banguingui in the early 19th century. The Moro raids were eventually subdued by several major naval expeditions by the Spanish and local forces from 1848 to 1891, including retaliatory bombardment and capture of Moro settlements. By this time, the Spanish had also acquired [[steamship|steam gunboat]]s (''vapor''), which could easily overtake and destroy the native Moro warships.<ref name="warren" /><ref name="non">{{cite journal |last1=Non |first1=Domingo M. |title=Moro Piracy during the Spanish Period and Its Impact |journal=Southeast Asian Studies |volume=30 |issue=4 |date=1993 |pages=401–419 |doi=10.20495/tak.30.4_401 }}</ref><ref name="barrows">{{cite book|author =David P. Barrows|title =A History of the Philippines|publisher =American Book Company|year =1905|url =https://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm|access-date =July 9, 2019|archive-date =February 8, 2019|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20190208005625/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm|url-status =live}}</ref>

Several famous pirates, such as ''Intjeh Cohdja'' and ''Wassingrana'', were hunted by the VOC for hijacking their merchant ships in the [[Eastern salient of Java]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anwar |first=H |date=2017 |title=TIGA ZAMAN SUKU BAJO MENGUASAI PERAIRAN NUSANTARA (Sejak Kerajaan Sriwijaya, Majaphit, sampai Republik Indonesia dan dari Selat Malaka sampai Mindanao) |url=https://conference.unsri.ac.id/index.php/sns/search/search?simpleQuery=TIGA+ZAMAN+SUKU+BAJO+MENGUASAI+PERAIRAN+NUSANTARA&searchField=query |journal=Seminar Nasional Sejarah III |volume=1 |page=1 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>

Aside from the Iranun and Banguingui pirates, other polities were also associated with maritime raiding. The Bugis sailors of [[South Sulawesi]] were infamous as pirates who used to range as far west as Singapore and as far north as the Philippines in search of targets.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.on-the-edge.com/articles/raja_ampat.php|title=The Buginese of Sulawesi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927102743/http://www.on-the-edge.com/articles/raja_ampat.php|archive-date=September 27, 2007}}</ref> The [[Orang laut]] pirates controlled shipping in the Straits of Malacca and the waters around Singapore,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://thingsasian.com/story/pirates-east|title=Pirates of the East | ThingsAsian|website=thingsasian.com|access-date=November 4, 2019|archive-date=October 24, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024015434/http://www.thingsasian.com/stories-photos/1997|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] and [[Sea Dayak]] pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in [[Sarawak|Borneo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fullbooks.com/Wanderings-Among-South-Sea-Savages-And-in3.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609213932/http://www.fullbooks.com/Wanderings-Among-South-Sea-Savages-And-in3.html|archive-date=June 9, 2008|title=Wanderings Among South Sea Savages And in Borneo and the Philippines by H. Wilfrid Walker}} [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2564/2564-h/2564-h.htm Alt URL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924211540/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2564/2564-h/2564-h.htm |date=September 24, 2015 }}</ref>

===East Asia===
In East Asia, by the ninth century, populations centered mostly around merchant activities in coastal [[Shandong]] and [[Jiangsu]]. Wealthy benefactors including [[Chang Pogo]] established [[Silla]] Buddhist temples in the region. Chang Pogo had become incensed at the treatment of his fellow citizens, who in the unstable milieu of late Tang often fell victim to coastal pirates or inland bandits. After returning to Silla around 825, and in possession of a formidable private fleet headquartered at Cheonghae ([[Wando County|Wando]]), Chang Pogo petitioned the Silla king Heungdeok ({{reign|826|836}}) to establish a permanent maritime garrison to protect Silla merchant activities in the [[Yellow Sea]]. Heungdeok agreed and, in 828, formally established the Cheonghae ({{lang|ko-Hani|淸海}}, "clear sea") Garrison ({{lang|ko|청해진}}) at what is today Wando island off Korea's South Jeolla province. Heungdeok gave Chang an army of 10,000 men to establish and man the defensive works. The remnants of Cheonghae Garrison can still be seen on Jang islet just off Wando's southern coast. Chang's force, though nominally bequeathed by the Silla king, was effectively under his own control. Chang became the arbiter of Yellow Sea commerce and navigation.<ref>Chong Sun Kim, "Slavery in Silla and its Sociological and Economic Implications", in Andrew C. Nahm, ed. ''Traditional Korea, Theory and Practice'' (Kalamazoo, MI: Center for Korean Studies, 1974)</ref>

From the 13th century, the Wokou, based in Japan, made their debut in East Asia, initiating invasions that would persist for 300 years. The wokou raids [[Jiajing wokou raids|peaked in the 1550s]], but by then the wokou were mostly Chinese smugglers who reacted strongly against the [[Ming dynasty]]'s strict prohibition on private sea trade.

[[File:Wokou.jpg|thumb|right|Sixteenth century [[Wokou|Japanese]] pirate raids]]

During the [[Qing]] period, Chinese pirate fleets grew increasingly large. The effects of large-scale piracy on the Chinese economy were immense. They preyed voraciously on China's junk trade, which flourished in [[Fujian]] and [[Guangdong]] and was a vital artery of Chinese commerce. Pirate fleets exercised [[hegemony]] over villages on the coast, collecting revenue by exacting tribute and running [[extortion]] rackets. In 1802, the menacing [[Zheng Yi (pirate)|Zheng Yi]] inherited the fleet of his cousin, captain Zheng Qi, whose death provided Zheng Yi with considerably more influence in the world of piracy. Zheng Yi and his wife, [[Zheng Yi Sao]] (who would eventually inherit the leadership of his pirate confederacy), then formed a pirate coalition that, by 1804, consisted of over ten thousand men. Their military might alone was sufficient to combat the Qing navy. However, a combination of famine, Qing naval opposition, and internal rifts crippled piracy in China around the 1820s, and it has never again reached that level.

In the 1840s and 1850s, [[United States Navy]] and Royal Navy forces campaigned together against Chinese pirates. Major battles were fought such as those at [[Battle of Ty-ho Bay|Ty-ho Bay]] and the [[Battle of Tonkin River|Tonkin River]] though pirate [[junks]] continued operating off China for years more. However, some British and American individual citizens also volunteered to serve with Chinese pirates to fight against European forces. The British offered rewards for the capture of Westerners serving with Chinese pirates. During the [[Second Opium War]] and the [[Taiping Rebellion]], piratical junks were again destroyed in large numbers by British naval forces, but ultimately it was not until the 1860s and 1870s that fleets of pirate junks ceased to exist.
[[File:4ChinesePirates.jpg|thumb|Four Chinese pirates who were hanged in Hong Kong in 1863]]
Chinese Pirates also plagued the Tonkin Gulf area.<ref name="KleinenOsseweijer2010">{{cite book|author1=John Kleinen|author2=Manon Osseweijer|title=Pirates, Ports, and Coasts in Asia: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nEgb15isFZkC&pg=PA60|year= 2010|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4279-07-9|page=60}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=New Peterson magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0nhFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA578|year=1896|page=578}}</ref>
[[File:Chinese Pirate Flag.svg|thumb|Chinese pirate flag with the [[bagua]] and [[taijitu]], captured by George Henry Preble. Circa 1871<ref>https://warontherocks.com/prebles-flag-emerging-navy-fights-chinese-pirates/</ref>]]

==== Piracy in the Ming dynasty ====
Pirates in the [[Ming]] era tended to come from populations on the geographic periphery of the state.<ref>MacKay, Joseph. "Pirate Nations: Maritime Pirates as Escape Societies in Late Imperial China." ''Social Science History'' ''37'', no. 4 (2013): 551–g573. {{doi|10.1017/S0145553200011962}}. p. 554</ref> They were recruited largely from the lower classes of society, including poor fishermen, and many were fleeing from obligatory labor on state-building projects organized by the dynasty. These lower-class men, and sometimes women, may have fled taxation or conscription by the state in search of better opportunities and wealth, and willingly joined local pirate bands.<ref>MacKay. 2013. p. 553</ref><ref>MacKay. 2013. p. 555</ref> These local, lower-class individuals seem to have felt unrepresented, and traded the small amount of security afforded them from their allegiance to the state for the promise of a relatively improved existence engaging in smuggling or other illegal trade.

Originally, pirates in the coastal areas near Fujian and Zhejiang may have been Japanese, as suggested by the Ming government referring to them as "''[[wokou]]'' (倭寇)", but piracy was probably a multi-ethnic profession by the 16th century, although coastal brigands continued to be referred to as ''wokou'' in many government documents.<ref>Higgins, Roland L. "Pirates in Gowns and Caps: Gentry Law-Breaking in the Mid-Ming." ''Ming Studies Volume 1980'', Issue #1. pp. 30–37 [31]</ref> Most pirates were probably [[Han Chinese]], but Japanese and even Europeans engaged in pirate activities in the region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=David M. |title=Banditry and the Subversion of State Authority in China: The Capital Region During the Middle Ming Period (1450–1525) |journal=Journal of Social History |date=2000 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=527–563 |id={{Gale|A61372233}} {{Project MUSE|17725}} |jstor=3789210 |doi=10.1353/jsh.2000.0035 |s2cid=144496554 }}</ref>

==== Illegal trade and authority ====
Pirates engaged in many different schemes to make a living. Smuggling and illegal trade overseas were major sources of revenue for pirate bands, both large and small.<ref name="Higgins. 1980. p. 31">Higgins. 1980. p. 31</ref> As the Ming government mostly outlawed private trade overseas, at least until the overseas silver trade contributed to a lifting of the ban, pirates could, by default, control the market for any number of foreign goods.<ref name="Higgins. 1980. p. 31"/><ref>Von Glahn, Richard. ''The Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century''. Cambridge, UK. {{ISBN|9781107030565}}. {{OCLC|919452147}}. p. 307</ref><ref name="Von Glahn. 2016. p. 308">Von Glahn. 2016. p. 308</ref> The geography of the coastline made chasing pirates quite difficult for the authorities, and private overseas trade began to transform coastal societies by the 15th century, as nearly all aspects of the local society benefitted from or associated with illegal trade.<ref>Higgins. 1980. p. 32</ref> The desire to trade for silver eventually led to open conflict between the Ming and illegal smugglers and pirates. This conflict, along with local merchants in southern China, helped persuade the Ming court to end the [[haijin]] ban on private international trade in 1567.<ref name="Von Glahn. 2016. p. 308"/>

Pirates also projected local political authority.<ref name=":1">MacKay. 2013. p. 558</ref> Larger pirate bands could act as local governing bodies for coastal communities, collecting taxes and engaging in "protection" schemes. In addition to illegal goods, pirates ostensibly offered security to communities on land in exchange for a tax.<ref name=":2">MacKay. 2013. p. 557</ref> These bands also wrote and codified laws that redistributed wealth, punished crimes, and protected the taxed community.<ref name=":1" /> These laws were strictly followed by the pirates, as well.<ref name=":3">MacKay. 2013. p. 567</ref> The political structures tended to look similar to the Ming structures.<ref name=":3" />

==== Hierarchy and structure ====
Pirates did not tend to stay pirates permanently. It seems to have been relatively easy both to join and leave a pirate band, and these raiding groups were more interested in maintaining a willing force.<ref name=":4">MacKay. 2013. pp. 564, 568</ref> Members of these pirate groups did not tend to stay for more than a few months or a year.<ref name=":4" />

There appears to have been a hierarchy in most pirate organizations. Pirate leaders could become very wealthy and powerful, especially when working with the Chinese dynasty, and, consequently, so could those who served under them.<ref name=":2" /> These pirate groups were organized similarly to other "escape societies" throughout history, and maintained a redistributive system to reward looting; the pirates directly responsible for looting or pillaging got their cut first, and the rest was allocated to the rest of the pirate community.<ref name=":2" /> There seems to be evidence that there was an egalitarian aspect to these communities, with the capability to do the job being rewarded explicitly. The pirates themselves had some special privileges under the law when they interacted with communities on land, mostly in the form of extra allotments of redistributed wealth.<ref name=":2" />

==== Clientele ====
Pirates, of course, had to sell their loot. They had trade relations with local communities and foreign traders in southeastern China. [[Zhu Wan]], who held the office of Grand Coordinator for Coastal Defense, documented that pirates in the region to which he had been sent had the support of the local elite gentry class.<ref>Higgins. 1980. p. 30</ref> These "pirates in gowns and caps" directly or indirectly sponsored pirate activity and certainly directly benefitted from the illegal private trade in the region. When Zhu Wan or other officials from the capital attempted to eliminate the pirate problem, these local elites fought back, having Zhu Wan demoted and eventually even sent back to Beijing to possibly be executed.<ref>Higgins. 1980. p. 34</ref> The gentry who benefitted from illegal maritime trade were too powerful and influential, and they were clearly very invested in the smuggling activities of the pirate community.<ref>Robinson. 2000. p. 547</ref>

In addition to their relationships with the local elite on the coast, pirates also had complex, often friendly relationships and partnerships with the dynasty itself and with international traders.<ref>MacKay. 2013. pp. 552, 557</ref> When pirate groups recognized the authority of the dynasty, they would often be allowed to operate freely and even profit from the relationship. There were also opportunities for these pirates to ally themselves with colonial projects from Europe or other overseas powers.<ref name="MacKay. 2013. p. 559">MacKay. 2013. p. 559</ref> Both the dynasty and foreign colonial projects would employ pirates as mercenaries to establish dominance in the coastal region.<ref>MacKay. 2013. p. 551</ref> Because of how difficult it was for established state powers to control these regions, pirates seem to have had a lot of freedom to choose their allies and their preferred markets.<ref>Szonyi, Michael. ''The Art of Being Governed: Everyday Politics in Late Imperial China''. Princeton. {{ISBN|9781400888887}}. {{OCLC|1007291604}}. pp. 101, 102</ref> Included in this list of possible allies, sea marauders and pirates even found opportunities to bribe military officials as they engaged in illegal trade.<ref>Szonyi. 2017. pp. 101–102</ref> They seem to have been incentivized mostly by money and loot, and so could afford to play the field concerning their political or military allies.

Because pirate organizations could be so powerful locally, the Ming government made concerted efforts to weaken them. The presence of colonial projects, however, complicated this, as pirates could ally with other maritime powers or local elites to stay in business. The Chinese government was clearly aware of the power of some of these pirate groups, as some documents even refer to them as "sea rebels," a term that underscores the political nature of piracy.<ref name="MacKay. 2013. p. 559"/> Pirates like [[Zheng Zhilong]] and [[Zheng Chenggong]] accrued tremendous local power, eventually even being hired as naval commanders by the Chinese dynasties and foreign maritime powers.<ref>MacKay. 2013. pp. 559, 561</ref>

===South Asia===
[[Bawarij]] were [[Sindhi people|Sindhi]] pirates named for their distinctive [[Dhow|barja warships]]<ref>"Indian Pirates: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day", by Rajaram Narayan Saletore, page 18</ref> who were active between 251 and 865 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agius |first=Dionisius A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RP2uHT06zYgC&dq=bawarij&pg=PA385 |title=Classic Ships of Islam: From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean |date=2008 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-15863-4 |language=en |page=385 |access-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429072223/https://books.google.com/books?id=RP2uHT06zYgC&dq=bawarij&pg=PA385 |url-status=live }}</ref> Their frequent piracy and the incident in which they looted two treasure ships coming from Ceylon became the [[casus belli]] for the [[Umayyad conquest of Sindh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saletore |first=Rajaram Narayan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PVMMoChwY4C&dq=bawarij&pg=PA18 |title=Indian Pirates |date=1978 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |language=en |page=21 |access-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-date=May 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513082535/https://books.google.com/books?id=1PVMMoChwY4C&dq=bawarij&pg=PA18 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Pirates who accepted the Royal Pardon from the [[Chola Dynasty|Chola Empire]] would get to serve in the [[Chola Navy]] as "Kallarani". They would be used as coast guards, or sent on recon missions to deal with Arab piracy in the [[Arabian Sea]]. Their function is similar to that of the 18th-century [[privateers]], used by the Royal Navy.

Starting in the 14th century, the [[Deccan]] (Southern Peninsular region of India) was divided into two entities: on the one side stood the Muslim [[Bahmani Sultanate]] and on the other stood the [[Hindu king]]s rallied around the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. Ongoing wars demanded frequent resupply of fresh horses, which were imported via sea routes from Persia and Africa. This trade was frequently raided by thriving bands of pirates based in the coastal cities of Western India. One of such was [[Timoji]], who operated off [[Anjadip Island]] both as a privateer (by seizing horse traders, that he rendered to the [[raja]] of [[Honavar]]) and as a pirate who attacked the Kerala merchant fleets that traded pepper with [[Gujarat]].

During the 16th and 17th centuries, there was frequent European piracy against [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Indian merchants, especially those [[Capture of the Grand Mughal Fleet|en route to Mecca]] for [[Hajj]]. The situation came to a head when the Portuguese attacked and captured the vessel ''[[Rahīmī|Rahimi]]'' which belonged to [[Mariam Zamani]] the Mughal queen, which led to the Mughal seizure of the Portuguese town Daman.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Findly |first1=Ellison B. |title=The Capture of Maryam-uz-Zamānī's Ship: Mughal Women and European Traders |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1988 |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=227–238 |doi=10.2307/603650 |jstor=603650 }}</ref> In the 18th century, the famous [[Maratha Confederacy|Maratha]] privateer [[Kanhoji Angre]] ruled the seas between Mumbai and Goa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Risso |first1=Patricia |title=Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Piracy: Maritime Violence in the Western Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Region during a Long Eighteenth Century |journal=Journal of World History |date=2001 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=293–319 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2001.0039 |s2cid=162191347 |id={{Project MUSE|18418}} }}</ref> The Marathas attacked British shipping and insisted that [[East India Company]] ships pay taxes if sailing through their waters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.national-army-museum.ac.uk/exhibitions/soldiersSeahawks/page2.shtml|title=Soldiers, Seahawks and Smugglers|access-date=July 20, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080906064531/http://www.national-army-museum.ac.uk/exhibitions/soldiersSeahawks/page2.shtml|archive-date=September 6, 2008}}</ref>

===Persian Gulf===
{{Main|Piracy in the Persian Gulf}}
The southern coast of the [[Persian Gulf]] was known to the British from the late 18th century as the ''[[Pirate Coast]], ''where control of the seaways of the Persian Gulf was asserted by the Qawasim ([[Al Qasimi]]) and other local maritime powers. Memories of the privations inflicted on the coast by Portuguese raiders under Albuquerque were long-lasting, and local powers were antagonistic as a consequence of Christian powers asserting dominance over their coastal waters.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = From Trucial States to United Arab Emirates|last = Heard-Bey|first = Frauke|publisher = Longman|year = 1996|isbn = 0-582-27728-0|location = UK|pages = 282–284}}</ref> Early British expeditions to protect the Imperial [[Trade route|Indian Ocean trade]] from competitors, principally the Al Qasimi from [[Ras Al Khaimah]] and [[Lingeh]], led to campaigns against those headquarters and other harbours along the coast in [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1809|1809]] and then, after a relapse in raiding, again in [[Persian Gulf campaign of 1819|1819]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197306/from.pirate.coast.to.trucial.htm|title=From Pirate Coast To Trucial|access-date=July 20, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829143613/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197306/from.pirate.coast.to.trucial.htm|archive-date=August 29, 2008}}</ref> This led to the signing of the first formal treaty of [[General Maritime Treaty of 1820|maritime peace]] between the British and the rulers of several coastal sheikhdoms in 1820. This was cemented by the Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity in 1853, resulting in the British label for the area, 'Pirate Coast', being softened to the 'Trucial Coast', with several emirates being recognised by the British as [[Trucial States]].<ref name=":0" />

===Madagascar===
[[File:Pirates Cemetery Ile Ste Marie Madagascar.jpg|thumb|The cemetery of past pirates at Île Ste-Marie (St. Mary's Island)]]
At one point, there were nearly 1,000 pirates located in Madagascar.<ref>Gemma Pitcher, Patricia C. Wright. " ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=m2eLhe7CpMMC&pg=PA178 Madagascar & Comoros] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081051/https://books.google.com/books?id=m2eLhe7CpMMC&pg=PA178 |date=December 26, 2022 }} ''" p. 178.</ref> [[Île Sainte-Marie]] was a popular base for pirates throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The most famous [[pirate utopia]] is that of the probably fictional Captain Misson and his pirate crew, who allegedly founded the free colony of [[Libertatia]] in northern Madagascar in the late 17th century, until it was destroyed in a surprise attack by the island natives in 1694.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=869187%7ctitle=Libertatia|title=Libertatia|work=everything2.com|date=December 9, 2000 |access-date=November 15, 2015|archive-date=July 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710091804/https://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=869187%7ctitle=Libertatia|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Caribbean===
{{Main|Piracy in the Caribbean|Golden Age of Piracy}}
[[File:Jacquesdesores.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Jacques de Sores]] looting and burning Havana in 1555]]
[[File:Puerto del Príncipe - being sacked in 1668 - Project Gutenberg eText 19396.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Camagüey|Puerto del Príncipe]] being sacked in 1668 by Henry Morgan]]
[[File:Bok om sjörövare De Americaensche Zee-Roovers publicerades första gången 1678 i Amsterdam - Skoklosters slott - 102633.tif|thumb|Book about pirates "De Americaensche Zee-Roovers" was first published in 1678 in Amsterdam]]
The classic era of piracy in the [[Caribbean]] lasted from circa 1650 until the mid-1720s.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lucie-Smith|first=Edward|title=Outcasts of the Sea: Pirates and Piracy|publisher=Paddington Press|year=1978|isbn=978-0-448-22617-0|url=https://archive.org/details/outcastsofseapir0000luci}}</ref> By 1650, France, England and the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] began to develop their colonial empires. This involved considerable seaborne trade, and a general economic improvement: there was money to be made{{snd}}or stolen{{snd}}and much of it traveled by ship.

French [[buccaneer]]s were established on northwestern part of [[Hispaniola]] after the [[devastations of Osorio]] as early as 1625,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thewayofthepirates.com/history-of-piracy/tortuga.php|title=Tortuga – Pirate History – The Way Of The Pirates|access-date=October 23, 2014|archive-date=March 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314032603/http://www.thewayofthepirates.com/history-of-piracy/tortuga.php|url-status=live}}</ref> but lived at first mostly as hunters rather than robbers; their transition to full-time piracy was gradual and motivated in part by Spanish efforts to wipe out both the buccaneers and the prey animals on which they depended. The buccaneers' migration from Hispaniola's mainland to the more defensible offshore island of [[Tortuga (Haiti)|Tortuga]] limited their resources and accelerated their piratical raids. According to [[Alexandre Exquemelin]], a buccaneer and historian who remains a major source for this period, the Tortuga buccaneer [[Pierre le Grand (pirate)|Pierre Le Grand]] pioneered attacks on galleons returning to Spain.

The growth of buccaneering on Tortuga was augmented by the English capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655. The early English governors of Jamaica freely granted letters of marque to buccaneers in Tortuga and to their own fellow citizens. At the same time, the growth of [[Port Royal]] provided these raiders with a far more profitable and enjoyable place to sell their booty. In the 1660s, the new French governor of Tortuga, [[Bertrand d'Ogeron]], similarly issued privateering commissions to both his own colonists and English cutthroats from Port Royal. These conditions brought Caribbean buccaneering to its zenith.

[[File:Pg 003 - Engraving (bw).jpg|thumb|left|[[Henry Every]] is shown selling his loot in this engraving by Howard Pyle. Every's capture of the Grand Mughal ship ''[[Ganj-i-Sawai]]'' in 1695 stands as one of the most profitable pirate raids ever perpetrated.]]
A new phase of piracy began in the 1690s as English pirates looked beyond the Caribbean for treasure. The fall of Britain's Stuart kings had restored the traditional enmity between Britain and France, thus ending the profitable collaboration between English Jamaica and French Tortuga. The devastation of Port Royal by an [[1692 Jamaica earthquake|earthquake in 1692]] further reduced the Caribbean's attractions by destroying the pirates' chief market for fenced plunder.<ref>Nigel Cawthorne (2005), ''Pirates: An Illustrated History,'' Arturus Publishing Ltd., 2005, p. 65.</ref> Caribbean colonial governors began to discard the traditional policy of "no peace beyond the Line," under which it was understood that war would continue (and thus letters of marque would be granted) in the Caribbean regardless of peace treaties signed in Europe; henceforth, commissions would be granted only in wartime, and their limitations would be strictly enforced. Furthermore, much of the Spanish Main had simply been exhausted; [[Maracaibo]] alone had been sacked three times between 1667 and 1678,<ref>Cawthorne, pp. 34, 36, 58</ref> while [[Rio de la Hacha|Río de la Hacha]] had been raided five times and [[Tolú]] eight.<ref>Peter Earle (2003), ''The Pirate Wars'', {{ISBN|0-312-33579-2}}, p. 94.</ref>
[[File:Bartholomew Roberts.jpg|thumb|Bartholomew Roberts was the pirate with the most captures during the Golden Age of Piracy. He is now known for hanging the governor of [[Martinique]] from the yardarm of his ship.]]
At the same time, England's less favored colonies, including [[Bermuda]], New York, and [[Rhode Island]], had become cash-starved by the [[Navigation Acts]], which restricted trade with foreign ships. Merchants and governors eager for coin were willing to overlook and even underwrite pirate voyages; one colonial official defended a pirate because he thought it "very harsh to hang people that brings in gold to these provinces."<ref>Earle, p. 148.</ref> Although some of these pirates operating out of New England and the Middle Colonies targeted Spain's remoter Pacific coast colonies well into the 1690s and beyond, the Indian Ocean was a richer and more tempting target. India's economic output was large during this time, especially in high-value luxury goods like silk and calico which made ideal pirate booty;<ref>Geoffrey Parker, ed. (1986), ''The World: An Illustrated History'', Times Books Ltd., p. 317.</ref> at the same time, no powerful navies plied the Indian Ocean, leaving both local shipping and the various East India companies' vessels vulnerable to attack. This set the stage for the famous pirates, [[Thomas Tew]], [[Henry Every]], [[Robert Culliford]], and (although his guilt remains controversial) [[William Kidd]].

In 1713 and 1714, a series of peace treaties ended the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]. As a result, thousands of seamen, including European [[privateer]]s who had operated in the West Indies, were relieved of military duty, at a time when cross-Atlantic colonial shipping trade was beginning to boom. In addition, European sailors who had been pushed by unemployment to work onboard [[merchantmen]] (including [[slave ship]]s) were often enthusiastic to abandon that profession and turn to pirating, giving pirate captains a steady pool of recruits from various coasts across the Atlantic.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kuhn, Gabriel |title= Life Under the Jolly Roger: Reflections on Golden Age Piracy|publisher= PM Press|date= 2010}}</ref>

In 1715, pirates launched a major raid on Spanish divers who were trying to recover gold from a sunken treasure galleon off the coast of Florida. The nucleus of the pirate force was a group of English ex-privateers, all of whom would soon be enshrined in infamy: [[Henry Jennings]], [[Charles Vane]], [[Samuel Bellamy]], and [[Edward England]]. The attack was successful, but contrary to their expectations, the governor of Jamaica refused to allow Jennings and their cohorts to spend their loot on his island. With Kingston and the declining Port Royal closed to them, Jennings and his comrades founded a new pirate base at [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]], on the island of [[New Providence]] in the Bahamas, which had been abandoned during the war. Until the arrival of governor [[Woodes Rogers]] three years later, Nassau would be home for these pirates and their many recruits.

Shipping traffic between Africa, the Caribbean, and Europe began to soar in the 18th century, following a model known as the [[triangular trade]], and became a rich target for piracy. Trade ships sailed from Europe to the African coast, trading manufactured goods and weapons in exchange for enslaved people. The traders would then sail to the Caribbean to sell the enslaved people, and return to Europe with goods such as sugar, tobacco, and cocoa. Another triangular trade saw ships carry raw materials, preserved cod, and rum to Europe, where a portion of the cargo would be sold for manufactured goods, which (along with the remainder of the original load) were transported to the Caribbean, where they were exchanged for sugar and molasses, which (with some manufactured articles) were borne to New England. Ships in the triangular trade made money at each stop.<ref>Mark Kurlansky, ''Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World.'' Penguin, 1998.</ref>
[[File:Pirata Cofresi.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Born to a noble family in [[Puerto Rico]], [[Roberto Cofresí]] was the last notably successful pirate in the Caribbean.]]
As part of the peace settlement of the [[War of the Spanish succession]], Britain obtained the ''[[asiento]]'', a Spanish government contract, to [[History of slavery|supply slaves]] to Spain's new world colonies, providing British traders and smugglers more access to the traditionally closed Spanish markets in America. This arrangement also contributed heavily to the spread of piracy across the western Atlantic at this time. Shipping to the colonies boomed simultaneously with the flood of skilled mariners after the war. Merchant shippers used the surplus of sailors' labor to drive wages down, cut corners to maximize profits, and create unsavory conditions aboard their vessels. Merchant sailors suffered from mortality rates as high or higher than those of the enslaved people being trafficked (Rediker, 2004). Living conditions were so poor that many sailors began to prefer a freer existence as a [[pirate]]. The increased volume of shipping traffic also could sustain a large body of brigands preying upon it. Among the most infamous Caribbean pirates of the time were [[Edward Teach]] or ''Blackbeard'', [[John Rackham (pirate)|John Rackham]], and [[Bartholomew Roberts]]. Most of these pirates were eventually hunted down by the Royal Navy and killed or captured; several [[Action of 20 October 1720|battles]] were [[Battle of Cape Lopez|fought]] between the brigands and the colonial powers, both on land and at sea.

Piracy in the Caribbean declined over the next several decades after 1730, but by the 1810s, many pirates still roamed the waters, though they were not as bold or successful as their predecessors. The most successful pirates of the era were [[Jean Lafitte]] and [[Roberto Cofresi]]. Lafitte is considered by many to be the last [[buccaneer]] due to his army of pirates and fleet of pirate ships, which held bases in and around the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Lafitte and his men participated in the [[War of 1812]] [[battle of New Orleans]]. Cofresi's base was on [[Mona Island]], Puerto Rico, from which he disrupted commerce throughout the region. He became the last major target of the international anti-piracy operations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wombwell |first=A. James |title=The Long War Against Piracy: Historical Trends |year=2010 |ref=Wombell |publisher=Combat Studies Institute Press |location=Fort Leavenworth, Kansas |page=204 |isbn=978-0-9823283-6-1}}</ref>

[[File:Hanging of William Kidd.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|Hanging of [[Captain Kidd]]; illustration from ''The Pirates Own Book'' (1837)]]
The elimination of piracy from European waters expanded to the Caribbean in the 18th century, and to West Africa and North America by the 1710s. By the 1720s, even the Indian Ocean was a difficult location for pirates to operate.

England began to strongly turn against piracy at the turn of the 18th century, as it was increasingly damaging to the country's economic and commercial prospects in the region. The [[Piracy Act 1698]] for the "more effectual suppression of Piracy"<ref>''[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=46966 William III, 1698–99: An Act for the more effectual suppression of Piracy.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623163139/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/statutes-realm/vol7/pp590-594 |date=June 23, 2020 }}'' [Chapter VII. Rot. Parl. 11 Gul. III. p. 2. n. 5.]', Statutes of the Realm: volume 7: 1695–1701 (1820), pp. 590–594. Date accessed: February 16, 2007.</ref> made it easier to capture, try and convict pirates by lawfully enabling acts of piracy to be "examined, inquired of, tried, heard and determined, and adjudged in any place at sea, or upon the land, in any of his Majesty's islands, plantations, colonies, dominions, forts, or factories." This effectively enabled admirals to hold court sessions to try pirates wherever they deemed necessary, rather than requiring that trials be held in England. Commissioners of these vice-admiralty courts were also vested with "full power and authority" to issue warrants, summon the necessary witnesses, and "to do all thing necessary for the hearing and final determination of any case of piracy, robbery, or felony." These new and faster trials provided no legal representation for the pirates; and ultimately led in this era to the execution of 600 pirates, which represented approximately 10 percent of the pirates active at the time in the Caribbean region.<ref name="Max 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Boot |first1=Max |title=Pirates, Then and Now: How Piracy Was Defeated in the Past and Can Be Again |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=2009 |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=94–107 |jstor=20699624 }}</ref> Being an accessory to piracy was also criminalised under the statute.

[[File:The Capture of the Pirate Blackbeard 1718 by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris (retouched).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|''Capture of the Pirate Blackbeard, 1718'' depicting the battle between [[Blackbeard]] and [[Robert Maynard]] in Ocracoke Bay; romanticized depiction by [[Jean Leon Gerome Ferris]] from 1920]]
Piracy saw a brief resurgence between the end of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] in 1713 and around 1720, as many unemployed seafarers turned to piracy to make ends meet amid a postwar surplus of sailors that led to declining wages and working conditions. At the same time, one of the terms of the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] that ended the war gave to Great Britain's [[Royal African Company]] and other British slavers a thirty-year asiento, or contract, to furnish enslaved Africans to the Spanish colonies, providing British merchants and smugglers potential inroads into the traditionally closed Spanish markets in America and leading to an economic revival for the whole region. This revived Caribbean trade provided rich new pickings for a wave of piracy. Also contributing to the increase in Caribbean piracy at this time was Spain's breakup of the English logwood settlement at [[Campeche]] and the allure of a newly sunken silver fleet off the southern Bahamas in 1715. Fears over the rising levels of crime and piracy, political discontent, concern over crowd behaviour at public punishments, and an increased determination by [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] to suppress piracy, resulted in the [[Piracy Act 1717]] and [[Piracy Act 1721]]. These established seven-year [[penal transportation]] to North America as a possible punishment for those convicted of lesser felonies, or as a possible sentence to which capital punishment might be commuted by [[royal pardon]]. In 1717, a [[1717–1718 Acts of Grace|pardon was offered to pirates]] who surrendered to British authorities.

After 1720, piracy in the classic sense became extremely rare as the Royal Navy implemented increasingly effective anti-piracy measures, making it impossible for any pirate to sustain a career for long. By 1718, the British Royal Navy had approximately 124 vessels, and by 1815, 214; a significant increase from the two vessels England had in 1670.<ref name="Max 2009"/> British Royal Navy warships tirelessly hunted down pirate vessels, and almost always won these engagements.

[[File:Blackbeard head bow.gif|thumb|right|upright=0.95|[[Blackbeard]]'s severed head hanging from Maynard's bowsprit; illustration from ''The Pirates Own Book'' (1837)]]
Many pirates did not surrender and were killed at the point of capture; notorious pirate Edward Teach, or "Blackbeard", was hunted down by Lieutenant [[Robert Maynard]] at [[Cape Lookout National Seashore|Ocracoke Inlet]] off the coast of [[North Carolina]] on November 22, 1718, and killed. His flagship was a captured French slave ship known originally as ''La Concorde''; he renamed the frigate ''[[Queen Anne's Revenge]]''. Captain [[Chaloner Ogle]] of HMS ''Swallow'' cornered Bartholomew Roberts in 1722 at Cape Lopez, and a fatal broadside from the ''Swallow'' killed the pirate captain instantly. Roberts' death shocked the pirate world, as well as the Royal Navy. The local merchants and civilians had thought him invincible, and some considered him a hero.<ref name="Pike1876">{{cite book|last=Pike|first=Luke Owen|title=A History of Crime in England: From the accession of Henry VII to the present time|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorycrimein03pikegoog|year=1876|publisher=Smith, Elder & Company|page=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorycrimein03pikegoog/page/n286 266]|isbn=978-0-87585-019-1}}</ref> Roberts' death was seen by many historians as the end of the Golden Age of Piracy. Also crucial to the end of this era of piracy was the loss of the pirates' last Caribbean haven at Nassau.

In the early 19th century, piracy along the East and Gulf Coasts of North America, as well as in the Caribbean, increased again. Jean Lafitte was just one of hundreds of pirates operating in American and Caribbean waters between 1820 and 1835. The United States Navy repeatedly engaged pirates in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Mediterranean. Cofresí's ''El Mosquito'' was disabled in [[Capture of the El Mosquito|a collaboration]] between Spain and the United States. After fleeing for hours, he was ambushed and captured inland. The United States landed shore parties on several Caribbean islands in pursuit of pirates; Cuba was a major haven. By the 1830s, piracy had died out again, and the navies of the region focused on the slave trade.

About the time of the [[Mexican–American War]] in 1846, the United States Navy had grown strong and numerous enough to eliminate the pirate threat in the West Indies. By the 1830s, ships had begun to convert to steam propulsion, so the [[Age of Sail]] and the classical idea of pirates in the Caribbean ended. Privateering, similar to piracy, continued as a wartime asset for a few more decades and proved important during the naval campaigns of the [[American Civil War]].

Privateering would remain a tool of European states until the mid-19th century, with the [[Declaration of Paris]]. But [[letters of marque]] were given out much more sparingly by governments and were terminated as soon as conflicts ended. The idea of "no peace beyond the Line" was a relic that had no meaning by the more settled late 18th and early 19th centuries.

=== Canary Islands ===
[[File:La Gomera church M.jpg|thumb|250px|Mural representing the attack of [[Charles Windon]] to [[San Sebastián de La Gomera]] (1743)]]
Due to the strategic situation of this Spanish archipelago as a crossroads of maritime routes and commercial bridge between Europe, Africa and [[Americas|America]],<ref name=A>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gevic.net/info/contenidos/mostrar_contenidos.php?idcat=1&idcap=187&idcon=675|title=La piratería – Historia – (GEVIC) Gran Enciclopedia Virtual Islas Canarias|website=www.gevic.net|access-date=August 3, 2018|archive-date=March 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303213748/http://www.gevic.net/info/contenidos/mostrar_contenidos.php?idcat=1&idcap=187&idcon=675|url-status=live}}</ref> this was one of the places on the planet with the greatest pirate presence.

In the [[Canary Islands]], the following stand out: the attacks and continuous looting of [[Barbary pirates|Berber]], English, French and Dutch corsairs sometimes successful and often a failure;<ref name=A/> and on the other hand, the presence of pirates and corsairs from this archipelago, who made their incursions into the [[Caribbean]]. Pirates and corsairs such as [[François Le Clerc]], [[Jacques de Sores]], [[Francis Drake]] defeat in [[Gran Canaria]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gran-canaria-info.com/en/content/history/sir-francis-drake-s-epic-failure-at-las-palmas |title=The Gran Canaria Mistake That Cost Sir Francis Drake His Life |work=Gran-Canaria-Info.com |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=May 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509034136/https://gran-canaria-info.com/en/content/history/sir-francis-drake-s-epic-failure-at-las-palmas |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Pieter van der Does]], [[Murat Reis the Elder|Murat Reis]] and [[Horacio Nelson]] attacked the islands and was defeated in the [[Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797)]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://etenerifeholidays.co.uk/tenerife-island/history/the-defeat-of-nelson-at-the-battle-of-santa-cruz-de-tenerife-1797|title=The Defeat of Nelson at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife 1797|first=Peter|last=Allan|website=etenerifeholidays.co.uk|access-date=October 6, 2020|archive-date=November 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112023241/https://etenerifeholidays.co.uk/tenerife-island/history/the-defeat-of-nelson-at-the-battle-of-santa-cruz-de-tenerife-1797|url-status=live}}</ref> Among those born in the archipelago stands out above all [[Amaro Pargo]], whom the monarch [[Felipe V of Spain]] frequently benefited in his commercial incursions and corsairs.<ref name="ColFar">{{cite news|last = Fariña González|first = Manuel|title = La evolución de una fortuna indiana: D. Amaro Rodríguez Felipe (Amaro Pargo).|access-date = June 10, 2016|url = http://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/coloquios/id/1321|archive-date = March 4, 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001809/http://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/coloquios/id/1321}}</ref><ref name="AmaroHeroe">{{cite book | title=Amaro Pargo: documentos de una vida, I. Héroe y forrajido | date=2017 | publisher=Ediciones Idea | isbn=978-84-16759-81-1 | pages=520 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321110986 | access-date=March 20, 2018 | archive-date=March 17, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317143401/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321110986_Amaro_Pargo_documentos_de_una_vida_I_Heroe_y_forajido | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] was, especially during the first half of the 18th century, the most important corsair center in the [[Macaronesian]] region.<ref name=B>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321110986|title=Amaro Pargo: documentos de una vida, I. Héroe y forajido}}</ref><ref>[https://www.elescobillon.com/2018/08/%E2%80%9Csanta-cruz-de-tenerife-fue-la-capital-corsaria-de-la-macaronesia-la-primera-mitad-del-siglo-xviii%E2%80%9D/ "Santa Cruz de Tenerife fue la capital corsaria de la Macaronesia la primera mitad del siglo XVIII"] El Escobillón, 06/08/2018</ref> The recent discovery of abundant documentary evidence of significant corsair activity, carried out primarily by natives, residents, and islanders, confirms this fact. At the same time, the numerous pirate ships that frequented the Canary Islands' waters used landing places along the coast. Such was the case of Valle de Salazar or [[San Andrés, Santa Cruz de Tenerife|San Andrés]], which had acquired a reputation as a "pirate port" until the construction of its castle or defensive tower.<ref>[https://www.elblogoferoz.com/2013/04/15/piratas-en-santa-cruz-de-tenerife-por-jose-manuel-ledesma/ Piratas en Santa Cruz de Tenerife] El Blog Feroz, 15/04/2013</ref>

===North America===
[[File:Dan Seavey around 1920 (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|[[Dan Seavey]] was a pirate on the [[Great Lakes]] in the early 20th century.]]

Piracy on the east coast of North America first became common in the early seventeenth century, as English privateers discharged after the end of the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War]] (1585–1604) turned to piracy.<ref>Clive Malcolm Senior, [https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/34506574/544142.pdf An Investigation of the Activities and Importance of English Pirates, 1603–40] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531144419/https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/34506574/544142.pdf |date=May 31, 2022 }} (University of Bristol, PhD thesis, 1973)</ref><ref>Clive Senior, ''A Nation of Pirates: English Piracy in its Heyday'' (Newton Abbot, 1976)</ref> The most famous and successful of these early pirates was [[Peter Easton]].

[[River pirate|River piracy]] in late 18th-mid-19th century America was primarily concentrated along the [[Ohio River]] and [[Mississippi River]] valleys. In 1803, at [[Grand Tower, Illinois|Tower Rock]], the [[U.S. Army]] [[Cavalry|dragoons]], possibly, from the frontier army post upriver at [[Fort Kaskaskia]], on the [[Illinois]] side opposite St. Louis, raided and drove out the river pirates.

[[Stack Island (Mississippi River)|Stack Island]] was also associated with river pirates and [[counterfeit money|counterfeiters]] in the late 1790s. In 1809, the last major river pirate activity took place on the Upper Mississippi River, and river piracy in this area came to an abrupt end when a group of [[flatboat]]men raided the island, wiping out the river pirates. From 1790 to 1834, [[Cave-In-Rock, Illinois|Cave-In-Rock]] was the principal [[outlaw]] lair and headquarters of river pirate activity in the Ohio River region, from which [[Samuel Mason]] led a gang of river pirates on the Ohio River.

River piracy continued on the lower Mississippi River, from the early 1800s to the mid-1830s, declining as a result of direct military action and local [[law enforcement]] and [[vigilante|regulator-vigilante]] groups that uprooted and swept out pockets of outlaw resistance.

[[Dan Seavey|"Roaring" Dan Seavey]] was a pirate active in the early 1900s in the [[Great Lakes]] region who joined the [[United States Marshals Service]] in later life, working to curb poaching, smuggling, and piracy on [[Lake Michigan]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sandusky |first=Trent |date=February 14, 2008 |title=Great Lakes Piracy: Pirates Thrived on the Great Lakes Long After Their Golden Age |url=http://voices.yahoo.com/great-lakes-piracy-pirates-thrived-great-lakes-893177.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729042052/http://voices.yahoo.com/great-lakes-piracy-pirates-thrived-great-lakes-893177.html |archive-date=July 29, 2014 |access-date=November 25, 2024 |website=Yahoo}}</ref>

==Culture and social structure==

===Rewards===
{{see also|No purchase, no pay}}
Pirates had a hierarchical system on board their ships that determined how captured money was distributed. However, pirates were more [[egalitarian]] than any other area of employment at the time. In fact, pirate [[quartermaster]]s were a counterbalance to the captain and had the power to veto his orders. The majority of plunder was in the form of cargo and the ship's equipment, with medicines the most highly prized. A vessel's doctor's chest would be worth anywhere from £300 to £400, or around $470,000 in today's values. Jewels were common plunder but not popular, as they were hard to sell, and pirates, unlike the public of today, had little concept of their value. There is one recorded case in which a pirate was given a large diamond worth far more than the handful of small diamonds he gave his crewmates as a share. He felt cheated and had it broken up to match what they received.<ref name="Vallar">{{cite web|url=http://www.cindyvallar.com/treasure.html|title=Treasure|access-date=April 21, 2009|archive-date=December 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221213656/http://www.cindyvallar.com/treasure.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Morgan,Henry.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Henry Morgan]] who sacked and burned the city of [[Panama City|Panama]] in 1671 – the second most important city in the Spanish New World at the time; engraving from 1681 Spanish edition of [[Alexandre Exquemelin]]'s ''The Buccaneers of America'']]

[[Spanish dollar|Spanish pieces of eight]] minted in Mexico or Seville were the standard trade currency in the American colonies. However, every colony still used the monetary units of pounds, shillings, and pence for bookkeeping, while Spanish, German, French, and Portuguese money were all standard mediums of exchange, as British law prohibited the export of British silver coinage. Until exchange rates were standardised in the late 18th century, each colony legislated its own exchange rates. In England, 1 piece of eight was worth 4s 3d while it was worth 8s in New York, 7s 6d in [[Pennsylvania]], and 6s 8d in [[Virginia]]. One 18th-century English shilling was worth about $58 in modern currency, so a piece of eight could be worth between $246 and $465. As such, the value of pirate plunder could vary considerably, depending on who recorded it and where.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hudsonrivervalley.net/AMERICANBOOK/18.html|title=The Hudson River Valley Institute|access-date=April 20, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302075626/http://www.hudsonrivervalley.net/AMERICANBOOK/18.html|archive-date=March 2, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coins.nd.edu/ColCurrency/CurrencyIntros/IntroValue.html|title=University of Notre Dame|access-date=October 23, 2014|archive-date=May 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523063918/https://coins.nd.edu/ColCurrency/CurrencyIntros/IntroValue.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ordinary seamen received a part of the plunder at the captain's discretion, but usually a single share. On average, a pirate could expect the equivalent of a year's wages as his share from each ship captured while the crew of the most successful pirates would often each receive a share valued at around £1,000 ($1.17 million) at least once in their career.<ref name="Vallar"/> One of the larger amounts taken from a single ship was that by captain [[Thomas Tew]] from an Indian merchantman in 1692. Each ordinary seaman on his ship received a share worth £3,000 ($3.5 million), while officers received proportionally larger amounts according to the agreed-upon shares, with Tew himself receiving 2½ shares. It is known that there were actions involving the capture of multiple ships, in which a single share was worth almost double this.<ref name="Vallar"/><ref name="Gosse">{{Cite book |last= Gosse|first= Philip |title= The Pirates' Who's Who|publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC|year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4346-3302-6}} p. 251.</ref>

By contrast, an ordinary seaman in the Royal Navy received 19s per month, paid in a lump sum at the end of a tour of duty, which was around half the rate paid in the [[Merchant Navy]]. However, corrupt officers would often "tax" their crews' wages to supplement their own, and the Royal Navy of the day was infamous for its reluctance to pay. From this wage, 6d per month was deducted for the maintenance of [[Greenwich Hospital (London)|Greenwich Hospital]], with similar amounts deducted for the [[Chatham Chest]], the chaplain, and surgeon. Six months' pay was withheld to discourage desertion. That this was an insufficient incentive is revealed in a report on proposed changes to the RN, written by [[Admiral Nelson]] in 1803; he noted that since 1793, more than 42,000 sailors had deserted. Roughly half of all RN crews were [[Impressment|pressganged]], and these not only received lower wages than volunteers but were shackled while the vessel was docked and were never permitted to go ashore until released from service.<ref name="Hill">{{Cite book |last= Hill|first= J. R. |title= The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002 |isbn=0-19-860527-7}} p. 157.</ref>

Although the Royal Navy suffered from many morale issues, it addressed the question of prize money through the [[Cruizers and Convoys Act 1708]], which transferred the share previously held by the Crown to the ship's captors. Technically, it was still possible for the Crown to get the money or a portion of it, but this rarely happened. The condemnation of a captured vessel, its cargo, and its men was submitted to the High Court of the Admiralty, and this process remained in force, with minor changes, throughout the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary]] and [[Napoleonic War]]s.

{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; vertical-align: top;"
|+ Ship prize shares
|-
! scope="col" | Rank !! scope="col" | Pre 1808 !! scope="col" | Post 1808
|-
| [[Captain (naval)|Captain]]||3/8||2/8
|-
| [[Admiral]] of fleet||1/8||1/8
|-
| [[Sailing Master]] & Lieutenants & [[Captain (OF-2)|Captain]] of [[Royal Marines|Marine]]s||1/8||1/8
|-
| [[Warrant Officers]]||1/8||1/8
|-
| Wardroom Warrant officers & Petty Officers||1/8||1/8
|-
| [[Sailor|Gunner]]s, Sailors||1/8||2/8
|}
[[File:BartRobCrew.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Bartholomew Roberts]]' crew carousing at the [[Calabar River]]; illustration from ''The Pirates Own Book'' (1837). Roberts is estimated to have captured over 470 vessels.]]
Even the flag officer's share was not quite straightforward; he would only get the full one-eighth if he had no junior flag officer beneath him. If this were the case, then he would get a third share. If he had more than one, then he would take one-half while the rest was shared out equally.

There was a great deal of money to be made in this way. The record breaker was the capture of the [[Spanish frigate Hermione|Spanish frigate ''Hermione'']] in 1762, which was carrying treasure. The value of this was so great that each seaman netted £485 ($1.4 million in 2008 dollars).<ref>[http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ Current value] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218073541/https://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/ |date=December 18, 2017 }} is based on the average annual income for the respective years.</ref> The two captains responsible, Evans and Pownall, received £65,000 each ($188.4 million). In January 1807, the frigate ''Caroline'' took the Spanish ''San Rafael'', which brought in £52,000 for her captain, Peter Rainier (who had been only a midshipman some thirteen months before). All through the wars, there are examples of this kind of luck falling on captains. Another famous 'capture' was that of the Spanish frigates ''Thetis'' and ''Santa Brigada'', which were loaded with gold [[Coin|specie]]. They were taken by four British frigates, who shared the money, each captain receiving £40,730. Each lieutenant got £5,091, the Warrant Officer group £2,468, the midshipmen £791, and the individual seamen £182.

It should also be noted that it was usually only the frigates that took prizes; the ships of the line were far too ponderous to be able to chase and capture the smaller ships that generally carried treasure. Nelson always bemoaned that he had done badly out of prize money and that, even as a flag officer, he received little. This was not that he had a bad command of captains, but rather that British mastery of the seas was so complete that few enemy ships dared to sail.<ref>[http://www.hms.org.uk/nelsonsnavyprize.htm Nelson and His Navy – Prize Money] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621024038/http://www.hms.org.uk/nelsonsnavyprize.htm |date=June 21, 2008 }} Historical Maritime Society.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="vertical-align: top;"
|+ Comparison chart using the share distribution known for three pirates against the shares for a Privateer and wages as paid by the Royal Navy.
|-
! scope="col" | Rank
! scope="col" | Bartholomew Roberts
! scope="col" | [[George Lowther (pirate)|George Lowther]]
! scope="col" | William Phillips
! scope="col" | Privateer ([[William Monson (Royal Navy officer)|Sir William Monson]])
! scope="col" | Royal Navy (per month)
|-
| [[Captain (naval)|Captain]]
| 2 shares
| 2 shares
| 1.5 shares
| 10 shares
| £8, 8s
|-
| [[Master-at-arms|Master]]
| 1.5 shares
| 1.5 shares
| 1.25 shares
| 7 or 8 shares
| £4
|-
| [[Boatswain]]
| 1.5 shares
| 1.25 shares
| 1.25 shares
| 5 shares
| £2
|-
| [[Sailor|Gunner]]
| 1.5 shares
| 1.25 shares
| 1.25 shares
| 5 shares
| £2
|-
| [[Quartermaster]]
| 2 shares
|
|
| 4 shares
| £1, 6s
|-
| Carpenter
|
|
| 1.25 shares
| 5 shares
| £2
|-
| [[Sub-Lieutenant|Mate]]
|
| 1.25 shares
|
| 5 shares
| £2, 2s
|-
| Doctor
|
| 1.25 shares
|
| 5 shares
| £5 +2d per man aboard
|-
| "Other Officers"
| 1.25 shares
|
|
| various rates
| various rates
|-
| [[Able Seamen]] (2 yrs experience) [[Ordinary seaman|Ordinary Seamen]] (some exp) [[Landman (rank)|Landsmen]] ([[Impressment|pressganged]])
| 1 share
| 1 share
| 1 share
|
| 22s 19s 11s
|}

===Loot===
[[File:Whydah-gold.jpg|thumb|right|Pirate treasure looted by [[Samuel Bellamy]] and recovered from the wreck of the ''Whydah''; exhibit at the [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]], 2010]]
Even though pirates raided many ships, few, if any, buried their treasure. Often, the "treasure" that was stolen was food, water, alcohol, weapons, or clothing. Other things they stole were household items like bits of soap and gear like rope and anchors, or sometimes they would keep the ship they captured (either to sell off or keep because it was better than their ship). Such items were likely to be needed immediately, rather than saved for future trade. For this reason, the pirates did not need to bury these goods. Pirates tended to kill a few people aboard the ships they captured; usually, they would kill no one if the ship surrendered, because if it became known that pirates took no prisoners, their victims would fight to the last breath, making victory both very difficult and costly in lives. In contrast, ships would quickly surrender if they knew they would be spared. In one well-documented case, 300 heavily armed soldiers on a ship attacked by Thomas Tew surrendered after a brief battle with none of Tew's 40-man crew being injured.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://piratesofamerica.com/Pirates_of_America/Thomas_Tew.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927040642/http://piratesofamerica.com/Pirates_of_America/Thomas_Tew.html|title=Piratesofamerica.com|archive-date=September 27, 2013}}</ref>

===Punishment===
[[File:Henszlein.jpg|thumb|A contemporary flyer depicting the [[public execution]] of 16th-century pirate [[Klein Henszlein]] and his crew in 1573]]
During the 17th and 18th centuries, once pirates were caught, justice was meted out in a summary fashion, and many ended their lives by "dancing the hempen jig", a euphemism for [[hanging]]. Public executions were a form of entertainment at the time, and people came out to watch them as they would at a sporting event today. Newspapers reported details such as condemned men's last words, the prayers said by the priests, and descriptions of their final moments on the gallows. In England, most of these executions took place at [[Execution Dock]] on the [[River Thames]] in London.

In the cases of more famous prisoners, usually captains, their punishments extended beyond death. Their bodies were enclosed in [[gibbeting|iron cages (gibbet)]] (for which they were measured before their execution) and left to swing in the air until the flesh rotted off them- a process that could take as long as two years. The bodies of captains such as William "Captain" Kidd, Charles Vane, [[William Fly]], and [[John Rackham (pirate)|John Rackham]] were all treated this manner.<ref name="Pirates by John Matthews">Pirates by John Matthews</ref>

===Role of women===
{{Main|Women in piracy}}
[[File:Ann Bonny, Cole 1724.jpg|thumb|1724 engraving of Bonny from ''[[A General History of the Pyrates]]'']]
While piracy was predominantly a male occupation throughout history, a minority of pirates were female.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pantherbay.com/bio_womenpirates.php|title=Were there really women pirates?|website=www.pantherbay.com|access-date=November 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428233752/http://www.pantherbay.com/bio_womenpirates.php|archive-date=April 28, 2015}}</ref> Pirates did not allow women onto their ships very often. Additionally, women were often regarded as bad luck among pirates. It was feared that the male members of the crew would argue and fight over the women. On many ships, women (as well as young boys) were prohibited by the [[Pirate code|ship's contract]], which all crew members were required to sign.<ref name="Pennell">Pennell, C. R. 2001. Bandits at sea : A pirates reader. New York: New York University Press.</ref> {{rp|303}}

Only four female pirates are known to have been active during the Golden Age of Piracy. They were [[Anne Bonny]] and [[Mary Read]], women who served under [[John Rackham]] in 1720, [[Mary Critchett]], an escaped prisoner in 1729, and [[Martha Farley]], the wife of a minor pirate in 1727.

===Democracy among Caribbean pirates===
{{See also|Pirate code|distribution of justice}}
Unlike traditional Western societies of the time, many Caribbean pirate crews of European descent operated as limited [[democracies]]. Pirate communities were among the first to establish a system of checks and balances similar to that used by present-day democracies. The first record of such a government aboard a pirate sloop dates to the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leeson |first1=Peter T. |title=An- arrgh -chy: The Law and Economics of Pirate Organization |journal=Journal of Political Economy |date=December 2007 |volume=115 |issue=6 |pages=1049–1094 |doi=10.1086/526403 |s2cid=16692227 }}</ref>

==Known pirate shipwrecks==
To date, the following identifiable pirate [[shipwrecks]] have been discovered:

*''[[Whydah Gally]]'' (discovered in 1984), a former [[slave ship]] seized on its maiden voyage from Africa by the pirate captain [[Samuel Bellamy]]. The wreck was found off the coast of [[Cape Cod]], Massachusetts, buried under {{convert|10|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|50|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} feet of sand, in depths ranging from {{convert|16|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|30|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} feet deep, spread for four miles, parallel to the Cape's easternmost coast. With the discovery of the ship's bell in 1985 and a small brass placard in 2013, both inscribed with the ship's name and maiden voyage date, the ''Whydah'' is the only fully authenticated Golden Age pirate shipwreck ever discovered.<ref>{{cite book|title=Commonwealth of Massachusetts v. Maritime Underwater Surveys, Inc. ''403 Mass. 501.''|publisher=Massachusetts Supreme Court|date=1988|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2602674804977561500&hl=en|access-date=October 6, 2019|archive-date=June 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624043754/https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=2602674804977561500&hl=en|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2007, the ''Wydah'' collection has been touring as part of the exhibit "Real Pirates" sponsored by [[National Geographic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weather.com/travel/12-amazing-sunken-treasure-discoveries-20130816?pageno=3|title=Sunken Treasures: The World's Most Valuable Shipwreck Discoveries|author=Burlingame, Liz|date=August 23, 2013|website=weather.com|publisher=The Weather Channel|access-date=December 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826223843/http://www.weather.com/travel/12-amazing-sunken-treasure-discoveries-20130816?pageno=3|archive-date=August 26, 2013}}</ref>
*''[[Queen Anne's Revenge]]'' (discovered in 1996), the flagship of the infamous pirate [[Blackbeard]]. He used the ship for less than a year, but it was an effective tool in his prize-taking. In June 1718, Blackbeard ran the ship aground at [[Topsail Inlet]], now known as Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina. Intersal,<ref>{{cite web|title=Intersal|url=http://www.lat3440.com/|website=Intersal, Inc.|access-date=April 17, 2015|archive-date=April 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402125820/http://lat3440.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> a private firm working under a permit with the state of North Carolina, discovered the remains of the vessel<ref name="D. Moore. 1997 pp. 31"/> in 28 feet (8.5m) of water about one mile (1.6 km) offshore of [[Fort Macon State Park]], [[Atlantic Beach, North Carolina]]. Thirty-one cannons have been identified to date, and more than 250,000 artifacts have been recovered.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.islandgazette.net/news-server1/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9534:250000-pieces-|title=250,000 Pieces of Blackbeard from Shipwreck|editor-last=Killough III|editor-first=Willard H.|work=Island Gazette|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150709054722/http://www.islandgazette.net/news-server1/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=9534%3A250000-pieces-|archive-date=July 9, 2015}}</ref> The cannons are of different origins (such as English, Swedish, and possibly French) and different sizes, as would be expected with a colonial pirate crew.<ref name="D. Moore. 1997 pp. 31">{{cite journal|author= Moore, D. | title=A General History of Blackbeard the Pirate, the Queen Anne's Revenge and the Adventure| journal= Tributaries| volume =VII|date= 1997|pages= 31–35|publisher=North Carolina Maritime History Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/08/110829-blackbeard-shipwreck-pirates-archaeology-science/|title=Blackbeard's Ship Confirmed off North Carolina|work=National Geographic News|access-date=August 7, 2017|archive-date=September 25, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925015850/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/08/110829-blackbeard-shipwreck-pirates-archaeology-science}}</ref>
*''[[Golden Fleece (pirate ship)|Golden Fleece]]'' (discovered in 2009), the ship of the notorious English pirate [[Joseph Bannister]], which was found by the American shipwreck hunters [[John Chatterton]] and [[John Mattera]] in the [[Dominican Republic]], at [[Samaná Bay]]. The discovery is recounted in [[Robert Kurson]]'s book ''Pirate Hunters'' (2015).<ref>{{cite book|author=Kurson, Robert| title= Pirate Hunters| year= 2015|location= New York|publisher= Random House|isbn=978-1-4000-6336-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Calendar of State Papers, America and West Indies|publisher= British National Archives}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Buisseret, David |date=2000|title= Port Royal Jamaica|location= Kingston|publisher= University of the West Indies Press|isbn=976-640-098-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Buisseret, David |date= 2009|title=Jamaica in 1687|location= Kingston| publisher= University of the West Indies Press|isbn=978-976-640-236-5}}</ref>

==Privateers==
{{Main|Privateer}}
[[File:Rekonstruierter Schaedel.jpg|thumb|upright|Modern reconstruction of skull alleged to have belonged to 14th century pirate [[Klaus Störtebeker]]. He was the leader of the privateer guild [[Victual Brothers]], who later turned to piracy and roamed European seas.]]
A '''privateer''' or '''corsair''' used similar methods to a pirate, but acted under orders of the state while in possession of a commission or [[letter of marque and reprisal]] from a government or monarch authorizing the capture of merchant ships belonging to an enemy nation. For example, the [[United States Constitution]] of 1787 specifically authorized [[United States Congress|Congress]] to issue letters of marque and reprisal. The letter of marque and reprisal was recognized by international convention and meant that a privateer could not technically be charged with piracy while attacking the targets named in his commission. This nicety of law did not always save the individuals concerned, however, since whether one was considered a pirate or a legally operating privateer often depended on whose custody the individual found himself in—that of the country that had issued the commission, or that of the object of attack. Spanish authorities were known to execute foreign privateers with their letters of marque hung around their necks to emphasize Spain's rejection of such defenses. Furthermore, many privateers exceeded the bounds of their letters of marque by attacking nations with which their sovereign was at peace (Thomas Tew and William Kidd are notable alleged examples). They thus made themselves liable to conviction for piracy. However, a letter of marque did provide some cover for such pirates, as plunder seized from neutral or friendly shipping could be passed off later as taken from enemy merchants.

[[File:Confiance Kent fight.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kent (1799 ship)|''Kent'']] battling ''[[Confiance (1797 ship)|Confiance]]'', a privateer vessel commanded by French corsair [[Robert Surcouf]] in October 1800, as depicted in a painting by [[Ambroise Louis Garneray|Garneray]]]]
The famous [[Barbary corsairs]] of the Mediterranean, authorized by the [[Ottoman Empire]], were privateers, as were the Maltese corsairs, who were authorized by the [[Knights of St. John]], and the [[Dunkirkers]] in the service of the [[Spanish Empire]]. In the years 1626–1634 alone, the Dunkirk privateers captured 1,499 ships, and sank another 336.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gbU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA229 The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 4, The Decline of Spain and the Thirty Years' War, 1609–48/49] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226081027/https://books.google.com/books?id=gbU8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA229 |date=December 26, 2022 }}''". J. P. Cooper (1979). p. 229. {{ISBN|0-521-29713-3}}</ref> From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates, and Algerians captured 160 British ships between 1677 and 1680.<ref>Rees Davies, [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml British Slaves on the Barbary Coast] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425235016/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml |date=April 25, 2011 }}, [[BBC]], July 1, 2003.</ref> One famous privateer was [[Sir Francis Drake]]. His patron was [[Queen Elizabeth I]], and their relationship ultimately proved to be quite profitable for England.<ref name=Kelsey>Kelsey, Harry, ''Sir Francis Drake; The Queen's Pirate'', Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998, {{ISBN|0-300-07182-5}}.</ref>

Privateers constituted a large proportion of the total military force at sea during the 17th and 18th centuries. During the [[Nine Years War]], the French adopted a policy of strongly encouraging privateers ([[French corsairs]]), including the famous [[Jean Bart]], to attack English and Dutch shipping. England lost roughly 4,000 merchant ships during the war.<ref name=Privateer>[http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj11n1/cj11n1-8.pdf Privateering and the Private Production of Naval Power] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031211221516/http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj11n1/cj11n1-8.pdf |date=December 11, 2003 }}, ''Gary M. Anderson and Adam Gifford Jr.''</ref> In the following [[War of Spanish Succession]], privateer attacks continued, Britain losing 3,250 merchant ships.<ref>Brewer, John. ''The Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688–1783.'' New York.: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. p. 197.</ref> During the [[War of Austrian Succession]], Britain lost 3,238 merchant ships, and France lost 3,434 merchant ships to the British.<ref name=Privateer/>

During [[King George's War]], approximately 36,000 Americans served aboard privateers at one time or another.<ref name=Privateer/> During the [[American Revolution]], about 55,000 American seamen served aboard the privateers.<ref>[http://www.usmm.org/revolution.html Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604160444/http://www.usmm.org/revolution.html |date=June 4, 2019 }}.</ref> The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} Between the end of the Revolutionary War and 1812, less than 30 years, Britain, France, Naples, the [[Barbary states]], Spain, and the Netherlands seized approximately 2,500 American ships.<ref>[http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/usa/usn1812.html US Navy Fleet List War of 1812] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109000731/http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/usa/usn1812.html |date=January 9, 2009 }}.</ref> Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20% of the United States government's annual revenues in 1800.<ref>{{cite web|last=Oren|first=Michael B.|title=The Middle East and the Making of the United States, 1776 to 1815|date=November 3, 2005|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/11/michaelOren.html|access-date=February 18, 2007|archive-date=July 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190715201453/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/11/michaelOren.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Throughout the American Civil War, [[Confederate privateer]]s successfully harassed Union merchant ships.<ref>[http://www.sc.edu/uscpress/1994/3005.html The Confederate Privateers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206094201/http://www.sc.edu/uscpress/1994/3005.html |date=December 6, 2008 }}.</ref>

Privateering lost international sanction under the [[Declaration of Paris]] in 1856.

==Commerce raiders==
{{See also|Ruse de guerre}}
A wartime activity similar to piracy involves disguised [[warship]]s called [[commerce raiders]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bailey |first=Roger A. |date=December 19, 2012 |title=Commerce Raiders |url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/commerce-raiders |access-date=March 31, 2023 |website=American Battlefield Trust |language=en-US |archive-date=June 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604223618/https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/commerce-raiders |url-status=live }}</ref> or [[merchant raider]]s, which attack enemy shipping commerce, approaching by stealth and then opening fire. Commerce raiders operated successfully during the American Revolution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Privateers in the American Revolution|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/privateers-in-the-american-revolution.htm|publisher=U.S. National Park Service|access-date=2026-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Militia of the Sea|url=https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/militia-sea|publisher=American Battlefield Trust|access-date=2026-05-01}}</ref> During the American Civil War, the Confederacy sent out several commerce raiders, the most famous of which was the CSS Alabama.<ref>{{cite web|title=Confederate Commerce Raiders and Privateers|url=https://www.essentialcivilwarcurriculum.com/confederate-commerce-raiders-and-privateers.html|publisher=Essential Civil War Curriculum|access-date=2026-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=CSS Alabama Wreck Site (1864)|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/underwater-archaeology/sites-and-projects/ship-wrecksites/css-alabama.html|publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command|access-date=2026-05-01}}</ref> During World War I and World War II, Germany also made use of these tactics, both in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Since commissioned naval vessels were openly used, these commerce raiders should not be considered even privateers, much less pirates, although the opposing combatants were vocal in denouncing them as such.

==Contemporary piracy{{anchor|1990s–2010s|1990s–2020s}}==
{{Further|Piracy in the 21st century}}
{{See also|Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea|Piracy in Somalia|Piracy in the Strait of Malacca|Piracy on Falcon Lake|List of ships attacked by Somali pirates}}
{{terrorism}}

Seaborne piracy against transport vessels is a significant issue, with estimated worldwide losses of US$16 billion per year in 2004,<ref name="foreignaffairs.org"/> increased to US$25 billion over the next 20 years.<ref name="Assessment of global shipping risk"/> Waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the [[Strait of Malacca]] and Singapore, which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year. In the Gulf of Guinea, maritime piracy has also put pressure on offshore oil and gas production, and the security of offshore installations and supply vessels is often paid for by oil companies rather than the respective governments.<ref>{{cite news | title=Nigeria, Angola and beyond – unlocking offshore potential requires a safe environment | url=https://www.academia.edu/9519102 | access-date=September 27, 2015 | work=Ship&Offshore | first=Dirk | last=Siebels | date=November 1, 2014 | archive-date=March 27, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327190710/https://www.academia.edu/9519102 | url-status=live }}</ref> In the late 2000s,<ref>{{cite news | title=U.S. Navy warships exchange gunfire with suspected pirates off Somali coast | url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002874180_websomalia19.html?syndication=rss | access-date=January 18, 2007 | work=The Seattle Times | first=Jim | last=Krane | date=March 19, 2006 | archive-date=May 25, 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070525094000/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002874180_websomalia19.html?syndication=rss | url-status=live }}</ref> the emergence of piracy off the coast of Somalia spurred a multi-national effort led by the United States to patrol the waters near the [[Horn of Africa]]. In 2011, Brazil also created an anti-piracy unit on the [[Amazon River]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/17/brazil-amazon-pirates |title=Brazil creating anti-pirate force after spate of attacks on Amazon riverboats |work=The Guardian |last=Phillips |first=Tom |date=June 17, 2011 |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308174851/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/17/brazil-amazon-pirates |url-status=live }}</ref> Sir [[Peter Blake (sailor)|Peter Blake]], a New Zealand world champion yachtsman, was killed by pirates on the Amazon river in 2001.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/19/world/americas/brazil-amazon-pirates-riverboats-rain-forest.html|title='There's No Law on the Amazon': River Pirates Terrorize Ships by Night|last=Romero|first=Simon|date=November 18, 2016|newspaper=The New York Times|issn=0362-4331|access-date=November 20, 2016|archive-date=February 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221071836/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/19/world/americas/brazil-amazon-pirates-riverboats-rain-forest.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[European Union]], vessels suffer [[River pirate|river piracy]], with attacks [[Piracy in Serbia|on the Serbian]] and Romanian stretches of the [[Danube river]], an [[international waterway]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/vijesti/crna-kronika/rijecni-gusari-u-srbiji-pljackaju-hrvatske-brodove-sa-sloge-ukrali-opremu-vrijednu-60-tisuca-eura/1724961/|title=Riječni gusari u Srbiji pljačkaju hrvatske brodove: Sa 'Sloge' ukrali opremu vrijednu 60 tisuća eura! – Jutarnji List|website=www.jutarnji.hr|date=October 12, 2011|access-date=November 4, 2019|archive-date=November 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104000458/https://www.jutarnji.hr/vijesti/crna-kronika/rijecni-gusari-u-srbiji-pljackaju-hrvatske-brodove-sa-sloge-ukrali-opremu-vrijednu-60-tisuca-eura/1724961/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://un.ua/eng/article/369989.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114032713/http://un.ua/eng/article/369989.html|archive-date=January 14, 2012|title=Ukrainian Danube Shipping Company Says Its Ships Are Being Attacked Frequently In Romanian Part of River Danube |work=Ukrainian News Agency|access-date=October 23, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gazeta.ua/articles/np/_ukrayinski-korabli-vse-chastishe-stayut-zhertvami-rumunskih-pirativ/419063|title=Українські кораблі все частіше стають жертвами румунських піратів|date=January 20, 2012|website=Gazeta.ua|access-date=November 4, 2019|archive-date=November 4, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104000456/https://gazeta.ua/articles/np/_ukrayinski-korabli-vse-chastishe-stayut-zhertvami-rumunskih-pirativ/419063|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Somalian Piracy Threat Map 2010.png|thumb|left|Map showing the extent of Somali pirate attacks on shipping vessels between 2005 and 2010]]

Modern pirates favor small boats and exploit the limited crew sizes on modern cargo vessels. They also use large vessels to supply the smaller attack/boarding vessels. Modern pirates can be successful because a large share of international commerce occurs by sea. Major shipping routes take cargo ships through narrow bodies of water such as the [[Gulf of Aden]] and the Strait of Malacca making them vulnerable to be overtaken and boarded by small [[motorboat]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/documentaries/2008/03/080303_pirates_prog2.shtml |title=Pirates – Part Two |publisher=BBC Radio World Service |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623101649/https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/documentaries/2008/03/080303_pirates_prog2.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/~ar120/somalia.html |title=Pirates, Warlords and Rogue Fishing Vessels in Somalia's Unruly Seas |last=Coffen-Smout |first=Scott |website=chebucto.ns |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=May 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515090636/http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/~ar120/somalia.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Other active areas include the [[South China Sea]] and the [[Niger Delta]]. As usage increases, many of these ships have to lower cruising speeds to allow for navigation and traffic control, making them prime targets for piracy.

Also, pirates often operate in regions of poor, developing, or struggling countries with small or nonexistent navies and along major [[trade route]]s. Pirates sometimes evade capture by sailing into waters controlled by their pursuer's enemies. With the end of the [[Cold War]], navies have decreased in size and patrol less frequently, while trade has increased, making organized piracy far easier. Modern pirates are sometimes linked to organized crime syndicates, but are often small, individual groups.

The [[International Maritime Bureau]] (IMB) maintains statistics regarding pirate attacks dating back to 1995. Their records indicate hostage-taking overwhelmingly dominates the types of violence against seafarers. For example, in 2006, there were 239 attacks, 77 crew members were kidnapped and 188 taken hostage but only 15 of the pirate attacks resulted in murder.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.securitymanagement.com/article/eastern-inscrutability-piracy-high-seas |website=Security Management |title=Piracy on the high seas |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103062657/http://www.securitymanagement.com/article/eastern-inscrutability-piracy-high-seas |archive-date=January 3, 2008 |access-date=October 23, 2007}}</ref> In 2007 the attacks rose by 10 percent to 263 attacks. There was a 35 percent increase in reported attacks involving guns. Crew members who were injured numbered 64 compared to just 17 in 2006.<ref name=ICC_piracy_report>{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-ccs.org/main/news.php?newsid=102 |publisher=ICC Commercial Crime Services |title=IBM Piracy Report 2007 |access-date=January 22, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325194942/http://www.icc-ccs.org/main/news.php?newsid=102 |archive-date=March 25, 2008}}</ref> That number does not include instances of hostage taking and kidnapping where the victims were not injured.

[[File:STS61C-42-72.jpg|thumb|left|Aerial photograph of the [[Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea|Niger Delta]], a center of piracy]]

The number of attacks from January to September 2009 had surpassed the previous year's total due to the increased pirate attacks in the Gulf of Aden and off Somalia. Between January and September, the number of attacks rose from 293 to 306. Pirates boarded the vessels in 114 cases and hijacked 34. Gun use in pirate attacks increased to 176 cases from 76 in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5hvd4QSDb-PaSYhIQlkyM8gcykpLgD9BFC6880|title=World pirate attacks surge in 2009 due to Somalia}}{{dead link|date=June 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

Rather than cargo, modern pirates have targeted the crew's personal belongings and the contents of the [[safe|ship's safe]], which may contain large amounts of cash needed for payroll and port fees. In other cases, the pirates force the crew off the ship and then sail it to a port to be repainted and given a new identity through false papers purchased from corrupt or complicit officials.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Anarchy at Sea |magazine=Atlantic Monthly |date=September 2003}}</ref>

Modern piracy can occur amid political unrest. For example, following the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam, Thai piracy was aimed at the many Vietnamese who [[Vietnamese boat people|took to boats]] to escape. Further, following the disintegration of the government of Somalia, [[warlord]]s in the region have attacked ships delivering UN food aid.<ref>{{cite news | title=Pirates Open Fire on Cruise Ship off Somalia | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/05/AR2005110500622.html?nav=hcmodule | access-date=November 14, 2005 | newspaper=The Washington Post | agency=Reuters | date=November 5, 2005 | archive-date=September 23, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923022109/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/05/AR2005110500622.html?nav=hcmodule | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Somali Pirates.jpg|thumb|right|A collage of Somali pirates armed with [[AKM]] [[assault rifles]], [[RPG-7]] [[rocket-propelled grenade]] launchers and [[semi-automatic pistol]]s in 2008]]

The attack against the German-built cruise ship the ''[[Seabourn Spirit]]'' offshore of Somalia in November 2005 is an example of the sophisticated pirates mariners face. The pirates carried out their attack more than {{convert|100|mi|km}} offshore with speedboats launched from a larger mother ship. The attackers were armed with automatic firearms and an [[Rocket-propelled grenade|RPG]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Piracy is still troubling the shipping industry: report; Industry fears revival of attacks though current situation has improved |work=The Business Times Singapore |date=August 14, 2006}}</ref>

Since 2008, Somali pirates centered in the [[Gulf of Aden]] made about $120 million annually, reportedly costing the shipping industry between $900 million and $3.3 billion per year.<ref>"{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/03/03/the-economics-of-somali-piracy/ |title=The economics of Somali piracy |newspaper=The Washington Post |last=Plumer |first=Brad |date=March 3, 2013 |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=September 2, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902095813/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/03/03/the-economics-of-somali-piracy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> By September 2012, the heyday of piracy in the Indian Ocean was reportedly over. Backers were now reportedly reluctant to finance pirate expeditions due to the low success rate, and pirates were no longer able to repay their creditors.<ref name="Apipsofsp">{{cite news|first1=Abdi |last1=Guled|first2=Jason |last2=Straziuso|title= Party seems over for Somali pirates|url=http://www.charter.net/news/read.php?id=17645239&ps=926&srce=news_class&action=1&lang=en&_LT=UNLC_NKNWU00L1_UNEWS|access-date=October 3, 2012|newspaper=AP Impact|date=September 25, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729141738/http://www.charter.net/news/read.php?id=17645239&ps=926&srce=news_class&action=1&lang=en&_LT=UNLC_NKNWU00L1_UNEWS|archive-date=July 29, 2013}}</ref> According to the International Maritime Bureau, pirate attacks had by October 2012 dropped to a six-year low.<ref name="Bspftsylagds">{{cite news|first1=Alaric|last1=Nightingale|first2=Michelle Wiese|last2=Bockmann|title=Somalia Piracy Falls to Six-Year Low as Guards Defend Ships|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-10-22/somalia-piracy-attacks-plunge-as-navies-secure-trade-route|access-date=October 25, 2012|newspaper=Bloomberg News|date=October 22, 2012|archive-date=June 2, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602052602/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-10-22/somalia-piracy-attacks-plunge-as-navies-secure-trade-route}}</ref> Only five ships were captured by the end of the year, representing a decrease from 25 in 2011 and 27 in 2010,<ref name="Hhgfssp">{{cite news|last=Apps|first=Peter|title=Have hired guns finally scuppered Somali pirates?|url=https://news.yahoo.com/hired-guns-finally-scuppered-somali-pirates-090535971.html|access-date=March 16, 2013|newspaper=Reuters|date=February 10, 2013|via=Yahoo! News|archive-date=February 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130223171354/http://news.yahoo.com/hired-guns-finally-scuppered-somali-pirates-090535971.html}}</ref> with only one ship attacked in the third quarter compared to 36 during the same period in 2011.<ref name="Bspftsylagds"/> However, pirate incidents off the West African seaboard increased to 34 from 30 the previous year, and [[Piracy in Indonesia|attacks off the coast of Indonesia]] rose from 2011's total of 46 to 51.<ref name="Bspftsylagds" />

Many nations forbid ships from entering their territorial waters or ports if the crew is armed, in an effort to deter piracy.<ref>{{cite web |website=Maritimesecurity.com |url=http://www.maritimesecurity.com/gunsonboard.htm |title=Guns On Board |access-date=January 20, 2007 |archive-date=April 23, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423074542/http://www.maritimesecurity.com/gunsonboard.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Shipping companies sometimes hire private armed security guards.

Modern definitions of piracy include the following acts:

* [[Boarding (attack)|Boarding]] without permission.
* [[Extortion]]
* [[Hostage taking]]
* [[Kidnapping]] of people for [[ransom]]
* Murder
* Cargo theft
* Robbery and seizure of items on the ship
* [[Sabotage]] resulting in the ship subsequently sinking
* [[Shipwreck]]ing done intentionally to a ship

Together with [[treason]] and [[counterfeiting]];<ref name="FindLaw"/> piracy, including acts against the [[law of nations]],<ref>{{cite web |title=ArtI.S8.C10.1 Historical Background on Maritime Crimes |url=https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artI-S8-C10-1/ALDE_00001070/ |website=Constitution Annotated |publisher=United States Congress |quote=[The Congress shall have Power . . . ] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations|access-date=April 20, 2024}}</ref> is one of three criminal offenses against which the [[United States Congress]] is delegated power to enact penal legislation by the [[Constitution of the United States]].<ref name="FindLaw">{{cite web |title=Which 3 Crimes Are in the U.S. Constitution? |url=https://www.findlaw.com/legalblogs/criminal-defense/which-3-crimes-are-in-the-us-constitution/ |website=FindLaw |date=July 3, 2013 |access-date=April 20, 2024}}</ref>

In modern times, ships and airplanes are [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacked]] for political reasons as well. The perpetrators of these acts could be described as pirates (for instance, the French term for ''plane hijacker'' is ''pirate de l'air'', literally ''air pirate''), but in English are usually termed ''hijackers''. An example is the hijacking of the Italian civilian passenger ship {{MS|Achille Lauro||2}} by the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] in 1985, which is regarded as an act of piracy. A 2009 book entitled ''International Legal Dimension of Terrorism'' called the attackers "terrorists".<ref>Sánchez, Pablo Antonio Fernandez. ''International Legal Dimension of Terrorism''. Brill, 2009. p. 231</ref>

Modern pirates also use a great deal of technology. It has been reported that crimes of piracy have involved the use of mobile phones, [[satellite phone]]s, [[GPS]], [[machete]]s, [[AK74]] rifles, [[sonar]] systems, modern [[speedboat]]s, shotguns, [[pistol]]s, mounted machine guns, and even [[Rocket-propelled grenade|RPGs]] and [[grenade launcher]]s.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

In 2020, piracy increased by 24% after being at its lowest 21st-century level in 2019. The Americas and Africa have been identified by the [[International Chamber of Commerce]] as the most vulnerable to piracy due to less-wealthy governments in these regions being unable to combat it effectively.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global sea piracy ticks upward, and the coronavirus may make it worse|url=http://theconversation.com/global-sea-piracy-ticks-upward-and-the-coronavirus-may-make-it-worse-137586|last=Prins|first=Brandon|website=The Conversation|date=May 5, 2020 |language=en|access-date=May 30, 2020|archive-date=May 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528023123/https://theconversation.com/global-sea-piracy-ticks-upward-and-the-coronavirus-may-make-it-worse-137586|url-status=live}}</ref>

IMB Piracy Reporting Centre keeps a live piracy map to help keep track of all recent piracy and armed robbery incidents.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-ccs.org/piracy-reporting-centre/live-piracy-map |title=Live piracy map |publisher=Commercial Crime Services |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=June 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616100031/https://www.icc-ccs.org/piracy-reporting-centre/live-piracy-map |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2026, Israel intercepted the [[Global Sumud Flotilla]], a group of 70 boats carrying humanitarian aid to [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], in international waters near Greece, kidnapping around 200 activists.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=Al Jazeera |title=‘Act of piracy’: World reacts to Israeli interception of Gaza aid flotilla |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/4/30/act-of-piracy-world-reacts-to-israeli-interception-of-gaza-aid-flotilla |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamel |first=Ahmed |date=2026-04-30 |title=Israel Intercepts Gaza Flotilla in International Waters |url=https://egyptdailynews.com/israel-intercepts-gaza-flotilla-in-international-waters-triggering-accusations-of-piracy-and-diplomatic-fallout/ |access-date=2026-04-30 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-30 |title=Israel detains nearly 200 activists after intercepting Gaza aid flotilla near Crete |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/israel-gaza-sumud-flotilla-crete-b2968056.html |access-date=2026-04-30 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>

==Anti-piracy measures==
{{anchor|Anti-piracy measures}}
[[File:Pipvangulgui.png|thumb|right|Incidents of pipeline vandalism by pirates in the [[Gulf of Guinea]], 2002–2011]]

{{see also|Anti-piracy measures in Somalia|Combined Task Force 151|Operation Atalanta|European Maritime Force|Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa|Operation Ocean Shield|Danish counter-piracy strategy|West Indies anti-piracy operations of the United States|Aegean Sea anti-piracy operations of the United States|Operation Prosperity Guardian|Operation Aspides|Indian Ocean Commission|Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean region|Indian Armed Forces#Peace keeping, anti-piracy, and exploration missions|Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia|Anti-Piracy Act of 1819}}

Under a principle of international law known as the "universality principle", a government may "exercise jurisdiction over conduct outside its territory if that conduct is universally dangerous to states and their nationals."<ref>Thomas Buergenthal & Sean D. Murphy, ''Public International Law in a Nutshell'', p. 211, West Group (3d ed. 2002).</ref> The rationale behind the universality principle is that states will punish certain acts "wherever they may occur as a means of protecting the global community as a whole, even absent a link between the state and the parties or the acts in question." Under this principle, the concept of "universal jurisdiction" applies to the crime of piracy.<ref>Thomas Buergenthal & Sean D. Murphy, ''Public International Law in a Nutshell'', pp. 211–212, West Group (3d ed. 2002), citing generally K. Randall, ''Universal Jurisdiction Under International Law'', 66 Tex. L. Rev. 785 (1988).</ref> For example, the United States has a statute (section 1651 of title 18 of the United States Code) imposing a sentence of life in prison for piracy "as defined by the law of nations" committed anywhere on the high seas, regardless of the nationality of the pirates or the victims.<ref>"Whoever, on the high seas, commits the crime of piracy as defined by the law of nations, and is afterwards brought into or found in the United States, shall be imprisoned for life." See {{usc|18|1651}}.</ref>

The goal of maritime security operations is "actively to deter, disrupt and suppress piracy to protect global maritime security and secure freedom of navigation for the benefit of all nations",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2010-to-2015-government-policy-piracy-off-the-coast-of-somalia/2010-to-2015-government-policy-piracy-off-the-coast-of-somalia |title=2010 to 2015 government policy: piracy off the coast of Somalia |website=UK Government |date=May 8, 2015 |access-date=June 8, 2016 |archive-date=March 22, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322173329/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/2010-to-2015-government-policy-piracy-off-the-coast-of-somalia/2010-to-2015-government-policy-piracy-off-the-coast-of-somalia |url-status=live }}</ref> and pirates are often detained, interrogated, disarmed, and released. With millions of dollars at stake, pirates have little incentive to stop. In Finland, one case involved pirates who had been captured and whose boat was sunk. As the pirates attacked a vessel of Singapore, not Finland, and are not themselves EU or Finnish citizens, they were not prosecuted. A further complication in many cases, including this one, is that many countries do not allow the extradition of people to jurisdictions where they may be sentenced to death or torture.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122757123487054681 | work=The Wall Street Journal | first=Bret | last=Stephens | title=Why Don't We Hang Pirates Anymore? | date=November 25, 2008 | access-date=August 8, 2017 | archive-date=August 24, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824124602/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122757123487054681 | url-status=live }}</ref>

The Dutch are using a 17th-century law against ''sea robbery'' to prosecute.<ref>{{cite book |author= |title=Verzameling Nederlandse Wetgeving-539a WvSv |page=105}}</ref> Warships that capture pirates have no jurisdiction to try them, and NATO does not have a detention policy in place. Prosecutors have a hard time assembling witnesses and securing translators, and countries are reluctant to imprison pirates because they would be saddled with the pirates upon their release.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090418/ap_on_re_af/af_piracy |agency=Associated Press |date=April 18, 2009 |title=NATO frees 20 hostages; pirates seize Belgian ship |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422004203/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090418/ap_on_re_af/af_piracy |archive-date=April 22, 2009 }}</ref>

[[File:US Navy 111219-N-ZZ999-070 A visit, board, search and seizure team from the guided-missile destroyer USS Pinckney (DDG 91) approaches a suspected p.jpg|thumb|Suspected [[Somali pirates]] keep their hands in the air]]

The [[Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia]] was formed in November 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About ReCAAP – Information Sharing Centre – combating maritime robbery, sea piracy|url=https://www.recaap.org/about_ReCAAP-ISC|access-date=April 21, 2024|website=www.recaap.org}}</ref>

Since the 2010s, the U.S. Navy and others have been developing [[artificial intelligence]] (AI)-based systems that generate piracy alerts based on surveillance data.<ref>{{cite news |title=The US Navy Is Working on AI That Can Predict a Pirate Attack |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/the-us-navy-is-working-on-ai-that-can-predict-a-pirate-attack |access-date=April 23, 2024 |work=Science Alert}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Steering with artificial intelligence to combat maritime piracy |url=https://safety4sea.com/steering-with-artificial-intelligence-to-combat-maritime-piracy/ |website=safety4sea.com |date=October 21, 2020 |publisher=Safety4Sea |access-date=April 23, 2024}}</ref>

===Self-defense===
The fourth volume of the handbook: ''Best Management Practices to Deter Piracy off the Coast of Somalia and in the Arabian Sea Area'' (known as BMP4)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ocimf.org/publications/|title=Publications|website=www.ocimf.org|access-date=August 28, 2022|archive-date=August 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828021920/https://www.ocimf.org/publications/|url-status=live}}</ref> is the current authoritative guide for merchant ships on self-defense against pirates. The guide is issued and updated by ''Oil Companies International Marine Forum'' (OCIMF), a consortium of interested international shipping and trading organizations including the EU, NATO and the International Maritime Bureau.<ref name="bmp3">{{cite book|url=http://www.mschoa.org/docs/public-documents/bmp4-low-res_sept_5_2011.pdf|title=Best Management Practices for Protection against Somalia Based Piracy|publisher=Witherby Seamanship International, London|access-date=September 10, 2016|date=2011|author=Consortium of International Organizations|isbn=978-1-85609-505-1|location=Livingston|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909191819/http://www.mschoa.org/docs/public-documents/bmp4-low-res_sept_5_2011.pdf|archive-date=September 9, 2016}}</ref> It is distributed primarily by the [[Maritime Security Centre – Horn of Africa]] (MSCHOA), the planning and coordination authority for EU naval forces (EUNAVFOR).<ref name="bmp3"/>

The BMP4 encourages vessels to register their voyages through the region with MSCHOA, as this registration is a key component of the International Recommended Transit Corridor (IRTC), the navy-patrolled route through the Gulf of Aden. The BMP4 contains a chapter entitled "Self-Protective Measures" that lays out steps a merchant vessel can take to make itself less of a target for pirates and better able to repel an attack if one occurs. This list includes rigging the deck of the ship with [[razor wire]], rigging fire-hoses to spray sea-water over the side of the ship to hinder boardings, having a distinctive pirate alarm, hardening the bridge against gunfire, and creating a "[[safe room|citadel]]" where the crew can retreat if pirates get on board.<ref name="bmp3"/> Other unofficial self-defense measures that can be found on merchant vessels include the setting up of mannequins posing as armed guards or firing flares at the pirates.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/2011/01/12/verjee.pirate.proof.pre.cnn |title=2011: Pirate-proof ships? |date=February 22, 2011 |publisher=CNN |access-date=March 27, 2011 |archive-date=August 31, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831124519/http://edition.cnn.com/video/#/video/world/2011/01/12/verjee.pirate.proof.pre.cnn }}</ref>

Though it varies by country, generally, peacetime law in the 20th and 21st centuries has not allowed merchant vessels to carry weapons. In response to the rise in modern piracy, however, the U.S. government changed its rules, allowing [[flag state|U.S.-flagged vessels]] to deploy a team of armed private security guards. The [[US Coast Guard]] leaves it to the ship owners' discretion whether those guards will be armed.<ref name="John W. Miller">{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB126265833983415885|title=Loaded: Freighters Ready to Shoot Across Pirate Bow|author=John W. Miller|date=January 6, 2010|work=WSJ|access-date=August 8, 2017|archive-date=July 10, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710034856/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB126265833983415885|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://maritimeaccident.org/2009/11/maersk-alabama-followed-best-practice/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709012108/http://maritimeaccident.org/2009/11/20/maersk-alabama-followed-best-practice/|title=Maersk Alabama "Followed Best Practice" |archive-date=July 9, 2012|website=Maritime Accident Casebook }}</ref> The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) in 2011 changed its stance on private armed guards, accepting that operators must be able to defend their ships against pirate attacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/somaliaNews/idAFLDE71E1F520110215 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220020757/http://af.reuters.com/article/somaliaNews/idAFLDE71E1F520110215 |archive-date=February 20, 2011 |title=Shippers back private armed guards to beat pirates |publisher=Reuters Africa |date=February 15, 2011 |first1=Henning |last1=Gloystein |editor-first1=James |editor-last1=Jukwey |access-date= June 8, 2016}}</ref>

This has given rise to a new breed of [[private security companies]] that provide training for crew members and operate [[Floating armoury|floating armouries]] to protect crew and cargo. This has proved effective in countering pirate attacks.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/11/29/spain.pirate.attack/ |title=Spanish fishing boat repels pirate attack |publisher=CNN |date=November 29, 2009 |access-date=March 27, 2011 |archive-date=June 28, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628202149/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/11/29/spain.pirate.attack/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8584604.stm |title='Pirate' dies as ship's guards repel attack off Somalia |work=BBC News |date=March 24, 2010 |access-date=March 27, 2011}}</ref> The use of floating armouries in international waters allows ships to carry weapons in international waters, without having arms within coastal waters where they would be illegal. [[Seychelles]] has become a central hub for international anti-piracy operations, hosting the Indian Ocean Anti-Piracy Operation Center. In 2008, VSOS became the first authorized armed maritime security company to operate in the Indian Ocean region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vsos.sc/about-vsos/|title=VSOS – Securing Indian Ocean Shipping, Yachts & Offshore Operations|work=vsos.sc|access-date=December 8, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208124219/http://vsos.sc/about-vsos/|archive-date=December 8, 2013}}</ref>

With safety trials complete in the late 2000s, [[laser dazzler]]s have been developed for defensive purposes on super-yachts.<ref name="mental_dazer">{{cite web|url=http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/75433|title=How Lasers Can Protect You From Pirates|last=DiSalvo|first=David|date=December 6, 2010|publisher=mental floss|access-date=September 5, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119171513/http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/archives/75433|archive-date=January 19, 2012}}</ref> They can be effective up to {{convert|4|km}} with the effects going from mild disorientation to [[flash blindness]] at closer range.<ref>{{cite web|title=SeaLase Offers Shipping Companies Effective Counter to Pirates|url=http://www.handyshippingguide.com/shipping-news/sealase-offers-shipping-companies-effective-counter-to-pirates_1164|publisher=Handy Shipping Guide|access-date=January 19, 2010|archive-date=January 23, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123185411/http://www.handyshippingguide.com/shipping-news/sealase-offers-shipping-companies-effective-counter-to-pirates_1164|url-status=live}}</ref>

In February 2012, [[San Marco Regiment|Italian Marines]] based on the tanker ''[[Enrica Lexie]]'' [[2012 Italian shooting in the Arabian sea|allegedly fired on an Indian fishing trawler]] off [[Kerala]], killing two of her eleven crew. The Marines allegedly mistook the fishing vessel for a pirate vessel. The incident sparked a diplomatic row between India and Italy. ''Enrica Lexie'' was ordered into [[Kochi]] where her crew were questioned by [[Indian Police Service|officers of the Indian Police]].<ref name=BBC17071474>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-17071474 |title=India police open murder case against Italian ship crew |work=BBC News |access-date=February 21, 2012 |date=February 17, 2012 |archive-date=February 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219223304/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-17071474 |url-status=live }}</ref> The fact is still ''sub juris'' and its legal eventual outcome could influence future deployment of VPDs, since states will be either encouraged or discouraged to provide them depending on whether [[Immunity from prosecution (international law)#Functional immunity|functional immunity]] is ultimately granted or denied to the Italians.<ref name=R.L.Phillips>{{cite news|last=Phillips|first=Roger L.|title=The Enrica Lexie Incident – Private Security Counterpoint|url=http://piracy-law.com/2012/03/09/the-enrica-lexie-incident-private-security-counterpoint/|access-date=January 3, 2013|newspaper=piracy Law|date=March 9, 2012|archive-date=May 14, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514064422/http://piracy-law.com/2012/03/09/the-enrica-lexie-incident-private-security-counterpoint/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Another similar incident has been reported to have happened in the [[Red Sea]] between the coasts of Somalia and Yemen, involving the death of a Yemeni fisherman allegedly at the hands of a Russian Vessel Protection Detachment (VPD) on board a Norwegian-flagged vessel.<ref name=piracy-law>{{cite web|last=Phillips|first=Roger L.|title=Private Security Liability under the Alien Tort Statute|url=http://piracy-law.com/2012/11/25/private-security-liability-under-the-alien-tort-statute/|publisher=piracy-law.com|access-date=December 22, 2012|date=November 25, 2012|archive-date=December 4, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121204235742/http://piracy-law.com/2012/11/25/private-security-liability-under-the-alien-tort-statute/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Russian-Yemeni incident">{{cite news|last=Alan|first=Katz|title=Fighting Piracy Goes Awry With Killings of Fishermen|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-09-16/fighting-piracy-goes-awry-with-killings-of-fishermen.html|access-date=December 22, 2012|newspaper=Bloomberg|date=September 17, 2012|archive-date=October 30, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030195455/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-09-16/fighting-piracy-goes-awry-with-killings-of-fishermen.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Despite VPD deployment being controversial because of these incidents, according to the [[Associated Press]],<ref name="AP UN SC">{{cite news|last=Spielmann|first=Peter James|title=UN Security Council debates piracy for first time|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/un-security-council-debates-spread-piracy|access-date=December 9, 2012|newspaper=Associated Press|date=November 19, 2012|archive-date=November 19, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119180535/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/un-security-council-debates-spread-piracy|url-status=live}}</ref> during a [[United Nations Security Council]] conference about piracy "U.S. Ambassador [[Susan Rice]] told the council that no ship carrying armed guards has been successfully attacked by pirates" and "French Ambassador [[Gerard Araud]] stressed that private guards do not have the deterrent effect that government-posted marine and sailors and naval patrols have in warding off attacks".

===Self protection measures===
[[File:Armed guard escort on a merchant ship.jpg|thumb|A private guard escort on a merchant ship providing security services against [[Piracy in Somalia|piracy in the Indian Ocean]]]]
[[File:LRAD.JPG|thumb|right|An LRAD [[sound cannon]] mounted on {{RMS|Queen Mary 2}}]]
The best protection against pirates is to avoid encountering them. This can be accomplished by using tools such as [[radar]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marinebuzz.com/2009/09/09/bae-systems-reveal-anti-sea-piracy-systems/|title=Anti-piracy radar|access-date=October 23, 2014|archive-date=August 12, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812191134/http://www.marinebuzz.com/2009/09/09/bae-systems-reveal-anti-sea-piracy-systems/}}</ref> or by using specialised systems that use shorter wavelengths, as small boats are not always picked up by radar. An example of a specialised system is WatchStander.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22229714.700-pirates-incoming-ship-radar-keeps-watch-and-hits-back.html#.VHJslWelhki |title=Pirates incoming! Ship radar keeps watch and hits back |work=New Scientist |last=Hodson |first=Hal |date=May 28, 2014 |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=May 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522143432/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22229714.700-pirates-incoming-ship-radar-keeps-watch-and-hits-back.html#.VHJslWelhki |url-status=live }}</ref>

While the non-wartime 20th-century tradition has been for merchant vessels not to be armed, the U.S. Government has recently changed the rules so that it is now "best practice" for vessels to embark a team of armed private security guards.<ref name="John W. Miller"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://maritimeaccident.org/2009/11/20/maersk-alabama-followed-best-practice/ |title="Maersk Alabama "Followed Best Practice"", by Bob Couttie, November 20, 2009, Maritime Accident Casebook |access-date=October 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709012108/http://maritimeaccident.org/2009/11/20/maersk-alabama-followed-best-practice |archive-date=July 9, 2012 }}</ref> The guards are usually supplied from ships intended specifically for training and supplying such armed personnel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hbo.com/vice/episodes/04/44-afghan-womens-rights-and-floating-armories/index.html|title=VICE on HBO, Ep. 408: Afghan Women's Rights and Floating Armories – VICE on HBO|website=HBO|access-date=August 17, 2016|archive-date=August 17, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817183518/http://www.hbo.com/vice/episodes/04/44-afghan-womens-rights-and-floating-armories/index.html}}</ref> The crew can be given weapons training,<ref>{{YouTube|FlPsHBUZ4_E|Weapons training for crew }}</ref> and warning shots can be fired legally in international waters.

Other measures vessels can take to protect themselves against piracy are air-pressurised boat stopping systems which can fire a variety of vessel-disabling projectiles,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-37257236|title=Do you have an AK-47 and can you swim?|first=Padraig|last=Belton|date=September 9, 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=June 23, 2021|archive-date=March 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308193547/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-37257236|url-status=live}}</ref> implementing a high freewall<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/05/05/piracy.hearing/index.html |title=Shipping company head wants to arm vessels against pirates |work=CNN |date=May 5, 2009 |access-date=October 23, 2014 |archive-date=October 24, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024022926/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/05/05/piracy.hearing/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and vessel boarding protection systems (e.g., hot water wall, electricity-charged water wall, automated fire monitor, slippery foam).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.secure-marine.com/Waters/BROCHURE_Secure-Waters.pdf|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5o95MMMRO?url=http://www.secure-marine.com/Waters/BROCHURE_Secure-Waters.pdf|archive-date=March 11, 2010|title=Secure-Waters |website=secure-marine.com|access-date=January 7, 2010}}</ref> Ships can also attempt to protect themselves using their Automatic Identification Systems (AIS).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18889594 |title=Ahoy! Your ship is being tracked from orbit |work=BBC News |last=Amos |first=Jonathon |date=July 20, 2012 |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=June 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616091547/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18889594 |url-status=live }}</ref> Every ship over 300 tons carries a transponder supplying both information about the ship itself and its movements. Any unexpected change in this information can attract attention.

Previously, this data could only be picked up if there was a nearby ship, rendering single ships vulnerable. Specialised satellites have recently been launched to detect and retransmit this data. Large ships cannot, therefore, be hijacked without being detected. This can deter attempts to hijack the entire ship or steal large portions of cargo with another ship, since an escort can be sent more quickly.

===Patrol===
In an emergency, warships can be called upon. In some areas, such as near Somalia, patrolling naval vessels from different nations are available to intercept vessels attacking merchant vessels. For patrolling dangerous coastal waters, or keeping costs down, [[robotic]] or [[remote-controlled]] [[Unmanned surface vehicle|USV]]s are also sometimes used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/robotics/4229443.html|title=Robotic/remote-controlled USVs|work=Popular Mechanics|access-date=October 23, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130061106/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/robotics/4229443.html|archive-date=January 30, 2010}}</ref> Shore- and vessel-launched [[UAV]]s are used by the U.S. Navy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.naval-technology.com/features/feature62615/ |title=The Tortoise in the Air |work=naval-technology.com |date=August 27, 2009 |access-date=October 23, 2014 |archive-date=September 2, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140902131123/http://www.naval-technology.com/features/feature62615/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=64448|title=Shore-launched UAVs|work=Stars and Stripes|access-date=October 23, 2014|archive-date=September 2, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902160328/http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=64448}}</ref> A British former [[Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)|British chief of defence staff]] ([[David Richards, Baron Richards of Herstmonceux|David Richards]]), questioned the value of expensive kit procured by successive governments, saying "We have £1bn destroyers trying to sort out pirates in a little [[dhow]] with [[rocket-propelled grenade launchers|RPG]]s [rocket-propelled grenade launchers] costing US$50, with an outboard motor [costing] $100".

==Legal aspects==

===United Kingdom laws===
[[File:Target practice.jpg|thumb|right|A merchant seaman aboard a fleet oil tanker practices target shooting with a [[Remington 870]] 12 gauge shotgun as part of training to repel [[Piracy in the Strait of Malacca|pirates in the Strait of Malacca]], 1984]]
Section 2 of the [[Piracy Act 1837]] creates a statutory offence of aggravated piracy. See also the [[Piracy Act 1850]].

In 2008, the British [[Foreign Office]] advised the Royal Navy not to detain pirates of certain nationalities as they might be able to claim asylum in Britain under [[Human Rights Act 1998|British human rights legislation]], if their national laws included execution, or mutilation as a judicial punishment for crimes committed as pirates.<ref>{{cite news |first=Marie |last=Woolf |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/pirates-can-claim-uk-asylum-x9vzxzv2m6g |title=Pirates can claim UK asylum |work=[[The Sunday Times]] |date=April 13, 2008 |access-date=February 26, 2021 |location=London |archive-date=May 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517213935/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/pirates-can-claim-uk-asylum-x9vzxzv2m6g |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Definition of piracy jure gentium====
See section 26 of, and Schedule 5 to, the [[Merchant Shipping and Maritime Security Act 1997]]. These provisions replace the Schedule to the [[Tokyo Convention Act 1967]]. In ''Cameron v HM Advocate'', 1971 SLT 333, the [[High Court of Justiciary]] said that the Schedule supplemented the existing law and did not seek to restrict the scope of the offence of piracy jure gentium.

See also:
* ''Re Piracy Jure Gentium'' [1934] AC 586, [[Privy Council|PC]]
* ''Attorney General of Hong Kong v Kwok-a-Sing'' (1873) LR 5 PC 179

====Jurisdiction====
See section 46(2) of the [[Senior Courts Act 1981]] and [http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Vict/41-42/73/section/6 section 6] of the [[Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878]]. See also ''R v Kohn'' (1864) 4 F & F 68.

====Piracy committed by or against aircraft====
See section 5 of the [[Aviation Security Act 1982]].

====Sentence====
The book ''[[Archbold Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice|Archbold]]'' says that in a case that does not fall within section 2 of the Piracy Act 1837, the penalty appears to be determined by the [[Offences at Sea Act 1799]], which provides that offences committed at sea are liable to the same penalty as if they had been committed upon the shore.<ref>''[[Archbold Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice]]'', 1999, para. 25–46 at p. 1979</ref>

====History====
William Hawkins said that under [[common law]], piracy by a subject was esteemed to be [[petty treason]]. The [[Treason Act 1351]] provided that this was not petty treason.<ref>William Hawkins, [https://books.google.com/books?id=vZc0AAAAIAAJ ''Treatise of Pleas of the Crown''] (1824 ed.), vol. 1, chapter XIV. See also 40 Ass. 35</ref>

In English [[admiralty law]], piracy was classified as petty treason during the medieval period, and offenders were accordingly liable to be [[hanged, drawn and quartered]] on conviction. Piracy was redefined as a [[felony]] during the reign of [[Henry VIII]]. In either case, piracy cases were cognizable in the courts of the Lord High Admiral. English judges in [[admiralty court]]s and [[vice admiralty court]]s emphasized that "neither Faith nor Oath is to be kept" with pirates; i.e., contracts with pirates and oaths sworn to them were not legally binding. Pirates were legally subject to [[summary execution]] by their captors if captured in battle. In practice, instances of summary justice and annulment of oaths and contracts involving pirates do not appear to have been common.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

===United States laws===
In the United States, criminal prosecution of piracy is authorized in the [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 8: Powers of Congress|U.S. Constitution, Art. I Sec. 8 cl. 10]]:
{{blockquote|To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;}}

The Founding Fathers were at loggerheads over piracy.<ref name=rubin88>{{Cite journal |last=Rubin |first=Alfred P. |date=January 1, 1988 |title=The Law of Piracy. By Alfred P. Rubin. Newport, R.I.: Naval War College Press, 1988. Pp. xiv, 444. Indexes. $22. |journal=American Journal of International Law |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=620–622 |doi=10.2307/2203491 |jstor=2203491 |s2cid=246010971 |issn=0002-9300 |via=Digital Commons}}</ref> and the [[Marshall Court]] (1801-1835) dealt with many cases of piracy.<ref name=ziegler39>Benjamin Munn Ziegler. International Law of John Marshall; a Study of First Principles (1939)</ref><ref name=white89>G. Edward White, The Marshall Court and International Law: The Piracy Cases, 83 AM. J. INT'l L. 727 (October 1989)</ref> In 1820 the penalty for piracy was death.<ref name=usvsmith/> By 1909, the penalty was life imprisonment.<ref name="p1909">{{cite news |url=https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=35&page=1145 |title=Piracy under the law of nations }}</ref> Title {{USC|18|1651}} now states:

{{blockquote|
Whoever, on the high seas, commits the crime of piracy as defined by the law of nations, and is afterwards brought into or found in the United States, shall be imprisoned for life.
}}

Citing the United States Supreme Court decision in the 1820 case of ''[[United States v. Smith (1820)]]'',<ref name=usvsmith>18 U.S. 153 (1820).</ref> a U.S. District Court ruled in 2010 in the case of ''[[United States v. Said]]'' that the definition of piracy under section 1651 is confined to "robbery at sea". The piracy charges (but not other serious federal charges) against the defendants in the ''Said'' case were dismissed by the Court.<ref>Memorandum Opinion and Order, August 17, 2010, docket entry 94, ''United States v. Said'', 2:10-cr-00057-RAJ-FBS, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia (Norfolk Div.).</ref>

The U.S. District Court for the E.D.Va. has since been overturned: "On May 23, 2012, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit issued an opinion vacating the Court's dismissal of the piracy count. ''United States v. Said'', 680 F.3d 374 (4th Cir.2012). See also ''United States v. Dire'', 680 F.3d 446, 465 (4th Cir.2012) (upholding an instruction to the jury that the crime of piracy includes 'any of the three following actions: (A) any illegal acts of violence or detention or any act of depredation committed for private ends on the high seas or a place outside the jurisdiction of any state by the crew or the passengers of a private ship and directed against another ship or against persons or property on board such ship; or (B) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship; or (C) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in (A) or (B) above").{{'"}} The case was remanded to E.D. Va., see ''US v. Said'', 3 F. Supp. 3d 515 – Dist. Court, ED Virginia (2014).

===International law===
{{main|International piracy law}}

====Effects on international boundaries====
During the 18th century, the British and the Dutch controlled opposite sides of the [[Straits of Malacca|Strait of Malacca]]. The British and the Dutch drew a line separating the Strait into two halves. The agreement was that each party would be responsible for combating piracy in their respective half. Eventually, this line became the border between Malaysia and Indonesia in the Straits.

====Law of nations====
[[File:Imoconfsom.jpg|thumb|[[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO) conference on capacity-building to counter piracy in the Indian Ocean]]
Piracy is of note in [[international law]] because it is widely regarded as the earliest invocation of the concept of [[universal jurisdiction]]. The crime of piracy is considered a breach of {{lang|la|[[jus cogens]]}}, a conventional peremptory international norm that states must uphold. Those committing thefts on the high seas, inhibiting trade, and endangering maritime communication are considered by sovereign states to hold the status of {{lang|la|[[hostis humani generis]]}} (an enemy of humankind).<ref name=HK-2001>{{cite magazine|author-link=Henry Kissinger|last=Kissinger|first=Henry|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010701faessay4996/henry-a-kissinger/the-pitfalls-of-universal-jurisdiction.html|title=The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction|magazine=[[Foreign Affairs]]|date=July–August 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114024521/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010701faessay4996/henry-a-kissinger/the-pitfalls-of-universal-jurisdiction.html|archive-date=January 14, 2009}}</ref>

Because of universal jurisdiction, action can be taken against pirates without objection from the flag state of the pirate vessel. This represents an exception to the principle {{lang|la|[[extra territorium jus dicenti impune non paretur]]}} ("One who exercises jurisdiction out of his territory is disobeyed with impunity").<ref>''Black's Law Dictionary'', p. 528 (5th ed. 1979).</ref>

A [[Convention on Piracy]] was adopted by the [[League of Nations]] in 1932. To this day, the Harvard Draft adds to the debate of what constitutes piracy.<ref name=birnie87>{{Cite journal |last=Birnie |first=P.W. |date=July 1987 |title=Piracy Past, Present, Future |journal=Marine Policy |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=163–183 |doi=10.1016/0308-597x(87)90054-6 |bibcode=1987MarPo..11..163B |issn=0308-597X |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>

====International conventions====

=====Articles 101 to 103 of UNCLOS=====
[[File:Commodore Bob Mansergh at MAST.jpg|thumb|right|British [[Royal Navy]] [[Commodore (Royal Navy)|Commodore]] gives a presentation on piracy at the MAST 2008 conference]]
Articles 101 to 103 of the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] (UNCLOS) (1982) contain a definition of piracy ''[[iure gentium]]'' (i.e., according to international law).<ref name="Archbold Criminal Pleading 1999">''[[Archbold Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice]]''. 1999. Paragraph 25–39 at p. 1976.</ref> They read:

{{quote|style=font-size:initial|'''Article 101'''

''Definition of piracy''

Piracy consists of any of the following acts:
*(a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and {{nowrap|directed—}}
**(i) on the [[high seas]], against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft;
**(ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons, or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State;
*(b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft;
*(c) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in subparagraph (a) or (b).

'''Article 102'''

''Piracy by a warship, government ship, or government aircraft whose crew has mutinied.''

The acts of piracy, as defined in article 101, committed by a warship, government ship, or government aircraft whose crew has mutinied and taken control of the ship or aircraft are assimilated to acts committed by a private ship or aircraft.

'''Article 103'''

''Definition of a pirate ship or aircraft''

A ship or aircraft is considered a pirate ship or aircraft if it is intended by the persons in dominant control to be used for the purpose of committing one of the acts referred to in article 101. The same applies if the ship or aircraft has been used to commit any such act, so long as it remains under the control of the persons guilty of that act.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part7.htm|title=Preamble to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the sea|publisher=United Nations|access-date=June 29, 2017|archive-date=June 20, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620050654/http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part7.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

This definition was formerly contained in articles 15 to 17 of the [[Convention on the High Seas]] signed at Geneva on April 29, 1958.<ref>''[[Archbold Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice]]''. 1999. Paragraph 25–39 at p. 1976 refers to the Schedule to the [[Tokyo Convention Act 1967]]. That Schedule, and section 4 of that Act, refer to the said articles of Convention on the High Seas.</ref> It was drafted<ref>''Yearbook of the ILC'' [1956] Vol 2, 282</ref> by the [[International Law Commission]].<ref name="Archbold Criminal Pleading 1999"/>

A limitation of Article 101 above is that it confines piracy to the High Seas. As most piratical acts occur within territorial waters, some pirates go free because certain jurisdictions lack the resources to monitor their borders adequately.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

====IMB definition====
The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) defines piracy as:

{{blockquote|the act of boarding any vessel with an intent to commit theft or any other crime, and with an intent or capacity to use force in furtherance of that act.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cargolaw.com/presentations_pirates.html#what_piracy%7ctitle=cargolaw.com|title=Modern High Seas Piracy|work=cargolaw.com|access-date=November 15, 2015|archive-date=November 9, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109054924/http://www.cargolaw.com/presentations_pirates.html#what_piracy%7ctitle=cargolaw.com|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

====Uniformity in maritime piracy law====
Given the divergent definitions of piracy in international and municipal legal systems, some authors argue that greater uniformity in the law is required to strengthen anti-piracy legal instruments.<ref>{{cite journal |ssrn=1682624 |last=Bento |first=Lucas |title=Toward An International Law of Piracy Sui Generis: How the Dual Nature of Maritime Piracy Law Enables Piracy to Flourish |journal=Berkeley Journal of International Law |volume=29 |number=2 |date=2011 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1682624 |access-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-date=January 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124122947/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1682624 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Cultural perceptions==
{{Main|List of fictional pirates|Pirates in popular culture}}

[[File:Black-Beard.jpg|thumb|upright|"Mic the Scallywag" of the Pirates of Emerson Haunted Adventure, Fremont, California]]
Pirates are a frequent topic in fiction and, in their Caribbean incarnation, are associated with certain [[stereotypical]] manners of speaking and dress, some of them wholly fictional: "nearly all our notions of their behavior come from the golden age of fictional piracy, which reached its zenith in 1881 with the appearance of [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Treasure Island]]''."<ref>{{cite web |last=Adams |first=Cecil |title=Why are pirates depicted with a parrot on their shoulder? What's the origin of the skull and crossbones pirate flag? |date=October 12, 2007 |url=http://www.straightdope.com/columns/071012.html |work=The Straight Dope |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226162010/http://www.straightdope.com/columns/071012.html |archive-date=December 26, 2007 }}</ref> Hugely influential in shaping the popular conception of pirates, [[Captain Charles Johnson]]'s ''[[A General History of the Pyrates]]'', published in London in 1724, is the prime source for the biographies of many well known pirates of the Golden Age.<ref name="Cordingly">{{cite book |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ou7Bm11IgEC&pg=PR7 |contribution=Introduction and commentary |first=Charles |last=Johnson |title=[[A General History of the Pyrates]] |contributor-link=David Cordingly |contributor-first=David |contributor-last=Cordingly |page=viii |publisher=Conway Maritime Press |year=2002 |orig-date=first pub. 1724}}</ref> The book gives an almost mythical status to pirates, with naval historian [[David Cordingly]] writing: "it has been said, and there seems no reason to question this, that Captain Johnson created the modern conception of pirates."<ref name="Cordingly"/>

[[File:Dale Clark poses as Johnny Depp, in Pirates of the Caribbean, 24391.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A person costumed in the character of captain [[Jack Sparrow]], [[Johnny Depp]]'s lead role in the ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean (film series)|Pirates of the Caribbean]]'' film series]]
In the 1830s, [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] received material relating to piracy for an annual for which she was responsible; she produced two Pirate Songs, the first in 1831, {{ws|"[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832/Tiger Island|The Pirate's Song off Tiger Island]]"|ps=no}} and the second, {{ws|"[[s:Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L. E. L.) in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837/Bona|Bona, the Pirate's Song]]"|ps=no}} in 1837. This last was reproduced many times as "The Pirate's Song", often uncredited. Bona is now the city of Annaba in Algeria.

Some inventions of pirate culture, such as "[[walking the plank]]"—in which a bound captive is forced to walk off a board extending over the sea—were popularized by [[J. M. Barrie]]'s 1911 novel, ''[[Peter and Wendy|Peter Pan]]'', where the fictional pirate [[Captain Hook]] and his crew helped define the fictional pirate [[archetype]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web |last=Bonanos |first=Christopher |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2167567/?GT1=10135 |title=Did pirates really say 'arrrr'? |date=June 5, 2007 |work=Slate |access-date=December 18, 2008 |archive-date=October 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006064725/http://www.slate.com/id/2167567/?GT1=10135 |url-status=live }}</ref> English actor [[Robert Newton]]'s portrayal of [[Long John Silver]] in [[Treasure Island (1950 film)|Disney's 1950 film adaptation]] also helped define the modern rendition of a pirate, including the stereotypical [[West Country English#Social stigma and future of West Country dialect|West Country]] "[[Pirates in popular culture#Appearance and mannerisms of Caribbean pirates|pirate accent]]".<ref>{{cite book |first=Angus |last=Konstam |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USiyy1ZA-BsC&pg=PA313 |title=Piracy: The Complete History |page=313 |publisher=Osprey |isbn=978-1-84603-240-0 |access-date=October 11, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Dan |last=Parry |year=2006 |title=Blackbeard: The Real Pirate of the Caribbean |page=174 |publisher=National Maritime Museum}}</ref> Other influences include ''[[Sinbad the Sailor]]'', and the ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean]]'' [[Pirates of the Caribbean films|films]] have helped rekindle modern interest in piracy and have performed well at the box office. The video game ''[[Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag]]'' revolves around pirates during the Golden Age of Piracy.

The classic 1879 [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] comic opera ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' focuses on The Pirate King and his hapless band of pirates.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.gsarchive.net/pirates/pirates_lib.pdf |title=The Pirates of Penzance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929065225/https://www.gsarchive.net/pirates/pirates_lib.pdf |archive-date=September 29, 2012 |year=1879 |via=The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive |access-date=May 1, 2014}}</ref>

Many sports teams use "pirate" or a related term, such as "[[Raider (piracy)|raider]]" or "buccaneer", as their nickname, based on the popular stereotypes of pirates. The earliest such example was probably the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] of [[Major League Baseball]] that acquired their nickname in 1891 after allegedly "pirating" a player from another team.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the Pittsburgh Pirates: Early Years |url=https://www.mlb.com/pirates/history/timeline/early-years |publisher=Major League Baseball |language=en |access-date=October 13, 2021 |archive-date=October 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016094034/https://www.mlb.com/pirates/history/timeline/early-years |url-status=live }}</ref> Many amateur and school-based sports programs along with several professional sports franchises have also adopted pirate-related names, including the [[Las Vegas Raiders]] and [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] of the [[National Football League]]. In turn, the Buccaneer's name was inspired by the [[Gasparilla Pirate Festival]], a large community parade and related events in [[Tampa, Florida]] centered around the legend of [[José Gaspar]], a mythical pirate who supposedly operated in the area.

== Economics of piracy ==

Sources on the economics of piracy include Cyrus Karraker's 1953 study ''Piracy was a Business'',<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Karraker
| first1 = Cyrus Harreld
| title = Piracy was a Business
| url = https://archive.org/details/piracywasabusiness
| location = Rindge, New Hampshire
| publisher = Richard R. Smith, Publisher, Inc.
| date = 1953
| isbn = 978-0-598-22777-5
| access-date = August 29, 2022
}}
</ref>
in which the author discusses pirates in terms of contemporary [[racketeering]]. Patrick Crowhurst researched French piracy, and [[David Starkey]] focused on British 18th-century piracy. Note also the 1998 book ''The Invisible Hook: The Hidden Economics of Pirates'' by [[Peter T. Leeson]].<ref name ="Pennell 89">{{cite journal |url=http://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol08/nm_8_2_61-79.pdf |last=Pennell |first=C.R. |date=1998 |title=Who Needs Pirate Heroes? |journal=The Northern Mariner |volume=8 |number=2 |pages=61–79 |publisher=Canadian Nautical Research Society |doi=10.25071/2561-5467.660 |access-date=August 26, 2014 |archive-date=September 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923205109/http://www.cnrs-scrn.org/northern_mariner/vol08/nm_8_2_61-79.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Piracy and entrepreneurship ===

Some 2014 research examines the links between piracy and [[entrepreneurship]]. In this context, researchers take a nonmoral approach to piracy as a source of inspiration for 2010s-era [[entrepreneurship education]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Lawrence |first=Daina |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/business-education/disruptors-are-just-pirates-on-the-high-seas-of-capitalism/article21443149/ |title=Disruptors are just pirates on the high seas of capitalism |work=The Globe and Mail |date=November 5, 2014 |access-date=June 23, 2021 |archive-date=June 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624124536/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/business-education/disruptors-are-just-pirates-on-the-high-seas-of-capitalism/article21443149/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and to research in entrepreneurship<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roth |first=S. |year=2014 |url=https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/document/41226/1/ssoar-ijesb-2014-4-roth-Booties_bounties_business_models_a.pdf |title=Booties, bounties, business models: a map to the next red oceans |journal=International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business |volume=22 |number=4 |pages=439–448|article-number=64272 |doi=10.1504/IJESB.2014.064272 |s2cid=53140269 }}</ref> and in [[business model|business-model]] generation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roth |first=S. |year=2014 |url=http://works.bepress.com/roth/8/ |title=The eye-patch of the beholder |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826114118/http://works.bepress.com/roth/8/ |archive-date=August 26, 2014 |journal=International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business |volume=22 |number=4 |pages=399–407|doi=10.1504/IJESB.2014.064271 |s2cid=53131826 }}</ref>

In this respect, analysis of piracy operations may distinguish between planned (organised) and [[opportunistic]] piracy.<ref>
For example:
{{cite book
| last1 = Eklöf
| first1 = Stefan
| chapter = Opportunistic Piracy
| title = Pirates in Paradise: A Modern History of Southeast Asia's Maritime Marauders
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SlDe_cmh3mgC
| series = Nias Monographs: Studies in contemporary Asian history
| volume = 101
| issue = 6
| location = Copenhagen
| publisher = Nordic Institute of Asian Studies (NIAS)
| date = 2006
| page = 35
| isbn = 978-87-91114-37-3
| access-date = July 13, 2018
| quote = [...] it is useful to distinguish between organised and non-organised (or opportunistic) piracy, with the latter type being by far the most common in South-east Asia today and over the past decades. Opportunistic piracy is mostly perpetrated by quite small groups [...]. The attacks require little detailed information or planning ahead [...].
}}
</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Piracy|Oceans}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*''[[A General History of the Pyrates]]'', an historical book on pirates
* [[Air pirate]]
* [[Aircraft hijacking]], a.k.a. air piracy
* [[Carjacking]] a.k.a. car piracy
* [[Copyright infringement]]
* [[International Talk Like a Pirate Day]]
* [[List of pirates]]
* [[Piracy in the Atlantic World]]
* [[Piracy kidnappings]]
* [[Pirate code]]
* [[Pirate game]]
* [[Pirate Party]]
* [[Pirate Round]]
* [[Pirate studies]]
* [[Pirate utopia]]
* [[Pirates World]]
* [[Republic of Pirates]]
* [[Raid (military)]]
* [[Space pirate]]
*''[[The Successful Pyrate]]'', an historical play
* [[Train robbery]], a.k.a. railroad piracy
* [[Women in piracy]]
* [[Violent non-state actors at sea]]
* [[Private maritime security companies]]

{{div col end}}

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite web | title=bonaventure.org.uk – Pirate Ranks | url=http://www.bonaventure.org.uk/ed/ranks.htm | access-date=April 24, 2008 | archive-date=March 20, 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080320132900/http://www.bonaventure.org.uk/ed/ranks.htm | url-status=live }}


* {{cite book | first=Clifford| last=Beal| year=2007| title=Quelch's Gold: Piracy, Greed, and Betrayal in Colonial New England | page=243 | publisher=Praeger| isbn=978-0-275-99407-5 }}
* {{cite book | first=John | last=Burnett | year=2002 | title=Dangerous Waters: Modern Piracy and Terror on the High Seas | page=346 | publisher=Plume | isbn=0-452-28413-9 }}
* {{cite book | first=David| last=Cordingly | year=1997 | title=Under the Black Flag: The Romance and the Reality of Life Among the Pirates | publisher=Harvest Books | isbn=0-15-600549-2 }}
* Hanna, Mark G. ''Pirate Nests and the Rise of the British Empire, 1570–1740'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2015). xvi, 448 pp.
* {{cite book | first=Samuel | last=Menefee | year=1996 | title=Trends in Maritime Violence | publisher=Jane's Information Group | isbn=0-7106-1403-9 }}
* {{cite book | first=Geoffrey| last=Girard| year=2006 | title=Tales of the Atlantic Pirates | publisher=Middle Atlantic Press | isbn=0-9754419-5-7 }}
* {{cite book | first=William | last=Langewiesche | year=2004 | title=The Outlaw Sea: A World of Freedom, Chaos, and Crime | publisher=North Point Press | isbn=0-86547-581-4 | url=https://archive.org/details/outlawseaworld00lang }}
* Rediker, Marcus. ''[[Outlaws of the Atlantic: Sailors, Pirates, and Motley Crews in the Age of Sail]]'' (Boston: Beacon, 2014). xii, 241 pp.
* {{cite book | first=Marcus | last=Rediker | year=1987 | title=Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-37983-0 }}
* {{cite book | first=Steve | last=Kimball | year=2006 | title=The Pyrates Way Magazine | page=64 | publisher=The Pyrates Way, LLC | url=http://www.pyratesway.com | access-date=June 26, 2021 | archive-date=March 9, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309123753/http://pyratesway.com/ }}
* {{cite book | last = Heller-Roazen | first = Daniel | title = The Enemy of All: Piracy and the Law of Nations | publisher=Zone Books | year = 2009 | isbn =978-1-890951-94-8 }}
* {{cite book | last = Lucie-Smith | first = Edward | title = Outcasts of the Sea: Pirates and Piracy | publisher = Paddington Press | year = 1978 | url = https://archive.org/details/outcastsofseapir0000luci | isbn = 978-0-448-22617-0 }}
*Earle, Peter (2003) ''The Pirate Wars'' Methuen, London. {{ISBN|0-413-75880-X}}
*Guilmartin, John Francis, ''Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century.'' Cambridge University Press, London. 1974. {{ISBN|0-521-20272-8}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Piracy}}
{{Wikisource index|Pirates}}
* [http://www.eunavfor.eu European Union Naval Force Somalia] Official website.
* {{cite web| url=http://www.icc-ccs.org/prc/piracyreport.php |title=Live Piracy & Armed Robbery Report|publisher=Commercial Crime Services|website= [[International Chamber of Commerce]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011013534/http://www.icc-ccs.org/prc/piracyreport.php|archive-date=October 11, 2007}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Security/Pages/MaritimeSecurity.aspx |title=Maritime Security and Piracy|website= [[International Maritime Organization]]}}
* [[Operation Atalanta]] (EU NAVFOR Somalia), the ongoing EU military operation to combat piracy in the Gulf of Aden.
* [http://www.piracy-studies.org Piracy-Studies.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814161251/http://piracy-studies.org/ |date=August 14, 2020 }} — academic research portal on modern-day piracy and maritime security
* [https://www.fayobserver.com/news/20191111/nc-supreme-court-revives-lawsuit-over-blackbeards-ship-and-lost-spanish-treasure-ship N.C Supreme Court revives lawsuit over Blackbeard's ship and lost Spanish treasure ship], Fayetteville Observer
* [https://www.npr.org/2019/11/27/783303277/episode-955-pirate-videos Episode 955: Pirate Videos], Planet Money, ''NPR''

{{International Criminal Law}}
{{Pirates}}
{{Pirates of the Modern Age}}
{{Treasure}}
{{Terrorism topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Piracy| ]]
[[Category:Criminal occupations]]
[[Category:International criminal law]]
[[Category:Organized crime activity]]
[[Category:Property crimes]]
[[Category:Terrorism tactics]]

William W. Pearson

2026-05-08T03:08:16Z

DeangeloSchwing: added data

[[File:William_Winstanley_Pearson.JPG|thumb|William Winstanley Pearson]]
'''William Winstanley Pearson''' was a pastor and educator, born in Manchester (U.K.) on 7 May 1881, and who died in Italy on 25 September 1923.<ref>[http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12323270t French National Library]</ref><ref>[http://www.visvabharati.ac.in/W-W-Pearson.html visvabharati.ac.in]</ref>

Pearson was the son of the Reverend Samuel Pearson, a Congregationalist minister, and his wife Bertha Eliza Pearson (née Crosfield).<ref name="ODNB">{{Cite ODNB|last=Gupta|first=Uma Das|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/107431|title=Pearson, William Winstanley [Willie]|date=2016}}</ref>

He was a science graduate from Cambridge University, and went to Calcutta in 1907, where he taught Botany at the London Missionary College in Bhavanipur. He returned to England in 1911 and met [[Rabindranath Tagore]] in his own house in London. While in India, he met [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and became a supporter of his action. He was a teacher in Tagore's school, [[Bolpur]], and then in [[Shantiniketan]]. He translated some of Tagore's works into English.

In 1916, he became Tagore's secretary, and followed him on his journey to Japan and the United States. While in Japan, Tagore introduced him to Paul and [[Mirra Alfassa|Mirra]] Richard, disciples of [[Sri Aurobindo]] : they had a very strong influence on him. When Mirra settled at [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]] in 1920 and was known as The Mother, Pearson went there to meet Sri Aurobindo. In 1920-1921 again, he accompanied Tagore both in Europe and America.

Pearson was fatally injured in an accident on September 18, 1923, when he "fell down from a train" that was traveling from [[Milan]] to [[Florence]], and transported to a hospital in [[Pistoia]]. According to a witness at his deathbed, Pearson's last words were "My only and one love— India" <ref>Chinmoy Guha, ''Bridging East and West: Rabindranath Tagore and Romain Rolland Correspondence (1919–1940)'' (Oxford University Press India, 2018)</ref>

== Works ==

* Introduction to a 1909 edition of ''[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.511447/page/n3/mode/2up Duties of Man]'' by [[Giuseppe Mazzini|Joseph Mazzini]]
* ''[https://archive.org/details/forindiawithintr00pearuoft For India]'', 1917
* ''[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.98070 Shantiniketan: the Bolpur School of Rabindranath Tagore]'', 1917
* ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lBZLAQAAMAAJ The Dawn of a New Age, and Other Essays]'', 1922

== Sources ==
* Natl. bibliogr. of Indian lit. / gen. ed. B. S. Kesavan; V. Y. Kulkarni, 1962, vol 1, p. 339

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[https://www.natalia.org.za/Files/44/Article%20Nauriya%20pp%2070%20to%2078.pdf William Winstanley Pearson: The Natal Experience] by Anil Nauriya (''Natalia'' 44 (2014), pp. 70–78)
*[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340827445_English_Anti-Imperialism_and_the_Varied_Lights_of_Willie_Pearson_Anil_Nauriya_Nehru_Memorial_Museum_and_Library_2014_NMML_Occasional_Paper English Anti-Imperialism and the Varied Lights of Willie Pearson] by Anil Nauriya ([[Nehru Memorial Museum & Library]], NMML Occasional Paper, History and Society, New Series 57, 2014)

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pearson, William}}
{{morecat|date=November 2023}}
[[Category:1881 births]]
[[Category:1923 deaths]]
[[Category:Schoolteachers from Greater Manchester]]
[[Category:People from Manchester]]

Sethu Vinayagam

2026-05-04T22:46:24Z

DeangeloSchwing: added a pg

{{Short description|Indian stage and film actor (1948–2009)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sethu Vinayagam
| birth_name = Sethu Vinayagam
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1949|08|18}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2009|09|20|1949|08|18}}
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1981–2009
}}

'''Sethu Vinayagam''' (18 August 1949 – 20 September 2009) was an Indian actor who worked in Tamil films and plays.

==Career==
He was the member of [[Visu]]'s drama troupe and mostly seen in all Visu's films. He appeared in more over 100 films and plays and made his mark as a villain, supporting roles in many films.

His notable movies include ''[[Thillu Mullu]]'', ''[[Puthiya Theerppu]]'', ''[[Oorkavalan]]'', ''[[Sathya (1988 film)|Sathya]]'', ''[[Mangai Oru Gangai]]'', ''[[Penmani Aval Kanmani]]'', ''[[Palaivana Paravaigal]]'', ''[[Gunaa]]'', ''[[Magalir Mattum (1994 film)|Magalir Mattum]]'' and ''[[Baashha]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://antrukandamugam.wordpress.com/2015/09/05/sethu-vinayagam/|title=Sethu Vinayagam|date=2015-09-05|website=Antru Kanda Mugam|language=en|access-date=2020-02-04|archive-date=4 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204113249/https://antrukandamugam.wordpress.com/2015/09/05/sethu-vinayagam/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/celebs/sethu-vinayagam.html|title=All you want to know about #SethuVinayagam|website=FilmiBeat|language=en|access-date=2020-02-04|archive-date=4 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204114116/https://www.filmibeat.com/celebs/sethu-vinayagam.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Personal life==
Sethu Vinayagam was married and had three daughters.

== Death ==
Sethu Vinayagam died on 20 September 2009 at the age of 60 due to prolonged sickness.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kollywoodtoday.net/news/ace-actor-sethu-vinayagam-is-no-more/|title=Ace Actor Sethu Vinayagam is no more|date=2009-09-29|website=Kollywood Today|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-04|archive-date=4 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204113252/http://www.kollywoodtoday.net/news/ace-actor-sethu-vinayagam-is-no-more/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
''This is a partial filmography. You can expand it.''

=== 1980s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1981
|''[[Thillu Mullu]]''
|Chandran's friend
|
|-
|1984
|''Vaai Sollil Veeranadi''
|
|
|-
|1984
|''[[Naanayam Illatha Naanayam]]''
|Aandavar's PA
|
|-
|1984
|''[[Simma Soppanam]]''
|
|
|-
|1984
|''[[Rajathanthiram (1984 film)|Rajathanthiram]]''
|Viswanatha Boopathy
|
|-
|1984
|''[[Puyal Kadantha Bhoomi]]''
|Rameshbabu
|
|-
|1985
|[[Puthiya Theerppu|''Puthiya Theerpu'']]
|
|
|-
|1985
|''Raja Yuvaraja''
|
|
|-
|1985
|[[Chidambara Rahasiyam (film)|''Chidambara Rahasiyam'']]
|Inspector
|
|-
|1985
|''[[Ketti Melam]]''
|Police officer
|
|-
|1986
|''[[Yaaro Ezhuthiya Kavithai]]''
|
|
|-
|1987
|''[[Manithanin Marupakkam]]''
|
|
|-
|1987
|[[Oorkavalan|''Oor Kavalan'']]
|
|
|-
|1987
|''[[Kavalan Avan Kovalan]]''
|Sethu
|
|-
|1987
|''[[Mangai Oru Gangai]]''
|
|
|-
|1987
|''[[Penmani Aval Kanmani]]''
|
|
|-
|1988
|[[Sathya (1988 film)|''Sathya'']]
|Mariappa's assistant
|
|-
|1988
|''[[Urimai Geetham]]''
|
|
|-
|1988
|''Mappillai Sir''
|
|
|-
|1988
|''[[Oruvar Vaazhum Aalayam]]''
|
|
|-
|1988
|''[[Puthiya Vaanam]]''
|
|
|-
|1988
|''Dhayam Onnu''
|
|
|-
|}

=== 1990s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
|'''Notes'''
|-
|1990
|''[[Velai Kidaichuduchu]]''
|
|
|-
|1990
|''[[Palaivana Paravaigal]]''
|Advocate
|
|-
|1990
|[[Kavalukku Kettikaran|''Kaavalukku Kettikkaran'']]
|
|
|-
|1990
|''[[Nalla Kaalam Porandaachu]]''
|
|
|-
|1991
|''[[Naadu Adhai Naadu]]''
|
|
|-
|1991
|[[Adhikari (film)|''Adhikari'']]
|
|
|-
|1991
|''[[Anbu Sangili]]''
|
|
|-
|1991
|''[[Idhaya Vaasal]]''
|
|
|-
|1991
|''[[Gunaa]]''
|
|
|-
|1992
|''[[Pattathu Raani]]''
|
|
|-
|1992
|''[[Samundi]]''
|
|
|-
|1992
|''[[Vaaname Ellai]]''
|
|
|-
|1993
|''[[Maravan]]''
|
|
|-
|1993
|''[[Uthama Raasa]]''
|
|
|-
|1993
|''[[Naalaya Seidhi]]''
|
|
|-
|1993
|''[[Mutrugai]]''
|
|
|-
|1994
|[[Magalir Mattum (1994 film)|''Magalir Mattum'']]
|Police inspector
|
|-
|1994
|''[[Sathyavan]]''
|
|
|-
|1994
|[[Sadhu (film)|''Sadhu'']]
|
|
|-
|1995
|''[[Baashha]]''
|College chairman
|
|-
|1996
|''[[Aruva Velu]]''
|
|
|-
|1996
|''[[Coimbatore Mappillai]]''
|
|
|-
|1996
|''[[Take It Easy Urvashi]]''
|
|
|-
|1996
|[[Sengottai (film)|''Sengottai'']]
|
|
|-
|1998
|''[[Ulavuthurai]]''
|Krishnamoorthy's boss
|
|-
|}

=== 2000s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
|'''Notes'''
|-
|2000
|''[[Uyirile Kalanthathu]]''
|
|
|-
|2000
|''[[Mugavaree]]''
|Film producer
|
|-
|2001
|''[[Sigamani Ramamani]]''
|
|
|-
|2001
|''[[Aanandham]]''
|Susheela's father
|
|-
|2001
|[[Citizen (2001 film)|''Citizen'']]
|Minister
|
|-
|2003
|''Vadakku Vaasal''
|
|
|-
|2003
|''[[Saamy]]''
|Aarusaamy's suitor's father
|
|-
| 2003
| ''[[Thithikudhe]]'' || ||
|-
|2003
|''[[Galatta Ganapathy]]''
|
|
|-
|2004
|[[Campus (film)|''Campus'']]
|
|
|-
|2006
|''[[Vanjagan]]''
|
|
|-
|2006
|''[[Mazhai]]''
|
|
|-
|2006
|[[Kokki (film)|''Kokki'']]
|
|
|-
|2007
|''[[Ippadikku En Kadhal]]''
|
|
|-
|2008
|''[[Sadhu Miranda]]''
| Inspector general of police
|
|-
|2008
|''[[Ragasiya Snehithane]]''
|
|
|-
|2008
|''[[Pattaya Kelappu]]''
|
|
|-
|2008
|''Thithikkum Ilamai''
|
|
|-
|2008
|[[Velvi (film)|''Velvi'']]
|
|
|-
|2009
|''Ore Manasu''
|
|
|-
|2009
|''[[Kudiyarasu]]''
|
|
|-
|2009
|''Vaidehi''
|
|Last Movie
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|nm1302977}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vinayagam, Sethu}}
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Place of death missing]]
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Tamil male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Tamil male actors]]
[[Category:Actors in Tamil theatre]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]

Kendriya Vidyalaya, Kollam

2026-05-01T23:45:50Z

DeangeloSchwing: added a details.

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Kendriya Vidyalaya, Kollam
| image =
| image_size = 150px
| alt =
| caption =
| motto = ''Tatvam Pooshan Apaavrunu''
| address = [[Ramankulangara]], [[Kavanad|Kavanad PO]]
| city = [[Kollam]]
| state = [[Kerala]]
| postal_code = 691012
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|8.899556|76.565385|display=inline,title}}
| type = [[Kendriya Vidyalaya]]
| established = {{Start date|df=yes|2007|8|6}} {{Start date|df=yes|2018|5|31}} Moved to own campus
| district = [[Kollam district]]
| principal_label1 = [[Principal (school)|Principal]]
| principal1 = G. Sasikumar
| principal_label2 = [[Head teacher|Headmistress]]
| principal2 = Beena Balakrishnan
| faculty = 23<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kollam.kvs.ac.in/administration/staff-member |title=Staff Details-Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam |publisher=Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam |access-date=2019-12-24 |archive-date=27 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127070723/https://kollam.kvs.ac.in/administration/staff-member |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| grades = [[First grade|1]] to [[Twelfth grade|12]]
| gender = [[Mixed-sex education|coed]]
| enrollment = 686 (as of 2012)
| campus_size =
| campus_type = Urban
| colors =
| mascot =
| yearbook =
| feeder_schools =
| affiliations = CBSE No. '''900030'''
| website = {{URL|https://kollam.kvs.ac.in/|Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam}}
}}
'''Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam''' or '''KV Kollam''' is a [[Government of India|central government]] owned [[Kendriya Vidyalaya]] school in [[Kollam]]. The school is located at [[Ramankulangara]] in the city. The school has set up in 2007 at [[Mulangadakam]]. KV Kollam was officially inaugurated on 6 August 2007 by [[P. Rajendran]], the then [[Member of parliament|MP]] of Kollam.<ref name="Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam">{{cite news|title=KV Kollam|url=http://kvkollam.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=19&Itemid=41|work=Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam - Official Website|access-date=15 Jan 2016|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110182411/http://kvkollam.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=19&Itemid=41|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==History==
KV kollam was started in 2007 as per the sanction accorded by the Govt. of India in special focus district which have no [[Kendriya Vidyalaya]] and is inaugurated at [[Ramankulangara]] in the city by [[P. Rajendran]], the then [[Member of parliament, Lok Sabha|MP]] from [[Kollam (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kollam Lok Sabha constituency]], on 6 August 2007. In 2010, [[Kollam Municipal Corporation|Kollam city Corporation]] has acquired four acres of private land at [[Ramankulangara]] in the city at a cost of Rs.1.35 crore for the school to have its own complex.<ref name="Kollam KV faces uncertainty">{{cite news|title=Kollam KV faces uncertainty|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/kollam-kv-faces-uncertainty/article2918489.ece|date=22 Feb 2012|work=The Hindu|access-date=15 Jan 2016}}</ref> On 31 May 2018, the School shifted to its new building at [[Ramankulangara]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kollam.kvs.ac.in/about-us/about-kvs |title=About KV Kollam-Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam |publisher=Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam |access-date=2019-12-24 |archive-date=21 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721120105/https://kollam.kvs.ac.in/about-us/about-kvs |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, a new [[Kendriya Vidyalaya]] has been allotted for the [[Kollam district|district of Kollam]] at [[Kottarakara]].<ref name="New Development Projects for Kollam Announced">{{cite news|title=New Development Projects for Kollam Announced|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/New-Development-Projects-for-Kollam-Announced/2015/05/12/article2810188.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151205142451/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/New-Development-Projects-for-Kollam-Announced/2015/05/12/article2810188.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 December 2015|date=12 May 2015|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=15 Jan 2016}}</ref>

==Location==
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2022}}
The nearest major transport hubs:
*Nearest Bus Stations: [[Kollam KSRTC Bus Station]] (2.9 km), [[Andamukkam City Bus Stand]] (3.8 km) and [[Tangasseri Bus Terminal]] (2.5 km)
*Nearest Railway Station: [[Kollam Junction railway station|Kollam Junction]] (4.1 km)
*Nearest Sea Port: [[Kollam Port]] (2.9 km)
*Nearest Airport: [[Quilon Aerodrome|Kollam Helipad (Old Airport)]] (3 km) and [[Trivandrum International Airport]] (69.6 km)

==Facilities==
* Class rooms (36)
* Computer Lab (3)
* Chemistry Lab
* Physics Lab
* Library
* Jr. Science Lab
* Staff Common Room<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kollam.kvs.ac.in/about-us/facilities |title=Facilities-Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam |publisher=Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam |access-date=2019-12-24 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Education|School}}
* [[Kollam]]
* [[Mulamkadakam]]
* [[Chinmaya Vidyalaya, Kollam]]
* [[Ramankulangara]]
* [[List of Kendriya Vidyalayas]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Kollam}}

[[Category:Kendriya Vidyalayas in Kerala]]
[[Category:Schools in Kollam]]
[[Category:2007 establishments in Kerala]]

Girkar

2026-04-28T15:55:05Z

DeangeloSchwing:

'''Girkar''' is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

* [[Nilesh Girkar]], Indian filmmaker
* [[Vijay Girkar]], Indian politician
* [[OM Girkar]], Creative Developer

{{Surname}}

[[Category:Surnames of Indian origin]]
{{Short pages monitor}}

Laxmikant Bhembre

2026-04-23T16:24:09Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added Stub...

{{Short description|Indian independence activist (1906 – 1985)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Laxmikant Bhembre
| image = Laxmikant Bhembre.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Portrait of Laxmikant Bhembre
| birth_name = Laxmikant Venkatesh Prabhu Bhembre
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1906|8|2|df=y}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1985|9|1|1906|8|2|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Rivona]], [[Sanguem taluka]], [[Portuguese Goa]]
| death_place =
| other_names = Ekalavya
| spouse =
| children = [[Uday Bhembre]]
| occupation =
| years_active =
| known_for =
| movement = [[Goa Liberation Movement]]
| alma_mater =
| notable_works =
| awards =
}}
'''Laxmikant Venkatesh Prabhu Bhembre''' (2 August 1906 – 1 September 1985) was an Indian freedom fighter and teacher. He was a member of the Sanghatna Samiti, which was renamed as Gomantak Congress.

==Early life==
Laxmikant Venkatesh Prabhu Bhembre was born on 2 August 1906 at [[Rivona]], [[Sanguem taluka]], [[Portuguese Goa]] to Venkatesh Anant Prabhu Bhembre. He completed his third year of [[Lyceum]], matriculation government service examination and Sanad for legal practice.<ref name="ShirodkarWho86">{{Cite book |last=Shirodkar |first=Pandurang Purushottam |author-link=Pandurang Purushottam Shirodkar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISScyAEACAAJ |title=Who's Who of Freedom Fighters, Goa, Daman, and Diu |date=1986 |publisher=Goa Gazetteer Department, Government of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman, and Diu |volume=1 |pages=25–26}}</ref>

==Career==

=== Teaching career ===
Bhembre was a teacher who taught at Union High School and Popular High School in [[Margao]].<ref name="VazEminentGoans">{{Cite book |last=Vaz |first=J. Clement |author-link=J. Clement Vaz |url=https://archive.org/details/profilesofeminen0000vazj/ |title=Profiles of eminent Goans, past and present |date=1997 |publisher=Concept Pub. Co. |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-81-7022-619-2 |location=New Delhi |page=286}}</ref>
===Early political activities===
Bhembre was a leading member of the political organisation, Sanghatna Samiti, that was later renamed as the Gomantak Congress (i.e. Goa Congress). This group worked in secret to create awareness about Goa's freedom, before the unification of the National Congress Goa (NCG).<ref name="ShirodkarWho86" />

In August 1946, Bhembre chaired a significant meeting in [[Londa, Karnataka|Londa]], which led to the establishment of the National Congress of Goa (NCG). He was a founding member of its executive committee and took part in the Satyagraha campaign in Margao. His involvement in these activities led to his arrest and trial under Portuguese rule. In October 1946, he was sentenced to a four-year prison term and was subsequently deported to Portugal.<ref name="ShirodkarWho86" />

===Imprisonment in Portugal===
Upon his arrival in Lisbon in January 1947, Bhembre was incarcerated at Peniche Fort along with other political detainees. During his imprisonment, he protested the lack of separation between political and non-political prisoners, including participating in a hunger strike. These efforts resulted in adjustments to the Portuguese prison policies.<ref name="ShirodkarWho86" />

While at Peniche jail, he and the other freedom fighters, [[Rama Hegde]], [[Purushottam Kakodkar]], [[José Inácio Candido de Loyola]] and [[T. B. Cunha]], hosted the newlywed [[Pundalik Gaitonde]] and [[Edila Gaitonde]] for their honeymoon. These prisoners organised a celebration in honour of Pundalik and Edila. They hosted a meal for the newlyweds.<ref name="Jeevanrekha09">{{cite book|title=डॉ. पुंडलिक गायतोंडे: जीवनरेखा |trans-title = Dr. Pundalik Gaitonde: Jeevanrekha|editor-first=Somnath |editor-last=Komarpant |date=April 2009 |publisher= Shivanand Gaitonde, Sateri Prakashan |location=Pune |language=mr}}</ref><ref name="FaleiroGoa1961">{{Cite book |last=Faleiro |first=Valmiki |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GYLyEAAAQBAJ |title=Goa, 1961: The Complete Story of Nationalism and Integration |date=2023-07-24 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=978-93-5708-175-7 |pages=12-13, 22-23, 26, 82-83, 293 |access-date=21 August 2024}}</ref>

After his release in October 1950, he remained under police surveillance in Lisbon, as the Portuguese authorities did not permit his return to Goa. This surveillance continued until December 1961.<ref name="ShirodkarWho86" />

===Life in Exile===
While living in Portugal, Bhembre joined the [[Theosophical Society]] and became active in cultural and religious discussions. He delivered speeches on the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and wrote columns for various publications, including ''Dudhasagar'' (Bombay) and ''Navjeevan'' (Belgaum), using the pen name Ekalavya.<ref name="ShirodkarWho86" />

=== Post-Liberation of Goa ===
After Goa's liberation, Bhembre was briefly imprisoned from December 1961 to April 1962. Upon his release, he returned to Goa in May 1962, where he continued his intellectual and literary career. He wrote a Marathi book on the cultural and religious influence of the Portuguese rule in Goa, titled, ''Purutgali Rajvaticpurviche Govyatil Dharmik Vangmay''.<ref name="ShirodkarWho86" />

==Personal life==
Poet and politician [[Uday Bhembre]] is his son.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-14 |title=Uday Bhembre's Faith on Fire |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/cafe/uday-bhembre%E2%80%99s-faith-on-fire/207518 |access-date=2025-02-03 |website=Herald Goa}}</ref>

== Awards and accolades ==
Bhembre received recognition for his contributions, including a Tamrapatra Award from the Indian government. He was also honored by the governments of Goa, Daman, and Diu for his role in the freedom movement. He has also been acknowledged by various cultural and literary organizations for his contributions.<ref name="ShirodkarWho86" />

==Death==
Bhembre died on 1 September 1985.<ref name="ShirodkarWho86" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhembre, Laxmikant}}
[[Category:1906 births]]
[[Category:1985 deaths]]
[[Category:People from South Goa district]]
[[Category:Goa liberation activists]]
[[Category:People from Portuguese India]]

Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil

2026-04-21T08:12:43Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added Info

{{Short description|2026 Indian Bengali film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}

{{Infobox film
| name = Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil
| image = File:Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil (2026) film poster.jpeg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| alt =
| director = Sumeet–Saahil
| producer = [[Ankush Hazra]] Sani Ghose Ray
| writer = Sreejib
| story = Sreejib
| starring = Ankush Hazra Oindrila Sen Debraj Bhattacharya [[Sohini Sengupta]] [[Sohag Sen]]
| music = '''Songs:''' Ishan Mitra B Show Avishek Saha '''Score:''' Ishan Mitra
| cinematography = Animesh Ghorui
| editing = Sanglap Bhowmik
| studio = Ankush Hazra Motion Pictures [[Acropoliis|Acropoliis Entertainment Private Limited]] RT Entertainment
| distributor = [[PVR Inox Pictures]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2026|01|09}}
| runtime = 131 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| gross = {{estimation}}{{INR|0.34}} crore
| budget =
}}

'''''Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil''''' ({{IPA|bn|nari tʃoritro bedʒaɪ ʤoʈil}}; {{Translation|'''''Female natures are very complex'''''}}) is a 2026 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language [[fantasy comedy]] film directed by Sumeet–Saahil. Produced by [[Ankush Hazra]] and Sani Ghose Ray under the banner of Ankush Hazra Motion Pictures and [[Acropoliis|Acropoliis Entertainment]] respectively,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Here are some of the much-awaited Bengali films set to release in 2026 |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/here-are-some-of-the-much-awaited-bengali-films-set-to-release-in-2026/2002942?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAc3J0YwZhcHBfaWQKNjYyODU2ODM3OQABHjh6bcyZgk_4nBXrANi0D1mxFJS68N2DzyoiDObggkhqtCDOj9FIgPUel-AR_aem_IvC6UOmk4MNr4NuTKdHpdA |access-date=2026-01-05 |website=t2online.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ankush Hazra Announces Release Date of Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil |url=https://www.aajkaal.in/entertainment/ankush-hazra-announces-release-date-of-nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-179229 |access-date=2026-01-05 |website=www.aajkaal.in |language=bn-IN}}</ref> the film stars Ankush and Oindrila Sen in their fifth pairing, alongside an [[ensemble cast]] of, Debraj Bhattacharya, [[Sohini Sengupta]], [[Sohag Sen]], Ipshita Mukherjee and [[Nabanita Malakar]].<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-details/nari-choritro-bejay-jotil/movieshow/126333280.cms |title=Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil Movie: Showtimes, Review, Songs, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos {{!}} eTimes |access-date=2026-01-05 |via=timesofindia.indiatimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Didi No 1 update Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil team will play special episode with Rachana Banerjee Oindrila Sen will say this about Ankush Hazra |url=https://www.aajkaal.in/entertainment/didi-no-1-update-nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-team-will-play-special-episode-with-rachana-banerjee-oindrila-sen-will-say-this-about-ankush-hazra-183598 |access-date=2026-01-05 |website=www.aajkaal.in |language=bn-IN}}</ref> It follows an unexpected turn in a man's life after he suddenly gains the ability to read women's minds and embarks on a therapeutic journey towards greater empathy and understanding.

Written by Sreejib, the core concept of the film is inspired by [[American film|American]] film ''[[What Women Want]]'' (2000). Announced in February 2025, the film shares its title with [[Kishore Kumar]]'s song from the 1981 film ''[[Ogo Bodhu Shundori]]'', marking the second collaboration between Sumeet–Saahil and Ankush. [[Principal photography|Principal Photography]] commenced in March 2025 and wrapped by in July 2025, making as one of the shortest periods in which a Bengali film has been shot. Music of the film is composed by Ishan Mitra, B Show and Avishek Saha, while Animesh Ghorui and Sanglap Bhowmik handled its cinematography and editor respectively.

''Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil'' was theatrically released on 9 January 2026, coinciding with [[Sankranti]].

==Plot==
Jhontu, a street smart struggles to comprehend the complexities of the women. He lives with his mother, sister, grandmother. All of a sudden he mysteriously gains the power to hear women's inner thoughts. This creates huge chaos and laughter when judging women and their emotion. He learnt that understanding women remains a greatest challenge of men's life.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-02 |title=Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil trailer launched at Globe Cinema |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-trailer-launched-at-globe-cinema/articleshow/126302986.cms |access-date=2026-01-05 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Cast==
* [[Ankush Hazra]] as Jagatdata Chatterjee / Jhontu
* Oindrila Sen as Ankhi
* [[Sohag Sen]]
* [[Sohini Sengupta]] as Jhontu's mother
* [[Nabanita Malakar]]
* Debraj Bhattacharya
* Ipshita Mukherjee

==Production==
===Announcement and development===
The film was announced with an announcement teaser on 14 February 2025, on the occasion of Ankush's birthday and coinciding with [[Valentine's Day]].<ref>{{cite news |title='Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil': Ankush Hazra announces second production venture |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/mirza-actor-announces-new-film-nari-choritro-bejay-jotil/cid/2083737 |access-date=6 January 2026 |work=The Telegraph |date=15 February 2025}}</ref> The first poster of ''Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil'' was released on 8 March 2025, on the occasion of [[International Women's Day]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ganguly |first1=Ruman |title=Official poster of Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil is out |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/official-poster-of-nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-is-out/articleshow/118885457.cms |access-date=6 January 2026 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=11 March 2025}}</ref> The title of the film has been adapted from [[Uttam Kumar]]’s last film ''[[Ogo Bodhu Shundori]]'', which had a song titled ''Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhanja |first1=Sandipta |title='ঠাকুর, পৃথিবীর সমস্ত জটিল মহিলাদের সরল বানিয়ে দাও', কেন এমন কাতর প্রার্থনা অঙ্কুশের? |url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/cinema/ankush-hazra-shares-nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-teaser/ |access-date=6 January 2026 |work=[[Sangbad Pratidin]] |date=11 December 2025 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title='Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil': Poster out for Ankush Hazra-Oindrila Sen-starrer family entertainer |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-poster-out-for-ankush-hazra-oindrila-sen-starrer-family-entertainer/cid/2087951 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250524223121/https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-poster-out-for-ankush-hazra-oindrila-sen-starrer-family-entertainer/cid/2087951 |archive-date=2025-05-24 |access-date=2026-01-05 |language=en}}</ref> This marked the second production venture of Ankush Hazra Motion Pictures after ''[[Mirza: Part 1 – Joker]]'' (2024).<ref>{{cite news |title=Ankush and Oindrilla team up for a rom-com |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/ankush-and-oindrilla-team-up-for-a-rom-com/articleshow/123360915.cms |access-date=6 January 2026 |work=Times of India |date=18 August 2025}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 13:34
| title1 = Kata Phutese
| length1 = 2:54
| lyrics1 = Riju Das
| music1 = B Show
| extra1 = B Show, Rubai
| title2 = Danda 2.0
| length2 = 4:17
| lyrics2 = Subhashish China Das
| music2 = Avishek Saha
| extra2 = [[Silajit Majumder]]
| title3 = Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil (Title Track)
| length3 = 3:01
| lyrics3 = Ritam Sen
| music3 = Ishan Mitra
| extra3 = Ishan Mitra
| title4 = Shono Go Dokhino Hawa
| note4 = Composed by [[S. D. Burman]]
| length4 = 3:22
| lyrics4 = [[Meera Dev Burman]]
| music4 = Ishan Mitra
| extra4 = Durnibar Saha, [[Somlata Acharyya Chowdhury]]
}}

==Marketing==
The teaser of the film was released on 10 December 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |title=The fun never stops in the teaser of the upcoming film Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/the-fun-never-stops-in-the-teaser-of-the-upcoming-film--nari-choritro-bejay-jotil/2002737 |access-date=6 January 2026 |work=t2Online |date=16 December 2025}}</ref> The trailer of ''Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil'' was released at [[Globe Cinema (Kolkata)|Globe Cinema]] in [[Kolkata]] on 29 December 2025. The event was attended by all the cast and crew members of the film.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil trailer launched at Globe Cinema |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-trailer-launched-at-globe-cinema/articleshow/126302986.cms |access-date=6 January 2026 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=2 January 2026}}</ref> The makers have conducted a Bengal Tour across multiple cities in [[West Bengal]] prior to its release. The promotional event organized at [[Balurghat]] on 5 January 2026 also marked the release of another song from the film, titled "Shono Go Dokhino Hawa".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chowdhury |first1=Pinak Pani |title=Ankush Hazra and Oindrila Sen travel to districts in Bengal to promote their latest film |url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/entertainment/ankush-hazra-and-oindrila-sen-travel-to-districts-in-bengal-to-promote-their-latest-film-642733 |access-date=6 January 2026 |work=Millenium Post |date=5 January 2026}}</ref>

==Release==
''Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil'' released in the theatres on 9 January 2026, coinciding with [[Saraswati Puja]] 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ankush, Oindrila's 'Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil' to release on Saraswati Puja |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/poster-out-for-ankush-hazra-oindrila-sen-starrer-family-entertainer/cid/2118259 |access-date=5 January 2026}}</ref>

==Reception==
===Critical reception===
Poorna Banerjee of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film 3.5/5 stars and wrote "''Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil'' is a film that blends fantasy, romance and social commentary, while staying rooted in mainstream entertainment. Beneath its humour and fantasy, the film attempts to comment on how patriarchy often views feminism through a skewed lens, refusing to acknowledge women’s worth beyond the matrimonial bed." She praised the witty and fast-paced screenplay by Sreejib, sharp dialogues, situational humour, Ankush's performance, Debraj and Oindrila in their respective roles, the humorous plot twists, the vibrant cinematography and the music but bemoaned certain "absurd developments" in the plot towards the climax.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Banerjee |first1=Poorna |title=Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil Movie Review: a breezy rom-com with a feminist undertone |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/a-breezy-rom-com-with-a-feminist-undertone/movie-review/126450786.cms |access-date=19 January 2026 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=10 January 2026}}{{rating|3.5|5}}</ref>

Shatakshi Ganguly of ''IWMBuzzz'' rated the film 4/5 stars and opined "The mind-reading becomes an initiator for deeper conversations. With every flabbergasting twist, it holds up a mirror to society—challenging rooted patriarchy and championing the often overlooked and ignored brilliance of women." She applauded Ankush and Oindrila's chemistry, the supporting cast's performance, the well written jokes and the well-paced screenplay.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ganguly |first1=Shatakshi |title=Nari Choritro Bejay Jotil Review: A Fun Entertaining Watch |url=https://www.iwmbuzz.com/movies/editorial-movies/nari-choritro-bejay-jotil-review-a-fun-entertaining-watch/2026/01/10 |access-date=19 January 2026 |work=IWMBuzz |date=10 January 2026}}{{rating|3.5|5}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
* {{IMDb title|36175481}}

[[Category:2026 films]]
[[Category:2026 Bengali-language films]]
[[Category:2026 Indian films]]
[[Category:2026 comedy films]]
[[Category:2026 romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:2026 comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:2026 drama films]]
[[Category:2020s fantasy comedy films]]
[[Category:2020s satirical films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language comedy films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language fantasy comedy films]]
[[Category:Films about wish fulfillment]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Indian satirical films]]
[[Category:Indian fantasy comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Magical realism films]]
[[Category:Acropoliis films]]
[[Category:Films distributed by PVR Inox Pictures]]

Klikk

2026-04-19T19:28:16Z

DeangeloSchwing: added info.

{{Short description|Indian video-on-demand service}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox website
| name = Klikk
| logo = KLiKK App Official Logo.png
| company_type = [[Private company|Private]]
| traded_as =
| foundation =
| dissolved =
| location = [[Kolkata, West Bengal]], India
| locations =
| incorporated =
| founder = Vikash Tantiya
| chairman =
| chairperson =
| president =
| CEO =
| MD =
| GM =
| key_people =
| registration = Required
| industry = {{hlist|[[Entertainment]]|[[Mass media]]}}
| type = [[Over-the-top media service|OTT platform]]
| products =
| services =
| owner = Angel Television Private Limited
| num_employees =
| country_of_origin ={{flag|India}}
| area_served = Worldwide
| commercial = Yes
| url = {{URL|https://www.klikk.tv/}}
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| launch_date = {{Start date and age|df=y|10 November 2020}}
| current_status = Active
}}
'''Klikk''' is a Bengali language [[video-on-demand]], [[Over-the-top media service|OTT]], [[streaming television|streaming]] service owned and maintained by Angel Television Private Limited with headquarters in [[Kolkata]], India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ebhabei Golpo Hok review: A frustratingly ineffective film that should not have existed |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/ebhabei-golpo-hok-review-a-frustratingly-ineffective-film-that-should-not-have-existed-7335530/ |website=The Indian Express |language=en |date=29 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=দাদাসাহেব ফালকে পুরস্কারপ্রাপ্ত ছবি এবার অনলাইন প্ল্যাটফর্মে, KLIKK এ আসছে ২৮ মে |url=https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/entertainment/dadasaheb-falke-award-winning-movie-is-now-at-online-platform_383115.html |website=ZeeNews |date=27 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The KLIKK series Iti Memories tells a story of discovering love once again |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/the-klikk-series-iti-memories-tells-a-story-of-discovering-love-once-again/cid/1898100 |website=Telegraph}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=সমদর্শীর 'ইতি মেমোরিজ', গানের সুরে প্রেমের আবহ শহরে |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/entertainment/iti-memories-jaadukori-song-a-klikk-original-series-directed-by-samadarshi-dutta-ss-954560.html |website=News18 Bengali |language=bn |date=24 December 2022}}</ref>

== History ==
In 1986, Angel Television Private Limited was founded in [[Kolkata]], [[India]], and started its business with movie acquisitions. In 2020, when Klikk was launched by Vikas Tantiya, the company got transformed into a fully vertically integrated studio.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chingari clicks a deal with KLiKK; strengthens its Bengali content base |url=https://indiaeducationdiary.in/chingari-clicks-a-deal-with-klikk-strengthens-its-bengali-content-base/#:~:text=Vikash%20Tantiya%2C%20Founder%20Promoter%20of,immense%20popularity%20with%20the%20audience. |website=India Education |date=9 November 2021 |access-date=25 December 2022 |archive-date=13 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713133646/https://indiaeducationdiary.in/chingari-clicks-a-deal-with-klikk-strengthens-its-bengali-content-base/#:~:text=Vikash%20Tantiya%2C%20Founder%20Promoter%20of,immense%20popularity%20with%20the%20audience. |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kolkata boy Jeet Sundor to debut as a lead in Klikk's Varanasi Junction |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2023/mar/09/kolkata-boy-jeet-sundor-chakraborty-to-debut-as-a-lead-in-klikks-varanasi-junction-47588.html |access-date=2023-08-16 |website=www.indulgexpress.com |date=8 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

A short videos sharing mobile app Chingari was collaborated with Klikk in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chingari collaborates with KLiKK to boost regional content offering |url=https://www.indiantelevision.com/iworld/over-the-top-services/chingari-collaborates-with-klikk-to-boost-regional-content-offering-211109 |website=Indian Television Dot Com |language=en |date=9 November 2021}}</ref>

KliKK is available for [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[iOS]], [[Amazon Fire TV]], [[Android TV]], Jio Store and Mi TV.

== Content ==
Klikk focuses on original [[web series]], [[Streaming television|television programmes]], [[feature film]]s, [[short film]]s, [[animated films]], and a library of over 1000 [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali language films]] across many genres.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bangla.asianetnews.com/bengali-cinema/angel-digital-restores-uttam-kumar-s-cinema-digitally-that-can-put-huge-value-in-bengali-cinema-quxkk5|title = মৃত্যুর তিন দশক পর ফের অভিনয়ে ফিরছেন মহানায়ক উত্তম কুমার, কীভাবে, জানুন}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiaeducationdiary.in/chingari-clicks-a-deal-with-klikk-strengthens-its-bengali-content-base/|title=Chingari clicks a deal with KLiKK; strengthens its Bengali content base|date=November 9, 2021|access-date=25 December 2022|archive-date=13 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713133646/https://indiaeducationdiary.in/chingari-clicks-a-deal-with-klikk-strengthens-its-bengali-content-base/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/new-web-series-of-klikk-ott-platform-olokkhis-in-goa-to-release-in-january-945236|title=Olokkhis in Goa'- Klikk' New Web Series|date=December 28, 2022}}</ref>

== Klikk Originals ==
=== Web series ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Director
!Cast
!Genre
|-
|2023
| ''[[Olokkhis in Goa (TV series)|Olokkhis in Goa]]''
| Joydip Banerjee
| Anuradha Mukherjee, Priyanka Bhattacharjee, Avery Singha Roy, Priyanka Mondal
| Comedy
|-
|2023
| ''[[Honeymoon (2023 web series)|Honeymoon]]''
| Soumik Chattopadhyay
| Aishwarya Sen, Subrat Dutta and Sean Banerjee
| Thriller and crime
|-
|2022
|''Iti Memories''
|[[Samadarshi Dutta]]
|Soumya Mukherjee, Tanika Basu, [[Avijit Dutt]]
|Romance, Drama
|-
|2022
|''60 Er Pore''
|Souvik Dey
|[[Joy Sengupta]], [[Rupanjana Mitra]], Anindya Banerjee, Amyth Sethi, Joy Badlani
|Drama
|-
|2022
|''Inspector Nalinikanta''
|Soumik Chattopadhaya
|[[Rajatava Dutta]], [[Subrat Dutta]], Rupsha Chatterjee, Mishka Halim
|Thriller, Suspense
|-
|2022
|''Sesh Mess''
|Rohan Sen
|Rohan Sen, Sayonima Roy
|Romance
|-
|2022
|''VBA''
|Soumit Deb
|Debraj Bhattacharya, [[Samadarshi Dutta]], Sabuj Bardhan, Saoli Chattopadhyay, Anujoy Chattopadhyay
|Comedy
|-
|2022
|''Bhagar''
|Rajdeep Ghosh
|[[Sabyasachi Chowdhury]], [[Rajatava Dutta]], Aindrila Sharma, Amlan Majumder, Biplab Bandyopadhyay, [[Pritam Das]], Pooja Sarkar
|Drama, Thriller
|-
|2022
|''[[Johny Bonny]]''
|[[Abhijit Chowdhury]]
|[[Kamaleshwar Mukherjee]], [[Debasish Mondal (actor)|Debasish Mondal]], Ankit Majumder, [[Swastika Dutta]], [[Jayati Chakraborty]] and Pushpita Mukherjee
|Psychological Thriller
|-
|2022
|''Roktopolash''
|[[Kamaleshwar Mukherjee]]
|[[Kamaleshwar Mukherjee]], [[Silajit Majumder]], Debdut Ghosh, Ashim Roy Chowdhury, Ananya Sengupta, Utsav Mukherjee
|Drama
|-
|2022
|''[[Encrypted (web series)|Encrypted]]''
|Souptick C
|[[Payel Sarkar]], Aishwarya Sen, Richa Sharma, Amitabh Acharya, Rana Mukherjee and Rana Basu Thakur
|Thriller
|-
|2022
|''[[Prankenstein]]''
|Sagnik Chatterjee
|[[Kaushik Ganguly]], Dip Dey, Sritama Dey, Remoo and Ipsita Kundu
|Psychological Thriller
|-
|2022
|''Search''
|Sandip Sarkar
|[[Sabyasachi Chakraborty]], [[Kaushik Sen]], [[Joy Sengupta]], [[Madhumita Sarcar]], Biswajit Chakraborty, Mithu Chakraborty, Rajesh Sharma
|Thriller, Crime
|-
|2022
|''[[Katakuti (web series)|Katakuti]]''
|[[Raja Chanda]]
|[[Sourav Das (actor)|Sourav Das]], Manasi Sengupta, Devtanu, Paean Sarkar, [[Abhijit Guha (director)|Abhijit Guha]] and Sirsha Rakshit
|Thriller, Crime
|-
|2022
|''[[Shob Choritro]]''
|Debasish Sen Sharma
|[[Anirban Chakrabarti]], [[Paran Bandopadhyay]], [[Iman Chakraborty]], Payel Roy, Ankita Majhi, and Judhajit Sarkar
|Psychological Thriller
|-
|2021
|''Sleelatahanir Pore''
|Reshmi Mitra
|Abhishek Chatterjee, Soumitra Chatterjee, Devlina Kumar, Moubani Sorcar, Rahul Banerjee, Sreela Majumdar
|Thriller, Suspense
|-
|2021
|''[[Danny Detective Inc.]]''
| [[Anjan Dutt]]
|[[Barun Chanda]], [[Ankita Chakraborty]], [[Anjan Dutt]], [[Sudipa Basu]],
|Thriller
|-
|2021
|''Roopkathar Radio''
|Sayan Dasgupta
|[[Biswanath Basu]], Pinky Banerjee, Sujata Daw, Samir Biswas, Baby Sarkar, Tarun Chakraborty, and Shahana Sen
|Thriller (6 episodes)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-16 |title=প্রোমোটারের চক্রান্তে শেষে চৌধুরি ম্য়ানশন প্লট হবে! উত্তর দেবে 'রূপকথার রেডিও' |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/pictures/chowdhury-mansion-will-be-plot-at-the-end-of-the-promoter-s-conspiracy-see-roopkathar-radio-31618574839762.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518081257/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/pictures/chowdhury-mansion-will-be-plot-at-the-end-of-the-promoter-s-conspiracy-see-roopkathar-radio-31618574839762.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 May 2021 |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=Hindustantimes Bangla |language=bn}}</ref>
|-
|} 

=== Films ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Director
!Cast
!Genre
|-
|2022
|''60 Er Pore''
|Souvik Dey
|[[Joy Sengupta]], [[Rupanjana Mitra]], Anindya Banerjee, Amyth Sethi, Joy Badlani
|Drama
|-
|2021
|''Antardwanda''
|Sandip Sarkar
|Joy Sengupta, Madhumita Sarkar, Biswajit Chakraborty
|Thriller
|-
|-
|2021
|''Sleelatahanir Pore''
|Reshmi Mitra
|Abhishek Chatterjee, Soumitra Chatterjee, Devlina Kumar, Moubani Sorcar, Rahul Banerjee, Sreela Majumdar
|Thriller, Suspense
|-
|2020
|''Ebhabei Golpo Hok''
|Rohan Sen
|Bibriti Chatterjee, Ananda S. Chaudhuri, Sujata Ghosh
|Drama
|-
|-
|2020
|''[[Din Ratrir Golpo]]''
|Prosenjit Choudhury
|[[Rajatava Dutta]], Pradip Mukherjee, Rumki Chatterjee, [[Sourav Chakraborty (actor)|Sourav Chakraborty]], Debesh Roychoudhury, Supriti Choudhury, Rayati Basu
|Drama, Crime
|-
|2019
|''Bhalobasar Galpo''
|Raja Sen
|Saswata Chatterjee, Dulal Lahiri, Kaushik Banerjee, Chitra Sen, Rupanjana Mitra, Debdut Ghosh, Debika Sengupta
|Drama
|-
|2017
|''Onek Holo..Ebar Toh Moro''
|Mayukh Chatterjee, Indraneel Dasgupta
|Kharaj Mukherjee, Paran Banerjee, Kanchan Mullick
|Romance, Comedy
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.klikk.tv/ Official Website]

[[Category:Companies based in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian brands]]
[[Category:Streaming media systems]]
[[Category:Video on demand services]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 2020]]
[[Category:2020 establishments in West Bengal]]

Dungargarh Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:55:34Z

DeangeloSchwing: put up a data needs work

{{Short description|Constituency of the Rajasthan legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Dungargarh
| map_image = Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan-17-Dungargarh.svg
| established = 1957
| state = [[Rajasthan]]
| district = [[Bikaner district|Bikaner]]
| mla = [[Tarachand Saraswat]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| constituency_no = 17
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| type = SLA
| reservation = None
| loksabha_cons = [[Bikaner Lok Sabha constituency|Bikaner]]
}}
''' Dungargarh Assembly constituency''' is one of [[List of constituencies of Rajasthan Vidhan Sabha|constituencies]] of [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]] in the [[Bikaner Lok Sabha constituency]].

Dungargarh constituency covers all voters from [[Dungargarh|Dungargarh tehsil]] and part of [[Nokha, Bikaner|Nokha tehsil]], which includes Kuchor Aathooni.<ref name="election2008">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order 2008]</ref>

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1957 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1957]]||rowspan=3|Daulat Ram Saharan||{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}<ref name="election1957">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Rajasthan_1957.pdf 1957 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[1962 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1962]]<ref name="election1962">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Rajasthan_1962.pdf 1962 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[1967 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1967]] ||{{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}<ref name="election1967">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Rajasthan%201967.pdf 1967 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| [[1972 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Luna Ram || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<ref name="election1972">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_RJ_72.pdf 1972 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[1977 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1977]] || Mohan Lal Sharma || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}<ref name="election1985">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%201985%20Rajasthan.pdf 1980 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[1980 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1980]] || rowspan=2|Rewat Ram Mahiya || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}<ref name="election1985-1">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%201985%20Rajasthan.pdf 1980 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[1985 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1985]]<ref name="election1985-2">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%201985%20Rajasthan.pdf 1985 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[1990 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1990]]|| rowspan=2|[[Kishna Ram Nai]] ||{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1993 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|-
|[[1998 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|1998]]||rowspan=3|[[Manglaram Godara]]|| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}<ref name="election1998">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-RAJ98.pdf 1998 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[2003 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2003]]<ref name="election2003">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_NOV_2003/StatisticalReports_RAJ_Nov2003.pdf 2003 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[2008 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2008]]<ref name="election2008-1">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2008/Stats_report_RJ2008.pdf 2008 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
|[[2013 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2013]] || [[Kishna Ram Nai]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2018]] ||[[Girdharilal Mahiya|Girdhari Lal Mahiya]]||{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|dab=yes}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/cpim-poised-to-win-2-seats-in-rajasthan-3279111.html|title = CPI(M) poised to win 2 seats in Rajasthan}}</ref>
|-
|[[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023]] || [[Tarachand Saraswat]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

==Election results==
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Dungargarh<ref name="election2023">{{Cite web |title=Rajasthan General Legislative Election 2023|url=https://www.eci.gov.in/rajasthan-legislative-election-2023-including-statistical-report |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Tarachand Saraswat]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:65690}}
|percentage = 32.55
|change = {{increase}}8.51
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Manglaram Godara]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:57565}}
|percentage = 28.52
|change = {{increase}}1.39
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Girdharilal Mahiya]]
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|votes = {{formatnum:56498}}
|percentage = 27.99
|change = {{decrease}}12.51
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Rajendra Meghwal
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:6379}}
|percentage = 3.16
|change = {{increase}}1.97
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Vivek Machra
|party = Rashtriya Loktantrik Party
|votes = {{formatnum:3478}}
|percentage = 1.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Preeti Sharma
|votes = {{formatnum:3242}}
|percentage = 1.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:3439}}
|percentage = 1.7
|change = {{decrease}}0.48
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:8125}}
|percentage = 4.03
|change = {{decrease}}9.34
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:201837}}
|percentage = 75.8
|change = {{decrease}}1.7
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Dungargarh<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9645-statistical-data-of-rajasthan-la-2018/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan LA 2018 |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 12 February 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Girdharilal Mahiya|Girdhari Lal Mahiya]]
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|votes = {{formatnum:72376}}
|percentage = 40.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Mangalaram Godara
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:48480}}
|percentage = 27.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Tarachand Saraswat
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:42973}}
|percentage = 24.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharat Vahini Party
|candidate = Kishanaram Nai
|votes = {{formatnum:4101}}
|percentage = 2.29
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Bhera Ram
|votes = {{formatnum:2120}}
|percentage = 1.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:3894}}
|percentage = 2.18
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:23896}}
|percentage = 13.37
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:178725}}
|percentage = 77.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)]]

{{Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan}}
{{coord|28.10|74.00|display=title}}

[[Category:Bikaner district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Politics of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1957]]
[[Category:1957 establishments in Rajasthan]]

Rajwinder Kaur (field hockey, born 1984)

2026-04-13T02:49:25Z

DeangeloSchwing: Made a data w/ refs - done

{{short description|Indian field hockey player}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
|birth_date={{birth date and age|1984|8|26|df=y}}
|birth_place=
|medaltemplates={{MedalSport | Women's [[Field Hockey]]}}
{{MedalCountry | {{IND}} }}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Field hockey at the Asian Games|Asian Games]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[Hockey at the 2006 Asian Games|2006 Doha]]|Team}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Commonwealth Games]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2006 Commonwealth Games|2006 Melbourne]]|[[Hockey at the 2006 Commonwealth Games|Team]]}}
}}

'''Rajwinder Kaur''' (born 26 August 1984) is an Indian former [[field hockey]] player, who represented the [[India women's national field hockey team]]. She played with the team when it won the Silver medal at the [[Hockey at the 2006 Commonwealth Games|2006 Commonwealth Games]]. In November 2011, she married Gurwinder Singh, a [[Chandigarh]]-based engineer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/off-the-field/International-hockey-player-Rajwinder-Kaur-weds/articleshow/10816037.cms|title = International hockey player Rajwinder Kaur weds | off the field News - Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.indiahockey.org/iwhf_probables.php Probables List]
*[http://www.boloji.com/wfs6/wfs1043.htm Blockbuster Inspires Hockey Team] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114054641/http://boloji.com/wfs6/wfs1043.htm |date=14 January 2010 }}

{{India FHW Squad 2006 Asian Games}}
{{India FHW Squad 2006 Commonwealth Games}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kaur, Rajwinder}}
[[Category:Field hockey players from Haryana]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women's field hockey players]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games silver medallists for India]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games field hockey players for India]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games silver medallists in field hockey]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2006 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2006 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games field hockey players for India]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Haryana]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2006 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Medallists at the 2006 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists in field hockey]]

{{India-fieldhockey-bio-stub}}

Maya Manithan

2026-04-10T04:48:28Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added New Entry...

{{Multiple issues|
{{No plot|date=July 2022}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2022}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Maya Manithan.jpg
| caption = Title card
| director = T. P. Sundaram Harilal Badeviya
| producer = T. P. Sundaram
| writer = A. S. Muthu
| starring = Sriram [[S. A. Ashokan]] Chandrakantha Vanaja Maithili
| narrator =
| music = [[G. Govindarajulu Naidu]]
| cinematography = M. Krishnasamy
| editing = G. D. Joshi
| studio = Southern Movies
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|df=yes|1958|11|7}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Maya Manithan''''' ({{translation|Magical man}}) is a 1958 Indian [[Tamil language]] [[science fiction film]] produced and directed by T. P. Sundaram. The film stars Sriram,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-06-10 |title=மறக்கப்பட்ட நடிகர்கள் 6 - துணிச்சலின் மறுபெயர் சந்திரகாந்தா |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/197875-6.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240923112246/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/197875-6.html |archive-date=23 September 2024 |access-date=23 September 2024 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref> [[S. A. Ashokan]], and Chandrakantha.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1958 – மாயமனிதன் – {{sic|nolink=y|சதன்}} மூவிஸ் |trans-title=1958 – Maya Manithan – {{sic|nolink=y|Sadan}} Movies |url=http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1958-cinedetails30.asp |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202042848/http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1958-cinedetails30.asp |archive-date=2 February 2017 |access-date=27 January 2017 |website=[[Lakshman Sruthi]] |language=Tamil}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*Sriram
*C. D. Vanaja
*[[S. A. Ashokan]]
*Maithili
*G. M. Basheer
*Chandrakantha
*[[Kaka Radhakrishnan]]
*T. P. Muthulakshmi
*K. Kannan
*Kandhala Devi
*''Master'' Vijayakumar
*Pathangudi
*N. S. Subbaiah
*Samikannu
*Gajakarnam
*Rajamani
*Joseph
*Raja
*M. R. L. Narayan
{{div col end}}
'''Dance'''
*[[Helen (actress)|Helen]] (''Kannukkulle Minnalaadudhu'')
*Sukumari
*Bala
*Jeeva
*Malathi

== Soundtrack ==
Music was composed by G. Govindarajulu Naidu while the lyrics were penned by [[A. Maruthakasi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Neelamegam |first=G. |title=Thiraikalanjiyam – Part 1 |publisher=Manivasagar Publishers |year=2014 |edition=1st |location=Chennai |pages=156 |language=Tamil}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Maya Manithan |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/maya-manithan/nrerbBnzbrk_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240923111529/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/maya-manithan/nrerbBnzbrk_ |archive-date=23 September 2024 |access-date=23 September 2024 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singer/s !! Duration (m:ss)
|-
| "Thanga Thalir Meni" || [[Jikki]] || 03:04
|-
| "Kannaa Kannaa Vaaraai" || Jikki || 03:10
|-
| "Kaana Venum Kaana Venum Endru" || [[S. Janaki]] || 03:26
|-
| "Pasu Tholai.... Engi Engi Vaadudhe" || [[P. Susheela]] || 03:21
|-
| "O! Radha, Ramana, Kanna" || S. Janaki || 03:12
|-
| "Kannukkulle Minnalaadudhu" || Jikki || 03:17
|-
| "Pokku Kaatti Poravale Ponnaammaa" || [[A. L. Raghavan]] & [[A. G. Rathnamala]] || 02:54
|-
| "Paakku Vetthalai.... Iru Manasum Oru Manasaa" || S. V. Ponnusamy & [[T. V. Rathnam]] || 03:32
|-
| "Achaa Pyaari Pombale" || [[S. C. Krishnan]] & S. Janaki || 04:03
|-
| "Krishna Prabho.... Maayaa Leelaa Vinodhaa" || Jikki || 01:39
|}

== Critical reception ==
{{Empty section|date=March 2025}}
<ref>{{Cite news |last=மின்னல் |date=7 December 1958 |title=மாயமனிதன் |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_9_14_320/3.jp2/108,0,6009,3414/6009,3414/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250306153019/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_9_14_320/3.jp2/108,0,6009,3414/6009,3414/0/default.jpg |archive-date=6 March 2025 |access-date=6 March 2025 |work=Janasakthi |pages=3 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

[[Category:1958 Indian films]]
[[Category:1958 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Films about invisibility]]
[[Category:Indian science fiction films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language science fiction films]]
[[Category:1958 science fiction films]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]

Meitei headwear

2026-04-04T17:11:49Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added A Entry

{{Short description|Headgears in Meitei civilization}}
{{orphan|date=June 2025}}
{{Contains special characters|Meitei}}

[[File:Depictions of headgears in the illustrations from the Subika Laisaba (ꯁꯨꯕꯤꯀꯥ ꯂꯥꯏꯁꯥꯕ), an 18-19th century Meitei language manuscript in Meitei script.jpg|thumb|Depictions of traditional Meitei headgear in the Subika Laisaba manuscript]]

'''Meitei headwear''' is the traditional range of hats and headdresses originating in the [[Meitei community]] of [[Manipur]], India and used in a variety of [[Meitei culture|cultural]], [[Meitei traditional religion|religious]], and ceremonial contexts, including [[Meitei festivals|festivals]], dance performances, [[Meitei wedding|weddings]], and official functions. Each type of headgear is characterized by distinct structural and symbolic features, often associated with specific roles, gender, or occasions. Notable examples include the Kokyet, Kajenglei, and Samjin, each of which holds particular significance within the cultural and religious framework of Meitei society, including its indigenous belief system, [[Sanamahism]].

[[File:ꯍꯤꯌꯥꯡ ꯇꯥꯟꯅꯕ꯵.jpg|thumb|Meitei ladies wearing [[Kajenglei]]]]

== Kajenglei ==
{{Main|Kajenglei}}
The kajenglei ({{Script|Mtei|ꯀꯖꯦꯡꯂꯩ}}), or leitreng ({{Script|Mtei|ꯂꯩꯇ꯭ꯔꯦꯡ}}), is a traditional crown-like headdress worn by Meitei women. It is typically worn during [[Meitei wedding|weddings]] and in classical dance performances. It composed of approximately eighty to one hundred brass strips sewn to one centimetre wide red flannel bands and arranged around a metal ring.<ref>Thilakavathy, M.; Maya, R. K. (2019-06-05). FACETS OF CONTEMPORARY HISTORY. MJP Publisher.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CzSQKVmveUC&dq=kajenglei+head+ornaments+bride+marriage+ceremony+dance+performances&pg=PA289|title=Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization|last=Sanajaoba|first=Naorem|date=1988|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-853-2|language=en}}</ref><ref>Doshi, Saryu (1989). Dances of Manipur: The Classical Tradition. Marg Publications. ISBN 978-81-85026-09-1.</ref>

== Kokyet ==
{{Main|Kokyet}}

[[File:A typical prize flag ("Pajeng" in Meitei language) of Maru Khongnangthaba won by Khuman Salai warriors (put in headgears) - Thang Ta - Ancient Meitei classical martial art - Intangible cultural heritage of Kangleipak civilisation.jpg|thumb|A special Meitei men's headgear, decorated with flags, reserved for champions of the [[Thang Ta]] martial art performances]]

The kokyet ({{Script|Mtei|ꯀꯣꯛꯌꯦꯠ}}) is a traditional Meitei turban.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Manipur's 'Kokyet' part of new uniform in Parliament|url=https://www.easternmirrornagaland.com/manipurs-kokyet-part-of-new-uniform-in-parliament|access-date=2025-05-25|website=www.easternmirrornagaland.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bharat|first=E. T. V.|date=2023-09-14|title=Colours of India: Parliament Marshals to don Manipur's turban 'Kokyet'|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/english/bharat/parlaiment-special-session-marshals-to-wear-manipuri-turban-kokyet-in-parliament/na20230914071406550550887|access-date=2025-05-25|website=ETV Bharat News|language=en}}</ref> It is produced in twelve distinct designs and is worn during various cultural ceremonies, festivals, and formal occasions. It is worn by men of all social strata, from commoners to members of the royal family.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2023-09-15|title=Parliament marshals to don Manipuri turban, Kokyet|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/imphal/parliament-marshals-to-don-manipuri-turban-kokyet/articleshow/103676067.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2025-05-25|issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Its design is represents the two horns of the ancient Meitei deity [[Pakhangba]]. It also functions as a symbolic representation of Sidaba, a central deity in the traditional Meitei religion, [[Sanamahism]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bora|first=Pallav|date=2023-09-15|title=Strife-Torn Manipur Finds Place Of Pride In Parliament As 'Kokyet' Named Official Headgear|url=https://news.abplive.com/northeast/manipur-turban-kokyet-finds-place-of-pride-in-parliament-official-headgear-of-staff-uniform-1629769|access-date=2025-05-25|website=news.abplive.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manipuri Kokyet finds space in Indian Parliament|language=en-IN|work=Imphal Free Press|url=https://www.ifp.co.in/manipur/manipuri-kokyet-finds-space-in-indian-parliament|access-date=2025-05-25}}</ref>

Since 2023, the Kokyet has been incorporated into the official uniform of marshals serving in the [[Indian Parliament]], encompassing both the [[Lok Sabha]] and the [[Rajya Sabha]]. The adoption of the headdress was authorized by the [[Union Government of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Manipur's 'Kokyet' part of new uniform in Parliament|url=https://www.easternmirrornagaland.com/manipurs-kokyet-part-of-new-uniform-in-parliament|access-date=2025-05-25|website=www.easternmirrornagaland.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Amid ethnic mess, people cheerful as Manipuri 'Kokyet' finds space in Indian Parliament|url=https://www.daijiworld.com/news/newsDisplay?newsID=1120618|access-date=2025-05-25|website=www.daijiworld.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2023-09-15|title=Parliament marshals to don Manipuri turban, Kokyet|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/imphal/parliament-marshals-to-don-manipuri-turban-kokyet/articleshow/103676067.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2025-05-25|issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Manipuri Kokyet finds space in Indian Parliament|language=en-IN|work=Imphal Free Press|url=https://www.ifp.co.in/manipur/manipuri-kokyet-finds-space-in-indian-parliament|access-date=2025-05-25}}</ref>

== Samjin ==
The samjin ({{Script|Mtei|ꯁꯝꯖꯤꯟ}}) is a traditional male headdress associated with the reign of King Meidingu [[Khuyoi Tompok]]. It features intricate needlework and tassels hanging from the front and back. Its shape is believed to represent the horned head of the Meitei deity, [[Pakhangba]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=SALAM|first=ARUNAPYARI|date=2020-09-26|title=There Are Immense Possibilities for Manipuri Textiles and Handicrafts in the Export Market » Imphal Review of Arts and Politics|url=https://imphalreviews.in/there-are-immense-possibilities-for-manipuri-textiles-and-handicrafts-in-the-export-market/|access-date=2025-05-25|website=imphalreviews.in|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.language.0061/page/n105/mode/2up?q=Samjin|title=Traditional Dress of the Meiteis|last=Dr. K. Sobita Devi|date=1998}}</ref>

== Usage by notable people {{Anchor|In politics}} ==
[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi launching the Development Projects, in Manipur (1).jpg|thumb|Prime Minister, [[Narendra Modi]] in traditional kokyet in 2018]]

In 2017, during a visit to election-bound Manipur, Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] wore traditional Meitei attire, including cloak a kokyet adorned with a peacock plume.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Manipur election 2017: PM Modi adorns unique headgear associated with Meitei culture|url=https://www.en.etemaaddaily.com/politics/manipur-election-2017-pm-modi-adorns-unique-headgear-associated-with-meitei-culture:23595|access-date=2025-05-25|website=|language=english}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-02-25|title=Manipur election 2017: PM Modi adorns unique headgear associated with Meitei culture|url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/manipur-assembly-elections-2017/pm-narendra-modi-adorns-unique-headgear-associated-with-meitei-culture/lite/|access-date=2025-05-25|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>

In 2022, Manipur Chief Minister N. Biren Singh presented Modi with a white kokyet embroidered in saffron and decorated witrh a gold brooch and a matching block-printed shawl.<ref>{{Cite web|title=PM Modi embraces Manipur culture in unique traditional Meitei headgear|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/lifestyle/fashion/pm-modi-embraces-manipur-culture-in-unique-traditional-meitei-headgear20220104150942/|access-date=2025-05-25|website=ANI News|language=en}}</ref><ref>Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal bar|Arts|Asia|Bangladesh|Civilization|India|Myanmar}}
* [[Meitei clothing]]
** [[Meitei clothing in Bangladesh]]
** [[Meitei clothing in Myanmar]]
* [[Meitei royal etiquette]]
* [[Women in Meitei civilisation]]
* [[Manipur and Bollywood]]

== References ==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Meitei clothing]]
[[Category:Indian headgear]]

Mocharim

2026-03-30T20:49:43Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added New Post

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mocharim ([[Mucalinda]])
| settlement_type = Village
| official_name =
| image_skyline = Muchalinda lake 2.png
| imagesize =
| image_caption = Muchalinda lake
| image_flag =
| image_seal =
| etymology =
| nickname =
| motto =
| image_map =
| mapsize =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Bihar
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bihar, India
| coordinates = {{coord|24|40|50.0|N|84|59|32.0|E}}<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Mocharim,+Bodhgaya,+Bihar+824231/@24.6815809,84.9873055,16z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x39f32c528724bc7b:0xdf82b4abbe044c03!8m2!3d24.6807426!4d84.9915049 | title=Google Maps}}</ref>
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = {{flag|Bihar}}
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Gaya district|Gaya]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Municipal]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Bodhgaya]] [[Nagar Parishad]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| established_title2 =
| established_date2 =
| government_footnotes =
| government_type =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| leader_party =
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_magnitude =
| area_total_sq_mi =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_land_sq_mi = 4.49
| area_land_km2 = 11.64
| area_water_sq_mi =
| area_water_km2 =
| area_urban_sq_mi =
| area_metro_sq_mi =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_ft = 111
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 9808<ref>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/10/1034_PART_A_DCHB_GAYA.pdf |title=Census of India 2011: Bihar |publisher=[[Census of India]]}}</ref>
| population_rank =
| population_urban =
| population_metro =
| population_blank1_title =
| population_blank1 =
| population_density_sq_mi=
| population_demonym =
| population_note =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Magahi language|Magahi]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone = [[Coordinated Universal Time (India)|IST]]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| timezone_DST =
| utc_offset_DST =
| postal_code_type = [[India Post|PIN]]
| postal_code = 824231<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiapost.gov.in/VAS/Pages/LocatePostOffices.aspx?Pin=/OQ9cKbQ4eM= |title=Locate Post Office |publisher=[[India Post|Department of Posts]]}}</ref>
| Telephone_code_Type =
| Telephone Code =
| blank_info =
| blank1_name =
| blank1_info =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Mocharim''' (ancient name '''[[Mucalinda]]''') situated in the [[Gaya district]], state of [[Bihar]], [[India]], nearly {{convert|1|km}} south of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] at [[Bodhgaya]].<ref name=Telegraph>{{cite news |title=Pond plan for Buddha circuit |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/bihar/pond-plan-for-buddha-circuit/cid/1367559 |newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |date=2017-10-29 }}</ref> It lies at the western bank of the river Niranjana ([[Phalgu]]). It is named after the naga [[Mucalinda]] or Muchalinda or Mucilinda, who is said to have protected [[Buddha]] from a great rainstorm when he was meditating. The village is home to Muchlind, an ancient pond where Buddha supposedly spent six weeks after attaining enlightenment.<ref name=Telegraph/>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.facebook.com/3raman/videos/2105401879521116/?t=0 Mocharim at deepawali night ] (Facebook)
*[https://www.facebook.com/groups/mocharim/ mocharim village group] (Facebook)

[[Category:Villages in Gaya district]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Bihar]]
[[Category:Buddhist holy sites in Bihar]]

A.J. Varghese

2026-03-29T18:11:46Z

DeangeloSchwing: Creating New Details.

{{Short description|Indian film director}}
{{Indian patronymic|John|Varghese}}
{{Infobox person
| name = A.J. Varghese
| other_names = John Varghese
| occupation = {{Hlist | Film director | screenwriter}}
| yearsactive = 2015–present
| notable_works = [[Adi Kapyare Kootamani]]
| children = 1
}}
A. John Varghese, known as '''A.J. Varghese''' and formerly John Varghese, is an Indian film director and screenwriter who works in the [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam film industry]]. His directorial debut was with [[Adi Kapyare Kootamani]] in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |last=tabloid! |first=Mythily Ramachandran, Special to |date=2018-09-15 |title='Adi Kapyare Kootamani' a Malayalam comedy |url=https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/south-indian/adi-kapyare-kootamani-a-malayalam-comedy-1.1664997 |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=Gulf News: Latest UAE news, Dubai news, Business, travel news, Dubai Gold rate, prayer time, cinema |language=en}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
He stayed in the same college hostel as actor [[Vineeth Mohan]],<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dR3sZ1zw9gs |title=അടി ഒരു weakness ആണോ ? Club Studio with Director A J Varghese {{!}} RJ Raghav |date=2025-12-10 |last=Club FM |access-date=2026-03-15 |via=YouTube}}</ref> who has featured in all of his films.<ref>{{Cite web |last=nair |first=shreejaya |date=2015-10-29 |title=No regret quitting job for acting: Vineeth Mohan {{!}} No regret quitting job for acting: Vineeth Mohan |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/151029/entertainment-mollywood/article/no-regret-quitting-job-acting-vineeth-mohan |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=archive |first=From our online |date=2020-01-14 |title=AJ Varghese's 'Uriyadi' to release on January 17 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2020/Jan/14/aj-vargheses-uriyadi-to-release-on-january-17-2089111.html |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-11-18 |title=Shine Tom Chacko-starrer Adinasham Vellappokkam gets a release window |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2025/Nov/18/malayalamnews2025nov18shine-tom-chacko-starrer-adinasham-vellappokkam-gets-a-release-window |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Both of them used an [[Ouija|Ouija board]] with their friends, which is when A.J. Varghese got the idea for Adi Kapyare Kootamani.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dR3sZ1zw9gs |title=അടി ഒരു weakness ആണോ ? Club Studio with Director A J Varghese {{!}} RJ Raghav |date=2025-12-10 |last=Club FM |access-date=2026-03-15 |via=YouTube}}</ref> He is married to Adora Jose and they have one daughter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Instagram |url=https://www.instagram.com/p/DQSUKBnk6e0/ |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=www.instagram.com}}</ref>

== Career ==
A.J. Varghese had originally intended to make Adi Kapyare Kootamani in Tamil, but [[Friday Film House]], the producers of the film, persuaded him to make it in Malayalam first and created an agreement, but left out the clause of a Tamil remake in the agreement.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-01-06 |title=Adi Kappyare Kootamani director John Varghese against Vijay Babu and Sandra Thomas |url=https://onlookersmedia.in/latestnews/adi-kappyare-kootamani-director-john-varghese-vijay-babu-sandra-thomas/ |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=onlookersmedia |language=en-US}}</ref> He would later go on to direct two more films, [[Uriyadi (2020 film)|Uriyadi]] (2020) and [[Adinaasam Vellapokkam]] (2025). The former received negative reviews from critics<ref>{{Cite web |title=Uriyadi Movie Review: A thriller marred by comedy |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/uriyadi/movie-review/73323922.cms |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharadwaj |first=Aswin |date=2020-01-18 |title=Uriyadi Review {{!}} Pointless Humor Ruins This Okay Thriller |url=https://lensmenreviews.com/uriyadi-malayalam-movie-review-2020/ |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=Lensmen Reviews |language=en-US}}</ref> and the latter [[Box-office bomb|bombed at the box office]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Archive → |first=View |date=2025-12-16 |title=Adinaasam Vellapokkam Collection, Budget & OTT {{!}} Hit/Flop? » Tenvow |url=https://tenvow.com/box-office/adinaasam-vellapokkam-collection-budget-ott/ |access-date=2026-03-15 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Title
!Director
!Screenwriter
!Notes
|-
|2015
|[[Adi Kapyare Kootamani]]
|Yes
|Yes
|Co-written with Abhilash S. Nair<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sudhish |first=Navamy |date=2015-12-16 |title='Adi Kapyare Kootamani' a Delightful Cocktail |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2015/Dec/16/adi-kapyare-kootamani-a-delightful-cocktail-858166.html |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2020
|[[Uriyadi (2020 film)|Uriyadi]]
|Yes
|No
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-09-07 |title=Uriyadi song Thumbapoo Chottil has a festive beat |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/uriyadi-song-thumbapoo-chottil-has-a-festive-beat/articleshow/71023995.cms |access-date=2026-03-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|2025
|[[Adinaasam Vellapokkam]]
|Yes
|Yes
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-11-18 |title=Shine Tom Chacko-starrer Adinasham Vellappokkam gets a release window |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2025/Nov/18/malayalamnews2025nov18shine-tom-chacko-starrer-adinasham-vellappokkam-gets-a-release-window |access-date=2026-03-15 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malayalam film directors]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-film-director-stub}}
{{screenwriter-stub}}

Third Battle of Panipat

2026-03-25T04:02:03Z

DeangeloSchwing: improved article

{{Short description|1761 battle between the Durrani Empire and Marathas}}
{{pp|reason=Persistent [[WP:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]] despite multiple temporary protections. Enough.; requested at [[WP:RfPP]]|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Third Battle of Panipat
| partof = [[Indian Campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani]] and the [[Afghan-Maratha War|Afghan–Maratha War]]
| image = The Third battle of Panipat 13 January 1761.jpg
| caption = [[Faizabad]]-style painting of the Third Battle of Panipat; the centre of the image is dominated by the twin arcs of the lines of guns firing at each other with smoke and destruction in between {{circa|1770}}
| date = 14 January 1761
| place = [[Panipat]] (present-day [[Haryana]], [[India]])
| coordinates = {{Coord|29.39|N|76.97|E}}
| territory =
| result = [[Durrani]] victory<ref name="KaushikRoy">Kaushik Roy, ''India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil'', (Orient Longman, 2004), 90.</ref>{{blist|[[Mughal emperor]] exiled to [[Oudh State| Awadh]]}}
| combatant1 = [[Durrani Empire]] '''Supported by:''' [[Kingdom of Rohilkhand]] [[Khanate of Kalat]] [[Kingdom of Awadh]] [[Amb (princely state)|Amb State]] [[Kingdom of Kumaon]] [[Sind State]] [[Mughal Empire|Mughal nobles]]
| combatant2 = {{tree list}}
* [[Maratha Empire]]
**[[Peshwa]]
***[[Indore State|Holkar State of Indore]]<ref name=me1>{{Cite book|author1=Robinson, Howard |author2=James Thomson Shotwell |title=Mogul Empire. The Development of the British Empire|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1922|page=91}}</ref>
***[[Gwalior State|Scindia State of Gwalior]]<ref name=me1 />
***[[Baroda State|Gaekwad State of Baroda]]<ref name=me1 />
{{tree list/end}}
| commander1 = '''[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]''' ([[List of heads of state of Afghanistan|Shah of the Durrani Empire]]) {{Collapsible list
| title = Afghan officers:
| [[Timur Shah Durrani]]
| [[Jahan Khan (Afghan general)|Jahan Khan]]<ref name="KaushikRoy" />
| [[Najabat Khan]]{{KIA}}
| [[Nawab Ali Mohammad Khan Khakwani|Ali Mohammad Khakwani]]
| Wazir Shah Wali Khan<ref name="KaushikRoy" />
| Atai Khan<ref name="KaushikRoy" />{{KIA}}
| Shah Pasand Khan<ref name="KaushikRoy" />
| Barkhurdar Khan<ref name="Sharma">{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6n7vV0eiS3YC&q=barkhurdar&pg=PA191 |title = Haryana: Past and Present|isbn = 9788183240468|last1 = Sharma|first1 = Suresh K.|year= 2006| publisher=Mittal Publications }}</ref>| Abdus Samad Khan{{KIA}}
| Wazirullah Khan<ref name="Sharma" />
| Zaman Khan Niazai<ref>''"History of the Pathans" by Haroon Rashid, Volume III, page 365''</ref>
}}
----
{{Collapsible list
| title = Rohilla, Kalat, Awadh, Amb, Kumaon, Sind and Mughal officers:
| [[Najib ad-Dawlah|Najib-ud-Daula]]<ref>{{cite book| last = Rai| first = Raghunath| title = History| publisher = FK Publications| isbn = 9788187139690 }}</ref>
| [[Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech|Rahmat Khan Barech]]<ref name="KaushikRoy" />
| [[Faizullah Khan|Faizullah Ali Khan]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=Arnold |last2=Playne |first2=Somerset |title=Indian States |date=2006 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=81-206-1965-X |pages=362 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47sfj8DUwNgC |access-date=7 January 2023}}</ref>
| [[Saadullah Khan of Rohilkhand|Saadullah Khan]]
| [[Zabita Khan]]
| Dunde Khan Barech<ref name="KaushikRoy"/>
| [[Nasir I of Kalat|Nasir Khan Ahmadzai]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=George |first1=Bruce Malleson |title=History of Afghanistan, From the Earliest Period to the Outbreak of the War of 1878 |date=1878 |publisher=W.H. Allen & Company |location=Afghanistan |isbn=9781163302446 |pages=287 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ec2AQAAMAAJ |access-date=8 September 2021 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002100539/https://www.google.ca/books/edition/History_of_Afghanistan/0ec2AQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="UOB">{{cite journal |last1=Farooq Baloch |first1=Ghulam |title=TREATY OF KALAT 1758 BETWEEN QANDHAR AND KALAT AND ITS IMPACTS |journal=EduPK |date=1984 |volume=1 |issue=PK |page=6 |url=http://www.uob.edu.pk/journals/TREATY%20OF%20KALAT%201758%20BETWEEN%20QANDHAR%20AND%20KALAT%20AND%20ITS%20IMPACTS.pdf |access-date=8 September 2021 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032403/http://www.uob.edu.pk/journals/TREATY%20OF%20KALAT%201758%20BETWEEN%20QANDHAR%20AND%20KALAT%20AND%20ITS%20IMPACTS.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| Mahmud Khan Ahmadzai
| [[Shuja-ud-Daula]]<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&pg=PA234 | title=A History of India| isbn=9780415329194| last1=Kulke| first1=Hermann| last2=Rothermund| first2=Dietmar| year=2004| publisher=Psychology Press}}</ref>
| [[Qidwai]] [[Raja Ghulam Amir Khan]]
| [[Suba Khan Tanoli]]
| [[Mir Haibat Khan Tanoli|Haibat Khan Tanoli]]
| Hariram Joshi<ref>{{Cite book | title=History of Kumaon| isbn=81-900 209-4-3 | last1=Pandey| first1=Badri Dutt| year=1993| publisher=Almora Book Depot}}</ref>
| [[Birbal Negi]]<ref>{{Cite book | title=History of Kumaon| isbn=81-900 209-4-3 | last1=Pandey| first1=Badri Dutt| year=1993| publisher=Almora Book Depot}}</ref>| Harshdev Joshi<ref>{{Cite book | title=History of Kumaon| isbn=81-900 209-4-3 | last1=Pandey| first1=Badri Dutt| year=1993| publisher=Almora Book Depot}}</ref>
| [[Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro|Ghulam Shah Kalhoro]]
| [[Ahmad Khan Bangash]]<ref name="Sharma" />
| [[Mirza Najaf Khan|Najaf Khan Bahadur]]
| [[Mirza Jawan Bakht (born 1749)|Mirza Jawan Bakht]]
| [[Zain Khan Sirhindi]]
| Amir Beg<ref name="Sharma" />
| Murad Khan<ref name="Sharma" />
| Shuja Quli Khan
| Banghas Khan<ref name="KaushikRoy" />
}}
| commander2 = '''[[Sadashiv Rao Bhau]]'''{{KIA}} ([[Senapati|Sarsenapati of the Maratha Empire]]) {{Collapsible list
| title = Maratha officers:
| [[Vishwasrao|Vishwas Rao Bhat]]{{KIA}}
| [[Shamsher Bahadur I]]
| [[Malhar Rao Holkar]]
| [[Mahadji Shinde|Mahadaji Scindia]]{{WIA}}
| [[Jankoji Rao Scindia]]{{POW}}
| [[Tukoji Rao Scindia]]{{DOW}}
| [[Damaji Rao Gaekwad]]
| [[Ranoji Bhoite|Ranoji Rao Bhoite]]{{WIA}}
| {{nowrap|[[Ibrahim Khan Gardi]]{{Executed}}}}
| [[Govind Pant Bundela]]{{KIA}}
| [[Vinchurkar family|Vitthal Vinchurkar]]
| Antaji Manakeshwar{{KIA}}
| Yeshwant Rao Pawar{{KIA}}
| Shri. Arvandekar {{KIA}}
| Sidhojiraje Gharge-Desai-Deshmukh {{KIA}}
| Balwant Rao Mehendele{{KIA}}
| Ambaji Ingle
}}
| strength1 = 41,800 Afghan [[cavalry]], of which 28,000 was regular cavalry<ref name="Roy">{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&pg=PA84|title = India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil|pages=84–85–93|last1 = Roy|first1 = Kaushik|year= 2004| publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn = 9788178241098}}</ref> 32,000 Rohilla [[infantry]]<ref name="Roy" /> 2,000 [[Zamburak]] (camel gun)<ref>{{Cite book |author=Iqtidar Alam Khan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s4PfAAAAMAAJ |title=Gunpowder and Firearms: Warfare in Medieval India |date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=109|quote=At the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), Ahmed Shah Abdali had 2000 shaturnals which indicates that the popularity of these particular type of firearm was growing in the subcontinent down to the middle of the eighteenth century|isbn=978-0-19-566526-0 |language=en}}</ref>
| strength2 = 55,000 Maratha cavalry, of which 11,000 was regular cavalry<ref name="Roy1">{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&pg=PA85|title = India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil|pages = 84–85–93|last1 = Roy|first1 = Kaushik|year = 2004|publisher = Orient Blackswan|isbn = 9788178241098|access-date = 8 February 2022|archive-date = 8 February 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220208200005/https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&pg=PA85|url-status = live}}</ref> 9,000 [[Ibrahim Khan Gardi|Gardi]] infantry<ref name="Roy1" /> 200,000 non-combatants (pilgrims and camp-followers)<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://panipat.gov.in/third-battle/ | title=Third Battle of Panipat (1761) | Panipat, Haryana | access-date=20 May 2018 | archive-date=27 October 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027181825/https://panipat.gov.in/third-battle/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
| casualties1 = 15,000 Rohillas killed and wounded<ref name="Roy2">{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&pg=PA93|title = India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil|pages = 84–85–93|last1 = Roy|first1 = Kaushik|year = 2004|publisher = Orient Blackswan|isbn = 9788178241098|access-date = 8 February 2022|archive-date = 8 February 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220208195457/https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&pg=PA93|url-status = live}}</ref> 5,000 Afghans killed and wounded<ref name="Roy2" />
| casualties2 = 30,000 killed in battle<ref name="Roy2" /> 10,000 killed while retreating<ref name="Roy2" /> 10,000 missing<ref name="Roy2" />
| notes = 50,000 non-combatants executed following the battle<ref name="Roy2" /><ref name="jgd">James Grant Duff "History of the Mahrattas, Vol II (Ch. 5), Printed for Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1826"</ref><ref name="tss" /> 9,000 in [[revenge]] killings following the battle<ref name="the University of Michigan">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EfEdAAAAMAAJ&q=Qutb+Shah%27s+sons+slaughtered+4,000 |title= The Indian Journal of International Law:Official Organ of the Indian Society of International Law · Volume 3 |date= 1963 |publisher= the University of Michigan |access-date= 19 March 2023 |archive-date= 4 April 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230404115859/https://books.google.com/books?id=EfEdAAAAMAAJ&q=Qutb+Shah%27s+sons+slaughtered+4%2C000 |url-status= live }}</ref> Estimated 22,000 enslaved<ref name="jgd"/>
}}
{{Indian Campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani}}
{{Campaigns of Ahmad Shah Durrani}}The '''Third Battle of Panipat'''{{efn|[[Pashto]]: د پاني پت درېيمه جگړه [[Marathi language|Marathi]]: पानिपतची तिसरी लढाई [[Persian language|Persian]]: سومین نبرد پانی پت [[Sanskrit]]: पाणिपेतस्य तृतीयं युद्धम्}} took place on 14 January 1761 between the [[Maratha Empire]] and the invading army of the [[Durrani Empire]]. The battle took place in and around the city of [[Panipat]], approximately {{Convert|97|km|mi}} north of [[Delhi]]. The [[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghans]] were supported by three key allies in [[Indian subcontinent|India]]: [[Najib ad-Dawlah|Najib-ud-Daula]] who persuaded the support of the [[Rohilla]] chiefs, elements of the declining [[Mughal Empire]], and most prized the [[Oudh State]] under [[Shuja-ud-Daula]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&dq=shuja+ud+dawlah+abdali&pg=PA152 |title=The Marathas 1600-1818:Volume 4 |page=154 |author=Stewart Gordon |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521033169 |access-date=11 July 2023 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730030532/https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&dq=shuja+ud+dawlah+abdali&pg=PA152 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Maratha army was led by [[Sadashivrao Bhau]], who was third-highest authority of the Maratha Confederacy after the [[Chhatrapati]] and the [[Peshwa]]. The bulk of the Maratha army was stationed in the [[Deccan Plateau]] with the Peshwa.

Militarily, the battle pitted the artillery, musketry, and cavalry of the Marathas against the heavy cavalry, musketry (''[[jezail]]'') and mounted artillery (''[[zamburak]]'') of the Afghans and the Rohillas led by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] and [[Najib ad-Dawlah|Najib ud-Daula]]. The battle is considered to have been the largest and one of the most eventful fought in the 18th century,<ref>{{cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |title=Warfare In The Eighteenth Century |publisher=Cassell |year=2002 |isbn=978-0304362127|page=44}}</ref> and it had perhaps the largest number of fatalities in a single day reported in a classic formation battle between two armies.

The battle lasted for several days and involved over 125,000 troops; protracted skirmishes occurred, with losses and gains on both sides. The Afghan army ultimately emerged victorious from the battle after successfully destroying several Maratha flanks. The extent of the losses on both sides is heavily disputed by historians, but it is believed that between 60,000 and 70,000 troops were killed in the fighting, while the numbers of injured and prisoners taken vary considerably. According to the single-best eyewitness chronicle—the ''[[bakhar]]'' by Shuja-ud-Daula's ''Diwan Kashi Raja''—about 40,000 Maratha prisoners were collectively massacred on the day after the battle.<ref name="tss" /> [[British people|British]] historian [[James Grant Duff|Grant Duff]] includes an interview of a survivor of these massacres in his ''History of the Marathas'' and generally corroborates this number. Shejwalkar, whose monograph ''Panipat 1761'' is often regarded as the single-best secondary source on the battle, says that "not less than 100,000 Marathas (soldiers and non-combatants) perished during and after the battle".<ref name="jgd" />

== Background ==
In 1757, Ahmad Shah Durrani appointed his son, [[Timur Shah]], as the governor of Punjab. Since Timur Shah was a minor, the Durrani commander-in-chief, [[Jahan Khan (Afghan general)|Jahan Khan]], assumed control of the administration. Jahan Khan's rule was harsh—he forced [[Adina Beg Khan]], the governor of Jalandhar Doab, to retreat to the hills and persecuted [[Vadbhag Singh Sodhi|Sodhi Wadbhag Singh]] of Kartarpur. Determined to retaliate, Adina Beg Khan allied with [[Jassa Singh Ahluwalia]] by paying a large tribute and permitting the Sikhs to plunder the Jalandhar Doab and defeated the Afghans at [[Battle of Mahilpur (1757)]].{{sfn|Mehta|2005}} By March 1758, [[Adina Beg Khan]] became uneasy with the growing influence of the Sikhs. He sought help from the Marathas, who had gained control of Delhi after defeating the Mughals in the [[Battle of Delhi (1757)]]. Adina Beg offered the Marathas a large daily payment to assist him in capturing Lahore. Additionally, he persuaded the Sikhs to join forces with the Marathas against the Afghans. Adina Beg also gained the support of [[Raghunathrao]] and together they drove the Afghans out of Lahore. The Maratha and Sikh forces then pursued the retreating Afghans on horseback, eventually capturing [[Attock]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mikaberidze |first1=Alexander |title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia |id=[2 volumes] |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-337-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C |language=en |page=43 |quote=The Marathas, assisted by Sikhs, defeated the Afghans and captured Attock, Peshwar and Multan in the spring of 1758.|quote-page=43}}</ref>{{sfn|Mehta|2005|pp=236, 260}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pletcher|first=Kenneth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsujRFvaHI8C&pg=PA198|title=The History of India|publisher=Britannica Educational|date=2010|isbn=9781615301225|page=198}}</ref><ref name="barua">{{Cite book|last=Barua|first=Pradeep|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC&pg=PA55|title=The state at war in South Asia|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|date=2005|isbn=9780803213449|page=55|quote=The Marathas attacked soon after and, with some help from the Sikhs, managed to capture Attock, Peshawar, and Multan between April and May 1758.}}</ref> The Punjab now came under Maratha rule, with Adina appointed [[subahdar]] of the Punjab in 1758 in return for a yearly tribute of seventy five lakh of rupees. Raghunathrao and [[Malhar Rao Holkar]], the two commanders-in-chief of the Maratha forces, remained in Lahore for three months after which they retired to the [[Deccan]] leaving Adina in sole control.<ref name="K.RoyIHB">{{cite book|title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil|last=Roy|first=Kaushik|publisher=Permanent Black, India|isbn=978-8178241098|pages=80–81|year=2004}}</ref>

This brought the Marathas into direct confrontation with the [[Durrani Empire]] of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shāh Abdali]]. In 1759, he raised an army the core of which was from the [[Qizilbash]], and recruited other troops such as the Pashtun tribes, Kurds, and Uzbeks.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HkpnDwAAQBAJ&dq=qizilbashes+india+cavalry&pg=PT133 |title= The Indian Frontier: Horse and Warband in the Making of Empires |author= Jos Gommans |author-link=Jos Gommans|date= 2017 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 978-1-351-36356-3 |access-date= 11 July 2023 |archive-date= 30 July 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230730030531/https://books.google.com/books?id=HkpnDwAAQBAJ&dq=qizilbashes+india+cavalry&pg=PT133 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Jadunath Sarkar 67">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GxMhAAAAMAAJ&q=abdali+qizilbash+panipat |title=Fall of the Mughal Empire, Vol. 2 |author=Jadunath Sarkar |date=27 April 1966 |page=67 |access-date=24 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404094849/https://books.google.com/books?id=GxMhAAAAMAAJ&q=abdali+qizilbash+panipat |url-status=live }}</ref> and made several gains against the smaller Maratha garrisons in Punjab. He then joined his Indian allies—the [[Rohillas]] of the Gangetic Doab, the Muslims of Northern India, and [[Shuja-ud-Daula]]—forming a broad coalition against the Marathas.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsikhs1401khus/page/150/mode/2up?q=Rohillas |title=A History Of The Sikhs, Vol. 1, 1469-1839 |author=Khushwant Singh |page=150 }}</ref>

To counter this, [[Raghunathrao]] was supposed to go north to handle the situation. Raghunathrao asked for large number of soldiers, which was denied by [[Sadashivrao Bhau]], his cousin and Diwan of Peshwa. Therefore, he declined to go. Sadashivrao Bhau was instead made commander in chief of the Maratha Army, under whom the Battle of Panipat was fought.<ref name="Raghunathrao">[[Raghunathrao]]</ref>

The Marathas, under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau, responded by gathering an army of between 45,000 and 60,000, which was accompanied by roughly 200,000 non-combatants, a number of whom were pilgrims desirous of making pilgrimages to Hindu holy sites in northern India. The Marathas started their northward journey from Patdur on 14 March 1760. Both sides tried to get the [[Nawab of Awadh]], [[Shuja-ud-Daula]]h, into their camp. By late July Shuja-ud-Daulah made the decision to join the Afghan-Rohilla coalition, preferring to join what was perceived as the "army of [[Islam]]".

=== Rise of the Marathas ===
Grant Duff, describing the Maratha army:<ref name="Keene">{{cite book |first=H. G. |last=Keene |title=The Fall of the Moghul Empire of Hindustan |volume= VI |pages=80–81}}</ref>

{{cquote|The lofty and spacious tents, lined with silks and broadcloths, were surmounted by large gilded ornaments, conspicuous at a distance... Vast numbers of elephants, flags of all descriptions, the finest horses, magnificently caparisoned ... seemed to be collected from every quarter ... it was an imitation of the more becoming and tasteful array of the Mughuls in the zenith of their glory.}}

The Marathas had gained control of a considerable part of [[Indian subcontinent|India]] in the intervening period (1712–1757). In 1758 they nominally occupied [[Delhi]], captured [[Lahore]] and drove out [[Timur Shah Durrani]],<ref name="KaushikRoy" /> the son and viceroy of the Afghan ruler, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]]. This was the high-water mark of Maratha expansion, where the boundaries of their empire extended north of the [[Sindhu]] river all the way down south to northern [[Kerala]]. This territory was ruled through the [[Peshwa]], who talked of placing his son [[Vishwasrao]] on the Mughal throne. However, [[Delhi]] still remained under the control of [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], key Muslim intellectuals including [[Shah Waliullah Dehlawi|Shah Waliullah]] and other Muslim clergies in India were frightened at these developments. In desperation they appealed to [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]], the ruler of [[Durrani Empire|Afghanistan]], to halt the threat.<ref>{{cite book |title=Studies in Mughal History |last=Agrawal |first=Ashvini |year=1983 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |chapter=Events leading to the Battle of Panipat |isbn=978-8120823266 |page=26}}</ref> The Marathas attempted to turn over the support of the Gujarati Muslim Babis, the Indian Rohillas, Nizam brothers of the Deccan, and Shuja-ud-Dawlah.<ref>{{cite book |title=textsPanipat:1761 |author=Shejwalkar, Tryambak Shankar |date=1946 |page=XV }}</ref>

[[File:Sadashivrao bhau.jpg|150px|thumbnail|[[Sadashivrao Bhau]]]]

== Prelude ==
[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] (''Ahmad Shah Abdali''), angered by the news from his son and his allies, was unwilling to allow the Marathas' spread go unchecked. By the end of 1759 Abdali with his [[Qizilbash]] and the Afghan tribes,<ref name="Jadunath Sarkar 67"/> had reached [[Lahore]] as well as Delhi and defeated the smaller enemy garrisons, and was joined by the Muslims of Northern India, the [[Rohillas]], and [[Shuja-ud-Daula]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsikhs1401khus/page/150/mode/2up?q=Rohillas |title=A History Of The Sikhs, Vol. 1, 1469-1839 |author=Khushwant Singh |page=150 }}</ref> Ahmed Shah, at this point, withdrew his army to [[Anupshahr]], on the frontier of the Rohilla country, where he successfully convinced the [[Nawab of Oudh]] [[Shuja-ud-Daula]] to join his alliance against the Marathas. The Marathas had earlier helped [[Safdar Jang|Safdarjung]] (father of Shuja) in defeating Rohillas in [[Farrukhabad]].<ref name="tss"/> Several high ranking nobles of the [[Mughal Empire]] were able to persuade [[Chand kingdom|Maharaja Deep Chand]] of the [[Kingdom of Kumaon]], an old [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] ally of the Mughal Empire, to support the [[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghan]] side in the battle.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pandey |first=Badri Dutt |title=History of Kumaon (English Translated) |publisher=Shree Almora Book Depot |year=1993 |isbn=81-900 209-4-3 |edition=Volume 1 |location=Almora |pages=300 |language=en}}</ref>

The Marathas under [[Sadashivrao Bhau]] responded to the news of the Afghans' return to North India by raising an army, and they marched North. Bhau's force was bolstered by some Maratha forces under [[House of Holkar|Holkar]], [[Scindia]], [[Gaikwad]] and [[Govind Pant Bundele]]. [[Suraj Mal]] (the [[Jat]] ruler of [[Bharatpur State|Bharatpur]]) also had joined Bhausaheb initially. This combined army captured the Mughal capital, Delhi, from an Afghan garrison in December 1759.<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Robinson, Howard |author2=James Thomson Shotwell |title=Mogul Empire. The Development of the British Empire|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1922|page=91}}</ref> Delhi had been reduced to ashes many times due to previous invasions, and in addition there being acute shortage of supplies in the Maratha camp. Bhau ordered the sacking of the already depopulated city.<ref>Agrawal, Ashvini (1983). "Events leading to the Battle of Panipat". Studies in Mughal History. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 26. {{ISBN|8120823265}}.</ref> He is said to have planned to place his nephew and the Peshwa's son, Vishwasrao, on the Delhi throne. The Jats withdrew their support from the Marathas. Their withdrawal from the ensuing battle was to play a crucial role in its result. The first blood was drawn when the leader of the Rohillas, an Indian Muslim named Qutb Khan, attacked a small Maratha army led by Dattaji Shinde at Burari Ghat. Dattaji camped at the Buradi Fort, south of Panipat, deciding to only engage with Abdali with the aid of Malharao Holkar.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2TH8UYeAaoC&dq=qutb+khan+gupta&pg=PA119 |title=The Rise of the Indo-Afghan Empire, C.1710-1780 |page=119 |publisher=Brill |date=1995 |author=Jos J. L. Gommans |isbn=9004101098 |access-date=24 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405042141/https://books.google.com/books?id=-2TH8UYeAaoC&dq=qutb+khan+gupta&pg=PA119 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4_SB95ZA-_cC&dq=dattaji+buradi&pg=PA85 |title= Decisive Battles India Lost (326 B. C. to 1803 A. D.) |page= 85 |author= Jaywant Joglekar |date= 2006 |publisher= Lulu.com |isbn= 9781847283023 |access-date= 19 March 2023 |archive-date= 4 April 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230404115900/https://books.google.com/books?id=4_SB95ZA-_cC&dq=dattaji+buradi&pg=PA85 |url-status= live }}</ref> He was beheaded and killed in an attack by [[Mian Qutb Shah|Qutb Khan]].<ref name="tss"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mo-GvHjoH-cC&q=His+head+was+cut+off+by+Mian+Qutb+Shah+,+who+took+it+as+a+trophy+to+the+Afghan+king |title=A History of the Freedom Movement: 1707-1831 |page=282 |publisher=Pakistan Historical Society |date=1957 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405042143/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mo-GvHjoH-cC&q=His+head+was+cut+off+by+Mian+Qutb+Shah+,+who+took+it+as+a+trophy+to+the+Afghan+king |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Suraj Mal's advice to Sadashiv Rao Bhau===
Before Battle of Panipat a war council was formed by Maratha commander-in-chief Sadashiv Rao Bhau in which Maharaja Suraj Mal was invited to give advice for war strategy against Abdali.

Jat chief Surajmal provided following advice :

* Women, children, old people, families of soldier and non combatants should either be left on the other side of Chambal in Maratha's stronghold of Jhansi and Gwalior or in protection of Suraj Mal’s one of 4 forts in Jat strongholds.<ref name="books.google.co.in">{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&q=Suraj+Mal+&pg=PA82 |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |date=2004 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-7824-109-8 |pages=82 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="archive.org">{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.505305/page/n132/mode/1up?view=theater | title=History of Jats | date=1925 }}</ref>
* Large baggage and heavy artillery should not be taken as they will slow down Maratha movement in the battlefield against Durrani’s forces.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/><ref name="archive.org"/>
* If Marathas find themselves on losing ground then a quick moving force will be able to move backwards in friendly country easily and Abdali will not be keen on crossing Chambal.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/><ref name="archive.org"/>
* Road for supply lines should be kept open so that Maratha army will not face problems in getting supplies during war <ref name="books.google.co.in"/><ref name="archive.org"/>
* One division of the Maratha army should be sent to Lahore and other to the east to destroy the supply lines so that Abdali will not be able to secure supplies from his allies for his army.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/><ref name="archive.org"/>
* A light cavalry guerrilla warfare will be suggested instead of conventional face-to-face warfare as Durrani will not be able to sustain a long warfare and when Monsoon will come both sides will find forces moving much slower, Durrani will be in much more disadvantage without supplies compared to Marathas and this will force Abdali to move back to his country.<ref name="books.google.co.in"/><ref name="archive.org"/>

Many of the Maratha generals found it good strategy as they themselves prefer guerrilla warfare but Sadashiv Rao Bhau found it dishonourable for a king and took this as result of Maratha general's old age and Suraj Mal's foolishness.

[[File:Portrait of Ahmad-Shah Durrani. Mughal miniature. ca. 1757, Bibliothèque nationale de France.jpg|160px|thumb|Portrait of [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]]]

== Skirmishes before the battle ==

=== Afghan defeat at Kunjpura ===
{{Main|Battle of Kunjpura}}
With both sides poised for battle, manoeuvring followed, with skirmishes between the two armies fought around [[Karnal]] and [[Kunjpura]]. Abdus Samad Khan, the [[faujdar]] of [[Sirhind-Fategarh|Sirhind]], had come to Kunjpura, on the banks of the [[Yamuna]] river 60 miles to the north of Delhi with a force of more than ten thousand and supplies for the Afghan force. Kunjpura was stormed by the Marathas who was running short of supplies. Aided by the musketeers under Ibrahim Gardi, the Marathas achieved a rather easy victory at [[Kunjpura]] against an army of around 15,000 Afghans posted there.<ref name="tss" /> Some of Abdali's best generals like [[Najabat Khan]] were killed.<ref name="Verma">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sOnKoAEACAAJ |title = Third Battle of Panipat|isbn = 9788180903328|last1 = Verma|first1 = Abhas|year= 2013| publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Imperial gazetteer of India: provincial series|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-AO2AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA314|access-date=29 June 2013|year=1908|publisher=Supt. of Govt. Print.|pages=314–}}</ref> Abdus Samad Khan, the faujdar of Sirhind, was also killed during the battle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Ganda |title=Ahmad Shah Durrani, father of modern Afghanistan |date=1959 |publisher=Asia Publishing house |pages=247 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.5426/page/n267/mode/1up |access-date=19 November 2022}}</ref> [[Mian Qutb Shah]], who was responsible for beheading [[Dattaji Rao Scindia|Dattaji Shinde]] at the [[Battle of Barari Ghat]] was executed by the Marathas after their capture of Kunjpura.<ref name="Ahmad Shah durrani">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Ganda |title=Ahmad Shah Durrani, father of modern Afghanistan |date=1959 |page=247 |publisher=Asia Publishing House, Bombay |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.5426/page/n267/mode/1up}}</ref> Ahmad Shah was encamped on the left bank of the Yamuna River, which was swollen by rains, and was powerless to aid the garrison. The whole Afghan garrison was killed or enslaved.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Syed Altaf Ali Brelvi, Life of Hafiz Rahmat Khan|pages=108–09}}</ref> The massacre of the Kunjpura garrison, within sight of the Durrani camp, exasperated Abdali to such an extent that he ordered crossing of the river at all costs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Lateef, S M. "History of the Punjab"|page=235}}</ref>

=== Afghans cross Yamuna and the Battles of Samalkha and Meerut ===
{{main|Battle of Samalkha (1760)|Battle of Meerut (1760)}}

Ahmed Shah and his allies on 17 October 1760, broke up from [[Shahdara district|Shahdara]], marching south. Taking a calculated risk, Abdali plunged into the river, followed by his bodyguards and troops. Between 23 and 25 October they were able to cross at [[Baghpat]](a small town about 24 miles up the river), unopposed by the Marathas who were still preoccupied with the sacking of Kunjpura and visit to nearby [[Kurukshetra]]; an important Hindu pilgrimage destination.<ref name="tss" />

After the Marathas failed to prevent Abdali's forces from crossing the Yamuna River, they set up defensive works in the ground near [[Panipat]], thereby blocking his access back to Afghanistan, just as Abdali's forces blocked theirs to the south. However, on the afternoon of 26 October, Ahmad Shah's advance guard reached [[Samalkha]], about halfway between [[Sonepat]] and Panipat, where they encountered the vanguard of the Marathas. A fierce skirmish ensued, in which the Afghans lost 1,000 men but drove the Marathas back to their main body, which kept retreating slowly for several days. This led to the partial encirclement of the Maratha army. In skirmishes that followed, [[Govind Pant Bundele]], with 10,000 light cavalry who weren't formally trained soldiers, was on a foraging mission with about 500 men. They were surprised by an Afghan force near [[Meerut]], and in the ensuing fight, Bundele was killed. This was followed by the loss of a contingent of 2,000 Maratha soldiers who had left [[Delhi]] to deliver money and rations to Panipat. This completed the encirclement, as Ahmad Shah had cut off the Maratha army's supply lines.<ref name = "csp">{{Cite book|title= An Account Of The Last Battle of Panipat |last1= Pundit|first1= Casi Raja|author-link1= |translator-last1= Brown|translator-first1= James| editor-last1 = Rawlinson| editor-first1 = Hugh George |url= https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.6002/ |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1926 |isbn= 9789385509544 }}</ref>

With supplies and stores dwindling, tensions started rising in the Maratha camp. Initially the Marathas had moved in almost 150 pieces of modern long-range, French-made artillery. With a range of over a kilometre, these guns were some of the best of the time. The Marathas' plan was to lure the Afghan army to confront them while they had close artillery support.<ref name = "csp"/>

=== Preliminary moves ===
During the next two months of the [[siege]], constant skirmishes and duels took place between units from the two sides. In one of these [[Najib ad-Dawlah|Najib]] lost 3,000 of his Rohillas and was nearly killed himself. Facing a potential stalemate, Abdali decided to seek terms, which Bhau was willing to consider. However, Najib Khan delayed any chance of an agreement with an appeal on religious grounds and sowed doubt about whether the Marathas would honour any agreement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Keene, H. G. (1887). Part I, Chapter VI: The Fall of the Moghul Empire of Hindustan.}}</ref>

After the Marathas moved from Kunjpura to Panipat, Diler Khan Marwat, with his father Alam Khan Marwat and a force of 2500 [[Pashtuns]], attacked and took control of Kunjpura, where there was a Maratha garrison of 700–800 soldiers. At that time Atai Khan Baluch, son of the Shah Wali Khan, the Wazir of Abdali, came from Afghanistan with 10,000 cavalry and cut off the supplies to the Marathas.<ref name="tss"/> The Marathas at Panipat were surrounded by Abdali in the south, Pashtun tribes ([[Yousufzai]], [[Afridi]], [[Khattak]]) in the east, Shuja, Atai Khan and others in the north and other Pashtun tribes ([[Gandapur]], [[Marwat]], [[Durrani]]s and [[Kakar]]s) in the west.<ref name="tss"/>
Unable to continue without supplies or wait for reinforcements from Pune any longer, Bhau decided to break the siege. His plan was to pulverize the enemy formations with cannon fire and not to employ his cavalry until the Afghans were thoroughly softened up. With the Afghans broken, he would move camp in a defensive formation towards Delhi, where they were assured supplies.<ref name="tss"/>

=== Formations ===
[[File:Plan of the Battle of Paniput, 1761.jpg|alt=Plan of the Third Battle of Panipat based on Kashiraj Pandit's memoirs|thumb|Plan of the Third Battle of Panipat based on Kashi raja (Casi Raja) Pandit's account]]
With the Maratha chiefs pressurizing Sadashivrao Bhau, to go to battle rather than perish by starvation, on 13 January, the Marathas left their camp before dawn and marched south towards the Afghan camp in a desperate attempt to break the siege. The two armies came face-to-face around 8:00 a.m.<ref name="tss"/>

The Maratha lines began a little to the north of [[Kala Amb]]. They had thus blocked the northward path of Abdali's troops and at the same time were blocked from heading south—in the direction of Delhi, where they could get badly needed supplies—by those same troops. Bhau, with the Peshwa's son and the royal guard (Huzurat), was in the centre. The left wing consisted of the ''Gardis'' under [[Ibrahim Khan Gardi|Ibrahim Khan]]. Holkar and Sindhia were on the extreme right.<ref name = "csp"/>

The Maratha line was formed up some 12 km across, with the artillery in front, protected by infantry, pikemen, musketeers and bowmen. The cavalry was instructed to wait behind the artillery and bayonet-wielding musketeers, ready to be thrown in when control of the battlefield had been fully established. Behind this line was another ring of 30,000 young Maratha soldiers who were not battle-tested, and then the civilians. Many were ordinary men, women and children on their pilgrimage to Hindu holy places and shrines. Behind the civilians was yet another protective infantry line, of young, inexperienced soldiers.<ref name="tss"/>

On the other side the Afghans formed a somewhat similar line, a few metres to the south of today's Sanauli Road. Their left was being formed by Najib and their right by two brigades of troops. Their left centre was led by two Viziers, [[Shuja-ud-daulah]] with 3,000 soldiers and 50–60 cannons and Ahmad Shah's Vizier Shah Wali with a choice body of 19,000 mailed Afghan horsemen.<ref name = "csp"/> The right centre consisted of 15,000 [[Rohillas]] under [[Hafiz Rahmat]] and other chiefs of the Rohilla Pathans. Pasand Khan covered the left wing with 5,000 cavalry, Barkurdar Khan and Amir Beg covered the right with 3,000 Rohilla cavalry. Long-range musketeers were also present during the battle. In this order the army of Ahmed Shah moved forward, leaving him at his preferred post in the centre, which was now in the rear of the line, from where he could watch and direct the battle.<ref name="tss">{{Cite book|title=Panipat 1761 |author= Shejwalkar, Trimbak S. |author-link= Tryambak Shankar Shejwalkar |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.126833 |publisher= Deccan College |location= Pune|language= mr, en |date= 1946 |isbn= 9788174346421}}</ref>

== Battle ==
=== Early phases ===
[[File:Sadashivrao_Bhau.jpg|thumb|Balaji Rao's troops under the command of his cousin [[Sadashivrao Bhau]] fighting at [[Panipat]]]]
Before dawn on 14 January 1761, the Maratha troops broke their fast with sugared water in the camp and prepared for combat. They emerged from the trenches, pushing the artillery into position on their prearranged lines, some 2 km from the Afghans. Seeing that the battle was on, Ahmad Shah positioned his 60 smooth-bore cannon and opened fire.<ref name="tss" />

The initial attack was led by the Maratha left flank under Ibrahim Khan, who advanced his infantry in formation against the Rohillas and Shah Pasand Khan. The first salvos from the Maratha artillery went over the Afghans' heads and did very little damage. Nevertheless, the first Afghan attack by Najib Khan's Rohillas was broken by Maratha bowmen and pikemen, along with a unit of the famed Gardi musketeers stationed close to the artillery positions. The second and subsequent salvos were fired at point-blank range into the Afghan ranks. The resulting carnage sent the Rohillas reeling back to their lines, leaving the battlefield in the hands of Ibrahim for the next three hours, during which the 8,000 Gardi musketeers killed about 12,000 Rohillas.<ref name="tss"/>

In the second phase, Bhau himself led the charge against the left-of-center Afghan forces, under the Afghan Vizier Shah Wali Khan. The sheer force of the attack nearly broke the Afghan lines, and the Afghan soldiers started to desert their positions in the confusion. Desperately trying to rally his forces, Shah Wali appealed to Shuja ud Daulah for assistance. However, the Nawab did not break from his position, effectively splitting the Afghan force's center. Despite Bhau's success and the ferocity of the charge, the attack did not attain complete success as many of the half-starved Maratha mounts were exhausted. Also, there were no heavy armoured cavalry units for the Marathas to maintain these openings. In order to turn about the deserting Afghan troopers, Abdali deployed his Nascibchi musketeers to gun down the deserters who finally stopped and returned to the field.<ref name="tss"/>

=== Final phase ===
[[File:Detail of Ahmad Shah Abdali on horseback from a larger Faizabad-style painting of the Third Battle of Panipat, Mughal, ca.1761–1770.jpg|thumb|[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] in battle ]]
The Marathas, under Scindia, attacked Najib. Najib successfully fought a defensive action, however, keeping Scindia's forces at bay. By noon it looked as though Bhau would clinch victory for the Marathas once again. The Afghan left flank still held its own, but the centre was cut in two and the right was almost destroyed. Ahmad Shah had watched the fortunes of the battle from his tent, guarded by the still unbroken forces on his left. He sent his bodyguards to call up his 15,000 reserve troops from his camp and arranged them as a column in front of his cavalry of musketeers ([[Qizilbash]]) and 2,000 swivel-mounted ''shutarnaals'' or Ushtranaal—cannons—on the backs of camels.<ref>War Elephants Written by Konstantin Nossov, Illustrated by Peter Dennis Format: Trade Paperback {{ISBN|978-1-84603-268-4}}</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2017}}

The shutarnaals, because of their positioning on camels, could fire an extensive salvo over the heads of their own infantry, at the Maratha cavalry. The Maratha cavalry was unable to withstand the muskets and camel-mounted swivel cannons of the Afghans. They could be fired without the rider having to dismount and were especially effective against fast-moving cavalry. Abdali therefore, sent 500 of his own bodyguards with orders to raise all able-bodied men out of camp and send them to the front. He sent 1,500 more to punish the front-line troops who attempted to flee the battle and kill without mercy any soldier who would not return to the fight. These extra troops, along with 4,000 of his reserve troops, went to support the broken ranks of the Rohillas on the right. The remainder of the reserve, 10,000 strong, were sent to the aid of Shah Wali, still labouring unequally against the Bhau in the centre of the field. These mailed warriors were to charge with the Vizier in close order and at full gallop. Whenever they charged the enemy in front, the chief of the staff and Najib were directed to fall upon either flank.<ref name="tss"/>

With their own men in the firing line, the Maratha artillery could not respond to the shathurnals and the cavalry charge. Some 7,000 Maratha cavalry and infantry were killed before the hand-to-hand fighting began at around 14:00 hrs. By 16:00 hrs, the tired Maratha infantry began to succumb to the onslaught of attacks from fresh Afghan reserves, protected by armoured leather jackets.<ref name="tss"/>

=== Outflanked ===
[[File:Detail of Sadashiv Rao on horseback from a larger Faizabad-style painting of the Third Battle of Panipat, Mughal, ca.1761–1770.jpg|thumb|[[Sadashivrao Bhau]] wounded in battle ]]
Sadashiv Rao Bhau who had not kept any reserves, seeing his forward lines dwindling, civilians behind and upon seeing Vishwasrao disappear in the midst of the fighting, felt he had no choice but to come down from his elephant and lead the battle.<ref name="KaushikRoy" />

Taking advantage of this, the Afghan soldiers who had been captured by the Marathas earlier during the Siege of Kunjpura revolted. The prisoners unwrapped their green belts and wore them as turbans to impersonate the troops of the [[Durrani Empire]] and began attacking from within. This brought confusion and great consternation to the Maratha soldiers, who thought that the enemy had attacked from the rear. Some Maratha troops in the vanguard, seeing that their general had disappeared from his elephant and the chaos ensuing in the rear, panicked and scattered in disarray towards the rear.<ref name="tss"/>

Abdali had given a part of his army the task of surrounding and killing the Gardis, who were at the leftmost part of the Maratha army. Bhausaheb had ordered Vitthal Vinchurkar (with 1500 cavalry) and Damaji Gaikwad (with 2500 cavalry) to protect the Gardis. However, after seeing the Gardis having no clearing for directing their cannon fire at the enemy troops, they lost their patience and decided to fight the Rohillas themselves. Thus, they broke their position and went all out on the Rohillas. The Rohilla riflemen started accurately firing at the Maratha cavalry, which was equipped only with swords. This gave the Rohillas the opportunity to encircle the Gardis and outflank the Maratha centre while Shah Wali pressed on attacking the front. Thus the Gardis were left defenceless and started falling one by one.<ref name="tss"/>

Vishwasrao had already been killed by a shot to the head. Bhau and the Huzurati royal forces fought till the end, the Maratha leader having three horses shot out from under him. At this stage, the Holkar and Scindia contingents, realizing the battle was lost, merged their forces with one contingent breaking from the Maratha right flank and escaped from the opening in the Durrani lines southwards as [[Jankoji Rao Scindia]] lead the other contingent to reinforce the thinning lines of Marathas.<ref name="KaushikRoy" /> The Maratha front lines remained largely intact, with some of their artillery units fighting until sunset. Choosing not to launch a night attack, many Maratha troops escaped that night. Bhau's wife [[Parvatibai]], who was assisting in the administration of the Maratha camp, escaped to Pune with her bodyguard, Janu Bhintada along with [[Nana Fadnavis]] under the protection of Malhar Rao Holkar's contingent. Some 15,000 soldiers managed to reach [[Gwalior]].<ref name="KaushikRoy" />

== Reasons for the outcome ==
Durrani had both numeric as well as qualitative superiority over the Marathas. The combined Afghan army was much larger than that of the Marathas. Though the Maratha infantry was organized along European lines and their army had some of the best French-made guns of the time, their artillery was static and lacked mobility against the fast-moving Afghan forces. The Afghan heavy mounted artillery of proved much better in the battlefield than the Maratha light artillery.<ref>{{cite book |title=Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals Part II |last=Chandra |first=Satish |year=2004 |publisher=Har-Anand |chapter=Later Mughals |isbn=978-81-241-1066-9 }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=April 2017}} None of the other [[Hindu king]]s joined forces to fight Abdali. Allies of Abdali, namely, Najib, Shuja, and the Rohillas knew North India very well. He was also diplomatic, striking agreements with Hindu leaders, especially the Jats and [[Rajput]]s, and former rivals like the Nawab of Awadh, appealing to him in the name of religion.<ref name="tss"/>

Moreover, the senior Maratha chiefs constantly bickered with one another. Each had ambitions of carving out an independent state and had no interest in fighting against a common enemy.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Mughul Period |series=The Cambridge History of India |volume=4 |last=James Rapson |first=Edward |author2=Wolseley Haig |author3=Richard Burn |author4=Henry Dodwell |author5=Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler |year=1937 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=448}}</ref> Some of them did not want a ''pitched battle'', and wanted to fight using guerrilla tactics instead of charging the enemy head-on.<ref name="Roy 2004 91">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpXijlqeRpIC&pg=PA80 |title=India's Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil |first=Kaushik |last=Roy |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2004 |isbn=978-8-17824-109-8 |page=91}}</ref> The Marathas were fighting alone at a place which was almost 1,000 km away from their capital [[Pune]].<ref name="rediff">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/column/250-years-on-battle-of-panipat-revisited/20110113.htm |title=250 years on, Battle of Panipat revisited |work=Rediff.com |date=13 January 2011 |access-date=26 March 2012 |archive-date=21 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121101430/http://www.rediff.com/news/column/250-years-on-battle-of-panipat-revisited/20110113.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Raghunathrao was supposed to go north to reinforce the army. Raghunathrao asked for large amounts of money and troops, which was denied by Sadashivrao Bhau, his cousin and Diwan of Peshwa, so he declined to go.<ref name="Raghunathrao"/> Sadashivrao Bhau was there upon made commander in chief of the Maratha Army, under whom the Battle of Panipat was fought. Some historians have opined, that the Peshwa's decision to appoint Sadashivrao Bhau as the Supreme Commander instead of Holkar or Raghunathrao proved to be an unfortunate one, as Sadashivrao was totally ignorant of the political and military situation in North India.<ref>Claude Markovits. ''A history of modern India, 1480–1950''. p. 207.</ref>

If Holkar had remained in the battlefield, the Maratha defeat would have been delayed but not averted. Ahmad Shah's superiority in pitched battle could've been averted by guerrilla warfare, as advised by Holkar and [[Suraj Mal]].<ref name="books.google.co.in"/> However it is described as impossible to implement due to the camp followers of Bhau's army, and the general quality of his men. It is also believed that the Afghans would not be susceptible to such tactics, due to the Afghan horses being able to outmaneuver the Marathas in battle. Abdali was in no position to maintain his field army in India indefinitely due to external threats.<ref name="Roy 2004 91"/>

== Massacres after the battle ==
After the defeat the Marathas fled in all directions, and the Afghans, Mughals, Rohillas and Awadh troops fell upon them and were busy in plundering and slaying soldiers and civilians.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.149767/page/n115/mode/2up |page=97 |author= Ghosh, D. K. Ed. digitallibraryindia; JaiGyan |title=A Comprehensive History Of India Vol. 9 }}</ref><ref name="jgd" /><ref name="tss" /> Afghan officers who had lost their kin in battle were permitted to carry out massacres of [[Marathas]] the next day also, in Panipat and the surrounding area.<ref name="Rlson" /> They arranged victory mounds of severed heads outside their camps. According to the single best eyewitness chronicle – the bakhar by [[Shuja-ud-Daula]]'s Diwan Casi Raja(Kashi Raja) – about 40,000 Maratha prisoners were slaughtered in cold blood the day after the battle.<ref name="jgd" /><ref name="tss" /> According to Hamilton, a reporter of the [[Bombay Gazette]], about half a million [[Marathi people]] were present there in Panipat town and he gives a figure of 40,000 prisoners as executed by Afghans.<ref name="jgd" /><ref name="tss" /> [[Mian Qutb Shah|Qutb Shah]]'s son slaughtered 4,000 fugitives near Sonepat and Abdus Samad Khan's son killed 5,000 near Bahadurgad, to avenge their fathers deaths.<ref name="the University of Michigan"/> Some 22,000 women and children were driven off as slaves.<ref name="Rlson" />

All of the prisoners were transported on [[bullock cart]]s, [[camel]]s and elephants in bamboo cages.<ref name="Rlson" /> 2000 of whom were saved by [[Sikhs]] led by [[Jassa Singh Ahluwalia]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Khushwant |title=A History of the Sikhs: 1469–1839 (Vol. 1) |date=1963 |publisher=Princeton University Press |page=151}}</ref> Thereafter, he was known as ''Bandi chhor'', or the Liberator of captives.{{sfn|Ganda Singh|1990|p=106|ps=: "...he became famous as a Liberator of bonded women. (Ghanaya Lal, Tareekh-i-Punjab-100; Gian Singh, Shamsheer Khalsa, 145/507"}}{{sfn|H. S. Singha|2000|p=111}}

Siyar-ut-Mutakhirin says:<ref name="Rlson">{{cite book |first=H. G. |last=Rawlinson |title=Cambridge History of India |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory04raps |volume=IV |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory04raps/page/n463 424] + note|publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1937 }}</ref>

{{cquote|The unhappy prisoners were paraded in long lines, given a little parched grain and a drink of water, and beheaded... and the women and children who survived were driven off as slaves – twenty-two thousand, many of them of the highest rank in the land.
}}

== Aftermath ==
{{Main article|Capture of Delhi (1771)}}

[[File:Mahadaji Sindhia.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Mahadaji Shinde]] restored Maratha domination over northern India, within a decade after the war.]]
The bodies of [[Vishwasrao]] and Bhau were recovered by the Marathas and were cremated according to their custom.<ref name="Pradeep Barua" /> Bhau's wife Parvatibai was saved by Holkar, per the directions of Bhau, and eventually returned to [[Pune]].

[[Balaji Baji Rao|Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao]], uninformed about the state of his army, was crossing the Narmada with a relief force and supplies when he heard of the defeat. He returned to Pune and never recovered from the shock of the debacle at Panipat.<ref name="KaushikRoy" /> According to Kashi Raja Pundit, "It was Balaji Bajirao's love of pleasure which was responsible for Panipat. He delayed at [[Paithan]] celebrating his second marriage until December 27, when it was too late."<ref name = "csp"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Suresh K. |title=Haryana: Past and Present |date=2006 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=9788183240468 |page=173 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6n7vV0eiS3YC&q=Balaji+Baji+Rao+married++1760%7C1761&pg=PA173 |access-date=7 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

Jankoji Scindia was taken prisoner and executed at the instigation of Najib. [[Ibrahim Khan Gardi]] was tortured and executed by enraged Afghan soldiers.<ref name="Pradeep Barua">{{cite journal |first=Pradeep |last=Barua |title=Military Developments in India, 1750–1850 |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=599–616 |year=1994 |journal=Journal of Military History |jstor=2944270 |doi=10.2307/2944270 }}</ref> The Marathas never fully recovered from the loss at Panipat, but they remained the largest empire in the Indian subcontinent and managed to retake Delhi ten years later. However, their claim over all of India ended with the three [[Third Anglo-Maratha War|Anglo-Maratha Wars]], in the early 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jadunath |last=Sarkar |author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |title=Fall of the Mughal Empire |publisher=Longmans |year=1950 |page=235}}</ref>

These circumstances made Abdali leave India at the earliest. Before departing, he ordered the Indian chiefs, through a Royal Firman (order) (including [[Robert Clive|Clive of India]]), to recognize [[Shah Alam II]] as Emperor.<ref name=mohsiniInvasions>{{cite web |url=http://www.afghan-network.net/Culture/ahmadshah.html |title=Invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali |publisher=afghan-network.net |first=Haroon |last=Mohsini |access-date=13 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813210837/http://www.afghan-network.net/Culture/ahmadshah.html |archive-date=13 August 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:IGI1908India1765a.jpg|thumb|200px|Map of India in 1765]]

Ahmad Shah also appointed Najib-ud-Daula as ostensible regent to the Mughal Emperor. In addition, Najib and Munir-ud-daulah agreed to pay to Abdali, on behalf of the Mughal emperor, an annual tribute of four million rupees, which was never actually paid.<ref name=mohsiniInvasions /> In March 1761, Ahmad Shah left for Afghanistan. As he travelled through Punjab, his forces were often troubled by the Sikhs. After crossing the Sutlej River, the Sikhs attacked some of the soldiers who were lagging behind. Ahmad Shah did not react immediately because his army was weighed down by the loot. To protect his camp, he built small fortifications around it every night and continued his journey toward the Attock River, with the Sikhs following him. The Durrani victory at Panipat put an end to the Maratha plans of taking control of Punjab. This left the Durranis and the Sikhs as the two main powers fighting for control over the region. Ahmad Shah then focused on confronting the Sikhs.<ref name="Khan">{{cite book|title=Ahmad Shah Durrani: Father of Modern Afghanistan |last1=Ganḍā |first1=Singh |year=1959|publisher=Asia Pub. House |isbn=978-1-4021-7278-6 |page=264|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_A8AAAAMAAJ|access-date=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gupta|first=Hari Ram|title=History of Sikhs Vol. 2 - Evolution of Sikh Confederacies (1707-69)|publisher={{!}}{{!}}Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd{{!}}{{!}}|year=2007|isbn=978-81-215-0248-1|location=New Delhi|page=168}}</ref>

The Jats under [[Suraj Mal]] benefited significantly from not participating in the Battle of Panipat. They provided considerable assistance to the Maratha soldiers and civilians who escaped the fighting.<ref>K.R. Qanungo, History of the Jats, Ed Dr Vir Singh, Delhi, 2003, p. 83</ref>

Shah Shuja's forces (including Persian advisers) played a decisive role in collecting intelligence against the Maratha forces and was notorious in ambushing the leading in hundreds of casualties.<ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V02_446.gif Rule of Shah Alam, 1759–1806] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626125059/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V02_446.gif |date=26 June 2022 }} [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]], 1909, v. 2, p. 411.</ref>

After the Battle of Panipat the services of the Rohillas were rewarded by grants of [[Shikohabad]] to Nawab [[Faizullah Khan|Faiz-ullah Khan]] and of [[Jalesar]] and [[Firozabad]] to Nawab [[Saadullah Khan of Rohilkhand|Sadullah Khan]]. Najib Khan proved to be an effective ruler, who restored Delhi to a large extent. However, after his death on 30 October 1770, the Rohillas were defeated by the [[Presidency armies|forces]] of the [[British East India Company]] in 1774.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=Alok |title=Rohilla Resistance Against Colonial Intervention Under Nawab Faizullah Khan of Rampur (1774-1794) |journal= Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=73 |pages=563–572 |jstor=44156249 |year=2012 }}</ref><ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V02_446.gif Rule of Shah Alam, 1759–1806] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626125059/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V02_446.gif |date=26 June 2022 }} [[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]], 1909, v. 2, p. 411.</ref>

To save their kingdom, the Mughals once again changed sides and welcomed the Afghans to Delhi. The Mughals remained in nominal control over small areas of India but were never a force again. The empire officially ended in 1857 when its last emperor, [[Bahadurshah Zafar|Bahadur Shah II]], was accused of being involved in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] and exiled.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wYW5J-jQn8QC|title = The Last Mughal: The Fall of Delhi, 1857|isbn = 9781408806883|last1 = Dalrymple|first1 = William|date = 17 August 2009| publisher=A&C Black }}</ref>

The result of the battle was the temporary halting of further Maratha advances in the north and destabilization of their territories for roughly ten years. This period is marked by the rule of [[Madhavrao I|Peshwa Madhavrao]], who is credited with the revival of Maratha domination following the defeat at Panipat. In 1771, ten years after Panipat, [[Mahadji Shinde]] led a large Maratha army into northern India in a counter offensive in which he along with others re-established the fallen Maratha supremacy in the area and punished refractory powers that had either sided with the Afghans, such as the Rohillas, or had shaken off Maratha domination after [[Panipat]], slaughtering tension of thousands of Rohillas. They desecrated the grave of Rohilla chieftain [[Najib ad-Dawlah|Najib ad-Dawla]] and captured [[Najibabad]].<ref>{{cite book|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=uPq640stHJ0C|page=8}} |title=The Great Maratha: Mahadaji Scindia |first=N. G. |last=Rathod }}</ref><ref name="tss"/> But their success was short-lived. Crippled by Madhavrao's untimely death at the age of 28, infighting ensued among Maratha chiefs soon after, and they were ultimately defeated and annexed by the [[Company rule in India|British East India Company administration]] in 1819.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/Peshwa-defeated/article14380314.ece| title = The third Maratha War gave the British control of almost all of the country - The Hindu| website = [[The Hindu]]| date = 2 June 2016| access-date = 13 June 2019| archive-date = 18 October 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201018013846/https://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/Peshwa-defeated/article14380314.ece| url-status = live}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
{{Further|First Anglo-Maratha War|Second Anglo-Maratha War|Third Anglo-Maratha War}}
The valour displayed by the Marathas was extolled by Ahmad Shah Abdali in his letter to his ally, [[Madho Singh I|Madho Singh]], the king of [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/uday-mahurkar-on-lost-marathas-of-third-battle-of-panipat-and-rod-community-89431-2012-01-11 |title=The lost Marathas of third battle of Panipat |work=India Today |date=12 January 2012 |access-date=5 April 2017 |archive-date=11 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511123702/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/uday-mahurkar-on-lost-marathas-of-third-battle-of-panipat-and-rod-community/1/168513.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sardesai|first=Govind Sakharam|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57070|title=New History Of The Marathas Vol 2|date=1946|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57070/page/n468 444]}}</ref>

{{quote|The Marathas fought with the greatest valour which was beyond the capacity of other races... These dauntless blood-shedders did not fall short in fighting and doing glorious deeds.... Suddenly the breeze of victory began to blow... and the wretched Deccanis suffered defeat.
}}

The battle was referred to in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem "With Scindia to Delhi".

{{poemquote|Our hands and scarfs were saffron-dyed for signal of despair,
When we went forth to Paniput to battle with the [[Mleccha|~Mlech~]],
Ere we came back from Paniput and left a kingdom there.}}

It is, however, also remembered as a scene of valour on both sides. Atai Khan, the adopted son of the Wazir Shah Wali Khan, was said to have been killed during this time when Yeshwantrao Pawar climbed atop his elephant and struck him down.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesFarEast/India_Modern_Peshwas04.htm |title=India_Modern_Peshwas04 |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208100935/https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesFarEast/India_Modern_Peshwas04.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Santaji Wagh's corpse was found with over 40 mortal wounds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.panipatrefinery.net/left.asp?mSection=General |title=Walking the streets of Panipat |last=Rao |first=S |publisher=Indian Oil News |access-date=8 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080428055719/http://www.panipatrefinery.net/left.asp?mSection=General |archive-date=28 April 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
*Bengali poet [[Kaykobad]] wrote a long poem ''Mahashmashan'' based on this battle.
*Bengali playwright [[Munier Choudhury]]’s play ''Roktakto Prantor'' (1959) is based on the Third Battle of Panipat.
*''Panipat'', a 2005 novel in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] by Indian writer [[Vishwas Patil]] is about this battle.<ref>{{cite book |title=Panipata |publisher=Navabhārata Sāhitya Mandira|oclc=57710656 }}</ref>
*The 2019 Indian film ''[[Panipat (film)|Panipat]]'', directed by director [[Ashutosh Gowariker]], starring [[Arjun Kapoor]], [[Sanjay Dutt]] and [[Kriti Sanon]] is based on the Third Battle of Panipat with several major historical inaccuracies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tewari |first=Saagar |date=7 December 2019 |title=A Historian's Perspective: 'Panipat - The Great Betrayal' Indeed! |url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/bollywood/panipat-the-great-betrayal-film-historical-inaccuracies-arjun-kapoor-sanjay-dutt-kriti-sanon |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=TheQuint |language=en |archive-date=10 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810145048/https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/bollywood/panipat-the-great-betrayal-film-historical-inaccuracies-arjun-kapoor-sanjay-dutt-kriti-sanon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Panipat - Official Trailer |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zpXnmy-6w1g | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/zpXnmy-6w1g| archive-date=30 October 2021|publisher=[[Reliance Entertainment]] |date=5 November 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[First Battle of Panipat]]
* [[Second Battle of Panipat]]
* [[Maratha Peshwa and Generals from Bhat Family]]
* [[Afghan-Sikh wars]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

* {{cite book |author=Ganda Singh |title=Sardar Jassa Singh Ahluwalia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4ZHAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Punjabi University |isbn=978-8173805042 |year=1990 |pages=1–3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Mehta|first=Jaswant Lal |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA140|year=2005|publisher=Sterling|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6}}
*{{cite book |author=H. S. Singha |title=The encyclopedia of Sikhism |publisher=Hemkunt Press |year=2000 |location=New Delhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqIbJz7vMn0C&pg=PA111 |isbn=978-81-7010-301-1}}

== Further reading ==
* H. G. Rawlinson - ''An Account Of The Last Battle of Panipat and of the Events Leading To It,'' Hesperides Press (2006) {{ISBN|978-1-4067-2625-1}}
* [[Vishwas Patil]] - ''Panipat''– a fictional novel based on the 3rd battle of Panipat, Venus (1990)
* Uday S. Kulkarni – ''Solstice at Panipat – 14 January 1761,'' Mula-Mutha Publishers, Pune (2011). {{ISBN|978-81-921080-0-1}} - An authoritative account on the Third Battle of Panipat.
* Third Battle of Panipat by Abhas Verma {{ISBN|9788180903397}} Bharatiya Kala Prakashana.

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Battle of Panipat (1761)}}
* [http://archaeologyharyana.nic.in/pic13.html Panipat War memorial Pictures]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629193110/http://panipat.nic.in/home.htm District Panipat]
* [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume12/airavat.html#1 Was late mediaeval India ready for a Revolution in Military Affairs? Part II Airavat Singh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131120031844/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/SRR/Volume12/airavat.html#1 |date=20 November 2013 }}
* [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/colonial/joppenlate1700s/joppenlate1700s.html Historical maps of India in the 18th century]

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{{Mughal Empire|state=expanded}}
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== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Panipat 1761, Battle of}}
[[Category:Battles involving the Maratha Empire]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1761]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Durrani Empire]]
[[Category:Panipat|B]]
[[Category:Rohilla]]
[[Category:18th-century battles]]
[[Category:History of Haryana]]
[[Category:1761 in India]]
[[Category:1760s in the Durrani Empire]]

Singh Saab the Great

2026-03-24T15:24:14Z

DeangeloSchwing: fixed issues

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Singh Saab the Great
| image = File:Singh Sahab the Great Theatrical poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Anil Sharma (director)|Anil Sharma]]
| producer = Anuj Sharma Sangeeta Ahir
| writer = Shaktimaan Talwar
| starring = [[Sunny Deol]] [[Amrita Rao]] [[Urvashi Rautela]] [[Prakash Raj]]
| music = [[Anand Raj Anand]] [[Sonu Nigam]]
| cinematography = S. Gopinath
| editing = Ashfaque Makrani
| studio = [[Pen Studios]] Mangalmurti Films
| distributor = [[Eros International]]
| released = {{Film date|2013|11|22||df=y}}
| runtime = 150 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi<ref name="British Board of Film Classification">{{cite web | title=SINGH SAAB THE GREAT Main language- Hindi | website=British Board of Film Classification | url=http://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/singh-saab-great-2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306032318/http://www.bbfc.co.uk/releases/singh-saab-great-2013 | url-status=dead | archive-date=6 March 2016 | access-date=7 October 2015}}</ref>
| budget = {{INR}}25 Crore<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/singh-saab-the-great/box-office/ | title=Singh Saab the Great Box Office Collection till Now | Box Collection | website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] }}</ref>
| gross = {{INR}}40.67 Crore (India Net) and {{INR}}14 Crore Overseas <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/singh-saab-the-great/box-office/ | title=Singh Saab the Great Box Office Collection till Now | Box Collection | website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] }}</ref>
}}

'''''Singh Saab the Great'''''{{efn|The film was originally titled ''Singh Sahib''/''Sahab the Great'', but objections were raised by the [[Akal Takht]], the highest [[Sikhism|Sikh]] religious body over the use of the term [[sahib]] - an honorific in the religion. The title was changed to use "saab", a hypocorism of sahib.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/sunny-deol-film-now-singh-saab-instead-of-singh-sahib/story-g5ugM5XAW0zHBKRN8rax7I.html|title=Sunny Deol film now 'Singh Saab' instead of 'Singh Sahib'|date=22 November 2013|website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>}} is a 2013 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[action drama film]] directed by [[Anil Sharma (director)|Anil Sharma]]. The film stars [[Sunny Deol]], [[Amrita Rao]], [[Urvashi Rautela]] and [[Prakash Raj]] as main characters. The film marks the return of Sunny Deol to the action genre after a long time. Also, Deol and Sharma paired up once again after ''[[Gadar: Ek Prem Katha]]''. The film narrates the story of a ex-collector who decides to teach a lesson to the man, who was responsible for his wife's death, by reforming him. The film's story and screenplay have been written by Shaktimaan Talwar, and the action sequences have been directed by Tinu Verna and [[Kanal Kannan]]. The music has been provided by [[Anand Raj Anand]] and [[Sonu Nigam]]. [[Amisha Patel]] was supposed to play the lead role but backed out due to ever-changing schedules.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/549451|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120109022251/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/cast/id/549451|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 January 2012|title=Singh Saab the Great Movie: Review | Release Date | Songs | Music | Images | Official Trailers | Videos | Photos | News - Bollywood Hungama|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] }}</ref>

The film also notably competed at the 2014 [[Pyongyang International Film Festival]] in North Korea in the main Best Film category. The film received positive reviews and was a box office hit.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-11-13 |title=Pyongyang International Film Festival |url=http://www.pyongyanginternationalfilmfestival.com/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113040125/http://www.pyongyanginternationalfilmfestival.com/ |archive-date=13 November 2015 |access-date=2023-08-02 |website=pyongyanginternationalfilmfestival.com}}</ref>

== Plot ==
An honest [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]] officer gets a posting as a [[District magistrate|Collector]] in a small city. A TV journalist, Shikha Chaturvedi, uncovers the mysterious hero's backstory. It starts in a small village named Chironji, with a small argument about food issues in a village caused by a local goon named Jatta Singh ([[Shahbaz Khan (actor)|Shahbaz Khan]]) when Singh Saab ([[Sunny Deol]]) makes his grand entry. Singh Saab is an honest, noble, and loyal man. Above all else, he lives his life on honest principles, and that makes him a messiah of common people. He came with an offer from his movement named People's Beat, which is for a noble cause, and approached Jatta Singh to let the goods from his factories be used for a good cause. This enrages Jatta Singh and attacks Singh Saab. He denies hitting back to honor the day, which was 2 October, Non-Violence Day. But things got messy, and Singh Saab and Jatta have a duel.

Then they get several invitations, one from Bhadhori, which upsets him, and a TV reporter named Shikha Chuturvadi ([[Amrita Rao]]) approached to him and believes that he is living a noble life as a hoax. Then he was shaken and decided to tell her about the story of his life revolving around the name Bhadhori. It flashes back to 7 years earlier, the time when he was known as Saranjeet Singh Talwar, an IAS officer. He was travelling with his loving wife Minnie ([[Urvashi Rautela]]) to a small city, Bhadhori, where he was transferred as the Collector. There he starts a court of justice for action to be taken against corrupt individuals.

There he meets a gangster alias a crime lord named Raja Dadta Bhudhev Singh ([[Prakash Raj]]). He has an excise of Rupees 32,38,13,000 to pay, and he threatens Saranjeet to open his factories otherwise he will do something to his sister and ruin her marriage. This enrages Saranjeet, and he then slaps Bhudhev, which led to a threat to ruin Saranjeet's life and will make him squeal. Things get messy when Bhudhev kidnaps Saranjeet's sister's father-in-law and makes him to obey his order to mix poison in the ritual of feeding sweets to the daughter-in-law and son, or the whole family will be poisoned. He tries but attempts to fail and Saranjeet finds that things are fishy. He is called by Bhudhev and finds out that Minnie was poisoned, by the cause of her drink being spiked with poison.

They rush her to the hospital and Bhudhev has made a deal to exchange the order of his factories' release for Dr. Anand, the neurosurgeon, to perform the surgery for Minnie's survival. Saranjeet agrees for Minnie's unstable condition. But, it gets too late and Minnie passes away. Saranjeet is heartbroken and had found an old letter written by his wife during her last minutes. Furious, Saranjeet goes to Bhudev and attacks him. He is then dismissed from government service and sentenced for 16 years of imprisonment.

But, one day he met his old friend, Mohammad Iqbal ([[Rajit Kapur]]) who was the jailor official, and recommended bringing change instead of taking revenge. Now in present day, he is a dedicated man towards bringing a noble change to the society. Singh Saab defeats Bhoodev and his men, who abducted Simar and her son. He rescued her from falling off through the bamboos, Thus teaching Bhoodev Singh a lesson and leaves Bhadori for happy life at the end.

==Cast==
* [[Sunny Deol]] as Saranjit Singh Talwar, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]] / Sunny / "Singh Saab"
* [[Amrita Rao]] as Shikha Chaturvedi – Journalist
* [[Urvashi Rautela]] as Minnie Talwar – Saranjit's wife
* [[Prakash Raj]] as Bhoodev Singh
* [[Anjali Abrol]] as Simar / Guddie – Saranjit's sister
* [[Rajit Kapur]] as Jailer Mohammad Iqbal
* [[Sanjay Mishra (actor)|Sanjay Mishra]] as Murli
* [[Yashpal Sharma (actor)|Yashpal Sharma]] as Lallan Singh – Bhoodev's man
* [[Manoj Pahwa]] as Govardhan – Bhoodev's man
* [[Johny Lever]] as Gulwinder /Gullu
* [[Shahbaz Khan (actor)|Shahbaz Khan]] as Jatta Singh (Special Appearance)
* Amit Behl as Vasiyat
* Raj Premi as Sultan – Bhoodev's henchmen
* Alan Kapoor as Ashwini
* Anukool Jain as Press Reporter
* Simran Khan as Dancer – In the song "Khaike Palang Todh Pan"
* Satyavrat Mudgal as Rampal
* [[Dharmendra]] ({{small|cameo appearance}}) – In the song "Daaru Band Kal Se"
* [[Bobby Deol]] ({{small|cameo appearance}}) – In the song "Daaru Band Kal Se"

==Music and soundtrack==
The music of the film was composed by [[Anand Raj Anand]], except for the song "Singh Saab The Great", whose music was composed by [[Sonu Nigam]]. The lyrics of the songs were penned by [[Sameer Anjaan|Sameer]] and [[Kumaar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Singh Saab the Great Soundtrack (2013) |url=https://www.soundtrack.net/album/singh-saab-the-great/ |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=www.soundtrack.net}}</ref> The music was launched on 28 Oct 2013.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 October 2023 |title=Music of 'Singh Saab The Great' unveiled |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/music-of-singh-saab-the-great-unveiled-113102801020_1.html |work=Business Standard}}</ref> The album contains six songs.

{| class="wikitable"
! Track # !! Title !! Composer !! Singer(s)
|-
| 1 || "Singh Saab The Great" || [[Sonu Nigam]] ||[[Sonu Nigam]], [[Teesha Nigam]]
|-
| 2 || "Daaru Band Kal Se" || Anand Raj Anand ||Sonu Nigam
|-
| 3 || "Palang Todh" ||Anand Raj Anand ||[[Sunidhi Chauhan]], Anand Raj Anand
|-
| 4 || "Jab Mehndi Lag Lag Jaave" || Anand Raj Anand ||Sonu Nigam, [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
|-
| 5 || "Daaru Band Kal Se (Remix)" || Anand Raj Anand ||Sonu Nigam
|-
| 6 || "Heer" || Anand Raj Anand ||Sonu Nigam
|}

==Reception==
''Singh Saab The Great'' received mostly positive reviews from critics. David Chute of ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' praised Deol's action sequences.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chute|first1=David|title=Film Review: 'Singh Saab the Great'|url=https://variety.com/2013/film/reviews/film-review-singh-saab-the-great-1200879226/|access-date=21 August 2017|work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=24 November 2013}}</ref>

[[NDTV]] rated the movie as 3.5/5 stars, saying, "There is a virility and fluency to the storytelling. ''Singh Saab The Great'' is a homage to the cinema of the 1980s when Sunny was macho."<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/singh-saab-the-great-movie-review-897
|title=Singh Saab The Great movie review
|author=Subhash K Jha
|agency=Indo-Asian News Service
|publisher=NDTV
|date=2013-11-22
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122075933/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie-reviews/singh-saab-the-great-movie-review-897
|archive-date=2013-11-22
}}
</ref> ''[[Filmfare]]'' gave the film 4/5 stars, saying "''SSTG'' is a mass entertainer. It's a Sunny Deol vehicle. Sunny Paaji is obviously on top of this game. His comedy punches, stirring Punjabi dialogues are all over the top but perfectly suitable in context of film".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.filmfare.com/reviews/movie-review-singh-saab-the-great-4747.html|title=Movie Review: Singh Saab the Great}}</ref>

''[[The Times of India]]'' gave the movie 3/5 stars, stating "Like all films that talk of reforming society, Anil Sharma's ''Singh Saab the Great'' has its heart in the correct place. Sunny Deol's earnestness shines, throughout the duration of this melodrama".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/hindi/singh-saab-the-great/movie-review/26202741.cms |title=Singh Saab The Great movie review: Wallpaper, Story, Trailer at Times of India |newspaper=The Times of India |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |access-date=2014-01-02}}</ref> [[Taran Adarsh]] of Bollywood Hungama gave a 3.5/5-star rating and wrote "''Singh Saab the Great'' is a typical Sunny Deol film that a section of the audience still enjoys. The clap worthy dialogue, the raw appeal, the undercurrent of emotions and of course, the [[Damini|''Dhaai kilo ka haath'']] should appeal to those who relish ''desi'' fares, especially the single screen audience".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/549451 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901050831/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/549451 |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 September 2013 |title=Singh Saab The Great (2013) | Hindi Movie Critic Review By Taran Adarsh |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=2014-01-02}}</ref>

==Box office==

The film's total box office collections totaled approximately {{INR}}40.68 Crore Net in India on a {{INR}}25 Crore budget. It's total worldwide gross is {{INR}}64 Crore.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/singh-saab-the-great/box-office/ | title=Singh Saab the Great Box Office Collection till Now | Box Collection | website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Bollywood films of 2013]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|2437954}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama movie|singh-saab-the-great}}

{{Anil Sharma}}
[[Category:2013 controversies]]
[[Category:2013 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2013 Indian films]]
[[Category:2013 action drama films]]
[[Category:India–North Korea relations]]
[[Category:Pen Studios films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Anand Raj Anand]]
[[Category:Films directed by Anil Sharma]]
[[Category:Films distributed by Eros International]]
[[Category:Indian action drama films]]
[[Category:Religious controversies in film]]
[[Category:Religious controversies in India]]
[[Category:Sikhism-related controversies]]

Abol Tabol

2026-03-22T01:45:17Z

DeangeloSchwing: basic rework section after review additionally and added references

{{Short description|Nonsense verse by Sukumar Ray}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Abol Tabol
| image = Aboltabol.gif
| caption =
| author = [[Sukumar Ray]]
| country = India
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| genre = [[Poetry]]
| pub_date = September 19, 1923
| publisher = U. Ray and Sons
| wikisource = bn:%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2
}}
'''''Abol tabol''''' ({{langx|bn|আবোল তাবোল}}; {{audio|Bn-আবোল তাবোল.oga|listen|''Aabol Tabol''}}; {{literally}} 'The Weird and the Absurd') is a collection of Bengali children's poems and rhymes composed by [[Sukumar Ray]], first published on 19 September 1923 by [[U. Ray and Sons]] publishers. It consists of 46 titled and seven untitled short rhymes (quatrains), all considered to be in the genre of nonsense literature.

==Significance==
[[Bengali language|Bengali]] readers were exposed to a new [[literary nonsense|nonsense]] fantasy world by the poems in ''Abol Tabol''. This selection offers the best of Sukumar Ray's world of pun-riddled poetry.

Although it was not understood at the time of its publication, many poems in ''Abol Tabol'' contain skilfully hidden satire on the state of society and administration of early 20th-century colonial India - mostly Bengal. Embedding implied hidden meanings of a subversive nature in nonsense rhymes for children, was Ray's clever way of subverting press censorship by the then British administration in India, which was paranoid about seditious and subversive literature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Goswami |first=Supriya |title=Colonial India in Children's Literature |publisher=Routledge |year=2012 |page=152}}</ref>
[[File:ABTBtimeline2ndEd.png|alt=Historical events depicted in the poems of Abol Tabol.|thumb|Timeline and brief explanations of historical events commented upon in the poems of Abol Tabol.]]
In analytical literature since 2017, the poems in ''Abol Tabol'' have been plotted on a timeline and compared with contemporaneous events, research having yielded plausible connections between historical events and the commentary and satire hidden in many of the poems.<ref name="Whimsy">{{cite book|last=Roy |first=Niladri |title=Rhymes of Whimsy - The Complete Abol Tabol|publisher=Haton Cross Press |pages=116–117}}</ref> A significant perspective on Ray's Abol Tabol has been explored by Hirak Bhattacharya in his article entitled, " Rethinking Sukumar Ray's Abol Tabol as a Multimodal Text". Bhattacharya contends that, Ray's visionary mind accompanied the poems of Abol Tabol with illustrations. Such sketches imbibed unschooled learners to have a comprehensive understanding of the text without delving deep into the dynamics of alphabetical logarithms. The illustrations accompanying Ray's poems appeal to aesthetic sense of the readers and in a way creates a whole edifice of perceptual understanding of the poems, appealing all the sensory perceptions. In this way, Bhattacharya, explores the multimodal aspects of the text, that transcends the [[liminality]] of a text-centred approach.
[[File:Sukumar Ray.jpg|thumb|Sukumar Ray]]

== Publication history ==
Sukumar Ray wrote for [[Sandesh (magazine)|Sandesh]], a children's magazine started by his father [[Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury]] in [[Calcutta]]. The poems in ''Abol Tabol'', most of which first appeared in ''Sandesh'', were composed between 1915 and 1923<ref name="Sukumar Sahitya Samagra">{{cite book|last=Ray |first=Sukumar |chapter=Abol Tabol |title=Sukumar Sahitya Samagra |year=1973 |volume=1 |editor1-first=Satyajit |editor1-last=Ray |editor2-first=Partha |editor2-last=Basu |location=Kolkata |publisher=Ananda Publishers |page=314}}</ref>. ''Abol Tabol'' was originally the name designating a section within ''Sandesh'' where many of these poems were first published. Thirty-nine poems and seven untitled quatrains can be traced back to having first appeared in ''Sandesh''. Seven other poems making up the balance of the collection were selected by Ray possibly from previously unpublished manuscripts<ref name="Sukumar Sahitya Samagra" />. The first and the last poems, both titled ''Abol Tabol'' were written by Ray specifically for the collection possibly in 1923<ref name=Whimsy />.

==Characters==
His collection had several characters which became legendary in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] literature and culture. Some characters even have found idiomatic usage in the language.

Some of the most famous characters in "Abol tabol" are:
* Kaathburo (Poem: Kaathburo)
[[File:Kathburo.gif|thumb|Kathburo]]
* Head Officer Boro Babu (Poem: Gnof Churi)
[[File:Gofchuri.gif|thumb|Gnofchuri]]
* Kumro Potash (Poem: Kumro Potash)
* Gangaram (Poem: Sat Patro)
* Chandidaser Khuro (Poem: Khuror Kal)
* Bombagoder Raja (Poem: Bombagorer Raja)
[[File:Bombagarerraja1.gif|thumb|Bombagoder Raja]]
* Hnukumukho Hyangla (Poem: Hnukumukho Hyangla)
* Ramgoruder Chhana (Poem: Ramgorurer Chhana)
[[File:Ramgarurer Chhana.svg|thumb|Ramgaruder Chhana]]
* Tnyash Goru (Poem: Tnyash Goru)
[[File:Tashgoru.gif|thumb|Tnyashgoru]]
* Shashthi Charan (Poem: Palowan)
[[File:Paloan.gif|thumb|Shashthi Charan]]

* Jagmohan (Poem: Thikana)
* Panta Bhoot (Poem: Bhooture Khela)
* Nera (Poem: Nera Beltolay Jay Kobar?)
[[File:Nbtjk.gif|thumb|Nera Beltolay Jay Kobar?]]
* Katukutu Buro (Poem: Katukutu Buro)
* Bhisman Lochan Sharma (Poem : Ganer Gunto)

==English Translations==
A complete translation of all 53 poems appears in ''Rhymes of Whimsy - The Complete Abol Tabol,'' trans. Niladri Roy (Haton Cross Press, 2017). A dual-language edition (Haton Cross Press, 2017) includes the Bengali originals; the second edition (Haton Cross Press, 2020) includes the original illustrations by Sukumar Ray.

''The Tenth Rasa: An Anthology of Indian Nonsense'', ed. Michael Heyman, [[Sumanyu Satpathy]] and [[Anushka Ravishankar]] (Penguin, 2007) includes several translations of poems from ''Abol Tabol'' by Sampurna Chattarji.

''Abol Tabol: The Nonsense World of Sukumar Ray'' trans. Sampurna Chattarji (Puffin, 2004) includes a partial translation and additionally includes translations of ''Khapchhada'', ''Bohurupee'', ''Other Stories'', ''[[HaJaBaRaLa|Haw-Jaw-Baw-Raw-Law]]'', ''Khai-Khai'', and ''[[Pagla Dashu]]''.

''The Select Nonsense of Sukumar Ray'' trans. Sukanta Chaudhuri (Oxford University Press, 1987) is a partial translation and contains an introduction by [[Satyajit Ray]].

''Nonsense Rhymes'' trans. Satyajit Ray (Calcutta Writer's Workshop, 1970) is a partial translation.

== Further reading ==

* Roy, N. (2021) ''Aaloy Dhaka Ondhokar (আলোয় ঢাকা অন্ধকার)''. Kolkata, Dey's Publishing: offers an analysis of all the poems including explanation of hidden satire.
* Bhadury, P. (2013) ''Fantastic Beasts and How to Sketch Them: The Fabulous Bestiary of Sukumar Ray''. South Asian Review, Vol. 34, No. 1: reviews of some of Sukumar Ray's illustrations in ''Abol Tabol''
* Goswami, S (2012) ''Colonial India in Children’s Literature.'' Routledge.
* Chaudhuri, S. (1995) ''The World of Sukumar Ray'' (in ''Telling Tales: Children’s Literature in India'', ed. Amit Dasgupta, pp. 88-96). New Delhi, New Age International Publishers Ltd

== References ==
{{reflist}}

4. Bhattacharya, Hirak. "Rethinking Sukumar Ray's ''Abol Tabol'' as a Multimodal Text." ''Bookbird: A Journal of International Children's Literature'', vol. 59 no. 1, 2021, p. 64-69. ''Project MUSE'', [[doi:10.1353/bkb.2021.0000]].

==External links==
{{Portal |Children's literature}}
*[https://bn.wikisource.org/wiki/সুকুমার_রায়_সমগ্র_রচনাবলী_(দ্বিতীয়_খণ্ড)/কবিতাগুচ্ছ কবিতাগুচ্ছ in Wikisource]
*[http://aboltabol.freehostia.com/index.html Abol Tabol English translations and full list of poems]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bengali-language literature]]
[[Category:Sukumar Ray]]
[[Category:Children's poetry books]]
[[Category:1923 children's books]]
[[Category:1923 poetry books]]
[[Category:Indian poetry collections]]
[[Category:Indian children's literature]]
[[Category:Indian humorous poems]]
[[Category:Nonsense poetry]]

Confectionery

2026-03-16T16:28:24Z

DeangeloSchwing:

{{Redirect|Sweetmeat|the racehorse|Sweetmeat (horse)}}
{{distinguish|Sweetbread}}
{{distinguish|Convection}}
{{Short description|Art of making confections or sweet foods}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2018}}

[[File:Krokan.jpg|thumb|This [[krokan]] is a traditional Swedish baker's confection.]]

'''Confectionery''' is the [[Art (skill)|art]]<ref name="MerriamWebsterConfectionery">{{Cite Merriam-Webster|confectionery|access-date=2 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="OED2023Confectionery"/> of making '''confections''', or [[sweet]] foods.<ref name="MerriamWebsterConfectionery"/><ref name="OED2023Confectionery"/> Confections are items that are rich in [[sugar]] and [[carbohydrate]]s, although exact definitions are difficult.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA213|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|last=Davidson|first=Alan|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780199677337|page=213}}</ref> In general, however, confections are divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories: '''baker's confections''' and '''sugar confections'''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akYLOTMdCSEC&pg=PA106|title=Dictionary of Food Science and Technology|date=2009|publisher=Wiley–Blackwell|isbn=9781405187404|editor=International Food Information Service|edition=2nd|location=Chichester, U.K.|page=106}}</ref>

Baker's confectionery, also called '''flour confections''', includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, and similar [[Baking|baked goods]]. Baker's confectionery excludes everyday [[Bread|breads]], and thus is a subset of products produced by a [[baker]].

Sugar confectionery (known as [[candy making]] in the US) includes [[Candy|candies]] (also called ''sweets'', short for ''sweetmeats'',<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Darra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jbi6BwAAQBAJ|title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-931339-6|pages=171|language=en}}</ref> in many English-speaking countries), candied nuts, chocolates, chewing gum, bubble gum, [[pastillage]], and other confections that are made primarily of sugar. In some cases, '''chocolate confections''' (confections made of chocolate) are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Science of Sugar Confectionery|url=https://archive.org/details/sciencesugarconf00edwa|url-access=limited|last=Edwards|first=W.P.|date=2000|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=9780854045938|location=Cambridge|page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencesugarconf00edwa/page/n12 1]}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Mark |first=J. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Food_Industries/2xEIEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA461&printsec=frontcover |title=Food Industries |last2=Strange |first2=R. |last3=Burns |first3=J. |date=2020-11-25 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-10997-9 |pages=461–464 |language=en}}</ref> The words ''[[candy]]'' (Canada and US), ''sweets'' (UK, Ireland, and others), and ''lollies'' (Australia and New Zealand) are common words for some of the most popular [[List of candies|varieties of sugar confectionery]].

The occupation of '''confectioner''' encompasses the categories of cooking performed by both the French ''[[Pâtissier|patissier]]'' (pastry chef) and the ''confiseur'' (sugar worker).<ref name=":0" /> The confectionery industry also includes specialized training schools and extensive historical records.<ref name="The Art of Confectionery">{{Cite web |last=Day |first=Ivan |title=The Art of Confectionery |url=http://www.historicfood.com/The%20Art%20of%20Confectionery.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118051214/http://www.historicfood.com/The%20Art%20of%20Confectionery.pdf |archive-date=2017-11-18 |website=historicfood.com}}</ref> Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times and continued to be eaten through the [[Medieval cuisine#Sweets and desserts|Middle Ages]] and into the modern era.

==Etymology==
[[File:Yasnaya_Polyana_Confectionery_Factory_01.jpg|thumb|Confectionery can be mass-produced in a factory.]]
The oldest recorded use of the word ''confectionery'' discovered so far by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' is by Richard Jonas in 1540, who spelled or misspelled it as "confection nere" in a passage "''[[amber|Ambre]], [[musk|muske]], [[frankincense|frankencense]], {{ill|gallia muscata|fr|Galle musquée}} and '''confection nere'''''", thus in the sense of "things made or sold by a confectioner".

Also according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]], the sense of "the art and business of a confectioner" is first recorded in 1743, and the earliest use in the sense of a "confectioner's shop" dates to 1803.<ref name="OED2023Confectionery">{{cite web|title=Oxford English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2023|url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/confectionery_n?tab=meaning_and_use|access-date=27 May 2024}}</ref>

==History==

[[File:Chum chums.jpg|thumb|left|Some [[Sweets from the Indian subcontinent|Indian confectionery desserts]] from hundreds of varieties. In certain parts of India, these are called ''mithai'' or sweets. Sugar and desserts have a long history in India: by about 500 BCE, people in India had developed the technology to produce sugar crystals. In the local language, these crystals were called ''khanda'' (खण्ड), which is the source of the word ''candy''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sugar: A Bitterweet History|publisher=Penguin|year=2010|author=Elizabeth Abbot|isbn=978-1-590-20297-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/sugarbittersweet0000abbo}}</ref>]]
Before sugar was readily available in the ancient western world, confectionery was based on [[honey]].<ref>{{cite book |title = Confectionery Products Handbook (Chocolate, Toffees, Chewing Gum & Sugar Free Confectionery)|publisher=Asia Pacific Business Press |date=2013|isbn=9788178331539 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a989AQAAQBAJ |location=India |author=NPCS |page=1}}</ref> Honey was used in [[Ancient China]], [[Ancient India]], [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]] to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or to create sweetmeats.<ref name="History of Food">{{cite book|last=Toussaint-Samat|first=Maguelonne|title=A History of Food|year=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=New Jersey|isbn = 9781444305142}}</ref> Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the [[Persian people|Persians]], followed by the [[Greeks]], made contact with the Indian subcontinent and its "reeds that produce honey without bees". They adopted and then spread sugar and [[sugarcane]] agriculture.<ref name="agrisugar1">{{cite web|title=Agribusiness Handbook: Sugar beet white sugar|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations|year=2009|url=http://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=5 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234431/http://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>J.A. Hill (1902), The Anglo-American Encyclopedia, Volume 7, page 725</ref><ref>Thomas E. Furia (1973), CRC Handbook of Food Additives, Second Edition, Volume 1, {{ISBN|978-0849305429}}, page 7 (Chapter 1, by Thomas D. Luckey)</ref><ref>Mary Ellen Snodgrass (2004), Encyclopedia of Kitchen History, {{ISBN|978-1579583804}}, Routledge, pages 145–146</ref>

In the early history of sugar usage in Europe, it was initially the apothecary who had the most important role in the production of sugar-based preparations. Medieval European physicians learned the medicinal uses of the material from the Arabs and Byzantine Greeks. One Middle Eastern remedy for rheums and fevers were little, twisted sticks of [[#Types|pulled sugar]] called in Arabic {{Transliteration|ar|al fänäd}} or ''{{Transliteration|ar|al pänäd}}''. These became known in England as alphenics, or more commonly as penidia, penids, pennet or pan sugar. They were the precursors of [[barley sugar]] and modern [[Throat lozenge|cough drops]]. In 1390, the Earl of Derby paid "two shillings for two pounds of penydes.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}"

[[File:La-Pone-Jordan-Almonds.jpg|thumb|[[Dragée|Jordan almonds]]. Sugar-coated nuts or spices for non-medicinal purposes marked the beginning of confectionery in late medieval England.]]As the non-medicinal applications of sugar developed, the comfitmaker, or confectioner gradually came into being as a separate trade. In the late medieval period the words confyt, comfect or cumfitt were generic terms for all kinds of sweetmeats made from fruits, roots, or flowers preserved with sugar. By the 16th century, a cumfit was more specifically a seed, nut or small piece of spice enclosed in a round or ovoid mass of sugar. The production of [[comfits]] was a core skill of the [[Confectionery in the English Renaissance|early confectioner]], who was known more commonly in 16th and 17th century England as a comfitmaker. Reflecting their original medicinal purpose, however, comfits were also produced by apothecaries and directions on how to make them appear in dispensatories as well as cookery texts. An early medieval Latin name for an apothecary was {{Lang|la|confectionarius}}, and it was in this sort of sugar work that the activities of the two trades overlapped and that the word "confectionery" originated.<ref name="The Art of Confectionery"/>

In the [[Ottoman cuisine|cuisine of the Late Ottoman Empire]] diverse cosmopolitan cultural influences were reflected in published recipes such as European-style molded jellies flavored with cordials. In Europe, Ottoman confections (especially "lumps of delight" ([[Turkish delight]]) became very fashionable among European and British high society.<ref>{{Cite book| last1=Roufs| first1=Timothy G.| last2=Roufs| first2=Kathleen Smyth| title=Sweet treats around the world: an encyclopedia of food and culture| date=2014 |page=343}}</ref> An important study of Ottoman confectionery called ''[[Conditorei des Orients]]'' was published by the royal confectioner Friedrich Unger in 1838.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets |date=April 2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-931362-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPNgBwAAQBAJ}}</ref>

The first confectionery in [[Manchester, England]] was opened by [[Elizabeth Raffald]] who had worked six years in [[domestic service]] as a housekeeper.<ref>Snodgrass, M. E. ''Encyclopedia of Kitchen History'', Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers (2004)</ref>

==Sweetening agents==
Confections are defined by the presence of sweeteners. These are usually sugars, but it is possible to buy sugar-free candies, such as sugar-free [[peppermints]]. The most common sweetener for home cooking is [[table sugar]], which is chemically a [[disaccharide]] containing both [[glucose]] and [[fructose]]. Hydrolysis of [[sucrose]] gives a mixture called [[invert sugar]], which is sweeter and is also a common commercial ingredient. Finally, confections, especially commercial ones, are sweetened by a variety of syrups obtained by [[hydrolysis]] of [[starch]]. These sweeteners include all types of [[corn syrup]].<ref name="Ullmann">Terry Richardson, Geert Andersen, "Confectionery" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005 Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a07_411}}</ref>

== Baker's confectionery ==
[[File:Pink and white Easter petits fours.jpg|alt=Small, square cakes frosted with pink or white icing|thumb|upright|[[Petits fours]] are baker's confections.]]
Baker's confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for the [[dessert]] course. Baker's confections are sweet foods that feature [[flour]] as a main ingredient and are [[baking|baked]]. Major categories include [[cake]]s, sweet [[Pastry|pastries]], [[doughnut]]s, [[scone]]s, and [[cookie]]s.<ref>{{cite book|editor = International Food Information Service|title = Dictionary of Food Science and Technology|date = 2009|publisher = Wiley–Blackwell|location = Chichester, U.K.|isbn = 9781405187404|page = 39|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=akYLOTMdCSEC&pg=PA106|edition = 2nd}}</ref> In the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections predominate.

The definition of which foods are "confectionery" vs "bread" can vary based on cultures and laws. In Ireland, the definition of "bread" as a "staple food" for tax purposes requires that the sugar or fat content be no more than 2% of the weight of the flour, so some products sold as bread in the US would be treated as confectionery there.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Oxner |first1=Reese |title=For Subway, A Ruling Not So Sweet. Irish Court Says Its Bread Isn't Bread |url=https://www.npr.org/2020/10/01/919189045/for-subway-a-ruling-not-so-sweet-irish-court-says-its-bread-isnt-bread |access-date=17 October 2021 |work=NPR.org |date=1 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=17 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017001527/https://www.npr.org/2020/10/01/919189045/for-subway-a-ruling-not-so-sweet-irish-court-says-its-bread-isnt-bread |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Types ===
{{see also|List of cakes|List of cookies|List of doughnut varieties|List of pastries}}[[Cake]]s have a somewhat bread-like texture, and many earlier cakes, such as the centuries-old [[stollen]] (fruit cake), or the even older [[king cake]], were rich yeast breads. The variety of styles and presentations extends from simple to elaborate. Major categories include [[butter cake]]s, [[torte]]s, and [[foam cake]]s. Confusingly, some confections that have the word ''cake'' in their names, such as [[cheesecake]], are not technically cakes, while others, such as [[Boston cream pie]] are cakes despite seeming to be named something else.

<gallery mode="nolines" widths="200" caption="Examples of cake">
File:Wesh cakes.jpg|[[Welsh cake]]s are cooked on a griddle.
File:Korean rice cake-Mujigae tteok-01.jpg|Korean [[rainbow rice cake]] is for celebrations.
File:Birthday Cake by 'Valentina's Cakes' in Binghamton, New York.jpg|[[Birthday cakes]] may be elaborately decorated.
File:Pruegeltorte.JPG|European [[spit cake]]s are baked around a metal cylinder.
File:Pink rose birthday cake (5919553257).jpg|Cake with decorations made from sugar
</gallery>

[[Pastry]] is a large and diverse category of baked goods, united by the flour-based doughs used as the base for the product. These doughs are not always sweet, and the sweetness may come from the sugar, fruit, chocolate, cream, or other fillings that are added to the finished confection. Pastries can be elaborately decorated, or they can be plain dough.

<gallery mode="nolines" widths="200" caption="Examples of pastry">
File:Choux pastry buns, 2009.jpg|[[Choux pastry]]
File:Besamelas-(La Rosita).jpg|Empty shells made with [[puff pastry]] can be filled with fruit or cream.
File:Pumpkin-Pie-Slice.jpg|[[Pie]] is made from a [[pie crust]] and a sweet filling.
File:Baklava - Turkish special, 80-ply.JPEG|[[Baklava]] is made with [[phyllo]] pastry.
File:Moon cake in mid autumn festival.jpg|[[Mooncake]] pastries are made to celebrate the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] in East Asia.
</gallery>

[[Doughnut]]s may be fried or baked.

<gallery mode="nolines" widths="200" caption="Examples of doughnuts">
File:Glazed-Donut.jpg|Glazed raised doughnut
File:Oliebollen bakken (4233801075) (2).jpg|[[Oliebollen]] and similar doughnuts are fried in hot fat.
File:Christmas doughnut display (15459326042).jpg|Decorated doughnuts
File:Apple beignets (5492114879).jpg|[[Apple fritter]] with powdered sugar
</gallery>

[[Scone]]s and related sweet [[quick bread]]s, such as [[Bannock (British food)|bannock]], are similar to [[baking powder biscuit]]s and, in sweeter, less traditional interpretations, can seem like a [[cupcake]].

<gallery mode="nolines" widths="200" caption="Examples of scones">
File:Scones Jam Cream.jpg|Scones with jam
File:2scones.jpg|Cranberry scones with icing
File:Golden-Krust-Rock-Cake.jpg|A sweet [[rock cake]]
</gallery>

[[Cookie]]s are small, sweet baked treats. They originated as small cakes, and some traditional cookies have a soft, cake-like texture. Others are crisp or hard.

<gallery mode="nolines" widths="200" caption="Examples of cookies">
File:Breakfast pizzelle, January 2013 (8505127567).jpg|Thin wafer cookies such as [[pizzelle]] have been made since the Middle Ages.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPNgBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT368|title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets|date=1 April 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199313624|page=368|language=en}}</ref>
File:Runde braune Lebkuchen - Flickr - tm-md (7).jpg|Spicy [[lebkuchen]] are a German Christmas treat.
File:Biscuiteers Polka Dot Heart Product.jpg|Cookies can be elaborately decorated.
File:Oreo-Two-Cookies.jpg|Oreos are an example of a mass-produced cookie.
</gallery>

==Sugar confectionery==
[[File:Chocolatería_Arrufat_01.jpg|thumb|Depending on the chosen classification scheme, [[ice cream]] and [[chocolate]] confections may be treated separately or as part of sugar confectionery.]]
Sugar confections include sweet, sugar-based foods, which are usually eaten as [[snack food]]. This includes [[sugar candies]], [[chocolate]]s, [[candied fruit]]s and nuts, [[chewing gum]], and sometimes [[ice cream]]. In some cases, [[chocolate]] confections are treated as a separate category, as are sugar-free versions of sugar confections.<ref>{{cite book|last=Edwards|first=W.P.|title=The Science of Sugar Confectionery|url=https://archive.org/details/sciencesugarconf00edwa|url-access=limited|date=2000|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780854045938|page=[https://archive.org/details/sciencesugarconf00edwa/page/n12 1]}}</ref>

Different dialects of English use regional terms for sugar confections:

*In [[British English|Britain]], [[Hiberno-English|Ireland]], and some [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth countries]], ''sweets'' (the [[Scottish Gaelic]] word ''suiteis'' is a derivative). ''Candy'' is used specifically for [[rock candy]] and occasionally for (brittle) boiled sweets. ''Lollies'' are boiled sweets, usually flat, fixed on sticks.
*In [[Australian English|Australia]] and [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]], ''lollies''. ''Chewy'' and ''Chuddy'' are Australian slang for chewing gum.<ref>{{citation|title = Definition of chuddy Oxford dictionary (British & World English)|url = http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/chuddy|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120712191820/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/chuddy|url-status = dead|archive-date = 12 July 2012|date = 2014|website = oxforddictionaries.com|access-date = 15 July 2014}}</ref>
*In [[American English|North America]], ''[[candy]]'', although this term generally refers to a specific range of confectionery and does not include some items of sugar confectionery (e.g. ice cream). ''Sweet'' is occasionally used, as well as ''treat''.

In the US, a chocolate-coated candy bar (e.g. [[Snickers]]) would be called a ''candy bar'', in Britain more likely a ''chocolate bar'' than unspecifically a ''sweet''.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Comparison of terms
|-
!
!American English
!British English
|-
|[[File:Vegan Chocolate Fudge.jpg|alt=chocolate fudge|frameless|200x200px]]
|''confectionery'' (formal, uncommon, broad)
|''confectionery'' (formal, narrow)
|-
|[[File:Rock-Candy-Sticks.jpg|alt=sugar crystals on a stick|frameless|200x200px]]
|''rock candy, rock sugar''
|''sugar candy, candy, rock, rock sweet''
|-
|[[File:Pineapple flavored hard candies in West Bengal, India, photographed by Yogabrata Chakraborty, on March 8, 2023.jpg|alt=several pieces of hard sugar candy in someone's hand|frameless|200x200px]]
|''hard candy''
|''boiled sweet, candy'' (rare)
|-
|[[File:Candied orange slices.jpg|frameless|200x200px]]
|''candied fruit, glazed fruit''
|''candied fruit''
|-
|[[File:Picswiss BS-55-16.jpg|alt=Cotton candy being made|frameless|200x200px]]
|''cotton candy,'' ''fairy floss'' (archaic)<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=7 February 2000|title=Cotton Candy|url=http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcottoncandy.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430084909/http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcottoncandy.html|archive-date=30 April 2008|access-date=30 November 2011|work=The Straight Dope}}</ref>
|''candy floss''
|-
|[[File:Haribo Matador Mix Bowl Straight.jpg|alt=assorted candies in a bowl|frameless|200x200px]]
|''candy, treat'' (rare)'', sweet'' (rare)
|''sweet''
|-
|[[File:Bakewell Tart (4202808440).jpg|alt=slice of Bakewell tart with sherbet|frameless|200x200px]]
|''dessert''
|''pudding, sweet, dessert''
|-
|[[File:Vanilla pudding (1129124791).jpg|alt=vanilla pudding in a bowl, with a cookie|frameless|200x200px]]
|''pudding''
|''custard'', ''blancmange'', ''jelly''
|-
|[[File:Milka Alpine Milk Chocolate bar 100g.jpg|alt=milk chocolate bar|frameless|200x200px]]
|''chocolate candy bar, chocolate bar'' (solid blocks of chocolate)
|''chocolate bar'', ''bar of chocolate'' (e.g., Cadbury's Milk Chocolate)
|-
|[[File:Snickers-broken.JPG|alt=Snickers candy bar, cut in half|frameless|200x200px]]
|''candy bar'' (chocolate coated types)
|''chocolate bar'' (e.g. Snickers)
|-
|[[File:White-Box-of-Chocolates.jpg|alt=white box with about 20 bite-sized chocolate candies in it|frameless|200x200px]]
|''box of chocolates''
|''chocolates, box of chocolates''
|}

===Classification===
[[File:Gingerbread_house_6.jpg|thumb|This [[gingerbread house]] has walls and roof made from [[cookie dough]] and decorations made from [[Icing (food)|icing]] and [[sugar candy]]. Classification is sometimes challenging because products can overlap categories.]]
The United Nations' [[International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities]] (ISIC) scheme (revision 4) classifies both chocolate and sugar confectionery as ISIC 1073, which includes the manufacture of chocolate and chocolate confectionery; sugar confectionery proper (caramels, cachous, nougats, fondant, [[white chocolate]]), chewing gum, preserving fruit, nuts, fruit peels, and making confectionery lozenges and pastilles.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=1&Co=1073|title = ISIC Rev.4 code 1073: Manufacture of cocoa, chocolate and sugar confectionery|date = 2014|access-date = 18 June 2014|website = United Nations Statistics Division, Classification Registry|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140722050117/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=1&Co=1073|archive-date = 22 July 2014|url-status = dead}}</ref> In the European Union, the [[Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community]] (NACE) scheme (revision 2) matches the UN classification, under code number 10.82.

In the United States, the [[North American Industry Classification System]] (NAICS 2012) splits sugar confectionery across three categories: National industry code 311340 for all non-chocolate confectionery manufacturing, 311351 for chocolate and confectionery manufacturing from cacao beans, and national industry 311352 for confectionery manufacturing from purchased chocolate.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regso2.asp?Cl=27&Co=1073&Lg=1|title = Correspondences for ISIC Rev.4 code 1073|date = 2014|website = United Nations Statistics Division|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140722023316/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regso2.asp?Cl=27&Co=1073&Lg=1|archive-date = 22 July 2014|url-status = dead}}</ref>

[[Ice cream]] and [[sorbet]] are classified with dairy products under ISIC 1050, NACE 10.52, and NAICS 311520.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regso2.asp?Cl=27&Co=1050&Lg=1|title = Correspondences for ISIC Rev.4 code 1050|date = 2014|access-date = 18 June 2014|website = United Nations Statistics Division|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140722051828/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regso2.asp?Cl=27&Co=1050&Lg=1|archive-date = 22 July 2014|url-status = dead}}</ref> The classification of ice cream has varied widely; for example, in 1930, it was classified as a form of flour confectionery.<ref name=":2" />

===Examples===
{{further|List of candies}}
[[File:Rock-Candy-Sticks.jpg|thumb|[[Rock candy]] is simply sugar, with optional coloring or flavor.]]
[[File:Hershey-bar-open.JPG|thumb|right|A bar of [[chocolate]], which can either be consumed as-is or used as an ingredient in other dishes.]]
[[File:2018 05 Fudge IMG 1913.JPG|thumb|right|Assorted fudges]]
[[File:Peco-Peanut-Brittle-Bar.jpg|thumb|right|[[brittle (food)|Brittles]] are a combination of nuts and [[Caramelization|caramelized]] sugar.]]

Sugar confectionery items include candies, [[lollipop]]s, [[candy bar]]s, [[chocolate]], [[cotton candy]], and other sweet items of [[snack food]]. Some of the categories and types of sugar confectionery include the following:<ref name="Ullmann" />

*[[Chocolates]]: Bite-sized confectioneries generally made with [[chocolate]], considered different from a candy bar made of chocolate.
*[[Divinity (confectionery)|Divinity]]: A [[nougat]]-like confectionery based on [[Egg (food)|egg]] whites with chopped [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s.
*[[Dodol]]: A [[toffee]]-like delicacy popular in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines
*[[Dragée]]: Sugar-coated [[almond]]s and other types of [[sugar panning|sugar panned]] candies.
*[[Fudge]]: Made by boiling milk and sugar to the soft-ball stage. In the US, it tends to be chocolate-flavored.
*[[Halva]]h: Confectionery based on [[tahini]], a paste made from ground [[sesame]] seeds.
*[[Hard candy]]: Based on sugars cooked to the hard-crack stage. Examples include [[lollipop]]s, jawbreakers (or [[gobstopper]]s), [[lemon drops]], peppermint drops and disks, [[candy cane]]s, [[rock candy]], etc. Also included are types often mixed with nuts such as [[Brittle (food)|brittle]], which is similar to [[Chikki|chikkis]].
*[[Ice cream]]: Frozen, flavored cream, often containing small pieces of chocolate, [[fruit]]s and/or [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s.
*Jelly candies: Including those based on sugar and starch, [[pectin]], gum, or [[gelatin]] such as [[Turkish delight|Turkish delight (lokum)]], [[jelly bean]]s, [[gumdrop]]s, [[jujube (confectionery)|jujube]]s, [[gummi candy|gummies]], etc.<ref>Margaret McWilliams. (2006) Nutrition and Dietetics Eighth edition edn. Prentice Hall: Pearson Education Inc.</ref>
*[[Liquorice (confectionery)|Liquorice]]: Containing extract of the [[liquorice root]], this candy is chewier and more resilient than gums or gelatin candies. For example, [[Liquorice allsorts]]. It has a similar taste to [[star anise]].
*[[Marshmallow]]: For example, [[circus peanut]]s, [[Flumps (sweet)|Flumps]].
*[[Marzipan]]: An [[almond]]-based confection, doughy in consistency.
*[[Mithai (confectionery)|Mithai]]: A generic term for confectionery in the [[Indian subcontinent]], typically made from dairy products and/or some form of flour. Sugar or molasses are used as sweeteners.
*[[Nougat]]: Various forms of sweetened paste hardened to a chewy or crunchy consistency, usually flavored with nuts or candied fruit.
*[[Persipan]]: similar to marzipan, but made with peaches or apricots instead of almonds.
*[[Pastillage]]: A thick sugar paste made with gelatin, water, and confectioner's sugar, similar to gum paste, which is moulded into shapes, which then harden.
*[[Tablet (confectionery)|Tablet]]: A crumbly milk-based soft and hard candy, based on sugars cooked to the soft ball stage. Comes in several forms, such as wafers and heart shapes. Not to be confused with [[tableting]], a method of candy production.
*[[Taffy (candy)|Taffy]] (British: ''chews''): A sugar confection that is folded many times above 120 °F (50 °C), incorporating air bubbles thus reducing its density and making it opaque.
*[[Toffee]]: A confection made by caramelizing sugar or molasses along with butter. Toffee has a glossy surface and textures ranging from soft and sticky to a hard, brittle material. Its brown color and smoky taste arise from the caramelization of the sugars.

===Storage and shelf life===
[[Shelf life]] is largely determined by the amount of water present in the candy and the storage conditions.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ergun R, Lietha R, Hartel RW |title=Moisture and shelf life in sugar confections |journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=162–92 |date=February 2010 |pmid=20112158 |doi=10.1080/10408390802248833 |s2cid=19980997 }}</ref> High-sugar candies, such as boiled candies, can have a shelf life of many years if kept covered in a dry environment. Spoilage of low-moisture candies tends to involve a loss of shape, color, texture, and flavor, rather than the growth of dangerous microbes. Impermeable packaging can reduce spoilage due to storage conditions.

Candies spoil more quickly if they have different amounts of water in different parts of the candy (for example, a candy that combines marshmallow and nougat), or if they are stored in high-moisture environments.<ref name=":1" /> This process is due to the effects of [[water activity]], which results in the transfer of unwanted water from a high-moisture environment into a low-moisture candy, rendering it rubbery, or the loss of desirable water from a high-moisture candy into a dry environment, rendering the candy dry and brittle.

Another factor, affecting only non-crystalline amorphous candies, is the [[glass transition]] process.<ref name=":1" /> This can cause amorphous candies to lose their intended texture.

==Cultural roles==
[[File:Japanese confectionery store in "The Great Buddha Sweet Shop" from Akizato Rito's Miyako meisho zue (1787).jpg|thumb|A Japanese vendor selling [[List of Japanese desserts and sweets|sweets]] (''[[wagashi]]'') in "The Great Buddha Sweet Shop" from the ''Miyako meisho zue'' ([[:ja:都名所図会]]) (1787)]]
Both baker's and sugar confections are used to offer [[hospitality]] to guests.

Confections are used to mark celebrations or events, such as [[Christmas]], [[Easter]], a [[wedding cake]], [[birthday cake]], or [[Halloween]].

The chocolate company [[Cadbury]] (under the guidance of [[Richard Cadbury]]) was the first to commercialize the connection between romance and confectionery, producing a heart-shaped box of chocolates for [[Valentine's Day]] in 1868.<ref>{{cite book |title=Guinness World Records 2017 |date=8 September 2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxAyDQAAQBAJ&dq=cadbury+chocolate+boxes+1868&pg=PA90 |publisher=Guinness World Records |page=90 |isbn=9781910561348 |quote=[[Richard Cadbury]], eldest son of John Cadbury who founded the now iconic brand, was the first chocolate-maker to commercialize the association between confectionery and romance, producing a heart-shaped box of chocolates for Valentine's Day in 1868 |access-date=16 November 2021 |archive-date=10 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110231442/https://books.google.com/books?id=hxAyDQAAQBAJ&dq=cadbury+chocolate+boxes+1868&pg=PA90 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Tourists]] commonly eat confections as part of their travels. The indulgence in rich, sugary foods is seen as a special treat, and choosing local specialties is popular. For example, visitors to Vienna eat [[Sachertorte]] and visitors to seaside resorts in the UK eat [[Blackpool rock]] candy. Transportable confections like [[fudges]] and [[Tablet (confectionery)|tablet]] may be purchased as [[souvenirs]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = Sugar Heritage and Tourism in Transition|last = Cleave|first = Paul|publisher = Channel View Publications|year = 2012|isbn = 9781845413897|pages = 159–172|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fpl4XlX2D1UC&pg=PA158|chapter = Sugar in Tourism: 'Wrapped in Devonshire Sunshine'}}</ref>

==Nutrition==
Generally, confections are low in [[micronutrients]] and [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]] but high in [[calorie]]s. They may be [[fat-free|fat-free foods]], although some confections, especially fried doughs and chocolate, are high-fat foods. Many confections are considered [[empty calories]] and [[ultra-processed foods]]. [[United States military chocolate|Specially formulated chocolate]] has been manufactured in the past for military use as a high-density [[food energy]] source.

Many sugar confections, especially [[Caramel corn|caramel-coated popcorn]] and the different kinds of [[sugar candy]], are defined in US law as foods of [[minimal nutritional value]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fns.usda.gov/school-meals/foods-minimal-nutritional-value|title=Foods of Minimal Nutritional Value|date=13 September 2013|website=www.fns.usda.gov|series=Appendix B of 7 CFR Part 210|publisher=[[Food and Nutrition Service]], United States Department of Agriculture|language=en|access-date=4 August 2017|archive-date=28 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528145328/https://www.fns.usda.gov/school-meals/foods-minimal-nutritional-value|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Risks==

Contaminants and [[Food coloring|coloring agents]] in confectionery can be particularly harmful to children. Therefore, confectionery contaminants, such as high levels of [[lead]], have been restricted to 1 ppm in the US. There is no specific maximum in the EU.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-04-20 |title=Lead in Food {{!}} EFSA |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1570 |access-date=2024-04-30 |website=www.efsa.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>

Candy colorants, particularly yellow colorants such as [[Tartrazine|E102 Tartrazine]], [[Quinoline Yellow WS|E104 Quinoline Yellow WS]] and [[Sunset Yellow FCF|E110 Sunset Yellow FCF]], have many restrictions around the world. Tartrazine, for example, can cause allergic and [[Asthma|asthmatic reactions]] and was once banned in Austria, Germany, and Norway. Some countries such as the UK have asked the food industry to phase out the use of these colorants, especially for products marketed to children.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-11-12 |title=Ministers agree food colour ban |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7725316.stm |access-date=2024-04-30 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
*[[Candy making]]
*[[Confectionery store]]
*[[List of candies]]
*[[List of top-selling candy brands]]
*[[List of foods]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==

*{{cite book |last=García Ballesteros|first=Enrique|title=Foods From Spain History: Bakery & Confectionery. A Taste For Sweetness |url=http://www.foodswinesfromspain.com/spanishfoodwine/global/history/history_bakery/index.html |year=2012}}
*{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Darra |title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1bCBwAAQBAJ&q=the+oxford+companion+to+sugar+and+sweets |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-931339-6}}
*{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Tim H. |title=Sweets: A History of Candy |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |year=2002 |isbn=1-58234-229-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sweets00timr }}
*{{cite book |last=Stroud |first=Jon |title=The Sucker's Guide: A Journey into the Soft Centre of the Sweet Shop |publisher=Summersdale |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84024-709-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Weatherley |first=Henry |title=A Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar |publisher=H.C. Baird |url=https://archive.org/details/atreatiseonartb00conggoog |access-date=14 July 2008 |year=1865}}
*{{cite book |last=Confectionery |first=International |title=International Confectionery Journal |publisher=Hand Media International |url=https://in-confectionery.com |access-date=14 July 2018 |year=2018}}

==External links==
* {{Commons-inline}}
* {{Cookbook-inline|Confections}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}

{{Candy}}
{{Cakes}}
{{Cuisine}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Confectionery| ]]
[[Category:Candy]]
[[Category:Desserts]]
[[Category:Food preparation]]

Abha Khetarpal

2026-03-12T14:28:27Z

DeangeloSchwing: Creating New Stub.

{{Short description|Indian disability rights activist}}
'''Abha Khetarpal'''<ref name="firstpost.com">{{Cite web |date=2021-05-21 |title=India's second COVID-19 wave has made healthcare, ableist even pre-pandemic, harder for disabled people to access |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/indias-second-covid-19-wave-has-made-healthcare-ableist-even-pre-pandemic-harder-for-disabled-people-to-access-9640861.html |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref> (born 10 June 1968) is an Indian [[disability rights activist]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Salian |first=Priti |date=2022-01-22 |title="I am disabled, it doesn't mean I have no dignity" |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(22)00099-X/abstract |journal=The Lancet |language=English |volume=399 |issue=10322 |pages=349–350 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00099-X |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=35065776|s2cid=246110075 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and counsellor<ref>{{Cite web |agency=TNN|date=Sep 7, 2014 |title=No policy to rescue disabled during emergency: Abha Khetarpal {{!}} Delhi News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/no-policy-to-rescue-disabled-during-emergency-abha-khetarpal/articleshow/41971011.cms |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> based in [[New Delhi]], [[India]]. She is the founder of Cross The Hurdles<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |author=Manash Pratim Gohain|date=Dec 2, 2016 |title=Portal aims to remove barriers in education {{!}} Delhi News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/portal-aims-to-remove-barriers-in-education/articleshow/55735484.cms |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> – a [[counselling]]/educational resource website and [[mobile application]] designed for people with disabilities.

She has won a 2016 [[National Award]] for empowerment of persons with disabilities: Best Role Model. She is also the recipient of the [[Henry Viscardi Achievement Awards|Henry Viscardi Achievement Awards, 2019]] and 100 Women Achievers Award, 2019 by the [[Ministry of Women and Child Development]], India.<ref name=":5" />

Abha was one of the four [[protagonist]]s in the documentary ''Accsex''.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |author=Shreya Roy Chowdhury|date=May 4, 2014 |title=Disabled told to walk at film awards {{!}} Delhi News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/disabled-told-to-walk-at-film-awards/articleshow/34603016.cms |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Bhattacharya |first=Budhaditya |date=2013-09-12 |title=Framing women's narratives |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/framing-womens-narratives/article5120222.ece |access-date=2022-10-20 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name="Accsex – PSBT">{{Cite web |title=Accsex – PSBT |url=https://psbt.org/films/accsex/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |language=en-US}}</ref> She has authored ''Disabled Lives Matter'', ''Warrior on Wheels'' and several other books and research publications<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Khetarpal |first1=Abha |last2=Singh |first2=Satendra |date=2012-06-30 |title=Infertility: Why can't we classify this inability as disability? |journal=The Australasian Medical Journal |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=334–339 |doi=10.4066/AMJ.2012.1290 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |issn=1836-1935 |pmc=3395292 |pmid=22848333}}</ref>''.''

== Personal life ==
Abha Khetarpal was born in [[Ambala]], [[Haryana]]<ref name="crossthehurdles.org">{{Cite web |title=Abha Khetarpal :: Cross the Hurdles Web Network |url=https://crossthehurdles.org/cthwn/abha/index.htm |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=crossthehurdles.org}}</ref> to parents who were migrants from [[Burma]].<ref name="abilitytowin.blogspot.com">{{Cite web |title=ability to win: Abha Khetarpal : A counselor with a Difference |url=https://abilitytowin.blogspot.com/2011/11/abha-khetarpal-counselor-with.html |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=ability to win}}</ref> Both her parents were teachers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-03 |title=Abha Khetarpal, who contracted polio at the age of 3, is helping hundreds overcome the hurdle of disability {{!}} The Optimist Citizen |url=https://www.theoptimistcitizen.com/abha-khetarpal-helping-hundreds-overcome-the-hurdle-of-disability/,%20https://www.theoptimistcitizen.com/abha-khetarpal-helping-hundreds-overcome-the-hurdle-of-disability/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |language=en-US }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Khetarpal contracted polio at the age of three. She has been using [[assistive technology]] like leg braces, spinal braces, and a wheelchair for mobility.<ref name="indiatimes.com">{{Cite web |date=2011-09-24 |title=Survivor's Story: Abha Khetarpal's Journey [Polio] |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/health/healthyliving/survivors-story-abha-khetarpals-journey-[polio]-238479.html |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=IndiaTimes |language=en-IN}}</ref> Khetarpal went through therapies, [[Reconstructive surgery|reconstructive surgeries]], and procedures including hip correction and procedures to improve [[scoliosis]].<ref name="indiatimes.com"/> After attending four years of regular school, she faced inaccessibility and continued her higher studies through [[distance education]].

Khetarpal started writing [[poetry]] in [[Hindi]] at the age of 18.<ref name="abilitytowin.blogspot.com"/>

== Education ==
Khetarpal was home-schooled by both her parents, who were teachers, up until 9th grade.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} She was able to join a regular school that made arrangements for the classroom to be shifted to the ground floor so that she could attend the classes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ability to win: Abha Khetarpal: A counselor with a Difference |url=http://abilitytowin.blogspot.com/2011/11/abha-khetarpal-counselor-with.html |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=ability to win}}</ref>

== Career ==
In 2010, Khetarpal founded Cross The Hurdles,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2016-06-09 |title=Abha Khetarpal Maurya – India {{!}} WEF |url=https://www.wef.org.in/abha-khetarpal-maurya/,%20https://www.wef.org.in/abha-khetarpal-maurya/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> a non-profit working in counselling<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-14 |title=Desire, sexuality & choice: Disabled Indian women & queer persons on their experiences |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/desire-sexuality-choice-disabled-indian-women-queer-persons-their-experiences-162895 |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> and resource building for people living with disabilities. Her disability rights work involves counselling people with disabilities for better employment opportunities, sexual health, and confidence building. She also advocates for people with disabilities in India, critiquing the government schemes and policies, and mainstreaming disability in the [[Sustainable Development Goals|sustainable development goals]] implementation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khetarpal |first=Abha |date=2019-01-25 |title=India's preparedness of including disabled in SDGs; Gaps and strategies |url=https://www.america-times.com/indias-preparedness-including-disabled-sdgs-gaps-strategies/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=The America Times |language=en-US}}</ref> She also highlighted how people with disabilities faced additional challenges during COVID including the difficulty of finding home nurses.<ref name="firstpost.com"/>

In 2016, when the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities under the [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment]] was named ''Divyangjan'' Khetarpal publicly critiqued the use of the word ''divyangjan'', highlighting how it is disrespectful and othering to people living with disabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khetarpal |first=Abha |date=2016-06-06 |title=An Open Letter to Prime Minister Modi |url=https://www.america-times.com/an-open-letter-to-prime-minister-modi/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=The America Times |language=en-US}}</ref> She has also spoken about the negative portrayal of women living with disabilities in cinema and media, and how it desexualizes them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khetarpal |first=Abha |date=2018-01-21 |title=So How Has Indian Cinema Portrayed Women With Disabilities? |url=https://feminisminindia.com/2018/01/22/cinema-portrayal-women-with-disabilities/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Feminism in India |language=en-GB}}</ref> Khetarpal has called attention to the lack of representation and misrepresentations of people with disabilities in media and the lack of adequate coverage of the different types of violence that women with disabilities face.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khetarpal |first=Abha |date=2017-12-20 |title=Why Is Media Coverage Of Violence Against Disabled Women Still Scant? |url=https://feminisminindia.com/2017/12/21/disabled-women-violence-media-coverage/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Feminism in India |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Khetarpal is also a sexuality trainer. She has addressed the gap in sexuality education for people with disabilities by developing and offering a self-paced course on Cross the Hurdles.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Abha Khetarpal |url=https://www.viscardicenter.org/abha-khetarpal/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=The Viscardi Center |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019071550/https://www.viscardicenter.org/abha-khetarpal/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> She has authored several books and publications<ref name=":1" /> on menstrual management and hygiene as well as Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights of Women with Disabilities in India.<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Abha Khetarpal |url=https://mydiversability.com/d30-2020/abha-khetarpal |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Diversability |date=25 July 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Khetarpal has challenged societal stereotyping of people with disabilities as asexual<ref>{{Cite news |title=Physically challenged or sexually challenged? - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/health-fitness/health-news/physically-challenged-or-sexually-challenged/articleshow/10978609.cms |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> and as victims, in need of over-protection.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Lalit |date=2021-09-25 |title=Abha Khetarpal: President of Cross the Hurdles |url=https://wecapable.com/abha-khetarpal-interview/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=WeCapable |language=en-US}}</ref> She conducted a needs assessment survey of 50 disabled women from Delhi showing the neglect of their sexual and reproductive health.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pandit |first=Ambika |date=March 15, 2020 |title=Sexual health tests still a challenge for disabled women {{!}} India News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/sexual-health-tests-still-a-challenge-for-disabled-women/articleshow/74633330.cms |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> Along with providing counselling on sexuality, Khetarpal also advocates for the sexual and reproductive rights of women with disabilities.

== Publications ==
Khetarpal has authored several articles for the ''America Times, Feminism In India''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khetarpal |first=Abha |title=Abha Khetarpal, Author at The America Times |url=https://www.america-times.com/author/abha-khetarpal/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=The America Times |language=en-US}}</ref>

* ''Warrior on Wheels, 2022'': A book co-authored by Khetarpal with Rachana Jogar Pahadiwala for the National Book Trust India. The book covers the life of Dr. Kanubhai Hansmukhbhai Tailor, a disability rights activist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Warrior on Wheels |url=https://www.nbtindia.gov.in/books_detail__6__general-titles__3169__warrior-on-wheels.nbt}}</ref>
* ''Manual on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights of Women with Disabilities, 2020''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manual on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights of Women with Disabilities |url=http://crossthehurdles.org/images/f/f9/Manual_on_SRHR_of_Women_with_Disabilities_E_book.pdf}}</ref> A project supported by Women's Asia Fund
* ''Disabled Lives Matter, (year unknown)''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Disabled Lives Matter / Abha Khetarpal |url=https://shwetwarna.com/shop/books/disabled-lives-matter-abha-khetarpal/ |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Shwetwarna :: श्वेतवर्णा |language=en-US}}</ref> An anthology of articles written by Khetarpal over a period of 10 years, including her articles written for various platforms and publications including Feminism in India, Youth Ki Awaaz, Medium, Point of View, and SexDis.
* ''Going With The Flow, 2016''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khetarpal |first=Abha |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details/Abha_Khetarpal_GOING_WITH_THE_FLOW?id=ePmRCgAAQBAJ |title=GOING WITH THE FLOW: A Handbook On Menstrual Management & Hygiene For Women With Disabilities |date=2015-08-15 |publisher=Cross the Hurdles |isbn=978-93-5235-571-6 |language=en}}</ref> A handbook on menstrual management and hygiene for women with disabilities. The book is available both in Hindi and English.
* ''Keeping you Abreast'': A Handbook on Breast Cancer Self Examination for Women with Disabilities, 2013<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khetarpal |first=Abha |url=https://www.amazon.in/Keeping-Abreast-Handbook-Examination-Disabilities/dp/B073WFVM22 |title=Keeping you Abreast (Handbook on Breast Cancer Self Examination for Women with Disabilities |date=2013-01-01 |publisher=Cross The Hurdles}}</ref>
* ''Tax Concessions and Exemptions for Persons with Disabilities in India'', 2012<ref name=":0" />

== Awards ==
* 2016 National Award for empowerment of persons with disabilities: Best Role Model<ref>{{Citation |title=Tejasvini: Interaction with Abha Khetrapal | date=22 January 2017 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wQVi3GdRD1c |language=en |access-date=2022-10-19}}</ref>
* 100 Women Achievers Award, 2019 By Ministry of Women and Child Development<ref name=":0" />
*[[Henry Viscardi Achievement Awards|Henry Viscardi Achievement Awards, 2019]] - These international Awards, first conferred in 2013, recognize exemplary leaders in the disability sector around the globe who have had a profound impact on changing the lives of people with disabilities and championing their rights.
* D-30 Disability Impact List 2020 Honoree<ref>{{Cite web |title=2020 D-30 Honorees |url=https://mydiversability.com/2020-d30 |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Diversability |language=en-US}}</ref>
* FemiList100 2021: a curated list of 100 women from the Global South, working in the fields of foreign policy, peacebuilding, law, activism, and development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FemiList100 |url=https://www.gendersecurityproject.com/femilist100-2021 |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=GSP |language=en |archive-date=2022-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019073504/https://www.gendersecurityproject.com/femilist100-2021 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Media and popular culture ==
In 2013, Khetarpal was featured in the [[Documentary film|documentary]] "Accsex"<ref name=":3" /><ref name="Accsex – PSBT"/> directed by Shweta Ghosh<ref name=":4" /> which explores themes of sexuality and desire through the experiences of four women with disabilities. In her interview for the film, she narrates growing up with disability in a conservative society where sex and sexuality conversation was a taboo, also powerfully relating her experience with healthcare, of being treated a "human body, not a human being"<ref>{{Citation |title=Accsex | date=23 June 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xm4arz1JCKo |language=en |access-date=2022-10-19}}</ref> and debunking essential myths about how disabled women desire and express said desire.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khetarpal, Abha}}
[[Category:21st-century Indian women]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Indian disability rights activists]]
[[Category:Indian women activists]]
[[Category:Indian feminists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Polio survivors]]

Basaria

2026-03-12T10:03:38Z

DeangeloSchwing: minor edit

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{refimprove|date=July 2013}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Basaria
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Neighbourhood
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Jharkhand#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Jharkhand, India
| coordinates = {{coord|23.78838|N|86.37146|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Jharkhand]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Dhanbad district|Dhanbad]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 3966
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = JH
| website = {{URL|dhanbad.nic.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Basaria''' is a [[neighbourhood]] in [[Dhanbad]] in [[Dhanbad Sadar subdivision]] of [[Dhanbad district]] in [[Jharkhand]] [[States and territories of India|state]], [[India]].

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=330| height=220| zoom=11
| coord={{coord|23|46|30|N|86|24|20|E}}| float=left|caption='''Cities, towns and locations in the central portion of Dhanbad Sadar subdivision in Dhanbad district''' MC: Municipal Corporation, CT: Census Town, N: Neighbourhood, R: Rural/ Urban centre Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1={{coord|23|46|48|N|86|19|12|E}} | label-pos1=right|label1= Sijua | numbered1=N| mark-title1=[[Sijua]] (N)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1= #C42222|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|23|46|45|N|86|21|10|E}} | label-pos2=right|label2= Loyabad | numbered2=N| mark-title2= [[Loyabad]] (N)
|mark-coord3={{coord|23|45|53|N|86|24|53|E}} | label-pos3=left|label3= Bhagatdih | numbered3=N| mark-title3=[[Bhagatdih]] (N)
|mark-coord4={{coord|23|47|25|N|86|22|31|E}} | label-pos4=left|label4= Basaria | numbered4=N| mark-title4= Basaria (N)|shape-color4=black| label-size4=13|label-color4=black 
|mark-coord5={{coord|23|49|0|N|86|23|19|E}} | label-pos5=right|label5= Bhuli | numbered5=N| mark-title5= [[Bhuli, India]] (N)
|mark-coord6={{coord|23|48|15|N|86|20|3|E}} | label-pos6=left|label6= Chandaur | numbered6=N| mark-title6= [[Chandaur]] (N)
|mark-coord7={{coord|23|46|10|N|86|22|13|E}} | label-pos7=left|label7= Chhatatanr | numbered7=N| mark-title7= [[Chhatatanr]] (N)
|mark-coord8={{coord|23|46|30|N|86|24|51|E}} | label-pos8=right|label8= Dhaunsar | numbered8=N| mark-title8= [[Dhaunsar]] (N)
|mark-coord9={{coord|23|47|20|N|86|23|42|E}} | label-pos9=right|label9= Godhar | numbered9=N| mark-title9= [[Godhar]] (N)
|mark-coord10={{coord|23|47|20|N|86|19|44|E}} | label-pos10=left|label10= Jogta | numbered10=N| mark-title10= [[Jogta]] (N)
|mark-coord11={{coord|23|48|36|N|86|20|24|E}} | label-pos11=left|label11= Tetulmari | numbered11=N| mark-title11= [[Tetulmari]] (N)
|mark-coord12={{coord|23|48|28|N|86|24|8|E}} | label-pos12=left|label12= Wasseypur | numbered12=N| mark-title12= [[Wasseypur]] (N)
|mark-coord13={{coord|23|49|15|N|86|27|50|E}} | label-pos13=right|label13= Saraidhela| numbered13=N| mark-title13= [[Saraidhela]] (N)
|mark-coord14={{coord|23|45|5|N|86|25|13|E}} | label-pos14=right|label14=Jharia | numbered14=N| mark-title14= [[Jharia]] (N)
|mark-coord15={{coord|23|44|41|N|86|24|10|E}} | label-pos15=left|label15= Jharia Khas| numbered15=N| mark-title15= [[Jharia Khas]] (N)
|mark-coord16={{coord|23|45|47|N|86|28|23|E}} | label-pos16=left|label16= Belgaria | numbered16=R| mark-title16= [[Belgaria]] (R)| shape-14 =#C42222
|mark-coord17={{coord|23|48|0|N|86|25|50|E}} | label-pos17=right|label-color17=#800000| label17= Dhanbad | numbered17=MC| mark-title17=[[Dhanbad]] (MC)|shape-color17=#800000
|mark-coord18={{coord|23|45|30|N|86|24|42|E}} | label-pos18=left|label18=BCCL Bastacola Area |numbered18=0 | mark-title18=[[Bastacola Area]] (A)| label-size18=12| shape-color18=#AA6666
|mark-coord19={{coord|23|46|55|N|86|23|30|E}} | label-pos19=right|label19=BCCL Kusunda Area |numbered19=0 | mark-title19=[[Kusunda Area]] (A)| label-size19=12| shape-color19=#AA6666
|mark-coord20={{coord|23|47|52|N|86|19|53|E}} | label-pos20=right|label20=BCCL Sijua Area |numbered20=0 | mark-title20=[[Sijua Area]] (A)| label-size20=12| shape-color20=#AA6666
|mark-coord21={{coord|23|48|48|N|86|26|31|E}} | label-pos21=right|label21= IIT (ISM) Dhanbad| numbered21=F||mark-title21= [[Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad|IIT (ISM) Dhanbad]] (F) |shape-color21=#967117
|mark-coord22={{coord|23|49|25|N|86|25|35|E}} | label-pos22=left|label22= CIMFR – CSiR| numbered22=F| mark-title22= [[Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research]] (F) |shape-color22=#967117
|mark-coord23={{coord|23|49|50|N|86|26|40|E}} | label-pos23=right|label23= BBMK University| numbered23=F| mark-title23= [[Binod Bihari Mahto Koylanchal University]] (F) |shape-color23=#967117
|mark-coord24={{coord|23.7137|86.3475}}| label24=Damodar River| label-color24 = #77A1CB| label-angle24=0| label-pos24=top| label-size24=10| mark-size24=0| mark-title24 =none}}

===Location===
Basaria is located at {{coord|23.78838|N|86.37146|E|display=inline}}.

Note: The map alongside presents some of the notable locations in the area. All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map.

The earlier [[census town]] was combined with other urban units to form [[Dhanbad Municipal Corporation]] in 2006.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://166.62.42.155/dmc/citizen/ | title = Dhanbad Municipal Corporation | publisher = DMC | access-date = 15 October 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171015150926/http://166.62.42.155/dmc/citizen/ | archive-date = 15 October 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dhanbad.nic.in/maps.html | title = Dhanbad District Map | work = Physical Map of Dhanbad | publisher = Jharkhand Government | access-date = 15 October 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171005161335/http://dhanbad.nic.in/maps.html | archive-date = 5 October 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Basaria is part of Ward No. 10 of Dhanbad Municipal Corporation.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dhanbad.nic.in/dhanbad_dmc.html | title = Dhanbad Municipal Corporation | work = प्रादेशिक निर्वाचन क्षेत्रों की सूची (in Hindi) | publisher = Jharkhand Government | access-date = 19 October 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171028073630/http://dhanbad.nic.in/dhanbad_dmc.html | archive-date = 28 October 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

===Overview===
The region shown in the map is a part of the undulating [[Highland|uplands]] bustling with coalmines in the lowest rung of the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]]. The entire area shown in the map is under [[Dhanbad Municipal Corporation]], except [[Belgaria]] which is under [[Baliapur (community development block)]]. The places in the DMC area are marked as [[neighbourhoods]]. The DMC area shown in the map is around the core area of [[Dhanbad]] city. Another major area of DMC is shown in the map of the southern portion of the district. A small stretch of DMC, extending up to [[Katras]] is shown in the map of the western portion. The region is fully urbanised. [[Jharia (community development block)]] has been merged into DMC. Three operational areas of [[Bharat Coking Coal|BCCL]] operate fully within the region – [[Sijua Area]], [[Kusunda Area]] and [[Bastacola Area]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/20/2009_PART_A_DCHB_DHANBAD.pdf | title = District Census Handbook Dhanbad | work = Series 21, Part XIIA, pages 4-5, 5-6, 8 | publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, Jharkhand | access-date = 4 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/Houselisting-housing-JK.html |title = 2011 Census C.D. Block Wise Primary Census Abstract Data(PCA) | work= Jharkhand – District-wise CD Blocks|publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | access-date = 8 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.bcclweb.in/?page_id=22623| title = Area| publisher = Bharat Coking Coal Limited| access-date = 2 July 2019| archive-date = 26 July 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190726160730/http://www.bcclweb.in/?page_id=22623| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://166.62.42.155/dmc/citizen/ | title = Dhanbad Municipal Corporation | publisher = DMC | access-date = 15 October 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171015150926/http://166.62.42.155/dmc/citizen/ | archive-date = 15 October 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dhanbad.nic.in/maps.html | title = Dhanbad District Map | work = Physical Map of Dhanbad | publisher = Jharkhand Government | access-date = 15 October 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171005161335/http://dhanbad.nic.in/maps.html | archive-date = 5 October 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dhanbad.nic.in/dhanbad_dmc.html | title = Dhanbad Municipal Corporation | work = प्रादेशिक निर्वाचन क्षेत्रों की सूची (in Hindi) | publisher = Jharkhand Government | access-date = 19 October 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171028073630/http://dhanbad.nic.in/dhanbad_dmc.html | archive-date = 28 October 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{As of|2001}} India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Basaria had a population of 3,966. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Basaria has an average literacy rate of 52%, lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 69% of the males and 31% of females literate. 15% of the population is under 6 years of age.

==Transport==
There was a station at Baseria but the Dhanbad-Chandrapura line was closed from 15 June 2017.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://indiarailinfo.com/train/news/news-dhanbad-muri-passenger-53341/6434/378/383 | title= 53341 Dhanbad Muri Passenger |publisher= Indiarailinfo| access-date = 19 October 2017}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Dhanbad District}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Dhanbad]]

Bhushan Patel

2026-03-11T01:30:27Z

DeangeloSchwing: update

{{Short description|Indian film director}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Bhushan Patel
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = 
| birth_place = Mumbai, India
| other_names = Bhooshan Patel
| occupation = Film director, [[cinematographer]], actor
| known_for =
}}

'''Bhushan Patel''' (born in Mumbai, India) is a [[Bollywood]] film director, actor and [[cinematographer]], best known for directing the horror movies ''[[1920: Evil Returns]],'' ''[[Ragini MMS 2]]'' and ''[[Alone (2015 Hindi film)|Alone]].''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/2540150/Bipasha-to-play-conjoined-twins-in-Alone|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614161151/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/2540150/Bipasha-to-play-conjoined-twins-in-Alone|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 June 2014|title = Bipasha to play conjoined twins in Alone : Bollywood News – Bollywood Hungama| website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date = 11 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="Bipasha Bashu">{{cite web|title=Bipasha Basu at the mahurat of horror film tentatively titled Alone|website=[[The Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news-interviews/Bipasha-Basu-at-the-mahurat-of-upcoming-horror-film-tentatively-titled-Alone/articleshow/36255367.cms|access-date=31 July 2014|archive-date=4 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204211416/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news-interviews/Bipasha-Basu-at-the-mahurat-of-upcoming-horror-film-tentatively-titled-Alone/articleshow/36255367.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Karan Singh Grover to star opposite Bipasha Basu in a film|date=9 June 2014|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140609/entertainment-tvmusic/article/karan-singh-grover-star-opposite-bipasha-basu-film|access-date=31 July 2014|archive-date=15 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715041100/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140609/entertainment-tvmusic/article/karan-singh-grover-star-opposite-bipasha-basu-film|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Bhushan Patel is a [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]]. His father was a cameraman.<ref name=ethnicity>{{cite news|title=Bhushan Patel: I believe in ghosts, so I believe in God|first=Priya|last=Gupta|work=[[The Times of India]]|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Bhushan-Patel-I-believe-in-ghosts-so-I-believe-in-God/articleshow/45898284.cms|date=Jan 16, 2015|archive-date=25 January 2026|access-date=11 March 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260125230628/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/bhushan-patel-i-believe-in-ghosts-so-i-believe-in-god/articleshow/45898284.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Patel studied at [[Jamnabai Narsee School]] and lived at [[Vile Parle]] next to [[Vikram Bhatt]], another director he became friends with.<ref name=ethnicity />

== Filmography ==

=== As director ===

* [[Lipstick (TV series)|''Lipstick'']] (co-director)
* ''[[Aathvaan Vachan]]''
* ''[[Dwarkadheesh – Bhagwaan Shree Krishn|Dwarkadheesh: Bhagwaan Shree Krishn]]'' (TV Series) (episode director)
* ''[[1920: The Evil Returns|1920: Evil Returns]]''
* ''[[Ragini MMS 2]]''
* ''[[Alone (2015 Hindi film)|Alone]]''
* [[Time Machine (miniseries)|''Time Machine'']]
* ''[[Amavas]]''
* ''Thok De Haseena''
* ''[[P. S. I. Arjun]]''

=== As Cinematographer ===

* ''[[Gunehgar (1995 film)|Gunehgar]]''
* ''[[Dastak (1996 film)|Dastak]]'' (as Bhooshan Patel)
* ''[[Bambai Ka Babu (1996 film)|Bambai Ka Babu]]'' (as Bhooshan Patel)
* ''[[Tamanna (1997 film)|Tamanna]]'' (as Bhooshan Patel)
* ''[[Kartoos]]''
* ''[[Yeh Hai Mumbai Meri Jaan]]'' (as Bhooshan Patel)

=== As actor ===

* ''[[Phir Teri Kahani Yaad Aayee]]''
* ''[[Junoon (1992 film)|Junoon]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb name|nm1022024}}

{{Bhushan Patel}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patel, Bhushan}}
[[Category:Hindi-language film directors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Gujarati people]]
[[Category:Film directors from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Prabha Shankar Shukla

2026-03-08T05:18:19Z

DeangeloSchwing: Made a details with sources - done

{{short description|Indian academic}}
{{Orphan|date=March 2023}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Prabha Shankar Shukla
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Uttar Pradesh, India
| citizenship = Indian
| death_date =
| death_place =
| field = [[Agriculture]]
| work_institution = [[G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology]]
| alma_mater = [[G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology]]
| doctoral_advisor =
| known_for = [[Agriculture]], [[Technology]], [[Researchers]]
| prizes =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Prabha Shankar Shukla''' is the Vice-Chancellor of [[North-Eastern Hill University]] (NEHU) since 27 July 2021.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://meghalayamonitor.com/shukla-assumes-charge-as-nehu-vc|title=Shukla assumes charge as NEHU VC |date=28 July 2021|work=[[meghalayamonitor]]|accessdate=2021-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://thenortheasttoday.com/states/meghalaya/meghalaya-prof-prabha-shankar-shukla-appointed-as-new-vice/cid4255986.htm|title=Prof. Prabha Shankar Shukla appointed as new Vice-Chancellor of NEHU|date=23 July 2021|work=[[thenortheasttoday]]|accessdate=2021-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theshillongtimes.com/2021/07/23/prof-prabha-shankar-shukla-appointed-vc-of-nehu|title=Prof Prabha Shankar Shukla appointed VC of NEHU|date=23 July 2021|work=[[theshillongtimes]]|accessdate=2021-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://theshillongtimes.com/2022/08/23/nehu-vice-chancellor-prof-prabha-shankar-shukla-receives-the-higher-education-award-during-an-international-conference/|title=NEHU Vice Chancellor Prof. Prabha Shankar Shukla receives the Higher Education Award during an international conference|date=23 August 2022|work=[[theshillongtimes]]|accessdate=2022-08-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/president-ram-nath-kovind-approves-appointments-of-vice-chancellors-of-12-central-universities-ministry-of-education/articleshow/84671693.cms|title=President Ram Nath Kovind approves appointments of vice chancellors of 12 central universities: Ministry of education|date=23 July 2021|work=The Times of India|accessdate=2021-07-23}}</ref>

==Awards and honours==
*Higher Education Award<ref>{{cite news|url=https://theshillongtimes.com/2022/08/23/nehu-vice-chancellor-prof-prabha-shankar-shukla-receives-the-higher-education-award-during-an-international-conference|title=NEHU Vice Chancellor Prof. Prabha Shankar Shukla receives the Higher Education Award during an international conference|date=23 August 2022|work=[[meghalayamonitor]]|accessdate=2022-08-23}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shukla, Prabha Shankar}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian academic administrators]]
[[Category:North-Eastern Hill University]]

{{India-academic-bio-stub}}

Dom people

2026-03-06T09:15:38Z

DeangeloSchwing: updated details

{{Short description|Ethnic group with origins in the Indian subcontinent}}
{{for|caste in India|Doma (caste)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Doms
| native_name = ''دومري'' ([[Domari language|Domari]])
| flag =
| flag_caption =
| image = מאהל_צוענים_מצפון_לשער_שכם.jpg
| caption = Domari encampment north of the Damascus Gate in [[Jerusalem]] (1914)
| population = 2.2 million (estimated)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maltby |first=Kate |date=June 2014 |title=Bordering isolation: Attitudes to minorities in Turkey |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0306422014536301 |journal=Index on Censorship |language=en |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=62–66 |doi=10.1177/0306422014536301 |s2cid=147052237 |issn=0306-4220|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Syria}}
| pop1 = 300,000
| ref1 = <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tarlan |first=Kemal Vural |date=2017-01-01 |title=The Dom The Other Asylum Seekers from Syria Report.pdf |url=https://www.academia.edu/34780584 |journal=Kırkayak Kültür}}</ref>
| region2 = {{flagcountry|Iraq}}
| pop2 = 200,000
| ref2 = <ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/5a53612a7.html|title=Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Iraq : Roma|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|last=Refugees|website=Refworld}}</ref>
| region3 = {{flagcountry|Egypt}}
| pop3 = 100,000
| ref3 = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nehemiahteams.com/uploads/1/0/4/3/10430011/gypsy_domari_n_africa.pdf|title=Gypsy, Domari of Egypt|website=Nehemiahteams.com|access-date=16 July 2022}}</ref>
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Jordan}}
| pop4 = 70,000
| ref4 = <ref>{{cite web | url=https://assafirarabi.com/en/2561/2013/07/31/jordans-gypsies-maintain-identity-amid-stigmatization/ | title=Jordan's Gypsies Maintain Identity Amid Stigmatization | محمد الفضيلات | date=31 July 2013 |website=assafirarabi.com }}</ref>
| region5 = {{flagcountry|Sudan}}
| pop5 = 50,000
| ref5 = <ref name="auto1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54gyRnhIugkC&dq=sudan+nawar+gypsies&pg=PA236|title=Peoples on the Move: Introducing the Nomads of the World|first=David J.|last=Phillips|date=6 September 2001|publisher=William Carey Library|isbn=978-0-87808-352-7 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Tunisia}}
| pop6 = 20,000
| ref6 = <ref name="auto1"/>
| region7 = {{flagcountry|Libya}}
| pop7 = 10,000
| ref7 = <ref name="auto1"/>
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Israel}}
| pop8 = 9,600
| ref8 = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/11597/IS|title=Domari Romani in Israel | work=[[Joshua Project]] | publisher=[[U.S. Center for World Mission|Frontier Ventures]] | access-date=23 November 2022}}</ref>
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Lebanon}}
| pop9 = 8,000
| ref9 = <ref name=jp-ps>{{Cite web|url=https://wlcui.com/2014/06/11/the-gypsies-of-lebanon-with-estimated-number-of-8000-people-by-dr-g-a-williams/|title=The Gypsies of Lebanon, with estimated number of 8,000 people: By Dr. G. A. Williams|date=11 June 2014|website=WLCU|accessdate=25 February 2024}}</ref>
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Palestine}}
| pop10 = 700-7,900
| ref10 = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/11597/WE|title=Domari Romani in West Bank / Gaza | work=[[Joshua Project]] | publisher=[[U.S. Center for World Mission|Frontier Ventures]] | access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref><ref name="alghoul">{{Cite news |last=al-Ghoul |first=Asmaa |date=June 14, 2013 |title=Gaza's Gypsies Face Daily Racism |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2013/06/gaza-gypsies-dom-racism.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730135050/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2013/06/gaza-gypsies-dom-racism.html |archive-date=2021-07-30 |access-date=2025-08-31 |work=[[al-Monitor]]}}</ref>
| popplace = The [[Levant]], [[North Africa]], [[Eastern Anatolia Region|Eastern Anatolia]], [[Iraq]], and [[Azerbaijan]]
| langs = Majority: [[Domari language|Domari]]{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} Minority: [[Arabic language|Arabic]]{{·}}[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]{{·}}[[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]
| rels = [[Islam]], [[irreligion]]<ref name="Ismaili 2013">{{cite book |author-last=Ismaili |author-first=Besa |chapter=Kosovo |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ia5AAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA369 |editor1-last=Nielsen |editor1-first=Jørgen S. |editor1-link=Jørgen S. Nielsen |editor2-last=Akgönül |editor2-first=Samim |editor3-last=Alibašić |editor3-first=Ahmet |editor4-last=Racius |editor4-first=Egdunas |year=2013 |title=Yearbook of Muslims in Europe |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |volume=5 |pages=369–381 |doi=10.1163/9789004255869_025 |isbn=978-90-04-25586-9 |issn=1877-1432}}</ref>
| related-c = [[Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians]],<ref name="Ismaili 2013"/> [[Domba]],{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} [[Ghorbati]],{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} [[Lom people|Lom]],{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} [[Romani people|Romani]],{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} [[Abdal people (West Asia)|Abdals]]
}}

The '''Dom''' (also called '''Domi'''; {{langx|ar|[[wikt:دومي|دومي]]}} / [[ALA-LC]]: ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|Dūmī}}'', {{lang|ar|دومري}} / {{transliteration|ar|ALA|Dūmrī}}, '''Ḍom''' / {{lang|ar|ضوم}} or {{lang|ar|دوم}}, or sometimes also called '''Doms''') are descendants of the [[Doma (caste)|Dom caste]] with origins in the [[Indian subcontinent]], who through ancient migrations are found scattered across the [[Middle East and North Africa]], the [[Eastern Anatolia region]], [[Iraq]], and [[Azerbaijan]]. The traditional language of the Dom is [[Domari language|Domari]], an endangered [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]], thereby making the Dom an [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan ethnic group]].{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/345860|title=Türki̇ye'de Rom, Dom Ve Lom Gruplarinin Görünümü}}</ref>

The Doms were formerly grouped with other traditionally [[Itinerant groups in Europe|itinerant ethnic groups]] originating from [[medieval India]]: the [[Romani people|Rom]] and [[Lom people|Lom]] peoples.{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} However, these groups left India at different times and used different routes.<ref name="Hubschmannova"/> The Domari language has a separate origin in India from [[Romani language|Romani]].{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} Dom people do not identify themselves as Romanies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Özateşler |first=Gül |date=1 December 2013 |title=The "Ethnic Identification" Of Dom People In Diyarbakir |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/cttad/issue/25624/270469 |journal=Journal of Modern Turkish History Studies |volume=13 |issue=27 |issn=1300-0756|page=279}}</ref>

== Culture ==
The Dom have an oral tradition and express their [[culture]] and history through music, poetry, and dance.{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} Initially, it was believed that they were a branch of the [[Romani people]], but recent studies of the Domari language suggest that they departed from the [[Indian subcontinent]]<ref name = What_is_Domari>{{cite web|title=Domari|url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/files/21_domari.shtml|work=[romani] project|publisher=School of Languages, Linguistics, and Cultures The University of Manchester|access-date=26 December 2012|first=Yaron|last=Matras|date=December 2012|archive-date=20 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120230316/http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/files/21_domari.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> at different times and using different routes.<ref name="Hubschmannova">{{Cite book |title=What is the Romani language? |date=2000 |publisher=Centre de recherches tsiganes |first1=Milena|last1=Hubschmannova|first2=Valdemar|last2=Kalinin|first3=Donald|last3=Kenrick |editor-first1=Peter|editor-last1=Bakker|editor-first2=Khristo|editor-last2=Kichukov |isbn=1-902806-06-9 |oclc=45827711|page=18}}</ref>

Among the various Domari subgroups, they were initially part of [[Ghawazi]] who were known for their dancing and music business.{{sfn|Matras|Tenser|2020|pages=14–17}} Some [[Muslim Roma]] may share Dom ancestry too, because in the travel book ''[[Seyahatnâme]]'', written by the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman Turkish]] traveller [[Evliya Çelebi]] in 1668, he explained that the Romani from [[Komotini]] (Gümülcine) believe that their ancestors originated in [[Egypt Eyalet|Ottoman Egypt]].<ref name="Friedman Dankoff 1991">{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=Victor A. |author-link=Victor Friedman |last2=Dankoff |first2=Robert |author2-link=Robert Dankoff |title=The Earliest Text in Balkan (Rumelian) Romani: A Passage from Evliya Çelebi's ''Seyaḥât‑nâmeh'' |date=1991 |journal=Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society |series=Fifth Series |issn=0017-6087 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |url=https://static.hum.uchicago.edu//slavic/archived/papers/Friedman-OldestBalkRmiw-BDankoff.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119102833/https://static.hum.uchicago.edu//slavic/archived/papers/Friedman-OldestBalkRmiw-BDankoff.pdf |archive-date=2022-11-19 |url-status=live |via=The University of Chicago}}</ref> Also the sedentary Romani groups from [[Serres]] region in Greece believe their ancestors were once taken from Ottoman Egypt by the Turks after 1517 to [[Rumelia]], to work on the tobacco plantations of Turkish feudals that were based there.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241899210 |via=[[ResearchGate]]|doi=10.3828/rs.2011.2 |title=Sedentary Roma (Gypsies): The case of Serres (Greece) |year=2011 |last1=Zachos |first1=Dimitrios |journal=Romani Studies |volume=21 |pages=23–56 |s2cid=144321480 }}</ref>

[[Muslim Roma]] settled in [[Baranya (region)|Baranya]] and the city of [[Pécs]] in southwestern [[Hungary]]. After the [[Siege of Pécs]] (1686), when the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburgs]] took it back, Muslim Roma and some other Muslim ethnic minorities [[Apostasy in Islam|abandoned Islam]] and [[Conversion to Christianity|converted to Christianity]], choosing the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic faith]] in the years 1686–1713.<ref name="Jahren 1686">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hh5kn25Dw98C&dq=pecs+1689&pg=PA88|title=Die Baranya in den Jahren 1686 bis 1713: Kontinuität und Wandel in einem ungarischen Komitat nach dem Abzug der Türken|first=Claus Heinrich|last=Gattermann|date=6 September 2005|publisher=Universitätsverlag Göttingen|isbn=978-3-938616-32-1 |via=Google Books}}</ref>{{Relevance inline|date=February 2025|reason=Doms and Roma, while related, are not the same ethnic group}} The Ghagar, a subgroup of the [[Doms in Egypt]], say that some of them went to Hungary.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Capt. Newbold |title= The Gypsies of Egypt |journal= The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |year= 1856 |volume= 16 |pages= 285–312 |doi= 10.1017/S0035869X00156382 |s2cid= 163220134 |jstor= 25228684 |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/25228684 |access-date= 23 November 2023}}</ref>

Domari cuisine includes dishes such as Kufta bi Tahineh (meatballs in tahini sauce), [[musakhan]] (chicken with caramelized onions and almonds served on flatbread), and danan al aut (delicate dumplings). Reflecting their nomadic past and present-day community in Jerusalem, Domari cooking features spices from diverse regions and commonly uses seasonal vegetables, rice, and meat. The Domari Society, a non-profit organization based in Jerusalem, supports this distinctive culinary tradition by offering traditional Domari meals prepared by women from the community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.haaretz.com/2013-06-20/ty-article/.premium/eating-gypsy-cuisine-in-jerusalem/0000017f-ec98-d4a6-af7f-fede99cf0000|title=Romany Holiday - Haaretz Com - Haaretz.com}}</ref> Domari cuisine includes dishes influenced by local [[Arab cuisine]] and [[Palestinian cuisine]], such as stuffed vegetables like Mahshi Beitinjan and Kusa. Common ingredients include olive oil, yogurt, lemon juice, curry leaves, and dried mint. In Domari culture, food is not just about cooking but also about hospitality and sharing meals within the community. Despite living in very poor conditions, the Domari people value inviting others to eat together, as it brings happiness to all. Their spices originate from the various regions where nomadic Domari Gypsies have lived and have been handed down through generations.<ref>{{cite web | last=Sleem | first=Amoun | title=Jerusalem's Dom People | website=This Week in Palestine | date=2023-07-01 | url=https://thisweekinpalestine.com/jerusalems-dom-people/ | access-date=2025-09-06}}</ref>

Historically, earlier generations of the Dom were nomadic, engaging in nomadic professions such as blacksmithing, horse trading, music, dance, and animal healing. However, for more than a century, the Dom community has adopted a sedentary way of life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.domarisociety.com/what-is-domari|title=→ What is Domari?|website=Domari Society of Gypsies in Jerusalem}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Middle East Gypsies | website=Kırkayak Kültür | date=2022-04-19 | url=http://www.kirkayak.org/dom-research-workshop/middle-east-gypsies/#:~:text=Dom%20can%20be%20seen%20among,with%20Palestinians%20and%20other%20migrants. | access-date=2025-09-06}}</ref>

==Language==
[[Domari language|Domari]] shows Turkic, Kurdish and Arabic influence.{{sfn|Law|2014|pp=138–139}} Domari in the Middle East is known as Nawari.{{sfn|Law|2014|pp=138–139}}

== Distribution ==
The Dom people, with an estimated population of 1.4 million,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.peoplegroups.org/Explore/groupdetails.aspx?peid=24575|title=PeopleGroups.org - Doms}}</ref> predominantly inhabit regions spanning [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestinian territories]], [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]]. The actual population is believed to surpass this estimate, given that some Dom individuals are left out of official national censuses, and others identify themselves using national labels rather than the term "Dom."<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Haodha |first=Micheal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HSJJDAAAQBAJ&dq=%22dom%22+%222.2+million%22&pg=PA86 |title=Migrants and Memory: The Forgotten "Postcolonials" |date=2009-10-02 |publisher=[[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4438-1474-4 |pages=86 |language=en}}</ref>

There is a large concentration of Doms in Jordan, where they call themselves ''Bani Murra''.<ref name="Marsh-Elin 2006">Marsh, Adrian & Strand, Elin (red.) (2006). ''Gypsies and the Problem of Identities: Contextual, Constructed and Contested''. Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul (Svenska forskningsinstitutet i Istanbul), [https://books.google.com/books?id=u52vzyK3v7EC&pg=PA207 p. 207]</ref> Researchers have written that "they accommodate [[Racism in the Arab world|Arab racism]] by hiding their ethnic identity", since they would not be accepted into [[Arab world|Arab societies]] once their true identity is revealed due to the [[anti-Romani sentiment]] that is prevalent in the Arab world.<ref name="Marsh-Elin 2006"/> Their community numbers around 70,000 in Jordan, according to estimates in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/culture/2013/08/jordan-roma-marginalized.html|title=Jordan's Gypsies Maintain Identity Amid Stigmatization|author=Mohammad Al-Fdeilat|publisher=Almonitor|access-date=10 April 2020|date=8 August 2013}}</ref>

A small community in [[east Jerusalem]] lives in [[Bab Huta]] neighborhood, in the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City of Jerusalem]].<ref>Selig, Abe. {{citation | title=Jerusalem's Herod's Gate receives face-lift | url=http://www.jpost.com/LocalIsrael/InJerusalem/Article.aspx?id=179855 | access-date=2025-09-06 | page=}} 06/29/2010. Jerusalem Post</ref><ref>A People Apart: The Romani community seeks recognition. By Eetta Prince-Gibson. Dom Research Center. 2001</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Rubinstein | first=Danny | title=People Steve Sabella: Blurring the Lines | website=Haaretz.com | date=2005-11-03 | url=https://www.haaretz.com/2005-11-03/ty-article/people-steve-sabella-blurring-the-lines/0000017f-f689-d318-afff-f7ebf6170000 | access-date=2025-09-06|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>Joseph B. Glass and Rassem Khamaisi. Report on the Socio-Economic Conditions in the Old City of Jerusalem. Munk Centre for International Studies, University of Toronto. p.4</ref> The population in Jerusalem is around 15,000.<ref name="idjor23">{{Cite web |date=13 May 2020 |title= The social exclusion of the Domari society of Gypsies in Jerusalem |url=https://www.identitiesjournal.com/blog-collection/the-social-exclusion-of-the-domari-society-of-gypsies-in-jerusalem |access-date=2021-05-16 |website=Identities Journal}}</ref>

The population in Lebanon is estimated to be around 3,112.<ref name="irini23">{{Cite report |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4e4b919c2.html |title=Lebanon: "Acute social marginalization" of Dom community |date=11 July 2011 |publisher=IRIN |access-date=2021-05-18}}</ref>

The population of Doms in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] is estimated to be about 7900.<ref name="alghoul" />

==Al-Nawar==
'''''Al-Nawar''''' ({{langx|ar|نور}}) is an Arabic term for several nomad communities used primarily in [[Jordan]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].{{sfn|Berland|Rao|2004|p=71}} The term, regarded as derogatory, is used by Arabs for several diverse ethnic groups.{{sfn|Berland|Rao|2004|p=71}} They have historically been called "Gypsies", though as a whole they are not [[Romani people|Romani]]. The Dom people are especially known as Nawar.{{sfn|Law|2014|pp=138–139}} While both they and Romani people originated from the [[Indian subcontinent]], they came from two drastically different ethnicities and cultures. The Nawar in Palestine are also known as ''Ghajars'' (gypsies).{{sfn|Law|2014|pp=138–139}}

The ''Nawar'' in Syria number 100,000 to 250,000 people according to estimations.{{sfn|Berland|Rao|2004|p=73}} The vast majority is sedentary.{{sfn|Berland|Rao|2004|p=73}}

==Notable people==
* [[Bilal (Lebanese singer)|Bilal]]

==See also==
* [[Doms in Egypt]]
* [[Doms in Iraq]]
* [[Doms in Israel]]
* [[Doms in Jordan]]
* [[Doms in Lebanon]]
* [[Doms in Libya]]
* [[Doms in Palestine]]
* [[Doms in Sudan]]
* [[Doms in Syria]]
* [[Doms in Tunisia]]
* [[Ghorbati]], community in Iran and Afghanistan
* [[History of the Romani people]]
* [[Sinti]]
* [[Zott]]
* [[Zuṭṭ]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
*{{cite book|last1=Berland|last2=Rao|first2=Aparna|title=Customary Strangers: New Perspectives on Peripatetic Peoples in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia|first1=Joseph C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CAv53wlHfoC&pg=PA71|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-89789-771-6|pages=71–74|author-link2=Aparna Rao}}
*{{cite book|last=Law|first=Ian|title=Mediterranean Racisms: Connections and Complexities in the Racialization of the Mediterranean Region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RgZHBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT139|date=17 October 2014|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-26348-3|pages=139–}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Matras |editor1-first=Yaron |editor2-last=Tenser |editor2-first=Anton |year=2020 |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Romani Language and Linguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2vDDwAAQBAJ |location=[[Basingstoke]] |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-28105-2 |isbn=978-3-030-28107-6}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Commins |first=David Dean |title=Historical dictionary of Syria |edition=2nd |publisher=Scarecrow Press |publication-place=Lanham, Md. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8108-4934-1 |oclc=1193950421 |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000comm_t5x7 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |last=Gazzal |first=Benoit |chapter=Musiques nawar entre tradition et modernité |editor-last=Dupret |editor-first=Baudouin |title=La Syrie au présent: Reflets d'une société |publisher=Actes sud ; Sindbad |publication-place=Arles, Paris |year=2007 |isbn=978-2-7427-6852-3 |oclc=159955337 |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last1=Marushiakova |first1=Elena |last2=Popov |first2=Vesselin |title=Gypsies in Central Asia and the Caucasus |publisher=Springer International Publishing |publication-place=Cham |date=2016 |isbn=978-3-319-41056-2 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-41057-9 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-41057-9 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2025-12-05 |oclc=7323759790}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Marushiakova |first1=Elena |last2=Popov |first2=Vesselin |author5=Institute of Ethnology and Social Anthropology of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Klemensova 19, 813 64 Bratislava, Slovak Republic |title=Dom/Garachi in Azerbaijan among the Dom Communities in the Middle East and North Africa |journal=Kulturní studia |volume=2025 |issue=1 |date=2025-05-01 |doi=10.7160/KS.2025-01(24).01 |pages=3–37 |url=https://kulturnistudia.cz/dom-garachi-in-azerbaijan-among-the-dom-communities-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/ |access-date=2025-12-05 |oclc=10938870580|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web |editor-last=Tarlan |editor-first=Kemal Vural |title=The 'Other' Asylum Seekers from Syria: Discrimination, Isolation, and Social Exclusion. Syrian Dom Asylum Seekers in the Crossfire |url=https://www.academia.edu/34780584 |date=2017-10-06 |website=Academia.edu |publisher=Kirkayak Kültürs}}
* {{cite web |editor-last=Tarlan |editor-first=Kemal Vural |title=Encouraging Integration and Social Cohesion of Syrian Dom Immigrants |website=middleeastgypsies.com |url=http://www.middleeastgypsies.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/DOM-RAPOR-EN.pdf |date=2019-10-08 |publisher=Kirkayak Kültür / Center for Migration and Cultural Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225093734/http://www.middleeastgypsies.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/DOM-RAPOR-EN.pdf |archive-date=2021-02-25 |url-status=dead}}

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.domresearchcenter.com/ Dom Research Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719022034/http://www.domresearchcenter.com/ |date=19 July 2012 }}
* [http://www.thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=2209&ed=144&edid=144 "The Gypsies of Jerusalem: the Forgotten People" By Amoun Sleem]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091026234232/http://geocities.com/domarisociety/ Domari The society of Gypsies in Jerusalem]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093040/http://www.valery-novoselsky.org/israelroma.html "The Gypsy People of Israel, Gaza & the West Bank" by Valery Novoselsky]
* [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4445701,00.html "Evolving, educating: Israel's Gypsy community" by Roi Mandel]
* [http://www.insanassociation.org/en/images/The_Dom_People_and_their_Children_in_lebanon.pdf "The Dom People and their Children in Lebanon" by Terre des Hommes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521063734/http://www.insanassociation.org/en/images/The_Dom_People_and_their_Children_in_lebanon.pdf |date=21 May 2021 }}
* [http://www.domresearchcenter.com/journal/current.html "From The Occupation of Iraq to 'The Arab Spring': Gypsies in the Middle East" by Kemal Vural Tarlan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126145121/http://www.domresearchcenter.com/journal/current.html |date=26 January 2021 }}
* [http://www.middleeastgypsies.com Middle East Gypsies]

{{Dom people}}
{{Romani diaspora}}
{{Africa topic}}
{{Asia topic}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dom People}}
[[Category:Dom people| ]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Asia]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups divided by international borders]]

Allari Krishnayya

2026-03-04T04:23:50Z

DeangeloSchwing: Creating A Info

{{Short description|1987 Telugu film directed by Nandamuri Ramesh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Allari Krishnayya
| image = Allari_Krishnaiah.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| writer = Satyanand {{small|(dialogues)}}
| story = Gopi
| screenplay = Nandamuri Ramesh
| producer = C. H. Satyanarayana S. Bhaskar
| director = Nandamuri Ramesh
| starring = [[Nandamuri Balakrishna]] [[Bhanupriya]]
| music = [[K. Chakravarthy|Chakravarthy]]
| cinematography = Nandamuri Mohana Krishna
| editing = [[Kotagiri Venkateswara Rao]]
| studio = Vanitha Arts<ref name="telugumoviepedia">{{cite web |url=http://telugumoviepedia.com/movie/cast/712/allari-krishnayya-cast.html |title=Allari Krishnayya ( 1987 ) |publisher=Chithr.com }}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1987|2|26}}
| runtime = 140 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Allari Krishnayya''''' ({{translation|Naughty Krishnayya}}) is a 1987 [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film directed by Nandamuri Ramesh. [[Nandamuri Balakrishna]], [[Bhanupriya]] play the lead roles with music composed by [[K. Chakravarthy|Chakravarthy]].<ref name="gomolo">{{cite web |title=Allari Krishnaiah |url=http://www.gomolo.com/allari-krishnaiah-movie/17591 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917071526/http://www.gomolo.com/allari-krishnaiah-movie/17591 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |access-date=29 January 2015 |website=Gomolo |publisher=}}</ref><ref name="nthwall">{{cite web |url=http://www.nthwall.com/te/Allari-Krishnayya-2014/8291800535 |title=Allari Krishnayya(1987) |publisher=Nth Wall |access-date=29 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212171149/http://www.nthwall.com/te/Allari-Krishnayya-2014/8291800535 |archive-date=12 February 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> It was produced by C. H. Satyanarayana and S. Bhaskar under the Vanitha Arts banner.

==Plot==
The film is set in a peaceful village governed by Narasayya and his nephew Madhavayya, who are known for their fair judgments. The two families share a close relationship. Krishnayya, Madhavayya's younger brother, is a brave and loyal man who deeply respects his brother and sister-in-law, Savitri. He falls in love with Lalitha, Narasayya's daughter, and they become engaged.

However, the village is troubled by two corrupt individuals, Veerabhadrayya and Karanam Kanakayya, who commit various atrocities. As the Panchayat elections approach, a division arises between Narasayya and Madhavayya as they support different candidates. This rift is exploited by the villains, leading to a rivalry between the two families. Karanam Kanakayya plots to marry Lalitha to Veerabhadrayya's son, Sundaram, but Krishnayya intervenes and marries her instead, further straining relations with Madhavayya.

When the village's annual festival approaches, previously overseen by both Narasayya and Madhavayya, Krishnayya takes charge and manages to convince them to cooperate. The villains attempt to sabotage the event by stealing the temple jewels and framing Narasayya. In the end, Krishnayya exposes the truth, clears Narasayya’s name, and defeats the wrongdoers. The film concludes with the reunion of the family.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Nandamuri Balakrishna]] as Gopala Krishna
*[[Bhanupriya]] as Lalitha
*[[Rao Gopal Rao]] as Narasayya
*[[Jaggayya]] as Madhavayya
*[[Gollapudi Maruti Rao]] as Karanam Kanakayya
*[[Mikkilineni (actor)|Mikkilineni]] as Dharmayya
*[[Chalapathi Rao]] as Veerabhadram
*[[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]] as Sundaram
*Arun Kumar as Raja
*Raj Varma as Seshu
*[[Manik Irani]] as Jimbo
*[[P. J. Sarma]] as Collector
*Malladi as Priest
*[[Gokina Rama Rao]] as Papa Rao
*[[Chitti Babu Punyamurthula|Chitti Babu]] as Chitti
*Ramana Reddy
*Jagga Rao
*[[Jayanthi (actress)|Jayanthi]] as Savitri
*[[Annapoorna (actress)|Annapurna]] as Purna
*[[Kalpana Rai]] as Pankajam
*[[Y. Vijaya]] as Chitrangi
{{colend}}

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Allari Krishnayya
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[K. Chakravarthy|Chakravarthy]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1987
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Filmi]]
| length = 20:18
| label = Saptaswar Audio
| producer = [[K. Chakravarthy|Chakravarthy]]
| prev_title = [[Bhargava Ramudu]]
| prev_year = 1987
| next_title = [[Sahasa Samrat]]
| next_year = 1987
}}

The music was composed by [[K. Chakravarthy]] with lyrics written by [[Veturi]]. The soundtrack was released by Saptaswar Audio Company.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!S. No.!!Song title !!Singers !!length
|-
|1
|"Ashadam Vacchindhi"
|[[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]]
|4:25
|-
|2
|"Tholi Vennela"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[P. Susheela]]
|3:50
|-
|3
|"Banthi Pula Bavayya"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, S. Janaki
|3:22
|-
|4
|"Neeki Naaki Dosti"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[S. P. Sailaja]]
|3:35
|-
|5
|"Jinjinakkadi"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
|5:06
|}

==Other==
* VCDs and DVDs were released by VOLGA Videos, [[Hyderabad, Telangana|Hyderabad]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{IMDb title|tt8390276}}

[[Category:Films scored by K. Chakravarthy]]
[[Category:1987 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1987 Indian films]]

Zara Si Zindagi

2026-03-04T00:02:01Z

DeangeloSchwing: improved article

{{short description|1983 film by K. Balachander}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Zara Si Zindagi
| image = Zara Si Zindagi.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[K. Balachander]]
| story = K. Balachander
| based_on = ''[[Varumayin Niram Sivappu]]'' (1980) by [[K. Balachander]]
| producer = Premaalaya
| writer = [[Gulzar]] (dialogues)
| starring = [[Kamal Haasan]] [[Anita Raj]]
| music = [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]
| cinematography = [[B. S. Lokanath]]
| editing = N. R. Kittoo
| studio = Premaalaya Films
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1983|01|07|df=y}}
| runtime = 149 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Zara Si Zindagi''''' ({{translation|A Slice of Life}}) is a 1983 Indian [[Hindi]]-language film directed by [[K. Balachander]], starring [[Kamal Haasan]], [[Anita Raj]], [[Nilu Phule]], [[Mazhar Khan (actor, born 1955)|Mazhar Khan]], [[Shreeram Lagoo]], [[Karan Razdan]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 November 2016 |title=KB's continuum |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/KB%E2%80%99s-continuum/article16448445.ece |url-status=live |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123114238/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/KB%E2%80%99s-continuum/article16448445.ece |archive-date=23 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 November 2016 |title=Celebrating Kamal Haasan: How the actor became bigger than his medium |work=[[Firstpost]] |url=http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/celebrating-kamal-haasan-how-the-actor-became-bigger-than-his-medium-3106428.html |url-status=live |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810094240/http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/celebrating-kamal-haasan-how-the-actor-became-bigger-than-his-medium-3106428.html |archive-date=10 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=21 February 2016 |title=Unraveling the puzzle |work=[[The Hans India]] |url=http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Sunday-Hans/2016-02-21/Unraveling-the-puzzle/208716 |url-status=live |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205085550/http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Sunday-Hans/2016-02-21/Unraveling-the-puzzle/208716 |archive-date=5 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=23 December 2014 |title=Celebrities pay tribute to legendary film director K Balachander |work=[[DNA India]] |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-celebrities-pay-tribute-to-legendary-film-director-k-balachander-2046557 |url-status=live |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810131610/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-celebrities-pay-tribute-to-legendary-film-director-k-balachander-2046557 |archive-date=10 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=25 December 2014 |title=9 best films of K. Balachander |work=[[Zee News]] |url=http://zeenews.india.com/exclusive/9-best-films-of-k-balachander_1519388.html |url-status=live |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224190922/http://zeenews.india.com/exclusive/9-best-films-of-k-balachander_1519388.html |archive-date=24 December 2014}}</ref>

It was the remake of the Tamil film ''[[Varumayin Niram Sivappu]]'' (1980), which was directed by Balachander himself. ''Zara Si Zindagi''{{'s}} story was written by Balachander, while the dialogues were written by [[Gulzar]].

== Plot ==

Rakesh, a young man who has an M.A. in philosophy, comes to Delhi from Bihar looking for a job. Rakesh, along with his friend Amit from Bengal lives in a slum. One day Amit's friend Tilak from Punjab goes to that dilapidated cottage to stay where Rakesh and Amit reside. The three men share everything that they get to eat, but usually go without food. One day, Rakesh sees a girl named Kusum at a bus stop waiting for the next bus towards the railway station, Rakesh offers to carry her luggage to the railway station as the bus service is closed and taxi drivers are on strike on that day. On reaching the railway station, Kusum pays Rakesh to which he replies that he has no change. She rebukes him in Punjabi language assuming he does not speak the language that he is trying to cheat her. Rakesh tells her that he knows Punjabi.

Rakesh once chases a man to his house to get back the 15 rupees which he looted from him by lying. The man enters a house, Rakesh follows him by running after him and reaches that house, and Kusum opens the door after knocking. Rakesh learns that the man is Kusum's father. Rakesh tells about the money and Kusum returns the money to Rakesh. Kusum is a small-time stage actress. Kusum goes to Rakesh's house to introduce him to her stage play director to replace an ill actor so that he could earn some money as she learned that Rakesh is unemployed. Kusum introduces Rakesh to her stage-director Pratap, who is arrogant and short-tempered. Pratap has an obsession for Kusum. Pratap can't tolerate intimacy between Rakesh and Kusum. Pratap throws out Rakesh from stage drama acting because of disobeying him. Rakesh does not take the post of a clerk of a company after misbehaving with interview-takers and tears his certificates of educational qualifications.

Amit somehow earns money which he did so by the advice of a friend of his named Dilip. Tilak wants to know Dilip's identity. He ran away from home seeking him. Jaggu (Kusum's father) abandons their home and doesn't return for so many days. Kusum comes to Rakesh's house with her bag and baggage to live there, as her father's information is not known, where he has gone. Kusum gets a new job of baby-sitting, but gets fired quickly for losing the baby while buying a toy as she kept the baby in baby-stroller outside the toy shop. Actually the baby has been kidnapped by Amit, Amit fetches the baby to Rakesh and tells that their days of hardship and starving are over because he will demand ransom from that baby's parents. Kusum notices that the baby was that baby for whom she was doing the baby-sitting job. Kusum takes the baby from Amit and goes to its parents' house to return it. Rakesh beats Amit and asks him who Dilip is. Amit replies that there is no one named Dilip, his own negative mentality is Dilip. Rakesh expels him from the house and warns him not to return.

Kusum loves Rakesh, she tells this to a dumb artist Arun, a man whom both Rakesh and Kusum first met in a park.

Once Pratap tries to strangle Kusum in a stage play, later at night Pratap comes to Kusum's house and apologizes to her, Pratap tells her that he wants to marry her. Kusum agrees to marry to Pratap on a condition, and the condition is, Rakesh will have to be provided a job by Pratap's industrialist father Mohanlal Sharma. Rakesh does not take the job as he realises that Pratap is Mohanlal's son and Mohanlal tells that Kusum is his son's girlfriend. Pratap threatens to kill himself if Kusum does not want to marry him. Kusum agrees, but later sees Rakesh singing in a park while on a drive with Pratap, she gets down from the car and tells Rakesh that she will abide by whatever he wants, meanwhile Pratap leaves that place angrily and starts driving his car, not taking Kusum.

Amit is now a husband of a rich woman and Tilak has turned into a beggar who is mentally ill. The film ends with Rakesh and Kusum hugging in the park. Pratap gives the neck-chain bought by himself for marriage with Kusum to a street-beggar as alms in hot temperament.

== Cast ==
*[[Kamal Haasan]] as Rakesh Kumar Shastri
*[[Anita Raj]] as Kusum
*[[Nilu Phule]] as Jaggu
*[[Mazhar Khan (actor, born 1955)|Mazhar Khan]] as Pratap
*[[Shreeram Lagoo]] as Mr. Shastri
*[[Sulochana Latkar]] as Mrs. Shastri
*[[Karan Razdan]] as Amit
*[[Arjun Chakraborty]] as Tilak
*[[Arun Bakshi]] as Arun
* Rammohan Sharma as Mohanlal Sharma

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack of this film was composed by [[Laxmikant–Pyarelal]] and the lyrics were penned by [[Anand Bakshi]].

{|class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singer
|-
| "Ghar Se School"
| [[Kishore Kumar]]
|-
| "Kachcha Karawo"
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
|-
| "Jise Maut Aayi"
| [[K. J. Yesudas]]
|-
| "Zamane Mein"
| [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
|-
| "Tana Dim Tana Dim" (Duet)
| S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[Asha Bhosle]]
|-
| "Tana Dim" (Solo)
| Asha Bhosle
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0155408}}

{{K. Balachander}}

[[Category:1983 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1983 Indian films]]
[[Category:1983 films]]
[[Category:Films about poverty in India]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Films scored by Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Tamil films]]
[[Category:Fiction about unemployment]]

Abala (film)

2026-03-03T21:04:56Z

DeangeloSchwing: Improved wording and formatting

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Abala
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Thoppil Bhasi]]
| producer =
| writer =
| screenplay =
| starring = [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]] [[Jayabharathi]] [[KPAC Lalitha]] [[Adoor Bhasi]]
| music = [[V. Dakshinamoorthy]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1973|11|12|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = [[Malayalam Language|Malayalam]]
}}

'''''Abala''''' is a 1973 [[Cinema of India|Indian]] [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] film, directed by [[Thoppil Bhasi]]. The film stars [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]], [[Jayabharathi]], [[KPAC Lalitha]] and [[Adoor Bhasi]] in the lead roles. The film has musical score by [[V. Dakshinamoorthy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=511|title=Abala|accessdate=2014-10-15|publisher=malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?5325 |title=Abala |accessdate=2014-10-15 |publisher=malayalasangeetham.info |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402054206/http://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?5325 |archivedate=2 April 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spicyonion.com/title/abala-malayalam-movie/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20141015190155/http://spicyonion.com/title/abala-malayalam-movie/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=2014-10-15 |title=Abala |accessdate=2014-10-15 |publisher=spicyonion.com }}</ref>

==Cast==
* [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]]
* [[Jayabharathi]]
* [[KPAC Lalitha]]
* [[Adoor Bhasi]]
* [[Sankaradi]]
*[[Bahadoor]]
* [[Sreelatha Namboothiri]]
* [[T. R. Omana]]
* [[M. G. Soman]]
* Vijayakumar

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[V. Dakshinamoorthy]] and the lyrics were written by [[Sreekumaran Thampi]], Ashwathy, S. K. Nair, Kottayathu Thamburan, Puthukkad Krishnakumar and Thunchathezhuthachan.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! No. !! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length (m:ss)
|-
| 1 || "Annarkkanna" || [[S. Janaki]] || [[Sreekumaran Thampi]] ||
|-
| 2 || "Ennini Darsanam" || Kalyani Menon || Ashwathy ||
|-
| 3 || "Mangala Darshana Daayike" || [[K. J. Yesudas]] || Maharshi Puthukkad Krishnakumar ||
|-
| 4 || "Manjil Neeraadum" || K. J. Yesudas || Sreekumaran Thampi ||
|-
| 5 || "Pathivrithayaakanam" || S. Janaki || Maharshi Puthukkad Krishnakumar ||
|-
| 6 || "Priyamodu Paarthanu" || Kalamandalam Sukumaran, Kalyani Menon || Ashwathy, Kottayathu Thamburan ||
|-
| 7 || "Srishtikarthaave" || Kalyani Menon || Thunchathezhuthachan ||
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1973 films]]
[[Category:1973 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:1973 Indian films]]
{{1970s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Maro Charitra

2026-03-03T20:24:44Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added A Details...

{{short description|1978 film by K. Balachander}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Maro Charitra
| image = Maro Charitra.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[K. Balachander]]
| producer = Rama Arangannal
| writer = K. Balachander
| starring = {{unbulleted list|[[Kamal Haasan]]|[[Saritha]]}}
| music = [[M. S. Viswanathan]]
| cinematography = [[B. S. Lokanath]]
| editing = N. R. Kittu
| studio = Andal Productions
| distributor = 
| released = {{film date|1978|5|19|df=y}}
| runtime = 169 minutes{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1998|p=437}}
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Maro Charitra''''' ({{translation|Another History}}) is a 1978 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[romance film|romantic]] [[tragedy]] film written and directed by [[K. Balachander]]. It stars [[Kamal Haasan]] and [[Saritha]] in the lead with [[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]] appearing in prominent roles. The film deals with [[cross-cultural]] romance between a [[Tamil people|Tamil]] man and a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] woman. Upon release, it was commercially successful and remains a cult classic. Owing to its success in [[Andhra Pradesh]], the film was released in the neighbouring states of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]] without being dubbed into the respective languages. It held the record of being the longest-running Telugu film at theatres in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]]. Across theatres it had an uninterrupted theatrical run of {{frac|2|1|2}} years in [[Bangalore]]. The song ''Ye Theega Poovuno'' became popular.

Balachander won a [[Filmfare Award for Best Director – Telugu|Best Director]] at the [[Filmfare Awards South|Southern Filmfare Awards]] in 1979. Later in 1981, Balachander remade the film in [[Hindi]] as ''[[Ek Duuje Ke Liye]]'' with Kamal Haasan reprising his role. Saritha, the female lead, was, however, replaced by [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] actress [[Rati Agnihotri]]. The Hindi remake became a success as well. Both the films were listed among [[CNN-IBN]]'s 100 greatest Indian films of all time in 2013. This film was also remade in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Love Story (2005 film)|Love Story]]'' (2005) and remade into a 2010 Telugu film [[Maro Charitra (2010 film)|with the same title]]. Maro Charitra was dubbed in [[Malayalam]] as ''Thirakal Ezhuthiya Kavitha''.

== Plot ==
The movie is about the love between a Tamil man, Balaji a.k.a. Baloo, and a Telugu woman, Swapna, who are neighbors in [[Visakhapatnam]]. They come from totally different backgrounds and can hardly speak the other's language. When Baloo and Swapna admit their love, there is chaos in their homes as they face an unexpected test of their love.

The movie begins with an old, ruined building near the beautiful beach of [[Visakhapatnam|Vizag]]. The dilapidated walls of the building are covered with many names, but two names stand apart from the rest---Baloo and Swapna.

Baloo is a happy, carefree young man who belongs to a [[Tamils|Tamil]] family. He resigns his job after his boss scolds him and he returns to his home in Vizag. His orthodox Tamilian father is always at loggerheads with the Telugu-speaking neighbour family. The family has a beautiful daughter named Swapna, a college student.

While being followed on her way home by a creepy bookstore clerk (who'd earlier shown her a book of nude photos), Swapna sees Baloo jogging and starts a one-way conversation with him. Seeing this, the bookstore clerk retreats. Swapna thanks Baloo for pretending to be her friend, but he reveals that he doesn't understand Telugu. Baloo wants to make friends with her. He tries to meet her later pretending his motorcycle has broken down but he crashes and ends up in the hospital. Impressed, Swapna sends him a gift: a ceremonial mask with her name on it and asking his name.

Despite the nasty conflicts between their families, Baloo and Swapna fall deeply in love with each other. They get to know each other, experiencing the joy and innocence of first love. One day, however, Swapna fairly misunderstands Baloo when he forcefully kisses her and is offended and breaks up with him. Despite Baloo's efforts to make her understand his love, Swapna ignores him and remains angry. A week later, Swapna finds Baloo awake all night looking at her window hoping that she would forgive him. Heartbroken at seeing him like that, Swapna forgives him and signals him by turning her room light off and on repeatedly.

They meet the next day and Swapna expresses her love for Baloo by kissing his hand. The lovers unite and visit the beaches, forts, waterfalls and scenic places of Goa. While returning home late at night, Baloo's motorcycle runs out of petrol. They pose as a newly married couple and ask for a lift in a car. To their shock, Swapna's father is in the car and he takes her home immediately. Baloo and Swapna keep meeting each other and fall in love even more.

One day when Swapna returns from college after meeting Baloo, she finds the lewd bookstore clerk at her home. The man has secretly clicked pictures of her and Baloo together and shown them to her parents. Burning with rage, Swapna's mother forbids her from seeing Baloo and accompanies her everywhere. Heartbroken, Baloo makes a plan and stealthily meets Swapna during her college lunch break. They go to a hotel for lunch and Baloo pauses the elevator halfway to spend some time with Swapna. He sings a love song for her using his broken Telugu. This leads to an amused crowd at the hotel lift listening in. They are reprimanded by the guard as they exit.

Baloo and Swapna's families find out. In anger, they lock up Swapna at home and Baloo's father scolds him. Despite the opposition, Baloo boldly goes and meets Swapna in her home in the presence of her parents and expresses his love for her. Swapna's mother screams and claims that Baloo is ruining their family honor.

Finally, both the families meet and Baloo and Swapna affirm their love for each other. Their families agree to allow them to marry on one condition – that they separate from each other for one year without any contact or communication. Afterwards, if they still want to be together, they can get married. Baloo and Swapna reluctantly agree to the contract.

Baloo goes to [[Hyderabad]] for a job, while Swapna stays behind in Vizag. During their year of separation, Baloo writes a letter every day to Swapna, in which he expresses his pain and love, but doesn't send it to her because of the contract. He learns to speak Telugu fluently from a young widow named Sandhya. To drown his pain of separation, he also learns classical dance from Sandhya.

On the other hand, Swapna visits all the places where she and Baloo used to go which brings back old memories. She also visits a rocky hill by the beach, where their names 'Baloo' and 'Swapna' are painted on the highest rock. In order to make Swapna forget Baloo, her mother destroys the cassette tape that he had given her. The mother also burns her only photo of Baloo which Swapna crumbles into her tea and drinks in defiance. In response, Swapna writes Baloo's name on every inch of her bedroom wall, making her family even more angry.

Swapna goes on a college trip to [[Mangalore]], where her mother sends her cousin Chakram to spy on her. Chakram wants to marry Swapna, but she doesn't like him. Coincidentally, Baloo also comes to Mangalore due to a job assignment. He spots Swapna and follows her to her hotel room, but bumps into Chakram, who lies that he and Swapna are married. A shocked Baloo meets Swapna's college friends and asks about her, but they mistakenly say Chakram and Swapna are soon to be married.

Baloo is heartbroken and proposes to Sandhya, thinking that Swapna was unfaithful to him. Sandhya is surprised but accepts and fixes their wedding date. Later she finds in his room all the letters he wrote to Swapna, and discovers the truth. Sandhya goes to Vizag and meets Swapna and learns that she is not married and is still waiting for Baloo. Seeing their true love, Sandhya sacrifices her love and decides to unite Baloo and Swapna.

She tells the truth to Baloo and cancels their wedding, urging him to go to his beloved Swapna as their one-year contract was completed. Sandhya's older brother hears that the wedding is cancelled and thinks that Baloo abandoned his sister. In a drunken, angry state, he phones his criminal friend in Vizag and asks him to 'completely get rid' of Baloo.

When Baloo arrives back in Vizag, and is about to meet Swapna in their favorite beach spot, Sandhya's older brother's criminal friend and a gang brutally beat up Baloo. Meanwhile, Swapna is heading to the beach to meet Baloo. The lascivious bookstore clerk tries to attack her, Swapna tries to escape him and falls from the second floor. The bookstore clerk, seeing her almost dead from the fall, rapes her despite her protests. Swapna and Baloo meet after the clerk and the goons flee. However, Baloo is badly injured. Distraught, feeling they can't live without each other, they join hands and leap off the cliff together, a symbol of doomed love.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Kamal Haasan]] as Balaji S. a.k.a. Baloo{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1998|p=437}}
* [[Saritha]] as Swapna{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1998|p=437}}
* [[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]] as Sandhya
* [[J. V. Ramana Murthi]] as Baloo's father
*Kakinada Syamala as Baloo's mother
* [[P. L. Narayana]] as K. Venkateswara Rao
* Jaya Vijaya as Kanakam
* [[S. K. Misro]] as Pattabhi
}}

== Production ==

=== Development ===
''Maro Charitra'' was directed by [[K. Balachander]].{{Sfn|Lal|2004|p=32}} Hassan had requested Balachander to launch him as a lead actor in Telugu cinema after the success of his [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language feature, ''[[Manmadha Leelai (1976 film)|Manmadha Leelai]]'' in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It was made by Balachander with the sole intention of introducing Kamal Haasan as a lead actor in Telugu cinema.<ref name="DD1">{{Cite news |date=9 June 2008 |title=வரலாற்றுச்சுவடுகள் – திரைப்பட வரலாறு 939 |language=Tamil |work=Daily Thanthi |quote=கே. பாலசந்தர் இயக்கத்தில் கமல் நடித்த "மரோசரித்ரா" சென்னையில் 600 நாள் ஓடியது}}</ref> Rama Arangannal, who produced Balachander's previous films agreed to produce the film.<ref name="DD">{{Cite news |date=12 November 2008 |title=வரலாற்றுச்சுவடுகள் – திரைப்பட வரலாறு 1049 |work=[[Dina Thanthi]] |language=Tamil |quote=கமல் நடித்த தெலுங்குப்படம்: தோல்வியில் தொடங்கி வெற்றியில் முடிந்த "மரோசரித்ரா"}}</ref> Balachander approached his favourite screenwriter [[Ganesh Patro]] to write the dialogues; Patro was credited for giving a native appeal to Balachander's successful Telugu films.<ref>{{cite news |date=5 January 2015 |title=Ganesh Patro was KB's favourite dialogue writer |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/ganesh-patro-was-kbs-favourite-dialogue-writer/article6757459.ece |access-date=12 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121001927/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/ganesh-patro-was-kbs-favourite-dialogue-writer/article6757459.ece |archive-date=21 November 2020}}</ref>

=== Casting ===
Kamal had entered Telugu cinema through the director's ''[[Anthuleni Katha]]'' (1976), albeit playing a supporting role. That was followed by a dubbed version of the Tamil film ''[[Manmadha Leelai (1976 film)|Manmadha Leelai]]'' released during the same period. As both the films had a 100-day run at the theatres, Kamal was approached by many Telugu film producers.<ref name="DD1" /> The actor had to refuse all the offers citing that he wanted to be launched as a lead actor through a film directed by Balachander, his mentor.<ref name="DD1" /> As Kamal is a Tamil, Balachander characterised his role as a Tamil man who falls in love with a Telugu girl and developed the screenplay.<ref name="DD" /> Most of Kamal's dialogues were in Tamil.<ref name="DD" />

Having chosen the male lead, Balachander was on a lookout for a female counterpart. As the film deals with cross-cultural romance, he decided to cast a new actor to play the female lead. To choose the character, he auditioned a number of girls and finally ended up choosing a "dark-skinned girl with big eyes" named Abhilasha, who was in tenth grade.<ref name=DD /> Though the members of the production unit were unsatisfied with her dark complexion and fat physique,<ref name=DD /> Balachander went ahead in finalising her for the role as he felt she had a [[wikt:homely|homely]] look and was of the right age to fit in the role.<ref name=DD /> Later, she was rechristened [[Saritha]] by Balachander himself.<ref name=DD1 /> In a 2005 interview with ''The Hindu'', she said that she was the 162nd girl to be auditioned for the film, while also noting that she did not even look good in the photographs that was sent to Balachander.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/04/27/stories/2005042700340100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050427042246/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/04/27/stories/2005042700340100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 April 2005 |title=Second time also lucky |last=Umashanker |first=Sudha |date=27 April 2005 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=25 January 2014}}</ref> Besides the lead actors, [[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]] who made an impact with ''[[Thoorpu Padamara]]'' was signed up to play an important role in the film.{{Sfn|Ramachandran|1982|p=51}} The film was shot mostly in [[Visakhapatnam]] and [[Bheemunipatnam]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 June 2020 |title=CM's promise revives dream of making Vizag a film hub |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/cms-promise-revives-dreamof-making-vizag-a-film-hub/article31837017.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628185242/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/cms-promise-revives-dreamof-making-vizag-a-film-hub/article31837017.ece |archive-date=28 June 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> Contrary to most of the films that released during the period, ''Maro Charitra'' was shot in [[black and white]].<ref name=DD /> The final length of the film was {{Convert|4648.51|metres|feet}}.<ref name="Gazette">{{Cite web |date=20 January 1979 |title=Maro Charithra (Telugu) B&W 35mm India. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.csl_weekly.1979-01-20.O-1072-1979-0003-46671/page/n13/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250203005350/https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.csl_weekly.1979-01-20.O-1072-1979-0003-46671/page/n13/mode/2up |archive-date=3 February 2025 |access-date=3 February 2025 |publisher=[[The Gazette of India]] |pages=636 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Maro Charitra
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[M. S. Viswanathan]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1978
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| language = Telugu
| label = [[EMI]]
| producer = [[M. S. Viswanathan]]
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc = {{External media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|lipF4VT7j3c|Audio Jukebox}}
}}}}

The music and background score was composed by [[M. S. Viswanathan]] and lyrics were penned by [[Acharya Aatreya|Aatreya]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maro Charitra (1978)-Song Booklet |url=https://indiancine.ma/documents/DBU/info |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250209042413/https://indiancine.ma/documents/DBU/info |archive-date=9 February 2025 |access-date=9 February 2025 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref> [[Randor Guy]] wrote the English portions of a duet picturised on Kamal and Saritha.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Guy |first=Randor |author-link=Randor Guy |date=2 May 2011 |title=The KB school |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/the-kb-school/article1985626.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713100205/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/the-kb-school/article1985626.ece |archive-date=13 July 2021 |access-date=16 April 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The 2015 film ''[[Bhale Bhale Magadivoy]]'' was named after the song from ''Maro Charitra''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 August 2015 |title=Dasari Maruti breaks the mould with his next film |url=http://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/dasari-maruti-on-his-next-film/article7522203.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307161353/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/dasari-maruti-on-his-next-film/article7522203.ece |archive-date=7 March 2021 |access-date=13 July 2021 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Telugu Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_writing=
| total_length =
| title_width=35%
| lyrics_width=
| music_width=
| extra_width=35%
| title1= Bhale Bhale Mogadivoi
| lyrics1= [[Acharya Aatreya|Aatreya]]
| music1 =
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[L. R. Eswari]]
| length1 =
| title2= Kalisi Unte Kaladu Sukhamu
| lyrics2= Aatreya
| music2=
| extra2= S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Ramola
| length2=
| title3 = Padaharellaku Neelo Naalo
| lyrics3 = Aatreya
| music3 =
| extra3 = [[S. Janaki]]
| length3 =
| title4 = Vidhi Cheyu Vinthalanni
| lyrics4 = Aatreya
| music4 =
| extra4 = [[Vani Jairam]]
| length4 =
| title5= Ey Teega Poovuno
| lyrics5 = Aatreya
| music5 =
| extra5 = [[P. Susheela]], [[Kamal Haasan]]
| length5=
| title6= Ey Teega Poovuno (pathos)
| lyrics6= Aatreya
| music6=
| extra6= S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
| length6=
}}

{{Track listing
| headline = [[Malayalam]] Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_writing=
| total_length =
| title_width=35%
| lyrics_width=
| music_width=
| extra_width=35%
| title1= Bale Bale Assaami Nee
| lyrics1= [[Mankombu Gopalakrishnan]], [[Randor Guy]]
| music1 =
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[L. R. Eswari]]
| length1 =
| title2= Hello Darling Nee Ente Lahari
| lyrics2= Mankombu Gopalakrishnan
| music2=
| extra2= S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Ramola
| length2=
| title3 = Pathinezhaam Vayassil
| lyrics3 = Mankombu Gopalakrishnan
| music3 =
| extra3 = [[S. Janaki]]
| length3 =
| title4 = Vidhi kattu neelakandu
| lyrics4 = Mankombu Gopalakrishnan
| music4 =
| extra4 = [[Vani Jairam]]
| length4 =
| title5= Ariyaatha Pushpavum (Female)
| lyrics5 = Mankombu Gopalakrishnan
| music5 =
| extra5 = [[P. Susheela]]
| length5=
| title6= Ariyaatha Pushpavum (Male)
| lyrics6= Mankombu Gopalakrishnan
| music6=
| extra6= [[P. Jayachandran]]
| length6=
}}

== Release and reception ==
The film was released on 19 May 1978.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 October 1984 |title='Thirakal Ezhuthiya Kavitha' (Malayalam) B&W, 35mm. India. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.csl_weekly.1984-10-06.O-0865-1984-0040-36973/page/n79/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250203010010/https://archive.org/details/in.gazette.csl_weekly.1984-10-06.O-0865-1984-0040-36973/page/n79/mode/2up |archive-date=3 February 2025 |access-date=3 February 2025 |publisher=[[The Gazette of India]] |pages=2755 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

=== Critical response ===
The performances of both the lead actors along with the film's direction won critical acclaim. In 2010, ''[[South Scope]]'' noted "''Maro Charitra'' once again saw Kamal transform himself, but this time into an out and out urban male ... Kamal let none of them get left out of his wardrobe in the film."{{Sfn|Southscope|2010|p=51}} In 2013, while [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]] was celebrating its 100th anniversary, ''[[IBNLive]]'' listed out "100 greatest Indian films of all time" where both ''Maro Charitra'' and its Hindi remake ''[[Ek Duuje Ke Liye]]'' were mentioned.<ref name="cnn">{{Cite web |date=17 April 2013 |title=100 Years of Indian Cinema: The 100 greatest Indian films of all time |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/13200-101.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425234351/http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/13200-101.html |archive-date=25 April 2013 |access-date=19 September 2013 |website=[[IBNLive]]}}</ref> In November 2015, Kamal noted, "Visual appeal has always gone hand-in-hand with content, since the days of ''[[Chandralekha (1948 film)|Chandralekha]]'' and [''[[Mayabazar]]''], not just after ''[[Baahubali: The Beginning|Baahubali]]''. ''Maro Charitra'' had beautiful visuals in black and white."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Devi Dundoo |first=Sangeetha |date=3 November 2015 |title=My focus is to give quality films at great speed |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/kamal-haasan-my-focus-is-to-give-quality-films-at-great-speed/article7837607.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124035704/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/kamal-haasan-my-focus-is-to-give-quality-films-at-great-speed/article7837607.ece |archive-date=24 November 2015 |access-date=24 November 2015 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> In a 2017 interview with ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', Hassan said, "The ''Maro Charitra'' heroine, Saritha was simple-looking but a fantastic performer. I liked the music. It challenged us to have good songs in the Hindi remake too."<ref name="hindustantimes.com">{{Cite web |title=Bollywood blockbuster to Kollywood classic: Kamal Haasan picks his 70 favourite movies |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/interactives/kamal-hassan-70-movies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713153725/https://www.hindustantimes.com/interactives/kamal-hassan-70-movies/ |archive-date=13 July 2021 |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>

=== Box office ===
During the first week of release the film performed poorly at the box-office.<ref name="DD1" /> The film's distributors cited that choosing a dark-skinned girl to play the female lead to be the reason.<ref name="DD1" /> However, after the second week, the film had a highly successful run in the theatres; it ultimately ended as a box-office success as it ran for 450 days in [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name="DD1" /> Owing to its success in its native state, the producers released the film in the neighbouring territories of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]] without dubbing in Tamil and Kannada. Across theatres it had an uninterrupted theatrical run of {{frac|2|1|2}} years in [[Bangalore]]. It ran for 596 days at [[Safire Theatre complex|Safire Theatre]] in Chennai,<ref name="DD1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=31 January 2021 |title=பாலசந்தர் டைரக்ஷனில் உருவான மரோசரித்ரா அற்புத சாதனை |url=https://cinema.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinehistory/2021/01/31021449/2309941/cinima-history-Balachander.vpf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506124433/https://cinema.maalaimalar.com/cinema/cinehistory/2021/01/31021449/2309941/cinima-history-Balachander.vpf |archive-date=6 May 2021 |work=[[Maalai Malar]] |language=ta |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref> 450-day run in [[Coimbatore]] at Royal theatre, while had a 693-day run in [[Bangalore]] at Kalpana theatre and 350-day run in [[Mysore]] at Kayathri theatre.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 May 2020 |title='மரோ சரித்ரா'வை இன்னமும் காதலிக்கிறார்கள்; – 42 ஆண்டுகளாகியும் முறியடிக்கப்படாத சாதனை |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/blogs/555345-marosarithra-42-years.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811011558/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/blogs/555345-marosarithra-42-years.html |archive-date=11 August 2020 |work=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta |access-date=16 July 2021}}</ref><ref name="Kungumam">{{Cite news |url=http://kungumam.co.in/Articalinnerdetail.aspx?id=8724&id1=6&issue=20150518 |title=அழியாத கோலங்கள் |date=18 May 2015 |work=[[Kungumam (magazine)|Kungumam]] |access-date=22 February 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222101352/http://kungumam.co.in/Articalinnerdetail.aspx?id=8724&id1=6&issue=20150518 |archive-date=22 February 2018 |language=ta |trans-title=Enduring Patterns }}</ref> The film was dubbed in [[Malayalam]] as ''Thirakal Ezhuthiya Kavitha'' and released in 1980.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thirakal Ezhuthiya Kavitha (1980) |url=https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?5984&cl=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250209041805/https://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?5984&cl=1 |archive-date=9 February 2025 |access-date=3 February 2025 |website=malayalasangeetham.info}}</ref>

== Remakes ==
=== Cancelled Tamil remake ===
Balachander considered remaking ''Maro Charitra'' in Tamil, but Kamal felt it was pointless to do so since the film already had many Tamil dialogues and was so successful in Madras.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/the-unsung-phenomenon/article26598463.ece |title='Mike' Mohan: The unsung phenomenon |last=Kumar |first=S. Shiva |date=21 March 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=29 March 2019 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108001401/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/the-unsung-phenomenon/article26598463.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Remade in Hindi ===
{{Main|Ek Duuje Ke Liye}}
The film was remade into Hindi as ''[[Ek Duuje Ke Liye]]'' by Balachander himself in 1981.{{sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|1998|p=51}} The film like its original became a box-office success and attained cult status. It also marked the Bollywood debut of many South Indian artists including Kamal Haasan, Madhavi and playback singer [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]. In the 1981 film, Balachander chose [[Rati Agnihotri]] over Saritha as he conceived that a [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] girl would be more suitable to the Hindi audience.
=== Remade in other languages ===
In 2005, the film was remade in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Love Story (2005 film)|Love Story]]'' (dubbed in Tamil as ''Uyirullavarai''), with a Hindi man and a Kannada woman as the romantic leads.<ref name="hindu1">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/27/stories/2005112702460200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116080910/http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/27/stories/2005112702460200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 November 2006 |title=A frame-to-frame remake of Marocharitra |last=Venkatasubba Rao |first=K.N. |date=27 November 2005 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=25 January 2014}}</ref> Despite being labelled as a "[[Shot-for-shot|frame-to-frame]] remake" of the original, the film was described as "no match to the original film in any aspect of its making" by K. N. Venkatasubba Rao of ''The Hindu''.<ref name="hindu1" />

=== Remade again in Telugu ===
{{main|Maro Charitra (2010 film)}}
Five years later, [[Ravi Yadav]] remade the story [[Maro Charitra (2010 film)|with the same name]] in Telugu with [[Varun Sandesh]], Anita Galler and [[Shraddha Das]].<ref name="hindu2">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2010/02/17/stories/2010021750610100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204014812/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2010/02/17/stories/2010021750610100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 February 2014 |title=The saga returns |last=Dundoo |first=Sangeetha Devi |date=17 February 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=25 January 2014}}</ref> Unlike the original, the film was a failure and received negative reviews.{{Sfn|Southscope|2010|p=43}} A review from [[Rediff.com]] noted, "the new-age ''Maro Charitra'' is no patch on the original".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/south-review-telugu-movie-maro-charitra/20100326.htm |title=Maro Charitra lacks soul |last=Rajamani |first=Radhika |date=26 March 2010 |website=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=25 January 2014 |archive-date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203141953/http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/south-review-telugu-movie-maro-charitra/20100326.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Accolades ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Award
! Ceremony
! Category
! Nominee
! Outcome
!Ref.
|-
|rowspan="2"| [[Filmfare Awards South]]
|1979
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Director – Telugu|Best Telugu Director]]
|[[K. Balachander]]
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Sfn|Reed|1984|p=234}}
|}

== Legacy ==
''Maro Charitra'' became a landmark in Telugu cinema, and a breakthrough for Saritha and Haasan (in Telugu cinema).{{Sfn|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen|p=437|1998}} In 2017, [[Kamal Haasan]] included the film in his list of 70 favourite movies, stating "This was the original for ''Ek Duje Ke Liye'' (1981), which was also directed by K Balachander. The Telugu film ran in Chennai for two years. Here the boy was Tamil, the girl Telugu. It was in black and white and I preferred it. The Hindi version was a little flashier when it came to the clothes and so on, it had a Punjabi girl and a Tamil boy. The Maro Charitra heroine (Saritha) was simple-looking but a fantastic performer. I liked the music. It challenged us to have good songs in the Hindi remake too."<ref name="hindustantimes.com"/>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ |title=The Oxford companion to Indian theatre |last=Lal |first=Ananda |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-19-564446-3 |author-link=Ananda Lal}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] and [[Oxford University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-563579-5 |author-link1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha |author-link2=Paul Willemen |orig-date=1994}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=enxTAAAAYAAJ |title=Film World |last=Ramachandran |first=T.M. |year=1982 |volume=19 }}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kh-2AAAAIAAJ |title=The Times of India Directory and Year Book Including Who's who |last=Reed |first=Sir Stanley |publisher=Bennett, Coleman. |year=1984 }}
* {{Cite journal |date=July 2010 |title=Southscope July 2010 – Side A |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XDiv2uFwbIwC&q=maro+charitra |journal=[[South Scope]] |ref={{harvid|Southscope|2010}}}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{K. Balachander}}
{{Romeo and Juliet film adaptations}}

[[Category:1978 Indian films]]
[[Category:1978 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1978 films]]
[[Category:1978 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films based on Romeo and Juliet]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Films scored by M. S. Viswanathan]]
[[Category:Films shot in Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by K. Balachander]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Telugu films remade in other languages]]

Oka Manasu

2026-03-03T17:51:04Z

DeangeloSchwing: Made the data with sources - done

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Oka Manasu
| image = Niharika Konidela's Oka Manasu.jpg
| caption = Film poster
| director = [[G. V. Rama Raju]]
| writer = G. V. Rama Raju
| producer = [[Madhura Sreedhar Reddy]] Dr.Krishna Bhatta (KKNKTV) A. Abhinay
| starring = [[Naga Shourya]] [[Niharika Konidela]]
| cinematography = Raam Reddy
| music = [[Sunil Kashyap]]
| editing = Dharmendra Kakarala
| studio = [[Madhura Sreedhar Reddy|Madhura Entertainment]] [[TV9 (Telugu)|TV9]] & KKNKTV
| country = [[India]]
| language = Telugu
| runtime = 146 minutes
| released = {{Film date|2016|06|24|df=y}}
}}
'''''Oka Manasu''''' ({{translation|One Heart}}) is a 2016 [[Telugu language|Telugu]] [[romance film|romantic]] [[drama film]] written and directed by [[G. V. Rama Raju]].<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/straight-from-the-heartrama-raju/article8724091.ece"Straight from the heart:'Oka Manasu' director Rama Raju"]</ref> It features [[Naga Shourya]] and [[Niharika Konidela]] in the lead roles, which marks Niharika{{'s}} acting debut and debut in Telugu cinema.<ref>[http://deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/100416/meet-mega-princess-niharika-konidela.html "Meet ‘Mega Princess’ Niharika Konidela"]</ref><ref>[http://deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/220316/nagababu-s-daughter-niharika-s-debut-film-is-ready.html "Nagababu’s daughter Niharika’s debut film is ready"]</ref><ref>[http://deccanchronicle.com/151208/entertainment-tollywood/article/waiting-niharika "Waiting for Niharika"]</ref> The film was released worldwide on 24 June 2016.<ref>[http://www.ibtimes.co.in/oka-manasu-clears-censor-board-madhura-sreedhar-reveals-release-date-naga-682887 "'Oka Manasu' clears censor board; Madhura Sreedhar reveals release date of Naga Shourya-Niharika-starrer"]</ref>

== Plot ==
Sandhya, a medical student, falls deeply in [[love at first sight]] with Surya, a youngster with political aspirations. Surya does small-time ‘settlements’ as he awaits a chance to contest at the local elections. Sandhya understands that the path ahead of her is not easy when she sees Surya roughing up people every now and then. Her mother suggests Surya to leave politics for her daughter, but Surya does not agree and follows his path because of his father's wish to see his son as an [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|MLA]]. One of the settlements later becomes a serious issue, leading to an [[First Information Report|FIR]] being filed on Surya for [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|S.C., S.T.]] atrocities, and he is arrested on those charges. After knowing Surya's arrest, Sandhya decides to wait for him but her mother convinces her to shift from Vijaya Nagaram to Vizag on hopes to forget Surya.

Three years later Surya is released on bail using the high influence from his uncle, who is an MLA belonging to the opposition party in Vizag. Surya and tries to make a settlement to cancel the case on him. He learns that one of his friends betrayed him for his political aspirations, became an approver, and is now a municipal chairman to the [[Vijayanagara district]]. Surya meets him for a compromise, it leads to a fight, and the situation becomes worse. Surya's father appoints Satya, a practical man with no sentiments, as his advisor. They become good friends rather than a boss and employee because of Satya's straightforward nature and his loyalty towards him. Later in Vizag, Surya meets Sandhya and advises her to leave him because of his situation as there is no guarantee on his future, but Sandhya refuses to leave him and replies that she will wait for him for her entire life. Satya supports her decision and advises Surya to keep it as a secret until the problem is solved. Surya and Sandhya start a live-in relationship without her mother's will. Surya starts helping in his uncle's election campaign.

During the election campaign, a person starts attacking Surya's uncle, who once expected a MLA ticket but was refused under the grounds of financial backup. Surya protects his uncle and beats the person up. Satya understands that he is showing his frustration on him because of Sandhya. Impressed by his actions, Surya's uncle gives him an opportunity to contest as an MLA and is ready to make him his political heir on the condition that Surya marry his daughter, who is a spoilt divorcée. Surya's father and Satya support this and try to convince Surya for the marriage as this will solve his case and to achieve his ambition. Surya refuses to betray Sandhya but remembers his father's dream and lies to her that his bail was cancelled. He instructs to start a new life without him, but Sandhya does not listen to him and tells him that she will wait for him forever. Later, through Surya's father, she understands his situation (Surya's father knew their relationship through Surya earlier). Sandhya decides to leave him but for two conditions: he must achieve his ambition, and she asks him to spend some time with him for a couple of days, to which he accepts.

After two days, in the morning, when Surya tries to wake Sandhya up on the bed, realizes that she committed suicide. He finds a note beside her which tells him that she has fulfilled her dreams with him and she will wait for him in the next life. The film ends with Surya remembering her memories on her grave.

== Cast ==
*[[Naga Shourya]] as Surya
*[[Niharika Konidela]] as Sandhya
*[[Rao Ramesh]] as Surya's father
*[[Krishna Bhagavan]]
*Radio Mirchi RJ Hemanth
*[[Srinivas Avasarala]] as Satya
*[[Vennela Kishore]]
*[[Pragathi (actress)|Pragathi]] as Sandhya's mother
*[[Roshan Kanakala]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/okamanasu.html|title = Oka Manasu review by jeevi - Telugu cinema review - Naga Shourya & Niharika Konidela}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
Oka Manasu's audio has nine tracks, all composed by [[Sunil Kashyap]]. Songs were penned by [[Ramajogayya Sastry]] and Bhaskarabhatla Ravikumar. The music was launched on May 18, 2016 with members of mega families like [[Nagendra Babu]], [[Ram Charan]], [[Varun Tej]], [[Sai Dharam Tej]], [[Allu Arjun]] as chief guests.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/music/Ram-Charan-attends-Oka-Manasu-audio/articleshow/52342694.cms"Ram Charan attends Oka Manasu audio"]</ref>

The album received positive reviews from the audiences.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.indiaglitz.com/oka-manasu-telugu-music-review-20656.html| title = Oka Manasu Music review songs lyrics - IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| collapsed =
| headline = Track list
| extra_column = Artist(s)
| total_length = 37:31
| title1 = O Manasa
| note1 = Male
| lyrics1 = [[Ramajogayya Sastry]]
| extra1 = [[Yazin Nizar]]
| length1 = 04:54
| title2 = Hrudayama
| lyrics2 = Ramajogayya Sastry
| extra2 = [[Vijay Yesudas]], [[Swetha Mohan]]
| length2 = 04:04
| title3 = Ninna Lenantha
| lyrics3 = Bhaskarabhatla Ravikumar
| extra3 = [[Vedala Hemachandra]], [[Ramya Behara]]
| length3 = 03:34
| title4 = Chirugali Aagipove
| lyrics4 = Ramajogayya Sastry
| extra4 = Vedala Hemachandra, Sameera Bharadwaj
| length4 = 04:09
| title5 = O Manasa
| note5 = Female
| lyrics5 = Ramajogayya Sastry
| extra5 = Shreya Ghoshal
| length5 = 04:54
| title6 = Emito Ee Kshanam
| lyrics6 = Bhaskarabhatla Ravikumar
| extra6 = Vedala Hemachandra, Pranavi
| length6 = 04:58
| title7 = Nee Manasuna
| lyrics7 = Ramajogayya Sastry
| extra7 = [[Vijay Prakash]]
| length7 = 04:19
| title8 = Amrutha Varshini
| note8 = Instrumental
| length8 = 02:56
| title9 = O Manasa
| note9 = Instrumental
| length9 = 03:43}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|5689524}}

[[Category:2016 films]]
[[Category:2016 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2016 Indian films]]

Bramma

2026-03-03T04:52:17Z

DeangeloSchwing: Content updated and refined

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Bramma poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[K. Subash]]
| producer = M. Ramanathan
| writer = Shanmuga Priyan (dialogues)
| story = K. Panneerselvam
| screenplay =
| starring = [[Sathyaraj]] [[Khushbu Sundar|Khushbu]] [[Bhanupriya]]
| music = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| cinematography = Y. N. Murali
| editing = Krishnamoorthy Siva
| studio = Raaj Films International
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1991|11|05|ref1=}}
| country = India
| budget =
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Bramma''''' ({{IPAc-en|b|r|ə|m|m|ɑː}}) is a 1991 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action thriller]] film directed by [[K. Subash]] and produced by M. Ramanathan. The film stars [[Sathyaraj]], [[Khushbu Sundar|Khushbu]] and [[Bhanupriya]]. [[Goundamani]], [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]], [[Pradeep Shakthi]], and [[C. R. Saraswathi]] play supporting roles. It was released on 5 November 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |title=bramma ( 1991 ) |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/newfilmdb.cgi?name=bramma |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029131731/http://cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/newfilmdb.cgi?name=bramma |archive-date=29 October 2006 |access-date=8 February 2012 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref> The film was remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''Brahma'' (1992), in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Ravivarma (film)|Ravivarma]]'' (1992) and in [[Hindi]] by the same director as ''[[Brahma (1994 film)|Brahma]]'' (1994).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brahma |url=http://myswar.co/album/brahma-1994 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212045224/http://myswar.co/album/brahma-1994 |archive-date=12 December 2022 |access-date=12 December 2022 |website=MySwar}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Ravivarman "Ravi", a gifted artist with a unique ability to draw people's faces at different ages from their childhood photos, has turned to drinking for unknown reasons. He now lives aimlessly with his friend Valayapalayam Chinnasamy. The [[Superintendent (police)|Police Superintendent]] seeks Ravi's expertise to draw the current face of the notorious terrorist George, responsible for a flight bomb blast, using an old photo. Initially hesitant, Ravi agrees to help and creates multiple portraits of George, leading to the terrorist's capture and life imprisonment. George vows to exact revenge on Ravi. Ravi's involvement in the case makes headlines, and he becomes famous.

Fernandes Nallathambi, a wealthy Rosewood Estate owner, approaches Ravi and asks for his help in drawing a portrait of his supposedly missing niece, Jennifer, who vanished at the age of five. However, Vellaiyamma, the estate's elderly housemaid, warns Ravi that Nallathambi is not Jennifer's uncle, but a ruthless servant who murdered her parents and seized the estate. Nallathambi is now searching for Jennifer to eliminate her and claim the properties for himself. Nallathambi's lawyer, Venkatasamy, advises him that time is running out to capture Jennifer and present her in court, or else the estate will be seized by the government due to lack of a legal heir. Nallathambi plans to marry Jennifer off to his son once they find her, allowing him to inherit the properties. After understanding Nallathambi's true intentions, Ravi creates a portrait and presents it as Jennifer's painting to Nallathambi.

Chinnasamy warns Ravi that drawing Jennifer's portrait will put her in danger. However, Ravi reveals that the portrait is actually of his deceased wife, Pavithra, and begins to share their tragic past. Pavithra, an orphan, was rescued by Ravi from her molesting relative, and he took her in, initially making her dress as a boy. He encouraged her passion for [[Bharatanatyam]], and as she practiced, a police constable stumbled upon her in Ravi's home. To safeguard her, Ravi lied about Pavithra being his wife. When Pavithra's relative attempted to take her back, Ravi shielded her. Eventually, Pavithra fell in love with Ravi, and they got married, starting a happy life together. Tragedy struck when Ravi arranged tickets for Pavithra's Bharatanatyam competition in [[Delhi]]. Due to work commitments, he was unable to see her off at the airport. Soon after, he received devastating news that the flight Pavithra was on had suffered a bomb blast, killing all passengers on board.

Ravi and Chinnasamy are now on a mission to find Jennifer and keep her safe. They use [[Musical note|musical notes]] stolen from Jennifer's room to contact musician [[Gangai Amaran]], who decodes the notes into a tune. Ravi later spots Jennifer in a newspaper article, and they track her down to a boarding school where she's working as a teacher to warn her about her wealth and the dangers that come with it. After a few failed attempts, Ravi plays the family song to gain her trust. Initially, Jennifer believes Ravi is Nallathambi's henchman sent to kill her, but after learning more about Ravi, she starts to trust him and develops feelings for him. However, Ravi doesn't reciprocate her emotions. Jennifer tries to help Ravi overcome his drinking habit, but her efforts are met with resistance. When Pavithra's memory seems to threaten Ravi's connection with Jennifer, he slaps Jennifer, telling her not to push him.

Meanwhile, Nallathambi seeks the help of terrorist George, his former aide, to find and kill Jennifer. Unbeknownst to everyone, Pavithra
is alive but in a coma at the same hospital where George is being treated. George mistakes Pavithra for Jennifer based on Ravi's portrait and kidnaps her. However, Ravi intervenes, and George escapes after injecting Ravi with a sedative, leaving Pavithra behind. Pavithra awakens from her coma, revealing that she didn't board the flight she was supposed to due to giving her ticket to another woman. Instead, she was chased by a molesting relative and hit by a speeding car, leading to her coma. Now pregnant, Pavithra goes to Ravi's house, but he's not there. She finds a money order receipt from Nallathambi meant for Ravi and heads to Rosewood Estate to find Ravi. Upon her arrival, Nallathambi realizes that Ravi had intentionally drawn Pavithra's portrait instead of Jennifer's to protect the real Jennifer. Nallathambi understands that Ravi still believes Pavithra died in the flight crash.

After learning the truth from Nallathambi, Ravi rushes to Rosewood Estate and is overjoyed to find his wife Pavithra alive. However, Nallathambi threatens to kill Pavithra with bombs unless Ravi brings Jennifer to him. With no other option, Ravi hands Jennifer over to George. But George outsmarts Ravi, escapes with Jennifer, leaving Ravi behind. Just as Jennifer is about to transfer her properties to Nallathambi, Ravi arrives and engages in a fight against Nallathambi, George, and their henchmen. In the chaos, George dies in his bomb blast, and finally, Nallathambi and his son are arrested. The film concludes with Ravi reuniting with Pavithra and Jennifer, who had developed feelings for Ravi, tearfully bids farewell to the couple. Coincidentally, Chinnasamy joins the couple on the train, adding to the emotional closure.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Sathyaraj]] as Ravivarman "Ravi"
*[[Bhanupriya]] as Pavithra
*[[Khushbu Sundar|Khushbu]] as Jennifer
*[[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]] as Fernandes Nallathambi
*[[Goundamani]] as Valayapalayam Chinnasamy
*[[Girish Karnad]] in a special appearance as Jennifer's father
*[[Gangai Amaran]] in a cameo appearance as himself
*[[Vennira Aadai Moorthy]] in a cameo appearance as a constable
*[[Pradeep Shakthi]] as George
*Veeraraghavan as [[Superintendent (police)|Superintendent of Police]]
*R. P. Viswam as Venkatasamy, Nallathambi's lawyer
*[[C. K. Saraswathi]] as Vellaiyamma, a housemaid
*Radhabai as [[Mother superior|mother superior]]
*Baby Srilekha as young Jennifer
}}

== Soundtrack ==
The music composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 May 1991 |title=Bramma |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/bramma/T,MKVeMSePs_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212035926/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/bramma/T,MKVeMSePs_ |archive-date=12 December 2022 |access-date=12 December 2022 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length
|-
| "Engiruntho" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]] || rowspan=2|[[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || 05:07
|-
| "Ival Oru Ilanguruvi" || [[S. Janaki]] || 04:53
|-
| "Nadapadhu Nadakattum" || S. P. Balasubrahmanyam || [[Gangai Amaran]] || 05:04
|-
| "Raathiri Neram Railadi Oram" || S. Janaki, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam || rowspan=2|Vaali || 05:04
|-
| "Varuthu Varuthu" || S. Janaki, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam || 05:02
|}

== Critical reception ==
''[[The Indian Express]]'' wrote, "Its an elaborately worked out formula film, with ample opportunity for Sathyaraj to swagger around in his informal manner".<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 November 1991 |title=Brahma |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19911101&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=7 January 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=7 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Sundarji of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' wrote that the screenplay was filled with twists, but wondered if such a film needed some kind of thrill and horror, and they could not find it anywhere in the film.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=சுந்தர்ஜி |date=17 November 1991 |title=ப்ரம்மா |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1991-11-17/page/n49/mode/2up? |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240216124947/https://archive.org/details/kalki1991-11-17/page/n49/mode/2up? |archive-date=16 February 2024 |access-date=16 February 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=48 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|id=tt0317195}}

{{K. Subash}}

[[Category:1991 Indian films]]
[[Category:1991 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1991 action thriller films]]
[[Category:1991 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. Subash]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja]]
[[Category:Indian action thriller films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Yogeshwar Dutt

2026-02-28T06:07:43Z

DeangeloSchwing: page fix

{{Short description|Indian wrestler (born 1982)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}

{{Infobox sportsperson
| name = Yogeshwar Dutt
| image = XIX Commonwealth Games-2010 Delhi Yogeshwar Dutt of India won the gold medal in (Men’s) Wrestling 60Kg Freestyle, at Indira Gandhi Stadium, in New Delhi on October 09, 2010.jpg
| caption = Dutt at the [[2010 Commonwealth Games]]
| nickname = Yogi, Pahalwan Ji<ref name="ndtvkhabar">{{Cite web |url=https://khabar.ndtv.com/news/sports/all-eyes-and-hopes-on-yogeshwar-dutt-on-last-day-of-rio-olympics-1446520 |title='रियो ओलिंपिक के आखिरी दिन 'पहलवान जी' से है गोल्ड की उम्मीद' |website=NDTVIndia |access-date=9 December 2019 |archive-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209103143/https://khabar.ndtv.com/news/sports/all-eyes-and-hopes-on-yogeshwar-dutt-on-last-day-of-rio-olympics-1446520 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1982|11|2}}
| birth_place = Bhainswal Kalan, [[Sonipat district|Sonipat]], [[Haryana]], India<ref name="Tribune">{{cite news |last1=Hussain |first1=Sabi |title=Getting a grip |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2014/20140717/sports.htm#1 |access-date=10 August 2016 |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)]] |date=17 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325065816/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2014/20140717/sports.htm#1 |archive-date=25 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| height = 1.68 m<ref name="Stats">{{cite web |title=Yogeshwar Dutt |url=https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/108111 |website=[[Olympedia]] |access-date=26 May 2023}}</ref>
| medaltemplates = {{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}{{MedalSport|Men's [[freestyle wrestling]]}} [[File: Wrestling pictogram.svg|30px]]
{{MedalCompetition|[[Olympic Games]]}}

{{MedalBronze|[[2012 Summer Olympics|2012 London]]|[[Wrestling at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Men's freestyle 60 kg|60kg]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Games]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2014 Asian Games|2014 Incheon]]|[[Wrestling at the 2014 Asian Games – Men's freestyle 65 kg|65kg]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2006 Asian Games|2006 Doha]]|[[Wrestling at the 2006 Asian Games|60kg]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Wrestling Championships|Asian Championships]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2008 Asian Wrestling Championships|2008 Jeju]]|[[2008 Asian Wrestling Championships#Men's freestyle|60kg]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2012 Asian Wrestling Championships|2012 Gumi]]|[[2012 Asian Wrestling Championships#Men's freestyle|60kg]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Commonwealth Games]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2010 Commonwealth Games|2010 Delhi]]|[[Wrestling at the 2010 Commonwealth Games – Men's freestyle 60 kg|60kg]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2014 Commonwealth Games|2014 Glasgow]]|[[Wrestling at the 2014 Commonwealth Games – Men's freestyle 65 kg|65kg]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Commonwealth Wrestling Championships|Commonwealth Championships]]}}
{{MedalGold|2003 London|55kg}}
{{MedalGold|2005 Stellenbosch|60kg}}
{{MedalGold|2007 London|60kg}}
{{MedalSport|Men's [[greco-roman wrestling]]}} [[File: Wrestling pictogram.svg|30px]]
{{MedalCompetition|[[Commonwealth Wrestling Championships|Commonwealth Championships]]}}
{{MedalSilver|2005 Stellenbosch|60kg}}
{{MedalSilver|2007 London|60kg}}
}}

'''Yogeshwar Dutt''' (born 2 November 1982) is a former Indian [[wrestler]]. At the [[2012 Summer Olympics|2012 London Olympics]], he won a bronze medal in the [[Wrestling at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Men's freestyle 60 kg|60 kg freestyle]] event.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/flipping-arena-with-a-toss-dutt-gives-india-its-fifth-medal/987222/ |title=Flipping arena with a toss, Dutt gives India its fifth medal |date=12 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Venkat |first1=Rahul |title=India's wrestling medals at the Olympics - From KD Jadhav to Sakshi Malik |url=https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/india-wrestling-olympic-games-medals-kd-jadhav-sushil-kumar |access-date=6 August 2022 |work=Olympics.com |date=7 August 2021}}</ref> He was conferred the [[Arjuna Award]] in 2009, [[Khel Ratna Award|Khel Ratna]] in 2012 and the [[Padma Shri]] in 2013 by the [[Government of India]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx |title=Padma Awards |publisher=pib |date=27 January 2013 |access-date=27 January 2013}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Dutt was born in Bhainswal Kalan village in [[Sonipat district]] of [[Haryana]].<ref name="Tribune"/><ref name="India.com"/> He first started wrestling at the age of eight in his native village and idolised Balraj Pehlwan. He was trained by coach Ramphal.<ref name="India.com">{{Cite web |url=https://www.india.com/buzz/yogeshwar-dutt-11-reasons-to-be-proud-of-the-unsung-hero-of-indian-wrestling-108547/ |title=Yogeshwar Dutt: 11 Reasons to be proud of the unsung hero of Indian wrestling! |last=Kumar |first=Sooraj |date=2 August 2014 |website=India.com |language=en |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref> Dutt is a [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Vivek |first1=G. S. |title=Catch up with wrestling champs Sushil Kumar and Yogeshwar Dutt in a freewheeling chat |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/story/sushil-kumar-and-yogeshwar-dutt-interview-220560-2013-12-11 |access-date=4 October 2023 |work=India Today |date=13 December 2013 |language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==

=== 2006 Asian Games ===
Yogeshwar had lost his father on 3 August 2006 just nine days before he boarded the flight to Doha for the [[Asian Games]].<ref>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/Specials/Sports/Olympics2012/Chunk-HT-UI-Olympics-Discipline-Wrestling/Father-s-dream-drives-Yogeshwar/SP-Article10-911652.aspx Father's dream drives Yogeshwar] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812043216/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Specials/Sports/Olympics2012/Chunk-HT-UI-Olympics-Discipline-Wrestling/Father-s-dream-drives-Yogeshwar/SP-Article10-911652.aspx |date=12 August 2012 }}. Hindustan Times (10 August 2012).</ref> He also sustained a knee injury, but despite all the emotional and physical trauma he managed to win the bronze in the [[Wrestling at the 2006 Asian Games#60 Kilograms|60 kg category]] at the [[2006 Asian Games|15th Asian Games]] at [[Doha]].<ref>[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200612/14/eng20061214_332471.html "Medal winners at the 15th Asian Games on Dec. 13"], ''[[People's Daily]]'', (14 December 2006). Retrieved on 16 August 2008.</ref>

=== 2010 Commonwealth Games ===
At the 2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games, Yogeshwar overcame a career-threatening knee injury to win the 60 kg title. On his way to the final, Yogeshwar went past Australian [[Farzad Tarash]] (16–0, 17–0), South African Marius Loots (7–1) and England's [[Sasha Madyarchyk]] (4–4, 8–0) before winning the gold.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/london-olympics-2012/olympics-2012-players/yogeshwardutt.cms Yogeshwar Dutt Phogat Olympics 2012 Player Profile, News, Medals – Times of India]. Timesofindia.indiatimes.com (1 January 1970).</ref>

=== 2012 Summer Olympics ===
On 12 August 2012, Dutt provided a late boost to India's medals tally in the [[2012 London Olympics]] by claiming a bronze in the [[Wrestling at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Men's freestyle 60 kg|Men's freestyle 60 kg]], becoming only the third Indian wrestler to win an Olympic medal after [[Khashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav|K D Jadhav]] in 1952 and [[Sushil Kumar (wrestler)|Sushil Kumar]] in 2008 and 2012.

He had defeated North Korean [[Ri Jong-Myong]] in the bronze medal bout thus winning the fifth medal for Indian contingent at the London Olympics 2012.

Earlier, Yogeshwar qualified for the 2012 Olympics by winning a silver medal at an Asian qualification tournament in [[Astana]], [[Kazakhstan]] where he lost to Iranian [[Masoud Esmaeilpour]] (2–3, 0–1) in the final.

At the Olympics he lost to the Russian [[Besik Kudukhov|B Kudukhov]] 1–0, 2–0 and was knocked out in the pre-quarterfinal round. He got a chance to contest in the repechage rounds as Kudukhov reached the finals of the event.

In his first repechage round he went on to beat [[Franklin Gómez]] of Puerto Rico with a score of 1–0, 1–0. He got lucky against his opponent, winning the toss on both the occasions to earn a clinch position. Yogeshwar then scored 7–5 to beat [[Masoud Esmaeilpour]] with an aggregate of counted points 3–1 in Repechage Round 2. Esmaeilpour had beaten Yogeshwar at the Asian qualifications earlier that year.

He finally beat his North Korean opponent to clinch the bronze medal (0–1, 1–0, 6–0). He was exceptional in the last round, and clinched it in just 1:02 minutes.<ref>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/Specials/Sports/Olympics2012/Chunk-HT-UI-Olympics-TopStories/Yogeshwar-Dutt-gets-India-bronze-medal--in-wrestling/SP-Article10-912056.aspx Yogeshwar Dutt repe-charges to bronze, gets India 5th medal] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812040855/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Specials/Sports/Olympics2012/Chunk-HT-UI-Olympics-TopStories/Yogeshwar-Dutt-gets-India-bronze-medal--in-wrestling/SP-Article10-912056.aspx |date=12 August 2012 }}. Hindustan Times (11 August 2012).</ref>

=== 2014 Commonwealth Games ===

Yogeshwar Dutt won the gold medal in the men's 65 kg freestyle category by beating Canada's Jevon Balfour 10–0 in the finals.

Yogeshwar had earlier beaten Alex Gladkov of Scotland 4–0 in the pre-quarters and then easily defeated another Scottish wrestler Gareth Jones in the quarterfinals by employing his trademark Fitele (leg twisting) technique that he had used while winning the bronze medal at the [[2012 London Olympics]]. In the semi-finals, Yogeshwar successfully used his favourite technique again to get the better of Sri Lanka's Chamara Perera in just two minutes and three seconds. Yogeshwar won with a 0–5 verdict after taking a 10–0 lead on technical points.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/39373886.cms |title=CWG 2014: Yogeshwar Dutt, Babita Kumari win gold as India's medal tally reaches 44 – The Economic Times |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=31 July 2014}}</ref>

=== 2014 Asian Games ===

Yogeshwar Dutt won the Gold in the 65 kg freestyle wrestling category by defeating [[Zalimkhan Yusupov (freestyle wrestler)|Zalimkhan Yusupov]] of [[Tajikistan]] in the final at the [[Asian games 2014]]. Dutt won a closely fought final 1–0. Earlier, he defeated the opponent from China in the semi-final by Fall in another closely fought bout in which Dutt was trailing almost until the end. He defeated Jinhyok Kang of [[North Korea]] in the quarterfinal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.ndtv.com/asian-games-2014/news/230592-asian-games-wrestler-yogeshwar-wins-historic-gold |title=Asian Games: After Historic Gold, Yogeshwar Dutt Dedicates Medal to Father |last=NDTVSports |access-date=30 September 2014 |archive-date=30 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140930233517/http://sports.ndtv.com/asian-games-2014/news/230592-asian-games-wrestler-yogeshwar-wins-historic-gold |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== 2015 ===
In 2015, he was clubbed into the 'Icon' category by Haryana Hammers<ref>[http://www.haryanahammers.com/team-2/yogeshwar-dutt-bio/ Yogeshwar Dutt Bio Haryana Hammers] . Haryanahammers.com/.</ref> – one of the six teams playing under the first edition of Pro Wrestling League (PWL), which was held from 10 to 27 December in six Indian cities.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/sport/yogeshwar-sushil-highest-bids-at-pro-wrestling-league-auction/article7838399.ece Yogeshwar, Sushil highest bids at Pro Wrestling League auction] The Hindu.com</ref>

==Political career==
Dutt joined [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] in September 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Election test for Yogeshwar, Babita and Sandeep as sporting icons join politics |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/other-sports/story/haryana-assembly-elections-yogeshwar-dutte-babita-phogat-sandeep-singh-1604896-2019-09-30 |access-date=30 September 2019 |work=India Today |date=30 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

== Awards, rewards and recognition ==
* [[Khel Ratna Award|Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award]] 2012 given by Government of India<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award and Arjuna Awards Announced |publisher=Press Information Bureau, Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports |url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/mbErel.aspx?relid=86351 |date=19 August 2012 |access-date=4 August 2014}}</ref>

; For the bronze medal at 2012 London Olympic
* {{INRConvert|10|m}} cash reward from the Haryana Government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Haryana-chief-minister-announces-cash-award-of-Rs-1-crore-to-Yogeshwar-Dutt/articleshow/15454063.cms |title=Haryana chief minister announces cash award of Rs 1 crore to Yogeshwar Dutt |newspaper=The Times of India |date=12 August 2012}}</ref>
* 4x4 vehicle from a PSU bank<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/after-bronze-dutt-looks-to-go-all-the-way-at-worlds/988874/0 After bronze, Dutt looks to go all the way at Worlds]. Indian Express (16 August 2012).</ref>

== See also ==
* [[India at the 2012 Summer Olympics]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316213615/http://www.fila-official.com/index.php?option=com_licence&act=lutteur&task=fiche&lutteur=5813&Itemid=106 |title=Yogeshwar Dutt at FILA Wrestling |date=dmy}}
* {{UWW|dutt-yogeshwar|archive=20230430022228}}
* {{IWD}}
* {{Olympics.com|org_archive=20190903225317}}
* {{Olympedia}}
* {{CGF profile|archive=20210713035121}}
* {{2014 Commonwealth Games profile|cycling_road/1022501/yogeshwar_dutt}}
* {{IMDb name}}

{{Olympic medalists for India}}
{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Sports}}
{{Asian Games Champions Wrestling Freestyle Lightweight Men}}
{{Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Awardees}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dutt, Yogeshwar}}
[[Category:1982 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male sport wrestlers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Olympic wrestlers for India]]
[[Category:Olympic bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Olympic medalists in wrestling]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2004 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2008 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2012 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2016 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games gold medallists for India]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games gold medallists in wrestling]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2010 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2014 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Medallists at the 2010 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Medallists at the 2014 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games wrestlers for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2006 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Wrestlers at the 2014 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2006 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2014 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Sport wrestlers from Haryana]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Khel Ratna Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports]]
[[Category:People from Sonipat district]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Haryana]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
[[Category:Asian Wrestling Championships medalists]]
[[Category:Indian sports executives and administrators]]
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists in wrestling]]
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists in wrestling]]

P. C. Kokila

2026-02-16T19:11:02Z

DeangeloSchwing: slightly refined article for consistency and fixed typos to improve readability

{{Short description|Indian professor of Hindi}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = P. C. Kokila
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Bhavnagar]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| image = PM Modi releases the Gujarati translation of Thirukkural.jpg
| caption = Kokila with her [[Kural]] translation released by Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] in 2015
| known_for = Translating [[Tirukkural]] into [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| occupation = Professor
| father =
| mother =
| spouse =
| children =
| awards =
}}

'''P. C. Kokila''' is an Indian professor of Hindi, who is best known for translating the [[Tirukkural]] into [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]].<ref name="BS_PMReleasesTrans">{{cite news
| title = PM releases Gujarati translation of Thirukkural, on 'Thiruvalluvar Day'
| newspaper = Business Standard
| location = Delhi
| date = 16 January 2015
| url = http://www.business-standard.com/article/government-press-release/pm-releases-gujarati-translation-of-thirukkural-on-thiruvalluvarday-115011601100_1.html
| access-date = 22 April 2017}}</ref><ref name="TH_UnderTheSpell">{{cite news
| last = Krishnamachari
| first = Suganthy
| title = Under the spell of the Kural
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| publisher = Kasturi & Sons
| date = 20 November 2014
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/tirukkural-translations/article6618091.ece
| access-date = 14 October 2017}}</ref>

==Biography==
P. C. Kokila was born in [[Bhavnagar]] in [[Gujarat]]. In 1981, she completed her bachelor's degree in [[mathematics]] from the [[University of Madras]]. She completed her MA in [[Hindi]] from the [[Dakshin Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha]] in 1984 and went on to obtain an MPhil in 1986 and a doctorate in 1994. In 1998, she completed her MA in philosophy and religion from the [[Madurai Kamaraj University]]. She began her career in 1986 as a Hindi pradhyapika (pundit) in Hindi Teaching Scheme of the Indian government's Ministry of Home Affairs. From 1988, she has been working in the Hindi department at the [[Presidency College, Chennai|Presidency College]] in [[Chennai]] and became the associate professor and head of the department. She has presented 24 research papers, of which 16 have been published.<ref>{{cite book
| title = Tirukkural in Gujarati
| publisher = Central Institute of Classical Tamil
| edition = 1
| date = 2015
| location = Chennai
| pages = 428
| language = ta, gu
| isbn = 978-93-81-74419-2
}}</ref>

Kokila translated the ancient Tamil moral work of the ''Tirukkural'', which was published in 2015 by the [[Central Institute of Classical Tamil]] and released by the Prime Minister of India [[Narendra Modi]].<ref name="BS_PMReleasesTrans"/><ref name="TH_UnderTheSpell"/> She is the second translator of the work in Gujarati, after Najuklal Choksi in 1931 and [[Kantilal L. Kalani]] in 1971.<ref name="TK_SeminarPapers">{{cite book
| editor-last = Sanjeevi
| editor-first = N.
| title = First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers
| publisher = University of Madras
| edition = 2
| date = 1973
| location = Chennai
| pages = 13
}}</ref>

Kokila considers the Tirukkural as the work that influenced [[Japanese literature|Japanese]] [[Haiku|Haiku poetry]], given the similarity between the two and both being spiritual and drawing examples from nature. According to her the travelling [[Buddhist monks]] acted as the conduits between the two cultures.<ref name="TH_UnderTheSpell"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Tamils|Literature|Poetry}}
* [[Tirukkural translations]]
* [[Tirukkural translations into Gujarati]]
* [[List of translators]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Tirukkural}}
{{Tamil language}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kokila, P. C.}}
[[Category:Tamil–Gujarati translators]]
[[Category:Translators of the Tirukkural into Gujarati]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Presidency College, Chennai]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Dhumketu (soundtrack)

2026-02-11T05:12:29Z

DeangeloSchwing: put up a entry more to come

{{Short description|2025 soundtrack album by Anupam Roy, Indraadip Dasgupta and Nilayan Chatterjee}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox album
|cover=blank
| name = Dhumketu
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Anupam Roy]], [[Indraadip Dasgupta]] and [[Nilayan Chatterjee]]
| recorded = 2016{{ndash}}2025
| studio = {{ubl|Audio Lake, [[Kolkata]]|Ananjan's Studio, Kolkata}}
| genre = [[Feature Film Soundtrack]]
| length = {{Duration|m=30|s=47}}
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| label = [[Saregama India]]
| producer = Anupam Roy, Indraadip Dasgupta and Nilayan Chatterjee
| misc = {{Extra chronology
| artist = [[Anupam Roy]]
| type = soundtrack
| prev_title = Chandrabindoo
| prev_year = 2025
| title = Dhumketu
| year = 2025
| next_title = [[Raktabeej 2]]
| next_year = 2025
}}
{{Extra chronology
| artist = [[Indraadip Dasgupta]]
| type = Soundtrack
| prev_title = [[Grihapravesh (2025 film)|Grihapravesh]]
| prev_year = 2025
| title = Dhumketu
| year = 2024
| next_title = [[Lawho Gouranger Naam Rey]]
| next_year = 2025
}}
{{Extra chronology
| artist = [[Nilayan Chatterjee]]
| type = soundtrack
| prev_title = [[Khadaan]]
| prev_year = 2024
| title = Dhumketu
| year = 2025
| next_title = [[Raghu Dakat]]
| next_year = 2025
}}
}}
'''''Dhumketu''''' is the official [[soundtrack album]] to the 2025 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language [[romantic thriller]] film [[Dhumketu (2025 film)|of the same name]], directed by [[Kaushik Ganguly]], and starring [[Dev (Bengali actor)|Dev]] and [[Subhashree Ganguly]] in lead roles. The film’s songs were composed primarily by [[Anupam Roy]], with additional compositions by [[Indraadip Dasgupta]] and [[Nilayan Chatterjee]], whereas Dasgupta also provided its original score.

The album is notable for its unusually long production cycle; while most of the songs were recorded in 2016, the soundtrack remained unreleased for nearly a decade due to production delays, finally debuting on 7 July 2025, under the [[Saregama|Saregama India]] label.

== Background and development ==
The musical development for ''[[Dhumketu (2025 film)|Dhumketu]]'' began in late-2015 when director [[Kaushik Ganguly]] collaborated with Anupam Roy maidenly. Ganguly wanted the music to reflect the film's theme of long-distance longing and the passage of time.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dasgupta |first=Priyanka |date=2015-12-28 |title=In the Script, a turnaround |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/in-the-script-a-turnaround/articleshow/50359646.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608185740/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/in-the-script-a-turnaround/articleshow/50359646.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257 |quote=Kaushik Ganguly scored another coup of sorts by getting Dev and Subhashree to play star-crossed lovers in ‘Dhumketu’. The scripting these onscreen reunions are hopeful of box-office success. “Dev-Subhashree’s on-screen chemistry remains, despite the four-year gap,” Kaushik says.}}</ref>

The lead single, "Gaane Gaane," featuring [[Arijit Singh]] and [[Shreya Ghoshal]], was recorded in early 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Biswas |first=Jaya |date=2017-12-19 |title=I'm not trying to play safe here: Dev |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608192830/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> It was famously filmed at Khoorpatal''',''' [[Nainital]], in November 2015, featuring lead actors [[Dev (Bengali actor)|Dev]] and [[Subhashree Ganguly]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-03-08 |title=Breathtaking stills from ''Dhumketu'' shooting |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/photo-features/breathtaking-stills-from-dhumketu-shooting/photostory/51312472.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608180611/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/microsite_v2/website-housing,path=search.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257 |quote=Subhashree looked stunning as she posed against the beautiful locales of Shimla, where she shot for Kaushik Ganguly's Dhumketu.}}</ref> However, the film and its soundtrack entered a state of limbo for nearly nine years due to a well-publicized legal and financial fallout between producer Rana Sarkar and Dev, who was also the co-producer of the film.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Dasgupta |first=Priyanka |date=2015-11-02 |title=Cine union issues make Nainital schedule of Dev's debut production uncertain |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/cine-union-issues-make-nainital-schedule-of-devs-debut-production-uncertain/articleshow/49628848.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608182927/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/cine-union-issues-make-nainital-schedule-of-devs-debut-production-uncertain/articleshow/49628848.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-09 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> During this hia<ref>{{Cite news |last=Biswas |first=Jaya |date=2017-12-19 |title=I'm not trying to play safe here: Dev |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608192830/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> tus, the recorded songs became a subject of urban legend among fans, with leaked snippets occasionally appearing online.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Biswas |first=Jaya |date=2017-12-19 |title=I'm not trying to play safe here: Dev |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608192830/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

In May 2025, following a resolution of the disputes, the project was revived.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dasgupta |first=Priyanka |date=2015-12-28 |title=In the Script, a turnaround |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/in-the-script-a-turnaround/articleshow/50359646.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608185740/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/in-the-script-a-turnaround/articleshow/50359646.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257 |quote=Kaushik Ganguly scored another coup of sorts by getting Dev and Subhashree to play star-crossed lovers in ‘Dhumketu’. The scripting these onscreen reunions are hopeful of box-office success. “Dev-Subhashree’s on-screen chemistry remains, despite the four-year gap,” Kaushik says.}}</ref> The producers decided to keep the original recordings intact to preserve the "vintage mid-2010s" flavor of Anupam’s acoustic-heavy arrangements,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Biswas |first=Jaya |date=2017-12-19 |title=I'm not trying to play safe here: Dev |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608192830/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> while adding two new tracks by [[Nilayan Chatterjee]] to modernize the album's appeal.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Biswas |first=Jaya |date=2017-12-19 |title=I'm not trying to play safe here: Dev |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608192830/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> [[Indraadip Dasgupta]], who was initially to provide the score only, also composed for the soundtrack.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Biswas |first=Jaya |date=2017-12-19 |title=I'm not trying to play safe here: Dev |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250608192830/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/im-not-trying-to-play-safe-here-dev/articleshow/62130496.cms |archive-date=2025-06-08 |access-date=2025-06-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Release ==
The soundtrack preceded with seven tracks: "Gaane Gaane" was the first to be released on 7 July 2025,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |date=8 July 2025 |title=The first song from Dhumketu is a melodious, romantic duet by Arijit Singh and Shreya Ghoshal |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/the-first-song-from-dhumketu-is-a-melodious-romantic-duet-by-arijit-singh-and-shreya-ghoshal/1529957 |access-date=11 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]]}}</ref> which was followed by "Maa" on 24 July 2025,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |date=26 July 2025 |title=The second song from Dhumketu captures the everlasting bond of love between mother and child |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/the-second-song-from-dhumketu-captures-the-everlasting-bond-of-love-between-mother-and-child/2000210 |access-date=17 August 2025}}</ref> "Hobe Na Dekha?" on 1 August 2025,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |date=1 August 2025 |title=Hobe na dekha, a melancholic number from Dhumketu, points to an unfulfilled romance |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bollywood/hobe-na-dekha--a-melancholic-number-from-dhumketu--points-to-an-unfulfilled-romance/2000336 |access-date=17 August 2025}}</ref> "Smriti Phatoley" on 19 August 2025,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |date=19 August 2025 |title=Dev's portrayal of an old man captivates fans in a haunting song of separation and heartbreak from Dhumketu |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/dev-s-portrayal-of-an-old-man-captivates-fans-in-a-haunting-song-of-separation-and-heartbreak-from-dhumketu/2000663 |access-date=21 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]]}}</ref> "Nei Kono Dewa Newa" on 26 August 2025, and "Gaane Gaane{{En dash}}Reprise" on 11 December 2025.

== Track listing ==
{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 30:47
| title1 = Gaane Gaane
| length1 = 4:59
| lyrics1 = [[Anupam Roy]]
| music1 = Anupam Roy
| extra1 = [[Arijit Singh]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| title2 = Maa
| length2 = 3:50
| lyrics2 = Anupam Roy
| music2 = Anupam Roy
| extra2 = Anupam Roy
| title3 = Hobe Na Dekha?
| length3 = 4:14
| lyrics3 = Anupam Roy
| music3 = Anupam Roy
| extra3 = Ishan Mitra
| title4 = Smriti Phatoley
| length4 = 2:54
| lyrics4 = Anupam Roy
| music4 = Anupam Roy
| extra4 = [[Nachiketa Chakraborty]]
| title5 = Nei Kono Dewa Newa
| length5 = 6:19
| lyrics5 = Ritam Sen
| music5 = [[Indraadip Dasgupta]]
| extra5 = Armaan Rashid Khan
| title6 = Dhumketu Hoye Eso
| length6 = 3:32
| lyrics6 = Nilayan Chatterjee
| music6 = [[Nilayan Chatterjee]]
| extra6 = Nilayan Chatterjee and Shuchismita Chakraborty
| title7 = Gaane Gaane{{ndash}}Reprise
| length7 = 4:59
| lyrics7 = Anupam Roy
| music7 = Anupam Roy
| extra7 = Anupam Roy
}}

== Critical reception ==
The soundtrack received overwhelmingly positive reviews. Agnivo Niyogi of ''[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]'' gave the album 4.5/5 stars, stating, "Anupam’s melodies from 2016 have aged like fine wine; Arijit and Shreya’s duet is a reminder of why they remain the gold standard of playback singing."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Niyogi |first1=Agnivo |date=15 August 2025 |title=Kaushik Ganguly's 'Dhumketu' rides on Dev-Subhashree's chemistry and a strong message |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/dev-subhashrees-chemistry-kaushik-gangulys-screenplay-work-in-favour-of-long-delayed-film/cid/2118107#goog_rewarded |access-date=15 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref> Sampali Moulik ''[[Sangbad Pratidin]]'' noted that the addition of [[Nachiketa Chakraborty]]'s "Smriti Phatoley" added a "haunting gravitas" that perfectly complemented Kaushik Ganguly’s storytelling.<ref>{{cite news |last1=মৌলিক |first1=শম্পালী |date=14 August 2025 |title=দেব-শুভশ্রীর প্রেম-যন্ত্রণা থেকে অনস্ক্রিন চুমু! পাহাড়ি প্রেক্ষাপটে লার্জার দ্যান লাইফ 'ধূমকেতু' |url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/film-review/dev-subhashree-starrer-dhumketu-review/ |access-date=15 August 2025 |work=[[Sangbad Pratidin]] |language=bn}}</ref>

== Personnel ==

* Music Directors: [[Anupam Roy]], [[Indraadip Dasgupta]], [[Nilayan Chatterjee]]
* Lyricists: Anupam Roy, Ritam Sen, Nilayan Chatterjee
* Music Arrangement: Nabarun Bose, Shamik Chakravarty
* Guitars: Subhodip Banerjee, John Paul
* Mixed & Mastered: Anindit Roy
* Label: [[Saregama|Saregama India]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2025 soundtrack albums]]
[[Category:Bengali film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Anupam Roy soundtracks]]
[[Category:Indraadip Dasgupta soundtracks]]
[[Category:Romance film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Thriller film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Drama film soundtracks]]

Prem Ganapathy

2026-02-10T02:33:32Z

DeangeloSchwing: cleaned up structure additionally and updated info

{{short description|Indian entrepreneur and businessman (born 1973)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Prem Ganapathy
|image =
|caption =
|birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1973}}<ref name="Reckon">{{cite web|url=http://www.reckontalk.com/must-read-story-of-a-man-who-made-30-crore-from-nothing/|title=Story of a man who made 70 Crore from nothing|date=11 April 2015 |publisher=reckontalk.com|access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref>
|birth_place = [[Thoothukudi district]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
|education =
|occupation = Founder of [[Dosa plaza]]
|known_for =
|website =
}}

'''Prem Ganapathy''' is an Indian entrepreneur and businessman. He is the founder of the restaurant chain [[Dosa plaza]].<ref name="Dosa">{{cite web|url=http://www.dosaplaza.com/aboutus.htm|title=Dosa Plaza|publisher=dosaplaza.com|access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref> Starting with meager investment, he expanded Dosa plaza into a restaurant chain with 72
outlets in [[India]], [[New Zealand]], [[Oman]], and [[UAE]].<ref name="Reckon"/><ref name="Think">{{cite web|url=http://www.thinkwhynot.com/case_studies_dosa_plaza.html|title=Case study: Dosa Plaza|publisher=thinkwhynot.com|access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref>

==Early life==
Ganapathy was born in Nagalapuram in [[Thoothukudi district]] in the state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. He had seven siblings.<ref name="Economic">{{cite web|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-20/news/31079648_1_roadside-eateries-odd-jobs-vashi|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140922113239/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-20/news/31079648_1_roadside-eateries-odd-jobs-vashi|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 September 2014|title=How Prem Ganapathy built Rs 30 crore empire with seed capital of just Rs 1000|publisher=Economic Times|date=20 February 2012|access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref> Ganapathy completed class X after which he left for [[Madras]] (now [[Chennai]]) in search of a job. He did multiple jobs in [[Chennai]] before running away to [[Bombay]] (now [[Mumbai]]) in 1990. Ganapathy was stranded in Bombay with no money and no knowledge of the local language. He started working in a bakery with the help of a [[Tamil people|Tamil]] family.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://openmarkets.in/609/prem-ganathapydosa-plaza|title=Prem Ganapathy|publisher=openmarkets.in|access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref>

==Career==
In 1992, Ganapathy started his own food business, selling [[idli]]s and [[dosas]] in a handcart opposite the [[Vashi railway station]].<ref name="Economic"/> In 1997, he rented a shop and started experimenting with various varieties of dosas. In 2003, he opened his first outlet in a mall in Center One Mall at Vashi.<ref name="Reckon"/> As of 2012, Dosa plaza has 45 outlets in 4 countries serving more than 100 varieties of dosas.<ref name="Reckon"/><ref name="Dosa"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ganapathy, Prem}}
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamil businesspeople]]

Madhya Pradesh School of Drama

2026-02-05T04:35:38Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added A Stub

{{Short description|Theatre training institute}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Madhya Pradesh School of Drama
| image = Madhya_Pradesh_School_of_Drama_logo.png
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption =
| motto =
| mottoeng =
| established = 8 July 2011
| type = [[Public university|Public]]
| affiliation = Government of Madhya Pradesh
| chairman =
| president =
| principal =
| director = Sanjay Shrivastav (Present)
| head_label =
| head =
| students =
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| doctoral =
| city = [[Bhopal]],
| state = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|23.2428|77.3986|type:edu_globe:earth_region:IN|display=ti}}
| campus = [[Urban area|Urban]]
| website = {{URL|http://mpsd.co.in}}
| logo =
| footnotes =
| faculty =
| administrative_staff = HOD (Acting ) – [[Alok Chatterjee]] (2012 -present)
| affiliations =
}}
The '''Madhya Pradesh School of Drama''' or MPSD, is a theatre training institute situated at [[Bhopal]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/MP-School-of-Drama-introduces-two-year-course/articleshow/19309017.cms|title=MP School of Drama introduces two-year course – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-11-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.oneindia.com/amphtml/2011/06/17/advanito-open-madhya-pradesh-school-ofdrama-aid0126.html|title=advani to madhya pradesh school of drama|work=oneindia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/MP-School-of-Drama-introduces-two-year-course/articleshow/19309017.cms|title=MP School of Drama introduces two-year course – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-11-07}}</ref> It is an autonomous organization under Ministry of Culture, [[Government of India]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://m.patrika.com/news/gwalior/audition-for-mp-school-of-drama-1570762|title=वो तो शराब के प्याले के साथ जीवन के मजे ले रहा होगा, पर मेरा क्या|work=www.patrika.com|access-date=2017-11-02|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/a-much-needed-push/article5007010.ece|title=A much needed push|last=Bajeli|first=Diwan Singh|date=2013-08-09|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-11-10|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> It was set up in 2011<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://daily.bhaskar.com/news/LIF-madhya-pradesh-to-set-up-drama-school-1856394.html|title=Madhya Pradesh to set up drama school|date=2011-02-16|work=DailyBhaskar|access-date=2017-11-15|language=en}}{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> by the cabinet of Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.topnews.in/law/madhya-pradesh-set-drama-school-251173|title=Madhya Pradesh to set up drama school {{!}} TopNews|website=www.topnews.in|access-date=2017-11-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhopal/MP-School-of-Drama-introduces-two-year-course/articleshow/19309017.cms|title=MP School of Drama introduces two-year course – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-10-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/locality/bhopal/mp-drama-school-polishing-talent-big-stage-38826|title=MP Drama School polishing talent for big stage|date=2014-07-07|work=dna|access-date=2017-10-27|language=en-US}}</ref>

The drama school established by government of [[Madhya Pradesh|MP]] for the practice of systematic training, ultra modern aspects of performances, documentation, maintain a museum, research, library works of traditional, classical and modern theater under the guidance of many eminent theater personalities in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.freepressjournal.in/bhopal/drama-school-students-to-stage-plays-in-jabalpur/620795|title=Drama School students to stage plays in Jabalpur {{!}} Free Press Journal|website=www.freepressjournal.in|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-11-02}}</ref>

== Training methods ==
Comprehensive knowledge of different aspects of theater training and practice which also includes a host of traditional theater forms such as classical theater,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/a-much-needed-push/article5007010.ece|title=A much needed push|last=Bajeli|first=Diwan Singh|date=2013-08-09|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-11-15|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> folk and tribal traditions particularly famous local theaters of Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/bhopal/mp-school-of-drama-theatre-auditions-end.html|title=MP School of Drama theatre auditions end|last=Pioneer|first=The|work=The Pioneer|access-date=2017-10-27|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/dance/its-play-time/article4927877.ece|title=Its play time…|last=Bajeli|first=Diwan Singh|date=2013-07-18|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-11-10|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Guest lecturers ==
Several theatre and film personalities visit the Madhya Pradesh School of Drama as guest lecturers for master classes. Indian theatre directors and actors like [[Raghubir Yadav]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/news/MP-BPL-HMU-tv-actor-raghubir-yadav-honored-5334158-PHO.html|title=लाइव म्यूजिक से नाटक का जीवंत मंचन, टीवी एक्टर रघुवीर यादव सम्मानित|date=2016-05-27|work=dainikbhaskar|access-date=2017-11-18|language=hi}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://mpsd.in/visiting-faculties/|title=Visiting Faculties 2011–18 {{!}} Madhya Pradesh State School of Drama|website=mpsd.in|language=en-US|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref> [[Om Puri]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.naidunia.com/madhya-pradesh/bhopal-damage-to-wheat-in-15-districts-of-state-by-rain-318392|title=आर्ट सिनेमा में तारीफ तो बहुत है, तवज्जो नहीं : ओम पुरी|work=naidunia|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> [[Govind Namdev]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/MP-holds-an-important-position-in-theatre-Govind-Namdev/articleshow/20368700.cms|title=MP holds an important position in theatre: Govind Namdev – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Atul Tiwari,<ref name=":0" /> [[Piyush Mishra]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.naidunia.com/madhya-pradesh/bhopal-mp-drama-school-1382315|title=एमपी ड्रामा स्कूल में लगी 'गुलाल' वाले पीयूष मिश्रा सर की एक्टिंग क्लास|work=naidunia|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> [[Uttara Baokar]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/theatre/Senior-theatre-and-TV-artist-takes-acting-class-at-Bhopals-drama-school/articleshow/46235736.cms|title=Senior theatre and TV artist takes acting class at Bhopal's drama school – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> [[Alok Chatterjee]]<ref name=":0" /> have conducted Workshops and interactive session at the Drama school.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==
* [[Theatre of India]]
* [[Bhartendu Academy of Dramatic Arts|Bhartendu Natya Academy]]
* [[Biju Pattnaik Film and Television Institute of Odisha]]
* [[Government Film and Television Institute]]
* [[Film and Television Institute of India]]
* [[Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute]]
* [[State Institute of Film and Television]]
* [[National School of Drama]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{official website |http://mpsd.co.in/}}

{{Film schools in India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Drama schools in India]]
[[Category:Performing arts education in India]]
[[Category:Culture of Bhopal]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Bhopal]]
[[Category:2011 establishments in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2011]]
[[Category:Arts organizations established in 2011]]

Jana Gana Mana (music video)

2026-01-30T23:34:04Z

DeangeloSchwing: added a article

{{Short description|2000 indian music video}}
{{no footnotes|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
'''Jana Gana Mana''' is a [[music video]] produced in 2000 featuring a number of prominent Indian musicians and singers performing the Indian [[national anthem]] "[[Jana Gana Mana]]." The video was released on 26 January 2000 to mark the 50th year of the Constitution of [[India]] and the [[Republic Day (India)|Republic Day]]. It has the distinction of being released by the then [[President of India]], in the Central Hall of the Indian Parliament. It was produced by [[Bharat Bala]] and Kanika Myer and published by Ministry of Culture, Youth Affairs and Sports, [[Government of India]].

Bharat Bala and [[A. R. Rahman]] came together to create a historic album called 'Jana Gana Mana'. This was a project in which over 35 top artists of the nation came together to sing or play the national anthem. The project had started as "Desh Ko Salaam" which was telecast in Indian TV channels and on the web on 15 August 1999, in which several great Indian musicians, from the classical to the contemporary, came together to give a soulful and modern rendition of the National Anthem. The video was released on 26 January 2000.

==Artistes==
The music was produced and arranged by [[A.R. Rahman]].

===Vocalists===
'''The people in the music video include :'''
*[[Lata Mangeshkar]]
*[[M. Balamuralikrishna]]
*[[Kavita Krishnamurti]]
*[[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
*[[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]]
*[[D. K. Pattammal]]
*[[Asha Bhosle]]
*[[Jagjit Singh (singer)|Jagjit Singh]]
*[[Bhimsen Joshi]]
*Saddique Khan Langa
*[[Jasraj|Pandit Jasraj]]
*[[Bhupen Hazarika]]
'''Extra track include :'''
*[[Ghulam Mustafa Khan (singer)|Ustad Ghulam Mustafa Khan]] with Murtuza Mustafa Khan & Qadir Mustafa Khan
*[[Ajoy Chakrabarty]] with [[Kaushiki Chakraborty]]
*[[Shobha Gurtu]]
*[[Parween Sultana|Begum Parveen Sultana]]
*[[Rashid Khan (musician)|Rashid Khan]]
*[[Shruti Sadolikar]] ([[Kavita Krishnamurti]] solo backing voice track)
*[[P. Unnikrishnan]] with [[Sudha Raghunathan]]
*[[Nithyasree Mahadevan]] ([[D. K. Pattammal]] solo backing voice track)

===Instrumentalists===
*'''Bansuri''': [[Hariprasad Chaurasia]]
*'''Sarod''': [[Amjad Ali Khan]], [[Amaan Ali Khan]], [[Ayaan Ali Khan]]
*'''Santoor''': [[Shivkumar Sharma]], [[Rahul Sharma (musician)|Rahul Sharma]]
*'''Ghattam''': [[Thetakudi Harihara Vinayakram|Vikku Vinayakram]], Uma Shankar
*'''Mohan Veena''': [[Vishwa Mohan Bhatt]]
*'''Saxophone''': [[Kadri Gopalnath]]
*'''Chitraveena''': [[N. Ravikiran]]
*'''Veena''': [[E. Gayathri]]
*'''Sarangi''': [[Sultan Khan (musician)|Sultan Khan]]
*'''Sitar''': Kartick Kumar, [[Niladri Kumar]]
*'''Violin''': [[Ganesh and Kumaresh|Kumaresh, Ganesh]]

===Orchestra===
*'''Conductor''': K. Srinivas Murthy
*'''Cello''': Ramsekar, R K Vijayandran, Bidyur Khayal
*'''Tympany''': Kumar, Karthikeyan
*'''Violin''': M Kalyanasundaram, Jerry Fernandes, Cyril Fernandes, R Joseph, K Murali, B J Chandru, B Balu, Murali, Dinakar, Rex Isaac, Debu Ashish, PJ Sebastian, P S Ramachandran
*'''Mridangam''': D A Srinivas
*'''Harp''': R Visweswaran

==The Making==
Bharat Bala and Kanika had been working together on various projects such as Vande Mataram (1996, 1998) and Desh Ka Salaam (1999) when they realised that there was not a single popular rendering of the Indian National Anthem. They thus decided to re-create the National Anthem in a year 2000 version, something that should be 'inspiring for young people to listen to.'

Bharat Bala Productions roped in A R Rahman to produce the music and 60 artistes were taken to [[Ladakh]] in North India to film the video for the instrumental version of the video. The final instrumental was a 40-piece string section along with [[Pandit Shiv Kumar Sharma]], [[Vikku Vinayakram]] and other instrumental maestros of [[Indian classical music]]. Most of the performances included two generations of maestros - fathers and sons. In Kanika’s words, "It was a huge musical unification... this anthem has so much of soul."

It is also notable that during the filming of the anthem with the Ladakh Scouts, there were about 500 jawans who fought during the Kargil war. The producers hoisted a huge flag about 40 feet long for the video in their honour.

Thota Tharini, an artist based out of [[Madras]] painted what is now the [[Vande Mataram]] logo for the video.

==Error and Correction==
There are many versions of this video in circulation. One of the versions has recitation of the words "Jaya He" (Victory to thee) four times, instead of three. This fourth time recitation of "Jaya He" by Asha Bhosle has been omitted in the corrected version.

==References==
*[http://www.rediff.com/broadband/2000/aug/15art.htm Featured Artist List] on Rediff 
*[http://www.rediff.com/broadband/2000/aug/29trans.htm The Making of the Jana Gana Mana Album] - Interview transcript on Rediff
*[http://www.rediff.com/broadband/2000/aug/15lead.htm Jana Gana Mana], [http://www.rediff.com/broadband/2000/aug/29lead.htm The Making]
*[http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~kailasan/articles/jana_gana_mana.htm Effort to popularise national anthem], Hindustan Times

==External links==
*[https://vimeo.com/739794708 Jana Gana Mana Video]
*[http://bbp.co.in/ Bharat Bala Productions]

{{A. R. Rahman}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:A. R. Rahman albums]]
[[Category:Indian patriotic songs]]
[[Category:Albums by Indian artists]]
[[Category:Bengali-language literature]]
[[Category:Rabindra Sangeet]]
[[Category:National symbols of India]]
[[Category:Songs in Bengali]]
[[Category:Bengali music]]

[[bn:জন গণ মন ভিডিও]]
[[hi:जन गण मन वीडियो]]

Syrian churches of Kerala

2026-01-26T06:48:39Z

DeangeloSchwing: Minor edits and structural improvements

{{Short description|Church buildings in India}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=November 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}

[[File:Persian Cross at Kottayam valiya pally.png|thumb|260 px|A [[Saint Thomas Christian cross]] at Kottayam [[Knanaya]] Valiya Pally]]

{{Nasrani people}}

This article lists the various old and ancient churches that exist among the [[Saint Thomas Christians]] in [[Kerala]].<ref name="auto">For a list of the old churches and their approx. dates cf. George Menachery, ed. The Thomapedia, Ollur, 2000; George Menachery, ed. The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Trichur, 1973; George Menachery, ed. The Indian Church History Classics, Vol.1, The Nazranies, SARAS, Ollur, 1998; George Menachery, The Elephant and the Thomas Christian, 2014; George Menachery, Murals in Kerala Churches, Ollur, 2015.</ref><ref name="auto2">For a list of old Kerala churches cf. George Menachery, "The Elephant and the Christians", Malayalam. SARAS, Ollur, 2014</ref><ref name="auto3">{{cite web|title=Pallikalile Chitrabhasangal|url=http://www.nazraney.com/Pazhama--MAY--13_file.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620235620/http://www.nazraney.com/Pazhama--MAY--13_file.pdf|archive-date=20 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.indianchristianity.com/html/Pazhama-1-mailFINAL%20Oct14.pdf|title=''Aanayum Nazraniyum''The Elephant in Kerala Churches}}</ref>

==Thrissur district==
[[File:Palayur Church old picture.jpg|thumb|Palayoor Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300px]]
*[[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Palayoor|Palayoor St Thomas Syro-Malabar Church]] – According to tradition, the Syrian church was established in 52 AD by [[Thomas the Apostle|St Thomas]], one of the twelve apostles of [[Jesus Christ]].{{sfnp|Menon|1962|p=72, 100, 611}} It is the first church in India, and St. Thomas performed the first baptism in India here, therefore this church is called an [[Apostolic See|Apostolic Church]] credited to the apostolate of [[Thomas the Apostle|St. Thomas]], who preached and also introduced Christianity to the people here.
[[File:Marthoma church - azheekodu - kodungallur.JPG|thumb|Kodungallur Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally]]
*[[Kodungallur|Kodungallur Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Kodungallur church is considered to be one of the oldest churches built by [[Thomas the Apostle]] in 52 AD, second only to [[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Palayoor]]. The current Marthoma Pontifical shrine (Kodungaloor Mar Thoma Church) church is on the banks of the [[Periyar (river)|River Periyar]] about 6 km from [[Kodungallur]], in the village of [[Azhikode and Azhikkal|Azhikode]] in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.muzirisheritage.org/marthoma-pointfical-shrine.php|title=Marthoma Church at Azhikode, Marthoma Pontifical Shrine {{!}} Religious sites at Muziris Heritage Area, Ernakulam|website=www.muzirisheritage.org|access-date=2016-03-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/christianity/seven-half-churches/7|title = Seven and a Half Churches of the Ezhara Pallikal established by St. Thomas| Christianity | Kerala Tourism}}</ref>
[[File:Arthat St Mary's Cathedral.jpg|thumb|Arthat Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Orthodox Cathedral, Arthat|Arthat St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral]] – According to local tradition the Arthat was a former Jewish settlement where Thomas the Apostle converted many Jewish families to Christianity. He also established a cross at Arthat which was consecrated as the Arthat church in the 2nd century.
*[[St. Thomas Forane Church, Mattom|Mattom St Thomas Forane Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Mattam St Thomas Forane Syro-Malabar Church was established in 140 by the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] who migrated from [[Palayoor]].
[[File:Old Ambazhakad Church2.png|thumb|Ambazhakkad Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300px]]
*[[:ml:അമ്പഴക്കാട് ഫൊറോന പള്ളി|Ambazhakkad St Thomas Forane Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Ambazhakkad Syrian Church was established in 300 in the land which was donated by a [[Nambudiri]] of the Ambazhakada Mana for the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians of Ambazhakkad who migrated from Kodungallur.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History|url=https://ambazhakadchurch.com/history/|access-date=2021-06-06|website=Ambazhakad Church|language=en-US}}</ref>
[[File:Pazhanji old church 20 September 2022.jpg|thumb|Pazhanji Martha Mariam Suriyanipally|300px]]
*[[St. Mary's Orthodox Cathedral, Pazhanji]] – The Pazhanji church was constructed in the 4th century by the Saint Thomas Syrian Christian members of the [[St. Mary's Orthodox Cathedral, Arthat|Kunnamkulam Arthat Cathedral]]. Many Syrian Christians who fled Arthat at the time of the [[Mysorean invasion of Malabar]] in the 18th century joined the Pazhanji Syrian Church.
*[[Thrissur|Parappukara St John's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The [[Parappukkara]] Syrian Church was established in 400 by the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] who migrated to [[Parappukkara]] from [[Kodungallur]]. It has ancient murals from the 10th century onwards.
[[File:Puthenchira Saint Mary's Church facade.jpg|150px|thumb|Puthenchira Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Puthenchira|Puthenchira St Mary's Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – The Puthenchira Syrian Church was established in 400 by the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] of Puthenchira who migrated from [[Kodungallur]] due to conflict between local rulers.
*[[Pudukkad|North Pudukkad Our Lady of Mount Carmel Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Mullassery church was established in 400. The church was established by the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] who migrated to [[Puthukkad]] which lies on the fertile plains of Manali river.
*[[Thrissur|Enammavu Our Lady of Carmel Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Enammavu Church (Enammakkal Church) was established in 510 by the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] who migrated from [[Palayoor]]. In the later centuries many [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] migrated from Enammavu to [[Thrissur]] as they were invited by [[Sakthan Thampuran|Shakthan Thampuran]] for the development of trade and business in the town.
*[[St. Mary's Syro-Malabar Forane Church, Chalakudy|Chalakudy St Mary's Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – The church was constructed in 600 by the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] of [[Chalakudy]] who had migrated from [[Kodungallur]] where [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas the Apsotle]] had converted them to Christianity. The Syrian Christians of Chalakudy attended the Ambazhakkad Syrian Church till the establishment of the Chalakudy Syrian Church. The Kodassery Karthakkal helped in the reconstruction of the Chalakudy Syrian Church several times<ref name="Welcome to Diocese of Irinjalakuda">{{cite web | url=http://www.irinjalakudadiocese.com/index.php | title=Welcome to Diocese of Irinjalakuda | publisher=Diocese of Irinjalakuda | date=2015 | access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref>
*[[Thrissur|Velayanad St Mary's Syro-Malabar Old Church]] – Established in the 9th century by the Syrian Christians of Velayanad who formerly attended the nearby Pazhuviland Puthenchira Syrian Church. The church was partially demolished by [[Tipu Sultan]] during the [[Mysorean invasion of Malabar|Mysorean invasion]] of Malabar in 1790.
[[File:Saint Sebastian Church, Thazhekad - സെന്റ് സെബാസ്റ്റ്യൻ ചർച്ച്, താഴെക്കാട് 01.jpg|thumb|Thazhekad Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Thazhekkad, Irinjalakkuda|Thazhekkad St Sebastian's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Thazhekkad Syrian Church was established in the 10th century. It has hosted the notable [[Thazhekad, Thrissur|Thazhekkad]] Sasanam where many privileges and grants where given to the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]]. The Syrian Christian community was primarily under the jurisdiction of Ambazhakad and later under the parish of Marth Mariam church, Velayanad.
*[[Arimpur|Arimbur St Anthony's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Arimpur Syrian Church was established in the 9th century by the Syrian Christians who migrated from Enamavu who formerly attended the Enammavu Syrian Church.
[[File:St. Antony's Church Pazhuvil (സെന്റ് ആന്റണീസ് പള്ളി).jpg|thumb|Pazhuvil Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Antony's Church, Pazhuvil|Pazhuvil St Anthony's Syro-Malabar Church]] – It was founded in 883. This church is one of the famous pilgrimage centers in Kerala. It is renowned for the feast of St. Joseph on 19 March. The origin of Thattil family in [[Thrissur district|Thrissur]] is linked with one of the army Chief of [[Kingdom of Cochin|The King of Kochi]]. He was killed in a battle with [[Zamorin|Zamorin of Kozhikode]] at Enammavu in [[Thrissur district|Thrissur]]. As a mark of respect and memory of this great warrior, King promised to construct a church, where his body is buried. The Syrian Christians of Pazhuvil attended the Ennamavu Syrian Church before the establishment of the Pazhuvil Syrian Church in 883 AD.
[[File:Holy Cross Church Mapranam.jpg|150 px|thumb|Mapranam Mar Sleeva Suriyanipally]]
*[[Mar Sleeva Syro-Malabar Church, Mapranam|Mapranam Mar Sleeva Syro-Malabar Church]] – Believed to have been constructed in 928 AD by the Syrian Christians of Mapranam who were the former parishioners of the Kodungallur and Parappukkara Syrian Church.
*[[Kottekkad Temple|Kottekkad St Mary's Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – The Kottekkad Syrian Church was established in 977 by the Cherman Perumal and the local [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] who migrated from [[Palayoor]].
*[[St. Sebastian's Church, Chittattukara|Chavakkad Chittattukara St Sebastian's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Chavakkad Chittattukara church was built in the 12th century by [[Saint Thomas Christians|Saint Thomas Syrian Christians]] of [[Chavakkad]] by the Syrian Christians who separated from the [[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Palayoor|Palayur Church]].
[[File:Koratty church back view.jpg|thumb|Koratty Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Koratty|Koratty St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Thampuratty of the [[Koratty|Koratty Kartha]] constructed a church near the burial place of her chief commander, for the spiritual needs of the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] living in that region. Construction work began on 15 August 1381 and was completed with the consecration on 8 September 1382. This church came to be known as the Marian Pilgrim Centre of Koratty Muthy. Ambazhakad Church was the parish for the Syrian Christians of Koratty before the establishment of Koratty church.<ref>[http://www.thrissurruralpolice.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93&Itemid=119 "Koratty Muthy", Thrissur Rural Police]</ref>
*Kottapadi St Lazar's Syro-Malabar Church – The Kottapadi Syrian Church was established in 1400 by the [[Punnathurkotta|Punnathur Rajah]] (a vassal of the [[Zamorin]]) for Syrian Christian coconut traders brought from nearby areas like [[Kunnamkulam]] and [[St. Mary's Orthodox Cathedral, Arthat|Arthat]].

==Ernakulam district==
[[File:Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Pilgrim Church (Old) founded by St. Thomas.jpg|thumb|Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300px]]
*[[Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church, North Paravur|Kottakavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church North Parvoor]] – The Kottakavu Syrian Church was established by [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas the Apsotle]] in 52 AD. It is one of the oldest churches in India and is among the [[Ezharappallikal]]. Many Syrian Christian migrations happened from [[North Paravur]] to places like [[Angamaly]], [[Kothamangalam]], [[Edappally]], [[Udayamperoor]], [[Thodupuzha]]etc.
[[File:Malayattoor Old Church.JPG|thumb|Malayattoor Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Malayattoor|Malayattoor St Thomas Syro-Malabar Church]] – Believed to be established as a cross in 60 AD by Thomas the Apostle.
[[File:Kothamangalam Marth Mariam Valiyapally old photo.jpg|thumb|Kothamangalam Marth Mariam Valiyapally]]
*[[St. Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Kothamangalam|Kothamangalam St Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral]] – The Kothamanagalam Valiyapally was founded on the 4th century by some Syrian Christian families who migrated from [[North Paravur]], [[Edappally]] and [[Angamaly]]. The new church established in 1338 by four Syrian Christian merchants who bought the entire land of [[Kothamangalam]] from a local chief for commodity trading with the nearby state of [[Tamil Nadu]].
[[File:KandanadChurch.jpg|thumb|Kandanad Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral, Kandanad|Kandanad St Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral]] – Kandanad Valiyapally is a prominent church in the [[Kandanad West Orthodox Diocese|Kandanad]] village of Ernakulam District of Kerala. This church is believed to have been built around the 4th century, belongs to Kandanad West Diocese of Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church. The migrants from North Paravur had built the Kandanad Syrian Church.
[[File:St Marys jacobite Syrian church angamaly.JPG|thumb|Angamaly Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Jacobite Soonoro Cathedral, Angamaly|Angamaly St Mary's Soonoro Cathedral]] – The Angamaly St Mary's Soonoro Jacobite Syriac Church was established in 409 AD by th Syrian Christians who migrated to Angamaly from [[Kodungallur]]. Later in the following centuries several waves of Syrian Christian migration happened into Angamaly.
*[[St. George Syro-Malabar Basilica, Angamaly|Angamaly St George's Syro-Malabar Basilica]] – Established in 430 by the Syrian Christian migrants from Kodungallur and North Paravur to Angamaly. Eventually the majority of Syrian Christians of Kodungallur had migrated to Angamaly in several waves of migrations due to wars between rivals and the great flood of 1381 AD.
[[File:Angamaly Kizhakkeppally.jpg|thumb|Angamaly Mar Hormidz Suriyanipally]]
*[[Mar Hormizd Syro-Malabar Cathedral, Angamaly|Angamaly Mar Hormizd Syro-Malabar Cathedral]] – It was built in 480 AD by the Syrian Christian migrants from Kodungallur. The tomb of [[Abraham of Angamaly|Mar Abraham of Angamaly]], the last [[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldean]] Metropolitan to reach [[Malabar Coast]] in AD 1570 is situated in this church.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2020}}<ref name="Charles George Herbermann">Encyclopaedia of sects & religious doctrines, Volume 4 By Charles George Herbermann page 1180,1181</ref>
*[[Kottoor|Kottoor St. George Orthodox Syrian Church]] – The Kottoor Church is believed to be founded in 5th century as a chapel of [[Pallippuram, Alappuzha|Pallippuram]] Church near [[Cherthala]] in the initial periods, later became a parish of the [[St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Kolenchery|Kolenchery Syrian Church]].
[[File:ഉദയം‌പേരൂർ സൂനഹദോസ്.jpg|200 px|thumb|Udayamperoor Mar Sabor Mar Aphroth Kadeesha Suriyanipally]]
*[[Udayamperoor Old Church|Udayamperoor Synod of Diamper Syro-Malabar Church]] – Consecrated in 510 AD by the Syrian Christians who migrated from Kodungallur, the Udayamperoor church hosted the [[Synod of Diamper]] in 1599.{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2020}}
[[File:Edappilly church Old.JPG|thumb|Edappally Mar Geevarghese Sahadha Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. George's Forane Church, Edappally|Edappally St George's Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – The church is thought to have been founded in 593 AD. It is regarded as one of the oldest churches in Kerala, after the seven churches founded by [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the first century. It was built by families from [[North Paravur|Paravur]] who had to travel to the [[Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church, North Paravur|Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church]], [[North Paravur]] to worship.
[[File:Piravom Valiya Pally.jpg|thumb|Piravom Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral, Piravom|Piravom St Mary's Orthodox Cathedral]] – The Piravom Syrian Cathedral was consecrated in the 6th century and is dedicated to the Holy Magi, St. Mary, St. Peter, St. Paul and St. George. One among the three Biblical Magi was from India and was a member of the Chalissery Karthakal, a feudal [[Nair]] family from [[Piravom]], Kerala, India. After returning to India, the scholar made a temple with the idol of Mary and infant Jesus and named the idol as "Bala Karthyayani" and kept it besides other Hindu deities. Later in the 5th century when the Saint Thomas Syrian Christian community was firmly established the temple was reconstructed as the Piravom Syrian Church. Later many Syrian Christian migrations happened in the following centuries from North Paravur and Pallippuram to Piravom.
*[[Moozhikkulam|Moozhikkulam St Mary's Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – Established in 601 AD by the Syrian Christians who migrated from Kodungallur and by those who separated from the Angamaly Old Syrian Church.
[[File:Kolecnhery orthodox church.JPG|thumb|Kolenchery Mar Pathrose Paulose Sleeha Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Kolenchery|Kolenchery St Peter's and St Paul's Orthodox Syrian Church]] – St. Peter's and St. Paul's Orthodox Syrian Church is a church in [[Kolenchery]], in Ernakulam, Kerala, India. It was established in the 9th century by Thankan Mappila of the Kolenchery family. Before the Kolenchery church was established the Syrian Christians of Kolenchery attended the [[Kottoor|Kottoor Syrian Church]] and [[Piravom Church]].
[[File:Karingachira.PNG|thumb|Karingachira Mar Geevarghese Sahadha Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. George Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Karingachira|Karingachira St George's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral]] – Karingachira St. George's Jacobite Syrian Church of Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, established in 722 AD (Makaram 13) by the Syrian Christians of [[St. George's Forane Church, Edappally|Edappally Church]] who had migrated to [[St. George Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Karingachira|Karingachira]]-[[Tripunithura]] in the 8th century. The Maliackel and the Palathinkal families had built the Karingachira Church.
*[[South Paravur|South Paravur St John the Baptist Syro-Malabar Church]] – The South Paravur church was established in 802 by the Syrian Christians of South Paravur who separated from the [[Udayamperoor|Udayamperoor Syrian Church]].
[[File:Akaparambu Valiyapally.jpg|thumb|Akaparambu Mar Sabor Mar Aphroth Kadeesha Suriyanipally]]
*[[Mar Sabor and Mar Proth Church, Akaparambu|Akaparambu Mar Sabor and Mar Proth Church]] – Completed in 825 AD, the church was established by [[Mar Sabor and Mar Proth|Mar Sabor and Mar Afroth]] who were two holy men who came to Malabar to preach the Gospel with a group of Assyrian Christian (Nestorians) immigrants led by a merchant named Sapor Esho.
[[File:Kadamattom.jpg|thumb|Kadamattom Mar Geevarghese Sahadha Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. George's Church, Kadamattom|Kadamattom St George's Orthodox Syrian Church]] – The church is believed to have been established in the 9th century by [[Mar Sabor and Mar Proth|Mar Sabor]]. A 9th-century stone Persian cross with four equal-size arms sits on the right wall of the Madbha or altar room. The arms are tipped with floral designs and is claimed to have been made by Mar Sabor. Around the cross is engraved a [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi]] inscription. The Syrian Christians of Kadamattom attended the [[St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral, Piravom|Piravom]] church for worship before the establishment of this church.
[[File:Byzantine styled jacobite orthodox cathedral ,morakkala - panoramio.jpg|250 px|thumb|Pallikkara Morakkala Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*Morakkala St Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Pallikkara – The Morakkala St Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Pallikara was established in 905 AD by the Syrian Christians of Morakkala and Pallikkara who were parishioners of the [[St. George's Forane Church, Edappally|Edappally Syrian Church]].
[[File:St. Mary's Forane Church in Arakuzha, Kerala.jpg|thumb|Arakuzha Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Syro-Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Church, Arakuzha|Arakuzha Saint Mary's Syro-Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Church]] – The [[Arakuzha]] Syrian Church is an ancient [[Syro-Malabar Church|Syrian Catholic Church]] which was built by the local jenmi, Prathipally Karthakal for the 1000 Syrian Christian families of Arakuzha in 999 AD for those who separated from the Mylacombu Syrian Church.
[[File:Third Face.jpg|thumb|Kanjur Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Kanjoor|Kanjur St Mary's Forane Syro-Malabar Church]] – Built in 1001, this church is portrayed as the symbol of strong Christian faith and spiritual renaissance of [[Kanjoor]]. The Kanjoor Syrian Church was established by the Syrian Christians who migrated from Angamaly and Kodungallur.
*[[Chowara|Chowara St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church, Aluva]] – The Chowara church was established in 1025 by the Syrian Christians traders and merchants who migrated from Kodungallur and Kottakavu (North Paravur).
*[[Chendamangalam|Chendamangalam Mar Sleeva Syro-Malabar Church]] – The [[Chendamangalam]] church was established in 1075 AD by the parishioners of [[Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church, North Paravur|Kottakkavu Syrian Church]]. This church has many ancient inscriptions and murals and is part of the Muziris heritage monuments.
*[[Koothattukulam|Koothattukulam Vadakara St John's Orthodox Syrian Church]] – St. John's church at Vadakara, [[Koothattukulam]] is one of the oldest Syrian Christian churches in Malankara. It was established in the 1096 by the Syrian Christians of [[Piravom Church|Piravom]] Syrian Valiyapally.
*[[St. Mary's Syro-Malabar Cathedral Basilica, Ernakulam|Ernakulam St Mary's Syro-Malabar Basilica]] – Also known as the Anchukaimal Pally, it was founded in 1112 AD by the Syrian Christians of Ernakulam who previously attended the [[St. George's Syro-Malabar Forane Church, Edappally|Edappally Suriyani Church]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=July 1945 |title=Centenary of St. Mary's |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(45)90822-1 |journal=The Lancet |volume=246 |issue=6358 |pages=25 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(45)90822-1 |issn=0140-6736|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
*[[Mulakulam|Mulakulam Mor Ihidoyo Orthodox Syrian Church]] – The Mulakulam church was initially established as a chapel of the Piravom church in 1136 with the help of a Samanthan of the Vadakkumkoor Rajah. In 1566 it was reconstructed.
*Mamalassery Mar Michael Orthodox Syrian Church – The Mamalassery Syrian Church was established in the 12th century by the Syrian Christians who separated from the Piravom Syrian Church following a feud between them.
[[File:Nadamel Marth Mariam Church.jpg|thumb|Nadamel Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Nadamel Marth Mariam Church|Nadamel Marth Mariam Jacobite Syrian Church, Thrippunithura]] – Nadamel Marth Mariam Church was built in 1175 in [[Tripunithura]], India by the former parishioners of the Karingachira Syrian Church. It belongs to the [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church|Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church]].
*[[Palluruthy|Palluruthy St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Palluruthy Syro-Malabar Church was established in 1191 by the Syrian Christians who migrated from Pallippuram in Alappuzha.It is popularly known as Suriyanipally as it is the first and only Syrian church in the area. It is one of the oldest church in kochi.
[[File:Mulanthuruthy, Kerala 682314, India - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Mulanthuruthy Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Thomas Orthodox Syrian Cathedral, Mulanthuruthy|Mulanthuruthy St Thomas Orthodox Syrian Cathedral]] – The church was established in 1225 (11th century) and modified in 16th century (in 1550) by the [[Knanaya]] Tharakan (minister) Kunchacko of the Kunnassery family. Due to an altercation between the Syrian Christians and the [[Vadakkumkur|Kingdom of Vadakkumkur]] Kunchacko had gathered the Knanaya of [[St. Mary's Knanaya Valiyapally, Kaduthuruthy]] as well as all [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] he could find within Vadakkumkur and moved them to Mulanthuruthy. Upon arrival Kunchacko had sanctioned the building of the Mulanthuruthy Church. Later the Knanaya were called back to their home church of Kaduthuruthy by the descendants of the King of Vadakkumkur, leaving Mulanthuruthy Church in the care of the Syrian Christians who remained there.{{sfn|Karukaparambil|2005|p=150}}{{sfn|Whitehouse|1873|p=125}}
*Karakunnam Morth Mariam Jacobite Syrian Cathedral – The Karakunnam Syrian Church was established in the 13th century by the Syrian Christians who separated from the Kadammattom Syrian Church.
[[File:Alangad Syro-Malabar Church.jpg|thumb|Alangad Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Alangad|Alangad St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The [[Alangad]] church was established in 1300 by the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] of Alangad and the Alangad Karthakal. The Syrian Christians of Alangad formerly attended the [[Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church, North Paravur|Kottakavu North Paravur Church]].
[[File:Kuruppampady Syrian Jacobite's Church - കുറുപ്പംപടി യാക്കോബായ സുറിയാനി പള്ളി.JPG|thumb|Kuruppampady Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Kuruppampady|Kuruppampady St Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral]] – The [[Kuruppampady]] cathedral is one among the older churches of the Malankara Church in the Ernakulam district, Kerala. The church was established around 1300 by a group of Syrian Christian families who were members of the [[Kanjoor|Kanjoor church]] residing at Kuruppampady.
*[[Kuthiathode|North Kuthiathode St Thomas Syro-Malabar Old Church]] – The North Kuthiathode Old Church was established in 1301 by the Syrian Christians who migrated from Kodungallur and North Paravur.
[[File:MAR SLEEVA FORANE CHURCH MANJAPRA.JPG|thumb|Manjapra Mar Sleeva Suriyanipally]]
*[[Manjapra|Manjapra Jacobite Syrian Church]] – Built in 1401 by the local Syrian Christians who separated from the Angamaly Old Church.
[[File:Vallam St- Theresa of Avila Forane Church, വല്ലം സെന്റ് തെരേസാസ് ഫൊറോന പള്ളി.jpg|thumb|Vallam Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Perumbavoor|Vallom St Theresa's Syro-Malabar Church, Perumbavoor]] – The Vallom church was established in 1455 by the Syrian Christians of Vallom, Perumbavoor who formerly attended the Kanjur and Angamaly Syrian churches for worship.
[[File:St. Marys Church. Njarakkal.jpg|thumb|Njarakkkal Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Church, Njarackal|Njarakkal St. Mary's Syro-Malabar Church]] – Established in 1451 in [[Vypeen]] by the Syrian Christians who separated from the North Paravur [[Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church, North Paravur|Kottakavu]] church.
*Nechoor St Thomas Orthodox Syrian Church – The Nechoor Syrian Church was established in 1455 by the Syrian Christians who separated from the [[St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral, Piravom|Piravom Syrian Valiyapally]].
[[File:Front Kothamangalam Church.jpg|thumb|Kothamangalam Mar Thoma Sleeha Cheriyapally]]
*[[St. Thomas Church, Kothamangalam|Kothamanagalam St Thomas Syrian Church]] – The [[Kothamangalam|Kothamanagalam]] Mar Thoman Cheriyapally was established in 1455 by 18 families who separated from the [[St. Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Kothamangalam|Kothamanagalam Valiyapally]].
{{sfnp|Malekandathil|2020}}
[[File:St.thomas syrian orthodox church- byzantine style- north paravur - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Vadakkan Paravoor Mar Thoma Sleeha Yakobaya Suriyanipally]]
*[[North Paravur|North Paravur St Thomas' Jacobite Syrian Church]] – Established in 1566, the North Paravur Syrian Church is known for the tomb of the Syrian Orthodox Archbishop of Jerusalem - Saint [[Gregorios Abdul Jaleel]] for the Syrian Christians who separated from the [[Kottakkavu Mar Thoma Syro-Malabar Church, North Paravur|Kottakkavu Church]].

==Idukki district (Thodupuzha region)==
[[File:St. Thomas Forane Church Mylacombu.jpg|thumb|Mylakombu Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300px]]
*[[Thodupuzha|Mylacombu St Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Thodupuzha]] – Built in 660 AD by [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christian]] settlers in Mylacombu near [[Thodupuzha]] who migrated from [[Kuravilangad]], [[Kodungallur]], [[Angamaly]], [[Kadamattom]] and [[Koothattukulam|Vadakara, Koothattukulam]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=St. Thomas Forane Church Mailacombu::Kothamangalam Eparchy:: Syro Malabar Church Parish|url=http://www.syromalabarchurch.in/parish.php?id=178|access-date=2021-06-06|website=www.syromalabarchurch.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Architecture of Churches in Kerala {{!}} Christianity in Kerala {{!}} Kerala Tourism|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/christianity/church-architecture/24|access-date=2021-06-06|website=Christianity|language=en}}</ref>
*[[Thodupuzha|Nakapuzha St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church, Thodupuzha]] – The Nakapuzha church was established in 900 AD by the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] who migrated to Nagapuzha, [[Thodupuzha]] from [[Kuravilangad]] and [[Kaduthuruthy]] and by the Syrian Christians who separated from the Mylakombu Church.
*[[Thodupuzha|Nediyassala St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church, Thodupuzha]] – Incepted in 999 AD, Nediyasala Church is one of the ancient churches in the Eparchy of Kothamangalam which belongs to the Syro-Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Church. The Nediyassala Church was established by the Syrian Christians of Nediyassala who separated from the Mylakombu Church. The Syrian Christian immigrants from [[Udayamperoor]], [[Kuravilangad]], [[Mulanthuruthy|Mulamthuruthy]], [[Kaduthuruthy]], [[Edappally]], etc. to the high ranges in the 999 AD along with the Syrian Christians who separated from the nearby Mylakombu church established the Nediyasala Church.
[[File:St. Mary's Major Archi Episcopal Pilgrim Church Arakuzha.jpg|thumb|Arakuzha Marth Mariam Suriyanipally|300px]]

*[[Arakuzha|Arakuzha Saint Mary's Syro-Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Church]] – The Arakuzha Syrian Church is an ancient Syrian Catholic Church which was built by the local jenmi, Prathipally Karthakal for the 1000 Syrian Christian families of Arakuzha in 999 AD for those who separated from the Mylacombu Syrian Church.
*[[Muthalakodam|Muthalakodam St George Syro-Malabar Forane Church, Thodupuzha]] – The church at [[Muthalakodam]], near [[Thodupuzha]], is believed to have been built in 1312 by an ancient noble lady named Kapputhiriyamma (Mattathil Muthi) for the Syrian Christians of Muthalakodam who attended the Mylacombu Syrian Church for worship.
*[[Thodupuzha|Chunkom St Mary's Knanaya Syro-Malabar Forane Church, Thodupuzha]] – The Chunkom Knanaya Church was established in 1579 by the [[Knanaya]] Christians who had migrated from Kodungallur following a war between the [[Zamorin of Calicut]] and [[Cochin Kingdom]], and the [[Knanaya|Knananites]] who migrated from [[Udayamperoor]] in the 9th century who separated from the Mylacombu Syrian Church.

==Kottayam district==
[[File:Kuravilangad church old picture.jpg|thumb|Kuravilangad Martha Mariam Suriyanipally|300px]]
* [[Marth Mariam Syro-Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Church Kuravilangad|Kuravilangad Marth Mariam Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church]] – One of the oldest churches of Kerala is the St. Mary's Church [[Kuravilangad]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.palaidiocese.com/Parishes1.htm |title=70 |access-date=14 January 2008 |archive-date=25 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070225095805/http://www.palaidiocese.com/Parishes1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stmarykuravilangad.org|title=評判の良い美容整形外科｜目白ポセンシアで受ける整形|website=www.StMaryKuravilangad.org|access-date=28 May 2017}}</ref> which is supposed to have been established in 105 AD by the Syrian Christians who migrated from [[Kodungallur]], [[North Paravur]] and [[Palayoor]]
*[[St. George's Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Aruvithura|Aruvithura St George's Syro-Malabar Church]] – It is believed that [[Thomas the Apostle|St. Thomas]] visited Irapeli in Arivithura and converted many prominent [[Jews|Jewish]] families into Christianity among them is the Thengummootil family, and laid a cross on the banks of the Meenachil River which in the year 151 was built as a church. Many Syrian Christians migrated from [[Kuravilangad]] to Aruvithura owing to the trading potential. In the 14th century when Nilackal (Chayal) was looted by the Pandya Kingdom of Madurai, the church of Nilackal (Chayal), established by Thomas the Apostle was destroyed and many Syrian Christian families migrated to Arivithura in Erattupetta, these immigrants joined the Aruvithura Syrian Church.
[[File:Kaduthuruthy Knanaya Church.jpg|thumb|Kaduthuruthy Knanaya Marth Mariam Suriyanipally]]
* [[St. Mary's Knanaya Valiyapally, Kaduthuruthy]] – The Kaduthuruthy Valiyapally is a historic church founded by the Knanaya community in 400 AD who migrated to Kaduthuruthy from Kodungallur and the [[Saint Thomas Christians]] who separated from the [[Kuravilangad Church]] who had also migrated from [[Kodungallur]] and [[North Paravur]]. The Knanaya are Syriac-Judeo Christians who migrated from regions around Mesopotamia.<ref>Dr. E. J. James Menachery,''Thomas Christian Architecture'' P.145 in STCEI Vol.2, Ed. George Menachery, Trichur, 1973</ref>
[[File:Rooha D Kudhisha Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Muttuchira.jpg|thumb|Muttuchira Ruhada Kudisha Suriyanipally]]
*[[Holy Ghost Forane church, Muttuchira|Muttuchira Ruhada Kudisha Syro-Malabar Church]] – The consecration day of [[Muttuchira]] church was on the arrival of [[Pentecost]] on 25 May 550. The Muttuchira church is one of the most ancient churches in India. It is believed to have been built in the sixth century. The Christians were brought to this territory by the dependants of the then landlord Myal Pazhur Naboothiripadu and Mamalassery Kaimal. These local rulers helped the Christian congregation to build a new church in that area. The prominent Kallarveli family helped to build the church. The Syrian Christian ps of [[Muttuchira]] attended the [[Kuravilangad]] church before the establishment of [[Holy Ghost Forane church, Muttuchira|Muttuchira church]].
*[[Kothanalloor|Kothanalloor St. Gervasis and St. Prothasis Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – The church is believed to have been built in 826 AD by Persian Nestorians Mar Sabor and Mar Aphroth and is well known for its twin patron saints, St. Gervasis and St. Prothasis.
[[File:St Marys Forane Church Athirampuzha 2013 Jan.JPG|thumb|Athirampuzha Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Forane Church, Athirampuzha]] – Athirampuzha church traces its history to the Ettonnussery Illam which was the power centre of the local kingdom. It is said that the Namboodiri of this Illam donated the land to build a church in the name of blessed virgin Mary as a token of gratitude on the miraculous birth of his son for the Syrian Christians who migrated to [[Athirampuzha]] from [[Kuravilangad]] and [[Kaduthuruthy]]. The church was blessed on 15 August 835 AD. Athirampuzha acted as an inland trade centre for the trade routes between the hilly regions like [[Kanjirappally]] and [[Poonjar]] to the trading ports like [[Purakkad]], [[Chennamkary]] and [[Kudavechoor]] after the 10th century. This trade route attracted many Syrian Christians from [[Kuravilangad]], [[Kaduthuruthy]], [[Vaikom]] etc. towards [[Athirampuzha]].
[[File:Manarcad Church.jpg|thumb|Manarcaud Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral, Manarcad|Manarcaud St Mary's Jacobite Syrian Cathedral]] – The old [[Manarcaud|Manarcad]] Church was built in 920 by the Kallakkadampil family and [[Thekkumkur|Thekkumkur royal Kingdom]]. The Manarcaud Church was established by the Syrian Christian families which migrated from Kodungallur following a riot between the Jews and Muslims.
*[[Vadayar|Vadayar Infant Jesus Syro-Malabar Church, Vaikom]] – The Vadayar Church established in 977 AD is the oldest church in Vaikom. It was built by the Syrian Christian immigrants to Vaikom from Kuravilangad.
*[[Kadaplamattom|Kadaplamattom St Mary's Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – The [[Kadaplamattom]] Syrian church was established in 1009 by the Syrian Christians who migrated from Kaduthuruthy and Kuravilangad.
* [[Kaduthuruthy|Kaduthuruthy St. Mary's Thazhathupally]] – The Kaduthuruthy Thazhathupally was consecrated in 1009 by the Syrian Christians who separated from the Kaduthuruthy Knanaya Valiyapally.
*[[St. Thomas Cathedral, Pala|Pala St Thomas Syro-Malabar Cathedral]] – The church was founded on 3 July 1072, by four [[Saint Thomas Christian|Saint Thomas Syrian Christian]] families. These four Christian families of Palai were Tharayil, Koottumkal (brother of Tharayil Mappila), Erakonni and Vayalakombil. Before the establishment of the Pala St Thomas Cathedral the Syrian Christians of Pala attended the Aruvithura Syrian Church.
[[File:Cherpunkal Holy Cross Church DSW.jpg|thumb|Cherpunkal Mar Sleeva Suriyanipally|200px]]
*[[Cherpunkal|Cherpunkal Mar Sleeva Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – Tradition has it that the stone laid by St. Thomas ultimately led to the founding of the Holy Cross Church at Cherpunkal. The foundation stone for the new church was laid on 14 September 1096. The land for the construction of the church was donated by Kallampally Namboothiri, a landlord and the construction of the church was ordered by the Thampuran of Poonjar.
[[File:Bharananganam.jpg|thumb|Bharananganam Anakkal Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Forane Church, Bharananganam|Bharananganam Anakkal St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The [[Bharananganam]] Church was consecrated in 1100 by the Syrian Christians who migrated from [[St. George's Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Aruvithura|Aruvithura]] and [[Pala, Kerala|Palai]]. The tomb of [[Alphonsa of the Immaculate Conception|St. Alphonsa]] is in this church.
[[File:Kudamaloor Church.jpg|thumb|Kudamaloor Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Kottayam|Kudamaloor St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church]] – St. Mary's Church at Kudamaloor was built by Chempakasseri Maharajah in 1125 AD. A bell and the Paten, donated to the church by the Chempakassery King, are still preserved. The Chempaskassery Rajah built a church in Kudamaloor, his capital by the advice of his astrologer and brought five Syrian Christian families namely, Mukkunkal, Chakkunkal, Palathunkal, Thekkedam and Vadakkedam into Kudamaloor from [[Muttuchira]] and gave them land. As a result, Kudamaloor developed into a major trading centre in the [[Poonjar]]–[[Purakkad]] trade route. This attracted many Syrian Christian families into Kudamaloor especially from [[Athirampuzha]], another trading hub.
[[File:Cathedral Changancherry.jpg|thumb|Changanassery Marth Mariam Suriyanipally|200px]]
*[[St. Mary's Metropolitan Cathedral, Changanassery|Changanassery St Mary's Metropolitan Syro-Malabar Cathedral]] – The local Christian community in and around [[Changanassery|Changanachery]] inherits its faith directly from [[Thomas the Apostle|St. Thomas the Apostle]], who formed a Christian community of faithful, centered on [[Niranam]] in the 1st century. The first church in [[Changanassery|Changanachery]] was established in 1177. The plot of land for the church was donated by the local Hindu king of [[Thekkumkur|Thekkumkoor]].[[File:St Mary's Church Koothrapally.jpg|thumb|Koothrapally St. Mary's Catholic Church]]
*[[St. Mary's Syro Malabar Catholic Church, Koothrapally|Koothrapally St Mary's Syro Malabar Catholic Church]] ([[Saint Maurus|Muthappan]] Pally) - Established in 1876, the church was established by the Christian leader, [[Palakunnel Valiyachan]] who advocated for the Syriac culture and tradition. The church situated near [[Changanassery]].
*[[Mulakulam|Mulakulam Mor Ihidoyo Orthodox Syrian Church]] – The Mulakulam church was initially established as a chapel of the Piravom church in 1136. In 1566 it was reconstructed.
*[[Elanji|Elanji St Peter's and St Paul's Syro-Malabar Forane Church]] – The St. Peter's and St. Paul's Syro-Malabar Catholic church was established in 1300 AD as per the order of the then Vadakumkoor King for the Syrian Christians of Elanji who formerly attended the Piravom Syrian Church for worship. Many Syrian Christian families from Angamaly had migrated to Ekanki along with the Azhvanchery Thampurakkal.
[[File:St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Chempu 05.jpg|thumb|Chempu Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|200px]]
*[[Chempu|Chempu St Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Vaikom]] – The Chempu Syrian Catholic Church was established in 1307 by the Syrian Christians who migrated to [[Chempu]], Vaikom from [[Pallippuram, Alappuzha]] and [[Kaduthuruthy]]. The Syrian Christians of Chempu attended the Piravom and Kaduthuruthy churches before th establishment of Chempu Church.
*[[Vaikom|Vaikom Pallipurathussery St Joseph's Syro Malabar Forane Church]] – The [[Vaikom]] Pallipurathussery Syrian Church was established in 1391 by the Syrian Christians who separated from the Vadayar Syrian Church and the Syrian Christians who migrated from Pallippuram, Alappuzha.
[[File:Vechoor Church.jpg|thumb|Kudavechoor Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Mary's Church, Vechoor|Kudavechoor St Mary's Syro Malabar Church]] – The [[Vechoor|Kudavechoor]] St Mary's Syrian church was consecrated in 1463 by the Syrian Christians who separated from the Vaikom Syrian Church and the Pallippuram Syrian Church. Many ancient murals are found in the Kudavechoor Church.
[[File:Kanjirappalli Akkarappally northern view.jpg|thumb|Kanjirapally Martha Mariam Akkarapally]]
*[[Kanjirapally|Kanjirapally St Mary's Syro Malabar Akkarapally]] – [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas the Apsotle]] had established a church in [[St. Thomas Church, Angamoozhy|Nilackal (Chayal)]] in 54 AD. It was an important trading city in the erstwhile Chempakassery Kingdom and had flourishing trade with the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya Kingdom]] of [[Madurai]]. But in 1325, Chembakacherry had was a war with kingdom of [[Madurai]], probably owing to a trade dispute. The city was looted and torched and nothing remained of it. The [[St. Thomas Church, Angamoozhy|Nilakkal church]] was burned down, but Thommy Mappilla, the Chief Trusty of the church managed to save the statue of the Blessed Virgin. The Syrian Christians of Nilackal led by Thommy Mappila fled to the Pazhoor Valley in [[Kanjirappally|Kanjirapally]]. Later, in 1449 a predecessor of Thommy Mappilla and Veera Kerala Perumal, the Maha Raja of [[Thekkumkur|Thekkumkoor Kingdom]] constructed a church in [[Kanjirappally|Kanjirapally]].
[[File:Ramapuram Pali.jpg|thumb|Ramapuram Martha Mariam Suriyanipally]]
*[[Ramapuram church|Ramapuram St Mary's and St Augustine's Syro Malabar Twin Churches]] – The centuries-old twin churches of [[Ramapuram, Kottayam|Ramapuram]] are two of the oldest churches in Kerala. The complex consists of a smaller church dedicated to St. Augustine and a larger one dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. The church dedicated to St. Augustine dates to 1450, which was built by the King of Vadakkumkoor and the Karokkal Kaimal family (a feudal Nair family), while the one dedicated to the Blessed Virgin was erected in 1864. The Syrian Christians of Ramapuram had migrated from Aruvithura and Kuravilangad into Ramapuram in the early 12th century.
*[[Poonjar|Poonjar St Mary's Syro Malabar Forane Church]] – The Syrian Christians who migrated from Nilackal, Kanjirapally and the Syrian Christians who separated from the Aruvithura Syrian Church together built the Poonjar Church in 1542 AD. Many Syrian Christian migrations happened to and from [[Poonjar]] as it was an ancient trading point in the hilly regions along with [[Kanjirappally]], [[Nilakkal]] and [[Ranni, Kerala|Ranni]]. The spices and the trading goods were transported to inland trade centres like [[Athirampuzha]], [[Thazhathangady]], [[Kottayam]] etc. through rivers like [[Meenachil River|Meenachilar]], [[Manimala River|Manimalayar]] and [[Pamba River|Pamba]] to the trading ports such as [[Purakkad]] [[Chennamkary]] and [[Kudavechoor]]. Many Syrian Christians of [[Kottayam]] trace their origins to [[Poonjar]].
*[[Thazhathangady Pally|Thazhathangady Orthodox Syrian Church]] – A worshiping community of Syrian Christian adherents existed in Thazhathangady dating back to the 12th century. Thazhathangady was the headquarters of the Thekkumkoor (Thekkumkur) Rajas who ruled over a principality which includes the larger parts of the present Kottayam and Idukki districts. The Thazhathangady Church was established in the 16th century by Syrian Christian migrants from [[Poonjar]], [[Athirampuzha]], [[Pallam]], [[Chengannur]] and [[Kanjirappally]].
[[File:Kottayam Valiyapally church 3.jpg|thumb|Kottayam Martha Mariam Valiyapally]]
*Kottayam St Mary's Orthodox Syrian Valiyapally–There were few Syrian Christians in [[Kottayam]] town till the early part of the 14th century based at [[Thazhathangady]], [[Manarcaud]] and Kudamaloor. For various reasons many Syrian Christian families led by Pulikal family from [[Poonjar]] migrated to [[Kottayam]] and settled nearby Eruthickal temple belonging to [[Thekkumkur]] state. Large scale migration of Syrian Christians from [[Kuravilangad]], [[Kaduthuruthy]], [[Athirampuzha]], [[Vaikom]] and [[Poonjar]] occurred in the 16th century and they settled nearby [[Kottayam]], Pazhayachanda [[Thazhathangady]], Puthenangady, and Valiyangady. The Kottayam St Mary's Knanaya Valiyapally was built in 1550 by the [[Thekkumkur]] Rajah for these Syrian Christians who had migrated to [[Kottayam]] town. At present the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church|Malankara Orthodox]] [[Knanaya|Knanaya Christians]] use the Kottayam Valiyapally for worship.
[[File:Front View 3.jpg|thumb|Puthupally Mar Geevarghis Sahada Suriyani Valiyapally]]
*[[St. George Orthodox Church, Puthuppally|Puthupally St George's Orthodox Syrian Church]] – The Puthupally Mar Geevarghese Suriyani Valiyapally was established in 1557 AD as a chapel of the [[St. Mary's Metropolitan Cathedral, Changanassery|Changanassery Syrian Church]] for the Nasranis of Puthupally who attended the Changanassery Church. It also accommodated the Syrian Christian merchant families from [[Kuravilangad]], [[Poonjar]], [[Nilackal]], [[Niranam]], [[Chengannur]], [[Kaduthuruthy]] etc. who migrated to regions in and around [[Kottayam]] town in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Puthuppally Church {{!}} Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church |url=https://mosc.in/pilgrimcentres/puthuppally-church/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mosc.in}}</ref>
[[File:St Mary,'s Orthodox church , Kottayam (cheriya palli).jpg|thumb|Kottayam Martha Mariam Cheriyapally]]
*[[St. Mary's Church, Kottayam|Kottayam St Mary's Cheriyapally]] – The Kottayam Cheriyapally was built in 1579 by the [[Thekkumkur]] Kingdom for the Syrian Christians who separated from Kottayam Valiyapally due to a rift with the [[Knanaya]] community.

==Alappuzha district==
[[File:KokkamangalamChurch.jpg|thumb|Kokkamangalam Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally Church|300px]]
*[[St. Thomas Church, Kokkamangalam|Kokkamangalam St Thomas Syro Malabar Church]] – The Kokkamangalam Syrian Church was established by [[Thomas the Apostle]] in 52 AD and is one among the [[Ezharappallikal]].
[[File:Pallipuram palli.JPG|thumb|Pallippuram Martha Mariam Suriyanipally Church|250px]]
*[[Pallippuram, Alappuzha|Pallippuram St Mary's Syro Malabar Forane Church]] – One of the most ancient churches in Kerala, the Pallippuram Syrian Church was established in 290 AD by former parishioners who separated from the [[St. Thomas Church, Kokkamangalam|Kokkamangalam Church]].
[[File:StMaryChampakulamExt (6).jpg|thumb|Champakulam Kalloorkadu Marth Mariam Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Basilica of St. Mary, Champakulam|Champakulam Kalloorkadu St. Mary's Syro Malabar Basilica]] – [[Champakulam]] Kalloorkadu St. Mary's Basilica (also called Champakulam Valiya Palli) is one of the oldest Christian churches in India<ref>{{cite web | title = Champakulam Kalloorkkadu St Mary's Church- The Hidden Pearl in Nasrani History | date = 29 January 2010| url = http://nasrani.net/2010/01/30/champakulam-kalloorkkadu-st-marys-church/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Archdiocese Of Changancherry | url = http://www.archdiocesechanganacherry.org/archdiocesechanganacherry-parishesmore.php?id=26 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120718083445/http://www.archdiocesechanganacherry.org/archdiocesechanganacherry-parishesmore.php?id=26 | url-status = dead | archive-date = 18 July 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Ancient Churches | url = http://nasrani.net/category/heritage/ancient-churches-heritage/ | access-date = 2012-01-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120125100242/http://nasrani.net/category/heritage/ancient-churches-heritage/ | archive-date = 2012-01-25 | url-status = dead }}</ref> and the mother church of almost all Catholic Syrian churches in Alleppey District. Believed to have been established in 427 AD,<ref>{{cite web | title = Ancient Churches with traditional dates of foundation & Stone Crosses of Kerala- Saint Thomas Cross, Nazraney Sthambams and other Persian Crosses | date = 15 January 2007| url = http://nasrani.net/2007/01/16/ancient-stone-crosses-of-kerala-saint-thomas-cross-nazraney-sthambams-persian-crosses/}}</ref> the church was rebuilt many times. The Syrian Christians of [[Champakulam]] had separated from the [[Niranam]] Syrian Church. The [[Kuttanad]] region which includes [[Champakulam]], [[Pulinkunnu]], [[Chennamkary]] experienced a huge influx of Syrian Christians in the 11th centuries from [[Kuravilangad]], [[Kaduthuruthy]], [[Vaikom]] etc. owing to its huge agricultural potential and as it was near to the ancient seaport of [[Purakkad]].
[[File:Chengannur 2.JPG|thumb|Chengannur Pazhaya Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Old Syrian Church, Chengannur|Chengannur Old Syrian Church]] – The [[Chengannur]] Old Syrian Church was established in the 4th century by the Syrian Christians of Chengannur and nearby areas who separated from the [[Niranam]] Syrian Church and migrated from [[Nilakkal]].
*[[Kayamkulam|Kayamkulam Kadeesha Orthodox Syrian Church]] – The church was established by the Persian Nestorian merchants [[Mar Sabor and Mar Proth]] in 824 AD for the Syrian Christians of [[Kayamkulam]] who had formerly attended the Kadampanad Syrian church. Significant migrations to Kayamkulam from [[Kadampanad]] and [[Thiruvithamcode]] occurred in the later centuries.
[[File:Church Panorama1-1.jpg|thumb|Karthikapally Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Karthikapally|Karthikapally St. Thomas Syrian Orthodox Church]] – The [[Karthikappally]] Kottakkakathu Old Syrian Church was established in 829 AD by the Syrian Christians who separated from the [[Chengannur]] Syrian Church. In the 11th century when the Old [[Haripad]] Church was demolished by the [[Karthikapally]] [[Naduvazhi]], half of the parishioners established the [[Cheppad]] Syrian Church and the other half joined the Karthikapally Syrian Church.
[[File:St. Mary’s Orthodox Cathedral, Puthiyakavu.jpg|thumb|Mavelikkara Puthiyakavu Martha Mariam Suriyanipally|250 px]]
*[[Mavelikkara|Mavelikkara St Mary's Syrian Orthodox Church, Puthiyakavu]] – The Syrian Christians of Mavelikkara used to worship at the Kayamkulam Kadeesha Syrian Church but as it was far away the Nasranis with the help of the Mavelikkara Madamkoor King built the Kandiyoor Church at Mavelikkara at AD 943. But, the Kayamkulam King burned the Kandiyoor Church as a revenge to the Mavelikkara Madamkoor King. Thus the Mavelikkara Puthiyakavu Syrian Church was established in 943 AD by the Syrian Christians of [[Mavelikkara]] with the help of the Mavelikkara Madamkoor King. Many Syrian Christians from [[Kadampanad]] and [[Thiruvithamcode]] had migrated to [[Mavelikkara]].
[[File:St. Joseph's Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Chennamkary.jpg|thumb|Chennamkary Mar Youseph Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[St. Joseph's Church, Chennamkary|Chennamkary St Joseph's Syro Malabar Church]] – The Chennamkary Syrian Church was established in 977 AD by Syrian Christian immigrants from [[Champakulam]]. The [[Kuttanad]] region experienced a huge influx of Syrian Christians after the 11th century from [[Kuravilangad]], [[Kaduthuruthy]], [[Vaikom]] etc. owing to its huge agricultural potential.
[[File:Muttom church new.jpg|thumb|Muttom St Mary's Forane Syrian Church, Cherthala|300 px]]
*[[Cherthala|Muttom St Mary's Forane Syrian Church, Cherthala]] – The "Muttathu Pally" was built in 1023 in [[Cherthala]], [[Alappuzha]] it served the Syrian Christians of [[Cherthala]] who had separated from the [[Kokkamangalam]] Church.
[[File:Cheppad Church Front.jpg|thumb|Cheppad Mar Geevarghese Sahadha Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[St. George Orthodox Church, Cheppad|Cheppad St George Orthodox Syrian Church]] – It is believed that the church may have been founded in 1175 by the Syrian Christians who separated from Old [[Haripad]] Church. The Old Haripad Church existed from the 7th century but it was demolished in the 11th century as a result half of the parishioners established the Cheppad church and the other half joined the [[Karthikapally]] Syrian Church. The [[Cheppad]] Syrian Church has many centuries old murals depicting Syrian, Armenian, Ethiopian, Byzantine and traditional Kerala folk painting artworks. It also has an Ethiopian cross.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.keralatourism.org/christianity/cheppad-church/63|title=St. George Orthodox Church, Cheppad {{!}} Mural Paintings in Kerala Churches {{!}} Christianity of Kerala {{!}} Kerala Tourism|website=Christianity|language=en|access-date=2020-04-11}}</ref>
*[[Venmony]] St Mary's Orthodox Syrian Church – The Venmony Church was established in the 11 th century at year AD1017 by the [[Pandalam dynasty|Pandalam Royal family]] for the Venmony [[Nasranis]] who had to travel to the [[Mavelikkara]] Puthiyakavu Church.
*[[Purakkad|Purakkad Mar Sleeva Syro Malabar Church]] – The [[Purakkad]] Mar Sleeva Church was established in 1410 by the ruler of the Chempakassery Kingdom for his Syrian Christian soldiers of [[Champakulam]]. Purakkad which developed into a major trading port witnessed significant Syrian Christian migration.
*[[Alappuzha|Thathampally St Michael's Syro Malabar Church, Alappuzha]] – The Thathampally Syrian Church was established in 1404 by the Alavoor Matham ([[Naduvazhi]]) and the native Syrian Christians of Northern [[Aryanad]] who were former attendees of the Vadassery Syrian Church.
[[File:Mattel Church 02.jpg|thumb|Mattel Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Pallippuram, Alappuzha|Mattel St Thomas Syro Malabar Church, Pallippuram]] – The Mattel Syrian Church was established before the 15th century at the place where the Saint Thomas Cross which sank in the Vembanad Lake at Gokkamangalam was found.
[[File:Mar Sleeva Forane Church.jpg|thumb|Alappuzha Pazhavangadi Mar Sleeva Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Alappuzha|Pazhavanangadi Mar Sleeva Forane Syro Malabar Church, Alappuzha]] – The Pazhavanangadi Syrian Church built in 1400 AD by the local [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] who separated from the [[Basilica of St. Mary, Champakulam|Champakulam Kalloorkad Church]].
[[File:India - Kerala - Alleppey -Pulinkunnu - St. Mary's Forane Church.jpg|thumb|Pulinkunnoo Martha Mariam Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[St. Mary's Forane Church, Pulinkunnoo]] – The [[Pulinkunnoo|Pulinkunnu]] Syrian Church was established in 1557 by the Syrian Christians of Pulinkunnu, Alappuzha who separated from the [[Champakulam]] Kalloorkad Church.
*[[Kallissery|Kallissery St Mary's Orthodox Syrian Knanaya Valiyapally]] – The [[Kallissery]] [[Knanaya]] Valiyapally was established in 1580 by the [[Knanaya|Knananites]] who separated from the [[Old Syrian Church, Chengannur|Chengannur Old Syrian Church]] and the [[Knanaya|Knanaya Syrians]] who migrated from [[Kodungallur]] due to a war between the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christians]] and [[Mappila Muslims|Muslim Mappilas]] of [[Kodungallur]].
[[File:Kattachira Pilgrim Church.jpg|thumb|Kattachira Global Marian Pilgrim Church]]
*[[Kattachira Church]] - Kattachira Church is administered by [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]], Proclaimed '''Global Marian Pilgrim Centre'''. In this church, Aromatic oil flowed from the Icon of the [[Mother of God]], [[Syriac Orthodox]] Patriarch bull, Prayer book and Holy Cross.

==Pathanamthitta district==
[[File:Niranam Church.jpg|thumb|Niranam Martha Mariam Suriyanipally|300px]]
*[[St. Mary's Church, Niranam|Niranam St Mary's Orthodox Syrian Church]] – The ancient Niranam Syrian church was founded by Thomas the Apsotle in 54 AD and is among the [[Ezharappallikal]]. Later many Syrian Christians migrated from Niranam to places like [[Chengannur]], [[Mavelikkara]], [[Kallooppara]], [[Champakulam]], [[Changanassery]] and other regions in the present [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]] and [[Alappuzha district]].
[[File:Nilakkal Church.jpg|thumb|Nilakkal (Chayal) Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally]]
*[[St. Thomas Church, Angamoozhy|Nilackal St Thomas Ecumenical Syrian Church]] – The Nilackal (Chayal) Church in Angamoozhy was established by Thomas the Apostle in 54 AD and is among the Ezharappallikal. The Syrian Christians of Nilakkal had migrated to nearby regions of [[Kadampanad]], [[Adoor]], [[Thumpamon]] and [[Chengannur]] between the 2nd and the 8th centuries. According to tradition many [[Tamil Brahmins]], [[Vellalars]] and [[Chettiars]] were converted by St Thomas the apostle in the [[Coromandel Coast|Coromandel]] coast ([[Mylapore]], [[Kayalpatnam|Kayalpattanam]]). These converts from Coromandel later flocked towards the Syrian Christian strongholds in Kerala like [[Nilakkal]](Chayal) and Kollam in the 2nd century following persecution. Nilakkal was an important trading city in the erstwhile [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] Kingdom and had flourishing trade with the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] Kingdom of Madurai. In the 10th century [[Pandalam dynasty|Pandalam]] and [[Poonjar dynasty|Poonjar]] dynasties branched off from the Pandyan Kingdom and established themselves in Kerala, Nilakkal being part of [[Pandalam dynasty|Pandalam]]. The decline of Nilackal initiated in the early 12th century when [[Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I]] conquered [[Kollam|Quilon]], as Nilackal was the passage between Chera-Pandya it was sacked. This influenced [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan]] bandits and plunderers led by Vikramanpuli Thevar (Vakrapuli) and Paraiya pattam (Perumpatta) to loot Nilackal early in the 12th century. The [[Pandyan Civil War (1308-1323)|2nd Pandyan Civil War]] between Veera Pandya and Sundara Pandya along with [[Malik Kafur's invasion of the Pandya kingdom|invasion]] of the [[Alauddin Khalji|Delhi Sultanate]] led General [[Malik Kafur]] in the early 1300s further aggravated the misery of Nilakkal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Santhan |first=Sunitha |date=2023-06-30 |title=The Christian Legacy Of Nilakkal: A Historical Inquiry Into Its Early Community And Fourteenth-Century Diaspora |journal=ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing Arts |volume=4 |issue=1 |doi=10.29121/shodhkosh.v4.i1.2023.4195 |issn=2582-7472|doi-access=free }}</ref> The city was looted and torched and nothing remained of it. The Nilakkal church was burned and the Syrian Christians of Nilakkal migrated to regions like [[Kanjirappally]], [[Poonjar]], [[Aruvithura]], [[Ranni, Kerala|Ranni]], [[Vadasserikara]], [[Vaipur]] and [[Erumeli]] and other parts of present [[Meenachil]]. The [[1341 Kerala floods|Great Flood Of 1341]] destroyed what was left of Nilakkal, completely wiping out its existence.
[[File:Kadampanad Church.jpg|thumb|Kadampanad Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[St. Thomas Orthodox Cathedral, Kadampanad|Kadampanad St Thomas Syrian Orthodox Cathedral]] – In the beginning of the fourth century, a group of Syrian Christians from Chayal (Nilackal) near Ranni migrated to [[Kadampanad]]. They consecrated a church at Kadampanad in accordance with Syrian tradition and rituals in 325 AD, in the name of Mar Thoma Sleeha (Thomas the Apostle). The descendants of those who settled in Kadampanad later migrated to [[Mavelikkara]], [[Kayamkulam]], [[Kollakadavu]], [[Adoor]], [[Kozhenchery]], [[Kaippattoor]], [[Sooranadu]], [[Kallada]] and [[Koodal]].
[[File:Kannamcode Cathedral.jpg|thumb|Adoor Kannamcode Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[St. Thomas Cathedral, Kannamcode|Adoor Kannamcode St Thomas Orthodox Syrian Cathedral]] – The earliest Syrian Christian settlement near Kannamcode in [[Adoor]] was at the beginning of 4th century, during the establishment of Kadampanad Church. The Kannamcode Syrian Church was established by the parishioners of [[Kadampanad]] Syrian Church in the 4th century.
[[File:St.Mary's Orthodox Cathedral, Thumpamon.(Thumpamon Valiya Pally).JPG|thumb|Thumpamon Martha Mariam Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Thumpamon Valiya Pally|Thumpamon St Mary's Orthodox Syrian Valiyapally]] – The first church in [[Thumpamon]] was built in 717 AD by the Syrian Christians who migrated from [[Nilakkal]] and the Syrian Christians of Thumbamon who separated from the [[Niranam]] Church in the land donated by the Pandalam Kingdom.
*[[Vaipur|Vaipur St Mary's Syro-Malabar Church]] – The Vaipur Church was established in 1212 by the Syrian Christians of Vaipur who formerly attended the Niranam Church for worship. Later many Syrian Christians migrated to Vaipur in the 14th century from [[Nilakkal]].
[[File:General view - Kallooppara Church-2.jpg|thumb|Kallooppara Martha Mariam Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[St Mary's Orthodox Church, Kallooppara|Kallooppara St Mary's Syrian Orthodox Church]] – The [[Kallooppara]] Syrian Church was established in 1339 by the Aaruveedan families and the [[Edapally royal family|Edappally Swaroopam]] of [[Thekkumkur]] for the Syrian Christians of Kallooppara who attended the Niranam St Mary's Syrian Church.
[[File:MaramonMarthomaChurch.jpg|thumb|Maramon Marthoma Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Maramon|Maramon Mar Thoma Syrian Church]] – The Maramon Mar Thoma Church was established in 1440 by the Malieakal, Ramacham and Kulathackal Syrian Christian families who formerly worshiped in the [[Niranam]] Syrian Church.
*Omallur St Thomas Orthodox Syrian Valiyapally – [[Omallur]] Valiyapally was established in 1573 by the Koyikkal Thampuran and [[Pandalam dynasty]] for the Syrian Christians of Omallur who were parishioners of the [[St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral, Thumpamon|Thumpamon]] Syrian Church.
[[File:KozhencherryMarThomaChurchOld.jpg|thumb|Kozhencherry Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[St. Thomas Marthoma Church, Kozhencherry|Kozhenchery St Thomas Mar Thoma Syrian Church]] – Certain ancient Christian families who resided on the banks of river Pampa have recorded their origins and this evidence indicates that the early Christian settlers around Kozhencherry worshiped in the churches at [[Maramon]] and [[Chengannur]]. According to these records, the earliest church at Kozhencherry was constructed in 1599, according to the Malayalam Era (M.E. 775).

==Kollam district==
[[File:St. Mary Thevallakara.JPG|thumb|Thevalakkara Martha Mariam Suriyanipally|300px]]
*[[Thevalakkara|Thevalakkara Martha Mariam Orthodox Syrian Church]] – [[Thomas the Apostle]] established a church in [[Kollam]] in 54 AD. The church was lost to sea erosion in the 4th century. It was rebuilt in the 4th century in Thevelakkara, near Kollam. Later [[Mar Sabor and Mar Proth|Mar Abo and Mar Aphroth]] from [[Nineveh]] in [[Iraq]] travelled to Kollam and rebuilt the church again at Thevelakkara for the Syrian Christian community in 825. Thevalakkara had also received the Tharissaykal, Syrian Christians of [[Thiruvithamcode]] who had migrated to Kerala. According to tradition many [[Tamil Brahmins]], [[Vellalars]] and [[Chettiars]] were converted by St Thomas the apostle in the Coromandel coast near Mylapore, these converts from the Coromandel coast later flocked towards the Syrian Christian strongholds in Kerala like Nilakkal(Chayal) and Kollam.
[[File:Kadisa church kollam.jpg|thumb|Kollam Mar Sabor Mar Aphroth Kadeesha Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Kollam|Kollam Kadeesha Orthodox Syrian Church]] – The Kollam Kadeesha Syrian Church also known as Tharisappally/Tharisappalli Church was established in 823 AD by the Persian Saints Mar Sapor and Mar Aphroth. The [[Quilon Syrian copper plates|Tharisappally Quilon Syrian Copper Plates]] were issued for this church. Many Syrian Christians from [[Thiruvithamcode]], known as Tharissaykal had migrated to [[Kollam]]. The St Thomas converts from mylapore in the coromandel coast also migrated to Syrian Christian strongholds in Kerala like Kollam and Nilakkal.
[[File:Kallada Valiyapally.jpg|thumb|St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Church, Kallada]]
*[[St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Church, Kallada]] – The Kallada Church was established in the 9th century by Persian traders [[Mar Sabor and Mar Proth]] for the Syrian Christians of Kallada who attended the Thevalakkara Syrian Church. Later in the 12th century many Syrian Christians migrated to Kallada from [[Kollam]] and [[Kadampanad]]. The tomb of [[Anthrayos of Kallada|Mar Anthrayos Bava]] (Kallada Valyappooppan) who arrived in 1678 is in the Kallada Syrian Church. The first Church in Kallada was destroyed by internecine feud between the Karthas of east Kallada and west Kallada and a matriarch of Thulassery Manapurathu Syrian family recovered the cross of the destroyed Church from the river and prevailed on Avani Rajni (Queen of west Kallada) to allot some land for building a new Church. She was won over by handsome gifts of precious stones by the members of Thulassery Manapurathu Tharavad. The Kallada St Mary's ValiyaPalli also known as Thulassery Manapurathu Marthamariyam Church was established by the descendants of the West Asian migration to Kollam in 9th century AD.
[[File:Kundara valiyapally.jpg|thumb|Kundara Mar Thoma Sleeha Suriyanipally|300 px]]
*[[Kundara|Kundara St Thomas Orthodox Syrian Valiyapally]] – The St. Thomas Valiyapally in Kundara was established in 835 AD by Mar Sabor and Mar Aphroth and the Eliyedath Rajah of [[Kottarakkara]] for the Syrian Christians of Kundara who formerly attended the Kollam Kadeesha Syrian Church and the Thevalakkara church.
*[[Kottarakkara]] Marthoma Syrian Church – The Kottarakara Old Syrian Church was built in the 13th century by the ruler of the [[Travancore royal family|Elayedath Swaroopam]], (a branch of the Venad Kingdom) for the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Nasranis]] of Kottarakara who had to rely on the [[Kundara]] Syrian Church and for the Nasrani merchants who were invited to Kottarakara from [[Thekkumkur]] by the Elayedath Rajah.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heritage – Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church |url=https://marthoma.in/the-church/heritage/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==

{{Reflist}}
{{Coord missing|Kerala}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book |last=Karukaparambil |first=George |year=2005 |title=Marganitha Kynanaitha: Knanaya Pearl |publisher=Deepika Book House}}
* {{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |author-link=A. Sreedhara Menon |title=Kerala District Gazetteers: Trichur, Kerala, Volume 7 |year=1962 |publisher=Superintendent of Govt. Presses |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/gazettes/kerala-district-gazetteers-trichur}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=Pius |last=Malekandathil |title=Angamali and the St. Thomas Christians: An Historical Overview |encyclopedia=NSC Network |url=https://www.nasrani.net/2020/07/14/angamali-and-the-st-thomas-christians-an-historical-overview/ |year=2020|access-date=14 July 2020}}
* {{cite book |last=Whitehouse |first=Richard |year=1873 |title=Lingerings of Light in a Dark Land: Being Researches Into the Past History and Present Condition of the Syrian Church of Malabar |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |isbn=116492317X}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.niranamchurch.com St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Church, Niranam]
* [http://www.stmarykuravilangad.org/Pilgrim.htm St. Mary's Forane (Martha Mariam) Church] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928120732/http://www.stmarykuravilangad.org/Pilgrim.htm |date=28 September 2011 }}

{{Christianity in Kerala}}

[[Category:Churches in Kerala]]

Shravasti Assembly constituency

2026-01-22T20:02:03Z

DeangeloSchwing: added new data

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}

{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Shravasti
| map_image = 290-Shravasti.svg
| mla = [[Ram Feran Pandey]]
| party = [[BJP]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| preceded_by = Muhammad Ramjan
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Shravasti district|Shravasti]]
| reservation = None
| type = SLA
| electors = 4,16,147
| constituency_no = 290
}}

'''Shravasti''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] covering the city of Bhinga in the [[Shravasti district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.

Shravasti is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Shravasti Lok Sabha constituency]]. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 290 amongst 403 constituencies.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref>{{Cite web |title=ShrawastiElection and Results, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/shrawasti.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|colspan="4" |{{center|''Till 2012 : Constituency did not exist''}}
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|Muhammad Ramjan
|style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Ram Feran Pandey]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Shravasti<ref name="election2022">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2022 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=4 March 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Ram Feran Pandey]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:98640}}
|percentage = 38.98
|change = {{increase}}6.12
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Mohammad Aslam (politician)|Mohammad Aslam]]
|party = Samajwadi Party
|votes = {{formatnum:97183}}
|percentage = 38.4
|change = {{increase}}5.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Neetu Mishra
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:41026}}
|percentage = 16.21
|change = {{decrease}}5.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Muhammad Ramjan
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:4655}}
|percentage = 1.84
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Peace Party (India)
|candidate = Ahtishamul Haque Khan
|votes = {{formatnum:3478}}
|percentage = 1.37
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:3198}}
|percentage = 1.26
|change = {{decrease}}0.55
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:1457}}
|percentage = 0.58
|change = {{increase}}0.4
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:253077}}
|percentage = 60.81
|change = {{decrease}}2.68
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===

Bharatiya Janta Party candidate [[Ram Feran Pandey]] won in 2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections defeating Samajwadi Party candidate Mohammed Ramzan by a margin of 445 votes.<ref name="election2017-1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/shrawasti.html|title=Assembly result 2017|website=Elections.in|access-date=2017-08-25}}</ref><ref name="election2017">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3471-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |title=State Election, 2017 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |website=eci.gov.in |accessdate=26 March 2022}}</ref>

{{Election box begin|title = [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election]]: Shravast<ref name="election2017"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Ram Feran Pandey]]
|votes = {{formatnum:79437}}
|percentage = 32.86
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Mohd. Ramzan
|votes = {{formatnum:78992}}
|percentage = 32.68
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Subhash
|votes = {{formatnum:53014}}
|percentage = 21.93
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Lok Dal
|candidate = Eng. Vinod Kumar Tripathi
|votes = {{formatnum:10856}}
|percentage = 4.49
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen
|candidate = Kalim
|votes = {{formatnum:2933}}
|percentage = 1.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Neetu Mishra
|votes = {{formatnum:2352}}
|percentage = 0.97
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Mohd Yusus Khan
|votes = {{formatnum:2212}}
|percentage = 0.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4289}}
|percentage = 1.81
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:445}}
|percentage = 0.18
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:241733}}
|percentage = 63.49
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{coord|27.51|82.03|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Shravasti]]
[[Category:Shravasti district]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttar Pradesh]]

Mahatma Gandhi University, Telangana

2026-01-14T00:06:17Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added Info

{{Short description|Public university in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox university
| image_name =
| name = Mahatma Gandhi University
| city = [[Nalgonda]]
| state = [[Telangana]]
| country = India
| established = {{start date and age|2007}}
| coordinates = {{coord|17.05|N|79.27|E|type:edu|format=dms|display=inline}}
| address = Anneparthy
| type = [[Public University]]
| vice_chancellor = Altaf Hussain
| chancellor = [[Governor of Telangana]]
| website = {{official website|http://www.mguniversity.ac.in}},
| footnotes =
| image = Mahatma Gandhi University, Nalgonda logo.png
}}
'''Mahatma Gandhi University, Nalgonda''' is a [[public university]] located at [[Nalgonda district]], Telangana, India.

==History==
The university is a [[state university, India|state university]], established in 2007 by the Government of Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mguniversity.ac.in/about-mgu.html|title=Welcome to Mahatma Gandhi University|work=mguniversity.ac.in|accessdate=23 June 2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100407073220/http://www.mguniversity.ac.in/about-mgu.html|archivedate=7 April 2010}}</ref> It was formerly called as '''Nalgonda University'''.<ref name=State>{{cite web|url=http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/StateUniv_total.pdf|title=List of State Universities|date=27 May 2011|accessdate=2011-06-06}}</ref> It is a self-funded public university. It has an engineering college established in 2013 located in panagal, Nalgonda. The Government of Andhra Pradesh established Nalgonda University in the year 2007 vide Government Orders in G.O.19/HE (UE-II) Department, dt: 13 March 2007 by suitably amending the Andhra Pradesh Universities Act 1991 under Section-3(1) in L.A.Bill No.4 of 2007. The establishment of this university is part of the vision of the Government of Andhra Pradesh to promote access, equity and inclusiveness in Higher Education and foundation stone laid by former Chief Minister YS Rajsekar Reddy.

This university has been renamed by the Government of Andhra Pradesh as '''Mahatma Gandhi University''' by amending the Schedule of Act 4 of 1991, which was published in the A.P. Gazette on 28 April 2008. The University Headquarters were located in Nalgonda town during the reporting year 2010-11 and its permanent campus is being developed in 240 acres of land allotted to the university on the state highway (Nalgonda – Narketpally) at Anneparthy, 7 km from Nalgonda town.

==Infrastructure==
It is located on a 300-acre area at Nalgonda town. And it has a 16-acre engineering college located in panagal, Nalgonda.

==See also==
* [[List of universities in India]]
* [[Universities and colleges in India]]
* [[Education in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://www.mguniversity.ac.in}} of Mahatma Gandhi University, Nalgonda.

{{Universities in Telangana}}

[[Category:Nizamabad district]]
[[Category:2007 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 2007]]
[[Category:State universities in Telangana]]

{{Telangana-university-stub}}

Pranjivandas Manekchand Mehta

2026-01-13T17:29:59Z

DeangeloSchwing: Made initial stub with sources

{{for-multi|the Indian physician, lawyer and close friend of Mahatma Gandhi|Pranjivan Mehta}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
'''Pranjivandas Manekchand Mehta''' (1889–1981) was an Indian physician, surgeon, and Chief Medical Officer of the former [[Nawanagar State|Princely State of Nawanagar]], [[Gujarat]], [[British India]], where he was the personal physician to the [[Digvijaysinhji Ranjitsinhji Jadeja|Maharajah Jamsaheb]]. With the French radiologist, [[Jean Saidman]], Mehta oversaw the creation of India's first solarium. He later co-founded the Shri Gulabkunverba Ayurvedic Society dedicated to Ayurvedic studies, persuaded the Maharajah to fund a medical college in Nawanagar's capital, and co-ordinated a detailed translation of the ancient [[Sanskrit]] medical text ''[[Charaka Samhita]]''.<ref name="Pandya2024">{{cite journal |last1=Pandya |first1=Sunil K |author-link=Sunil K. Pandya |date=26 December 2024 |title=Dr Pranjivandas Manekchand Mehta MD, MS, FCPS 1889–1981 and Caraka Samhita (1949) |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/09677720241304740?journalCode=jmba |journal=Journal of Medical Biography |language=en |doi=10.1177/09677720241304740 |issn=0967-7720 |pmid=39726131 |url-access=subscription |article-number=09677720241304740}}</ref><ref name=Ram2025>{{cite journal |last1=Ram |first1=Vd. J. |last2=Rohatgi |first2=Ananya |title=Dr. Pranjivan Mehta: A Visionary in the Revival of Ayurveda |journal=Journal of Indian Medical Heritage |date=July 2025 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=113–121 |doi=10.4103/jimh.jimh_53_25 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[File:Jamnagar_Solarium_-_Indian_Review_1936_-_37-3.jpg|thumb|right|The Solarium in Jamnagar, India with its rotatable seating area.]]

==Selected publications==
*{{cite journal |last1=Mehta |first1=P. M. |title=Erythema Standard for Dose in Light |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |date=February 1941 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=105–115 |pmid=29013529 |pmc=5184974 |issn=0019-5863}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Mehta |first1=P. M. |title=Measurement of Radiant Energy in Light Therapy |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |date=May 1942 |volume=77 |issue=5 |pages=296–300|pmid=29012471 |pmc=5169022 |issn=0019-5863}}
*{{cite journal |author1=MEHTA PM |title=Need of sympathetic study of Ayurveda by modern medical men |journal=Journal of the Indian Medical Association |date=December 1945 |volume=15 |page=86 |pmid=21017362 |issn=0019-5847}}
*Mehta, P. M. (October 1952). "History of medicine". ''Indian Medical Journal''. 46 (10): 220–222. ISSN 0019-5871. PMID 13010826.
*{{cite book |title=The Caraka Saṃhitā Expounded by the Worshipful Ātreya Punarvasu, Compiled by the Great Sage Agniveśa and Redacted by Caraka & Dṛḍhabala|volume=1 |date=1949 |publisher=Shree Gulabkunverba Ayurvedic Society |location=Jamnagar |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.63710/page/n7/mode/2up}} (Editor, 6 volumes)

==See also==
*[[M. P. Shah Medical College]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{India-med-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1889 births]]
[[Category:1981 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian medical doctors]]
[[Category:People from Jamnagar]]

DD Girnar

2026-01-12T18:10:09Z

DeangeloSchwing: cleanup

{{short description|Indian Gujarati-language public television channel}}
{{primary sources|date=August 2009}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}

{{Infobox television channel
| name = DD Girnar
| logo =
| country = India
| area = India
| owner = [[Prasar Bharati]] ([[Govt. of India]])
| language = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| picture_format = [[1080i]] [[HDTV]] (downscaled to [[576i]] for the [[Standard-definition television|SDTV]] feed)
| launch_date = 2003 (as Doordarshan Kendra Ahmedabad)
| former_names = Doordarshan Kendra Ahmedabad
| network = DD (Doordarshan)
| headquarters = [[Ahmedabad]], Gujarat, India
| website = http://www.ddgirnar.com
}}
'''DD Girnar''' (formerly '''DD-10 Gujarati)''' is an Indian [[Gujarati language|Gujarati-language]] television channel, owned and operated by [[Doordarshan]], a part of the public broadcaster, [[Prasar Bharati]]. It is broadcast out of studios at Doordarshan Kendra in [[Ahmedabad]] in [[Gujarat]].

==History==
Doordarshan Kendra, Ahmedabad was set up on 15 March 1976, as a part of the [[Satellite Instructional Television Experiment]] SITE Project of [[ISRO]] and the 1 KW transmitter was based in PIJ, [[Kheda]] District. The studio used to function from the ISRO, Ahmedabad premises, while the administrative office was located in the Polytechnic compound in Ahmedabad.

Few years later, a plot of land was identified and a low power LPT was set up in Ahmedabad in Thaltej Tekra on 19 November 1983. The studio was commissioned on 2 October 1987 while the regional language uplinking was started on 30 December 1992. DD Girnar started its 24-hour transmission on 1 October 1993.

==List of programmes currently broadcast==
<ref name="test">[http://www.ddgirnar.com/telecast_monday.aspx#monday] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915161508/http://www.ddgirnar.com/telecast_monday.aspx#monday|date=15 September 2012}} Telecast schedule</ref>
* ''Rasoi ni Rangat'' (રસોઈ ની રંગત)
* ''Ek Dal na Pankhi'' (એક ડાળ ના પંખી) (re-run)
* ''One Minute'' (એક મિનિટ)
* ''Gram Jagat'' (ગ્રામ જગત)
* ''Filmi Sargam'' (ફિલ્મી સરગમ)
* ''Kaka ni Kamal'' (કાકા ની કમાલ)
* ''Kuvara Corporation'' (કુંવારા કોર્પોરેશન)
* ''Gammat Gulal'' (ગમ્મત ગુલાલ)

{{Expand section|date=October 2012}}

{{Expand section|date=July 2010}}
{{col-begin}}{{col-break}}{{col-break}}{{col-break}}{{col-break}}{{col-end}}

==See also==
*[[List of programs broadcast by DD National]]
*[[All India Radio]]
*[[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting]]
*[[DD Direct Plus]]
*[[List of South Asian television channels by country]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.ddindia.gov.in/|Doordarshan's official website}}
*[http://www.ddinews.gov.in/ Doordarshan news site]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120414015108/http://passionforcinema.com/doordarshan-down-memory-lane An article at PFC]
{{CATV}}
{{Gujarati Language Channels}}
{{Terrestrial television channels of India}}

[[Category:Doordarshan]]
[[Category:Foreign television channels broadcasting in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2003]]
[[Category:Indian direct broadcast satellite services]]
[[Category:Television stations in Ahmedabad]]
[[Category:Gujarati-language television channels in India]]

Walter Gawen King

2026-01-12T04:39:07Z

DeangeloSchwing: added new data

{{Short description|British Doctor in Colonial India }}
Colonel '''Walter Gawen King''' {{postnominals|CIE}} (4 December 1851<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=King, Col Walter Gawen, (4 Dec. 1851–4 April 1935) |date=2007-12-01 |url=http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-212369 |work=Who Was Who |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u212369 |isbn=978-0-19-954089-1 |access-date=2022-11-25|url-access=subscription }}</ref> – 4 April 1935) was a [[British Indian Army|British Indian army]] surgeon who served in the [[Madras Presidency]] as a sanitary officer and introduced a number of public health measures for the first time in India. The [[King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research]] in Chennai was named in his honour in 1905.

== Life ==

King was born in England, the son of J. H. King and Laura daughter of George William Marrett, engineer to the Nizam in Hyderabad. He studied medicine at the [[University of Aberdeen]], receiving an MB and CM in 1873 and joined the [[Indian Medical Service]] in 1874.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=J. |first=S. P. |date=1935 |title=Colonel W. G. King, C.I.E |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=135 |issue=3420 |pages=817 |doi=10.1038/135817a0 |s2cid=4065676 |issn=0028-0836|doi-access=free }}</ref> He served in the 31's and the 5th Burmah regiments and became a civil surgeon in 1877 at Madras. While posted here, he was a professor of hygiene at the [[Madras Medical College]]. During the famines of 1876-77 and 1896-97 in southern India, his services were recognized by the government. He served in Burma from 1906 to 1908.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1910 |title=The Medical Meeting in Burma |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=1–20 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5140551 |pmid=29004594}}</ref> He was made CIE in 1899. He retired to England in 1910 with the rank of colonel and lived in Hendon where he died in 1935.
[[File:King Institute.jpg|thumb|left|The King Institute c. 1914]]
King's major work was on vaccination and public health. He was involved in the introduction of rules to track movement of people during the plague outbreaks in Madras. He began research at Guindy in 1899 to produce vaccines which resulted in an institute that was formally named as the King Institute and opened on 11 March 1905.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=1914 |title=India |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25308801 |journal=The British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=2771 |pages=314–319 |jstor=25308801 |issn=0007-1447}}</ref>

== Vaccination and public health ==
[[File:King Institute vaccine production.jpg|thumb|Vaccine production building at the King Institute c. 1914]]
King was appointed inspector of vaccination in 1890 and used lanolin and vaseline as a medium for storage of [[smallpox vaccine]]. In 1892 he became Sanitary Commissioner for Madras and served in this position until 1905. He established a department of public health and developed courses in public health and had sanitary inspectors trained at the Madras Medical College. The Madras Registration of Births and Deaths Act of 1899 was the result of a proposal from King.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=A.J.H. |date=1935 |title=Walter Gawen King, C.I.E., M.B., C.M., D.P.H., COLONEL I.M.S. 1851–1935 |url=https://academic.oup.com/trstmh/article-lookup/doi/10.1016/S0035-9203(35)90024-4 |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=95–96 |doi=10.1016/S0035-9203(35)90024-4|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Plague management ==

In September 1896, the first case of [[plague in India]] was reported in Bombay. King immediately issued a circular to the medical officers of the port, warning them of its entrance to the Presidency and advised the local bodies in the Presidency to adopt plague passports, which would enable tracking movement of people from plague affected areas to other parts. In 1903 nearly 79500 plague passports were issued and tracked. He also produced management guidelines which included inspections of ships and transports.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=Plague and the Destruction of Rats |date=1910 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45162818 |journal=Journal of the Royal Institute of Public Health |volume=18 |issue=12 |pages=737–743 |jstor=45162818 |issn=0368-3982}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=W. G. |last2=Taylor |first2=H. D. |date=1906 |title=Plague in Madras |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=41 |issue=11 |pages=459–465 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5180946 |pmid=29006074}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=The Hindu and Plague |date=1924-06-14 |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=3311 |pages=1071 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2304515}}</ref>

== Promotion of soya ==

King recognised the nutritional value of soya beans and promoted their cultivation in India. In 1897 he provided seeds to officials in [[South India]] to introduce soya bean cultivation in India.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Shurtleff, William |editor2=Aoyagi, Akiko |year= 2016|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=12dnDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 |title=History of Soybean Crushing: Soy Oil and Soybean Meal (980-2016):: Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook |publisher=Soyinfo Center |isbn=9781928914891}}</ref>

== Publications ==
King published numerous papers and also published annual reports on vaccination in the Madras Presidency for 1902-03, 1903-04.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1902 |title=The Introduction of Vaccination into India |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=413–414 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5156148 |pmid=29003634}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1905 |title=The Antiquity of Hindu Vaccination |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=234 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5163083 |pmid=29004863}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1913 |title="Flaming" in Prevention of Plague and Kala-Azar |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=124 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5177265 |pmid=29005873}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1914 |title=Itinerating Dispensaries |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=370 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5181399 |pmid=29006337}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=Cholera Epidemiology |date=1930-12-27 |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=2 |issue=3651 |pages=1101–1102 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2452810}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=The Outlook in Tropical Hygiene |date=1922 |journal=British Medical Journal |language=en |volume=1 |issue=3206 |pages=935–936|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.3206.935-c |pmc=2416308 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=Colonel W. G. |title=Politics and Sanitation |date=1923 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43431175 |journal=Science Progress in the Twentieth Century (1919-1933) |volume=18 |issue=69 |pages=113–125 |jstor=43431175 |issn=2059-4941}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=The Penalties of Research |date=1924 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43430693 |journal=Science Progress in the Twentieth Century (1919-1933) |volume=18 |issue=72 |pages=628–634 |jstor=43430693 |issn=2059-4941}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1910 |title=Operation Rooms in the Tropics |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=201–207 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5140633 |pmid=29004655}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=Rice in Relation to Beri-Beri |date=1924-04-12 |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=3302 |pages=688–689 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2304203}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=Assets of the I.m.s |date=1925-01-31 |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=3344 |pages=241 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2196813}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1912 |title=Air Movement in Association Wards |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=60–64 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5168047 |pmid=29005307}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1901 |title=Beri-Beri in the Northern Circars |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=36–39 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5164185 |pmid=29004202}}</ref>
* Cultivation of Animal Vaccine (1891)
* Plague Inspector's Manual (1902)
* Sanitary Rules for the Prevention of Plague in Municipalities (1903)
* Simple Sanitary Rules during Cholera Epidemics.
* {{Cite journal |last=King|first=W. G. |date=1912 |title=The prevention of plague in the Madras Presidency (Continued) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45202903 |journal=The Journal of State Medicine |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=220–254 |jstor=45202903 |issn=2633-5468}}
* {{Cite journal |last=KING |first=W. G. |title=The Prevention of Plague in the Madras Presidency |date=1912 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45202896 |journal=The Journal of State Medicine |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=100–111 |jstor=45202896 |issn=2633-5468}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W.-G. |date=1904 |title=Commonsense Policy of Plague |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=39 |issue=12 |pages=447–450 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5162504 |pmid=29003787}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=W. G. |last2=Simpson |first2=W. J. |date=1913 |title=Indian Sanitary Reforms |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=163 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5177209 |pmid=29005834}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=Inoculation and the Incubation Stage of Plague |date=1902-02-08 |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=2145 |pages=365 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2511965}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1900-12-15 |title="Haffkinine." |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=2 |issue=2085 |pages=1750–1751 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2464021}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1893 |title=Vaccine Lymph—Its Origin and Cultivation |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=65–68 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5171965 |pmid=29000968}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1896 |title=Extract from an Account of Experiments for the Preservation of Animal Lymph Conducted |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=440–443 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5146175 |pmid=29002659}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1922-02-18 |title=FATS AND GOITRE |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=3190 |pages=287 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2415620}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1896 |title=The Preservation of Animal Lymph, Vaseline or Lanoline |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=438–440 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5146173 |pmid=29002657}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1893 |title=Animal Vaccine: Its Origin and Cultivation |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=209–218 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5172071 |pmid=29001031}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1898-06-25 |title="Extraneous Organisms" in Preserved Vaccine |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=1956 |pages=1686 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2412015}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1914 |title=Asino-Vaccine |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=206 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5181488 |pmid=29006394}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1904 |title=Sanitary Inspectors in Madras |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=39 |issue=11 |pages=437–438 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5162464 |pmid=29003756}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=Sanitation in India |date=1923-12-15 |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=2 |issue=3285 |pages=1183 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=2317603}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |date=1895 |title=Presidential Address in Public Health |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=14–20 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5142931 |pmid=29002019}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W. G. |title=Sanitary Law in India |date=1911 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45162845 |journal=Journal of the Royal Institute of Public Health |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=91–107 |jstor=45162845 |issn=0368-3982}}
* {{Cite journal |last=King |first=W.G |title=Madras City Water-Supply |date=1914 |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673600545759 |journal=The Lancet |language=en |volume=183 |issue=4720 |pages=497–498 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(00)54575-9}}
* {{Cite journal |last=KING |first=W. G. |title=A Latrine for the Tropics |date=1910 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/45162187 |journal=Journal of the Royal Institute of Public Health |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=402–405 |jstor=45162187 |issn=0368-3982}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.madrasmusings.com/vol-25-no-9/the-pioneers-of-the-king-institute/ The Pioneers of the King Institute]
* [https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/kings-prescription/article4550980.ece King's prescription]
* [https://thefederal.com/features/wg-king-the-englishman-who-banished-plague-from-madr King's work on plague]
* [https://hamletram.blogspot.com/2015/01/bamboo-and-butterflya-malabar-woman-for.html On King's Burma career and life]
* [https://www.s-asian.cam.ac.uk/archive/papers/item/king-papers/ Archives at Cambridge]

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:King, Walter Gawen}}

[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:19th-century English medical doctors]]
[[Category:20th-century English medical doctors]]
[[Category:People from the Madras Presidency]]
[[Category:Indian Medical Service officers]]
[[Category:1851 births]]
[[Category:1935 deaths]]

A. V. Ramanan

2026-01-08T00:21:47Z

DeangeloSchwing: General cleanup and content improvements

{{Short description|Tamil television host, singer, and actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{BLP sources|date=June 2012}}
{{Infobox person
| name = 
| image = 
| alt = 
| caption =
| birth_name = Aravamudan Venkata Ramanan
| birth_date = 
| birth_place =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Actor]]|[[television presenter|television host]]|[[singing|singer]]}}
| years_active =
| known_for =
| notable_works =
| spouse = [[Uma Ramanan]]
}}

'''Aravamudan Venkata Ramanan''' is a Tamil television host, singer and actor. He became a household name in [[Tamil Nadu]] during his hosting of the [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] program ''Saptha Swarangal''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hinduonnet.com/2000/01/10/stories/09100702.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120719041318/http://hinduonnet.com/2000/01/10/stories/09100702.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-date=2012-07-19|title=The Hindu : Symphony of success}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Ramanan married playback singer [[Uma Ramanan]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/money-and-careers/no-stopping-ramanan/article2031786.ece|title = No stopping Ramanan|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 19 May 2011|last1 = Frederick|first1 = Prince}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===Actor===
*''Kadhal Kadhal Kadhal'' (1980)
*''[[Chatriyan]]'' (1990) – Police Officer
*''[[Ennavalle]]'' (2001) – Special appearance as Sapthaswarangal host
*''[[Boys (2003 film)|Boys]]'' (2003) – Siddharth's father
*''[[Madhurey]]'' (2004) – Officer Karthikeyan

===Composer===
*''Neerottam'' (1979)
*''Kadhal Kadhal Kadhal'' (1980)

===Singer===
*''Netroru Menagai'' – ''[[Manmadha Leelai (1976 film)|Manmadha Leelai]]'' (1976)
*''Mohana Kannan'' (with [[Uma Ramanan]]) – ''[[Sri Krishna Leela (1977 film)|Sri Krishna Leela]]'' (1977)
*''Oru Athukku'' – ''[[Rudra Thandavam (1978 film)|Rudra Thandavam]]'' (1978)
*''En Chella Peru Apple'' (with [[Suchitra]]) – ''[[Pokkiri]]'' (2007)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20070819061708/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2003/06/06/stories/2003060601320300.htm The Hindu – Laced with wisecracks]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071209090720/http://www.avramananmusiano.com/index.htm A V Ramanan's Musiano Website]
* [https://www.youtube.com/c/avramananmusiano YouTube Channel]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramanan, A. V.}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Tamil film score composers]]
[[Category:Tamil male actors]]
[[Category:Tamil-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-film-actor-stub}}

Amritpal Singh (footballer)

2026-01-05T22:14:14Z

DeangeloSchwing: Creating Bio.

{{Short description|Indian footballer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Amritpal Singh
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2001|1|9|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Amritsar]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[India]]
| currentclub = [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]]
| clubnumber = 5
| position = [[Defender (association football)#Centre-back|Centre-back]]
| youthyears1 =
| youthclubs1 = [[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]
| years1 = 2016–2019
| clubs1 = [[FC Pune City Reserves and Academy|Pune City B]]
| caps1 = 1
| goals1 = 0
| years2 = 2019–2022
| clubs2 = [[Hyderabad FC Reserves and Academy|Hyderabad B]]
| caps2 = 10
| goals2 = 1
| years3 = 2021–2023
| clubs3 = [[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]
| caps3 = 1
| goals3 = 0
| years4 = 2022–2023
| clubs4 = → [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]] (loan)
| caps4 = 7
| goals4 = 1
| years5 = 2023–
| clubs5 = [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]]
| caps5 = 0
| goals5 = 0
| club-update = 14:01, 4 March 2023 (UTC)
| nationalteam-update =
}}

'''Amritpal Singh''' (born 9 January 2001) is an Indian professional [[Association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[Defender (association football)#Centre-back|defender]] for [[I-League]] club [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]].

==Club career==
Amritpal began his football career with the FC Pune City Academy in 2016 before joining Hyderabad FC Reserves [[Hyderabad FC Reserves]] in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=AIFF Profile Page, Amritpal Singh|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/57023?type=club|website=AIFF|access-date=27 March 2022}}</ref> After featuring for HFC B over two years in various competitions, he was promoted to the first team in 2021–22 season,<ref>{{cite web|title=Hyderabad FC Twitter|url=https://twitter.com/HydFCOfficial/status/1484869146219540482|website=Twitter|access-date=27 March 2022}}</ref> and was part of the HFC side that won the Indian Super League title in 2022.

On 9 June 2023, Rajasthan United announced the permanent signing of Amritpal. He signed a three-year deal until 2026.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amritpal Stays ❤️ We are thrilled to announce that Amritpal has signed a long term deal with Rajasthan United FC which will extend his stay at the club until 2026|url=https://twitter.com/RajasthanUnited/status/1667158930659717123|date=9 June 2023|website=@RajasthanUnited|access-date=9 June 2023}}</ref>

==Honours==
'''Hyderabad FC'''
* [[Indian Super League]]: [[2021–22 Indian Super League|2021–22]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Hyderabad FC ISL Squad 2021-22|url=https://hyderabadfc.co.in/squad/|website=Hyderabad FC|access-date=27 March 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Amritpal}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2001 births]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:Men's association football defenders]]
[[Category:Rajasthan United FC players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]

{{India-footy-defender-stub}}

Art of Rajasthan

2025-11-07T19:09:27Z

DeangeloSchwing: minor edit

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
[[File:Maker unknown, India - Krishna and Radha - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''[[Krishna]] and [[Radha]]'', attributed to [[Nihâl Chand|Nihal Chand]], a master of the Kishangarh miniature school trained at the imperial court in Delhi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Krishna and Radha|url=http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/76766.html|access-date=26 October 2018|publisher=Philadelphia Museum of Art|archive-date=27 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027061523/http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/76766.html|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Apart from the [[architecture of Rajasthan]], the most notable forms of the visual '''art of Rajasthan''' are architectural sculpture on Hindu and [[Jain temple]]s in the medieval era, in painting illustrations to religious texts, beginning in the late medieval period, and post-Mughal miniature painting in the [[Early Modern period]], where various different court schools developed, together known as [[Rajput painting]]. In both cases, [[Rajasthan]]i art had many similarities to that of the neighbouring region of [[Gujarat]], the two forming most of the region of "Western India", where artistic styles often developed together.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmcLLEBmPHwC&q=aurangzeb+iconoclast+nathdwara&pg=PA45 |title=Art and artists of Rajasthan: a ... – Rādhākr̥shṇa Vaśishṭha |isbn=9788170172840 |last1=Vaśishṭha |first1=Rādhākr̥Shṇa |last2=Vashistha |first2=R. K. |year=1995 |page=22 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |access-date=25 December 2021 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702121631/https://books.google.com/books?id=kmcLLEBmPHwC&q=aurangzeb+iconoclast+nathdwara&pg=PA45 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Architecture==
[[File:Dilwara Temple - Luna Vasahi.jpg|thumb|Interior of [[Jain]] Luna Vasahi temple at [[Dilwara]], [[Mount Abu]], 1230 and later, with typical "flying arches".]]
{{main|Architecture of Rajasthan}}
The architecture of Rajasthan has usually been a regional variant of the style of [[Indian architecture]] prevailing in north India at the time. Rajasthan is especially notable for the forts and palaces of the many [[Rajput]] rulers, which are popular tourist attractions.

Most of the population of Rajasthan is [[Hindu]], and there has historically been a [[Jainism in Rajasthan|considerable Jain minority]]; this mixture is reflected in the many temples of the region. [[Māru-Gurjara architecture]], or "Solaṅkī style" is a distinctive style that began in Rajasthan and neighbouring [[Gujarat]] around the 11th century, and has been revived and taken to other parts of India and the world by both Hindus and Jains. This represents the main contribution of the region to [[Hindu temple architecture]]. The [[Dilwara Temples|Dilwara Jain Temples]] of [[Mount Abu]] built between the 11th and 13th centuries CE are the best-known examples of the style.

The [[Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra]] mosque in [[Ajmer]] (no longer in religious use) is an important early example of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]] in a state not otherwise notable for this; though the [[Ajmer Sharif Dargah]] is another early building. However, there is considerable influence from [[Mughal architecture]] in palaces and houses, and Rajasthan has some claim to have sent influence back in elements like the ''[[jharokha]]'' enclosed balcony and ''[[chhatri]]'' open pavilions.

==Monumental sculpture==
[[Māru-Gurjara architecture]], or the "Solaṅkī style" features large amounts of sculpture, with the emphasis usually on great numbers of small, sharply carved figures, rather than larger single figures or groups. These include friezes with repeated figures of animals, sometimes with human riders, running around the bases of temples.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">

File:Ambika-Tempel (Jagat)3.jpg|[[Durga]] on the [[Ambika Mata temple]] in Jagat, by 960
File:Sun Temple, Modhera Gudhamandapa with annotation of exterior mouldings.jpg|Wall below the shikhara, [[Sun Temple, Modhera]], 1020s
File:The Kiradu Temples in perspective (cropped).jpg|[[Kiradu temples]]
File:Temple de Shanthinath.jpg|Detail of the Jain [[Kirti Stambha]] tower, [[Chittor Fort]]
</gallery>

==Medieval painting==
[[File:Detail of a leaf with the birth of mahavira.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Painting of Mahavira's birth|The birth of Mahavira, from the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'' (c.{{nbsp}}1375–1400 CE)]]
Jain temples and monasteries had mural paintings from at least 2,000 years ago, though pre-medieval survivals are rare. In addition, many Jain manuscripts were illustrated with paintings, sometimes lavishly so. In both these cases, Jain art parallels Hindu art, but the Jain examples are more numerous among the earliest survivals. The manuscripts begin around the 11th century, but are mostly from the 13th onwards, and were made mainly in Gujarat, with some in Rajasthan. By the 15th century they were becoming increasingly lavish, with much use of gold.<ref>Rowland, 341-343</ref>

The manuscript text most frequently illustrated is the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'', containing the biographies of the [[Tirthankara]]s, notably [[Parshvanatha]] and [[Mahavira]]. The illustrations are square-ish panels set in the text, with "wiry drawing" and "brilliant, even jewel-like colour". The figures are always seen in three-quarters view, with distinctive "long pointed noses and protruding eyes". There is a convention whereby the more distant side of the face protrudes, so that both eyes are seen.<ref>{{Cite book | last=Rowland | first=Benjamin | title=The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain | date=1967 | edition=3 | publisher=[[Pelican Books|Pelican]] History of Art, Penguin | isbn=0140561021 | url=https://www.scribd.com/document/317677428/The-Art-and-Architecture-of-India-Buddhist-Hindu-Jain-Art-eBook | page=343 | access-date=25 December 2021 | archive-date=25 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211225041035/https://www.scribd.com/document/317677428/The-Art-and-Architecture-of-India-Buddhist-Hindu-Jain-Art-eBook | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Rajput painting==
{{main|Rajput painting}}
In the late 16th Century, the Rajput courts began to develop distinctive styles of miniature painting, combining indigenous as well as foreign influences such as Persian, Mughal, Chinese and European.<ref>{{cite book|last=Neeraj|first=Jai Singh|title=Splendour Of Rajasthani Painting|year=1991|publisher=Abhinav Publications|location=New Delhi|pages=13|isbn=9788170172673|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PGjTjmL29VIC&q=shekhawati+painting&pg=PP15|access-date=15 October 2020|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702121631/https://books.google.com/books?id=PGjTjmL29VIC&q=shekhawati+painting&pg=PP15|url-status=live}}</ref> Rajasthani painting consists of four principal schools that have within them several artistic styles and substyles that can be traced to the various princely states that patronised these artists. The four principal schools are:
# The [[Mewar]] school that contains the [[Chavand, Rajasthan|Chavand]], [[Nathdwara]], [[Devgarh, Rajasthan|Devgarh]], [[Udaipur]] and [[Sawar]] styles of painting
# The [[Marwar]] school comprising the [[Kishangarh]], [[Bikaner]], [[Jodhpur]], [[Nagaur]], [[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]] and [[Ghanerao]] styles
# The [[Hadoti]] school with the [[Kota, Rajasthan|Kota]], [[Bundi]] and [[Jhalawar State|Jhalawar]] styles
#
# The Dhundar school of [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]], [[Jaipur]], [[Shekhawati painting|Shekhawati]] and [[Uniara]] styles of painting

===Phad paintings===
[[Phad painting]]s are colourful scroll paintings done on cloth, originally made to illustrate the performances of narratives by [[Bhopa]] singer/reciters. These have their own styles and patterns and are very popular due to their vibrant colors and historic themes. The ''[[Devnarayan Ki Phad|Phad of God Devnarayan]]'' is largest among the popular Pars in Rajasthan. The painted area of God [[Devnarayan]] Ki Phad is 170 square feet (i.e. 34' x 5').<ref name="Lord Devnarayan Legend">{{cite book|title=Painted Folklore and Folklore Painters of India|year=1976|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xUjjBHmHMXEC&pg=PA57|access-date=21 September 2016|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702121632/https://books.google.com/books?id=xUjjBHmHMXEC&pg=PA57|url-status=live}}</ref> Some other Pars are also prevalent in Rajasthan, but being of recent origin they are not classical in composition.<ref name="Lord Devnarayan Legend"/> Another famous Par painting is ''[[Pabuji Ki Phad]]''. [[Pabuji]] Ki Phad is painted on a 15 x 5 ft. canvas.<ref name="Lord Devnarayan Legend"/> Other famous heroes of Phad paintings are ''[[Gogaji]]'', ''[[Prithviraj Chauhan]]'', ''[[Amar Singh Rathore]]'' etc.<ref>Indian Murals and Paintings By Nayanthara S, p 15</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery class="center">
File:4 Radha (Bani Thani), Kishangarh, ca. 1750, National Museum New Delhi.jpg|[[Bani Thani]] painting
image:Purushkara Yantra, Rajasthan, 18th century.jpg|Purushkara Yantra, 18th century
image:Krishna and Radha dancing the Rasalila, Jaipur, 19th century.jpg|[[Radha Krishna]] dancing [[Raslila]] with [[Gopi]]s, 19th century

</gallery>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |author=Kossak, Steven | title=Indian court painting, 16th-19th century. |url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/12335/rec/74 | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1997| isbn=0870997831}} (see index: p. 148-152)
*Daljeet (2018). ''[https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/40054052-rajasthani-miniatures?from_search=true&from_srp=true&qid=bFoIqI79mR&rank=1 Rajasthani Miniatures: The Magic of Strokes and Colours].'' Niyogi Books. {{ISBN|978-93-86906-26-7}}.

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161222131002/http://www.realincredibleindia.com/art__crafts_in_rajasthan.html Detailed information]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Art Of Rajasthan}}
[[Category:Rajasthani arts]]

Balraj Komal

2025-10-16T17:10:49Z

DeangeloSchwing: Creating New Pg.

{{Short description|Indian poet and author (1928–2013)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Balraj Komal
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date = 25 September 1928
| birth_place = India
| death_date = 2013
| death_place =
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| occupation = Poet, writer
| yearsactive =
| spouse = Gargi Komal
| domesticpartner =
| children =
| parents =
| website = 
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] Uttar Pradesh Urdu Academy Award
}}
'''Balraj Komal''' (1928–2013) was an Indian poet and writer of [[Urdu literature|Urdu]] literature. The [[Government of India]] honored Komal in 2011, with the fourth highest civilian award of [[Padma Shri]].<ref name="Padma Shri">{{cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Shri |publisher=Padma Shri |date=2014 |access-date=11 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2015 }}</ref>

==Biography==
Balraj Komal, born in 1928, was a freelance writer after his retirement from the Delhi Administration as an Education Officer.<ref name="Muse India">{{cite web | url=http://www.museindia.com/authprofile.asp?id=485 | title=Muse India | publisher=Muse India | date=2014 | access-date=26 November 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123115/http://www.museindia.com/authprofile.asp?id=485 | archive-date=4 March 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> He was a former member of Delhi Urdu Akademi and the advisory board of [[Sahitya Akademi]], New Delhi.<ref name="Muse India" /> He is credited with several publications composed of poems, short stories, and critical studies and ''Meri Nazmen'', ''Parindon Bhara Aasman'', ''Rishta-e-Dil'', ''Agala Waraq'', ''Ankhen Aur Paon'', and ''Adab ki Talas'' are some hid known works.<ref name="Muse India" /><ref name="Daily Post" />

A recipient of the [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in 1985,<ref name="Daily Post">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailypost.in/comments/columnists/8976-death-of-an-urdu-poet |title=Daily Post |publisher=Daily Post |date=2013 |access-date=26 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219074256/http://www.dailypost.in/comments/columnists/8976-death-of-an-urdu-poet |archive-date=19 February 2014 }}</ref> Balraj Komal also won ''[[Uttar Pradesh Urdu Academy]]'' Award twice(1971 and 1982) and has also received a Senior Fellowship from the [[Government of India]].<ref name="Muse India" /> In 2011, the [[Government of India]] honored Komal again by including him in the [[Indian honours system|Republic Day honours]] list for Padma Award.<ref name="Padma Shri" />

Balraj Komal died in 2013 at the age of 85.<ref name="Daily Post" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mU4uAAAAMAAJ | title=Selected Poems of Balraj Komal | publisher=Educational Publishing House | author=Balraj Komal | year=1989 | pages=113}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Literature & Education}}
{{Gangadhar National Award For Poetry}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Komal, Balraj}}
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:2013 deaths]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Gangadhar National Award]]
[[Category:Poets from Delhi]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Urdu]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Indian poets]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature and education]]

Bharatiya Kushti Patrika

2025-10-05T00:37:36Z

DeangeloSchwing: Creating New Post.

{{Short description|Newspaper in India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Notability|date=December 2023}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2023}}
{{One source|date=December 2023}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox newspaper
| name = Bhartiya Kushti Patrika
| logo = Bhartiya Kushti Logo.jpg
| logo_size =150px
| caption = Bhartiya Kushti Patrika Logo
| type = Monthly [[magazine]]
| format =
| founder = Ratan Patodi
| chief_editor = Ratan Patodi
| associate_editor = Nakul Patodi
| founded = 1962
| language = [[Hindi]]
| headquarters =[[Indore]]
| website = {{URL|https://web.archive.org/web/20110905125427/http://www.bhartiyakushti.com/}}
}}

'''''Bhartiya Kushti Patrika''''' ([[Hindi]]: भारतीय कुश्ती पत्रिका) is an Indian monthly [[sports magazine]] focusing on Indian-style wrestling, ''[[Kushti (wrestling)|Kushti]]''. It was established by Ratan Pataudi in early 1962. The magazine's main goal is to preserve the literature of [[Indian martial arts|Indian Wrestling]]. Wrestling has been in existence in [[India]] since ancient times. This ancient tradition has a significant place in Hindu mythology as Lord [[Hanuman]] and Lord [[Krishna]] loved to wrestle.

Pataudi has made extreme efforts to compile every possible piece on wrestling in the magazine. This magazine offers information today of classic wrestlers and their achievements such as [[The Great Gama]].

== History ==
While working at [[Nai Duniya (newspaper)|Naiduniya]], Dada Ratan Pataudi became the compositor. He once encountered an opportunity to work as a screenwriter. Abhay Chajjlani, owner of Naiduniya Corp., asked Patoaui to write an article on Indian wrestling. He was very fond of wrestling and so stepped up to write on the subject. This article eventually led to the formation of Bhartiya Kushti Patrika. When the magazine started, the managing committee of the Naid Dniya newspaper got angry and Patoaui had to resign. As of 2012, the magazine had reached its 51st year of continuous publication, now as a monthly.

In the 1980s, the ''Bhartiya Kushti'' magazine published articles supportive of wrestlers using a [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]] diet to build a strong physique.<ref>Alter, Joseph S. (1992). ''The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India''. University of California Press. p. 127. {{ISBN|978-0520076976}}</ref>

In 2009, American Fehl M. Cannon having searched a lot about the Indian wrestling or [[Pehlwani]] on the Internet, learned of Bhartiya Kushti Patrika and contacted them through their Indian representative, Ms. Jyotika Bhambri. He preserved the archive through various modern techniques. At 81, Patodi is still publishing. He intends to continue at least until reaching 100.

==Bharat Ke Akhadey Va Pahlwan Edition==
''Bharat Ke Akhadey Va Pahlwan'' compiles wrestling data including famous bouts, events, coaches, etc. [[The Great Gama]], [[Imam Baksh Pahalwan|Imam]],हिन्द केसरी मंगला राय, Ramju, [[Chandgi Ram|Chandgiram]], Mehardeen, Ganpat came, then, [[Satpal Singh|Mahabali Satpal]], Kartar, Suresh, [[Sushil Kumar (wrestler)|Sushil Kumar]], Narsingh and Rajeev are all covered.

==Achievements and awards==
* [[Guru Hanuman]] Award.
* First [[Chandgi Ram]] Media award.
* In 2009, Fehl M. Cannon studied Indian wrestling on the Internet and created a partnership with "Bhartiya Kushti".

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110905125427/http://www.bhartiyakushti.com/ ''Bhartiya Kushti Patrika'' Official Website]
*[http://dnasyndication.com/showarticlerss.aspx?nid=gL2Rrhmk8chTBJsBSYX1ww== 50 years of dedication to wrestling in India | DNAsyndication.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090444/http://www.freepressjournal.in/ratan-patodi-passes-away%3D%3D Ratan Patodi passes away]

[[Category:1962 establishments in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Hindi-language magazines]]
[[Category:Indian martial arts]]
[[Category:Magazines established in 1962]]
[[Category:Martial arts magazines]]
[[Category:Mass media in Indore]]
[[Category:Monthly magazines published in India]]
[[Category:Sport in Indore]]
[[Category:Sports magazines published in India]]
[[Category:Wrestling in India]]

Lanjera

2025-09-06T02:03:39Z

DeangeloSchwing: updated page

{{Orphan|date=April 2018}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Lanjera
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| settlement_type = Village
| pushpin_map = India Punjab#India
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Punjab, India
| coordinates = {{coord|32.4137988|N|75.8734554|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]]
| subdivision_type3 = Tehsil
| subdivision_name3 = [[Dhar Kalan]]
| government_type = [[Panchayati raj (India)|Panchayat raj]]
| governing_body = [[Gram panchayat]]
| unit_pref = Metric


| elevation_m = 524
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_blank1_title =Total Households
| population_blank1 =207
| population_footnotes =<ref name=census>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=29842|title=Lanjera Population per Census India|work=[[Census of India, 2011]]}}</ref>
| population_total = 1025
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_note = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]] 527/498 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| demographics1_title2 =
| demographics1_info2 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 145022
| area_total_ha = 670
| area_code_type = Telephone
| area_code = 01870
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#PB.E2.80.94Punjab|PB]]-06
| iso_code = IN-PB
| blank1_name_sec2 = Post office
| blank1_info_sec2 =
| website = {{URL|gurdaspur.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Lanjera''' is a village in [[Dhar Kalan]] in [[Gurdaspur district]] of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] [[States and territories of India|State]], India. It is located {{convert|22|km}} from sub district headquarter, {{convert|12|km}} from [[Pathankot]], {{convert|90|km}} from district headquarter and {{convert|275|km}} from state capital [[Chandigarh]]. The village is [[Administration (government)|administrated]] by [[Sarpanch]] an elected representative of the village.

== Demography ==
{{as of|2011}}, the village has a total number of 207 houses and a population of 1025 of which 527 are males while 498 are females according to the report [[published]] by [[Census India]] in 2011. The literacy rate of the village is 83.31%, highest than the state average of 75.84%. The population of children under the age of 6 years is 138 which is 13.46% of total population of the village, and child sex ratio is approximately 747 lower than the state average of 846.<ref name=DCHB>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_Village_Release_0300.xlsx|title=State census handbook|work=[[Census of India, 2011]]}}</ref>

Most of the people are from Schedule Caste which constitutes 8.39% of total population in the village. The town does not have any Schedule Tribe population so far.<ref name=DCHB />

As per census 2011, 271 people were engaged in work activities out of the total population of the village which includes 255 males and 16 females. According to census survey report 2011, 97.5% workers describe their work as main work and 2.95% workers are involved in marginal activity providing the livelihood for less than 6 months.<ref name=DCHB />

== Transport ==
The nearest [[train station]] is located {{convert|31|km}} away in Dalhousie road and [[Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport]] is {{convert|170|km}} away from the village.

==See also==
*[[List of villages in India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Gurdaspur district}}


[[Category:Villages in Gurdaspur district]]

Culture of Ladakh

2025-09-05T07:29:54Z

DeangeloSchwing: put up new post from scratch

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Cham dance during Dosmoche festival in Leh Palace DSCN5692 1.jpg|thumb|Cham dance during Dosmoche festival in Leh Palace]]
'''The culture of Ladakh''' refers to the traditional customs, belief systems, and political systems that are followed by [[Ladakhis|Ladakhi people]] in India. The languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food, and customs of the Ladakh region are similar to neighboring Tibet. Ladakhi is the traditional language of Ladakh. The popular dances in Ladakh include the khatok chenmo, cham, etc. The people of Ladakh also celebrate several festivals throughout the year, some of the me Hemis Tsechu and [[Losar]].

==Background==
{{Main article|Ladakh}}
{{Further|Geography of Ladakh}}[[File:Viewofleh.jpg|thumb|View of [[Leh]]]]
[[Ladakh]] is the northmost part of [[India]]. Ladakh shares a border with [[Tibet]] to the east, the Indian state of [[Himachal Pradesh]] and the union territory of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] to the south, and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] to the west. It extends from the [[Siachen Glacier]] in the Karakoram range in the north to the Great Himalayas to the south.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |entry=Ladakh |entry-url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ladakh-union-territory |access-date=2021-05-17 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> Formerly, it was a part of the Indian [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|state of Jammu and Kashmir]], but after the [[Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019|Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act (2019)]], it was separated from Jammu and Kashmir and was converted to a [[Union territory|Union Territory]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-10-31|title=Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh become separate Union Territories from today: 10 points|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/jammu-kashmir-and-ladakh-become-separate-union-territories-from-thursday-10-points/story-fsYC3R1HFXFZxzlwomycrJ.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref> Parts of Ladakh have been the subject of dispute between India, [[Pakistan]], and [[China]] since 1947.<ref name="Jan·Osma鈔czykOsmańczyk2003">{{citation|last1=Jan·Osma鈔czyk|first1=Edmund|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|pages=1191–|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93922-5|last2=Osmańczyk|first2=Edmund Jan}} Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China."</ref>

Ladakh incorporates parts of the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] and [[Karakoram]] mountain ranges and the upper [[Indus River]] valley. It is the only cold desert in India.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|work=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|title=Cold Desert Cultural Landscape of India|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6055/#:~:text=The%20Cold%20Desert%20Cultural%20Landscape,or%20H.P.)%20in%20the%20south.|access-date=2021-05-18|language=en}}</ref> Its [[topography]] is barren and population sparse inhabited along the river banks of different valleys namely Indus, [[Nubra]], [[Changtang|Changthang]], and [[Zanskar]].<ref name=":1" /> Women in Ladakh enjoy high status in comparison to rest of the nation, especially rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Women empowerment in Ladakh|url=https://www.reachladakh.com/news/opinion/expert-talk/women-empowerment-in-ladakh|access-date=2021-05-18|website=Reachladakh}}</ref> [[Ladakh|Ladakh's]] [[Ladakhi language|languages]], religions, dance, [[Music of Ladakh|music]], architecture, food, and customs are similar to neighboring [[Tibet]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Jolden |first1=Tsering |last2=Tundup |first2=Rinchen |date=2018 |title=Cultural Relationship between the People of Ladakh and Tibet |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26634918 |journal=The Tibet Journal |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=65–71 |issn=0970-5368 |jstor=26634918}}</ref>

==Language==

{{Main article|Ladakhi language}}
[[File:Ladakhi.png|thumb|Ladakhi language]]
The [[Ladakhi language]] is a Tibetic language spoken in Ladakh, which is also called '''Bhoti''' or '''Bodhi'''.<ref>[https://himalayaninitiatives.org/courses/ladakhi-language/ Ladakhi language], The Himalayan Initiatives, retrieved 23 January 2021.</ref> As per the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], approximately 110,826 people speak Ladakhi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=www.censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> Ladakhi has absorbed words from the [[Silk Road|silk route]] trade.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ladakhi Language & Phrasebook|url=https://www.leh-ladakh-taxi-booking.com/practical-info/ladakhi-language-and-phrasebook|url-status=live|access-date=May 18, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507193520/https://www.leh-ladakh-taxi-booking.com/practical-info/ladakhi-language-and-phrasebook |archive-date=2020-05-07 }}</ref> It is usually written using [[Tibetan script]] with the pronunciation of Ladakhi being much closer to written [[Classical Tibetan]].

==Music==
{{Main article|Music of Ladakh}}
The traditional music of Ladakh includes instruments like linyu (flute), damnyan (stringed instrument) pivang, khakong, (sitar) daph (dafli) daman, surna, and piwang ([[shehnai]] and drum). Chanting of mantras in Sanskrit and the Tibetan language plays an important role in Ladakhi music.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaul |first=H. N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mg8My6WaWRcC&pg=PA159 |title=Rediscovery of Ladakh |date=1998 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-086-6 |page=159 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.dollsofindia.com/library/article0010/2/| title = Masks: Reflections of Culture and Religion| publisher = Dolls of India| access-date = 2006-08-21| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110710143621/http://www.dollsofindia.com/library/article0010/2/| archive-date = 10 July 2011| url-status = dead}}</ref> Folk music is an integral part of Ladakh's culture. Music is often inspired by the surrounding physical features.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The dying art of folk music in Ladakh|url=https://www.reachladakh.com/news/editors-note/the-dying-art-of-folk-music-in-ladakh|access-date=2021-05-18|website=Reachladakh}}</ref> Morup Namgyal is an avid preservationist and during his 30-year career working at Ladakh's only radio station (All India Radio, Leh) he recorded a vast archive of Ladakhi folk songs.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Where The Mountains Meet The Sky: Folk Music of Ladakh|url=https://www.sublimefrequencies.com/products/583685-where-the-mountains-meet-the-sky-folk-music-of-ladakh|access-date=2021-05-18|website=SublimeFrequencies|language=en}}</ref>

==Dance==
[[File:Jabro Dance Ladakh.jpg|thumb|Jabro dance]]
The popular dances in Ladakh include the ''Khatok Chenmo'' which is headed by a respectable family member, ''Shondol'',<ref>{{cite web | title=Ladakhi Shondol dance makes it to Guinness book of records | website=The Tribune | date=2019-09-22 | url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/j-k/ladakhi-shondol-dance-makes-it-to-guinness-book-of-records-836232 | access-date=2020-09-07}}</ref> Some other dance forms include ''Kompa Tsum-tsak'' ''Jabro'' ''[[Cham dance|Chaams]]'': ''Chabs-Skyan Tses'' ''Raldi Tses'' and ''Alley Yaato''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lowen |first=Sharon |date=2016-08-09 |title=Of Shon, Alley Yaato and Kud |url=https://www.asianage.com/dance/shon-alley-yaato-and-kud-987 |access-date=2021-05-17}}</ref> The music of Ladakhi monastic festivals, like various forms of [[Music of Tibet|Tibetan music]], often involves [[chanting]] as an integral part of the religion. Traditionally, 360 variants of dances existed in the early times, but today only a few are preserved. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts and manuscripts or in celebration of different festivals. Some forms of dance narrate the story of the fight between good and evil, ending with the eventual victory of the former.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dollsofindia.com/library/article0010/2/ |title=Masks: Reflections of Culture and Religion |publisher=Dolls of India |access-date=21 August 2006 |date=12 January 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710143621/http://www.dollsofindia.com/library/article0010/2/ |archive-date=10 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Cuisine ==
[[File:Thukpa, Manali, Himachal Pradesh.JPG|thumb|[[Thukpa]]]]
Ladakhi food is much common as [[Tibetan food]], the most prominent dishes being ''[[thukpa]],'' a type of noodle soup and ''[[tsampa]]'', known in Ladakhi as ''ngampe,'' which is a type of roasted barley flour. Strictly Ladakhi dishes include ''skyu'' and ''chutagi'', both heavy and rich soup pasta dishes, ''skyu'' being made with root vegetables and meat, and ''chutagi'' with leafy greens and vegetables.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Motup|first=Sonam|date=|title=Food & Cuisine: 10 Best Dishes to Eat in Leh-Ladakh 🥄🥣|url=https://www.leh-ladakh-taxi-booking.com/practical-info/food-and-cuisine-10-best-dishes-to-eat-in-ladakh|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507193523/https://www.leh-ladakh-taxi-booking.com/practical-info/food-and-cuisine-10-best-dishes-to-eat-in-ladakh |archive-date=2020-05-07 |access-date=|website=}}</ref> As Ladakh tourism and modernization increased in Ladakh, foods from the plains of India are becoming more common.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Namgail, T. |author2=Jensen, A. |author3=Padmanabhan, S. |author4=Desor, S. |author5=Dolma, R. |title=Dhontang: Food in Ladakh |date=2019 |publisher=Central Institute of Buddhist Studies, Local Futures |isbn=978-93-83802-15-9 |pages=1–44}}</ref>

==Festivals and events==
Ladakh has several festivals throughout the year, including [[Hemis Monastery#Hemis Festival|Hemis Tsechu]] and [[Losar]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Festivals District Leh, Union Territory of Ladakh India|url=https://leh.nic.in/tourism/festivals/|access-date=June 16, 2021|language=en-US}}</ref> Ladakh's festivals comprise mask dances performed by people, games such as camel races, river rafting and archery, regional music and dance performances, thangka exhibitions, etc.<ref>{{Cite web|last=neeru|date=2017-10-12|title=D'source Design Gallery on Leh Ladakh Music Instruments|url=http://www.dsource.idc.iitb.ac.in/gallery/leh-ladakh-music-instruments|access-date=2021-05-18|website=D'Source|language=en}}</ref> People of Ladakh also celebrate several festivals throughout the year, some of the most famous ones are Hemis Tsechu and Saka Dawa. A lot of their time is also spent in making stone jewellery, woolen clothes, and mural paintings on the walls of the monasteries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ladakh Culture {{!}} Arts, Culture & Life Style of Ladakhi People|url=https://www.tourmyindia.com/states/ladakh/arts-and-culture.html|access-date=2021-05-18|website=tour-my-india}}</ref> Weaving is considered as an essential part of traditional life in eastern Ladakh.<ref>{{cite web|title=Living Fabric: Weaving Among the Nomads of Ladakh Himalaya|url=http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio?inkey=62-0834805219-0|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629123453/http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio?inkey=62-0834805219-0|archive-date=29 June 2011|access-date=21 August 2006}}</ref> Some festivals of [[Ladakh]] are:
* Hemis Festival - [[Hemis Monastery]] has an annual festival named after it.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Deb |first1=Soma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSATAQAAIAAJ |title=Encyclopaedia of Fairs & Festivals in India: With Select Rituals, Vows, Holy Cities, Temples and Pilgrim Centers |last2=Sinha |first2=B. |date=2001 |publisher=Raj Publications |isbn=978-81-86208-14-4 |page=88 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Losar]] - Losar, also known as Tibetan New Year, is a festival in Tibetan Buddhism.<ref>{{Cite news |last=ANI |title=Ladakh Buddhist Association celebrates 'Losar' festival in Leh |language=en |url=http://businessworld.in/article/Ladakh-Buddhist-Association-celebrates-Losar-festival-in-Leh-/16-12-2020-354190 |access-date=2021-05-18}}</ref>
* Phyang Tsedup Festival - This festival is celebrated every fifth month of the Tibetan lunar calendar.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Phyang Monastic festival Tsesdup concludes |language=en-GB |url=https://news.statetimes.in/phyang-monastic-festival-tsesdup-concludes/ |access-date=2021-05-18}}</ref>
* [[Sindhu Darshan Festival]] - It is held on every [[Guru Purnima]] on the banks of the Indus river.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Corona effect: Only Sindhis allowed for Sindhu Darshan Fest |language=en |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/indore/corona-effect-only-sindhis-allowed-for-sindhu-darshan-fest |access-date=2021-05-18}}</ref>
* [[Dosmoche]] - It is celebrated every 12th month of the Tibetan calendar every year.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Leh, Likir Dosmoche begins |language=en-GB |url=https://news.statetimes.in/leh-likir-dosmoche-begins/ |access-date=2021-05-18}}</ref>
* Saka Dawa Festival.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ODA7AQAAIAAJ |title=Trekking in the Indian Himalaya |date=2002 |publisher=Lonely Planet Publications |isbn=978-1-74059-085-3 |page=264 |language=en}}</ref>
* Tak - Tok Festival - It is one of the major festivals of Ladakh. It is celebrated at cave Gompa of Tak- Tok.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Tak - Tok Festival in Leh |language=en |url=https://www.india.com/travel/leh/things-to-do/events-tak-tok-festival-in-leh/ |access-date=2021-05-18}}</ref>
* [[Matho Monastery|Matho]] Nagrang Festival.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The quirky India travel plan: Where should you go next? |language=en |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/the-quirky-india-travel-plan-where-should-you-go-next |access-date=2021-05-18}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=December 2022}}

==Cultural centers==
[[File:Lamayuru monastery 2012.jpg|thumb|Lamayuru monastery]]
Buddhist monasteries are often situated on an isolated hillock in the vicinity of villages. These monasteries provide the focus for the faith of the religious Buddhist people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Culture & Heritage {{!}} District Leh, Union Territory of Ladakh {{!}} India|url=https://leh.nic.in/tourism/culture-heritage/|access-date=2021-05-18|language=en-US}}</ref> Some monasteries and cultural centers of Ladakh are:
* [[Thikse Monastery]]
* [[Lamayuru Monastery]]
* [[Hemis Monastery]]
* [[Stok Monastery]]
* [[Leh Palace]]
* [[Shey Monastery]]
* [[Diskit Monastery]]
Both Leh and Shey monasteries have carved Buddhas, mostly of the [[Maitreya]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=p2obhkp0B90C Cultural Heritage of Ladakh Himalaya], Prem Singh Jina, Kalpaz Publication, {{ISBN|9788178357454}}, pp 67–73</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ladakh]]
[[Category:Culture of India]]

Najibabad Fort

2025-08-08T21:48:28Z

DeangeloSchwing: Added New Post

{{Short description|Historical Fort in Najibabad Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Infobox military installation
| name = Najibabad Fort
| partof = [[Rohilkhand]]
| location = Najibabad, [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| image = Patthargarh fort outside Najibabad, 1814-15.jpg
| caption = Najibabad Fort in 1814
| map_type = India Uttar Pradesh
| map_size = 250
| map_relief = 1
| map_caption = Shown within [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| type = [[Forts in India|Fort]]
| coordinates = {{coord|29|36|40|N|78|22|07|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| code =
| built = 1755; {{age in years|1755}} years ago
| builder = [[Najib ad-Dawlah]]
| materials = Stone, lime and lead
| height = {{cvt|40|ft|m|order=flip}}{{citation needed|date=June 2023}}
| used =
| demolished =
| condition = Good
| ownership = [[Government of India]]; [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| open_to_public = 10 am to 6 pm
| controlledby =
| garrison =
| current_commander =
| commanders =
| occupants = [[Mughal Empire]], [[British Raj]]
| battles = Siege of Najibabad (1800)
| events =
| image2 =
| caption2 =
| module = {{Infobox historic site
| embed = yes
| designation1 = MANI | designation1_offname = Najibabad Fort | designation1_type = | designation1_criteria = | designation1_date = | delisted1_date = | designation1_partof = | designation1_number = N-UP-A113 | designation1_free1name = | designation1_free1value = | designation1_free2name = | designation1_free2value = | designation1_free3name = | designation1_free3value = }}
}}

'''Najibabad Fort''', also known as '''Sultana Daku Qila''' and '''Pathargarh Fort''', is an 18th-century [[Fortification|fort]] in [[Najibabad]], [[Bijnor district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. It was built in 1755 by the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] minister [[Najib ad-Dawlah]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Codingest |title=SULTANA DAKU KA QILA OR PATTHAR GARH KA QILA, NAJIBABAD, BIJNORE |url=https://www.studiodharma.in/sultana-daku-ka-qila-or-patthar-garh-ka-qilanajibabadbijnore |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=STUDIO DHARMA |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Najibabad Sultana Fort {{!}} Bijnor {{!}} India |url=https://bijnor.nic.in/tourist-place/najibabad-2/ |access-date=2023-06-21 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Wright |first=Colin |title=Patthargarh fort outside Najibabad, with the mountains beyond |url=https://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/addorimss/p/019addor0004777u00000000.html |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=www.bl.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Arjun |title=When monuments go missing! |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/HiddenHeritage/when-monuments-go-missing/ |access-date=2023-06-21 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1815-01-01 |title=Patthargarh fort outside Najibabad, 1814-15 |url=https://picryl.com/media/patthargarh-fort-outside-najibabad-1814-15-8e7cd4 |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=British Library |language=en}}</ref>

No longer in active military use, the former fort is a [[List of Monuments of National Importance in Agra circle|Monument of National Importance]], administered by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_uttarpradesh_agra.asp |title=List of Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains of Agra - Archaeological Survey of India |date= |website= |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] |access-date=2016-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180402/http://www.asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_uttarpradesh_agra.asp |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{stack|{{portal|Architecture|India}}}}
* [[Forts in India]]
* [[List of forts in India]]
* [[List of Monuments of National Importance in Agra circle]]

== References ==
<references />

{{Forts in Uttar Pradesh}}

[[Category:18th-century forts in India]]
[[Category:Bijnor district]]
[[Category:Forts in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Monuments of National Importance in Uttar Pradesh]]

{{Bijnor-geo-stub}}
{{Fort-stub}}

2011–12 Senior Women's T20 League

2025-06-10T13:57:55Z

DeangeloSchwing: Creating A Info.

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox cricket tournament
| name = 2011–12 Senior Women's T20 League
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| fromdate = 15 December 2011
| todate = 6 January 2012
| administrator = [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]]
| cricket format = [[Women's Twenty20|Twenty20]]
| tournament format = [[Round-robin tournament|Round-robin]]
| host =
| champions = [[Railways women's cricket team|Railways]]
| count = 3
| runner up = [[Delhi women's cricket team|Delhi]]
| participants = 26
| matches = 76
| attendance =
| player of the series =
| most runs = [[Jaya Sharma]] (318)
| most wickets = [[Rasanara Parwin]] (15)
| previous_year = 2010–11
| previous_tournament = 2010–11 Senior Women's T20 League
| next_year = 2012–13
| next_tournament = 2012–13 Senior Women's T20 League
}}

The '''2011–12 Senior Women's T20 League''' was the 4th edition of the women's [[Women's Twenty20|Twenty20]] [[cricket]] [[Senior Women's T20 League|competition]] in [[India]]. It took place in December 2011 and January 2012, with 26 teams divided into five regional groups. [[Railways women's cricket team|Railways]] won the tournament, their third in a row, beating [[Delhi women's cricket team|Delhi]] in the final.<ref name="CA">{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/15/Inter_State_Womens_Twenty20_Competition_2011-12.html |title=Inter State Women's Twenty20 Competition 2011/12 |publisher=CricketArchive |access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref>

==Competition format==
The 26 teams competing in the tournament were divided into five zonal groups: Central, East, North, South and West. The tournament operated on a [[Round-robin tournament|round-robin]] format, with each team playing every other team in their group once. The top two sides from each group progressed to the Super League round, where the 10 remaining teams were divided into two further round-robin groups. The winner of each group progressed to the final. Matches were played using a [[Women's Twenty20|Twenty20]] format.

The groups worked on a points system with positions with the groups being based on the '''total points'''. Points were awarded as follows:<ref name="CAtable">{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/Tables/15/Inter_State_Womens_Twenty20_Competition_2011-12.html |title=Inter State Women's Twenty20 Competition 2011/12 Points Tables |publisher=CricketArchive |access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref>

'''Win''': 4 points. 
'''[[Result (cricket)#Tie|Tie]]''': 2 points. 
'''Loss''': 0 points. 
'''No Result/Abandoned''': 2 points.

If points in the final table are equal, teams are separated by most wins, then head-to-head record, then [[Net Run Rate]].

==Zonal Tables==
===Central Zone===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Team
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|P|Played}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|T|Tied}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|NR|No result}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|Pts|Points}}
! style="width:40px;"|{{Abbr|[[Net run rate|NRR]]|Net run rate}}
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Railways women's cricket team|Railways]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||0 || '''16'''|| +2.608
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Uttar Pradesh women's cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''8'''|| +0.324
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Madhya Pradesh women's cricket team|Madhya Pradesh]]
|4 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''8'''|| –0.567
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Rajasthan women's cricket team|Rajasthan]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| –0.991
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Vidarbha women's cricket team|Vidarbha]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| –1.120
|}

===East Zone===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Team
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|P|Played}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|T|Tied}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|NR|No result}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|Pts|Points}}
! style="width:40px;"|{{Abbr|[[Net run rate|NRR]]|Net run rate}}
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Bengal women's cricket team|Bengal]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||0 || '''16'''|| +1.590
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Odisha women's cricket team|Odisha]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''8'''|| +0.887
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Tripura women's cricket team|Tripura]]
|4 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''8'''|| –0.090
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Jharkhand women's cricket team|Jharkhand]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| –0.869
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Assam women's cricket team|Assam]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| –1.352
|}

===North Zone===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Team
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|P|Played}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|T|Tied}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|NR|No result}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|Pts|Points}}
! style="width:40px;"|{{Abbr|[[Net run rate|NRR]]|Net run rate}}
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Punjab women's cricket team (India)|Punjab]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||0 || '''16'''|| +1.172
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Delhi women's cricket team|Delhi]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||3 ||1 ||0 ||0 ||'''12'''|| +1.032
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Haryana women's cricket team|Haryana]]
|4 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''8'''|| –0.292
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Himachal Pradesh women's cricket team|Himachal Pradesh]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| +0.470
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Jammu and Kashmir women's cricket team|Jammu and Kashmir]]
|4 ||0 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||'''0'''|| –2.396
|}

===South Zone===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Team
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|P|Played}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|T|Tied}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|NR|No result}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|Pts|Points}}
! style="width:40px;"|{{Abbr|[[Net run rate|NRR]]|Net run rate}}
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]] '''(Q)'''
|5 ||4 ||1 ||0 ||0 || '''16'''|| +0.203
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Hyderabad women's cricket team|Hyderabad]] '''(Q)'''
|5 ||3 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''12'''|| +1.060
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Goa women's cricket team|Goa]]
|5 ||3 ||2 ||0 ||0 |||'''12'''|| +0.214
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]]
|5 ||2 ||2 ||1 ||0 ||'''10'''|| +0.341
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]]
|5 ||2 ||2 ||1 ||0 ||'''10'''|| –0.295
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]]
|5 ||0 ||5 ||0 ||0 ||'''0'''|| –1.512
|}

===West Zone===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Team
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|P|Played}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|T|Tied}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|NR|No result}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|Pts|Points}}
! style="width:40px;"|{{Abbr|[[Net run rate|NRR]]|Net run rate}}
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Maharashtra women's cricket team|Maharashtra]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||0 || '''16'''|| +1.591
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Mumbai women's cricket team|Mumbai]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||3 ||1 ||0 ||0 ||'''12'''|| +0.498
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Baroda women's cricket team|Baroda]]
|4 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''8'''|| +0.849
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Saurashtra women's cricket team|Saurashtra]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| –1.138
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Gujarat women's cricket team|Gujarat]]
|4 ||0 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||'''0'''|| –1.659
|}

:Source:CricketArchive<ref name="CAtable"/>

==Super Leagues==
===Super League Group A===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Team
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|P|Played}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|T|Tied}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|NR|No result}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|Pts|Points}}
! style="width:40px;"|{{Abbr|[[Net run rate|NRR]]|Net run rate}}
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Delhi women's cricket team|Delhi]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||0 || '''16'''|| +2.310
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Uttar Pradesh women's cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]
|4 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''8'''|| –0.663
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Maharashtra women's cricket team|Maharashtra]]
|4 ||2 ||2 ||0 ||0 ||'''8'''|| –1.017
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Odisha women's cricket team|Odisha]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| –0.084
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| –0.647
|}

===Super League Group B===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Team
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|P|Played}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|W|Won}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|L|Lost}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|T|Tied}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|NR|No result}}
! style="width:25px;"|{{Abbr|Pts|Points}}
! style="width:40px;"|{{Abbr|[[Net run rate|NRR]]|Net run rate}}
|-style="background:#cfc;"
|style="text-align:left" |[[Railways women's cricket team|Railways]] '''(Q)'''
|4 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||1 || '''14'''|| +1.671
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Hyderabad women's cricket team|Hyderabad]]
|4 ||3 ||1 ||0 ||0 ||'''12'''|| +1.098
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Punjab women's cricket team (India)|Punjab]]
|4 ||2 ||1 ||0 ||1 ||'''10'''|| +0.651
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Bengal women's cricket team|Bengal]]
|4 ||1 ||3 ||0 ||0 ||'''4'''|| –1.118
|-
|style="text-align:left" |[[Mumbai women's cricket team|Mumbai]]
|4 ||0 ||4 ||0 ||0 ||'''0'''|| –1.837
|}

:Source:CricketArchive<ref name="CAtable"/>

==Final==
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 6 January 2012
| time =
| daynight =
| team1 = [[Delhi women's cricket team|Delhi]]
| team2 = [[Railways women's cricket team|Railways]]
| score1 = 104 (20 overs)
| runs1 = [[Reema Malhotra]] 44 (54)
| wickets1 = [[Preeti Dimri]] 2/20 (4 overs)
| score2 = 105/3 (18.4 overs)
| runs2 = [[Sulakshana Naik]] 46[[not out|*]] (43)
| wickets2 = Shashi Malik 1/17 (3.4 overs)
| result = Railways won by 7 wickets
| report = [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/354/354097.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Ravenshaw College|Ravenshaw College Ground]], [[Cuttack]]
| umpires = [[Yeshwant Barde]] and Ravi Shankar
| motm =
| toss = Delhi won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes =
}}
----

==Statistics==
===Most runs===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!width=150| Player
!width=125| Team
!width=60 | Matches
!width=60 | Innings
!width=60 | Runs
!width=60 | Average
!width=60 | {{Tooltip|HS|Highest score}}
!width=60 | 100s
!width=60 | 50s
|-
|[[Jaya Sharma]]
|[[Delhi women's cricket team|Delhi]]
|8
|8
|'''318'''
|53.00
|68
|0
|2
|-
|[[Amita Sharma]]
|[[Railways women's cricket team|Railways]]
|8
|8
|'''235'''
|47.00
|49[[not out|*]]
|0
|0
|-
|[[Veda Krishnamurthy]]
|[[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]]
|9
|9
|'''211'''
|26.37
|52
|0
|1
|-
|[[Madhuri Mehta]]
|[[Odisha women's cricket team|Odisha]]
|8
|8
|'''197'''
|28.14
|50
|0
|1
|-
|[[Diana David]]
|[[Hyderabad women's cricket team|Hyderabad]]
|9
|9
|'''194'''
|32.33
|43[[not out|*]]
|0
|0
|-
|}
Source: CricketArchive<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/15/Inter_State_Womens_Twenty20_Competition_2011-12/Batting_by_Runs.html |title=Batting and Fielding in Inter State Women's Twenty20 Competition 2011/12 (Ordered by Runs) |publisher=CricketArchive|access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref>

===Most wickets===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!width=125| Player
!width=125| Team
!width=60 | Overs
!width=60 | Wickets
!width=60 | Average
!width=60 | BBI
!width=60 | 5w
|-
|[[Rasanara Parwin]]
|[[Odisha women's cricket team|Odisha]]
|27.5
|'''15'''
|9.13
|5/15
|1
|-
|Ananya Upendran
|[[Hyderabad women's cricket team|Hyderabad]]
|29.0
|'''14'''
|7.50
|4/12
|0
|-
|[[Amita Sharma]]
|[[Railways women's cricket team|Railways]]
|28.0
|'''13'''
|8.76
|3/14
|0
|-
|[[Soniya Dabir]]
|[[Maharashtra women's cricket team|Maharashtra]]
|30.2
|'''13'''
|10.92
|3/21
|0
|-
|Anureet Kaur
|[[Punjab women's cricket team (India)|Punjab]]
|25.5
|'''11'''
|7.45
|5/6
|1
|}
Source: CricketArchive<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/15/Inter_State_Womens_Twenty20_Competition_2011-12/Bowling_by_Wickets.html |title=Bowling in Inter State Women's Twenty20 Competition 2011/12 (Ordered by Wickets) |publisher=CricketArchive|access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Women's Inter State Cricket in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2011-12 Senior Women's T20 League}}
[[Category:Senior Women's T20 Trophy]]
[[Category:Domestic cricket competitions in 2011–12|Senior Women's T20 League]]
[[Category:2011 in Indian cricket|Senior Women's T20 League]]
[[Category:2012 in Indian cricket|Senior Women's T20 League]]
[[Category:Long stubs with short prose]]

{{Indian-domestic-cricket-competition-stub}}