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Nedu Neer

2026-04-29T17:34:09Z

Davidmam: started stub

{{Short description|2022 Tamil language drama film}}
{{No plot|date=March 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Nedu Neer
| image = Nedu Neer.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = K. K. Padmanabhan
| producer = V. S. Palayam S. Krishnamoorthy and K. K. Padmanaban
| writer = K. K. Padmanaban
| starring = {{plainlist|
*Raj Krish
*Indhuja
*Sathya Murugan
}}
| music = Hitesh Murugavel
| cinematography = Lenin Chandrasekaran
| editing = MSR.RAJAVEL
| studio = Kavin Creators
| distributor = Kavin Creators
| runtime = 119 mins 57 sec
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2022|12|23}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Nedu Neer''''' ({{Translation|Water}}) is a 2022 Indian Tamil-language action drama film directed by K. K.Padmanabhan and starring Raj Krish, Indhuja and Sathya Murugan in the lead roles. It was released on 23 December 2022.

==Cast==
*Raj Krish
*Indhuja
*Sathya Murugan
*S. K. Minnalraja
*Madurai Mohan

==Production==
The first look of the film was released at an event in November 2020 attended by chief guest, [[Jaguar Thangam]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin |first=C. C. N. |date=29 November 2020 |title=Nedu Neer Movie First Look Launch - Chennai City News |url=https://www.chennaicitynews.net/cinema/nedu-neer-movie-first-look-launch/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129085612/https://www.chennaicitynews.net/cinema/nedu-neer-movie-first-look-launch/ |archive-date=29 January 2023 |access-date=27 December 2022 |website=www.chennaicitynews.net}}</ref>

==plot==
Story is starting with a teenage boy and a girl where the situation force them to leave their home. Without any thought of where to go? and how to go?, Those kids started their journey
On a highway road at the midnight the kids got separated without their will.
After eight years...
They meet under a completely opposite direction of their life paths, where the girl is now a woman and a medical assistant for a emergency ambulance arrived for saving a life and the boy is a man and a prime rowdy for a local don arrived for killing the life...

What happens next!.......

==Reception==
The film was released on 23 December 2022 across Tamil Nadu. A reviewer from the Madurai-based ''[[Thinaboomi]]'' newspaper gave the film a positive review, though cited that "it was a quiet, pleasant watch".<ref>{{Cite web |title=நெடுநீர் விமர்சனம் |url=http://www.thinaboomi.com/2022/12/26/189541.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227082443/http://www.thinaboomi.com/2022/12/26/189541.html |archive-date=27 December 2022 |access-date=27 December 2022}}</ref> A reviewer from ''[[Dina Thanthi]]'' noted that the director had created a good film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 December 2022 |title=சினிமா விமர்சனம்: நெடுநீர் |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/Review/cinema-review-neduniir-865804 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227154054/https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/Review/cinema-review-neduniir-865804 |archive-date=27 December 2022 |access-date=27 December 2022 |website=www.dailythanthi.com}}</ref> Critic Malini Mannath noted it was "''Nedu Neer'' is a promising piece of work from a debutant maker and his team of freshers."<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 December 2022 |title=Review- Nedu Neer |url=https://malinimannath.wordpress.com/2022/12/26/review-nedu-neer/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227161151/https://malinimannath.wordpress.com/2022/12/26/review-nedu-neer/ |archive-date=27 December 2022 |access-date=27 December 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:2022 films]]
[[Category:2022 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

{{2020s-Tamil-film-stub}}

Pohela Boishakh

2026-04-28T20:06:41Z

Davidmam: added content per standard format and added references based on references

{{short description|Bengali new year}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name = Pohela Boishakh {{Nobold|{{lang|bn|পহেলা বৈশাখ}}}}
| type = cultural
| image = Mangal Shobhajatra in Dhaka.jpg
| caption = [[Mangal Shobhajatra]] at Pohela Baishakh celebration in [[Dhaka]], Bangladesh
| official_name = Pohela Boishakh<ref name=samayeen159>{{cite book |author1=Nubras Samayeen |author2=Sharif Imon |editor=Kapila D. Silva and Amita Sinha |title=Cultural Landscapes of South Asia: Studies in Heritage Conservation and Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tc1CDQAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-36592-1 |pages=159–160}}</ref>
| nickname = Pahela Baishakh, Poila Boishakh, Pahela Boishak, Poila Boishak, Poila Baishak{{refn|group=n|name=Alternative}}
| observedby = [[Bengalis]]
| longtype = Social, cultural and national festival
| duration = 1 day
| frequency = Annual
| celebrations = [[Boishakhi Mela]] (fair), processions, gift-giving, visiting relatives and friends, cultural programmes
| relatedto = [[South and Southeast Asian solar New Year]]
| alt =
| significance = Start of new year in [[Bengali calendar]]
| begins =
| ends =
| date = 14 April {{small|(Bangladesh)}} 14 or 15 April {{small|(India)}}
| date2026 =
| date2027 =
| date2028 =
| weekday =
| month = April
| scheduling =
| firsttime =
| startedby =
}}
{{Infobox intangible heritage
| ICH = Mangal Shobhajatra on Pahela Baishakh
| Country = Bangladesh
| ID = 01091
| Region = APA
| Year = 2016
| List = Representative
| Session = 11th
}}{{Culture of Bengal}}

'''Pohela Boishakh''' ({{langx|bn|পহেলা বৈশাখ or পয়লা বৈশাখ}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=গোস্বামী |first=শ্রমণা |date=27 March 2024 |title=আসছে বাংলা নববর্ষ! ১৪ না ১৫ এপ্রিল কবে পালিত হবে পয়লা বৈশাখ? জেনে নিন |url=https://eisamay.com/astrology/dharma-karma/rituals-and-festivals/hindu/bengali-new-year-2024-date-poila-baisakh-history-importance-and-significance/articleshow/108811238.cms |access-date=8 March 2025 |website=Eisamay Online |language=bn}}</ref>){{refn|group=n|name=Alternative}} is the '''Bengali New Year''' celebrated by the [[Bengalis|Bengali people]] worldwide and as a holiday on 14 April in [[Bangladesh]] and 15 April or 14 April (leap year) in the Indian<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 April 2022 |title=Poila Boishakh 1429: Why Bangladesh & West Bengal Celebrate Bengali New Year On Different Days |url=https://news.abplive.com/lifestyle/poila-boishakh-1429-history-of-bengali-calendar-and-why-bangladesh-and-bengal-celebrate-bengali-new-year-on-different-days-1525756 |access-date=14 April 2022 |work=ABP News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240317051539/https://news.abplive.com/lifestyle/poila-boishakh-1429-history-of-bengali-calendar-and-why-bangladesh-and-bengal-celebrate-bengali-new-year-on-different-days-1525756 |archive-date=17 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref> states of [[West Bengal]], [[Tripura]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[Assam]] ([[Goalpara region|Goalpara]] and [[Barak Valley]]). It is a festival based on the spring [[harvest]]—which marks the first day of the new year in the [[Bengali calendar]].<ref name="Sinha2016p159">{{cite book |author1=Kapila D. Silva |author2=Amita Sinha |title=Cultural Landscapes of South Asia: Studies in Heritage Conservation and Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tc1CDQAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-36592-1 |pages=159–162}}</ref><ref name="BBC Hinduism">{{cite web |title=BBC – Religion: Hinduism – Vaisakhi |publisher=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/holydays/vaisakhi.shtml |access-date=22 January 2012}}</ref><ref>Crump, William D. (2014), [https://books.google.com/books?id=cDTfCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide], MacFarland, page 114.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC&pg=PA633 |title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations [2 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |isbn=9781598842067 |last1=Gordon Melton |first1=J. |date=13 September 2011 |publisher=Abc-Clio}}</ref>

Pohela Boishakh celebrations started during the [[Mughal Empire|rule of Mughal empire]], representing the proclamation of tax collection reforms under [[Akbar]].<ref name="Chakrabarti 2013">{{Cite book |last=Chakrabarti |first=Kunal |title=Historical dictionary of the Bengalis |date=2013 |others=Shubhra Chakrabarti |isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Lanham, [Maryland] |oclc=861692768}}</ref> Its celebration is rooted in the traditions of the Bengali Muslim [[Mahifarash]] community of [[Old Dhaka]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://bangla.bdnews24.com/lifestyle/article1319479.bdnews |work=[[Bdnews24.com]] |language=bn |script-title=bn:বৈশাখী খাবারের সুলুক সন্ধানে |trans-title=In search of Boishakhi banquets |author=Akram, Ridwan |date=14 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |language=bn |title=মাহিফরাসের দাওয়াত টু পয়লার ইলিশ-পান্তা |trans-title=From the banquets of the Mahifarash to the Ilish-Panta of Poila Boishakh |url=https://eisamaygold.timesgroup.com/culture/subho-nababarsha-bengali-food-tradition/1663682487740 |work=Ei Samay Gold |author=Sahebul Haq, Sheikh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308153140/https://eisamaygold.timesgroup.com/culture/subho-nababarsha-bengali-food-tradition/1663682487740|archive-date=2023-03-08|url-status=dead}}</ref> Presently, it is largely a secular holiday for most celebrants and enjoyed by people of several different faiths and backgrounds.

The festival is celebrated with processions, fairs and family time. The traditional greeting for Bengalis in the new year is {{lang|bn|শুভ নববর্ষ}} (''Shubho Noboborsho'') which is literally "Happy New Year". The festive ''[[Mangal Shobhajatra]]'' is organised in Bangladesh. In 2016, [[UNESCO]] recognised this festivity organised by the [[Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Dhaka|Faculty of Fine Arts]] at the [[University of Dhaka]], as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.<ref name="unescopb">[http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/mangal-shobhajatra-on-pahela-baishakh-01091 Mangal Shobhajatra on Pohela Boishakh]. UNESCO.</ref>
[[File:Boishakhi_celebrations.png|thumb|Boishakhi celebrations by [[Bengali Americans]] at [[Dallas, Texas, USA]] (2024)]]

==History and origin==
===Nomenclature===
In [[Bengali language|Bengali]], the word ''Pohela'' (or ''Pahela'' {{langx|bn|পহেলা}}), alternatively ''Poila'' ({{langx|bn|পয়লা}}), means 'first' and ''Boishakh'' (or ''Baishak'' {{langx|bn|বৈশাখ}}) is the first month of the Bengali calendar ({{langx|bn|পহেলা বৈশাখ}} ''Pohela Boishakh'', ''Pahela Boishakh'', ''Pahale Baishak'' or {{langx|bn|পয়লা বৈশাখ}} ''Poila Boishakh'').
{{refn|group=n|name=Alternative|Alternative English transliterations of the name include "Pahela Baishakh",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Versaci |first1=Antonella |last2=Cennamo |first2=Claudia |last3=Akagawa |first3=Natsuko |title=Conservation of Architectural Heritage (CAH): Embodiment of Identity |date=27 April 2022 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-95564-9 |page=63 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cjNtEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Pahela+baishakh%22&pg=PA63}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uddin |first1=Sufia M. |title=Constructing Bangladesh: Religion, Ethnicity, and Language in an Islamic Nation |date=15 December 2006 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-7733-3 |page=135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpS0vjc8atIC&dq=%22Pahela+baishakh%22&pg=PA135}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Karlekar |first1=Hiranmay |title=Bangladesh: The Next Afghanistan? |date=2005 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-7619-3401-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CxzUvx7Wyw8C&dq=%22Pahela+baishakh%22&pg=PA268}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Amin |first1=Sakib Bin |title=The Economy of Tourism in Bangladesh: Prospects, Constraints, and Policies |date=7 August 2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-72900-4 |page=33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WGg8EAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Pahela+baishakh%22&pg=PA33}}</ref> "Pahela Boishak"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Corbally |first1=Chris |last2=Dinell |first2=Darry |last3=Ricker |first3=Aaron |title=Intersections of Religion and Astronomy |date=1 November 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-21727-8 |page=135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SBEHEAAAQBAJ&dq="Pahela+Boishakh"&pg=PA135}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Guhathakurta |first1=Meghna |last2=Schendel |first2=Willem van |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |date=30 April 2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-9567-6 |pages=17–21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QES2AgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Pahela+Boishakh%22&pg=PA17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Bangladesh Quarterly |date=2012 |publisher=Department of Films & Publications, Government of Bangladesh. |page=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=98ZPIUVyTrQC&q=%22Pahela+Boishakh%22 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=Andy |title=The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes |date=31 December 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-31972-9 |page=270 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gd0NEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Pahela+Boishakh%22&pg=PT270}}</ref> and "Poila Boishak".<ref name="Cambridge_Vijay_Varman">{{cite book |last1=Vijay |first1=Devi |last2=Varman |first2=Rohit |title=Alternative Organisations in India: Undoing Boundaries |date=February 2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=89 |isbn=978-1-108-42217-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-ZNDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22poila+boishakh%22+cambridge&pg=PA89}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Khokan |first1=Sahidul Hasan |title=Bangladesh celebrates Bengali New Year Poila Boishakh |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/bangladesh-celebrates-bengali-new-year-poila-boishakh-2360164-2023-04-14 |access-date=14 November 2023 |magazine=India Today |location=Dhaka |date=14 April 2023}}</ref><ref name="DH_Sep2023">{{cite news |last1=Shamsi |first1=Mohammed Safi |title=West Bengal Assembly picks Poila Boishakh as state's foundation day, BJP against decision |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/west-bengal/west-bengal-assembly-passes-resolution-to-observe-bengali-new-year-poila-baisakh-as-bengal-day-2676748 |access-date=13 November 2023 |work=Deccan Herald |date=7 September 2023}}</ref>}}<ref name="sinha161">{{cite book |author1=Kapila D. Silva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tc1CDQAAQBAJ |title=Cultural Landscapes of South Asia: Studies in Heritage Conservation and Management |author2=Amita Sinha |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-36592-1 |pages=161–168}}, Quote: "Pohela Boishakh is celebrated on the first day of Boishakh, the first month of the Bengali calendar. It falls on 14 April in the Gregorian calendar, and it coincides with similar Vedic calendar-based New Year celebrations (...)"</ref>

Bengali New Year is referred to in Bengali as ''Nobo Borsho'' ({{langx|bn|নববর্ষ}}), where 'Nobo' means new and 'Borsho' means year.<ref name="crump114q" />
<ref>{{cite news |title=Subho Poila Baisakh |url=https://www.banglalovestory.in/2021/04/subho-poila-baisakh-wishes-in-bengali.html |publisher=Bangla Love Story |access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Emperor Akbar.png|alt=|thumb|Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]] began the celebration of Bengali New Year and officialised the Bengali [[calendar]] to ease the tax collection process.]]

===Traditional roots===
====Mughal origin theory====
During Mughal rule, land taxes were collected from [[Bengalis|Bengali]] people according to the Islamic [[Islamic calendar|Hijri]] calendar. This calendar was a [[lunar calendar]], and its new year did not coincide with the solar [[agricultural cycle]]s. According to some sources, the festival was a tradition introduced in [[Bengal]] during the rule of Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]] to time the tax year to the harvest, and the Bangla year was therewith called [[Bengali calendars|Bangabda]]. Akbar asked the royal [[astronomer]] [[Fathullah Shirazi]] to create a new calendar by combining the lunar [[Islamic calendar]] and solar [[Hindu calendar]] already in use, and this was known as Fasholi shan (harvest calendar). According to some historians, this started the [[Bengali calendars|Bengali calendar]]. According to [[Shamsuzzaman Khan]], it could be Nawab [[Murshid Quli Khan]], a Mughal governor, who first used the tradition of Punyaho as "a day for ceremonial land tax collection", and used Akbar's fiscal policy to start the [[Bengali calendars|Bangla calendar]].<ref name="Chakrabarti 2013"/><ref name=banglapedia>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2015 |title=Pahela Baishakh |encyclopedia=Banglapedia |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bangladesh |location=Dhaka, Bangladesh |url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Pahela_Baishakh}}</ref>

According to Shamsuzzaman Khan,<ref name=meghna>{{Cite book |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |last1=Guhathakurta |first1=Meghna |last2=Schendel |first2=Willem van |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780822353188 |pages=17–18}}</ref> and [[Nitish Sengupta]], the origin of the Bengali calendar is unclear.<ref name="Sengupta2011">{{cite book |author=Nitish K. Sengupta |title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 |pages=96–98}}</ref> According to Shamsuzzaman, it is called Bangla shon or shaal, which are [[Arabic]] (سن) and [[Farsi|Persian]] (سال) words respectively, suggests that it was introduced by a Muslim king or sultan."<ref name=meghna/> In contrast, according to Sengupta, its traditional name is ''Bangabda''.<ref name="Sengupta2011"/><ref>Syed Ashraf Ali, [http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Bangabda Bangabda], National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh</ref> It is also unclear, whether it was adopted by [[Alauddin Husain Shah]] or Akbar. The tradition to use the Bengali calendar may have been started by Husain Shah before Akbar.<ref name="Sengupta2011"/> Regardless of who adopted the Bengali calendar and the new year, states Sengupta, it helped collect land taxes after the spring harvest based on traditional Bengali calendar, because the Islamic Hijri calendar created administrative difficulties in setting the collection date.<ref name="Sengupta2011"/>
Some say that the current Bengali Calendar begins from the year of [[Hijrah]], i.e., migration of [[Prophet Muhammad]], the last messenger in [[Islam]], from [[Makkah]] to [[Madinah]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.milligazette.com/news/4-national/14395-bengali-calendar-begins-with-hijrah/ |title=Bengali calendar begins with Hijrah!}}</ref>

The festive celebrations of the Bengali New Year can be traced back to the [[Bengali Muslims|Bengali Muslim]] fishmonger community of [[Mahifarash]] in [[Old Dhaka]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=পাতা |first=যুগের |date=28 December 2024 |title=পহেলা বৈশাখ ২০২৫ কবে ও কত তারিখে হবে? |url=https://www.jugerpata.com/pohela-boishakh-kobe/ |access-date=18 February 2025 |website=যুগের পাতা |language=bn-BD}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=বৈশাখ, রবীন্দ্রনাথ এবং আগামীর বাস্তবতা |url=https://dailyinqilab.com/literature/article/656718 |access-date=18 February 2025 |website=দৈনিক ইনকিলাব |language=bn}}</ref> During the Mughal period, the Mahifarash were known for organising feasts and banquets at their [[Azimpur, Dhaka|Azimpur]] grounds to mark the beginning of the cultivation harvest season. This day-long feast served as a precursor to what would later be evolved into the traditional Pohela Boishakh celebration.<ref>{{Cite web |last=আক্রাম |first=রিদওয়ান |title=বৈশাখী খাবারের সুলুক সন্ধানে |url=https://bangla.bdnews24.com/lifestyle/article1319479.bdnews |website=[[Bdnews24.com|Bdnews24]] |language=bn}}</ref>

====Vikramaditya origin theory====
Some historians attribute the Bengali calendar to the 7th-century Indian king [[Shashanka]].<ref name=meghna/><ref name="Sengupta2011"/> The term ''Bangabda'' (Bangla year) is found too in two [[Shiva]] temples many centuries older than [[Akbar]] era, suggesting that Bengali calendar existed before Akbar's time.<ref name="Sengupta2011"/> Various dynasties whose territories extended into [[Bengal]], prior to the 13th-century, used the [[Vikram Samvat|Vikrami]] calendar. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts and inscriptions created in the [[Pala Empire]] era mention "Vikrama" and the months such as [[Ashvin (month)|Ashvin]], a system found in [[Sanskrit]] texts elsewhere in ancient and medieval Indian subcontinent.<ref name=crump114q>{{cite book |author=William D. Crump |title=Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDTfCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 |year=2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-9545-0 |pages=113114}}, Quote: "''Naba Barsha'' ("New Year"). Hindu New Year festival in West Bengal State, observed on the first day of the month of Vaisakha or Baisakh (corresponds to mid-April). New Year's Day is known as ''Pahela Baisakh'' (First of Baisakh)."</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Karen Pechilis |author2=Selva J. Raj |title=South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kaubzRxh-U0C&pg=PA48 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-44851-2 |pages=48–49}}</ref><ref name=dalal135>{{cite book |author=Roshen Dalal |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6 |pages=135–137}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=D. C. Sircar |title=Indian Epigraphy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXMB3649biQC |year=1965 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1166-9 |pages=241, 272–273}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Richard Salomon |title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-509984-3 |pages=148, 246–247, 346}}</ref>

In rural Bengali communities of India, the Bengali calendar is credited to "Bikromaditto", like many other parts of India and [[Nepal]]. However, unlike these regions where it starts in 57 BCE, the Bengali calendar starts from 593 CE suggesting that the starting reference year was adjusted at some point.<ref name="Klass1978p166">{{cite book |author=Morton Klass |title=From Field to Factory: Community Structure and Industrialization in West Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAZ2JBQ2vwsC&pg=PA166 |year=1978 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-0420-8 |pages=166–167}}</ref><ref name="Nicholas2003p13">{{cite book |author=Ralph W. Nicholas |title=Fruits of Worship: Practical Religion in Bengal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLI7nyI2UVYC&pg=PA13 |year=2003 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-8028-006-1 |pages=13–23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nesbitt |first=Eleanor M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XebnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |title=Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-874557-0 |language=en}}</ref>

===Contemporary usage===
In Bangladesh however, the old Bengali calendar was modified in 1966 by a committee headed by [[Muhammad Shahidullah]], making the first five months 31 days long, rest 30 days each, with the month of [[Falgun]] adjusted to 31 days in every leap year.<ref name= Chakrabarti114>{{cite book |author1=Kunal Chakrabarti |author2=Shubhra Chakrabarti |title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 |year=2013 |publisher=Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5 |pages=114–115}}</ref> This was officially adopted by Bangladesh in 1987. Since then, the national calendar starts with and the new year festival always falls on 14 April in Bangladesh.<ref name= Chakrabarti114/> In 2018–19, the calendar was amended again, with Falgun now lasting 29 days in regular years and to 30 days in leap ones, in an effort to more align with Western use of the Gregorian calendar. However, the date of the celebration, 14 April, was retained.

The Bengali calendar in India remains tied to the Hindu calendar system and is used to set the various Bengali Hindu festivals. For Bengalis of West Bengal and other Indian states, the festival falls either on 14 or 15 April every year. The current Bengali calendar in use in the Indian states is based on the Sanskrit text ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]''. It retains the historic Sanskrit names of the months, with the first month as [[Boishakh|Baishakh]].<ref name= Chakrabarti114/>

==Holiday customs==
{{multiple issues|section=yes|
{{expand section|date=April 2021}}
{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
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===Visiting family and friends===
During Pohela Boishakh, people wear traditional attire, namely women clad in [[saris]] and [[salwar kameez]] and men dressed in [[kurta]], visit their families and friends and spend time together. Pohela Boishakh is also known for uniting friends and family after a long time. It is a time for unity and reuniting, and spending enjoyable time with friends and family, while putting the past behind.

===New year salutation===
{{See also|Chhayanaut}}
[[File:ছায়ানটের বর্ষবরণ, ১৪২৪ বঙ্গাব্দ.jpg|thumb|The new year salutation at [[Ramna Park]]]]
The celebration of Bengali new year [[Pahela Baishakh]] begins at dawn arranged by the cultural organisation [[Chhayanaut]] welcoming the year at Ramna Batamul under the banyan tree in the Ramna Park in Bangladesh.<ref>[https://www.newagebd.net/article/69960/nation-celebrates-pahela-baishakh Nation celebrates Pahela Baishakh, newagebd.net, 14 April 2019]</ref>

===Haal Khata===
{{main|Haal Khata}}

[[File:Halkhata.JPG|thumb|[[Haal Khata]] in a shop in [[Old Dhaka]]]]
[[File:A priest performs a ritual during Bengali New Year.jpg|thumb|A priest performs a ritual during Bengali New Year]]

[[Haal Khata]] is a festival celebrated on the occasion of Pohela Boishakh in order to complete all the account reckonings of the last year and open a new [[ledger]]. It is observed by the Bengali businessmen, shopkeepers and traders. It signifies that every year starts with a new beginning. It ignores all the due debts of customers and shopkeepers alike, and instead opens a new page for a new year of shopkeeping.

===Red-white attire===
On this occasion, males are seen wearing red or white [[Kurta]] with traditional designs on them, imprinted or embroidered. Women and young ladies wear red and white [[Sari|saree]] with blouses and put on flower crowns on their heads. Girls also dress in [[Shalwar kameez|salwar kameez]]. They are seen wearing traditional ornaments and accessories along with their dresses. It is thought that it is because the traditional ledgers used in Haal Khata had a red cover with white pages.

===Baishakhi meal===
In recent times, claiming it to be traditional, Bengalis eat [[Panta bhat|Panta Bhat]] or [[Panta bhat|poitabhat]], which is a rice-based dish prepared by soaking rice, generally leftovers, in water overnight. It is popularly eaten with [[Ilish|Hilsa]] Fish and other curries.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Pahela Baishakh down the years |url=https://en.prothomalo.com/lifestyle/Pahela-Baishakh-down-the-years |access-date=13 April 2021 |work=Prothom Alo |date=10 May 2018 |language=en}}</ref> But many argue that it is not an age-old tradition and merely a trend.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Haider |first=Reaz |date=9 April 2016 |title='Will not have Hilsa on Pahela Baishakh' |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/country/will-not-have-hilsa-pahela-baishakh-1206616 |access-date=18 December 2022 |work=The Daily Star |language=en}}</ref> To stop overfishing and to repopulate the dwindling Hilsa population, around this time, fishing is banned.

===Mangal shobhajatra===
{{main|Mangal Shobhajatra}}

[[Mangal Shobhajatra]] (Bengali: মঙ্গল শোভাযাত্রা) or Barshabaran Ananda Shobhajatra (Bengali: বর্ষবরণ আনন্দ শোভাযাত্রা) is a mass procession that takes place at dawn on the first day of the Bengali New Year in Bangladesh. The procession is organised by the teachers and students of the [[Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Dhaka|Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Dhaka]]. The festival is considered an expression of the secular identity of the Bangladeshi people and as a way to promote unity. It was declared an intangible cultural heritage by [[UNESCO]] in 2016, categorised on the representative list as a heritage of humanity.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

===Baishakhi Rural Fair===
It is a fair held by the locals of that area where many different things ranging from books to special dishes are sold. Traditionally, the fair was held under huge [[Banyan]] trees and traders from far across the areas would gather with their goods and toys in the fair. Some rides such as Nagordola (wooden [[Ferris wheel]]), are set for kids. Different types of traditional foods are sold out in the stalls such as [[Jalebi|Jilipi]], [[Sandesh (confectionery)|Sandesh]], [[Soan papdi]], Batasha (a candy made of sugar or jaggery),{{Circular reference|date=April 2022}} Khoi (popped rice), Kadma (a candy made of sugar), and so forth. 'Bioscope', a form of the old movie projector, was also a part of the attraction for the younglings back in the days.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.theindependentbd.com/printversion/details/145568 |title=Boishakhi Mela |work=The Independent |location=Dhaka |date=13 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216155242/http://www.theindependentbd.com/printversion/details/145568 |archive-date=16 February 2020}}</ref>

=== Religious customs ===

==== Hinduism ====

==Locality==
===Bangladesh===
[[File:PreparationsForPohelaBoishakh1417.jpg|thumb|Students of Charukala (Fine Arts) Institute, [[Dhaka University]] preparing masks for Pohela Boishakh]]
The Bengali New Year is observed as a public holiday in Bangladesh. It is celebrated across religious boundaries by its Muslim majority and Hindu minority.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Kapila D. Silva |author2=Amita Sinha |title=Cultural Landscapes of South Asia: Studies in Heritage\n" Conservation and Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tc1CDQAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-36592-1 |pages=159–168}}</ref> According to [[Willem van Schendel (historian)|Willem van Schendel]] and [[Henk Schulte Nordholt]], the festival became a popular means of expressing cultural pride and heritage among the Bangladeshi as they resisted Pakistani rule in the 1950s and 1960s.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Willem van Schendel |author2=Henk Schulte Nordholt |title=Time Matters: Global and Local Time in Asian Societies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wQp-AAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=VU University\n\t" Press |isbn=978-90-5383-745-0 |page=41}}</ref>

The day is marked with singing, processions, and fairs. Traditionally, businesses start this day with a new ledger, clearing out the old which often involves inviting loyal customers and offering sweetmeats to them. This festival is called [[Haal Khata]]. Singers perform traditional songs welcoming the new year. People enjoy classical [[Jatra (theatre)|Jatra plays]]. People wear festive dress with women desking their hair with flowers. White-red color combinations are particularly popular.<ref name="Schendel2013p17"/>

Bangladeshis prepare and enjoy a variety of traditional festive foods on Pohela Boishakh. These include ''[[panta bhat]]'' (watered rice), ''[[ilish]] bhaji'' (fried hilsa fish) and many special ''[[Bhurta|bhartas]]'' (pastes).<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Vishweshwaraiah Prakash |editor2=Olga Martin-Belloso |editor-link2=Olga Martín-Belloso |editor3=Larry Keener |editor4=S. Astley |editor5=S. Braun |editor6=H. McMahon |editor7=H. Lelieveld |display-editors=3 |title=Regulating Safety of Traditional and Ethnic Foods |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2glBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 |year=2016 |publisher=Elsevier Science |page=104 |isbn=978-0-12-800620-7}}</ref><ref name="Schendel2013p17">{{cite book |author1=Meghna Guhathakurta |author2=Willem van Schendel |title=The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QES2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |year=2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-9567-6 |pages=17–21}}</ref>

====In Dhaka====
[[File:Bengali New Year 1422 01.jpg|thumb|Mangal Shobhajatra at Pohela Boishakh in Bangladesh. [[UNESCO]] recognises Mangal Shobhajatra as cultural heritage.<ref>[http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/mangal-shobhajatra-on-pahela-baishakh-01091 Mongol Shobhojatra on Pohela Boishakh]</ref>]]
[[File:Colors of Celebration!-4.JPG|thumb|Colorful celebration of Pohela Boishakh in Dhaka]]
The celebrations start in Dhaka at dawn with a rendition of [[Rabindranath Tagore]]'s song "''Esho he Boishakh''" by [[Chhayanaut]] under the banyan tree at [[Ramna Thana|Ramna]] (the Ramna Batamul). An integral part of the festivities is the [[Mangal Shobhajatra]], a traditional colourful procession organised by the students of the [[Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Dhaka]] (Charukala). According to the history, the rudimentary step of Mangal Shobhjatra was started in Jessore by Charupith, a community organisation, in 1985. Later in 1989 the Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Dhaka arranged this Mangal Shobhajatra with different motifs and themes. Now, the Mangal Shobhajatra is celebrated by different organisation in all over the country.<ref>[http://archive.ittefaq.com.bd/index.php?ref=MjBfMDRfMTRfMTRfM181NF8xXzEyMzIyNg%3D%3D মঙ্গল শোভাযাত্রা] (Non-English source)</ref>

The Dhaka University Mangal Shobhajatra tradition started in 1989 when students used the procession to overcome their frustration with the military rule. They organised the festival to create masks and floats with at least three theme, one highlighting evil, another courage, and a third about peace.<ref name=unescopb/> It also highlighted the pride of Bangladeshi people for their folk heritage irrespective of religion, creed, caste, gender or age.<ref name=unescopb/>

In recent years, the procession has a different theme relevant to the country's culture and politics every year. Different cultural organisations and bands also perform on this occasion and fairs celebrating [[Culture of Bengal|Bengali culture]] are organised throughout the country. Other traditional events held to celebrate Pohela Boishakh include bull racing in Munshiganj, [[Jobbarer Boli Khela|Boli Khela]] (wrestling) in Chittagong, [[Nouka Baich]] (boat racing), cockfights, pigeon racing.<ref name="history">{{cite news |title=Nobo Borsho and Pahela Baishakh: The Past and the Present |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/nobo-borsho-and-pahela-baishakh-the-past-and-the-present |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=14 April 2013}}</ref>

====In Chittagong====
Pohela Boishakh celebrations in Chittagong involves similar traditions of that in Dhaka. The students of the fine arts institute of [[Chittagong University]] brings the Mangal Shobhajatra procession in the city, followed by daylong cultural activities.<ref name="Chakraborty1" />

At DC hill & CRB, a range of cultural programmes are held by different socio-cultural and educational organisations of the city. The Shammilito Pohela Boishakh Udjapon Parishad holds a two-day function at the hill premises to observe the festival, starting with Rabindra Sangeet recitations in the morning. In the late afternoon, through evening, Chaitra Sangkranti programme is held to bid farewell to the previous year.<ref name="Chakraborty1" />

At the Chittagong Shilpakala Academy, different folk cultures, music, dances, puppet shows are displayed.<ref name="Chakraborty1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/arts-entertainment/event/chittagong-set-welcome-bangla-new-year-76317 |title=Chittagong set to welcome Bangla New Year |last=Chakraborty |first=Pranabesh |work=The Daily Star |access-date=7 April 2017}}</ref>

===India===
[[File:Poila Baisakh food Main lead image.jpg|thumb|Pohela Boishakh Festive Meal]]
Bengalis of India have historically celebrated Pohela Boishakh, and it is an official regional holiday in its states of West Bengal and Tripura. The day is also called Nabo Barsho.<ref name=crump114>{{cite book |author=William D. Crump |title=Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cDTfCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 |year=2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-9545-0 |pages=114–115}}</ref>

====West Bengal====
Pohela Boisakh has been the traditional New Year festival in the state, with the new year referred to as the ''Noboborsho''.<ref name=crump114q/> The festival falls on 14 or 15 April, as West Bengal follows its traditional Bengali calendar, which adjusts for solar cycle differently than the one used in Bangladesh where the festival falls on 14 April.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Kunal Chakrabarti |author2=Shubhra Chakrabarti |title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 |year=2013 |publisher=Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5 |pages=114–115}}</ref>

Notable events of West Bengal include the early morning cultural processions called ''Prabhat Pheri''. These processions see dance troupes and children dressed up with floats, displaying their performance arts to songs of [[Rabindranath Tagore]].<ref>[http://zeenews.india.com/news/west-bengal/poila-baisakh-celebrated-in-west-bengal_1579225.html 'Poila Baisakh' celebrated in West Bengal], Press Trust of India (15 April 2015)</ref>

====Tripura and Northeast India====
Pohela Boishakh is a state holiday in Tripura. People wear new clothes and start the day by praying at the temples for a prosperous year. The day marks the traditional accounting new year for merchants.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pahela Baisakh celebrated in Tripura |url=https://bdnews24.com/neighbours/pahela-baishakh-celebrated-in-tripura |work=bdnews24.com |date=15 April 2014}}</ref><ref name=tfepahela>[http://www.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/2016/04/14/26140/Tripura-people-observe-Pahela-Baishakh Tripura people observed Pahela Baishakh], Financial Express (14 April 2016)</ref> Festive foods such as [[South Asian sweets|confectionery and sweets]] are purchased and distributed as gifts to friends and family members.<ref name=tfepahela/>

The festival is also observed by the Bengali communities in other eastern states such as [[Assam]].<ref>[http://www.thestatesman.com/section/celebrating-new-year-all-year-long-1482952955.html Celebrating New Year all year long!], The Statesman, 29 December 2016</ref>

===Celebration in other countries===
{{Main|Boishakhi Mela}}

Bangladesh Heritage and Ethnic Society of [[Alberta]] in Canada celebrates its Heritage Festival (Bengali New Year) in a colourful manner along with other organisations. Bengali people in [[Calgary]] celebrate the day with traditional food, dress, and with Bengali culture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baisakhifestival.com/naba-barsha-in-bengal.html |title=Naba Barsha in Bengal |access-date=5 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bhesa.ca/index.php/events/events-bengali-event-heritage |title=Our Bengali Event Heritage |website=Bangladesh Heritage and Ethnic Society of Alberta |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150727091751/http://bhesa.ca/index.php/events/events-bengali-event-heritage |archive-date=27 July 2015}}</ref> The Bangabandhu Council of Australia also hosts a Pohela Boishakh event at the [[Sydney Olympic Park]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bangabandhucouncil.com.au/boishakhi-mela/ |title=BOISHAKHI MELA |publisher=Boishakhi Mela |access-date=4 April 2018}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Bangladeshi girls celebrating Pohela Boishakh (17152686985).jpg|Children in Bangladesh carrying placards in Pohela Boishakh's rally
File:Bangladeshi children with Pohela Boishakh placard at Pohela Boishakh celebration (02).jpg|Children in Bangladesh carrying colourful placards in Pohela Boishakh's rally
File:Bangladeshi girls wearing traditional sari with flower crown at Pohela Boishakh celebration 2016 (01).jpg|Girls in Bangladesh wearing traditional saris and flower crowns at Pohela Boishakh celebration in [[Chittagong]]
File:Art competition at Pohela Boishakh celebration 2016 (04).jpg|Art competition at Pohela Boishakh celebration in [[Chittagong]]
File:ঐতিহ্যবাহী বৈশাখী মেলার একটি স্টল.jpg|Colorful show pieces in a Boishakhi fair stall
File:Bangladesh Women Association, Abudhabi.jpg|Pohela Boishakh Celebration by the Women Association, Abudhabi, UAE
File:Bengali New Year 1422 07.jpg|A motif of sun at [[Mangal Shobhajatra]] procession in Pohela Boishakh celebration at [[Dhaka]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Bengali Renaissance]]
* [[List of festivals in Bangladesh]]
* [[List of festivals in West Bengal]]
* [[Pohela Falgun]]
* [[Haal Khata]]
* [[Bangal]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=n}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Pohela Boishakh}}
* [https://bengalicalendars.com/ Pohela Boishakh 1425]
* [https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/3756588/153270_199687.pdf Modern Times in Bangladesh], H.W. van Schendel (2001)
* [https://todaybengalidate.com/calendar/baisakh-mas-1-tarikh/ Pahela Baishakh] Pahela Baishakh Utsab
* [https://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/61SLQ_INST/tqqf2h/alma99184083480102061 Shehab Uddin Pohela Boishakh photographs], [[State Library of Queensland]]. Photographs of Pohela Boishakh celebrations in [[Brisbane]] 28 May 2022.

{{Bangladesh Holidays}}
{{New Year by Calendar}}

{{West Bengal}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Annual events in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:April observances]]
[[Category:Bengali festivals]]
[[Category:Culture of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Culture of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Cultural festivals in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Organised events in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Festivals in Assam]]
[[Category:Festivals in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Festivals of Bangladeshi culture]]
[[Category:Folk festivals in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Food and drink festivals in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Harvest festivals]]
[[Category:Festivals in India]]
[[Category:National days in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:New Year in India]]
[[Category:New Year celebrations]]
[[Category:Public holidays in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Summer in Bangladesh]]

Indian Revenue Service (Customs and Indirect Taxes)

2026-04-28T14:53:44Z

Davidmam: stub

{{Short description|Central Civil Service under Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs}}
{{multiple issues|
{{Duplication|dupe=Indian Revenue Service|date=April 2021}}
{{Duplication|dupe=Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs|date=April 2021}}
{{more citations needed|date=November 2018}}
}}
{{Infobox
| title = Indian Revenue Service (Custom and Indirect Taxes)
| headerstyle = background:#4682B4; color:white;
| data1 = [[File:Indian Revenue Service (C&CE).png|200px|frameless]] {{center|Logo of IRS (C&IT)}}
| label3 = [[Date of establishment|Founded]]
| data3 = {{start date and age|df=yes|1919}} {{small|(as Imperial Customs Service)}} {{start date and age|df=yes|1953}} {{small|(as Indian Revenue Service Customs and Central Excise)}}
| header2 = Service overview
| label4 = Headquarters
| data4 = [[Secretariat Building, New Delhi|North Block]], New Delhi
| label5 = Country
| data5 = India
| label6 = Staff colleges
| data6 = [[National Academy of Customs Indirect Taxes and Narcotics]], [[NH-44]], [[Palasamudram]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| label7 = Cadre controlling authority
| data7 = [[Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs]], [[Department of Revenue (India)|Department of Revenue]], [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]]
| label8 = Minister responsible
| data8 = [[Nirmala Sitharaman]], [[Minister of Finance (India)|Minister of Finance]]
| label9 = Legal personality
| data9 = [[Governmental]] [[Civil service]]
| label10 = Website:
| data10 = {{url|https://cbic.gov.in/entities/customs}}
| label11 = [[En cadre|Cadre strength]]
| data11 = 5583 (Customs and Indirect Taxes)<ref>{{cite web|title=Allocation of Revised Cadre Strength, Central Board of Direct Taxes, 2018|url=http://www.cbic.gov.in/resources//htdocs-cbec/deptt_offcr/cadre-restruct/allocation_of_revised_cadre_strength_12_jan.pdf |access-date=26 August 2018}}</ref>
| label12 = Selection
| data12 = [[Civil Services Examination]]
| label13 = Associations
| data13 = IRS (Customs & Indirect Taxes) Association
| header14 = Service chief
| label15 = [[Chairperson of the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs|Chairperson, CBIC]]
| data15 = Sanjay Agarwal, [[Indian Revenue Service|IRS]]
| header16 = Head of the civil services
| label17 = [[Cabinet Secretary (India)|Cabinet Secretary]]
| data17 = [[T. V. Somanathan]], [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]
}}
The '''Indian Revenue Service (Customs and Indirect Taxes)''' is a part of [[Government of India|central]] [[civil service]] of the [[government of India]]. It is a part of the [[Indian Revenue Service]] and functions under the [[Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs]], [[Department of Revenue (India)|Department of Revenue]] of the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]]. It is under the administrative direction of the [[Revenue Secretary]] and the ministerial command of the Minister of Finance. The IRS (C&IT) is primarily responsible for [[tax collection|collecting]] and administering [[indirect tax]]es accruing to the government of India. It is one of the largest civil service amongst the organised civil services in the Indian government and serves the nation through discharging sovereign functions of collection of revenue for development, security and governance.<ref name="Profile IRS" />

As with other countries that follow the [[Westminster system]] of government, the IRS is part of the permanent [[bureaucracy]] of the nation,<ref name="Bhattacharjee 2018" /> and is an inseparable part of the [[Executive (government)|executive]] of the Government of India. As such, the bureaucracy remains politically neutral and guarantees administrative continuity to the ruling party.<ref name="Bhattacharjee 2018">{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/in-defence-of-administrative-continuity-117062201079_1.html|title=In defence of administrative continuity|last=Bhattacharjee|first=Subhomoy|date=22 June 2017|oclc=496280002|work=[[Business Standard]]|access-date=20 January 2018|location=[[New Delhi]]|language=en}}</ref>

The duties of the IRS (C&IT) include formulation and enforcement of policy concerning the [[Goods and Services Tax (India)|Goods and Services Tax]], prevention of smuggling and administration of matters related to customs and narcotics.

==History==
With the passing of the ''[[Government of India Act, 1919]]'' the civil services—under the oversight of the [[Secretary of State for India]]—were split into two arms, the [[All India Services]] and the Central Services.<ref name="Public Personnel Administration">{{cite book|title=Public Personnel Administration : Theory and Practice|last1=Goel|first1=S.L.|last2=Rajneesh|first2=Shalini|publisher=Deep and Deep Publications|others=Foreword by [[Vasundhara Raje]]|year=2002|isbn=978-8176293952|location=[[Delhi]]|oclc=51300460}}</ref> Apart from the Central Secretariat, the more important of these latter were the [[Indian Railway Service|Railway Services]], the [[Indian Postal Service|Indian Posts and Telegraph Service]], and the Imperial Customs Service.<ref>{{cite web|title=Historical Perspective, Union Public Service Commission, India| url= http://www.upsc.gov.in/sites/default/files/History%20of%20the%20Commission%20final%20%281%29_0.pdf |access-date=27 August 2018}}</ref> After [[Independence Day (India)|Independence]], the Imperial Customs Service was reconstituted as the Indian Revenue Service (Customs and Central Excise) in 1953.

The nature of the service underwent a transformational change with the enactment of the [[One Hundred and First Amendment of the Constitution of India]], which overhauled the administration of indirect taxation in India with the introduction of the [[Goods and Services Tax (India)|Goods and Services Tax (GST)]]. With the subsumption of several indirect taxes and levies, including [[Taxation in India#History|central excise duty]] and [[Service Tax|service tax]], under the GST, the nomenclature was updated to reflect the changed structure of taxation from IRS (Customs and Central Excise) to IRS (Customs and Indirect Taxes).

==Recruitment==
There are two streams of recruitment to the [[Indian Revenue Service]]. IRS officers may enter into the IRS by passing the [[Civil Services Examination]] (CSE). The CSE is a three-stage competitive selection process consisting of a preliminary examination, a main examination, and an interview. It is administered by the [[Union Public Service Commission]] (UPSC).<ref name="Profile IRS">{{Cite web|url=http://persmin.gov.in/AIS1/Docs/ServiceProfile_IRS.pdf|title=Service Profile for the Indian Revenue Service|publisher=Department of Personnel and Training, Government of India|language=en|access-date=28 August 2018}}</ref> IRS officers recruited in this way are called direct recruits.

Some IRS officers are also recruited from [[Central Civil Services#Central Services (Group B)|Central Services (Group B)]]. These include Customs Appraisers Service (Group B), Customs Preventive Service (Group B), and Central Excise Service (Group B). Group 'B' officers are gradually promoted over several years of service. The current ratio of two streams at the entry level is kept 1:1.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.itgoawbunit.org/pdf/121835034IRS%20RR,%202015%20English.pdf|title=Rule7(2), Indian Revenue Service Recruitment Rules, 2015|publisher=Ministry of Finance, Government of India|access-date=28 August 2018}}</ref> All IRS officers, regardless of their mode of entry, are appointed by the [[President of India]].

Only about 250 candidates out of over 1 million applicants, who apply through the Civil Services Examination, are successful - a success rate of 0.025%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/tips-and-tricks/story/upsc-prelims-exam-quick-tips-333638-2016-08-06|title=11.36 lakh candidates to appear for UPSC IAS Prelims tomorrow: 10 quick tips|date=6 August 2016|website=[[India Today]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|issn=0254-8399|access-date=23 January 2018}}</ref>

==Training==
[[File:Pranab Mukherjee with the Probationers of 66th (2014 Batch) of the Indian Revenue Service (Customs & Central Excise) from National Academy of Customs, Excise & Narcotics, Faridabad, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi.jpg|[[Pranab Mukherjee]] with the Probationers of 66th (2014 Batch) of the Indian Revenue Service (Customs & Central Excise) from National Academy of Customs, Excise & Narcotics, Faridabad, at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]], in New Delhi|thumb|400px]]
After selection, successful candidates undergo a 3-month Foundation Course at the [[Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration]] (LBSNAA) in [[Mussoorie]], [[Uttarakhand]].<ref name="LBSNAA Profile">{{cite web |title=Batch Profile, 92nd Foundation Course |url=http://lbsnaa.gov.in/admin/upload/doc/Batch-22.pdf |website=LBSNAA |publisher=Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration |access-date=28 August 2018 |archive-date=16 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516193122/http://www.lbsnaa.gov.in/admin/upload/doc/Batch-22.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===National Academy of Customs, Indirect Taxes, and Narcotics===
{{Main|National Academy of Customs Indirect Taxes and Narcotics}}
Thereafter, IRS (C&IT) Officer Trainees (OTs) undergo specialised training at [[National Academy of Customs Indirect Taxes and Narcotics]] (NACIN), in [[Palasamudram]] located in [[Sri Sathya Sai district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=PM inaugurates new campus of National Academy of Customs, Indirect Taxes & Narcotics at Palasamudram, Sri Sathya Sai District, Andhra Pradesh |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1996795 |access-date=10 August 2024}}</ref>

This is apex institution of government of India for capacity building in the field of customs, indirect taxes, and narcotics under the administrative control of Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs (CBIC). The functions of NACIN is specified in CBIC office order No.06/Ad.IV/2017 on 12 June 2017 which states that NACIN will undertake training and other capacity training activities in the field of customs, indirect taxes, and narcotics including:

* Induction training of directly recruited [[Central Civil Services#Central Civil Services (Group A)|Group A]] officers,
* Specialized and periodic training to in-service officers,
* Induction training to Group B and C officers,
* Training to state/union territory and other stake holders in the area of indirect taxation,
* Management and soft skills training for overall personal and professional development of officers,
* International cooperation and training activities in narcotics, customs and other allied areas,

Any other capacity building activity as may be assigned by CBIC from time to time, besides carrying out normal administrative and establishment functions. NACIN has signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] with the [[National Law School of India University]] in Bengaluru to award [[postgraduate diploma]]s in [[corporate law|business law]]s to the officer trainees. The finance ministry has approved exchange of officer trainees to various countries across the world such as Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, France, Australia, Malaysia, United States of America, Brazil, South Africa and OECD Nations for increasing exposure to the future administrators.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}

==Responsibilities==
{{Original research section|date=August 2018}}
IRS officers serve the government of India in different capacities/roles. While administering indirect taxes, they formulate and implement policies, discharge the functions of an investigator, quasi-judicial authority, prosecutor and negotiator of international agreements etc. Their main roles could be briefly described as under:<ref name="Profile IRS" />

*'''Policy formulation:''' The taxation policies are dynamic and keep changing with the emerging needs of the economy and the country. The tax policy is not limited to raising of revenue. As a part of the overall policy of the government of India, the tax policy also serves as a tool to address several other objectives in the process of development of the country. These objectives may include providing for incentives and disincentives in the target areas/segments of the economy. Appropriate policy interventions in the direct tax are formulated by the IRS officers based upon the experience in the field formation and other relevant inputs from various sources and submitted to the government through the CBIC.<ref name="Profile IRS" />
*'''Tax administrator, investigator, quasi-judicial authority and prosecutor:''' Majority of the officers are, therefore, involved in this function in some way or the other. The process of tax collection is mainly driven through the regime of voluntary compliance in which the tax payers have to pay their taxes as per the mandate of the law, following the procedure laid down including mandatory filing of returns of income or other specified statements. However, there is always a gap between the expected and the achieved level of compliance. Main reasons for the gap may include tax evasion through willful suppression of material facts/aggressive tax planning or mistakes committed by the tax payers. With a view to detect such aberrations and promote voluntary compliance, several interventions are done through selective scrutiny (examination) of returns/statements, surveys, [[search and seizure]] etc. In serious cases of defaults, criminal prosecutions are instituted after completing requisite investigation. In the process, the IRS officers discharge the functions of an investigator, quasi-judicial authority and prosecutor.<ref name="Profile IRS" />
*'''Black money:''' One of the most important functions of IRS is detection and curbing [[Indian black money|black money in the country]]. While taking all possible measures in this regard domestically, IRS officers are also responsible to negotiate international agreements with other tax jurisdictions, to plug misuse of international financial processes for [[tax evasion]] and [[Tax avoidance|avoidance]]. India has been playing a prominent role, inter alia, in developing the new global standards on automatic exchange of information which would enable the tax authorities to receive information about taxpayers hiding their money in [[Offshore financial centre|offshore financial centers]] and [[Tax haven|tax havens]] through multi-layered entities with non-transparent ownership, on an automatic basis.<ref name="Profile IRS" />
*'''Serving other ministries/departments/organisations on deputation:''' IRS officers contribute to policy formulation, and make a final decision in certain matters, with the agreement of the minister concerned or the [[Union Council of Ministers|council of ministers]] (depending upon the weight of the matter), when posted at higher level in the government of India as a deputy secretary, director, [[Joint Secretary to Government of India|joint secretary]] or–in rare cases–[[Additional secretary to Government of India|additional secretary]].<ref name="Profile IRS" />
*'''International bilateral and multilateral negotiations:''' IRS officers participate and negotiate treaties on behalf of the government of India in the fiscal matters in both bilateral or multilateral forums such as [[OECD]], [[WTO]], [[World Customs Organization]], and the [[United Nations]]. They engage in international cooperation in the work areas of exchange of information, [[transfer pricing]], taxation of cross-border transactions, and negotiation of [[Free-trade area|free trade agreements]].<ref name="Profile IRS" />
*'''Anti-smuggling and narcotics control:''' Enforcement measures against illicit traffic under the various international conventions and protocols that are in force at present regarding [[Narcotics Control Bureau|narcotics control]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}
*'''Revenue intelligence:''' On the indirect tax side, [[Directorate of Revenue Intelligence]], i.e., DRI (for custom duty evasion, smuggling etc.) and [[Directorate General of GST Intelligence]], i.e., DGGI (for GST evasion) are the agencies which are responsible for the collection of intelligence regarding evasion and smuggling of indirect taxes and also for prosecuting the offenders. A new system of [[E-Way Bill|e-way bill]] is also being rolled out under the GST to check evasion in the inter-state and intrastate goods transfer.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}

==Designations==
[[File:Indian Customs Insignia.png|thumb|Indian Revenue Service (Custom & Indirect Taxes) rank badges.]]
An IRS officer could rise up-to the Apex Scale (Rs.2,25,000 fixed plus allowances) at the post of principal chief commissioner of income tax in the ITD. At the apex level, he can also get selected as a Member or Chairperson of the [[Central Board of Direct Taxes]]. The intermediate grades in this career progression are deputy commissioner, joint commissioner, additional commissioner, commissioner, principal commissioner and chief commissioner of income tax. An IRS officer is also eligible to be selected as a member of the [[Income Tax Appellate Tribunal]], Authority for Advance Ruling, [[Income Tax Settlement Commission]] and Income Tax Ombudsman as per the prescribed eligibility criteria. Income Tax Overseas Units have been set up designating IRS officers as diplomats in the rank of [[First Secretary (diplomatic rank)|First Secretary]] in various missions and consulates of India abroad to look into [[Tax evasion in India|tax evasion]] and compliance matters which enables them to work in the place of [[Indian Foreign Service]] officers abroad. Cadre Review has been cleared in the Income Tax Department creating 20,751 additional posts to help generate additional revenue of {{INRConvert|25000|c|lk=on|year=2013}} crore annually.<ref name="The Economic Times"/>

The designations and time-scales within the Indian Revenue Service are as follows after cadre restructure:<ref name="The Economic Times">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130622003534/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-05-24/news/39502017_1_lakh-crore-revamp-tax-evaders Cabinet approves revamp of the income-tax department - Economic Times]. Articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com (2013-05-24). Retrieved on 2013-07-19.</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+ Ranks, designations, and positions held by Indian Revenue Service (Customs & Indirect Taxes) officers in their career
|-
! Grade / Scale (Level on Pay Matrix)
! Posting in Central GST / Customs (CBIC)
! Position in Government of India
! Position in [[Order of precedence in India]]
! Pay Scale (Basic Pay)
|-
| Administrative Head (Pay Level 17)
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Chairperson of the Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs|Chairperson of the CBIC]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Secretary to the Government of India|Secretary]]
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Centre|23{{efn|CBIC Chairman is the senior-most IRS(C&CE) officer and the administrative head of the [[Indian Revenue Service (Customs and Indirect Taxes)]], and is equivalent to [[Secretary to the Government of India]].}}}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|225|k|lk=on}}
|-
| Apex Scale (Pay Level 17)
| style="text-align:center;" |Member of the [[Central Board of Indirect Taxes and Customs|CBIC]] Director of the [[Directorate of Revenue Intelligence]] Principal Chief Commissioner of Central GST / Customs (PCCIT)
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Secretary to the Government of India|Secretary]] [[Special Secretary]]
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Centre|23}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|225|k|lk=on}}
|-

| Higher Administrative Grade + (Pay Level 16)
| style="text-align:center;" | Chief Commissioner of Central GST / Customs (CCIT)
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Additional Secretary]]
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Centre|25}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|205.4|k|lk=on}}—{{INRConvert|224.4|k|lk=on}}
|-

| Higher Administrative Grade (Pay Level 15)
| style="text-align:center;" | Principal Commissioner of Central GST / Customs
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Additional secretary to the Government of India|Additional Secretary]]
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Centre|25}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|182.2|k|lk=on}}—{{INRConvert|224.1|k|lk=on}}
|-

| Senior Administrative Grade (Pay Level 14)
| style="text-align:center;" | Commissioner of Central GST / Customs 
Additional Director General
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Joint secretary to the Government of India|Joint Secretary]]
| style="text-align:center;" | {{Centre|26}}
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|144.2|k|lk=on}}—{{INRConvert|218.2|k|lk=on}}
|-

| Selection Grade (Pay Level 13)
| style="text-align:center;" | Additional Commissioner of Central GST / Customs
| style="text-align:center;" | Director
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|123.1|k|lk=on}}—{{INRConvert|215.9|k|lk=on}}
|-

| Junior Administrative Grade (Pay Level 12)
| style="text-align:center;" | Joint Commissioner of Central GST / Customs
| style="text-align:center;" | Deputy Secretary
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|78.8|k|lk=on}}—{{INRConvert|209.2|k|lk=on}}
|-

| Senior Time Scale (Pay Level 11)
| style="text-align:center;" | Deputy Commissioner of Central GST / Customs
| style="text-align:center;" | Under Secretary
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|67.7|k|lk=on}}—{{INRConvert|208.7|k|lk=on}}
|-

| Junior Time Scale (Pay Level 10)
| style="text-align:center;" | Assistant Commissioner of Central GST / Customs 
Entry-level (Probationer)
| style="text-align:center;" | Assistant Secretary
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" | {{INRConvert|56.1|k|lk=on}}—{{INRConvert|177.5|k|lk=on}}
|-
|}

==Major concerns==
===Corruption===
In 2015, it was reported that as many as 108 IRS officers were under probe by the CBI for their alleged involvement in corruption.<ref name="108 IRS">{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/108-irs-officers-under-cbi-probe-for-alleged-corruption-government/articleshow/48375107.cms|title=108 IRS officers under CBI probe for alleged corruption: Government|access-date=21 December 2016|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref> From May 2009 to May 2010, the [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]] had sought sanction for prosecution of 102 IRS officials posted in different parts of the country in connection with corruption cases.<ref name = "IRS Corruption">{{cite news|url=http://archive.asianage.com/india/irs-officials-top-cbi-corrupt-list-283|title=IRS officials top CBI corrupt list|publisher=The Asian Age|date=4 July 2010|access-date=5 June 2011}}</ref>

In 2016, the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]], dismissed 72 and prematurely retired another 33 Indian Revenue Service officers for non-performance and on disciplinary grounds.<ref name="Finance Ministry 2016">{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/for-good-governance-finance-ministry-fires-72-tax-officers-retires-33-more-116050600022_1.html|title=For good governance, Finance Ministry fires 72 tax officers, retires 33 more|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=6 May 2016|access-date=12 May 2016|publisher=[[Business Standard]]|last1=Seth|first1=Dilasha}}</ref><ref name="PIB">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=144910|title=Government takes strict action against defaulting/non performing tax officials/officers|access-date=12 May 2016|publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]]}}</ref>

The IRS officials top the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]]’s list of most corrupt bureaucrats.<ref name="IRS CBI">{{cite news|title=IRS men top CBI list of most corrupt|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/IRS-men-top-CBI-list-of-most-corrupt/articleshow/945917.cms|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=3 December 2004 |access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="IRS CBI 400">{{cite web|title=Top IT officer in CBI net is worth Rs 400 crore|date=3 April 2015|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150403/nation-current-affairs/article/top-it-officer-cbi-net-worth-rs-400-crore|publisher=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|access-date=23 December 2016}}</ref> In one case, a 1992 batch IRS officer was arrested for accepting a bribe of {{INR}}2 [[crore]] in Mumbai.<ref name = "IRS Bribe Corruption">{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_income-tax-official-husband-arrested-for-accepting-rs1-70-crore-bribe-in-mumbai_1372623|title=Income tax official, husband arrested for accepting Rs70 crore bribe in Mumbai|work=Daily News and Analysis|date=17 April 2010|access-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> Recently, in another case, some IRS officials were found to help certain companies evade payment of service tax and related penalties of the order of {{INR}}1 crore.<ref name = "CBI raid IRS and Excise">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/CBI-raids-excise-officials-and-steel-majors/articleshow/8032058.cms|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103084140/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-04-20/nagpur/29450295_1_business-auxiliary-services-service-tax-excise-officials|url-status=live|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=CBI raids excise officials and steel majors|date=20 April 2011|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=5 June 2011}}</ref> Also CBI raided premises of an income tax officer for demanding bribe to the tune of {{INR}}60 crore for covering up Stock Guru scam.<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/stock-guru-scam-it-officer-raided-for--rs-60cr-bribe-/1059472/ Stock Guru scam: IT officer raided for ‘Rs 60-cr bribe’]. Indian Express (2013-01-15). Retrieved on 2013-07-19.</ref>

===Staff shortages===
As of 2013, the IRS has a significant shortfall in employees. Since liberalization era in 1990's emphasis on governmental cost cutting has been the norm and the department has been facing shortages in officer and staff cadre. Approximately more than half of the junior officers and staff positions were lying vacant. It was hoped that computerization would reduce the dependence on staff during the 2001 restructuring of the department after the desk officer system. Subsequently, unscientific promotion policies owing to pressure tactics<ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/surat/Bank-I-T-LIC-staff-on-strike-from-today/articleshow/18585291.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224015306/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-02-20/surat/37199262_1_lic-staff-public-sector-banks-bank-employees | url-status=live | archive-date=2013-02-24 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Bank, I-T, LIC staff on strike from today}}</ref> of the unions have resulted in the creation of a situation where staff without any proper experience or qualification are promoted to supervisory ranks seriously jeopardizing the efficiency and service delivery and leaving huge vacancies at the investigation and assessment charges. There have been many instances where drivers have been promoted to the rank of Inspector of income tax which is a bedrock of the investigation mechanism for detecting tax evasion without proper screening. While this indicates a democratic scenario where every competent worker can aspire to rise up in the hierarchy but no safeguards have been put in place to ensure merit of the promoted candidates. According to the [[The Economic Times|''Economic Times'']], severe shortages may be negatively impacting the government's ability to scrutinise returns and catch instances of [[black money]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110823104126/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-07-16/news/29781751_1_income-tax-direct-taxes-taxes-collection-target Income tax staff crunch may help you escape scrutiny - Economic Times]. Articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com (2011-07-16). Retrieved on 2013-07-19.</ref>

===Murder of many officers===
Even though IRS officers have to deal with sensitive posting in their career they are not provided adequate security. Many IRS officers in the departments of customs and income tax have been assassinated in the course of their investigations.<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/babloo-gets-life-term-for-customs-officer-s-death/367951/ Babloo gets life term for Customs officer’s death]. Indian Express (2008-10-01). Retrieved on 2013-07-19.</ref>

==Recent initiatives==
Many new initiatives were taken by the Indian Revenue Service members to curb corruption in their respective departments and make the system more efficient and responsive to the needs of the tax payers. Use of technology widely reduced scope for the abuse of power.
Refund Banker scheme introduced in 2007 eliminated the scope for corruption in the refunds of excessive tax collected by the Department.<ref>{{cite web|author=Business Standard |url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/refund-banker-scheme-for-taxpayers-extended-to-9-more-cities/76245/on |title=Refund Banker Scheme for taxpayers extended to 9 more cities |publisher=Business-standard.com |date=2009-10-19 |access-date=27 October 2012}}</ref> Introduction of e-filing of taxes and effective implementation of [[Permanent account number|Permanent Account Number]] (PAN) are some steps that reduced the scope for corruption at all levels while improving the efficiency of the whole system. Use of Centralised Processing Center setup in 2010 at Bangalore of the [[Income Tax Department]] (ITD) reduced unnecessary delays in processing returns.<ref name="taxfinanceinfo">{{cite web |title=taxfinanceinfo.com |url=http://www.taxfinanceinfo.com/2013/11/income-tax-efiling-return.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202171906/http://www.taxfinanceinfo.com/2013/11/income-tax-efiling-return.html |archive-date=2 December 2013 |access-date=1 November 2018 |website=taxfinanceinfo.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/06/20/stories/2011062057720700.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623034418/http://www.hindu.com/2011/06/20/stories/2011062057720700.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=23 June 2011 | location=Chennai, India | work=[[The Hindu]] | title=Bangalore centre speeds up processing of I-T returns | date=20 June 2011}}</ref> These computerization initiatives have freed up the human resources in the department which are largely responsible for higher revenue collections.

Income Tax Ombudsmen has been created in 2006 and is functional at 12 cities to look into tax related grievances of the public.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.incometaxindiapr.gov.in/incometaxindiacr/listContent.jsp?p=OMBUDSMAN.html |title=Income Tax India PR website |publisher=Incometaxindiapr.gov.in |access-date=27 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531142825/http://www.incometaxindiapr.gov.in/incometaxindiacr/listContent.jsp?p=OMBUDSMAN.html |archive-date=31 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Department is also gearing to improve its tax payer's services with [[Sevottam]] scheme. Under this scheme various initiatives such as [[Citizen's Charter and Grievance Redressal Bill, 2011|Citizen Charter]], Ayakar Seva Kendra (ASK) which is a single window mechanism for implementing Sevottam through delivery of these services within the time lines promised in the Citizen's Charter were launched.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report_aayakar-seva-kendra-to-make-i-t-filing-easy_1642924 |title=Aayakar Seva Kendra to make I-T filing easy - Bangalore - DNA |publisher=Dnaindia.com |date=2012-01-28 |access-date=27 October 2012}}</ref> Aaykar Sampark Kendra consists of one National Call Centre and 4 regional call centres to aid the taxpayer were inaugurated by the [[Minister of Finance (India)|Finance Minister]].<ref name="irsofficersonline">{{cite web|url=http://www.irsofficersonline.gov.in/Documents/OfficalCommunique/14162012111238.pdf|date=15 April 2012|title=AAYAKAR SAMPARK KENDRA|access-date=1 November 2018|archive-date=24 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424233148/http://www.irsofficersonline.gov.in/Documents/OfficalCommunique/14162012111238.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

IRS officers handling sensitive postings are issued a [[Glock]] [[Glock#@ S&W|Model 22 pistol]] or a Glock 23 in [[.40 S&W]] caliber.<ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/customs-wants-to-sell-confiscated-weapons-to-its-own-officers/1000894/ Customs wants to sell confiscated weapons to its own officers]. Indian Express (2012-09-11). Retrieved on 2013-07-19.</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Civil Services of India]]
* [[All India Service]]
* [[Corruption in India]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|1}}

==Further reading==
* ''Indian bureaucracy at the crossroads'', by Syamal Kumar Ray. Published by Sterling, 1979.
* ''Corruption in Indian politics and bureaucracy'', by Satyavan Bhatnagar, S. K. Sharma, Panjab University. Published by Ess Ess Publications, 1991. {{ISBN|81-7000-123-4}}.
* ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140808051603/http://www.finmin.nic.in/the_ministry/dept_revenue/tarc_report.asp Report of the Tax Administration Reforms Commission]''

==External links==
* [http://www.irsofficersonline.gov.in/ Official Website of Indian Revenue Service]
* [http://www.nacen.gov.in/index.asp Training Academy for Member of Indian Revenue Service - Customs and Central Excise]

{{Public Services of India}}
{{Civil service}}
{{Law enforcement in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Revenue Service}}
[[Category:Central Civil Services (India)]]
[[Category:Taxation in India]]
[[Category:Revenue services|India]]
[[Category:Ministry of Finance (India)]]
[[Category:Indian Customs Service officers| ]]
[[Category:Indian Revenue Service officers| ]]
[[Category:1919 establishments in British India]]
[[Category:Indian organisations established in 1953]]

Rajinder Nagar Assembly constituency

2026-04-25T05:59:55Z

Davidmam: creating new entry.

{{Short description|Constituency of the Delhi legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = [[Rajinder Nagar]]
| mla = [[Umang Bajaj]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
| state = [[Delhi]]
| district = [[New Delhi]]
| loksabha_cons = [[New Delhi (Lok Sabha constituency)|New Delhi]]
| electors = 1,77,867
| type = SLA
| reservation = None
| constituency_no = 39
}}
'''Rajinder Nagar Assembly constituency''' is one of the seventy [[Delhi Legislative Assembly|Delhi assembly]] constituencies of [[Delhi]] and includes the neighborhood of [[Rajendra Nagar, Delhi]]. Rajinder Nagar assembly constituency is a part of [[New Delhi (Lok Sabha constituency)]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi Assembly Election 2020 - State Wise and Party Wise Results |url=https://www.elections.in/delhi/assembly-constituencies/rajendra-nagar.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
!colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1993 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
| rowspan="3" | Puran Chand Yogi
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1998 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|-
| [[2003 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
|-
| [[2008 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
| [[Ramakant Goswami]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2013 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
| [[R. P. Singh (politician)|R. P. Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
| [[Vijender Garg Vijay]]
| {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
| [[Raghav Chadha]]
|-
|2022^
| [[Durgesh Pathak]]
|-
|[[2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|[[Umang Bajaj]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}
^ by-poll

==Election results==
===2025===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2025 elections in India#Delhi|Delhi Assembly, 2025]]{{Broken anchor|date=2025-06-24|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=2025 elections in India#Delhi|reason=Anchor "2025 elections in India#Delhi" links to a specific web page: "2025 Delhi Legislative Assembly election". }}: [[Rajinder Nagar]]<ref name="Delhi Assembly Elections Results 2025 - Rajinder Nagar">{{cite news |title=Delhi Assembly Elections Results 2025 - Rajinder Nagar |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenFeb2025/candidateswise-U0539.htm |access-date=18 March 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=8 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250318091915/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenFeb2025/candidateswise-U0539.htm |archive-date=18 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Rajinder Nagar Constituency Election Results 2025">{{cite news |title=Rajinder Nagar Constituency Election Results 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/delhi/constituency-show/rajinder-nagar |access-date=18 March 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=8 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250318091922/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/delhi/constituency-show/rajinder-nagar |archive-date=18 March 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Umang Bajaj]]
|votes = 46,671
|percentage = 48.01
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = [[Durgesh Pathak]]
|votes = 45,440
|percentage = 46.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Vineet Yadav
|votes = 4,015
|percentage = 4.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = NOTA
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|votes = 571
|percentage = 0.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,231
|percentage = 1.27
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 97,211
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Aam Aadmi Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2022 by-election ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2022"/>{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 elections in India#Delhi|Delhi Assembly by-election, 2022]]: [[Rajinder Nagar]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Rajinder Nagar bypoll Results Highlights: AAP wins by 11,555 votes |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/delhi-rajinder-nagar-assembly-bypoll-results-live-updates-101656208121535.html |access-date=27 June 2022 |work=Hindustan Times |date=26 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2022 |title=Delhi by election result 2022|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcByeJune2022/ConstituencywiseU0539.htm?ac=39|website=Election Commission of India}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party=Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate=[[Durgesh Pathak]]
|votes= 40,319
|percentage= 55.76
|change= -1.30
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party=Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate=Rajesh Bhatia
|votes= 28,581
|percentage= 39.92
|change= +2.22
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party=Indian National Congress
|candidate=Prem Lata
|votes= 2,014
|percentage= 2.79
|change= -1.01
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party=None of the above
|candidate=None of the above
|votes= 546
|percentage= 0.76
|change=
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes= 11,555
|percentage= 15.84
|change= -3.52
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes= 71,892
|percentage= 43.75
|change= -14.75
}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = 1,77,867
|ref=
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Aam Aadmi Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing = -1.30
}}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2022"/>

=== 2020 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2020"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2020]]: [[Rajinder Nagar]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|party=Aam Aadmi Party|candidate=[[Raghav Chadha]]|votes=59,135|percentage=57.06|change=+3.67}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[R. P. Singh (politician)|R. P. Singh]]|votes=39,077|percentage=37.70|change=+1.76}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Rocky Tuseed|votes=4,041|percentage=4.60|change=-4.00}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=467|percentage=0.45|change=+0.04}}
{{Election box majority|votes=20,058|percentage=19.36|change=+1.91}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=1,03,675|percentage=58.50|change=-9.80}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = 1,77,867
|ref=
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Aam Aadmi Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing = +3.67
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2020"/>

=== 2015 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2015"/>
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2015]]: [[Rajinder Nagar]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Aam Aadmi Party|candidate=[[Vijender Garg Vijay]]|votes=61,354|percentage=53.39|change=+19.37}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[R. P. Singh (politician)|R. P. Singh]]|votes=41,303|percentage=35.94|change=+0.12}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Brahm Yadav|votes=8,971|percentage=7.80|change=-13.08}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Prem Singh|votes=1,467|percentage=1.27|change=-3.54}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=472|percentage=0.41|change=-0.14}}
{{Election box majority||votes=20,051|percentage=17.45|change=+15.65}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,14,981|percentage=62.99|change=}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum: }}
|ref=
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
| winner = Aam Aadmi Party
| loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing = +19.37
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2015"/>

=== 2013 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2013"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2013 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2013]]: [[Rajinder Nagar]]<ref>[http://eciresults.ap.nic.in/ConstituencywiseU0567.htm?ac=39 Assembly Elections December 2013 Results, Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = [[R. P. Singh (politician)|R. P. Singh]]
| votes = 35,713
| percentage = 35.82
| change = +2.54
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Aam Aadmi Party
| candidate = Vijender Garg Vijay
| votes = 33,917
| percentage = 34.02
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Rama Kant Goswami
| votes = 20,817
| percentage = 20.88
| change = -19.90
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Amanpreet Singh
| votes = 4,794
| percentage = 4.81
| change = -17.21
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Vinod Bhatt
| votes = 1,720
| percentage = 1.73
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Ram Kumar Tanwar
| votes = 406
| percentage = 0.41
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Dal (United)
| candidate = Vinod Kumar Shrivastava
| votes = 358
| percentage = 0.36
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Vijay Gupta
| votes = 264
| percentage = 0.26
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Socialist Party (India)
| candidate = Md Shoaib
| votes = 201
| percentage = 0.20
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Republican Party of India Ektavadi
| candidate = Sadhna
| votes = 160
| percentage = 0.16
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam
| candidate = P D Thanappan
| votes = 152
| percentage = 0.15
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Atulya Bharat Party
| candidate = Swadesh Ohri
| votes = 149
| percentage = 0.15
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Naya Daur Party
| candidate = Ajay Kumar Kalia
| votes = 142
| percentage = 0.14
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Poorvanchal Rashtriya Congress
| candidate = Rajani Chauhan
| votes = 134
| percentage = 0.13
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Rashtravadi Janata Party
| candidate = Sanno
| votes = 123
| percentage = 0.12
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Neelam Mahajan
| votes = 103
| percentage = 0.10
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = None of the above
| candidate = None
| votes = 552
| percentage = 0.55
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 1,796
| percentage = 1.80
| change = -5.70
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 99,817
| percentage = 60.54
| change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| loser = Indian National Congress
| swing = +2.54
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2013"/>

=== 2008 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2008"/> <section end="Assembly Election 2008"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2008 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2008]]: Rajinder Nagar <ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2008/stats_DL_2008.pdf 2008 Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Rama Kant Goswami
| votes = 29,394
| percentage = 40.78
| change = +0.63
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Asha Yogi
| votes = 23,988
| percentage = 33.28
| change = -8.56
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Amanpreet Singh
| votes = 15,871
| percentage = 22.02
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Nationalist Congress Party
| candidate = Bhagwan Das
| votes = 1,344
| percentage = 1.86
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Sanjay Sherawat
| votes = 540
| percentage = 0.75
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Rashtriya Swabhimaan Party
| candidate = Chhote Lal
| votes = 261
| percentage = 0.36
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Mahender Ram
| votes = 215
| percentage = 0.30
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian Democratic Party
| candidate = Sanjeev Kumar
| votes = 130
| percentage = 0.18
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Samajwadi Party
| candidate = Sanjay Kumar
| votes = 123
| percentage = 0.17
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = August Dagar
| votes = 91
| percentage = 0.13
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Jammu & Kashmir National Panthers Party
| candidate = Bhoj Kumar
| votes = 68
| percentage = 0.09
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha
| candidate = Jitender Singh
| votes = 52
| percentage = 0.07
| change = -0.13
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 5,406
| percentage = 7.50
| change = +5.81
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 72,077
| percentage = 52.2
| change = +1.56
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
| loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing = +0.63
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2003===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2003 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 2003]]: Rajinder Nagar<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_NOV_2003/StatisticalReports_DEL_Nov2003.pdf 2003 Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Puran Chand Tyagi
| votes = 22,069
| percentage = 41.84
| change = +4.21
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Raj Kumar Kohli
| votes = 21,178
| percentage = 40.15
| change = +18.46
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Trilok Chand Sharma
| votes = 8,514
| percentage = 16.14
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = P L Premi
| votes = 365
| percentage = 0.69
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian Justice Party
| candidate = Usha Singh
| votes = 314
| percentage = 0.60
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Dal (United)
| candidate = Promila Sharma
| votes = 197
| percentage = 0.37
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha
| candidate = Pawan Kumar Gupta
| votes = 106
| percentage = 0.20
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 891
| percentage = 1.69
| change = -0.77
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 52,743
| percentage = 50.64
| change = +5.65
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing = +4.21
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1998===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1998 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 1998]]: Rajinder Nagar<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-DEL98.pdf 1998 Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Puran Chand Tyagi
| votes = 21,150
| percentage = 37.63
| change = -10.12
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = [[Brahm Yadav]]
| votes = 19,767
| percentage = 35.17
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Ram Ashish Singh
| votes = 12,189
| percentage = 21.69
| change = -22.83
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Dal
| candidate = B K Prasad
| votes = 1,037
| percentage = 1.84
| change = -3.20
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Shyam Sunder
| votes = 651
| percentage = 1.16
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Om Prakash Mehra
| votes = 623
| percentage = 1.11
| change = -0.83
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Shiv Sena
| candidate = Arun Kumar
| votes = 542
| percentage = 0.96
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Samajwadi Party
| candidate = Mani Ram Yadav
| votes = 81
| percentage = 0.14
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Rajpal
| votes = 47
| percentage = 0.08
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Party
| candidate = K Ravindran
| votes = 43
| percentage = 0.08
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Kailash Chand
| votes = 31
| percentage = 0.06
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Sudama Singh
| votes = 25
| percentage = 0.04
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Anil Kumar Diwan
| votes = 22
| percentage = 0.04
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 1,383
| percentage = 2.46
| change = -0.77
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 56,208
| percentage = 44.99
| change = -20.07
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing = -10.12
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1993===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1993 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|Delhi Assembly elections, 1993]]: Rajinder Nagar<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/StatRep_DL_93.pdf 1993 Election Commission of India]</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
| party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| candidate = Puran Chand Yogi
| votes = 23,847
| percentage = 47.75
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = Brahm Yadav
| votes = 22,234
| percentage = 44.52
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Janata Dal
| candidate = Ram Ashish
| votes = 2,519
| percentage = 5.04
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Bahujan Samaj Party
| candidate = Vijay Kumar
| votes = 971
| percentage = 1.94
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Lok Dal
| candidate = Surinder Singh
| votes = 101
| percentage = 0.20
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Puran Chand
| votes = 79
| percentage = 0.16
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Rajesh
| votes = 79
| percentage = 0.16
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Narinder Singh
| votes = 45
| percentage = 0.09
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Ramesh
| votes = 37
| percentage = 0.07
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Independent (politician)
| candidate = Bhagwan Dass
| votes = 31
| percentage = 0.06
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 1,613
| percentage = 3.23
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 49,943
| percentage = 65.06
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of New Delhi}}
{{coords|28.639|77.181|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Delhi]]
[[Category:Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Politics of Delhi]]
[[Category:New Delhi district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1993]]
[[Category:1993 establishments in Delhi]]

Naushehra Pannuan

2026-04-23T12:10:22Z

Davidmam: started a post

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2014}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Naushehra Pannuan PB46 car bazaar
| native_name PB46 car bazaar

=
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline = NaushehraPannuan.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Punjab#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Punjab, India
| coordinates = {{coord|31.3399|N|74.9537|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Tarn Taran
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = Republic
| governing_body = Government of Punjab
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 218
| population_total = 13936
| population_as_of = 2016
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 143409
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 91 1852
| registration_plate = PB46
| website = {{URL|www.tarntarancity.com}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Naushehra Pannuan''' is a large village located in the [[Tarn Taran district]] in the [[India]]n State of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. The village is believed to be the largest village of the [[Pannu]] [[Jat people|Jatt]] [[Sikh]] clan. Naushehra holds a prominent position in Punjab state politics with a number of state politicians vying for candidacy in the [[Naushera, Punjab|Naushehra]] Constituency each year.

The village experienced violence during the [[Insurgency in Punjab, India|military conflict]] between the [[Government of India|Indian Government]] and [[Khalistan movement|Khalistani separatist groups]] in the 1980s.

==Demographics==
As of the [[2011 Census of India|2011 Census]], the population of the village was 7,785, with 4,096 males and 3,689 females.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/(S(zuxuw5eodpnr0tva1auo4i55))/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=33213|title=Total Number of HouseHold : 569|website=Censusindia.gov.in|accessdate=18 February 2019}}</ref> The census also reported that the village has 4,943 [[Literacy|literate]] and 2,842 illiterate persons.

== History ==
=== Origin ===
According to a local legend, the [[Pannu]] [[Jat people|Jatt]] clan which established Naushehra Pannuan had originally lived near the village of Lachmann Maari in [[Batala]]. One morning, a woman belonging to this clan was harassed by a Muslim [[Chaudhry]] (hereditary landholder) who she killed with a stick. As a result, the clan had to leave that area and settle in the village of Jaura near Tarn Taran. One of the elders of the village became a disciple of Lord Nashriya Shah, who asked the clan to establish a new village, and they founded Naushehra at its current location. The village is named after the Lord Nashriya Shah. The ruins of his tomb and the adjoining mosque are in the northeastern section of the village in Desuwal Patti.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

An alternative legend tells that the village was constructed by Baba Rassal under the spiritual guidance of Baba Mange Shah, the village's other patron. The legend states that Mange Shah blessed Baba Rassal with a 50 [[Paisa|paise]] coin that would double each day. Baba Rassal used this money to construct the town and its mud-brick fortifications including the [[Town wall|village walls]] and [[Town gate|gates]] around the village. In return for his patronage and blessings, Baba Mange Shah asked Baba Rassal not to reveal the source of this money to anyone. However, Baba Rassal was increasingly pressed by his wife and revealed the source of the wealth. As a result, the money stopped doubling and work stopped abruptly. It is believed that this is the reason why the village fortifications appear unfinished. According to this legend, Baba Rassal had six sons, to whom he bequeathed six different ''pattis'' or sections of the village. Desuwal Patti is one of these original ''pattis''.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

=== 17th–18th Century ===
The 10th Sikh Guru, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] Ji, regularly communicated with the ''sangat'' ({{langx|en|fellowship of believers}}) at Naushehra Pannuan through a set of [[Hukamnama]] (orders given in the form of hymns). Four of these formal orders were issued between 1699 and 1702 and are preserved at the local Baba Dhanna [[Gurdwara|Gurudwara]], a major place of [[Sikh]] worship. During this period, Baba Dhanna (from Naushehra Pannuan) served as the gardener of Sri Guru Gobind Singh Ji, the latter giving his ''[[Kanga (Sikhism)|kanga]]'' ({{langx|en|comb}}) and ''[[dastaar]]'' (turban) to Baba Dhanna.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}

Hukamnama from Sri Gobind Singh Ji, to the Sangat at Naushehra: (translated) "To Naushehra Pannauan of Amritsar. Come to Diwali with the offerings for the Guru. Give to no one else. Send tola of gold by draft. Contributors will be blessed. Oct 5th, 1699"{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}{{relevance-inline|date=September 2018}}

People from Naushehra Pannuan played a major role in the rise of [[Sikh]] power during the [[Sikh Empire|Sikh Misl period, 1760–1790]]. People from Naushehra Pannuan were part of the [[Singh Krora Misl]] headed by [[Baghel Singh]] which [[Battle of Delhi (1783)|conquered Delhi]] in 1783.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}

=== 19th Century ===
The first reference to Naushehra Pannuan in a book can be found in Buta Singh's ''Geographical description of Punjab'' written in the 1840s. In the book, he reports that Naushehra had "700 homes and 50 shops". He also mentioned that the land was owned by Pannu Jatts.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

The first modern public-development project in Naushehra Pannuan was a local canal extension to the [[Upper Bari Doab Canal|Upper Bari Doab]] irrigation network implemented by the [[British Raj]] in 1859.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} The villagers helped excavate this canal, and it has irrigated the local farmland since its construction.

The [[1890 flu pandemic]] greatly affected Naushehra, killing a large percentage of its population.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} As a result of large-scale deaths, the villagers decided to abandon the original town centre, which they believed was riddled with rats, and relocated to outer areas of the village. The citizens of Naushehra moved to the new patti of [[Jagpur]]. Similarly, the villagers of nearby sub-village of Chaudriwala decided to move from the original town centre to the current location of Chaudriwala.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

[[File:NP hospital.JPG|thumb|Hospital at Naushehra Pannuan]]
[[File:NP blockoffice.JPG|thumb|Block Development office at Naushehra Pannuan]]

=== 20th Century ===
==== Pre-independence ====
Development of Naushehra Pannuan continued with the construction of a primary and middle school in 1938. Their ruins can be seen in the north section of the village from [[National Highway 15 (India)|National Highway 15]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} The post office located in the old bazaar was built during the British rule.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

==== Independence and Partition of India ====
During the [[Partition of India]] in 1947, a large number of Naushehra Pannuan Muslim residents left their homes in the [[bazaar]] to move to [[Pakistan]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} These homes were taken over by the remaining villagers. One prominent Muslim's home was known to be near the village pond. The bricks and earthworks from this home were used to build a bridge that connects Naushehra and Chaudriwaal.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} Independence brought new institutions such as [[Gram panchayat|Gram Panchayat]] and Block-based administration.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} As a result of these new institutions, a steady stream of new developments rolled out.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} First was the previously mentioned bridge in 1956. This was the same year that senior secondary education came to Naushehra in the form of a senior secondary high school. The local Block development office was built in 1961, and was instrumental in rural development around Naushehra Pannuan.

==== 1980s ====
{{See also|Khalistan movement}}
During the [[Insurgency in Punjab, India|turmoil of the 1980s]], as a village located in the rural [[Majha]] region, Naushehra Pannuan suffered due to conflict. The village was a battleground between government and militant forces{{Which|date=April 2018}} for much of the late 1980s. Several [[Drive-by shooting|drive-by shootings]] occurred during this period. One such shooting in 1983 resulted in the deaths of three Hindus.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}} As a result, a number of Hindu families felt a threat to their lives and moved from the village. Some Hindu families were defiant in the face of adversity and resolved to stay in the village. A number of Sikh families chose to leave India to escape the troubles.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

==Gurudwaras, temples and shrines==
[[File:NP gangwala.JPG|thumb|Gangwala Gurudwara]]
[[File:NP thakurdwara.JPG|thumb|Thakurdwara at Naushehra Pannuan]]
[[File:NP samadh.JPG|thumb|Mange Shah Samadh]]
The village features centres of worship for various different religions and belief systems. A major Sikh place of worship is the prominent Baba Dhanna [[Gurdwara|Gurudwara]] on the National Highway 15. This gurudwara is dedicated to Baba Dhanna who was the gardener of the Sri Guru Gobind Singh Ji, and preserves the latter's letters to the village. The gurudwara was reconstructed in the late 1980s. Other Sikh places of worship include Jaggu ki Patti Gurudwara and Gang wala Gurudwara.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

Thakurdwara is a major Hindu temple near the village bazaar. The two patron saints/peers of the village have their shrines in the Desuwaal region. Baba Mange shah Samadh received patronage and popularity over the last 30 years and have since been rebuilt and reconstructed. The site is used for a major religious festival in the honor of Baba Mange Shah, who is considered the founder-saint of the village.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

==Education==
[[File:NP bvn.JPG|thumb|BVN School]]
[[File:NP elementaryschool.JPG|thumb|Sarkari Elementary School]]
The village features many schools at a primary and senior secondary level, which are affiliated with the [[Punjab School Education Board]] and the [[Central Board of Secondary Education]]. Here is the list of major schools in the village:
* Government Senior Secondary School
* National Public School, G.T. Road
* B.V.N Model School
* Government Primary School
* Oxford Public School

==Rivalry and animosity with Sarhali==
Until late in the 20th century, the villages of [[Sarhali, Tarn Taran|Sarhali]] and Naushehra Pannuan were known for their intense rivalry. Marriages between residents of the villages were taboo.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

According to a local legend, Baba Rassal chose two suiters from Sarhali for marriage with his daughters. Two of his sons accompanied the brides to Sarhali to deliver them safely on their wedding day. The two brothers were invited on a hunting trip by the grooms, during which a fight broke out and the brothers were murdered by the Sarhali grooms. The daughters of Baba Rassal were given the heads of their brothers to take back to their home village, where Baba Rassal and Naushehra sought retribution. They lured the Sarhali villagers with the pretext of reconciliation through another marital alliance, and when the ''[[baraat]]'' ({{langx|en|groom's wedding procession}}) arrived the Naushehra villagers murdered them. This was followed by a series of revenge massacres. It is believed that the villagers maintain a watch for approaching mobs from the rival village.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

It is said that the watchtower of Naushehra Pannuan was near the neighbouring town of Kheda.{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Naushehra Pannuan Bazaar.JPG|Naushehra Pannuan Bazaar
File:NP oldbazaar.JPG|Old Bazaar in Naushehra
</gallery>

==Notable people==
* [[Balbir Singh Pannu ]] (Ex- Sr Vice President SGPC )
* [[Sartaj Singh Pannu]], Film producer and director
* [[Lieutenant colonel|Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Kulwant Singh Pannu]], [[Indian Army]] officer who fought in the 1971 [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971|Indo-Pakistan War]]
* [[Gurpreet Singh (sport shooter)|Gurpreet Singh]], Sport shooter, [[2010 Commonwealth Games|Commonwealth Games 2010]], currently serving in the Indian Army.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PcUK6rxnNyE|title=Naushehra Pannuan|date=22 March 2013|accessdate=18 February 2019|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}

{{Tarn Taran district}}

[[Category:Villages in Tarn Taran district]]

Nishant Sindhu

2026-04-22T15:00:20Z

Davidmam: creating new stub.

{{short description|Indian cricketer (born 2004)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Nishant Sindhu
| image =
| country =
| fullname =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|2004|4|9|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Rohtak]], [[Haryana]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| batting = Left-handed
| bowling = [[Slow left-arm orthodox]]
| role = [[All-rounder]]

| club1 = [[Haryana cricket team|Haryana]]
| year1 = 2022–present
| club2 = [[Chennai Super Kings]]
| year2 = 2023–2024
| club3 = [[Gujarat Titans]]
| year3 = 2025–present

| columns = 3
| column1 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches1 = 28
| runs1 = 1,708
| bat avg1 = 37.95
| 100s/50s1 = 6/5
| top score1 = 165
| deliveries1 = 3,079
| wickets1 = 63
| bowl avg1 = 26.98
| fivefor1 = 3
| tenfor1 = 1
| best bowling1 = 6/47
| catches/stumpings1 = 13/–

| column2 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches2 = 36
| runs2 = 755
| bat avg2 = 29.03
| 100s/50s2 = 0/4
| top score2 = 88
| deliveries2 = 1,448
| wickets2 = 40
| bowl avg2 = 27.82
| fivefor2 = 1
| tenfor2 = 0
| best bowling2 = 5/20
| catches/stumpings2 = 8/–

| column3 =[[Twenty20|T20]]
| matches3 = 26
| runs3 = 460
| bat avg3 = 24.21
| 100s/50s3 = 1/1
| top score3 = 100[[not out|*]]
| deliveries3 = 306
| wickets3 = 17
| bowl avg3 = 19.17
| fivefor3 = 0
| tenfor3 = 0
| best bowling3 = 3/15
| catches/stumpings3 = 10/–
| date = 25 March 2025
| source = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/nishant-sindhu-1292506 ESPNcricinfo]
|medaltemplates=
{{MedalSport|Men's [[cricket]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Under-19 Cricket World Cup|ICC U19 Cricket World Cup]]}}
{{Medal|W|[[2022 Under-19 Cricket World Cup|2022 West Indies]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Under-19 Men's Asia Cup|ACC U19 Asia Cup]]}}
{{Medal|W|[[2021 ACC Under-19 Asia Cup|2021 UAE]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ACC Emerging Teams Asia Cup|ACC Emerging Asia Cup]]}}
{{Medal|RU|[[2023 ACC Emerging Teams Asia Cup|2023 Sri Lanka]]}}
}}

'''Nishant Sindhu''' (born 9 April 2004) is an Indian [[cricket]]er who plays for [[Haryana cricket team|Haryana]] in domestic cricket.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1292506.html |title=Nishant Sindhu |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> In December 2022, he was bought by the [[Chennai Super Kings]] in the [[List of 2023 Indian Premier League personnel changes|auction]] for the [[2023 Indian Premier League]] tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iplt20.com/teams/chennai-super-kings/squad-details/5615 |title=Nishant Sindhu |work=IPL |access-date=31 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/ipl/ipl-auction/ipl-2023-auction-top-sold-unsold-players-list-live-streaming-updates/article66295402.ece |title=IPL Auction 2023: Full list of sold and unsold players |work=Sportstar |date=23 December 2022 |access-date=31 October 2024}}</ref>

==Career==
He made his [[first-class cricket|first-class]] debut against [[Tripura cricket team|Tripura]] in the [[2021–22 Ranji Trophy]] on 17 February 2022.<ref name="FC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1280419.html |title=Ranji Trophy, Group F: Haryana v Tripura at Palam, Delhi, February 17-20, 2022 |accessdate=31 October 2024 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his [[Twenty20 cricket|Twenty20]] debut against [[Services cricket team|Services]] on 11 October 2022 in the [[2022–23 Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy]].<ref name="T20">{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1332930.html |title=Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy, Group C: Haryana v Services at Mullanpur, October 11, 2022 |accessdate=31 October 2024 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> He made his [[List A cricket|List A]] debut against [[Kerala cricket team|Kerala]] on 12 November 2022 in the [[2022–23 Vijay Hazare Trophy]].<ref name="LA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1333065.html |title=Vijay Hazare Trophy, Group C: Haryana v Kerala at Bengaluru, November 12, 2022 |accessdate=31 October 2024 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>

Sindhu played for the [[India national under-19 cricket team]], including at the [[2022 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup]] and [[2021 ACC Under-19 Asia Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bcci.tv/articles/2021/news/158851/four-time-winners-india-announce-icc-u19-cricket-world-cup-2022-squad |title=Four-time winners India announce ICC U19 Cricket World Cup 2022 squad |work=Board of Control for Cricket in India |access-date=19 December 2021}}</ref>

In June 2023, he was named in North Zone squad for the [[2023 Duleep Trophy]].<ref>{{cite web |access-date=31 October 2024 |title=Squads for Duleep Trophy 2023-24 announced |url=https://www.bcci.tv/articles/2023/news/55556008/squads-for-duleep-trophy-2023-24-announced |website=BCCI}}</ref> He scored a 150 against North East Zone.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/duleep-trophy-avesh-khan-saurabh-kumar-star-for-central-nishant-sindhu-harshit-rana-hit-tons-1384899 |title=Avesh, Saurabh help Central Zone secure vital lead; North Zone in control after Sindhu, Harshit tons |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=31 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/duleep-trophy-nishant-sindhu-harshit-rana-centuries-bowlers-give-advantage-to-north/articleshow/101369128.cms |title=Duleep Trophy: Nishant Sindhu, Harshit Rana centuries, bowlers give advantage to North |work=Times of India |date=29 June 2023 |access-date=31 October 2024}}</ref> In July 2023, he was named in India A squad for the [[2023 ACC Emerging Teams Asia Cup]].<ref>{{cite web |access-date=31 October 2024 |title= India A squad for ACC Men's Emerging Teams Asia Cup 2023 announced|url=https://www.bcci.tv/articles/2023/news/55556012/india-a-squad-for-acc-men-s-emerging-teams-asia-cup-2023-announced?type=Latest |work=Board of Control for Cricket in India}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{ESPNcricinfo|id=1292506}}

{{Gujarat Titans squad}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sindhu, Nishant}}
[[Category:2004 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Haryana cricketers]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Haryana]]

{{India-cricket-bio-2000s-stub}}

Panna Lal

2026-04-20T07:06:14Z

Davidmam: creating info.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Panna Lal
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1921|1|20|df=y}}
| birth_place = Barhai-Ka-Purva, [[Faizabad]], [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], [[British Raj|British India]] {{smaller|(present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]], India)}}
| death_date =
| death_place =
| constituency = Faizabad District (North West)
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| term_start = 17 April 1952
| term_end = 4 April 1957
| prime_minister = [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
| predecessor = ''Constituency established''
| successor =
| constituency1 = [[Akbarpur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Akbarpur]]
| term_start1 = 5 April 1957
| term_end1 = 3 March 1967
| prime_minister1 = [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] [[Gulzarilal Nanda]] [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] [[Indira Gandhi]]
| predecessor1 = ''Constituency established''
| successor1 = [[Ramji Ram]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse = Putravati Devi
| children =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source = https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/910.htm
}}

'''Panna Lal''' was an Indian politician. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]], as a member of the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref name="India. Parliament. Lok Sabha 1962 p. ">{{cite book | author=India. Parliament. Lok Sabha | title=Parliament of India, Third Lok Sabha: Who's who 1962 | publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat | year=1962 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K6v7v6JijJAC | access-date=20 Mar 2023 | page=364}}</ref><ref name="India. Parliament. Lok Sabha 2003 p. ">{{cite book | author=India. Parliament. Lok Sabha | title=Indian Parliamentary Companion: Who's who of Members of Lok Sabha | publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat | year=2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLZVAAAAYAAJ | access-date=20 Mar 2023 | page=374}}</ref><ref name="Reed 1964 p. ">{{cite book | last=Reed | first=S. | title=The Times of India Directory and Year Book Including Who's who | publisher=Times of India Press | year=1964 | issn=0082-4445 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jD8jAQAAMAAJ | access-date=20 Mar 2023 | page=1249}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/910.htm Official biographical sketch in Lok Sabha website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lal, Panna}}
[[Category:India MPs 1962–1967]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{UttarPradesh-INC-politician-stub}}

Kalina Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:28:19Z

Davidmam: starting

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Kalina
| constituency_no = 175
| type = SLA
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| map_image = 175-Kalina.svg
| loksabha_cons = [[Mumbai North Central Lok Sabha constituency|Mumbai North Central]]
| district = [[Mumbai Suburban district|Mumbai Suburban]]
| established = 2008
| reservation = None
| mla = [[Sanjay Potnis]]
| party = {{Party index link|Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Maha Vikas Aghadi}}
| electors = 241,753
}}
'''Kalina Assembly constituency''' is one of the 288 [[Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha|Vidhan Sabha]] constituencies of [[Maharashtra]] state in western India.<ref name=ceo>{{cite web|url=http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php |title=District wise List of Assembly and Parliamentary Constituencies |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Maharashtra website |accessdate=8 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318055304/http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php |archivedate=18 March 2010 }}</ref>

==Overview==
Kalina (constituency number 175) is one of the 26 Vidhan Sabha constituencies located in the [[Mumbai Suburban district]].<ref name=ceo/> The number of electorates in 2009 was 257,576 (male 144,501, female 113,075).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://220.225.73.214/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf |title=General Elections to State Legislative Assembly 2009 |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Maharashtra website |accessdate=8 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110409033702/http://220.225.73.214/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf |archivedate= 9 April 2011 }}</ref>

Kalina is part of the [[Mumbai North Central (Lok Sabha constituency)|Mumbai North Central Lok Sabha constituency]] along with five other Vidhan Sabha segments, namely [[Vile Parle Assembly constituency|Vile Parle]], [[Chandivali Assembly constituency|Chandivali]], [[Kurla Assembly constituency|Kurla]], [[Vandre West Assembly constituency|Vandre West]] and [[Vandre East Assembly constituency|Vandre East]] in the [[Mumbai Suburban district]].<ref name=ceo/>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| colspan="4"|{{center|''Until 2008: See [[Santacruz (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Santacruz]]''}}
|-
| [[2009 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| [[Kripashankar Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Sanjay Potnis]]
| {{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
|-
| [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)}}" |
|[[Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)|Shiv Sena (UBT)]]
|}

==Election results==
===Assembly Election 2024===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Kalina<ref name="Kalina Constituency Election Results 2024">{{cite news |title=Kalina Constituency Election Results 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/maharashtra/constituency-show/kalina |accessdate=29 December 2024 |publisher=The Times of India |date=23 November 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241229080110/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/maharashtra/constituency-show/kalina |archivedate=29 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maharastra Assembly Election Results 2024 - Kalina">{{cite news |title=Maharastra Assembly Election Results 2024 - Kalina |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/candidateswise-S13175.htm |accessdate=29 December 2024 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=23 November 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241229080103/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/candidateswise-S13175.htm |archivedate=29 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Sanjay Potnis]] |party=Shiv Sena (UBT) |votes = 59,820 |percentage = 47.41% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Amarjeet Awadhnarayan Singh |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 54,812 |percentage = 43.44% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Balkrishna Alias Sandeep Shivaji Hutgi |party=Maharashtra Navnirman Sena |votes = 6,062 |percentage = 4.80% |change={{decrease}}14.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes = 1,667 |percentage = 1.32% |change={{decrease}}1.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Mohammad Luqman Siddiqui |party=Vanchit Bahujan Aaghadi |votes = 1,346 |percentage = 1.07% |change={{decrease}}1.51 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Gangurde Sushila Sunil |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,255 |percentage = 0.99% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,008 |percentage = 3.97% |change= {{decrease}}0.30 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 1,27,844 |percentage = 52.88% |change= {{increase}}3.56 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 1,26,177}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,41,753|ref = |change= {{increase}}1.72 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Shiv Sena (UBT) |loser = Shiv Sena |swing= {{increase}}9.93 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2019===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Kalina<ref name="election2019">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11699-maharashtra-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 2 February 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Sanjay Potnis]] |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 43,319 |percentage = 37.48% |change={{increase}}12.93 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=George Abraham |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 38,388 |percentage = 33.22% |change={{increase}}14.35 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Sanjay Ramchandra Turde |party=Maharashtra Navnirman Sena |votes = 22,405 |percentage = 19.39% |change={{increase}}10.03 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes = 3,012 |percentage = 2.61% |change={{increase}}1.19 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Manisha Sachin Jadhav |party=Vanchit Bahujan Aaghadi |votes = 2,979 |percentage = 2.58% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Mohammed Sufiyan Sayed |party=All India Majlis-E-Ittehadul Muslimeen |votes = 2,637 |percentage = 2.28% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Javed Mohammad Rafique Shaikh |party=Independent politician |votes = 1,496 |percentage = 1.29% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ismail Ibrahim Shaikh |party=Samajwadi Party |votes = 1,250 |percentage = 1.08% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,931 |percentage = 4.27% |change= {{increase}}3.23 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 1,18,592 |percentage = 49.90% |change= {{decrease}}0.81 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 1,15,569}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,37,655|ref = |change= {{decrease}}6.06 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Shiv Sena |loser = Shiv Sena |swing= {{increase}}12.93 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2014===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Kalina<ref name="election2014">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11699-maharashtra-legislative-assembly-election-2014/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 2 February 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Sanjay Potnis]] |party=Shiv Sena |votes = 30,715 |percentage = 24.56% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Singh Amarjeet Awadhnarayan |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 29,418 |percentage = 23.52% |change={{increase}}11.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=[[Kripashankar Singh]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 23,595 |percentage = 18.86% |change={{decrease}}24.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Kaptan Malik |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 18,144 |percentage = 14.51% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Chandrakant Genu More |party=Maharashtra Navnirman Sena |votes = 11,708 |percentage = 9.36% |change={{decrease}}23.30 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ajay Badgujar |party=Independent politician |votes = 4,365 |percentage = 3.49% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Adv. Vivian Gasper D Souza |party=Independent politician |votes = 2,108 |percentage = 1.69% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes = 1,766 |percentage = 1.41% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,297 |percentage = 1.04% |change= {{decrease}}9.99 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 1,26,873 |percentage = 50.15% |change= {{increase}}3.93 }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 1,25,079}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,52,994|ref = |change= {{decrease}}1.78 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Shiv Sena |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}19.12 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2009===
{{Election box begin|title = [[2009 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Kalina<ref>{{cite web|publisher= Chief Eletoral Officer, [[Maharashtra]]|title=General Elections to State Legislative Assembly 2009 |url=https://ceoelection.maharashtra.gov.in/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf|archive-url= http://web.archive.org/web/20240708005931/https://ceoelection.maharashtra.gov.in/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf|archive-date=8 July 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=[[Kripashankar Singh]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 51,205 |percentage = 43.68% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=More Chandrakant Genu |party=Maharashtra Navnirman Sena |votes = 38,284 |percentage = 32.66% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Adv. Dinanath Tiwari |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 13,994 |percentage = 11.94% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ashraf Azmi Aslam Azmi |party=Samajwadi Party |votes = 10,977 |percentage = 9.36% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=More Shravan Yamaji |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 1,228 |percentage = 1.05% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,921 |percentage = 11.02% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 1,17,228 |percentage = 45.51% |change= }}{{Election box total valid |votes= 1,17,227}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,57,576|ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Santa Cruz (Mumbai)#Kalina|Kalina]]
* [[List of constituencies of Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Mumbai Suburban district topics}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
{{coords|19.073|72.863|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Mumbai]]
[[Category:Politics of Mumbai Suburban district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Chetan Tupe

2026-04-19T02:39:41Z

Davidmam: added the info and citations

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Chetan Vitthal Tupe
| image =
| caption =
| office = Member of the [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2019
| term_end =
| constituency = [[Hadapsar Assembly constituency|Hadapsar]]
| predecessor = [[Yogesh Tilekar]]
| successor =
| birth_place =
| birth_date =
| spouse =
| party = [[Nationalist Congress Party]]
| alma_mater =
| profession = Politician
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Chetan Vitthal Tupe''' (born 1971) is an Indian politician from [[Maharashtra]]. He is a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly from [[Hadapsar Assembly constituency]] in [[Pune district]]. He won the [[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]], representing the [[Nationalist Congress Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hadapsar (Maharashtra) Assembly Election Results 2022: Candidate List, Winner, Runner-Up, Latest News and Updates, Videos , Photos |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/hadapsar-election-results-in-maharashtra/ |access-date=2024-10-12 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra Assembly election results 2024 {{!}} Who won in Pune?">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |first1=Sruthi |date=23 November 2024 |title=Maharashtra Assembly election results 2024 {{!}} Who won in Pune? |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/maharashtra-assembly/maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-who-won-in-pune/article68901246.ece |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124060803/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/maharashtra-assembly/maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-who-won-in-pune/article68901246.ece |archivedate=24 November 2024 |accessdate=12 December 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra Assembly elections: Trend of new MLA continues in Vadgaonsheri but discontinues in Hadapsar">{{cite news |title=Maharashtra Assembly elections: Trend of new MLA continues in Vadgaonsheri but discontinues in Hadapsar |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/maharashtra-assembly-elections-trend-of-new-mla-continues-in-vadgaonsheri-but-discontinues-in-hadapsar-9690104/ |access-date=4 January 2025 |publisher=The Indian Express |date=25 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250104122819/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/maharashtra-assembly-elections-trend-of-new-mla-continues-in-vadgaonsheri-but-discontinues-in-hadapsar-9690104/ |archive-date=4 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Tupe is from [[Hadapsar]], Pune district, Maharashtra. His father, [[Vitthal Tupe|Vitthal Baburao Tupe]], was a farmer and a well known politician. He completed Class 10 in 1986 at Nutan Marathi School, Pune, and dropped out of studies while doing plus two at F.Y.J.C. Laxmanrao Apte School, Pune, in 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chetan Vitthal Tupe(Nationalist Congress Party(NCP)):Constituency- HADAPSAR(PUNE) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/maharashtra2019/candidate.php?candidate_id=11038 |access-date=2024-10-12 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Tupe won from Hadaspar Assembly constituency, representing the Nationalist Congress Party in the 2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election. He polled 93,326 votes and defeated his nearest rival, [[Yogesh Tilekar]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], by a margin of 2,820 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hadapsar Assembly Election Results 2020 Live Updates, Hadapsar Assembly Election Latest News & Updates |url=https://news.abplive.com/maharashtra-election/hadapsar-assembly-election-result-2019-213.html |access-date=2024-10-12 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hadapsar Constituency Election Results 2019: Hadapsar Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/maharashtra/constituency-show/hadapsar |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> He retained the seat for the Nationalist Congress Party winning for a second term in the [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]]. In 2024, he polled 134,810 votes and defeated the second placed [[Prashant Jagtap]] of the [[Nationalist Congress Party – Sharadchandra Pawar|Nationalist Congress Party (SP)]], by a margin of 7,122 votes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-23 |title=Hadapsar election result 2024: NCP's Chetan Vitthal Tupe defeats NCP(SCP)'s Prashant Sudam Jagtap by over 7000 votes |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/hadapsar-election-result-2024-ncps-chetan-vitthal-tupe-leads-against-ncpscps-prashant-sudam-jagtap/articleshow/115598040.cms |access-date=2025-03-09 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hadapsar Election Result 2024 LIVE: Chetan Vitthal Tupe of NCP Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/hadapsar-election-result-2024-live-leading-winner-mla-9130160.html |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

In July 2024, he raised concerns about the destruction of Flamingo habitats in his constituency region due to urbanization, and in response, the forest minister announced the formation of a committee to protect [[Flamingo]] bird habitats.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-06 |title=Pune: Hadapsar MLA Highlights Flamingo Habitat Protection In Legislative Assembly - PUNE PULSE |url=https://www.mypunepulse.com/pune-hadapsar-mla-highlights-flamingo-habitat-protection-in-legislative-assembly/ |access-date=2024-10-25 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tupe, Chetan Vitthal}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Nationalist Congress Party politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:People from Pune district]]

Rajendra Sukhanand Patni

2026-04-11T20:36:14Z

Davidmam: creating article.

{{Short description|Indian politician (1964–2024)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Rajendra Patni
| native_name =
| image =
| caption =
| order =
| governor =
| office1 = Member of [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency1 = [[Karanja (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Karanja]]
| assembly1 = Maharashtra Legislative
| term1 = (2004–2009), (2014–2019), (2019–2024)
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 = *Babasaheb Dhabekar
*[[Prakash Dahake]]
| successor1 = *[[Sai Prakash Dahake]]
| office2 = Member of [[Maharashtra Legislative Council]]
| term_start2 = 1997
| term_end2 = 2003
| constituency2 = [[Maharashtra]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1964|06|19|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Karanja Lad]], [[Washim District]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| death_date = {{death date and age|2024|02|23|1964|06|19|df=y}}
| party = {{flagicon image|BJP flag.svg}}[[Bharatiya Janata Party]] {{small|(2014-2024)}}
| other_party = [[File:Logo of Shiv Sena.svg|20px]] [[Shiv Sena (1966–2022)|Shiv Sena]] {{small|(Before 2014)}}
| education = Graduate
B.Com From R.A. Arts & College Washim Nagpur in 1984 and SSC From Shree Bakliwal Vidyalay Washim Nagpur In 1979
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Business & Social Worker
| spouse = Babita Patni
| children = 2
| website =
| footnotes =
| death_place = [[Mumbai]]
}}

'''Rajendra Sukhanand Patni''' (19 June 1964 – 23 February 2024) was an Indian politician of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP). He was a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] from [[Karanja (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Karanja]] constituency from Washim District in [[Maharashtra]].<ref>[http://www.sarkaritel.com/states/maharashtra/mlas.htm Maharashtra Government] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505002310/http://www.sarkaritel.com/states/maharashtra/mlas.htm |date=5 May 2008 }}. Retrieved on 2008-09-30.</ref> He was also the member of legislative Council from 1997 to 2003. He won the 2004, 2014 and 2019 Legislative Assembly elections from Karanja. He also succeeded in making the President of the Municipal Council in 2011 and also in 2014.

Rajendra Sukhanand Patni died on 23 February 2024, in Mumbai at the age of 59.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2024-02-23 |title=Maharashtra BJP MLA Rajendra Patni passes away |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/maharashtra-bjp-mla-rajendra-patni-passes-away/articleshow/107932992.cms |access-date=2024-02-23 |work=[[The Times of India]] |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bose |first=Mrityunjay |title=Maharashtra BJP MLA Rajendra Patni dies of prolonged illness |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/maharashtra/maharashtra-bjp-mla-rajendra-patni-dies-of-prolonged-illness-2907150 |access-date=2024-02-24 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

== Within BJP ==
*President, [[Washim District]] [[BJP]], (since 2016)

==Legislative career==
*Elected to [[Maharashtra Legislative Council]] – 1997 to 2003 (1st Term)
*Elected to [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] – 2004 to 2009 (1st Term)
*Re-Elected to [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] – 2014 to 2019 (2nd Term) <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.elections.in/maharashtra/assembly-constituencies/karanja.html | title=Live Karanja (Maharastra) Assembly Election Results 2019 Updates, Winner, Runner-up Candidates 2019 Updates, Vidhan Sabha Current MLA and Previous MLAs }}</ref>
*Re-Elected to [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] – 2019 to 2024 (3rd Term)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patni, Rajendra Sukhanand}}
[[Category:1964 births]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:Shiv Sena politicians]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2004–2009]]
[[Category:People from Washim district]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2019–2024]]

R Muthukannammal

2026-04-03T17:08:03Z

Davidmam:

{{Short description|Indian dancer}}
'''R Muthukannammal''' (born 1937) is a seventh generation veteran [[Bharatanatyam#Etymology|Sadir]] dancer from the Indian State of [[Tamil Nadu]]. She is the only surviving person among the 32 [[Devadasi]]s who served the deity at the [[Viralimalai Murugan temple]] and she is the last woman to have the ceremony ''pottukkattutal'' of dedicating oneself to God performed at the Viralimalai temple.<ref name="Hindu">{{cite news |title=The story of a woman whose lifeblood is Sathir |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/dance/the-sound-of-sathir/article23302589.ece |website=The Hindu |date=20 March 2018 |access-date=26 March 2022 |last1=Kannadasan |first1=Akila }}</ref> In the year 2022, Govt of India honoured Muthukannammal by conferring the [[Padma Shri]] award for her contributions in the field of art.<ref name="PadmaShri2022"/> The dance form Sadir, variously called as Sadiraattam or Parathaiyar Aattam or Thevarattam, is a classical Indian dance from which was reinvented, modified and rechristened as [[Bharatanatyam]] through the efforts of [[E. Krishna Iyer|E Krishna Iyer]] in 1932. However, Muthukannammal has chosen to call her art form Sadir, making her the only Sadir exponent today.<ref name="Minute"/>

==Early life and education==

Muthukannammal was born in 1937 in [[Viralimalai]], 28 km from [[Trichy]] into a hereditary Isai [[Vellalar]] family of dancers and musicians. She is the daughter of Ramachandra Nattuvanaar (1890-1988) who himself was a much respected dancer, a competent dance teacher and the most popular and respected nattuvanar in Viralimalai.<ref name="Soneji">{{cite book |last1=Davesh Soneji |title=Unfinished Gestures: Devadasiss, Memory, and Modernity in South India |date=2012 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-76809-0 |page=174}}</ref> Since her family is a dancers' family, she had started dancing from the time she learned to walk. At the age of seven, she had ''pottukkattutal'' performed at [[Viralimalai Murugan temple]] and she had her ''arangetram'' (début on-stage performance). Later she was trained extensively in dancing by her father and grandmother.

Her family was closely associated with temple dance practices in the Viralimalai Murugan temple and other temples, and also with the [[Pudukkottai]] Palace. Her family was under the patronage of Pudukkottai kings. King [[Rajagopala Tondaiman]], the ninth and last ruler of the princely state of [[Pudukkottai]], had gifted agricultural lands to her family for their temple services. However, due to the strong ant-Devadasi movement then raging in [[Tamil Nadu]], especially in Viralimalai, there was a steep decline in interest among the general public and temple administrators in the ritualistic traditional performances of dance and music by Muthukannammal and members of her family. This resulted in the dwindling of a regular income and Muthukannammal and her family had go through severe hardships. Perhaps this forced her to embark on a new life with performances at weddings and other social functions.<ref name="Soneji"/>

==Recognition: Padma Shri==

*In the year 2022, Govt of India conferred the [[Padma Shri]] award, the third highest award in the Padma series of awards, on R Muthukannammal for her distinguished service in the field of art.<ref name="PadmaShri2022">{{cite web |title=Padma Awards 2022 |url=https://www.padmaawards.gov.in/padmaawardees2022.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125143803/https://www.padmaawards.gov.in/padmaawardees2022.pdf |archive-date=2022-01-25 |url-status=live|website=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt of India |access-date=11 February 2022}}</ref> The award is in recognition of her service as a "Veteran 7th generation [[Bharatanatyam#Etymology|Sadir]] dancer from [[Viralimalai]], a custodian of the early tradition of [[Bharatanatyam]]."<ref name="PadmaShri2022Images">{{cite web |title=Padma Awards 2022 |url=https://www.padmaawards.gov.in/AwardeeTickets2022.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129172910/https://www.padmaawards.gov.in/AwardeeTickets2022.aspx |archive-date=2022-01-29 |url-status=live|website=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt of India |access-date=11 February 2022}}</ref>

==Other recognitions==
*"DakshinaChitra Virudhu", an annual award instituted by The Madras Craft Foundation and The Friends of DakshinaChitra to honour folk performing artists (2018)<ref name="Hindu"/>
*G Chandrasekharan, former principal of [[Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai]], made a sculpture of Muthukannamal in clay at his art school for the disabled in [[Tirunelveli]] in 2017.<ref name="TOI">{{cite news |title=Last of Trichy Sadhirs, Muthukannamal, to be feted |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/last-of-trichy-sadhirs-muthukannamal-to-be-feted/articleshow/63212769.cms |website=The Times of India |date=8 March 2018 |access-date=26 March 2022}}</ref>
*In the year 2019, [[Films Division of India]] released the biopic entitled "Devaradiyar in Sadhir: The Life and Art of Muthukannammal. Directed by S.Shanmuganathan"<ref name="Minute">{{cite web |last1=Nrithya Pillai |title=A Padma Shri for 84-yr-old dancer Muthukannammal: Long overdue but welcome |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/padma-shri-84-yr-old-dancer-muthukannammal-long-overdue-welcome-160278 |website=The News Minute |date=26 January 2022 |access-date=26 March 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Padma Shri award recipients (2020–2029)#Padma Shri Award recipients in the year 2022|Padma Shri Award recipients in the year 2022]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

==Additional reading==
*Chapter 4 titled "Historical Traces and Unfinished Subjectivity: Remembering Devadasi Dance at Viralimalai" in the book ''Unfinished Gestures: Devadasis, Memory, and Modernity in South India'' by Davesh Soneji published by The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, in 2012 (pages 161-188).
*{{cite web |last1=Margot Cohen |title=Pride and prejudice: Sadir has stirred scholarly debate in India and abroad, can the dance form finally get its mojo back? |url=https://www.firstpost.com/living/pride-and-prejudice-sadir-has-stirred-scholarly-debate-in-india-and-abroad-can-the-dance-form-finally-get-its-mojo-back-4948271.html |website=The Firstpost |date=13 August 2018 |access-date=28 March 2022}}
*{{cite journal |last1=R Ilangovan |title=Seeing beyond Sadir |journal=Frontline |date=27 December 2013 |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/social-issues/seeing-beyond-sadir/article5444032.ece |access-date=28 March 2022}}
*{{cite web |title=From Sadir Attam to Bharatanatyam |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/stories/sadir-attam-bharatanatyam |website=Indian Culture |publisher=Govt of India |access-date=28 March 2022}}

==External links==
*{{YouTube|id=5pez6WzhSXQ| Devaradiyaar in Sadir - The Life and Art of Muthukannammal a biopic by [[Films Division of India]]}} Directed by S.Shanmuganathan

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Art}}

[[Category:Indian female classical dancers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts]]
[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian courtesans]]

{{morecat|date=May 2024}}

Khalapur taluka

2026-03-23T14:09:29Z

Davidmam: stub

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}

{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Khalapur taluka
| settlement_type = [[Taluka]]
| pushpin_map = Maharashtra#India
| map_caption = Location of Khalapur in [[Raigad district|Raigad]]
| coordinates = {{coord|18.830|N|73.284|E|display=inline,title}}
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in the [[Maharashtra]] state of [[India]]
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and Territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of India|Division]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Konkan Division|Konkan]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Raigad district|Raigad]]
| established_title =
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[khopoli]]
| parts_type = [[Administrative divisions of India|Major villages]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 =
| governing_body = Panchayat Samiti Khalapur District Raigad
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = '''Ms. Kanchan Parange'''
| leader_title1 = Tehsildar
| leader_name1 = '''Ayub Tamboli'''
| leader_title2 = [[Maval (Lok Sabha constituency)|MP]]
| leader_name2 = '''[[Shrirang Barne]]''' {{small|([[Maval (Lok Sabha constituency)|Maval Constituency]])}}
| leader_title3 = [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]]
| leader_name3 = '''[[Mahendra Thorve]]''' {{small|([[Karjat (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Karjat constituency]])}}
| population_demonym = Khalapurkar
| demographics_type1 = Language
| demographics1_title1 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 410201
| area_code = 02148
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = MH-46, MH-06
| population_total = 207,464
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_urban =
| population_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 1503.61
| population_density_km2 = auto
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Khalapur taluka''' is a [[subdistrict]]/[[upazila]]/[[tehsil]] in [[Raigad district]] of [[Maharashtra]].<ref name ="Yatra2yatra">{{cite book|title=Yatra 2 Yatra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWqPwWpkhg0C&pg=PA227|year=2009|publisher=Yatra2Yatra|pages=227–|id=GGKEY:LTN9ZD2D2Y0}}</ref><ref name="Vohra1996">{{cite book|author=Gautam Vohra|title=Tribals, development & environment: adapting to a changing scenario|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4MeAAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Har-Anand Publications}}</ref> The headquarters of the taluka is [[Khalapur]] village.<ref name="Dept1966">{{cite book|author=Maharashtra (India). Buildings and Communications Dept|title=Maharashtra Motor Guide, 1965|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VFnWAAAAMAAJ|year=1966|publisher=Printed at the Government Central Press}}</ref> This taluka belongs to the Karjat sub-division, and comprises 130 villages, 5 revenue circles and 25 sajas.<ref name="CollectorRaigad-20150811">{{cite web|url=http://raigad.nic.in/htmldocs/sub_division1.htm|title=Details of Sub-Divisions, Tahasils, Villages, Circles and Sazzas in Raigad district|publisher=Collector's office, Raigad district|access-date=11 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614080045/http://raigad.nic.in/htmldocs/sub_division1.htm|archive-date=14 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> 56 villages of this taluka come under [[Navi Mumbai Airport Influence Notified Area|NAINA]].<ref name="GOM-20150812">{{cite web|url=http://www.cidco.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/NAINA_website_new.pdf|title=Navi Mumbai Airport Influence Notified Area|publisher=Government of Maharashtra|access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref> Khalapur toll naka is one of the busiest tolls in the state as it serves as an important transit point for goods from the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Port|Nhava Sheva port]] to automative and industrial belt of [[Pimpri-Chinchwad]].

==Raigad district==
As of August 2015, there are 8 sub-divisions, 15 talukas, 1970 villages, 60 revenue circles and 350 sazzas in Raigad district. The talukas being: [[Alibag taluka|Alibag]], [[Karjat taluka, Raigad|Karjat]], Khalapur, [[Mahad taluka|Mahad]], [[Mangaon taluka|Mangaon]], [[Mhasala taluka|Mhasala]], [[Murud taluka|Murud]], [[Panvel taluka|Panvel]], [[Pen taluka|Pen]], [[Poladpur taluka|Poladpur]], [[Roha taluka|Roha]], [[Shrivardhan taluka|Shrivardhan]], [[Sudhagad-Pali taluka|Sudhagad-Pali]], [[Tala taluka|Tala]] and [[Uran taluka|Uran]].<ref name="RaigadDistrictCollectorate-20150815">{{cite web|url=http://raigad.nic.in/htmldocs/sub_division1.htm|title=Details of Sub-Divisions, Tahasils, Villages, Circles and Sazzas in Raigad district|publisher=Raigad District Collectorate|access-date=15 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614080045/http://raigad.nic.in/htmldocs/sub_division1.htm|archive-date=14 June 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Demographics ==

{{bar box
|title=Religions in Khalapur taluk (2011)<ref name="Religion">{{Cite web|date=2011|title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: Maharashtra |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11382/download/14495/DDW27C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#FCD116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Maharashtra|Hinduism]]|darkorange|83.58}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Maharashtra|Islam]]|green|7.57}}
{{bar percent|[[Marathi Buddhists|Buddhism]]|mediumblue|6.86}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Maharashtra|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|0.66}}
{{bar percent|[[Jainism in Maharashtra|Jainism]]|pink|0.65}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.68}}
}}

Khalapur taluka has a population of 207,464 according to the 2011 census. Khalapur had a literacy rate of 82.27% and a sex ratio of 899 females per 1000 males. 24,369 (11.75%) are under 7 years of age. 95,964 (46.26%) lived in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 6.50% and 14.84% of the population respectively.<ref name="census2011">{{cite web |title=District Census Hand Book – Raigad |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/822/download/36165/DH_2011_2724_PART_A_DCHB_RAIGARH.pdf |website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
|thumb = left
|caption = Languages of Khalapur taluk (2011)<ref name="langs" />
|label1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]] |value1 = 76.52 |color1 = red
|label2 = [[Hindi]] |value2 = 11.44 |color2 = orange
|label3 = [[Urdu]] |value3 = 3.43 |color3 = green
|label4 = [[Kannada]] |value4 = 2.19 |color4 = darkslateblue
|label5 = 'Other' Marathi |value5 = 1.17 |color5 = tomato
|label6 = [[Marwari language|Marwari]] |value6 = 0.99 |color6 = maroon
|label7 = Gujarati |value7 = 0.90 |color7 = skyblue
|label8 = Others |value8 = 3.36 |color8 = grey
}}

At the time of the [[2011 Census of India]], 76.52% of the population in the district spoke [[Marathi language|Marathi]], 11.44% [[Hindi]], 3.43% [[Urdu]], 2.19% [[Kannada]], 0.99% [[Marwari language|Marwari]] and 0.90% [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] as their first language. 1.17% of the population spoke 'Others' under Marathi as their first language.<ref name="langs">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Maharashtra |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10212/download/13324/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2700.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==Industries in Khalapur taluka==
* [[Tata Power|Khopoli Power House]].<ref name="(India)1964">{{cite book|author=Maharashtra (India)|title=The Maharashtra Government Gazette|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7wPAQAAIAAJ|date=January 1964}}</ref>
* IOC
* Alta
* MUSCO

==Tourist attractions and pilgrimage centres==
* [[Adlabs Imagica]].<ref name="DNA-20140206">{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-adlabs-imagica-amusement-theme-park-fun-ride-leaves-4-injured-1959768|title=Adlabs Imagica amusement Theme park fun ride leaves 4 injured|date=2014-02-06|work=Daily News and Analysis|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref>
* [[Varadvinayak]] [[Ashtavinayak]] temple.<ref name="Yatra2yatra" />
* Ashram (math) of [[Gagangiri Maharaj]].<ref>{{cite web| title =Mahayogi Sri Sri Gagangiri Maharaj mahasamadhi | url =http://www.gagangiri.org/mahasamadhi.html| access-date =11 August 2015 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Raigad district topics}}

[[Category:Talukas in Maharashtra]]

Coconut

2026-03-22T20:30:25Z

Davidmam: brief expand information based on references and fixed typos to improve readability

{{Short description|Species of plant in the palm family}}
{{good article}}
{{About|the plant}}
{{redirect|Coconut tree|other uses|Coconut Tree (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
|fossil_range = {{Fossil range|55|0}}Early [[Eocene]] – Recent
|image = Cocos_nucifera_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-187.jpg
|image2 = Coconut 4.jpg
|display_parents = 4
|genus = Cocos
|parent_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|species = nucifera
|authority = L.
|synonyms =
* ''Coccus'' {{Au|Mill.}}
* ''Calappa'' {{Au|Steck}}
* ''Coccos'' {{Au|Gaertn.}}
|synonyms_ref =<ref name="WCSP">{{cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:666160-1 |title=''Cocos nucifera'' L. |year=2025 |work=[[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]] |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref>
|range_map = Cocos nucifera origin native range map.svg
|range_map_caption = Possible native range prior to [[crop domestication|domestication]]
}}

The '''coconut''' ('''''Cocos nucifera''''') is a member of the palm [[family (biology)|family]] ([[Arecaceae]]) and the only living [[species]] of the [[genus]] ''Cocos''.<ref name="WCSP"/> The term "coconut" (or the archaic "'''cocoanut'''")<ref name="COD">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Coconut |encyclopedia=[[Concise Oxford Dictionary]] |editor=Pearsall, J. |year=1999 |edition=10th |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |isbn=0-19-860287-1}}</ref> can denote the whole '''coconut palm''' [[tree]] or the large hard [[fruit]]. Originally native to [[Central Indo-Pacific]], they are ubiquitous in coastal tropical regions.

The coconut tree provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building materials. The inner flesh of the mature fruit forms a regular part of the diets of many people in the tropics and [[subtropics]]. Coconut [[endosperm]] contains a large quantity of a liquid, "[[coconut water]]". Mature coconuts can be processed for [[Coconut oil|oil]] and [[coconut milk]] from the flesh, [[charcoal]] from the hard shell, and [[coir]] from the fibrous [[husk]]. Dried coconut flesh is called [[copra]], and the oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking and in [[soap]]s and [[cosmetics]]. Sweet coconut sap can be made into drinks or fermented into [[palm wine]] or [[coconut vinegar]]. The hard shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate leaves are used to make a products for [[furnishing]] and decoration.

The coconut has cultural and religious significance for [[Austronesian peoples]], appearing in their mythologies, songs, and oral traditions. It has religious significance in [[South Asia]]n cultures, where it is used in [[Hindu]] [[ritual]]s including weddings and worship.

The species evolved in the central Indo-Pacific. It was [[crop domestication|domesticated]] by Austronesian peoples in [[Island Southeast Asia]] and spread during the [[Neolithic]] via their [[Austronesian expansion|seaborne migrations]] as far east as the [[Pacific Islands]], and as far west as [[Madagascar]]. The species played a critical role in their long sea voyages by providing a portable source of food and water, as well as building materials for [[outrigger boat]]s. Coconuts were spread much later along the coasts of the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] Oceans by [[South Asia]]n, [[Arab people|Arab]], and from the 16th century by European sailors. Based on these introductions, the species can be divided into Pacific and Indo-Atlantic types. The Indo-Atlantic type was introduced to the [[Americas]] during the [[European colonization of the Americas|colonial era]] in the [[Columbian exchange]], while Austronesian sailors appear to have introduced Pacific coconuts to [[Panama]] in [[pre-Columbian]] times.

Trees can grow up to {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} tall and can yield up to 75 fruits per year, though fewer than 30 is more typical. They are intolerant to cold and prefer copious precipitation and full sunlight. Many insect pests and diseases affect commercial production. In 2023, world production of coconuts was 65 million [[tonne]]s, with 73% of the total produced by [[Indonesia]], [[India]], and the [[Philippines]].

==Description ==

''Cocos nucifera'' is a large palm, growing up to {{convert|30|m|ft|abbr=off|sigfig=1}} tall, with [[pinnate]] leaves {{convert|4|-|6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} long, and pinnae {{convert|60|-|90|cm|ft|0}} long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the [[trunk (botany)|trunk]] smooth.<ref name="Pradeepkumar">{{cite book |last1=Pradeepkumar |first1=T. |last2=Sumajyothibhaskar |first2=B. |last3=Satheesan |first3=K. N. |year=2008 |title=Management of Horticultural Crops |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA539 |series=Horticulture Science Series |volume=11 |publisher=New India Publishing |pages=539–587 |isbn=978-81-89422-49-3}}</ref>
On fertile soil, a tall coconut palm tree produces around 80 [[fruit]]s per year; new varieties may be able to yield as many as 150 per year.<ref name="Sarian">{{cite news |last=Sarian |first=Zac B. |date=18 August 2010 |title=New coconut yields high |url=http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/272929/new-coconut-yields-high |work=The [[Manila Bulletin]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119033447/http://mb.com.ph/articles/272929/new-coconut-yields-high |archive-date=19 November 2011 |access-date= 21 April 2011}}</ref> In India, average production is over 8,000 nuts per hectare per year.<ref name="Ravi">{{cite news |last=Ravi |first=Rajesh |date=16 March 2009 |title=Rise in coconut yield, farming area put India on top |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/rise-in-coconut-yield-farming-area-put-india-on-top/434818/0 |work=The [[The Financial Express (India)|Financial Express]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515043307/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/rise-in-coconut-yield-farming-area-put-india-on-top/434818/0 |archive-date=15 May 2013 |access-date=21 April 2011}}</ref> Tall varieties produce their first fruit in 6 to 10 years, and live for 60 to 100 years; dwarf varieties become productive more quickly, but have a shorter lifespan.<ref name="Elzabroek"/>

=== Inflorescence ===

The coconut is [[monoecious]], meaning that both male and female [[flower]]s grow on the same tree, in its case in the same [[inflorescence]].<ref name="Thampan 1981">{{cite book |last=Thampan |first=P.K. |year=1981 |title=Handbook on Coconut Palm |publisher=Oxford & IBH Publishing, for Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Government of India |location=New Delhi, Bombay, and Calcutta |url=https://ia800107.us.archive.org/17/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.201473/2015.201473.Hand-Book.pdf |pages=10–11 |access-date=29 November 2025}}</ref><ref name="Kew Coconut palm">{{cite web |title=Cocos nucifera: Coconut palm |url=https://www.kew.org/plants/coconut-palm |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=29 November 2025}}</ref> It is possible that the species in addition occasionally has [[Plant reproductive morphology#Bisexual|bisexual]] flowers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Willmer |first=Pat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVGi6W8QdO4C&pg=PA57 |title=Pollination and Floral Ecology |date=25 July 2011 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-12861-0 |page=57}}</ref> The female flower is much larger than the male flower.<ref name="Kew Coconut palm"/> Mature trees grow continuously, producing leaves, flowers, and fruit all year round. It takes some 14 months for each flower [[primordium]] to develop into an [[inflorescence]], botanically a [[Spadix (botany)|spadix]] inside a sheathing [[spathe]]. A healthy tree can produce up to 15 inflorescences per year, staggered so that there is always a mature one with others in different stages of development.<ref name="Agriculture Institute 2024">{{cite web |title=Flowering and Fruiting Patterns of Coconut Trees |url=https://agriculture.institute/post-harvest-mgt-value-addition/flowering-fruiting-patterns-coconut-trees/ |publisher=Agriculture Institute |access-date=29 November 2025 |date=27 January 2024 |quote=Under optimal growing conditions, healthy mature trees produce new inflorescences every month, creating a continuous cycle of flowering and fruiting that can yield 12 to 15 spadices per year.}}</ref><ref name="Gordon Jackson 2017">{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=André |last2=Jackson |first2=J. |title=Food Safety and Quality Systems in Developing Countries |date=2017 |editor=Gordon, André |volume=2 |chapter=Case study: application of appropriate technologies to improve the quality and safety of coconut water |isbn=978-0-12-801226-0 |pages=185–216}}</ref> It takes 11 months from the opening of the female flowers to the time of harvest.<ref name="Ranasinghe 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ranasinghe |first1=C.S. |last2=Silva |first2=L.R.S. |last3=Premasiri |first3=R.D.N. |title=Major determinants of fruit set and yield fluctuation in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) |journal=Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka |volume=43 |issue=3 |date=24 September 2015 |doi=10.4038/jnsfsr.v43i3.7955 |page=253 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Coconut palms are largely cross-[[pollination|pollinated]], although most dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.<ref name="Lutz"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
File:Sea View from himsori bangladesh (cropped).jpg|Habit
File:Coconut tree leave.jpeg|Leaves
File:Cocos nucifera (11124377083).jpg|Inflorescence unfurling with male and female flowers
File:JfBohol7038naturefvf 39.JPG|Tree with fruit
File:Coconut germinating on Black Sand Beach, Island of Hawaii.JPG|Seed germinating in sand, Hawaii
</gallery>

=== Fruit ===

{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Composition of a Bido coconut<ref name="Novarianto 2022"/>
|-
! colspan=2 | Component
! colspan=2 | Mass/kg
|-
| colspan=3 | Husk || 2.033
|-
| colspan=3 | Nut || 1.125
|-
| rowspan=3 | of which || Shell || 0.359
|-
| Juice || 0.492
|-
| Meat || 0.477
|-
| colspan=3 | Total || 3.158
|}

[[Botany|Botanically]], the coconut fruit is a [[drupe]], not a [[Nut (fruit)|true nut]].<ref name="botany">{{cite web |date=December 2014 |title=Coconut botany |url=http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/horti_pcrops_coconut_botany.html |access-date=14 December 2017 |website=Agritech Portal |publisher=[[Tamil Nadu Agricultural University]]}}</ref> Like other fruits, it has [[Fruit anatomy|three layers]]: the [[exocarp]], [[mesocarp]], and [[endocarp]]. The exocarp is the glossy outer skin, usually yellow-green to yellow-brown in color. The mesocarp is composed of a [[fiber]], called [[coir]], which has many traditional and commercial uses. The exocarp and the mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconut, while the endocarp makes up the hard coconut "shell". The endocarp is around {{convert|4|mm|in|abbr=off|frac=8}} thick and has three distinctive [[germination]] pores ([[Micropyle (botany)|micropyle]]s) on the distal end. Two of the pores are plugged (the "eyes"), while one is functional.<ref name="Ledo">{{cite journal |last1=Lédo |first1=Ana da Silva |last2=Passos |first2=Edson Eduardo Melo |last3=Fontes |first3=Humberto Rolemberg |last4=Ferreira |first4=Joana Maria Santos |last5=Talamini |first5=Viviane |last6=Vendrame |first6=Wagner A. |last7=Lédo |first7=Ana da Silva |last8=Passos |first8=Edson Eduardo Melo |last9=Fontes |first9=Humberto Rolemberg |last10=Ferreira |first10=Joana Maria Santos |last11=Talamini |first11=Viviane |last12=Vendrame |first12=Wagner A. |display-authors=5 |year=2019 |title=Advances in Coconut palm propagation |journal=Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura |volume=41 |issue=2 |doi=10.1590/0100-29452019159 |doi-access=free |article-number=e-159}}</ref><ref name="Armstrong">{{cite web |last1=Armstrong |first1=W. P. |title=Edible Palm Fruits |url=https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/ecoph10.htm |access-date=20 April 2021 |website=Wayne's Word: An On-Line Textbook of Natural History |publisher=[[Palomar College]] |archive-date=2 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902172839/https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/ecoph10.htm }}</ref>

The interior of the endocarp is hollow and is lined with a thin brown [[seed coat]], some {{convert|0.2|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=64}} thick. The endocarp is initially filled with a liquid [[endosperm]] (the [[coconut water]]). The liquid contains many free [[Cell nucleus|cell nuclei]] (it is [[Multinucleate cell|multinucleate]]) dividing by [[mitosis]], without cell boundaries. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the endocarp up to {{convert|11|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick, starting at the far end. They eventually form the edible solid endosperm ("coconut meat") which hardens over time. The small cylindrical [[plant embryo|embryo]] is embedded in the solid endosperm directly below the functional pore. During germination, the embryo pushes out of the functional pore and forms a [[haustorium]] inside the central cavity. This absorbs the solid endosperm to nourish [[coconut sprout|the seedling]].<ref name="Ledo"/><ref name="duke">{{cite web |year=1983 |title=''Cocos nucifera'' L. (Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops; unpublished) |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cocos_nucifera.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603080303/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cocos_nucifera.html |archive-date=3 June 2015 |access-date=4 June 2015 |publisher=[[Purdue University]], NewCROP – New Crop Resource}}</ref><ref name="Sugimuma">{{cite journal |last1=Sugimuma |first1=Yukio |last2=Murakami |first2=Taka |year=1990 |title=Structure and Function of the Haustorium in Germinating Coconut Palm Seed |url=https://www.jircas.go.jp/sites/default/files/publication/jarq/24-1-001-014_0.pdf |journal=JARQ |volume=24 |pages=1–14}}</ref>

The fruits have two distinctive forms. Wild ''niu kafa'' coconuts feature an elongated triangular fruit with a thicker husk and a smaller amount of endosperm. These make the fruits more buoyant, ideal for ocean dispersal. Domesticated ''niu vai'' Pacific coconuts are rounded in shape with a thinner husk, more endosperm, and more [[coconut water]].<ref name="Lebrun"/><ref name="Shukla"/><ref name="Lutz"/>

A full-sized fruit weighs about {{convert|1.4|kg|lboz|abbr=off}} depending on variety.<ref name="Paull"/><ref name="postharvest"/> The 21st century Bido variety from Indonesia averages {{convert|3.158|kg|lboz|abbr=off}} per fruit.<ref name="Novarianto 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Novarianto |first1=H. |last2=Mawardi |first2=S. |last3=Tulalo |first3=M. A. |title=The Bido variety is an essential genetic material for coconut breeding |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=974 |issue=1 |date=1 January 2022 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/974/1/012056 |article-number=012056 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022E&ES..974a2056N }}</ref>

[[File:Coconut half exocarp removed.jpg|thumb|upright|Fruit with husk partly removed, showing hard thin shell of [[endocarp]] (left), [[coir]] fibre of exocarp (right)]]

Coconuts are exported without husks; de-husked nuts from [[Côte d'Ivoire]] average around 575 grams, while de-husked nuts from the [[Dominican Republic]] average nearly 700 grams.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gerbaud |first1=Pierre |last2=Audibert |first2=Olivier |last3=Bourdeix |first3=Roland |title=Close-up: Coconut |url=https://agritrop.cirad.fr/562361/1/ID562361.pdf |access-date=29 November 2025 |work=FRuiTROP |issue=193 |publisher=CIRAD |date=October 2011}}</ref>
Coconuts sold domestically in coconut-producing countries are typically not de-husked. Immature coconuts (6 to 8 months from flowering) are sold for coconut water and softer jelly-like coconut meat (known as "green coconuts", "young coconuts", or "water coconuts"), where the original coloration of the fruit is more pleasing.<ref name="Paull">{{cite book |last1=Paull |first1=Robert E. |url=https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/F_N-45.pdf |title=Coconut: Postharvest Quality-Maintenance Guidelines |last2=Ketsa |first2=Saichol |date=March 2015 |publisher=College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, [[University of Hawai{{okina}}i at Mānoa]]}}</ref><ref name="postharvest">{{cite book |url=http://agriculture.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Coconut.pdf |title=Coconut: Postharvest Care and Market Preparation |date=May 2004 |publisher=Ministry of Fisheries, Crops and Livestock, New Guyana Marketing Corporation, National Agricultural Research Institute |series=Technical Bulletin No. 27}}</ref>

Whole mature coconuts (11 to 13 months from flowering) sold for export, however, typically have the husk removed to reduce weight and volume for transport. This results in the naked coconut "shell" with three pores, remnants of the three carpels of the flower, more familiar in countries where coconuts are not grown locally. De-husked coconuts are easier for consumers to open, but have a shorter postharvest storage life of around two to three weeks at temperatures of {{convert|12|to|15|°C|°F|abbr=on}} or up to 2 months at {{convert|0|to|1.5|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. In comparison, mature coconuts with a husk can be stored for three to five months at room temperature.<ref name="Paull"/><ref name="postharvest"/>

=== Roots ===

The [[palm tree]] has neither a [[taproot]] nor [[root hair]]s, but a [[fibrous root system]].<ref name="Thampan 1981"/> This consists of many thin roots that grow outward from the plant near the surface. Only a few penetrate deep into the soil for stability. This is known as a fibrous or adventitious root system, and is a characteristic of grass species. 2,000–4,000 [[adventitious root]]s may grow, each about {{convert|1|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} in diameter. Decayed roots are replaced regularly as the tree grows new ones.<ref name="agro">{{cite book |date=April 2006 |editor=Elevitch, C. R. |chapter=''Cocos nucifera'' (coconut), version 2.1 |url=http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020005217/http://agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013 |access-date=22 December 2016 |title=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry |publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources |location=Hōlualoa, Hawaii}}</ref>

== Taxonomy ==

=== Taxonomic history ===

The Swedish botanist and taxonomist [[Carl Linnaeus]] formally described the species ''Cocos nucifera'' in his book ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' in 1753.<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |title=[[Species Plantarum]] |year=1753 |page=1188}}</ref> The name is accepted by botanists.<ref name="WCSP"/> In 1768, in his book ''[[The Gardeners Dictionary]]'', the English botanist [[Philip Miller]] redescribed the plant as ''Palma cocos'', a name treated as a synonym.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Miller |title=[[The Gardeners Dictionary]] |edition=8th |volume=2 |year=1768}}</ref><ref name="WCSP"/> In 1891, the German botanist [[Otto Kuntze]] gave it the name ''Calappa nucifera'' in his ''Revisio Generum Plantarum'', also treated as a synonym.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuntze |first=Otto |author-link=Otto Kuntze |title=[[Revisio Generum Plantarum]] |volume=2 |page=982 |year=1891}}</ref><ref name="WCSP"/>

=== Etymology ===

The [[Generic name (biology)|generic name]] ''Cocos'', and the common name, is derived from the 16th-century [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''[[Coco (folklore)|coco]]'', meaning 'head' or 'skull' after the three indentations on the coconut shell that give an impression of a face.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dalgado |first=Sebastião |url=https://archive.org/details/glossriolusoas00dalguoft/page/n363/mode/2up |title=Glossário luso-asiático |publisher=Coimbra, Imprensa da Universidade |year=1919 |volume=1 |page=291}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/coco |title=coco |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=3 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/coconut |title=coconut |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=3 May 2020 }}</ref><ref name="Losada">{{cite book |last=Losada |first=Fernando Díez |year=2004 |title=La tribuna del idioma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RxGv6tMX2QcC&pg=PT481 |language=es |publisher=Editorial Tecnologica de CR |page=481 |isbn=978-9977-66-161-2}}</ref> This apparently came from encounters in 1521 by [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish people|Spanish]] explorers with [[Pacific Islander]]s, when the coconut shell reminded them of [[ghost]]s in Portuguese folklore called ''[[Coco (folklore)|coco]]'' or ''côca''.<ref name="Losada"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Figueiredo |first=Cândido |year=1940 |title=Pequeno Dicionário da Lingua Portuguesa |language=pt |location=Lisbon |publisher=Livraria Bertrand}}</ref> In the West, the fruit was originally called ''nux indica'', a name used by [[Marco Polo]] in 1280 while in [[Sumatra]]. His term is a translation from the Arabic of the time, where it was called {{Lang|ar|جوز هندي}} {{Lang|ar-Latn|jawz hindī}}, "Indian nut".<ref name="Elzabroek">{{cite book |last=Elzebroek |first=A. T. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvU1XnUVxFQC&pg=PA186 |title=Guide to Cultivated Plants |date=2008 |publisher=[[CAB International|CABI]] |isbn=978-1-84593-356-2 |pages=186–192}}</ref> ''Thenga'', its [[Tamil language|Tamil]]/[[Malayalam]] name, was used in the detailed description of coconut found in ''[[Itinerario]]'' by [[Ludovico di Varthema]] published in 1510 and in the later ''[[Hortus Indicus Malabaricus]]''.<ref name="Grimwood1">[[#Grimwood|Grimwood]], p. 1.</ref>

The [[specific name (botany)|specific name]] ''nucifera'' means "nut-bearing", from the [[Latin]] words {{Lang|la|nux}} (nut) and {{Lang|la|fera}} (bearing).<ref>{{cite web |title=National Flower – Nelumbo nucifera |url=http://bsienvis.nic.in/files/National%20Flower_Nelumbo%20nucifera_26.9.14.pdf |access-date=19 February 2021 |publisher=ENVIS Resource Partner on Biodiversity}}</ref>

== Origins ==

=== Fossil history ===

[[File:Miocene coconut.jpg|thumb|Fossil ''Cocos zeylandica'' from the [[Miocene]] of [[New Zealand]], approximately the size of a [[strawberry]] at {{convert|3.5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long|alt=Small blackened fossil]]

The vast majority of ''Cocos''-like fossils have been recovered from only two regions in the world: [[New Zealand]] and west-central [[India]]. However, ''Cocos''-like fossils are still putative, as they are difficult to identify.<ref name="Nayar2016">{{cite book |last=Nayar |first=N. Madhavan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pWEuDAAAQBAJ |title=The Coconut: Phylogeny, Origins, and Spread |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-12-809779-3 |pages=51–66}}</ref> The earliest ''Cocos''-like fossil to be found was ''[[Cocos zeylandica|C. zeylandica]]'', a fossil species with small fruits, around {{convert|3.5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} × {{convert|1.3|to|2.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} in size, from the [[Miocene]] (~23 to 5.3 million years ago) of [[New Zealand]]. Since then, numerous other fossils of similar fruits of uncertain affinity have been found in New Zealand from the [[Eocene]], [[Oligocene]], and possibly the [[Holocene]].<ref name="Nayar2016"/><ref name="Conran2015">{{cite journal|publisher=[[Linnean Society]]|last1=Conran |first1=John G. |last2=Bannister |first2=Jennifer M. |last3=Lee |first3=Daphne E. |last4=Carpenter |first4=Raymond J. |last5=Kennedy |first5=Elizabeth M. |last6=Reichgelt |first6=Tammo |last7=Fordyce |first7=R. Ewan |display-authors=5 |year=2015 |title=An update of monocot macrofossil data from New Zealand and Australia |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]]|volume=178 |issue=3 |pages=394–420 |doi=10.1111/boj.12284 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the [[Deccan Traps]] of west-central India, numerous fossils of ''Cocos''-like fruits, leaves, and stems have been found. They include [[morphotaxa]] like ''Palmoxylon sundaran'', ''Palmoxylon insignae'', and ''Palmocarpon cocoides''. ''Cocos''-like fossils of fruits include ''[[Cocos intertrappeansis]]'', ''Cocos pantii'', and ''Cocos sahnii''. Some have been tentatively identified as modern ''C. nucifera''. These include two specimens named ''C. palaeonucifera'' and ''C. binoriensis'', both dated by their authors to the [[Maastrichtian]]–[[Danian]] of the early [[Tertiary (period)|Tertiary]] (70 to 62 million years ago). ''C. binoriensis'' has been claimed to be the earliest known fossil of ''C. nucifera''.<ref name="Srivastava2014">{{cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=Rashmi |last2=Srivastava |first2=Gaurav |year=2014 |title=Fossil fruit of ''Cocos'' L. (Arecaceae) from Maastrichtian-Danian sediments of central India and its phytogeographical significance |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261107861 |journal=Acta Palaeobotanica |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.2478/acpa-2014-0003 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Nayar2016"/><ref name="Singh2016">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Hukam |last2=Shukla |first2=Anumeha |last3=Mehrotra |first3=R. C. |year=2016 |title=A Fossil Coconut Fruit from the Early Eocene of Gujarat |url=http://www.geosocindia.org/index.php/jgsi/article/view/88633 |journal=[[Journal of the Geological Society of India]] |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=268–270 |doi=10.1007/s12594-016-0394-9 |bibcode=2016JGSI...87..268S |access-date=10 January 2019 |s2cid=131318482 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Only two other regions have reported ''Cocos''-like fossils, namely [[Australia]] and [[Colombia]]. In Australia, a ''Cocos''-like fossil fruit, measuring {{convert|10|x|9.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}}, was recovered from the Chinchilla Sand Formation dated to the latest [[Pliocene]] or basal [[Pleistocene]]. Rigby (1995) assigned them to modern ''Cocos nucifera'' based on its size.<ref name="Srivastava2014"/><ref name="Nayar2016"/> In Colombia, a single ''Cocos''-like fruit was recovered from the [[Paleocene|middle to late Paleocene]] [[Cerrejón Formation]]. The fruit, however, was compacted in the fossilization process and it was not possible to determine if it had the diagnostic three pores that characterize members of the tribe [[Cocoseae]]. Nevertheless, one study assigned it to ''Cocos'' based on the size and the ridged shape of the fruit.<ref name="Gomez-Navarro2009">{{cite journal |last1=Gomez-Navarro |first1=Carolina |last2=Jaramillo |first2=Carlos |last3=Herrera |first3=Fabiany |last4=Wing |first4=Scott L. |last5=Callejas |first5=Ricardo |year=2009 |title=Palms (Arecaceae) from a Paleocene rainforest of northern Colombia |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=96 |issue=7 |pages=1300–1312 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800378 |pmid=21628279 |bibcode=2009AmJB...96.1300G }}</ref>

=== Phylogeny ===

A 2016 [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecular phylogenomic]] analysis of the [[Arecaceae|palms]] places the genus ''Cocos'' among the tribe [[Cocoseae]]:<ref>{{cite book |last=Gunn |first=Bee Fong |title=Phylogenomics of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) |year=2016 |publisher=[[Australian National University]] (PhD thesis) |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstreams/98d7d3c7-600e-4ead-963e-337362a11b0e/download}}</ref>

{{clade
|label1=[[Cocoseae]]
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Bactris]]'' spiny palms of C. and S. America
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Elaeis oleifera]]'' (American oil palm) of C. and S. America
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Beccariophoenix madagascariensis]]'' (coastal beccariophoenix) of Madagascar
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Voanioala gerardii]]'' (forest coconut) of Madagascar
|2=''[[Jubaeopsis]]'' (Pondoland palm) of S. Africa
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Jubaea chilensis]]'' (Chilean wine palm) of central Chile
|2=''[[Butia]]'' (feather palms) of S. America
}}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Attalea (plant)|Attalea]]'' non-spiny palms of C. and S. America
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Parajubaea]]'' palms of the Northern Andes
|2=''[[Allagoptera]]'' monoecious palms of S. America
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|1='''''Cocos nucifera''''' ('''coconut palm''')
|2=''[[Syagrus (plant)|Syagrus]]'' palms of S. America
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

=== Human dispersal ===

{{main|Origin and dispersal of the coconut}}

[[File:Wa'a kaulua.jpg|thumb|left|[[Catamaran]]s allowed [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]] to colonize the islands of the [[Indo-Pacific]] and introduce coconuts as they migrated.<ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book |last=Mahdi |first=Waruno |title=Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-10054-0 |editor-last=Blench |editor-first=Roger |series=One World Archaeology |volume=34 |pages=144–179 |chapter=The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean |editor-last2=Spriggs |editor-first2=Matthew}}</ref><ref name="Doran1981">{{cite book |last1=Doran |first1=Edwin B. |title=Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins |date=1981 |publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]] |isbn=978-0-89096-107-0}}</ref><ref name="Johns">{{cite journal |last1=Johns |first1=D. A. |last2=Irwin |first2=G. J. |last3=Sung |first3=Y. K. |date=29 September 2014 |title=An early sophisticated East Polynesian voyaging canoe discovered on New Zealand's coast |journal=[[PNAS]] |volume=111 |issue=41 |pages=14728–14733 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11114728J |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408491111 |pmc=4205625 |pmid=25267657 |doi-access=free}}</ref>]]

Genetic studies identify the coconut's center of origin as the [[Central Indo-Pacific]], where it has its greatest genetic diversity.<ref name="Perera">{{cite book |last1=Vollmann |first1=Johann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y_heb_lB3qoC&pg=PA370 |title=Oil Crops |last2=Rajcan |first2=Istvan |date=18 September 2009 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-77594-4 |pages=370–372}}</ref><ref name="agro"/><ref name="Baudouin2008">{{cite journal |last1=Baudouin |first1=Luc |last2=Lebrun |first2=Patricia |date=26 July 2008 |title=Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) DNA studies support the hypothesis of an ancient Austronesian migration from Southeast Asia to America |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1007/s10722-008-9362-6 |s2cid=19529408}}</ref><ref name="Gunn2011">{{cite journal |last1=Gunn |first1=Bee F. |last2=Baudouin |first2=Luc |last3=Olsen |first3=Kenneth M. |last4=Ingvarsson |first4=Pär K. |date=22 June 2011 |title=Independent Origins of Cultivated Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) in the Old World Tropics |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=6 |issue=6 |article-number=e21143 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...621143G |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021143 |pmc=3120816 |pmid=21731660 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Its cultivation and spread was closely tied to migrations of the [[Austronesian peoples]] who [[canoe plants|carried coconuts]] to the islands they settled.<ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Crowther2016">{{cite journal |last1=Crowther |first1=Alison |last2=Lucas |first2=Leilani |last3=Helm |first3=Richard |last4=Horton |first4=Mark |last5=Shipton |first5=Ceri |last6=Wright |first6=Henry T. |last7=Walshaw |first7=Sarah |last8=Pawlowicz |first8=Matthew |last9=Radimilahy |first9=Chantal |last10=Douka |first10=Katerina |last11=Picornell-Gelabert |first11=Llorenç |last12=Fuller |first12=Dorian Q. |last13=Boivin |first13=Nicole L. |display-authors=5 |date=14 June 2016 |title=Ancient crops provide first archaeological signature of the westward Austronesian expansion |journal=PNAS |volume=113 |issue=24 |pages=6635–6640 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1522714113 |pmc=4914162 |pmid=27247383 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6635C }}</ref><ref name="Brouwers2011">{{cite web |last1=Brouwers |first1=Lucas |date=1 August 2011 |title=Coconuts: not indigenous, but quite at home nevertheless |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtomics/httpblogsscientificamericancomthoughtomics20110801coconuts-not-indigenous-but-quite-at-home-nevertheless/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |website=Scientific American}}</ref> Linguistic, archaeological, and genetic evidence all points to domestication of Pacific coconuts by Austronesians in Southeast Asia during the [[Austronesian expansion]] (c. 3000 to 1500 BCE).<ref name="Lew"/><ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="scid"/> Drift models based on wind and ocean currents show that coconuts could not have drifted across the Pacific unaided,<ref name=Ward/> implying that dispersal was human-assisted.<ref name="coco">{{cite journal |last1=Gunn |first1=Bee |last2=Baudouin |first2=Luc |last3=Olsen |first3=Kenneth M. |title=Independent Origins of Cultivated Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) in the Old World Tropics |journal=[[PLOS One]] |year=2011 |volume=6 |issue=6 |article-number=e21143 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021143 |pmid=21731660 |pmc=3120816 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...621143G |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{multiple image
|direction = vertical
|width = 300
|image2 = Historical Introduction of Coconuts (Gunn, Baudouin,& Olsen, 2011).png
|caption2 = Inferred historical introduction of coconuts from the original centers of diversity in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Island Southeast Asia]]<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Lutz">{{cite web |last1=Lutz |first1=Diana |date=24 June 2011|title=Deep history of coconuts decoded |url=https://source.wustl.edu/2011/06/deep-history-of-coconuts-decoded/ |website=The Source |access-date=10 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Brouwers2011"/>
|image1 = Geographical distributions of Indo-Atlantic and Pacific coconut subpopulations.png
|caption1 = Geographical distributions of Indo-Atlantic and Pacific coconut subpopulations and their genetic composition<ref name="Gunn2011"/>
}}

Coconuts are divided into two subpopulations, a Pacific group from [[Island Southeast Asia]] and an Indo-Atlantic group from the south of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The Pacific group is clearly domesticated, with dwarf habit, self-pollination, and ''niu vai'' fruits with large endosperm-to-husk ratios. The distribution of Pacific coconuts corresponds to regions settled by Austronesian voyagers, especially [[Madagascar]]. The island's coconuts show genetic admixture between the two subpopulations, indicating that Pacific coconuts interbred with Indo-Atlantic coconuts there.<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Crowther2016"/> Although archaeological remains from 1000 to 500 BCE suggest that Indo-Atlantic coconuts were later independently cultivated by [[Dravidian peoples]], only Pacific coconuts show clear domestication traits like dwarf habits, self-pollination, and rounded fruits. Indo-Atlantic coconuts, in contrast, have the ancestral traits of tall habits and elongated triangular fruits.<ref name="Lew"/><ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="scid">{{cite news |title=Deep history of coconuts decoded: Origins of cultivation, ancient trade routes, and colonization of the Americas |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110624142037.htm |access-date=22 April 2021 |work=[[ScienceDaily]] |publisher=[[Washington University in St. Louis]] |date=24 June 2011}}</ref>

Genetic studies have confirmed [[pre-Columbian]] populations of coconuts in [[Panama]]. However, it is not native and displays a genetic bottleneck resulting from a [[founder effect]]. Coconuts in the Americas are most closely related to those in the [[Philippines]], indicating that the coconuts were not introduced naturally, such as by sea currents, but by early Austronesian sailors to the Americas from at least 4250 BCE.<ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="Brouwers2011"/><ref name=Ward>{{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=R. G. |last2=Brookfield |first2=M. |year=1992 |title=Special Paper: the dispersal of the coconut: did it float or was it carried to Panama? |journal=[[Journal of Biogeography]] |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=467–480 |doi=10.2307/2845766 |jstor=2845766 |bibcode=1992JBiog..19..467W }}</ref> During the [[Early modern period|colonial era]], Pacific coconuts were further introduced to [[Mexico]] from the [[Spanish East Indies]] via the [[Manila galleon]]s, starting in the 16th century. In contrast, Indo-Atlantic coconuts were spread by Arab and Persian traders into the [[East Africa]]n coast. Indo-Atlantic coconuts were introduced into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ships from [[Portuguese India|colonies in India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], again starting in the 16th century: first to coastal [[West Africa]], and then to the [[Caribbean]] and [[Brazil]].<ref name="Gunn2011"/>

=== Domestication ===

Coconuts can be broadly divided into two fruit types – the ancestral ''niu kafa'' form with a thick-husked, angular fruit, and the ''niu vai'' form with a thin-husked, spherical fruit with a higher proportion of [[endosperm]]. The terms are [[Samoan language|Samoan]].<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name=Lebrun/><ref name=Harries/>

The ''niu kafa'' form is the wild ancestral type, with thick husks to protect the seed, and an angular, highly ridged shape to promote buoyancy during ocean dispersal. It is the dominant form in the Indo-Atlantic coconuts.<ref name=Lebrun/><ref name="Gunn2011"/> However, they may have been selected to some extent for thicker husks for [[coir]] production, which was important in Austronesian material culture as a source for cordage in building houses and boats.<ref name="Lew"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180 caption="Two major fruit types">
File:Cocos nucifera (coconut) 5 (38507429165).jpg|The ''niu kafa'' form of wild and Indo-Atlantic coconuts, possibly selected for more [[coir]] for houses and boats
File:Cocos nucifera (coconut) 2 (39384972311).jpg|The ''niu vai'' form of domesticated Pacific coconuts, [[Selective breeding|selected]] for more meat and [[coconut water|water]], and less husk
</gallery>

The ''niu vai'' form is the domesticated form dominant in Pacific coconuts. They were [[Selective breeding|artificially selected]] by Austronesians for their larger endosperm-to-husk ratio and higher coconut water content, making them more useful as food and water reserves for sea voyages. The decreased buoyancy and increased fragility of this spherical, thin-husked fruit did not matter for a species that had started to be dispersed by humans and grown in plantations.<ref name=Lebrun>{{cite journal |last1=Lebrun |first1=P. |last2=Seguin |first2=M. |last3=Grivet |first3=L. |last4=Baudouin |first4=L. |year=1998 |title=Genetic diversity in coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) revealed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers |doi=10.1023/a:1018323721803 |journal=Euphytica |volume=101 |pages=103–108 |s2cid=19445166}}</ref><ref name=Shukla>{{cite journal |last1=Shukla |first1=A. |last2=Mehrotra |first2=R. C. |last3=Guleria |first3=J. S. |year=2012 |title=Cocos sahnii Kaul: A ''Cocos nucifera'' L.-like fruit from the Early Eocene rainforest of Rajasthan, western India |journal=Journal of Biosciences |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=769–776 |doi=10.1007/s12038-012-9233-3 |pmid=22922201 |s2cid=14229182 }}</ref> ''Niu vai'' endocarp fragments have been recovered in archaeological sites in the [[St. Matthias Islands]] of the [[Bismarck Archipelago]]. The fragments are dated to approximately 1000 BCE, suggesting that cultivation and artificial selection of coconuts were already practiced by the Austronesian [[Lapita people]].<ref name="Lew"/>

Coconuts can be broadly divided into two general types based on habit: the "Tall" (var. ''typica'') and "Dwarf" (var. ''nana'') varieties.<ref name=Santos>{{cite web |url=http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/Web_version/108/ch02.htm#Chapter+1+BOTANY+OF+THE+COCONUT+PALM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212200527/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/Web_version/108/ch02.htm |title=Chapter 1: Botany of the Coconut Palm |archive-date=12 December 2013|website=bioversityinternational.org}}</ref> The two groups are genetically distinct, with the dwarf variety showing a greater degree of artificial selection for ornamental traits and for early germination and fruiting.<ref name=Harries>{{cite journal |last1=Harries |first1=H. C. |year=1978 |title=The evolution, dissemination and classification of ''Cocos nucifera'' L. |journal=[[The Botanical Review]] |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=265–319 |doi=10.1007/bf02957852|bibcode =1978BotRv..44..265H |s2cid=26636137 }}</ref><ref name=Huang>{{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Y.-Y. |last2=Matzke |first2=A. J. M. |last3=Matzke |first3=M. |year=2013 |title =Complete sequence and comparative analysis of the chloroplast genome of coconut palm (''Cocos nucifera'') |journal=[[PLOS One]] |volume=8 |issue=8 |article-number=e74736 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074736 |pmid=24023703 |pmc=3758300 |bibcode =2013PLoSO...874736H |doi-access=free }}</ref> The tall variety is [[outcrossing]] while dwarf palms are [[Autogamy|self-pollinating]], which has led to a much greater degree of [[genetic diversity]] within the tall group.<ref name="Rivera">{{cite journal |last1=Rivera |first1=R. |last2=Edwards |first2=K. J. |last3=Barker |first3=J. H. |last4=Arnold |first4=G. M. |last5=Ayad |first5=G. |last6=Hodgkin |first6=T. |last7=Karp |first7=A. |title=Isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in ''Cocos nucifera'' L |journal =Genome |volume =42 |issue =4 |pages =668–675 |year=1999 |pmid =10464790 |doi=10.1139/g98-170}}</ref>

The dwarf coconut cultivars are fully domesticated, unlike the more diverse tall cultivars.<ref name="Bourdeix"/><ref name="Rivera"/> Dwarf coconuts share three genetic markers out of thirteen (rare in tall cultivars), making it likely that they originate from a single domesticated population. Philippine and Malayan dwarf coconuts diverged early into two distinct types. They usually remain genetically isolated when introduced to new regions. Numerous other dwarf cultivars developed after such introductions, hybridizing with tall cultivars. The origin of dwarf varieties is [[Southeast Asia]], which contain the tall cultivars genetically closest to dwarf coconuts.<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="lebrun2013"/><ref name="Bourdeix">{{cite book |last1=Bourdeix |first1=R. |last2=Prades |first2=A. |title=A Global Strategy for the conservation and use of Coconut Genetic Resources 2018–2028 |date=2017 |publisher=[[Bioversity International]] |isbn=978-92-9043-984-4 |url=https://www.bioversityinternational.org/e-library/publications/detail/a-global-strategy-for-the-conservation-and-use-of-coconut-genetic-resources-2018-2028/}}</ref><ref name=Rivera/>

[[Genome sequencing]] of tall and dwarf varieties reveals that they diverged 2 to 8 million years ago and that the dwarf variety arose through alterations in genes for the metabolism of the plant hormone [[gibberellin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Shouchuang |last2=Xiao |first2=Yong |last3=Zhou |first3=Zhi-Wei |last4=Yuan |first4=Jiaqing |last5=Guo |first5=Hao |last6=Yang |first6=Zhuang |last7=Yang |first7=Jun |last8=Sun |first8=Pengchuan |last9=Sun |first9=Lisong |last10=Deng |first10=Yuan |last11=Xie |first11=Wen-Zhao |last12=Song |first12=Jia-Ming |last13=Qamar |first13=Muhammad Tahir ul |last14=Xia |first14=Wei |last15=Liu |first15=Rui |display-authors=5 |date=4 November 2021 |title=High-quality reference genome sequences of two coconut cultivars provide insights into evolution of monocot chromosomes and differentiation of fiber content and plant height |journal=Genome Biology |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=304 |doi=10.1186/s13059-021-02522-9 |pmc=8567702 |pmid=34736486 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Another ancestral variety is the '''''niu leka''''' of [[Polynesia]] (the "Compact Dwarfs"). Although it resembles dwarf coconuts (including slow growth), it is genetically distinct and was independently domesticated, likely in [[Tonga]]. Other cultivars of ''niu leka'' may exist in other islands of the Pacific, and some are probably descendants of advanced crosses between Compact Dwarfs and Southeast Asian Dwarf types.<ref name="lebrun2013"/><ref name="Bourdeix"/>

== Distribution and habitat ==

Coconuts have a nearly [[cosmopolitan distribution]] due to human cultivation and dispersal. However, their original distribution was in the [[Central Indo-Pacific]], in the regions of [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and [[Melanesia]].<ref name="Perera"/>

The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of [[salinity]]. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall of between 1500 mm and 2500 mm per year. It prefers humidity above 60%. If rainfall is less than this, it can survive if its roots can reach the soil water table, but it cannot tolerate waterlogging. It grows from sea level to an altitude of {{Convert|600|m}} in the tropics. It can tolerate a dry season of one month on sandy soils inland, and as much as three months on heavier soils, but the soil must be free-draining. It grows on soils with a pH of 4.5 to 8 (the latter on coral atolls), but prefers a range of 5.5 to 7. Growth is seriously limited by shade. It can resist hurricane-strength winds provided it has developed a good root system.<ref name="sppia">{{cite book |last1=Chan |first1=Edward |first2=Craig R. |last2=Elevitch |date=April 2006 |url=http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |chapter=Cocos nucifera (coconut): Environmental Preferences and Tolerances |pages=9–10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020005217/http://agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013 |url-status=live |editor=C. R. Elevitch |title=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry |location=Hōlualoa, Hawaii |publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources}}</ref>

Wild coconuts are restricted to coastal areas in sandy, saline soils. The fruit is adapted for ocean dispersal. Coconuts could not reach inland locations without human intervention to carry seednuts and plant seedlings.<ref name=HCH_2>{{cite journal |last1=Harries |first1=H. C. |year=2012 |title=Germination rate is the significant characteristic determining coconut palm diversity |journal=Annals of Botany |volume =2012 |article-number=pls045 |doi=10.1093/aobpla/pls045 |pmid=23275832 |pmc=3532018 }}</ref>

== Cultivation ==

[[File:Efate East - Very old coconut plantations - panoramio.jpg|thumb|A coconut plantation in [[Efate]], Vanuatu]]

Coconut palms are normally cultivated in hot and wet tropical climates. They need year-round warmth and moisture to grow well and fruit. Coconut palms are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation. In drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, older leaves may become desiccated, and fruit may be shed.<ref name="sppia"/>

The extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as [[mangrove]]s; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the [[Yucatán region|Yucatán]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Petenes_mangroves?topic=49597 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011011735/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Petenes_mangroves?topic=49597 |archive-date=11 October 2012 |title=Petenes mangroves: types and severity of threats |last1=McGinley |first1=Mark |last2=Hogan |first2=C. Michael |series=The Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]] |date=19 April 2011 |access-date=17 December 2016 }}</ref> Uniquely among trees, coconut trees can be irrigated with sea water.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=M. K. V. |title=Advances in irrigation agronomy: plantation crops |date=5 April 2012 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=101}}</ref>

=== Pests and diseases ===

{{further|List of coconut palm diseases}}

[[File:Coconutlethalyellowing.jpg|thumb|upright|A coconut palm dying of [[lethal yellowing]], a [[phytoplasma]] disease]]

Coconuts are susceptible to the [[phytoplasma]] disease, [[lethal yellowing]]. Yellowing diseases affect plantations in Africa, India, Mexico, the Caribbean and the [[Pacific Region]].<ref name="Bourdeix 2016">{{cite web |last=Bourdeix |first=Ronald |url=https://asiatimes.com/article/future-coconut-threatened-lethal-yellowing-disease/ |title=Clarion call for King Coconut |date=9 December 2016 |website=Asia Times |access-date=14 December 2016}}</ref>

The coconut palm is damaged by the [[larva]]e of many [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly]] and [[moth]]) species which feed on it, including the [[African armyworm]] (''Spodoptera exempta'') and ''[[Batrachedra]]'' spp.: ''B. arenosella'', ''B. atriloqua'' (feeds exclusively on ''C. nucifera''), ''B. mathesoni'' (feeds exclusively on ''C. nucifera''), and ''B. nuciferae''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yarro |first1=J. G. |last2=Otindo |first2=B. L. |last3=Gatehouse |first3=A. G. |last4=Lubega |first4=M. C. |date=December 1981 |title=Dwarf variety of coconut, ''Cocos nucifera'' (Palmae), a hostplant for the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Wlk.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)|journal=International Journal of Tropical Insect Science |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=361–362 |doi=10.1017/S1742758400000667 |bibcode=1981IJTIS...1..361Y |s2cid=88007323}}</ref>

The coconut leaf beetle ''[[Brontispa longissima]]'' feeds on young leaves, and damages both [[seedlings]] and mature coconut palms. In 2007, the Philippines imposed a [[quarantine]] in [[Metro Manila]] and 26 provinces to stop the spread of the [[pest (organism)|pest]] and protect the Philippine coconut industry managed by some 3.5 million farmers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/62343/news/regions/report-26-provinces-quarantined-for-coconut-pest |title=Report: 26 provinces quarantined for coconut pest |publisher=[[GMA News Online]] |date=28 September 2007 |access-date=17 December 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220190900/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/62343/news/regions/report-26-provinces-quarantined-for-coconut-pest |archive-date=20 December 2016 }}</ref>

The fruit may be damaged by [[eriophyid]] [[coconut mite]]s (''[[Aceria guerreronis]]''). This mite infests coconut plantations, and can cause economic damage up to 60% of coconut production.<ref name="CABI">{{cite journal |title=''Aceria guerreronis'' (coconut mite) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/2596 |access-date=22 November 2025 |journal=Invasive Species Compendium |year=2020 |volume=CABI Compendium |page=2596 |publisher=[[CAB International|CABI]] |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.2596 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The immature seeds are infested and damaged by larvae.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=McDonald |first=Sharon Angella |title=Infestation patterns of the coconut mite, ''Eriophyes guerreronis'' (Keifer) (Acari: Eriophyidae), on coconuts and resulting yield loss in eastern Jamaica |date=9 July 1997 |access-date=22 November 2025 |degree=[[Master of Science]] |publisher=[[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]] |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10919/36916 |hdl=10919/36916}}</ref> Chemical control is possible, but since it needs to be repeated frequently it is impracticable on grounds of cost, environmental harm, and [[pesticide residue]]s in coconut meat and coconut water.<ref name=Lindquist>{{cite book|author1=Lindquist, E.E.|author2=Bruin, J.|author3=Sabelis, M.W.|title=Eriophyoid Mites: Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MVmTn4ghwo0C&pg=PA561 |year=1996 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |isbn=978-0-08-053123-6 |pages=561–569}}</ref>

=== Cultivars ===

[[File:Young coconut of Srilanka.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|[[King coconut]], a shorter cultivar of Sri Lanka]]

Coconut has many commercial and traditional [[cultivar]]s. They can be sorted mainly into tall, dwarf, and hybrid cultivars (hybrids between talls and dwarfs).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parthasarathy |first1=V. I. |last2=Geethalakshmi |first2=P.U. |last3=Niral |first3=V. I. |title=Analysis of coconut cultivars and hybrids using isozyme polymorphism |journal=Acta Botanica Croatica |date=15 April 2004 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=69–74 |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/5620}}</ref> Varieties are often regional, such as Ceylon Tall, Jamaica Tall, Java Tall, and Malayan Tall.<ref name="Elzabroek"/>

Dwarf varieties of Pacific coconuts have been cultivated by [[Austronesian peoples]] since ancient times. These varieties were selected for slower growth, sweeter coconut water, and often brightly colored fruits.<ref name="lebrun2013">{{cite book |last1=Lebrun |first1=P. |last2=Grivet |first2=L. |last3=Baudouin |first3=L. |title=Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]]|year=2013 |isbn=978-94-015-9283-3 |editor1-last=Oropeza |editor1-first=C. |pages=83–85 |chapter=Use of RFLP markers to study the diversity of the coconut palm |editor2-last=Verdeil |editor2-first=J.K. |editor3-last=Ashburner |editor3-first=G. R. |editor4-last=Cardeña |editor4-first=R. |editor5-last=Santamaria |editor5-first=J. M.}}</ref> Dwarf varieties include Dwarf Green and Dwarf Orange.<ref name="Elzabroek"/>

Varieties have been selected for diverse traits: for example, [[King coconut]] is a Sri Lankan variety with a relatively low sugar content, while [[Macapuno]] has soft jelly-like flesh that fills the whole central cavity; it is used to make sweet desserts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sukendah |last2=Volkaert |first2=Hugo |last3=Sudarsono |year=2009 |title=Isolation and Analysis of DNA Fragment of Genes Related to Kopyor Trait in Coconut Plant |url=https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/ijbiotech/article/view/7814/6055 |journal=Indonesian Journal of Biotechnology |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=1169–1178}}</ref><ref name="Florida Gardener">{{cite web |title=Coconut Varieties |url=http://www.floridagardener.com/palms/coconutpalm.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020105211/http://www.floridagardener.com/palms/coconutpalm.htm |archive-date=20 October 2015 |access-date=19 May 2016 |publisher=floridagardener.com }}</ref>

[[Maypan coconut palm|Maypan]] is an [[F1 hybrid]] bred in Jamaica in the 1970s to resist [[lethal yellowing]].<ref>[http://www.avxl82.dsl.pipex.com/CICLY/main.html Centre for Information on Coconut Lethal Yellowing (CICLY)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605224039/http://www.avxl82.dsl.pipex.com/CICLY/main.html |date=5 June 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harries |first1=H.C. |last2=Romney |first2=D.H. |year=1974 |title=Maypan: an F1 hybrid coconut variety for commercial production in Jamaica |journal=World Crops |volume=26 |pages=110–111}}</ref> However, Maypan resistance soon began to fail, possibly as early as the 1980s, and certainly by the 2000s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Broschat |first1=T. K. |last2=Harrison |first2=N. A. |last3=Donselman |first3=H. |title=Losses to Lethal Yellowing Cast Doubt on Coconut Cultivar Resistance |journal=Palms |year=2002 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=185–189 |url=https://palms.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/vol46n4p185-189.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Lebrun Baudouin 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Lebrun |first1=P. |last2=Baudouin |first2=L. |last3=Myrie |first3=W. |last4=Berger |first4=A. |last5=Dollet |first5=M. |title=Recent lethal yellowing outbreak: why is the Malayan Yellow Dwarf Coconut no longer resistant in Jamaica? |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=14 November 2007 |issn=1614-2942 |doi=10.1007/s11295-007-0093-1 |pages=125–131 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11295-007-0093-1 |access-date=23 November 2025|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some other coconut varieties have natural [[crop disease resistance|resistance]] to lethal yellowing with [[allele]]s at [[microsatellite]]s, with ''Vanuatu tall'' and ''Sri-Lanka green dwarf'' as the most resistant cultivars, while ''West African tall'' is especially susceptible.<ref name="Microsatellite">{{cite book |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |first2=S. |first1=M. |last2=Jain |number=17 |last1=Ahuja |title=Biodiversity and Conservation of Woody Plants |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-66426-2 |series=Sustainable Development and Biodiversity |volume=17 |isbn=978-3-319-66425-5 |s2cid=518220 |page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |publisher=Springer |year=2020 |first5=Julianne |first4=Quang |first3=Roland |first2=Mike |first1=Steve |last5=Biddle |last4=Nguyen |last3=Bourdeix |last2=Foale |last1=Adkins |editor-first1=Steve |editor-first2=Mike |editor-first3=Roland |editor-first4=Quang |editor-first5=Julianne |editor-last1=Adkins |editor-last2=Foale |editor-last3=Bourdeix |editor-last4=Nguyen |editor-last5=Biddle |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-44988-9 |title=Coconut Biotechnology: Towards the Sustainability of the 'Tree of Life' |isbn=978-3-030-44987-2 |s2cid=220051653 |pages=128, 132}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |issue=4 |year=2010 |volume=6 |first6=A. |first5=S. |first4=P. |first3=J.|first2=K. |first1=K. |last6=Sangare |last5=Dery |last4=Lebrun |last3=Konan |last2=Koffi |last1=Konan |title=Microsatellite gene diversity in coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) accessions resistants to lethal yellowing disease |journal=African Journal of Biotechnology |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/56209}}</ref>

=== Breeding ===

Conventional [[plant breeding]] is of limited use with coconut because there is no wild coconut species to supply additional genetic diversity; the generation time is long; there is much [[heterozygosity]]; artificial pollination to conduct crosses produces only a few seeds; and vegetative reproduction (cloning) is unreliable. Coconut breeding objectives can include copra content, production of female flowers, oil content, aroma of coconut meat and water, softness and sweetness of endosperm, drought tolerance, resistance to root wilt, and resistance to eriophorid mites.<ref name="Nair 2016">{{cite book |last1=Nair |first1=Raman V. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305552308 |title=Advances in plant breeding strategies: agronomic, abiotic and biotic stress traits |last2=Jerard |first2=B. A. |last3=Thomas |first3=Regi J. |publisher=[[Springer International]] |year=2016 |pages=257–279 |chapter=Coconut breeding in India}}</ref>

Hybrids provide higher precocity and productivity with the number of fruits than other breeds, but they produce fruits with low market acceptance for the water quality of the fruit. Intravarietal crosses in Dwarf coconut (dwarf coconuts bred together) have been tested to provide better water quality for the coconut water market than the hybrids.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Pedro Henrique Araújo Diniz |last2=Venâncio |first2=Thiago Motta |last3=dos Santos |first3=Pedro Henrique Dias |last4=Ramos |first4=Helaine Christine Cancela |last5=Arêdes |first5=Fernanda Abreu Santana |last6=Azevedo |first6=Alinne Oliveira Nunes |last7=Boechat |first7=Marcela Santana Bastos |last8=de Souza Filho |first8=Gonçalo Apolinário |last9=Ramos |first9=Semiramis Rabelo Ramalho |last10=Mirisola |first10=Luiz Angelo |last11=Aragão |first11=Wilson Menezes |last12=Pereira |first12=Messias Gonzaga |display-authors=5 |year=2020 |title=Genotyping-by-sequencing technology reveals directions for coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) breeding strategies for water production |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10681-020-02582-1 |journal=Euphytica |volume=216 |issue=3 |pages=1–9 |article-number=45 |doi=10.1007/s10681-020-02582-1 |bibcode=2020Euphy.216...45S |access-date=22 November 2025|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Harvesting ===

{{multiple image
| align = left
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| image1 = Coconut notches.jpg
| image2 = CoconutHarvestCazones.JPG
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| header = Harvesting techniques
| footer = Left: climbing using notches cut into the trunk, [[Philippines]] Center: using ropes and [[pulley]]s, [[Mexico]] Right: using a loop of cloth around the ankles, [[Maldives]]
}}

The two most common harvesting methods are by climbing<ref name="tp2"/> and by using poles.<ref name="cpg"/>

Climbing is the more widespread, but it is more dangerous and requires skilled workers.<ref name="tp2">{{cite web |title=Harvesting and Post-harvest Management |website=Coconut Handbook |date=28 December 2016 |url=https://coconuthandbook.tetrapak.com/chapter/harvesting-and-post-harvest-management |publisher=[[Tetra Pak]] |access-date=18 April 2021}}</ref> Manually climbing trees is traditional in most countries and requires a posture that exerts pressure on the trunk with the feet. Climbers employed on coconut plantations often develop musculoskeletal disorders and risk injury or death from falling.<ref name="Piggott">{{cite book |last1=Piggott |first1=C.J. |title=Coconut Growing |date=1964 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=61}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tropical Tree and Palm Crops |url=https://www.iloencyclopaedia.org/part-x-96841/agriculture-and-natural-resources-based-industries/tree-bramble-and-vine-crops/item/548-tropical-tree-and-palm-crops |website=Encyclopedia of Occupational Health & Safety |publisher=[[International Labour Organization]] |access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="George">{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=Bincy M. |last2=Rao |first2=Muddanna S. |last3=Kumar |first3=Arunachalam |last4=Suvarna |first4=Niveditha |last5=D'Souza |first5=Jessica Sushima |title=Health of coconut tree climbers of rural southern India – medical emergencies, body mass index and occupational marks: A quantitative and survey study |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |year=2012 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=57–60 |url=https://www.jcdr.net/articles/pdf/1829/13%20-%203430.(A).pdf}}</ref> For safety, coconut climbers in the Philippines and [[Guam]] use a [[bolo knife]] tied with a rope to the waist to cut grooves at regular intervals on the coconut trunks. This makes the trunk of the tree more like a ladder, though it reduces the value of timber recovered from the trees and can admit infection.<ref name="fao-timber">{{cite book |title=Coconut wood: Processing and Use |date=1985 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=92-5-102253-4 |page=27 |url=http://www.fao.org/3/an792e/an792e00.pdf}}</ref><ref name="tp2"/><ref name="Safford">{{cite journal |last=Safford |first=William Edwin |title=The Useful Plants of the Island of Guam |journal=[[Bulletin of the United States National Museum]] |date=8 April 1905 |volume=9 |page=243}}</ref> Other methods to make climbing easier include using a system of pulleys and ropes; using pieces of vine, rope, or cloth tied to both hands or feet; using spikes attached to the feet or legs; or attaching coconut husks to the trunk with ropes.<ref name="COGENT"/>

[[File:“Lambanog”- Philippines Coconut Wine.jpg|thumb|Worker in the [[Philippines]] using a bamboo bridge network to collect sweet coconut sap from cut flower stalks to make [[lambanog|palm liquor]] ]]

The pole method uses a long pole with a cutting device at the end. In the Philippines, the traditional tool is called the ''halabas'' and is made from a long bamboo pole with a sickle-like blade at its tip. Though safer and faster than climbing, it does not allow workers to examine and clean the crown of coconuts for pests and diseases.<ref name="cpg">{{cite web |title=Coconut Production Guide |url=https://businessdiary.com.ph/3062/coconut-production-guide/#Harvest_Management |website=Business Diary PH |date=30 March 2020 |access-date=18 April 2021}}</ref>

Modern methods use hydraulic elevators mounted on tractors or ladders.<ref name="Loyola"/> Mechanical coconut climbing devices and robots have been developed in India, Sri Lanka, and [[Malaysia]].<ref name="tp">{{cite book |author=Tetra Pak |title=Coconut Handbook |date=2016 |publisher=Tetra Pak International S.A. |isbn=978-91-7773-948-7 |chapter=The Chemistry of Coconut Milk and Cream |chapter-url=https://coconuthandbook.tetrapak.com/chapter/chemistry-coconut-milk-and-cream}}</ref><ref name="Kumar">{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=V. Sajeev |title=New mechanical coconut climbing device developed |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/New-mechanical-coconut-climbing-device-developed/article20111199.ece |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=Business Line |date=20 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="Subramanian">{{cite journal |last1=Subramanian |first1=Parvathi |last2=Sankar |first2=Tamil Selvi |title=Development of a novel coconut-tree-climbing machine for harvesting |journal=Mechanics Based Design of Structures and Machines |date=7 April 2021 |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=2757–2775 |doi=10.1080/15397734.2021.1907756|s2cid=233530078 }}</ref><ref name="COGENT">{{cite web |title=Climbing the coconut palm |url=http://cogentnetwork.org/oldsite/climbing-the-coconut-palm |website=COGENT |access-date=24 April 2021 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216083837/http://cogentnetwork.org/oldsite/climbing-the-coconut-palm }}</ref> The Coconut Maturity Detection Project uses imaging and [[machine learning]] to identify mature coconut bunches ready for harvesting.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geethalaxmi |last2=Anjali |last3=Ashritha |last4=Sharma |first4=Rajan |last5=Bhat |first5=Shilpa Ganapati |date=15 June 2024 |title=Real Time Sustainable Cultivation of Coconut Tree Crops using ML |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aci&AN=181715044&site=eds-live&scope=site |journal=Grenze International Journal of Engineering & Technology (GIJET) |volume=10 |issue=2,Part 4 |pages=4666–4670 |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Tanjong Jara (4280556051) (2).jpg|thumb|A [[southern pig-tailed macaque]] trained to harvest coconuts, Malaysia]]

A system of bamboo bridges and ladders directly connecting the tree canopies is used in the Philippines for coconut plantations that harvest coconut sap (not fruits) for [[coconut vinegar]] and [[palm wine]] production.<ref name="Bello">{{cite journal |last1=Bello |first1=Rolando T. |last2=Pantoja |first2=Blanquita R. |last3=Tan |first3=Maria Francesca O. |last4=Banalo |first4=Roxanne A. |last5=Alvarez |first5=Jaonne V. |last6=Rañeses |first6=Florita P. |title=A study on skills for trade and economic diversification (STED) in the non-traditional coconut export sectors of the Philippines |journal=Employment Working Paper |year=2020 |publisher=[[International Labour Organization|International Labor Organization]] |location=Geneva |page=18 |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_742455.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Loyola"/> In other areas, as in [[Papua New Guinea]], coconuts are simply collected when they fall to the ground.<ref name="tp2"/>

Some coconut farmers in [[Thailand]] and Malaysia use [[southern pig-tailed macaque]]s to harvest coconuts.<ref name="Bertrand"/> Thailand has been raising and training them to pick coconuts for around 400 years.<ref name="npr">{{cite web |last=Barclay |first=Eliza |date=19 October 2015 |title=What's Funny About the Business of Monkeys Picking Coconuts? |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/10/19/448960760/monkeys-pick-coconuts-in-thailand-are-they-abused-or-working-animals |publisher=[[NPR]]}}</ref><ref name="vm">{{cite news |title=The truth behind the "widespread" practice of monkeys harvesting coconuts in Thailand impacting on consumers & retailers |url=https://vegworldmag.com/the-truth-behind-the-widespread-practice-of-monkeys-harvesting-coconuts-in-thailand-impacting-on-consumers-retailers/ |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=Vegworld Magazine |date=31 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Pratruangkrai">{{cite news |last1=Pratruangkrai |first1=Petchanet |title=Focus: Thai coconut farmers reject monkey abuse charges, suffer lost income |url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/07/438857ee536a-focus-thai-coconut-farmers-reject-monkey-abuse-charges-suffer-lost-income.html |access-date=18 April 2021 |agency=Kyodo News |date=16 July 2020}}</ref> Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist in southern Thailand and in the Malaysian state of [[Kelantan]].<ref name="Bertrand">{{cite journal |last=Bertrand |first=Mireille |date=27 January 1967 |title=Training without Reward: Traditional Training of Pig-Tailed Macaques as Coconut Harvesters |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=155 |issue=3761 |pages=484–486 |doi=10.1126/science.155.3761.484 |pmid=4959310 |bibcode=1967Sci...155..484B}}</ref> [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] (PETA) objected to the Thailand practice in 2019.<ref name="Loyola">{{cite news |last=Loyola |first=James A. |title=Philippine coconut industry: No monkey business here |url=https://mb.com.ph/2020/07/23/philippine-coconut-industry-no-monkey-business-here/ |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=[[Manila Bulletin]] |date=23 July 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:12em; text-align:center;"
|+ Coconut (in shell) production {{small|2023, millions of tonnes}} 
|-
|{{IDN}} ||18.0
|-
|{{PHL}} ||14.9
|-
|{{IND}} ||14.2
|-
|{{BRA}} ||2.9
|-
|{{LKA}} ||2.1
|-
! '''World''' !! 64.7
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Coconut production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database |year=2025 |access-date=23 November 2025}}</ref>
|}

=== Production ===

{{Main|List of countries by coconut production}}

{{See also|Asian and Pacific Coconut Community}}

In 2023, world production of coconuts in shells was 65 million [[tonne]]s, led by [[Indonesia]], India, and the Philippines, with 73% of the total when combined (table).

In India, four southern states account for most of India's total production: [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], and [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coconutboard.gov.in/stat.htm |title=Coconut Cultivation |author1=Coconut Development Board, Government of India |date=n.d. |access-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210194230/http://www.coconutboard.gov.in/stat.htm |archive-date=10 December 2015 }}</ref> Though Kerala has the largest number of coconut trees, Tamil Nadu is the most productive per hectare.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coconutboard.nic.in/cps-tn.htm |title=Coconut Cultivation |author=Coconut Development Board, Government of India |date=n.d. |access-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208153858/http://www.coconutboard.nic.in/cps-tn.htm |archive-date=8 December 2015 }}</ref> The coconut is the official state tree of Kerala, whose name in the local language [[Malayalam]] means "coconut land".<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala at a glance |url=https://forest.kerala.gov.in/en/kerala-at-a-glance/ |publisher=[[Kerala Forest Department]] |access-date=21 November 2025}}</ref>

The main coconut-producing area in the Middle East is the [[Dhofar]] region of [[Oman]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perera |first1=Lalith |last2=Baudouin |first2=Luc |last3=Bourdeix |first3=Roland |last4=Fadhil |first4=Anwar Bait |last5=Hountondji |first5=Fabien C. C. |last6=Al-Shanfri |first6=Abdulaziz |title=Coconut Palms on the Edge of the Desert: Genetic Diversity of Cocos nucifera L. in Oman |journal=Cord |year=2011 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=9–19 |url=https://agritrop.cirad.fr/560027/1/120-Article%20Text-198-1-10-20200313.pdf}}</ref> The ancient coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller [[Ibn Battuta]] in his book ''[[The Rihla]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354 |editor-last=Halsall |editor-first=Paul |publisher=[[Fordham University]] Center for Medieval Studies |date=21 February 2001 |access-date=14 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513172555/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref>

Sri Lanka established its Coconut Development Authority and Coconut Cultivation Board and Coconut Research Institute in the early [[British Ceylon]] period.<ref name="sri">{{cite web |title=Coconut Industry in Sri Lanka |website=Sri Lanka Business|publisher=Sri Lanka Export Development Board |url=https://www.srilankabusiness.com/coconut/about/#:~:text=Coconut%20accounts%20for%20approximately%2012,3600%20million%20nuts%20per%20year. |access-date=3 January 2021 }}</ref>

== Health concerns ==

=== Cardiovascular disease ===

{{further|Coconut oil#Health concerns|Saturated fat#Cardiovascular disease}}

As a rich source of lauric acid and other saturated fats, coconut oil is a dietary [[risk factor]] for [[cardiovascular disease]]s by elevating blood levels of [[low-density lipoprotein|LDL cholesterol]].<ref name="aha">{{cite journal |author=Neelakantan, N.; Seah, J.Y.; van Dam, R.M. |title=The Effect of Coconut Oil Consumption on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials |journal=Circulation |volume=141 |issue=10 |pages=803–814 |date=March 2020 |pmid=31928080 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.043052 |url=https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.043052|quote=Coconut oil should not be viewed as healthy oil for cardiovascular disease risk reduction, and limiting coconut oil consumption because of its high saturated fat content is warranted.|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="spiazzi">{{cite journal |last1=Spiazzi |first1=B.F. |last2=Duarte |first2=A.C. |last3=Zingano |first3=C.P. |display-authors=etal |title=Coconut oil: an overview of cardiometabolic effects and the public health burden of misinformation |journal=Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=67 |issue=6 |article-number=e000641 |date=June 2023 |pmid=37364144 |pmc=10660992 |doi=10.20945/2359-3997000000641|quote=The use of coconut oil as a "healthy" component of the western diet is based on the major spread of misconceptions regarding it. The combination of the established knowledge on the negative effects of saturated fats on cardiovascular health and the lack of evidence from clinical trials showing a benefit from coconut oil intake in cardiovascular and metabolic disease advise against the consumption of this oil as a preferential source of dietary fat.}}</ref> Many national clinical associations recommend limiting consumption of coconut oil products, replacing them instead with foods containing [[unsaturated fat]]s.<ref name=aha/><ref name=spiazzi/><ref name="aus">{{cite web |title=Sorting fact from fiction – seed oils and coconut oil |url=https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/blog/seed-oils-coconut-oil |publisher=[[National Heart Foundation of Australia]] |access-date=23 November 2025 |date=23 May 2025}}</ref>

== Uses ==

{{main|Uses of the coconut palm}}

The coconut palm is grown throughout the [[tropics]] for decoration, as well as for its culinary and nonculinary uses; virtually [[uses of the coconut palm|every part of the coconut palm is used by humans]] in some manner and has significant economic value. The coconut's versatility is noted in some of its names: in [[Sanskrit]], it is ''kalpa vriksha'' ("the tree of the necessities of life"), while in [[Malay language|Malay]], it is ''pokok seribu guna'' ("the tree of a thousand uses"), and in the Philippines, it is called the "[[tree of life]]".<ref>{{cite web |last=Margolis |first=Jason |date=13 December 2006 |url=http://www.theworld.org/?q=node/7280 |title=Coconut fuel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831035256/http://www.theworld.org/?q=node%2F7280 |archive-date=31 August 2011 |website=PRI's The World |access-date=10 April 2011}}</ref> It is one of the most useful trees in the world.<ref name="duke"/>

=== Nutrition ===

{{Nutritional value
|name=Coconut meat, raw
|image=Coconuts - single and cracked open.jpg
|water=47 g
|kJ=1480
|protein=3.33 g
|fat=33.49 g
|satfat=29.698 g
|monofat=1.425 g
|polyfat=0.366 g
|carbs=15.23 g
|sugars=6.23 g
|fiber=9.0 g
|calcium_mg=14
|copper_mg=0.435
|iron_mg=2.43
|magnesium_mg=32
|phosphorus_mg=113
|potassium_mg=356
|sodium_mg=20
|zinc_mg=1.10
|manganese_mg=1.500
|selenium_ug=10.1
|vitC_mg=3.3
|thiamin_mg=0.066
|riboflavin_mg=0.020
|niacin_mg=0.540
|pantothenic_mg=0.300
|vitB6_mg=0.054
|folate_ug=26
|vitE_mg=0.24
|vitK_ug=0.2

|tryptophan=0.039 g
|threonine=0.121 g
|isoleucine=0.131 g
|leucine=0.247 g
|lysine=0.147 g
|methionine=0.062 g
|cystine=0.066 g
|phenylalanine=0.169 g
|tyrosine=0.103 g
|valine=0.202 g
|arginine=0.546 g
|histidine=0.077 g
|alanine=0.170 g
|aspartic acid=0.325 g
|glutamic acid=0.761 g
|glycine=0.158 g
|proline=0.138 g
|serine=0.172 g
|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/170169/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central entry]
}}
Raw coconut meat is 47% water, 33% [[fat]], 15% [[carbohydrate]]s, and 3% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]] (table). In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g}}, raw coconut flesh supplies 350 [[calorie]]s of [[food energy]], and is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[manganese in biology|manganese]] (65% DV) and [[copper in biology|copper]] (48% DV), with various other [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary minerals]] in moderate amounts (10–18% DV; table). It is a poor source of [[vitamin]]s. Raw coconut meat has a high content of [[Fatty_acid#Saturated_fatty_acids|saturated fatty acids]] (30% of total fats), with [[lauric acid]] as the main saturated fat (15% of total; USDA source in table).

=== Culinary ===

{{further|List of coconut dishes}}

{{Cookbook}}


The [[List of coconut dishes|many culinary uses of coconuts]] are largely based on the edible white, fleshy part of the seed (the [[endosperm]]), known as "coconut meat".<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115"/> The meat of immature coconuts can be eaten as it is or cooked in pastries. Mature coconut meat is tough and is processed before consumption, being made into products like [[coconut milk]],<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115"/><ref name="polistico2">{{cite book |author=Edgie Polistico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h9MswEACAAJ |title=Philippine Food, Cooking, & Dining Dictionary |publisher=[[Anvil Publishing]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-971-27-3170-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Coconut: Pacific food leaflet No. 4 |date=2006 |publisher=Secretariat of the Pacific Community |isbn=978-982-00-0164-0 |url=https://cms.ctahr.hawaii.edu/Portals/159/Images/Resources/IslandStapleFoods/4%20COCONUT%20web.pdf}}</ref><ref name="El Bassam">{{cite book |last1=El Bassam |first1=N. |title=Handbook of Bioenergy Crops: A Complete Reference to Species, Development, and Applications |date=2010 |publisher=Earthscan |isbn=978-1-84977-478-9 |page=159}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chu |first1=Wai Hon |last2=Lovatt |first2=Connie |title=The Dumpling: A Seasonal Guide |date=2009 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0-06-195940-0 |page=8}}</ref> "coconut chips"<ref name="El Bassam"/> or grated and dehydrated as "desiccated coconut".<ref>{{cite web |title=ICC Quality Standard: Desiccated Coconut |url=https://coconutcommunity.org/viewpdf/apcc_quality_standards_for_coconut_products/4 |website=International Coconut Community |publisher=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP) |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216085337/https://coconutcommunity.org/viewpdf/apcc_quality_standards_for_coconut_products/4 }}</ref><ref name="Ghosh">{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=D.K. |title=Value Addition of Horticultural Crops: Recent Trends and Future Directions |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |chapter=Postharvest, Product Diversification and Value Addition in Coconut |editor1-first=Amit Baran |editor1-last=Sharangi |editor2-first=Suchand |editor2-last=Datta |isbn=978-81-322-2262-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Exporting desiccated coconuts to Europe |url=https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/processed-fruit-vegetables-edible-nuts/desiccated-coconuts/europe |website=CBI |publisher=Centrum tot Bevordering van de Import uit ontwikkelingslanden (CBI), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref>

[[Coconut milk]], used for cooking [[List of dishes made using coconut milk|many dishes]], is pressed from coconut meat. It can be diluted to create [[coconut milk beverage]]s such as [[milk substitute]]s.<ref name="NIIR">{{cite book |author=NIIR Board of Consultants and Engineers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvXKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274 |title=The Complete Book on Coconut & Coconut Products (Cultivation and Processing) |date=2006 |publisher=Asia Pacific Business Press |isbn=978-81-7833-007-5 |page=274}}</ref><ref name="tp"/> [[Coconut milk powder]], a protein-rich powder, can be processed from coconut milk.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology |year=2012 |volume=167 |issue=5 |pages=1290–302 |doi=10.1007/s12010-012-9632-9 |title=Production of coconut protein powder from coconut wet processing waste and its characterization |last1=Naik |first1=A. |last2=Raghavendra |first2=S. N. |last3=Raghavarao |first3=K. S. |pmid=22434355 |s2cid=11890199}}</ref> Coconut milk and [[coconut cream]] extracted from grated coconut can be added to desserts and savory dishes, or used in [[curries]] and stews.<ref name="grimwood">[[#Grimwood |Grimwood]], pp. 183–187.</ref><ref name="pca-process">{{cite book |author=Philippine Coconut Authority |title=Coconut Processing Technologies: Coconut Milk |publisher =Department of Agriculture, Republic of the Philippines |series=FPDD Guide No. 2 – Series of 2014 |year=2014 |url=http://www.pca.da.gov.ph/pdf/techno/coconut_milk.pdf |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106130020/http://www.pca.da.gov.ph/pdf/techno/coconut_milk.pdf}}</ref> Products made from thickened coconut milk with sugar and eggs, like [[coconut jam]] and [[coconut custard]], are widespread in Southeast Asia.<ref name="Duruz">{{cite book |last1=Duruz |first1=Jean |last2=Khoo |first2=Gaik Cheng |title=Eating Together: Food, Space, and Identity in Malaysia and Singapore |date=2014 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-2741-5 |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JojpBQAAQBAJ&q=kaya%20coconut&pg=PA45}}</ref><ref name="Alford">{{cite book |last1=Alford |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Duguid |first2=Naomi |title=Hot Sour Salty Sweet: A Culinary Journey Through Southeast Asia |date=2000 |publisher=Artisan Books |isbn=978-1-57965-564-8 |page=302 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUP30wR8-kUC&pg=PA302}}</ref><ref name="thampan 1981 p199">{{cite book |last1=Thampan |first1=Palakasseril Kumaran |title=Handbook on Coconut Palm |date=1981 |publisher=Oxford & IBH |page=199}}</ref> Coconut oil is used for [[frying]] and cooking.<ref name="grimwood"/><ref name="kurian">{{cite book |last1=Kurian |first1=Alice |last2=Peter |first2=K.V. |title=Commercial Crops Technology |date=2007 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-52-3 |pages=202–203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2VFYqwA-Mn4C&pg=PA202}}</ref>

[[Coconut water]] can be drunk fresh or used in cooking.<ref name=endosperm>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cjHCoMQNkcgC&q=coconut+endosperm+encyclopedia&pg=PA112 |title=Cocos in The Encyclopedia of Fruit and Nuts |access-date=11 May 2015 |year=2008 |last1=Janick |first1=J. |last2=Paull |first2=R. E. |pages=109–113 |isbn=978-0-85199-638-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ginataang Manok (Chicken Stewed in Coconut Milk) Filipino Recipe! |url=http://www.savvynana.com/recipe/ginataang-manok-chicken-stewed-coconut-milk-filipino-recipe/ |website=Savvy Nana's |access-date=20 April 2019 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216100142/http://www.savvynana.com/recipe/ginataang-manok-chicken-stewed-coconut-milk-filipino-recipe/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref> It can be fermented to produce a jelly-like dessert known as ''[[nata de coco]]''.<ref name="tietze">{{cite book |last1=Tietze |first1=Harald |last2=Echano |first2=Arthur |title=Coconut: Rediscovered as Medicinal Food |date=2006 |publisher=Harald Tietze Publishing |isbn=978-1-876173-57-9 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0NAA8_fDI9wC&pg=PA37}}</ref> Coconut vinegar, made from fermented coconut water or sap, is used extensively in Southeast Asian and [[Goan cuisine]].<ref name="polistico2"/>

Coconut sap, fresh or fermented, is drunk as toddy or ''[[tubâ]]'' in the Philippines. When left to ferment on its own, it becomes palm wine. Palm wine is distilled to produce ''[[arrack]]''.<ref name="lambanog">{{cite web |url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/lambanog.htm |title=Lambanog: A Philippine Drink |author=Porter, Jolene V. |year=2005 |publisher=[[American University]] |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=10 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222210517/http://www1.american.edu/ted/lambanog.htm |archive-date=22 February 2011}}</ref> The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup, or reduced further to yield [[coconut sugar]]. A young, well-maintained tree can produce around {{convert |300 |L |USgal |abbr=off}} of toddy per year, while a 40-year-old tree may yield around {{convert |400 |L |USgal |abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Grimwood |Grimwood]], p. 20.</ref>

=== Oil ===

{{main|Coconut oil}}

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:13em; text-align:center;"
|+ Coconut oil production {{small|2022, tonnes}} 
|-
|{{PHL}} ||1,358,900
|-
|{{IDN}} ||666,000
|-
|{{IND}} ||360,000
|-
|{{VIE}} ||182,000
|-
|{{MEX}} ||132,300
|-
|{{LKA}} ||84,015
|-
! '''World''' !! 3,162,279
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]]}}<ref name="faostat OIL">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Coconut oil production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database |year=2025 |access-date=23 November 2025}}</ref>
|}

In 2022, world production of processed coconut oil was 3.2 million tonnes, led by the Philippines with 43% of the total, and Indonesia and India as secondary producers (table).

Coconut oil is used in cooking, especially for frying. It can be used in liquid form like other [[vegetable oil]]s, or in solid form like [[butter]] or [[lard]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510 |pmid=28620111 |title=Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory from the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=e1–e23 |year=2017 |last1=Sacks |first1=Frank M. |last2=Lichtenstein |first2=Alice H. |last3=Wu |first3=Jason H.Y. |last4=Appel |first4=Lawrence J. |last5=Creager |first5=Mark A. |last6=Kris-Etherton |first6=Penny M. |last7=Miller |first7=Michael |last8=Rimm |first8=Eric B. |last9=Rudel |first9=Lawrence L. |last10=Robinson |first10=Jennifer G. |last11=Stone |first11=Neil J. |last12=Van Horn |first12=Linda V. |display-authors=5 |s2cid=367602 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Neela">{{cite journal |last1=Neelakantan |first1=Nithya |last2=Seah |first2=Jowy Yi Hoong |last3=van Dam |first3=Rob M. |title=The effect of coconut oil consumption on cardiovascular risk factors (Systematic review) |journal=Circulation |volume=141 |issue=10 |year=2020 |doi=10.1161/circulationaha.119.043052 |pages=803–814 |pmid=31928080 |s2cid=210195904 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Eyres2016">{{cite journal |last1=Eyres |first1=L |last2=Eyres |first2=MF |last3=Chisholm |first3=A |last4=Brown |first4=RC |title=Coconut oil consumption and cardiovascular risk factors in humans |journal=Nutrition Reviews |date=April 2016 |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=267–280 |doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuw002 |pmid=26946252 |pmc=4892314}}</ref> [[Coconut butter]] is a solidified coconut oil, but the name is also applied to [[creamed coconut]], a specialty product made of coconut milk solids or [[purée]]d coconut meat and oil.<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115">{{cite book |last=Roehl |first=E. |title=Whole Food Facts: The Complete Reference Guide |publisher=Inner Traditions/Bear |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-89281-635-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8lwmA52ltIC&pg=PA115 |page=115 }}</ref>

=== Non-food uses ===


Among the many non-food uses of coconut palms, the husk and shells can be used for fuel or made into [[charcoal]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Coconut Shell Lump Charcoal |url=http://www.supremecarbon.com/coco.htm |publisher=Supreme Carbon Indonesia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229141916/http://www.supremecarbon.com/coco.htm |archive-date=29 December 2012}}</ref> The husks can serve as [[Personal flotation device |flotation devices]] or as an [[abrasive]].<ref name="Skyhorse Publishing">{{cite book |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing; United States Department of the Army |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York |page=44 |oclc=277203364}}</ref> The shell, freed from the husk, and heated on warm ashes, exudes an oily material that is used to soothe dental pains in [[traditional medicine]] of Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon">{{cite book |last1=Pauline Dy Phon |author1-link=Pauline Dy Phon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InD2RAAACAAJ |title=Plants Utilised In Cambodia |date=2000 |publisher=Imprimerie Olympic |location=Phnon Penh |pages=165–166}}</ref> [[Coir]] fiber from husks is used in [[rope]]s, [[mat]]s, [[brush]]es, and sacks, as [[caulking]] for boats, and as stuffing for [[mattress]]es.<ref>[[#Grimwood |Grimwood]], p. 22.</ref> It is used in [[horticulture]] in potting compost, especially in orchid mix, and to make brooms in Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon" /> [[Coconut cup]]s were frequently carved with scenes in [[relief]] and mounted with precious metals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hans van Amsterdam: Coconut Cup with Cover (17.190.622ab) – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History – The Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/17.190.622ab |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015101625/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/17.190.622ab |archive-date=15 October 2013 |work=metmuseum.org}}</ref> The leaves provide material for [[basket]]s and for roofing [[thatch]]; they can be woven into mats, cooking [[skewer]]s, and kindling [[arrow]]s. Leaves are woven into small pouches that are filled with rice and cooked to make ''[[pusô]]'' and ''[[ketupat]]''.<ref>[[#Grimwood |Grimwood]], p. 19.</ref>

Hawaiians hollowed out coconut trunks to form drums, containers, or small canoes. The "branches" (leaf [[petiole (botany) |petiole]]s) are strong and flexible enough to make a [[switch (rod) |switch]]. The use of coconut branches in corporal punishment was revived in the Gilbertese community on Choiseul in the [[Solomon Islands]] in 2005.<ref>Herming, George. (6 March 2006). [http://www.corpun.com/sbj00603.htm Wagina whips offenders] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027160604/http://www.corpun.com/sbj00603.htm |date=27 October 2006 }}. ''Solomon Star''.</ref> The roots are used to make [[dye]], a [[mouthwash]], and a folk medicine for [[diarrhea]] and [[dysentery]].<ref name="Grimwood18">[[#Grimwood|Grimwood]], p. 18.</ref> A frayed piece of root can be used as a [[toothbrush]]. In Cambodia, the roots are used in traditional medicine.<ref name="dyphon" /> Leftover fiber from coconut oil and coconut milk production, coconut meal, is used as livestock feed. The dried [[calyx (botany) |calyx]] is used as fuel in wood-fired [[stove]]s. Coconut water is traditionally used as a growth supplement in [[plant tissue culture]] and [[micropropagation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yong |first1=J. W. |last2=Ge |first2=L. |last3=Ng |first3=Y. F. |last4=Tan |first4=S. N. |year=2009 |title=The chemical composition and biological properties of coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) water |journal=Molecules |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=5144–5164 |doi=10.3390/molecules14125144 |pmid=20032881 |pmc=6255029 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== In culture ==

[[File:A worship at the shrine of the Holy Infant Jesus of Prague, Davao City, Philippines.jpg|thumb|''Palaspas'', woven palm fronds during [[Palm Sunday]] celebrations in the Philippines|alt=Group of people with palm fronds]]
[[File:Muñeco de coco.jpg|thumb|upright|A "coconut monkey" from [[Mexico]], a common souvenir carved from coconut shells|alt=Coconut carved to look like a monkey]]

[[File:Offerings on the sand, Kuta Beach, Bali.JPG|thumb|upright|A ''canang'', an offering of flowers, rice, and [[incense]] in woven coconut leaves from [[Bali]], Indonesia]]

A coconut ({{langx|sa|narikela}}) is used in [[Hindu]] [[rituals]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Coconut – Fruit Of Lustre In Indian Culture|url=http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Coconut-~-Fruit-of-Lustre-in-Indian-Culture-1.aspx |date=September 2011 |last1=Patil |first1=Vimla|website=eSamskriti |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514010555/http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Coconut-~-Fruit-of-Lustre-in-Indian-Culture-1.aspx |archive-date=14 May 2016 |access-date=18 May 2016}}</ref> Often it is decorated with bright metal foils. It is offered during worship to a Hindu god or goddess. [[Narali Poornima]] is celebrated on a [[full moon]] day which usually signifies the end of [[monsoon]] season in India. The word ''Narali'' is derived from [[Marathi language|Marathi]] {{Lang|mar-Latn|naral}}, "coconut". Fishermen give an offering of coconut to the sea to celebrate the beginning of a new fishing season,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maharashtratourism.net/festivals/narali-poornima.html |title=Narali Purnima |publisher=Maharashtra Tourism |year=2016 |access-date=3 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715223636/http://www.maharashtratourism.net/festivals/narali-poornima.html |archive-date=15 July 2016 }}</ref> in the hope of bountiful catches. Hindus often initiate any new activity by breaking a coconut to ensure the blessings of the gods. The Hindu goddess of well-being and wealth, [[Lakshmi]], is often shown holding a coconut.<ref>Dallapiccola, Anna. ''[[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]]''. {{ISBN|0-500-51088-1}}.</ref> They are used in Hindu weddings as a symbol of prosperity.<ref>{{cite web |date=9 November 2009 |title=Food Rituals in Hindu Weddings |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/food-rituals-in-hindu-weddings-72454431/ |last=Bramen |first=Lisa |website=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian Magazine]] |access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref> The flowers are used sometimes in wedding ceremonies in Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon"/> The coconut has cultural and religious significance for [[Austronesian peoples]], appearing in their mythologies, songs, and oral traditions.<ref name="Nayar">{{cite book |last=Nayar |first=N. Madhavan |title=The Coconut: Phylogeny, Origins, and Spread |date=2017 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-809778-6 |pages=10–21}}</ref><ref name="Lew">{{cite journal |last=Lew |first=Christopher |title=Tracing the origin of the coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) |url=https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/sites/prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/files/sitewide/Tracing%20the%20origin%20of%20the%20coconut%20%28Cocos%20nucifera%20L.%29.pdf |journal=Prized Writing 2018–2019 |publisher=[[University of California, Davis]] |pages=143–157 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623220429/https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/sites/prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/files/sitewide/Tracing%20the%20origin%20of%20the%20coconut%20%28Cocos%20nucifera%20L.%29.pdf |archive-date=23 June 2021 |access-date=22 April 2021}}</ref>

The [[Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club]] of [[New Orleans]] traditionally throws hand-decorated coconuts, one of the most valuable [[Mardi Gras]] souvenirs, to parade revelers. The tradition began in the 1910s, and has continued since. In 1987, a "coconut law" was signed by Governor [[Edwin Edwards]] exempting from insurance liability any decorated coconut "handed" from a Zulu float.<ref>{{cite news |first=Mike |last=Scott |title=How the Zulu coconut was saved from extinction |date=22 February 2017 |url=https://www.nola.com/300/article_c189dcdb-1ec5-5629-84bb-2a2aaec89457.html |newspaper=[[The Times-Picayune/The New Orleans Advocate|The Times-Picayune]] |access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref>

The coconut is used as a target and prize in the traditional British fairground game [[coconut shy]]. The player buys some small balls which are thrown at coconuts balanced on sticks. The aim is to knock a coconut off the stand and win it.<ref name="harries">{{cite journal |last=Harries |first=Hugh C. |year=2004 |title=Fun Made The Fair Coconut Shy|url=http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2004/vol48n2p77-82.pdf |journal=Palms |publisher=[[International Palm Society]] |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=77–82 |access-date=8 May 2012 |archive-date=23 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723105002/http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2004/vol48n2p77-82.pdf}}</ref>

It was the main food of adherents of the now discontinued Vietnamese [[Coconut Religion]], ''Đạo Dừa''.<ref name="Coconut 1">{{cite web |title=Coconut religion |url=http://vinhthong.info/FAQ/faq_luomlat_CoconutReligion_ConPhung.html |publisher=Vinhthong |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022095309/http://vinhthong.info/FAQ/faq_luomlat_CoconutReligion_ConPhung.html |archive-date=22 October 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013}}</ref>

=== Myths and legends ===

Some South Asian, Southeast Asian, and Pacific Ocean cultures have [[origin myth]]s in which the coconut plays the main role. In the [[Hainuwele]] myth from [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], a girl emerges from the blossom of a coconut tree.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-657 |title=Hainuwele – Oxford Reference |isbn=978-0-19-515669-0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928002738/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-657 |archive-date=28 September 2013 |last=Leeming |first=David |date=17 November 2005 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] }}</ref> In [[Maldivian folklore]], one of the main myths of origin reflects the dependence of the [[Maldivians]] on the coconut tree.<ref name="NIAS Press">[[Xavier Romero-Frias|Romero-Frias, Xavier]] (2012) ''Folk tales of the Maldives'', [http://www.niaspress.dk/catalogue2011/Catalogue_2012.pdf NIAS Press] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528131620/http://www.niaspress.dk/catalogue2011/Catalogue_2012.pdf |date=28 May 2013 }}, {{ISBN|978-87-7694-104-8|978-8776941055}}</ref> In the story of [[Sina and the Eel]], the origin of the coconut is related as the beautiful woman Sina burying an eel, which eventually became the first coconut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livingheritage.org.nz/schools/secondary/marcellin/samoa/eel.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029035259/http://www.livingheritage.org.nz/schools/secondary/marcellin/samoa/eel.php |title=Living Heritage – Marcellin College – Sina and the Eel |archive-date=29 October 2012 |website=livingheritage.org.nz}}</ref>

According to urban legend, [[death by coconut|more deaths are caused by falling coconuts than by sharks]] annually, though the truth is actually the reverse.<ref name="flmnh">{{cite web |title=International Shark Attack File |url=http://www.shark.org.au/quotes.html |publisher=Shark Research Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729014133/http://shark.org.au/quotes.html |archive-date=29 July 2013 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>

=== Early history ===

Literary evidence from the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and [[History of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan chronicles]] indicates that the coconut was present in the [[Indian subcontinent]] before the 1st century BCE.<ref name="BlenchSpriggs1998">{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&q=coconut&pg=PA396 |title=Archaeology and Language: Correlating archaeological and linguistic hypotheses |author2=Matthew Spriggs |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-11761-6 |page=396}}</ref> The earliest direct description is given by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] in his ''[[Topographia Christiana]]'' written around 545, where the coconut is called "the great nut of India".<ref name="Rosengarten">Rosengarten, Frederic Jr. (2004). ''The Book of Edible Nuts''. Dover Publications. pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7CK8LFCcvtcC&pg=PA65 65–93]. {{ISBN|978-0-486-43499-5}}.</ref> Another early mention is the "[[One Thousand and One Nights]]" story of [[Sinbad the Sailor]], who bought and sold a coconut during his fifth voyage.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 November 2009 |title=The Fifth Voyage of Sindbad the Seaman – The Arabian Nights – The Thousand and One Nights – Sir Richard Burton translator |url=http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/arabian/bl-arabian-5sindbad.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225203730/http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/arabian/bl-arabian-5sindbad.htm |archive-date=25 December 2011 |access-date=14 February 2012 |publisher=Classiclit.about.com }}</ref>

In March 1521, [[Antonio Pigafetta]] described the coconut in his journal in Italian with the word "''cocho''", plural "''cochi''". This followed the first European crossing of the Pacific Ocean during the [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] [[circumnavigation]]. He explained how at Guam "they eat coconuts" ("''mangiano cochi''") and that the natives there "anoint the body and the hair with coconut and [[sesame seed|beniseed]] oil" ("''ongieno el corpo et li capili co oleo de cocho et de giongioli''").<ref name="ap">{{cite book |last=Pigafetta |first=Antonio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=283tAAAAMAAJ&q=cocho&pg=PA100 |title=Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Volume 1 (translated by James Alexander Robertson) |publisher=[[Arthur H. Clark Company]] |year=1906 |pages=64–100}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]
* [[Central Plantation Crops Research Institute]]
* [[Coconut production in Kerala]]
* [[Coir Board of India]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===

* {{cite book |ref=Grimwood |last1=Grimwood |first1=B. E. |last2=Ashman |first2=F. |year=1975 |title=Coconut Palm Products: Their Processing in Developing Countries |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fY5hLeJ-WW4C&pg=PA1 |isbn=978-92-5-100853-9}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category multi|Coconuts||Cocos nucifera}}
{{Wikispecies|Cocos nucifera}}

* {{cookbook-inline|Coconut}}

{{Coconut}}
{{Culinary wrappings}}
{{Nuts}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Arecaceae genera}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q13187}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Coconuts|Coconuts]]
[[Category:Edible palms]]
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Siliguri

2026-03-18T07:01:46Z

Davidmam:

{{short description|City in West Bengal, India}}
{{for|the geostrategic chicken's neck|Siliguri Corridor}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Siliguri
| other_name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = bn
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 275
| image_style =
| perrow = 2/2/2/2/2/2
| image3 = Siliguri view.jpg
| image1 = Siliguri view 3.jpg
| image4 = Siliguri view 16.jpg
| image2 = Siliguri view 11.jpg
| image7 = Siliguri city centre.jpg
| image5 = ISKCON Temple, Siliguri, West Bengal, India (2019).jpg
| image6 = Siliguri view 17.jpg
| image8 = River Teesta, Siliguri, West Bengal, India 09032019.jpg
| image9 = Tourism 3.jpg
| image10 = Siliguri view 5.jpg
}}
| image_alt =
| image_caption = '''Clockwise from top left:''' Siliguri aerial view, Science Centre entrance, Ewam India Monastery, [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway|Toy Train]] in Siliguri, [[Teesta River]], Lions Clock Tower, [[Coronation Bridge|Sevoke Roadway Bridge]], Siliguri City Centre, [[ISKCON]] Temple, Siliguri traffic
| image_map = {{maplink|display=|frame=yes|type=shape-inverse|id=Q5087|plain=y|title=Siliguri City|description=|coord=|marker=|zoom=11|icon=no|frame-width=300|fill=#000000|stroke-width=3|frame-height=300|frame-align=center }}
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India3
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal##Location in India
| coordinates = {{coord|26.71|N|88.43|E|display=inline,title}}[1]
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_type3 = No. of [[Ward (electoral subdivision)|Wards]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_name2 = {{plainlist|
*[[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling (62%)]],
*[[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri (38%)]]}}
| subdivision_name3 = 47<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/801638-siliguri-west-bengal.html|title=Siliguri-no. of wards|website=www.census2011.co.in|access-date=2 May 2019|archive-date=2 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502075612/https://www.census2011.co.in/data/town/801638-siliguri-west-bengal.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| established_title =
| established_date = 1994
| nicknames = [[Dooars|Gateway to the Dooars]], [[Northeast India|Gateway of Northeast India]], [[Hospitality|City of Hospitality]]<ref name="Gateway">{{cite web|url=http://www.siliguri.gov.in/|title=Siliguri-The gateway of Northeast India|website=www.siliguri.gov.in|access-date=22 March 2019|archive-date=22 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322202252/http://www.siliguri.gov.in/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipal corporation]]
| governing_body = [[Siliguri Municipal Corporation]]
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = [[Goutam Deb]]
| leader_title1 = Deputy mayor
| leader_name1 = Ranjan Sarkar
| leader_title2 = [[Police Commissioner]]
| leader_name2 = Akhilesh Chaturvedi, IPS
| leader_title3 = Sub Divisional officer
| leader_name3 = Priyanka Singh, IAS
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="Siliguri City">{{cite web|title=Siliguri City|url=https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/Pages/location|website=sjda.org|access-date=23 November 2020|archive-date=7 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207215225/https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/Pages/location|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WBDMA">{{cite web|url=https://www.sudawb.org/wbdma_oldversion/HTM/DIS/MUNI_COR_Siliguri.htm|title=West Bengal Govt. Department of Municipal Affairs|website=Wbdma.gov.in}}</ref>
| area_urban_km2 = 117
| area_urban_footnotes = <ref name="Siliguri City"/>
| area_rank = [[List of metropolitan area in West Bengal|3rd]] in [[West Bengal]]
| area_metro_footnotes = <ref name="SJDA">{{cite web|title=SJDA|url=https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/Pages/about_profile|website=sjda.org|access-date=23 November 2020|archive-date=1 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201121554/https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/Pages/about_profile|url-status=live}}</ref>
| area_metro_km2 = 2222
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_min_m = 114
| population_total = 513264<ref name="siligurismc.in">{{cite web |url=http://www.siligurismc.in/ |title=Welcome to Siliguri Municipal Corporation, Siliguri, West Bengal |access-date=8 June 2019 |archive-date=8 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608092516/http://www.siligurismc.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes = <ref name="WBDMA"/><ref name="censusindia">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/1901_PART_B_DCHB_DARJILING.pdf |title=District Census Handbook Darjiling |work=District Primary Census Abstract, Census of India 2011 |publisher=censusindia.gov |access-date=6 October 2020 |archive-date=10 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010204206/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/1901_PART_B_DCHB_DARJILING.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_urban = 701,489
| population_urban_footnotes = <ref name="censusindia1">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |title=Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |publisher=censusindia.gov |access-date=21 October 2011 |archive-date=13 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113152754/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank = [[List of metropolitan area in West Bengal|3rd]] in [[West Bengal]]
| population_blank1_title = City rank
| population_blank1 = [[List of cities in India by population|89th]] in [[India]]
| population_metro =
| population_metro_footnotes = <ref name="SJDA"/>
| population_demonym =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 734 001-734 015 (city limits), 734 401-734 436(suburbs), 735 133-735 135
| area_code = 0353, 0354
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = WB 73/74[2]
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Darjeeling (Lok Sabha constituency)|Darjeeling]], [[Jalpaiguri (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jalpaiguri]]
| website = {{URL|www.siligurismc.in}}, {{URL|www.siliguri.gov.in}}
| footnotes = [1]The coordinates given here are in metric system and based upon the Microsoft Encarta Reference Library Map Center 2005.
[2]The Vehicle Code given here is based upon the Siliguri Sub-Divisional Court, Darjeeling District Court and Jalpaiguri District Court documentations.
| elevation_max_m = 140
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<ref name="wblangoff">{{cite web|title=Fact and Figures|url=https://wb.gov.in/portal/web/guest/facts-and-figures;jsessionid=JzdD9RHb7aMY5esZPtcsIVLy|website=Wb.gov.in|access-date=10 March 2019|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614062657/https://wb.gov.in/404-page.aspx?aspxerrorpath=%2Fportal%2Fweb%2Fguest%2F404-page.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India|url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|website=Nclm.nic.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]]|access-date=10 March 2019|page=85|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>
| demographics1_title2 = Additional official
| demographics1_info2 = English<ref name="wblangoff"/>
| blank2_name_sec1 = Literacy
| blank2_info_sec1 = 85.46%<ref name=Cities1Lakhandabove/>
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank3_info_sec1 = 1000[[male|♂]]/951[[female|♀]]<ref name=Cities1Lakhandabove>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf| title=Cities having population 1 lakh and above-sex ratio |work=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |page=5 |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203014453/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2022}}</ref>
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank4_info_sec1 = [[Siliguri (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Siliguri]], [[Dabgram-Phulbari (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dabgram-Phulbari]], [[Matigara-Naxalbari (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Matigara-Naxalbari]], [[Phansidewa Assembly constituency|Phansidewa]]
| blank1_name_sec2 = Police
| blank1_info_sec2 = [[Siliguri Police Commissionerate]]
}}

'''Siliguri''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|ˈ|l|i|ˌ|ɡ|ʊ|r|i}}, {{IPA|bn|ʃiliɡuɽi}}; {{IPA|||lang|siliguri.ogg}}), also known as '''Shiliguri''',<ref>{{cite book |title=Faultlines |date=2002 |publisher=Institute for Conflict Management |isbn=978-81-87553-12-0 |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FoXaAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Shiliguri%22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Thapar |first1=Santushti Raj |title=A Snapshot on India and its Neighbourhood Relationships |date=29 January 2022 |publisher=FanatiXx Publication |page=185 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=or9bEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Shiliguri%22&pg=PA185 |language=en}}</ref> is a major [[Tier ii cities in india|tier-II]] city in [[West Bengal]]. It forms the [[twin cities|Twin Cities]] with the neighbouring city of [[Jalpaiguri]]. The city spans areas of the [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]] and [[Jalpaiguri district]]s in the Indian [[states and territories of India|state]] of West Bengal. Known as the ''"Gateway of Northeast India"'',<ref name="Gateway"/><ref>{{cite magazine |last1=C.K |first1=Venugopal |title=Siliguri – The Gateway to North- East |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/travel/outside-kerala/2018/06/30/siliguri-the-gateway-to-north-east.html |access-date=12 July 2022 |magazine=OnManorama |date=24 January 2015 |archive-date=12 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712115253/https://www.onmanorama.com/travel/outside-kerala/2018/06/30/siliguri-the-gateway-to-north-east.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is located on the banks of the [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]] in the foothills of the [[Himalayas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wbtourismgov.in/destination/place/siliguri|title=Siliguri-about location|website=www.wbtourismgov.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430122553/https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/place/siliguri|url-status=dead}}</ref> Siliguri is the [[List of metropolitan area in West Bengal|third]] largest [[urban agglomeration]] in West Bengal, after [[Kolkata]] and [[Asansol]].<ref name=":2">{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title = Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122151653/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |archive-date=22 November 2020 |access-date = 23 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siliguri.gov.in/|title=Siliguri-description|website=www.siliguri.gov.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608233132/http://www.siliguri.gov.in/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Siliguri has great strategic importance in West Bengal, with convenient access to three international borders: [[India–Nepal border|Nepal]], [[Bangladesh–India border|Bangladesh]] and [[Bhutan–India border|Bhutan]]. It also connects the North-East with mainland India. Located in the foothills of [[Eastern Himalaya]]s, Siliguri is a significant trading and transportation hub.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Siliguri-SMC |url=http://www.siligurismc.in/history-of-siliguri.php |access-date=4 August 2019 |archive-date=22 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622223257/http://www.siligurismc.in/history-of-siliguri.php |url-status=live}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:BAYLEY(1838) Map of the Country between Titaleea and Dorjeling.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Map of Darjeeling district (1838) during regime of [[Chogyal|Rajah of Sikkim]]]]

===Etymology===
[[File:Historical Map of Sikkim in northeastern India.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Map of Darjeeling district (1876) after being considered a "regulated area" by the British government]]

According to Sailen Debnath, "Siliguri" means a stack of pebbles or stones. Until the 19th century this region was called as "Shilchaguri" when there was dense Dolka forest covering the region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-01 |title=History of Siliguri |url=https://www.siligurionline.in/guide/history-of-siliguri }}</ref>

===Modern history===
Siliguri was a small agricultural village in the [[Kingdom of Sikkim]]. It was captured by the [[Kingdom of Nepal]] in 1788, after which [[Kirati people|Kirati]] and [[Lepcha people|Lepchas]] came to settle in this region.<ref name="History of Siliguri">{{cite web |date=2018 |title=Handbook on Siliguri |url=http://asiscwb.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Siliguri-Handbook-1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520082216/http://asiscwb.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Siliguri-Handbook-1.pdf |archive-date=20 May 2019 |access-date= |website=asiscwb.org |publisher=Association of Schools for the Indian Schools Certificate}}</ref>

At that time a river port on [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]], South of Siliguri in [[Phansidewa]] had an important role in having trade bond with [[Malda City|Malda]], [[Bengal]] and [[Bihar]]. This riverine trade line was thus used by the [[Bhutan]]ese and [[Sikkimese people|Sikkimese]] to bring goods into their mainland.

Siliguri started as a small area in the northern part of city, on the front of [[Mahananda River]], which is now Dagapur. The [[Treaty of Sugauli]] in 1816, signed between Britain-Nepal, changed the prospects of Siliguri, and it became a point of transit for the [[Darjeeling]] hills and [[Nepal]] mainland. From 1816 onwards, Siliguri started growing rapidly as a small city due to its strategic location in trade routes. In 1865, the British captured Darjeeling and the entire [[Dooars]] region to build tea plantations and export the produce to England. To scale up exportation they introduced the [[Siliguri Town railway station]] which stands to this day, and introduced the [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway|Toy train]] from the station to Darjeeling in 1880. This helped Siliguri gain sub-divisional town status in 1907.<ref name="Historical profile of Siliguri">{{cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1GvGAG4dYG7qzx6amp2EQYoeahm8EnuSK/view?usp=drivesdk.pdf|title=Modern history of Siliguri|access-date=30 April 2019|archive-date=22 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422181608/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1GvGAG4dYG7qzx6amp2EQYoeahm8EnuSK/view?usp=drivesdk.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:History 1a.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway|Toy train]] passing through Siliguri after independence, in 1955]]

The [[Siliguri Corridor]] was formed when [[Bengal]] was divided into [[West Bengal]] and [[East Pakistan]] (later Bangladesh) in 1947, with Sikkim later merging with India in 1975.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sikkim Voters OK Merger With India |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1755&dat=19750416&id=vDogAAAAIBAJ&pg=7319,25549 |newspaper=Sarasota Herald-Tribune |date=16 April 1975 |access-date=20 May 2019 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121042224/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1755&dat=19750416&id=vDogAAAAIBAJ&pg=7319,25549 |url-status=live }}</ref> At this point many immigrants came to settle here for better infrastructure, which led to an increased population. Later in 1950 Siliguri achieved municipal status.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siligurismc.in/about-us.php|title=About Siliguri municipal corporation|website=www.siligurismc.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608092419/http://www.siligurismc.in/about-us.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Keeping in mind the importance of Siliguri, in 1951, the Assam rail link was established with newly made (1949) [[Meter gauge]] [[Siliguri Junction railway station]]. After few years in 1961 all these stations were connected with broad gauge [[New Jalpaiguri Junction railway station]] which later became the most important railway station in Northeast India.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=9788186860441|author=Sailen Debnath|title=The Dooars in Historical Transition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K1viSAAACAAJ|date=January 2010|publisher=N.L. Publishers|access-date=10 August 2020|archive-date=30 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330041917/https://books.google.com/books?id=K1viSAAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

Due to tremendous growth, Siliguri is now far away from its past outlook, becoming the largest and fastest growing city in eastern India after [[Guwahati]]. The growth rate of Siliguri was 57.8% during 1971- 1981. Considering this growth, Siliguri came under the Integrated Urban Development Project program in 1981. Siliguri population growth rate rose to 46.8% of 1981–1991. A treaty between India and China for trade through [[Nathu La|Nathu La Pass]], has expedited development and prospects of Siliguri as an international transportation and logistics hub. Later in 1994 Siliguri built a Municipal corporation which has been responsible for the civic infrastructure and administration of the city of Siliguri. Siliguri has now achieved the status of becoming the [[List of metropolitan area in West Bengal|third-largest]] city in [[West Bengal]], after [[Kolkata]] and [[Asansol]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siliguri.gov.in/|title=Siliguri in recent days|website=www.siliguri.gov.in|access-date=30 April 2019|archive-date=1 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501001830/http://siliguri.gov.in/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Geography ==
===Location===
[[File:Kanchenjunga Sevoke Road.jpg|thumb|[[Kangchenjunga]] in an early August morning in Siliguri]]
Siliguri is located at the foothills of the eastern Himalayas at a location of {{coord|26.71|N|88.43|E|}}. The city is spread over an area of {{convert|260|sqkm|sqmi|abbr=on}} within the [[Siliguri Corridor]]. The city is bordered by dense forests to the north and the [[Mahananda River]] flows through the city, thereby bisecting it into two halves, while the [[Teesta River]] flows on its eastern border. Siliguri has an average elevation of 122 metres (400 feet).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en-in.topographic-map.com/places/Siliguri-9244903/|title=Topographic map of Siliguri|website=www.topographic-map.com|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=30 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330041915/https://en-in.topographic-map.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> As Siliguri is located in the [[Terai]] region, the soil is [[sand]]y in nature with the ratio of sand and silt much higher than clay. This region is very prone to earthquakes as there are several fault lines nearby.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/5-0-magnitude-earthquake-jolts-sikkim-and-parts-of-darjeeling-642797.html|title=Earthquake jolts Sikkim and part of Darjeeling|website=www.news18.com|date=3 October 2013|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=12 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012152833/https://www.news18.com/news/india/5-0-magnitude-earthquake-jolts-sikkim-and-parts-of-darjeeling-642797.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Magnitude 6.9 – SIKKIM, INDIA |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqsww/Quakes/usc0005wg6.php |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |date=18 September 2011 |access-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921163147/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqsww/Quakes/usc0005wg6.php |archive-date=21 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.india.com/news/india/earthquake-in-nepal-and-northern-india-2015-quake-kills-two-injures-20-in-bengal-364193/|title=7.9 magnitude earthquake effected Siliguri heavily|website=www.india.com|access-date=21 May 2019|date=25 April 2015|archive-date=5 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205110228/https://www.india.com/news/india/earthquake-in-nepal-and-northern-india-2015-quake-kills-two-injures-20-in-bengal-364193/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nepal-earthquake-india-cities-high-risk-zone-250460-2015-04-27|title=38 cities in India fall in high risk earthquake zones|website=www.indiatoday.in|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=13 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113230617/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/nepal-earthquake-india-cities-high-risk-zone-250460-2015-04-27|url-status=live}}</ref>
The [[Siliguri subdivision]] is bordered by Himalayan ranges to its north, [[Bangladesh]] to the south-east, [[Uttar Dinajpur]] district of [[West Bengal]] to the south and the Indian state of [[Bihar]] to the south-west. To the east lies [[Jalpaiguri district]], north-east the [[Kalimpong district]], and [[Nepal]] to the west.<ref name="SiliguriAbout">{{cite web |url=http://www.siliguri.gov.in/about.html |title=About Siliguri Subdivision |website=Siliguri.gov.in |access-date=10 March 2019 |archive-date=13 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313030346/http://www.siliguri.gov.in/about.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:The mighty Mountains Siliguri.jpg|thumb|Mountains visible in a clear November morning]]

=== Climate ===
Siliguri has a [[humid subtropical climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen:]] ''Cwa''). Hot, humid summers, pleasant to warm winters and a severe monsoon define Siliguri's climate.

====Temperature====
The average annual temperature in Siliguri is {{convert|23.2|°C|°F|disp=or}}. In summer, the temperature varies from a minimum between {{convert|20|and|24|°C|°F}} to a maximum between {{convert|29|and|35|°C}}.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.weatheronline.in/weather/maps/city?WMO=42398&CONT=inin&LAND=IWB&ART=MAX&LEVEL=150|title=Climate of Siliguri|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408051042/https://www.weatheronline.in/weather/maps/city?WMO=42398&CONT=inin&LAND=IWB&ART=MAX&LEVEL=150|url-status=live}}</ref> The temperature of the hottest month, August, is {{convert|27.1|°C|°F|disp=or}}, and temperatures in peak summer sometimes exceeds {{convert|38|°C|°F|disp=or}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/district/north-bengal/siliguri-burning-in-scorching-heat-1.1028383|title=Siliguri burning in schorching heat|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929203506/https://www.anandabazar.com/district/north-bengal/siliguri-burning-in-scorching-heat-1.1028383|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/june-celsius-scorches-siliguri-hope-for-rain-in-48-hours-as-town-swelters-at-37c/cid/178909|title=Siliguri crossed 36 yesterday|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=22 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422181608/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/june-celsius-scorches-siliguri-hope-for-rain-in-48-hours-as-town-swelters-at-37c/cid/178909|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/state/siliguri-facing-trouble-in-scorching-heat-damaging-tea-leaves-in-doors-1.184013|title=গরমে নাকাল শিলিগুড়ি|access-date=13 October 2020|archive-date=12 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112085924/https://www.anandabazar.com/state/siliguri-facing-trouble-in-scorching-heat-damaging-tea-leaves-in-doors-1.184013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://siliguritimes.com/heatwave-likely-to-trouble-people-of-siliguri-for-few-more-days/|title=Heatwave likely to trouble people of Siliguri for few more days|date=5 August 2020|access-date=2 November 2020|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408051042/https://siliguritimes.com/heatwave-likely-to-trouble-people-of-siliguri-for-few-more-days/|url-status=live}}</ref> On the other hand, the winter maximum temperature hovers around {{convert|20|to|25|°C|°F}}, and the minimum drops to between {{convert|6|and|9|°C|°F}}.<ref name="auto"/> January is the coolest month with an average temperature of {{convert|16.4|°C|°F|1|disp=or}}. The minimum temperature in winter season sometimes drops to or below {{convert|5|°C|°F|disp=or}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.anandabazar.com/archive/1130111/11uttar5.html|title=শীতে কাঁপছে উত্তরবঙ্গ, শিলিগুড়িতে পারদ নামল ৩ ডিগ্রিতে|access-date=12 October 2020|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408051041/http://archives.anandabazar.com/archive/1130111/11uttar5.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/jalpaiguri-shivers-in-30-year-low-relief-from-cold-not-today-says-met-office/cid/348947|title=Siliguri Jalpaiguri shivers from cold|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=22 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422182141/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/jalpaiguri-shivers-in-30-year-low-relief-from-cold-not-today-says-met-office/cid/348947|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://aajkaal.in/news/northbengal/siliguri-zszx|title=৪.৪ ডিগ্রি! শিলিগুড়ির চাই রুম হিটার|access-date=11 October 2020|archive-date=20 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820110449/https://aajkaal.in/news/northbengal/siliguri-zszx|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bengali.indianexpress.com/photos/west-bengal/west-bengal-weather-updates-kolkata-winter-temperature-today-175603/|title=রেকর্ড পতন পারদের, কোথায় তাপমাত্রা কত?|date=28 December 2019|access-date=20 October 2020|archive-date=21 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021195358/https://bengali.indianexpress.com/photos/west-bengal/west-bengal-weather-updates-kolkata-winter-temperature-today-175603/|url-status=live}}</ref> The highest temperature ever recorded in Siliguri was {{convert|41.9|°C|°F|1|disp=or}} on 7 June 2023,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bengali.oneindia.com/news/west-bengal/weather-news-darjeeling-beats-west-bengal-highest-temperature-bagdogra-41-9-wednesday-190346.html|title=জ্বলছে পাহাড়, ইতিহাসে আজ উষ্ণতম শিলিগুড়ি|access-date=7 June 2023|archive-date=8 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608162137/https://bengali.oneindia.com/news/west-bengal/weather-news-darjeeling-beats-west-bengal-highest-temperature-bagdogra-41-9-wednesday-190346.html|url-status=live}}</ref> while the lowest was {{convert|1.9|°C|°F|1|disp=or}}, recorded on 8 January 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/district/north-bengal/cold-wave-in-ub-1.738273|title=রেকর্ড শীত সমতলে, শিলিগুড়ির পারদ নামল ১.৯ ডিগ্রিতে|access-date=12 October 2020|archive-date=22 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122111336/https://www.anandabazar.com/district/north-bengal/cold-wave-in-ub-1.738273|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weatheronline.in/weather/maps/city|title=Siliguri min. temperature January 2018|access-date=12 October 2020|archive-date=24 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124190438/https://www.weatheronline.in/weather/maps/city|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Rainfall and other conditions====
On average, Siliguri gets more than {{convert|3000|mm|in|-1|disp=or}} of rainfall annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weatheronline.in/weather/maps/city?LANG=in&PLZ=_____&PLZN=_____&WMO=42398&PAG=1&CONT=inin&LEVEL=160&REGION=0024&LAND=II&INFO=0&R=0&NOREGION=1|title=Rainfall in Siliguri|access-date=12 October 2020|archive-date=18 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018211834/https://www.weatheronline.in/weather/maps/city?LANG=in&PLZ=_____&PLZN=_____&WMO=42398&PAG=1&CONT=inin&LEVEL=160&REGION=0024&LAND=II&INFO=0&R=0&NOREGION=1|url-status=live}}</ref> Winters are mostly dry, with the summers being rainy. About eighty percent of the annual rainfall occurs during [[monsoon of South Asia|the monsoon]] or rainy season between June and September. Heavy showers are often felt in May,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kolkata24x7.com/heavy-rain-occurred-at-many-places-of-northbengal/|title=প্রবল বৃষ্টিতে ভাসছে উত্তরবঙ্গ, কার্যত বৃষ্টিহীন দক্ষিণ|access-date=12 October 2020|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017080158/https://www.kolkata24x7.com/heavy-rain-occurred-at-many-places-of-northbengal/|url-status=dead}}</ref> June,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.skymetweather.com/content/weather-news-and-analysis/good-monsoon-rains-in-siliguri-and-jalpaiguri-kolkata-to-see-rains-around-june-30/|title=Good Monsoon rains in Siliguri and Jalpaiguri|date=26 June 2019|access-date=15 October 2020|archive-date=19 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019105544/https://www.skymetweather.com/content/weather-news-and-analysis/good-monsoon-rains-in-siliguri-and-jalpaiguri-kolkata-to-see-rains-around-june-30/|url-status=live}}</ref> July,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Heavy-rainfall-floods-N-Bengal/articleshow/53372097.cms|title=Heavy rain floods in North Bengal|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=25 July 2016|access-date=15 October 2020|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027181249/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Heavy-rainfall-floods-N-Bengal/articleshow/53372097.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> August and September.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/state/raining-in-north-bengal-south-bengal-want-rain-1.157982|title=ভাসছে উত্তর, বৃষ্টির প্রতীক্ষায় দক্ষিণবঙ্গ|access-date=12 October 2020|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101124901/https://www.anandabazar.com/state/raining-in-north-bengal-south-bengal-want-rain-1.157982|url-status=live}}</ref> July is the wettest month ({{convert|804|mm|in|sigfig=2|disp=or}}) and January the driest ({{convert|12|mm|in|sigfig=2|disp=or}}). The average rainy days in July is 27 and for December and January it is 1. Humidity is high throughout the year.
[[File:Monsoon in Siliguri 2.jpg|thumb|Siliguri in Monsoon (September 2024)]]

{{Siliguri weatherbox}}

== Demographics ==
{{Historical population
| align = center
| source = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.macrotrends.net/cities/21405/siliguri/population|title=Siliguri, India Metro Area Population 1950-2020|access-date=16 August 2020|archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922043902/https://www.macrotrends.net/cities/21405/siliguri/population|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 1951 | 33000
| 1961 | 66000
| 1971 | 100000
| 1981 | 234000
| 1991 | 367000
| 2001 | 479000
| 2011 | 701489
}}
{{Pie chart
|caption = Religions of Siliguri (2011)<ref name="Religion" />
|label1 = [[Hinduism in West Bengal|Hinduism]] |value1 = 91.98 |color1 = orange
|label2 = [[Islam in West Bengal|Islam]] |value2 = 5.37|color2 = green
|label3 = [[Christianity]] |value3 = 0.94|color3 = dodgerblue
|label4 = [[Buddhism]] |value4 = 0.65|color4 = yellow
|label5 = Other or no religion |value5 = 1.05|color5 = black
|thumb = right
}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = left
|caption = Languages of Siliguri (2011)<ref name="Lang2011">{{cite web |title=C-16 Population By Mother Tongue - Town level |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16T/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-1900.XLSX |website=census.gov.in |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=8 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208005025/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16T/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-1900.XLSX |url-status=live }}</ref>
|label1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |value1 = 60.88 |color1 = orchid
|label2 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]] |value2 = 25.24 |color2 = orange
|label3 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]] |value3 = 4.66 |color3 = lightcoral
|label4 = [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] |value4 = 2.39 |color4 = gold
|label5 = [[Marwari language|Marwari]] |value5 = 1.58 |color5 = maroon
|label6 = [[Urdu]] |value6 = 1.24 |color6 = green
|label7 = Others |value7 = 4.01 |color7 = grey
}}

Based on the Census data of 2011, the population of Siliguri UA/Metropolitan (including Siliguri municipal corporation and Dabagram municipality) is 701,489, while the population in the Municipal corporation area is 513,264.<ref name="siligurismc.in"/><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=District Census Handbook Darjiling|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/1901_PART_B_DCHB_DARJILING.pdf|access-date=6 October 2020|website=Census India|archive-date=10 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010204206/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/1901_PART_B_DCHB_DARJILING.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Males constitute 51.44% of the population and females 48.55%. Population shares of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe category persons in Siliguri municipal area are 8.84% and 1.25% respectively. The literacy rate in Siliguri is 77.64%.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="censusindia1" /> There are 154 notified and 31 non-notified slums in Siliguri, where 32% of Siliguri's population lives.<ref name=":1" />

===Languages===
Bengali is the official language in [[Siliguri subdivision]], including Siliguri city.<ref>{{Cite web|title=West Bengal Official Language Act, 1961|url=http://www.wbja.nic.in/wbja_adm/files/The%20Bengal%20Official%20Language%20Act,%201961_1.pdf|access-date=7 October 2020|website=West Bengal Judicial Academy|archive-date=18 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918234648/http://wbja.nic.in/wbja_adm/files/The%20Bengal%20Official%20Language%20Act,%201961_1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the municipal corporation at the time of the 2011 census, 60.88% of the population spoke [[Bengali language|Bengali]], 25.24% [[Hindi]], 4.66% [[Nepali language|Nepali]], 2.39% [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], 1.58% [[Marwari language|Marwari]] and 1.24% [[Urdu]] as their first language.<ref name="Lang2011" />

[[Bengalis]] form the majority linguistic group in the city, followed by [[Biharis]] (including [[Bhojpuri people|Bhojpuriyas]]), [[Marwaris]], [[Punjabis]], [[Indian Gorkha|Nepalis]], [[Odias]], and [[Adivasi|Tribals]]. According to a 2001 thesis, Bengali speakers constituted 64.25% of the total population. Of the 30 wards in 2001, their population ranged from 11.71% to 98.96%.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Majumdar |first1=Sudipta |date=2001 |title=Siliguri : An Urban Study In Socio-economic Considerations |journal=Department of Geography and Applied Geography, University of North Bengal |url=https://ir.nbu.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/1141/17/164040.pdf |access-date=18 August 2022 |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818103816/https://ir.nbu.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/1141/17/164040.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Religion===
The most common religion in Siliguri is [[Hinduism]], with [[Islam]] being the largest minority religion, followed by small percentages of adherents to [[Christianity]] and [[Buddhism]].<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=C-1 Population By Religious Community |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW19C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=census.gov.in |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121012713/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW19C-01%20MDDS.XLS |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Governance and politics ==
=== Civic administration ===
[[File:Siliguri Sub divisional Court 01.jpg|left|thumb|Siliguri Sub divisional Court]]
Siliguri saw rapid urbanisation under the British rule and that was reflected in its local governance as well. The earliest form of local urban governance was a Sanitation Committee set up in 1915.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Das|first=Chinmayakar|title=People Governance and development a study of Siliguri Municipal corporation area|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/137085|access-date=30 September 2020|website=Shodhganga|hdl=10603/137085|archive-date=17 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417093921/http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/137085|url-status=live}}</ref> Its function was to dispose of night soil. Until 1921, most aspects of local governance in Darjeeling district, including Siliguri, were looked after by the Darjeeling Improvement Fund. In 1922, Siliguri Local Board with nominated members was created under the Bengal Local Self Government Act, 1885. In 1938, the Union Board was set up in Siliguri under the Bengal Village Self-Government Act, 1919 and it provided public utilities in the city.

The [[Municipal Council (India)|Municipal Council]] was set up in 1949 under the Bengal Municipal Act of 1932 with 8 wards.<ref name=":0" /> The first chairperson of the municipality was the Sub Divisional Officer, and the local councillors, called 'commissioners' in the then municipal act in effect, were nominated by the state government. After the amendment of the act in 1956, 3/4 of the local representatives were elected, while the remaining nominated by the Deputy Commissioner. The first elected chairperson of Siliguri was Jagdish Chandra Bhattacharya.

In 1994, the municipal council was upgraded to the [[Siliguri Municipal Corporation]] with 47 wards.<ref name=":0" /> It had five departments then: General Administration, Collection, License, Public Works and Sanitation and Public Health. As of now, the corporation has 23 departments.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Departments|url=http://siligurismc.in/departments.php|access-date=30 September 2020|website=siligurismc.in|archive-date=29 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929052323/http://www.siligurismc.in/departments.php|url-status=live}}</ref> It has 47 wards, of which 14 wards are in [[Jalpaiguri district|Jalpaiguri]] district, while the remaining 33 wards are in [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]] district.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Siliguri Municipal Corporation :: About Us|url=http://siligurismc.in/about-us.php|access-date=30 September 2020|website=siligurismc.in|archive-date=29 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029134121/http://www.siligurismc.in/about-us.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The last municipal elections were held on 2015, when [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] won 23 seats, [[All India Trinamool Congress]] won 17 seats, [[Indian National Congress]] won 5 seats, [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] won 2 seats, while an independent candidate won 1 seat.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Iqbal|first=Aadil Ikram Zaki|date=28 April 2015|title=West Bengal municipal corporation result 2015: Trinamool Congress wins 70 municipalities including KMC, BJP fails|url=https://www.india.com/news/india/west-bengal-municipal-corporation-result-2015-trinamool-congress-wins-70-municipalities-including-kmc-bjp-fails-367601/|access-date=30 September 2020|newspaper=India.com | Top Latest News from India, USA and Top National Breaking News Stories|language=en|archive-date=15 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415053025/https://www.india.com/news/india/west-bengal-municipal-corporation-result-2015-trinamool-congress-wins-70-municipalities-including-kmc-bjp-fails-367601/|url-status=live}}</ref> The mayor of Siliguri for the five-year term from 2015 till 2020 was [[Ashok Bhattacharya]] from [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]], who was later elected as the local [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of Legislative Assembly]] as well.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Civic election results: CPM trumps TMC in Siliguri, but Mamata Banerjee retains supremacy|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/civic-election-results-cpm-trumps-tmc-in-siliguri-but-mamata-banerjee-retains-supremacy/articleshow/49267746.cms|access-date=30 September 2020|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219111142/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/civic-election-results-cpm-trumps-tmc-in-siliguri-but-mamata-banerjee-retains-supremacy/articleshow/49267746.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

The term of the last elected body of Siliguri Municipal Corporation ended on 7 May 2020 but municipal elections could not be held because of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in West Bengal|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Singh|first=Shiv Sahay|date=17 May 2020|title=Mamata govt. accepts CPI(M) demand, drops TMC councillors from Siliguri Municipal Corporation BOA|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-govt-accepts-cpim-demand-drops-tmc-councillors-from-siliguri-municipal-corporation-boa/article31605907.ece|access-date=30 September 2020|issn=0971-751X|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218215418/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/mamata-govt-accepts-cpim-demand-drops-tmc-councillors-from-siliguri-municipal-corporation-boa/article31605907.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> A Board of Administrators was established with the outgoing mayor, Ashok Bhattacharya, as the chairperson. This board will take care of the civic utilities of the city until the new municipal body is elected. This follows the establishment of similar boards first in state capital Kolkata and then the rest of the state.<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 May 2020|title=After KMC, chiefs of 91 municipalities to continue as administrators|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/kmc-chiefs-91-municipalities-continue-administrators-1502888040.html|access-date=30 September 2020|website=The Statesman|language=en-US|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408051041/https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/kmc-chiefs-91-municipalities-continue-administrators-1502888040.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Municipal finance ===

According to financial data published on the CityFinance Portal of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs,<ref>{{cite web |title=Siliguri Municipal Corporation Finance |url=https://www.cityfinance.in/municipal-data/city/siliguri |publisher=CityFinance Portal, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs |access-date=17 March 2026}}</ref> the Siliguri Municipal Corporation reported total revenue receipts of ₹111 crore (US$13 million) and total expenditure of ₹139 crore (US$17 million) in 2022–23. Tax revenue accounted for about 14.4% of the total revenue, while the corporation received ₹42 crore in grants during the financial year.

=== Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha constituency ===
Siliguri is part of the [[Darjeeling (Lok Sabha constituency)|Darjeeling Lok Sabha constituency]]. The last elections for the Lok Sabha took place in [[2024 Indian general election|2024]], when [[Raju Bista]] from Bharatiya Janta Party won the seat.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Darjeeling lok sabha election results 2024: Darjeeling Winning Candidates List and Vote Share |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/lok-sabha/west-bengal/darjeeling-constituency-result-25504 |magazine=India Today |date=4 June 2024 |access-date=19 June 2024}}</ref> The last elections to the West Bengal Vidhan Sabha took place in [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]]. The Member of Legislative Assembly representing [[Siliguri (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Siliguri Vidhan Sabha Constituency]] is [[Sankar Ghosh (politician)|Sankar Ghosh]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sankar Ghosh {{!}} West Bengal Assembly Election Results Live, Candidates News, Videos, Photos |url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2021/west-bengal/sankar-ghosh-siliguri-candidate-s25a026c004/ |access-date=2 April 2022 |work=News18 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402115143/https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2021/west-bengal/sankar-ghosh-siliguri-candidate-s25a026c004/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Civic services and infrastructure ===
[[File:Uttar Kanya, administrative headquarters of North Bengal 04.jpg|left|thumb|[[Uttar Kanya]], the administrative headquarters of North Bengal]]
Building plans in Siliguri are approved by Siliguri Municipal corporation; for building up to 3 storeys including parking, the Borough Offices give clearance, while for buildings with more than 3 storeys, the Building Department gives the approval.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Building Department|url=http://siligurismc.in/building-department.php|access-date=1 September 2020|website=Siliguri Municipal Corporation|archive-date=12 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812000234/http://www.siligurismc.in/building-department.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The present City Development Plan 2041 for Siliguri was developed in 2015 as part of the Capacity Building for Urban Development project under the then [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Ministry of Urban Development]] by the private consultancy, [[CRISIL|CRISIL Risk and Infrastructure Solutions Limited]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=City Development Plan for Siliguri – 2041|url=http://siligurismc.in/userfiles/file/siliguri-CDP-final-report-29April15.pdf|access-date=1 October 2020|website=Siliguri Municipal Corporation|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019204048/http://siligurismc.in/userfiles/file/siliguri-CDP-final-report-29April15.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Siliguri City comes under Siliguri Jalpaiguri Planning Area and the responsibility of planning and development of the city lies with [[Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority]].

The Public Health Engineering Department of the [[Government of West Bengal|state government]] is responsible for developing and maintaining the infrastructure for water supply, while the Water Supply department of the corporation provides new connections, supplies water, and collects the user charges.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Water Supply Department|url=http://siligurismc.in/water-supply-department.php|access-date=1 September 2020|website=Siliguri Municipal Corporation|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808083625/http://www.siligurismc.in/water-supply-department.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The Conservancy Environment Department of the corporation provides Solid Waste Management services in the city.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Conservancy Environment|url=http://siligurismc.in/conservancy-environment.php|access-date=1 September 2020|website=Siliguri Municipal corporation|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808085945/http://www.siligurismc.in/conservancy-environment.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Each ward in the city has its own Solid Waste Management committee that takes care of cleanliness at the ward level.<ref name=":1" /> The Public Works Department of the corporation and [[Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority|Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority (SJDA)]] are both responsible for the construction and maintenance of roads in Siliguri.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Public Works Department|url=http://siligurismc.in/public-works-department-pwd.php|access-date=1 September 2020|website=Siliguri Municipal Corporation|archive-date=8 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808082006/http://www.siligurismc.in/public-works-department-pwd.php|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Completed Projects|url=https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/Pages/completed_projects|access-date=1 September 2020|website=Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority|archive-date=12 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212224555/https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/Pages/completed_projects|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=On Going Projects|url=https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/Pages/ongoing_projects|access-date=1 September 2020|website=Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority|archive-date=14 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214184620/https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/Pages/ongoing_projects|url-status=live}}</ref> Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority also prepared the Traffic & Transportation Master Plan 2030 and the Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Siliguri Jalpaiguri Planning Area.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Notice No. 11113-14/ Plg/ SJDA dated 04.07.2013|url=https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/AdminViews/images/3211.pdf|access-date=1 September 2020|website=Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority|archive-date=31 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331062702/https://www.sjda.org/SJDA/AdminViews/images/3211.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Flora and fauna ==
=== Flora ===
[[File:Flora fauna 6.jpg|thumb|left|Native orchid]]
[[File:Flora fauna 7.jpg|thumb|Sukna forest, Siliguri]]

Siliguri and the surrounding sub-Himalayan forests are rich in both their flora and fauna biodiversity. The plains of North Bengal (Siliguri, [[Jalpaiguri]], [[Cooch Behar]] etc.) are surrounded by deep forests, which are home to various common and rare species of native plants. Notably, the forests here are moist [[Tropical]] and characterised by the dense growth of tall Sal ([[Shorea robusta]]) trees. Overall, Sal trees compose about 80% of all the vegetation in these tropical forests.

These forests are broadly categorised according to the dominant plant species in them, such as:

1) East Himalayan Sal Forest, present on the lower slopes of the [[Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary]]. It contains [[Sal (tree)|Sal]], [[Khair]], Simul and [[Sissoo]], alongside riverine grasslands and various rare species of plants like [[Orchids]].

2) [[East Himalaya]]n Upper Bhabar Sal Forest, mainly present in the Jalpaiguri district. It is characterised by a dense population of Microstegium chiliatum and [[Sal (tree)|Sal]]. Other notable species are [[Terminalia tomentosa]] and [[Schima wallichii]].

3) Eastern Tarai Sal Forest, mainly present in lower altitudes compared to the other two types of forest. It is characterised by various species of [[bamboos]] and [[ferns]], alongside [[Sal (tree)|Sal]] which is found in Baikunthapur Forest (near the Siliguri urban area).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.westbengalforest.gov.in/|title=West Bengal Forest Department|website=Westbengalforest.gov.in|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605101303/http://westbengalforest.gov.in/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In recent times, the rapid growth of the city has led to deforestation, much like other urban areas globally. This has in turn made Siliguri's climate warmer, disrupting some of the local ecosystems.

=== Fauna ===
[[File:Flora fauna 2.jpg|thumb|Wild [[Indian elephant]] at [[Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary]]]]

Siliguri is located in the [[Terai]] region of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], which is a belt of marshy grasslands and dense tropical deciduous forests at the base of the Himalayan range. The region is rich in biodiversity, containing numerous rare species of flora and fauna. These forests are especially notable for their distinct variety of wildlife. For example, [[Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary]] near Siliguri is famous for its Indian elephants. Sukna is the gateway to this sanctuary, which is located {{convert|12|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Siliguri.

These sub-Himalayan forests are home to various types of wild animals like the [[elephant]], [[tiger]], [[Indian bison]], [[barking deer]], wild pig, monkey, [[civet]], snake, lizard, mountain goat, [[sambar deer|sambar]], chital and [[fishing cat]]. These forests are also home to about 243 different bird species like the [[Great hornbill|pied hornbill]], [[egret]], kingfisher, drongo, fly catcher, woodpecker and others. Migratory water birds are also a common sight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nbtourism.tripod.com/flora_and_fauna_of_north_bengal.htm|title=FLORA AND FAUNA OF NORTH BENGAL|website=Nbtourism.tripod.com|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=21 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321204805/http://nbtourism.tripod.com/flora_and_fauna_of_north_bengal.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Transport ==
===Roads===
The [[National Highway 27 (India)|NH 27]] crosses through the heart of the city<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nationalhighway.net/asia/national-highway-27-india-nh27/|title=National Highway 27 (India) -NH27|date=15 August 2017|website=Nationalhighway.net|access-date=21 March 2019}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and is now a part of the [[AH2]] project. Siliguri is the origin of the century old Hill Cart Road (also known as) [[National Highway 110 (India)|NH 110]], which connects Siliguri to [[Darjeeling]]<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.nhai.org/Doc/project-offer/Highways.pdf |title = NH wise Details of NH in respect of Stretches entrusted to NHAI |access-date = 8 June 2019 |publisher = [[National Highways Authority of India]] (NHAI) |archive-date = 25 February 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090225142615/http://www.nhai.org/Doc/project-offer/Highways.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> ({{convert|77|km|mi|abbr=on}}) dating from the British period. It is connected to [[Gangtok]] via the [[National Highway 10 (India)|NH 10]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2011/E_574_2012_016.pdf|title=New Numbering of National Highways notification - Government of India|website=[[The Gazette of India]]|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=4 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180504155047/http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2011/E_574_2012_016.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=2924|title=State-wise length of National Highways (NH) in India|website=[[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=4 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604032801/https://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=2924|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[National Highway 12 (India)|NH 12]] which connects Pankhabari with Mirik. Highways [[National Highway 327 (India)|NH 327]] and [[National Highway 327B (India)|NH 327B]] connect Siliguri to [[Panitanki]] and Mechi Bridge. Adjacent countries are connected through the following routes:
* [[Nepal]]: via [[Panitanki]]
* [[Bangladesh]]: via [[Fulbari Upazila|Phulbari]]
* [[China]]: via [[Nathu La|Nathula]]
* [[Bhutan]]: via [[Jaigaon]]

==== Bus services ====
[[File:Transport 4.jpg|thumb|[[Tenzing Norgay Bus Terminus]]]]
* '''Tenzing Norgay Bus Terminus:''' [[Tenzing Norgay Bus Terminus]] is the main bus terminus and serves as a bus depot for both the Government and a private bus service operated by [[NBSTC]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nbstc.in/pages/depot.aspx|title=NBSTC depot|website=nbstc.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608070610/http://nbstc.in/pages/depot.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> It connects to cities in [[Sikkim]], [[Assam]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Meghalaya]] etc. and all other districts and cities in [[West Bengal]] including [[Darjeeling]], [[Kalimpong]], [[Jalpaiguri]], [[Cooch Behar]], [[Alipurduar district|Alipurduar]], [[Malda City|Malda]], [[Balurghat]], [[Raiganj]], [[Dalkhola]], [[Berhampore]], [[Kolkata]], [[Asansol]], [[Suri, Birbhum|Suri]] and the SBSTC headquarters [[Durgapur]] etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbstc.in/index2.aspx|title=NBSTC details information|website=www.nbstc.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608070612/http://www.nbstc.in/index2.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/urban-mission-buses-for-plains/cid/1579280|title=Urban mission buses for plains|website=www.telegraphindia.com|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408052547/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/urban-mission-buses-for-plains/cid/1579280|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Sikkim Nationalised Transport Bus Terminus:''' [[Sikkim Nationalised Transport Bus Terminus (Siliguri)]] is located at the hill-cart road in Siliguri. This bus terminus is operated by the [[Government of Sikkim|Sikkim Government]]. Buses connecting towns and cities of Sikkim are mainly operated from here. This bus terminus is one of the busiest and most important bus termini in the Siliguri area. [[Sikkim Nationalised Transport Bus Terminus (Siliguri)]], which connects [[Sikkim]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sntd.in/PDF/BusSchedule.pdf|title=SNT bus schedule|website=www.sntd.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608070953/http://www.sntd.in/PDF/BusSchedule.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sntd.in/|title=SNT bus terminus|website=www.sntd.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608071614/http://www.sntd.in/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''P. C. Mittal Memorial Bus Terminus:''' [[P.C. Mittal Memorial Bus Terminus]] is a bus terminal located on Sevoke Road, Siliguri, District Darjeeling. Both state owned [[North Bengal State Transport Corporation]] (NBSTC) buses and private buses towards [[Dooars]] areas ply from here.<ref>{{cite web |title=PCM Group of Industries - P.C. Mittal Memorial Bus Terminus |url=http://www.pcmgroup.co.in/csr_bus_terminus.html |website=pcmgroup.co.in |access-date=16 March 2022 |archive-date=9 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909055852/http://www.pcmgroup.co.in/csr_bus_terminus.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Rail===
Being a transportation hub,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/darjeeling/siliguri/ps36109242.cms|title=Siliguri a transportation hub|website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=8 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208233239/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/darjeeling/siliguri/ps36109242.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Siliguri is well connected through railway with almost all parts of the country. There are seven stations that serve the city.
;New Jalpaiguri Junction railway station
[[New Jalpaiguri Junction railway station]], established in 1960<ref name=njp>{{cite web |url=http://www.irfca.org/docs/rinbad-siliguri.html |title=History of New Jalpaiguri Junction |publisher=IRFCA |access-date=6 June 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927053828/https://www.irfca.org/docs/rinbad-siliguri.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ([[station code]]: NJP)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://irfca.org/apps/station_codes/list?alphaname=N&page=2|title=New Jalpaiguri junction station code|publisher=IRFCA|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=13 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120613172546/http://irfca.org/apps/station_codes/list?alphaname=N&page=2|url-status=live}}</ref> is an A1 category<ref name="Statement showing category-wise No. of stations">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/StationRedevelopment/AI%26ACategoryStns.pdf|title=Railway station category|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=28 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128044328/http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/StationRedevelopment/AI%26ACategoryStns.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> broad gauge and narrow gauge railway station under [[Katihar railway division]] of [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone]]. It is the largest railway station of Northeast India serving the city Siliguri. This station is well connected to almost all parts of the country except [[Goa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://erail.in/info/new-jalpaiguri-railway-station-NJP/25225|title=New Jalpaiguri junction railway station-connectivity|website=www.erail.in|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606094945/https://erail.in/info/new-jalpaiguri-railway-station-NJP/25225|url-status=live}}</ref> This station ranked 10th cleanest railway station in India in a 2016 survey<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/india/20160318/2819608.html|title=NFR's NJP ranked 10th cleanest railway station|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605124610/https://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/india/20160318/2819608.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and was among the top 100 booking stations of Indian railway.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://erail.in/info/new-jalpaiguri-railway-station-NJP/25225|title=New Jalpaiguri junction railway station-information|website=www.erail.in|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606094945/https://erail.in/info/new-jalpaiguri-railway-station-NJP/25225|url-status=live}}</ref> Many premium services are available, including India's first Vande Bharat Sleeper Express [[Kamakhya–Howrah Vande Bharat Sleeper Express]], [[Howrah–New Jalpaiguri Vande Bharat Express]], [[New Jalpaiguri - Guwahati Vande Bharat Express]], [[New Jalpaiguri–Patna Vande Bharat Express]], 4 [[Rajdhani Express]], 3 Tourist Vistadome Express, 1 [[Shatabdi Express]], 6 [[Amrit Bharat Express]] and 2 [[Humsafar Express]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/arrivals/new-jalpaiguri-junction-njp/444|title=About New Jalpaiguri junction|website=www.indiarailinfo.com|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605133528/https://indiarailinfo.com/arrivals/new-jalpaiguri-junction-njp/444|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:SGUJ 2.jpg|thumb|[[Siliguri Junction railway station]]]]
;Siliguri Junction
[[Siliguri Junction railway station]] ([[station code]]: SGUJ)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://irfca.org/apps/station_codes/list?alphaname=S&page=3|title=Siliguri junction station code|publisher=IRFCA|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=16 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216050202/http://irfca.org/apps/station_codes/list?alphaname=S&page=3|url-status=live}}</ref> established in 1949<ref name=SGUJ>{{cite web |url=http://www.irfca.org/docs/rinbad-siliguri.html |author=Alastair Boobyer |title=India: the complex history of the junctions at Siliguri and New Jalpaiguri |publisher=IRFCA |access-date=6 June 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927053828/https://www.irfca.org/docs/rinbad-siliguri.html |url-status=live }}</ref> is another major broad gauge and narrow gauge railway station of Siliguri. Until 2011 it was the only triple gauge (broad gauge, meter gauge and narrow gauge) railway station in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irfca.org/docs/rinbad-siliguri.html |title=Surviving as a meter gauge line in the broad gauge era |publisher=IRFCA |access-date=6 June 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927053828/https://www.irfca.org/docs/rinbad-siliguri.html |url-status=live }}</ref> After 2011, the meter gauge was shut down, but the track remains between Siliguri Junction railway station and Bagdogra railway station. Many different cities in India are serviced from this station.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/arrivals/siliguri-junction-sguj/445|title=About Siliguri junction|website=www.indiarailinfo.com|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605133428/https://indiarailinfo.com/arrivals/siliguri-junction-sguj/445|url-status=live}}</ref>

;Siliguri Town railway station
[[Siliguri Town railway station]] is one of the oldest railway station (station code: SGUT)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://irfca.org/apps/station_codes/list?alphaname=S&page=3|title=Siliguri Town station code|publisher=IRFCA|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=16 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216050202/http://irfca.org/apps/station_codes/list?alphaname=S&page=3|url-status=live}}</ref> of the region, opened in 1880<ref>{{cite web|url=https://1001things.org/siliguri-town-railway-station-west-bengal-india/|title=Siliguri Town railway station|access-date=6 June 2019|date=11 August 2014|archive-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606073607/https://1001things.org/siliguri-town-railway-station-west-bengal-india/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irfca.org/docs/rinbad-siliguri.html |author=Alastair Boobyer |title=India: the complex history of Siliguri Town railway station |publisher=IRFCA |access-date=6 June 2019 |archive-date=27 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927053828/https://www.irfca.org/docs/rinbad-siliguri.html |url-status=live }}</ref> for the [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] (Toy train) connecting Siliguri to Darjeeling. Its importance has now lessened with the construction of the Siliguri Junction railway station and New Jalpaiguri junction. [[Siliguri Town railway station]] is also a broad gauge and narrow gauge railway station, and is halting point for 8 trains only.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/departures/siliguri-town-sgut/1602|title=About Siliguri junction|website=www.indiarailinfo.com|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606070416/https://indiarailinfo.com/departures/siliguri-town-sgut/1602|url-status=live}}</ref>

;Bagdogra railway station
[[Bagdogra railway station]] (station code: BORA)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/indian-railway/baghdogra-bora-station|title=Bagdogra railway station code|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606090140/https://www.ndtv.com/indian-railway/baghdogra-bora-station|url-status=live}}</ref> comes under greater Siliguri metropolitan area. It is {{convert|10|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Siliguri junction and is the third largest railway station after NJP and Siliguri Junction. This station serves Bagdogra and adjacent areas. Bagdogra railway station is on the [[Katihar-Siliguri line|Siliguri-Aluabari broad gauge single line]] via [[Thakurganj]]. This station is the halting point for 14 trains.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://amp.indiarailinfo.com/arrivals/bagdogra-bora/5312|title=About Bagdogra railway station|website=www.indiarailinfo.com|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605133455/http://amp.indiarailinfo.com/arrivals/bagdogra-bora/5312|url-status=live}}</ref>

;Gulma railway station
[[Gulma railway station]] Railway (station code: GLMA) is part of the Siliguri Urban area. It is {{convert|12|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Siliguri City center and serves Champasari Anchal and Gulma areas. Gulma railway station is on the [[New Jalpaiguri-Alipurduar-Samuktala Road Line]]. This station is the halting point of 5 trains. Mainly passenger train halt at in this station.

;Matigara railway station
[[Matigara Railway Station]] (station code: MTRA)<ref name="Matigara">{{cite web |title=Matigara Railway Station (MTRA) : Station Code, Time Table, Map, Enquiry |url=https://www.ndtv.com/indian-railway/matigara-mtra-station |website=www.ndtv.com |access-date=12 February 2020 |language=en |archive-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729160318/https://www.ndtv.com/indian-railway/matigara-mtra-station |url-status=live }}</ref> is situated at Mathapari, West Bengal.<ref name="Matigara" /> Trains passing through this station include MLFC - SGUJ DEMU and SGUJ- MLFC DEMU. This station has a single platform and two tracks; one broad gauge line and one metre gauge line.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

;Rangapani railway station
[[Rangapani railway station]] (station code RNI) is part of the greater Siliguri metropolitan area. It is {{convert|14|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Siliguri City center and serves Rangapani and adjacent areas. Rangapani railway station is on the [[Howrah-New Jalpaiguri line]]. This station is a halting point for 2 passenger trains.

=== Air ===
[[File:Bagdogra International Airport - during LGFC - Bhutan 2019 (24).jpg|thumb|Aircraft at [[Bagdogra International Airport]]]]
[[Bagdogra Airport]] is an [[international airport]] located towards the west of Siliguri city, operated as a [[civil enclave]] at AFS Bagdogra of the [[Indian Air Force]]. This airport is a major transport hub in the region, with flights to [[Kolkata]], [[Durgapur]], [[New Delhi]], [[Mumbai]], [[Chennai]], [[Bangalore]], [[Hyderabad]], [[Ahmedabad]], [[Guwahati]], [[Dibrugarh]] and has international connectivity with [[Paro, Bhutan|Paro]] and [[Bangkok]]. The airport also has regular [[helicopter]] services to [[Gangtok]]. Due to its location near [[Darjeeling]] hills and [[Sikkim]], the Bagdogra Airport sees thousands of tourists annually.

Central government of India confirmed [[international airport]] status to this airport in 2002 with limited international operations.<ref>{{cite news| url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/International-status-to-Bagdogra-airport-hailed/articleshow/24001049.cms| title= International status to Bagdogra airport| work= The Times of India| date= 2 October 2002| access-date= 27 April 2019| archive-date= 5 January 2017| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170105110717/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/International-status-to-Bagdogra-airport-hailed/articleshow/24001049.cms| url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Night-landing facility at Bagdogra soon |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/night-landing-facility-at-bagdogra-soon/articleshow/5450515.cms |access-date=23 February 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=16 January 2010 |language=en |archive-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729160318/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata-/Night-landing-facility-at-Bagdogra-soon/articleshow/5450515.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> This is one of the few airports in India with zero sales tax on aviation turbine fuel.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150728/jsp/calcutta/story_34042.jsp#.Vbar1fmqqko|title=Bagdogra backs CM flight path- Tax waiver fuels air traffic growth |last=Mandal |first=Sanjay |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150728095856/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1150728/jsp/calcutta/story_34042.jsp#.VbdSZdj7SUk |archive-date=28 July 2015 |access-date = 27 April 2019}}</ref>

==Educational facilities==
[[File:Super Speciality Block, NBMCH.jpg|thumb|Super Speciality Block, [[North Bengal Medical College]]]]
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Edu 2.jpg
| caption1 = [[North Bengal University]] administrative building.
| image2 = Edu 14.jpg
| caption2 = North Bengal St. Xavier's College.
| image3 = Siliguri_Institute_of_Technology_Campus.jpg
| caption3 = Siliguri Institute of Technology
| image4 = Edu 4.jpg
| caption4 = Don Bosco School, Siliguri.
}}

===University===
* [[University of North Bengal]], since 1962<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siligurismc.in/educational-institutions.php|title=General list of universities in Siliguri|website=www.siligurismc.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608093553/http://www.siligurismc.in/educational-institutions.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Additional District Library, Siliguri 02.jpg|left|thumb|Additional District Library, Siliguri]]

===Colleges===


;General degree colleges<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siligurismc.in/educational-institutions.php|title=General list of colleges in Siliguri|website=www.siligurismc.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608093553/http://www.siligurismc.in/educational-institutions.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Acharya Prafulla Chandra Roy Government College]]
*[[Siliguri College]], Since 1950
*[[Kalipada Ghosh Tarai Mahavidyalaya]]
*[[Munshi Premchand Mahavidyalaya]]
*[[North Bengal St. Xavier's College]]
*[[Gyan Jyoti College]]
*[[Siliguri College of Commerce]]
*[[Siliguri Mahila Mahavidyalaya]]
*[[Surya Sen Mahavidyalaya]]
*[[Salesian College]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.salesiancollege.in/|title=Salesian college, Siliguri|website=www.salesiancollege.in|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-date=16 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516135617/http://www.salesiancollege.in/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

; Medical colleges
*[[North Bengal Medical College and Hospital]], Since 1968
*[[North Bengal Dental College and Hospital]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbdch.in/about.php|title=North Bengal Dental college & hospital - nbdc, nbdch, North Bengal Dental college & hospital, nbdch.in, dental college in siliguri, dental college in hospital|website=Nbdch.in|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430104558/http://www.nbdch.in/about.php|url-status=dead}}</ref>

; Engineering colleges
*[[Siliguri Government Polytechnic]]
*[[Siliguri Institute of Technology]]
*[[Surendra Institute of Engineering & Management]] (2009-2024)

;Other Colleges
*[[Inspiria Knowledge Campus]]

===Schools===


; English Medium Schools
*[[Delhi Public School]] (CBSE)
*Don Bosco School (CISCE)<ref>{{cite web |title=DON BOSCO SCHOOL {{!}} SILIGURI |url=https://dbssiliguri.in/ |website=dbssiliguri.in |access-date=10 April 2024}}</ref>
*[[Techno India Group Public School]] (CBSE)
;Army Schools
*[[Indian Army Public Schools|Army Public School]] (Bengdubi & Khaprail)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apsbengdubi.org/|title=Army Public School, Bengdubi|website=Apsbengdubi.org|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129071019/http://apsbengdubi.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Indian Army Public Schools|Army Public School]], Sukna<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apssukna.com/|title=Army Public School, Sukna|website=Apssukna.com|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=9 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309112449/http://www.apssukna.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[Kendriya Vidyalaya Sevoke Road]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kvsevokeroad.in/|title=Kendriya Vidyalaya, Sevoke Road :: Home Page|website=Kvsevokeroad.in|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314065522/http://www.kvsevokeroad.in/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Media==

; Newspaper: Various [[English language|English]] language [[newspaper]]s including ''[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://epaper.telegraphindia.com/north%20bangal/2019-06-06/72/Page-1.html|title=The Telegraph Siliguri edition epaper|website=epaper.telegraphindia.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408072603/https://epaper.telegraphindia.com/north%20bangal/2019-06-06/72/Page-1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Times of India]]'', ''[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://epaper.thestatesman.com/t/9248|title=The Statesman Siliguri edition|website=www.uttarbangasambad.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607062456/https://epaper.thestatesman.com/t/9248|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Economic Times]]'', and ''[[The Asian Age]]'' are widely circulated throughout the city. Several [[Bengali language|Bengali]] language newspapers including ''[[Uttarbanga Sambad]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uttarbangasambad.in/|title=Uttarbanga Sambad Siliguri edition|website=www.uttarbangasambad.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607062206/http://uttarbangasambad.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Anandabazar Patrika]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/topic/siliguri|title=Anandabazar Patrika Siliguri edition|website=www.anandabazar.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607062239/https://www.anandabazar.com/topic/siliguri|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Bartaman]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartamanpatrika.com/contact.php?cID=39|title=Bartaman Patrika Siliguri edition|website=www.bartamanpatrika.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607063358/http://www.bartamanpatrika.com/contact.php%3FcID%3D39|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Uttarer Saradin'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highmediaindia.com/Media/contact_us.html|title=Uttarer Saradin-High Media Infotainment India Ltd.|website=www.highmediaindia.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=21 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021054719/http://www.highmediaindia.com/Media/contact_us.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Aajkaal]]'', ''Pratidin'', and ''[[Ganashakti]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bangla.ganashakti.co.in/#page1|title=Ganashakti patrika Siliguri edition|website=bangla.ganashakti.co.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=13 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613235544/http://bangla.ganashakti.co.in/#page1|url-status=live}}</ref> and Nepali Paper Himalaya Darpan<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-01 |title=Himalaya Darpan |url=http://epaperhimalayadarpan.com/ |website=Himalaya Darpan}}</ref> are available. The leading Hindi dailies ''[[Prabhat Khabar]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://epaper.prabhatkhabar.com/t/6235/Siliguri-City/?s=si|title=Prabhat Khabar Siliguri edition|website=epaper.prabhatkhabar.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607063759/https://epaper.prabhatkhabar.com/t/6235/Siliguri-City/?s=si|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/news/west-bengal/siliguri/|title=Prabhat Khabar newspaper-Siliguri news|website=epaper.prabhatkhabar.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=3 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703211030/https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/news/west-bengal/siliguri/|url-status=live}}</ref> and ''Janpath Samachar''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janpathsamachar.com/epaper.php?pageid=page1&date=070619|title=Janpath Samachar Siliguri edition epaper|website=www.janpathsamachar.com|access-date=7 June 2019}}</ref> are also published from Siliguri. The online based news portals: ''Siliguri Times'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://siliguritimes.com/category/news/siliguri/amp/|title=SiliguriTimes-news portal|website=www.siliguritimes.com|access-date=26 April 2019|archive-date=8 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408100025/https://siliguritimes.com/category/news/siliguri/amp/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Khabar Arohan'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://khabararohan.in/|title=KhabarArohan|website=www.khabararohan.in|access-date=26 April 2019|archive-date=11 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711073425/https://khabararohan.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Bong Siliguri Times'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bongsiliguritimes.com/ |title=''Bong Siliguri Times'' |access-date=3 July 2020 |archive-date=27 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200627165946/https://bongsiliguritimes.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''CCN News'', ''The Siliguri Journal'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://siligurijournal.com/ |title=''The Siliguri Journal '' |access-date=14 July 2024 |archive-date=3 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240703203849/https://www.siligurijournal.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Siliguri Barta'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.siliguribarta.com/ |title=''Siliguri Barta'' |access-date=3 July 2020 |archive-date=4 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704014258/https://www.siliguribarta.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the ''Times of North'' provide live updates regarding Siliguri and adjacent areas.

;Radio : [[All India Radio]] Siliguri was commissioned in 1963 as an additional station of [[All India Radio|AIR Kolkata]].<ref name="AIR Siliguri-history">{{cite web|url=http://airsiliguri.in/history.html|title=AIR Siliguri-history|website=www.airsiliguri.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=28 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628230518/http://airsiliguri.in/history.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It has two groups of transmitters: high power BEL HMB 140 (AM) -2 [2×100 kW] and medium range GCEL 136 (FM) - 2 [2×5 kW], for broadcasting programs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://airsiliguri.in/technical.html|title=AIR Siliguri-technical information|website=www.airsiliguri.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=30 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330041911/http://airsiliguri.in/technical.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Prantik'' was the first program broadcast from here in 1969.<ref name="AIR Siliguri-history"/> In the course of time many notable individuals like [[Hemanta Mukhopadhyay]], [[Ustad Rashid Khan]], [[Subhash Mukhopadhyay (poet)|Subhas Mukhopadhyay]], [[Shashi Kapoor]], [[Manabendra Mukhopadhyay]], [[Madhuri Chattopadhyay]], and Priya Ranjan Dasmunshi have visited [[All India Radio|AIR]] Siliguri.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://airsiliguri.in/history.html|title=Notable individuals visited AIR Siliguri|website=www.airsiliguri.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=28 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628230518/http://airsiliguri.in/history.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Popular programs executing from here are ''Pratyusha'', ''Yuva Anusthan'', ''Grame Ganje'', ''Mahila Majlis'', ''Mananiyeshu'', ''Sishumahal'' and ''Arogya''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://airsiliguri.in/history.html|title=Programs list of AIR Siliguri|website=www.airsiliguri.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=28 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628230518/http://airsiliguri.in/history.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Two radio channels are operated from [[All India Radio|AIR]] Siliguri through which programs are broadcasting daily:

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%; width:30%;"
|-
! style="background:Pink; color:Black; text-align:center;"| No.
! style="background:Pink; color:Black; text-align:center;"| Name<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airsiliguri.in/station-profile.html|title=AIR Siliguri- broadcasting channels|website=www.airsiliguri.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=28 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628230642/http://airsiliguri.in/station-profile.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
! style="background:Pink; color:Black; text-align:center;"| Frequency<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airsiliguri.in/station-profile.html|title=AIR Siliguri- frequency details|website=www.airsiliguri.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=28 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628230642/http://airsiliguri.in/station-profile.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
! style="background:Pink; color:Black; text-align:center;"| Language
|-
|01|| Primary Channel (PC) || PC: 421.9 Metres 711 kHz (Medium wave) || Bengali
|-
|02|| Vividh Bharati Service (VBS) || VBS: 101.4 MHz (High wave) || Bengali/Hindi
|}

:In addition to the [[All India Radio]], Siliguri has several private FM radio channels:

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; width:30%;"
|-
! style="background:Pink; color:Black; text-align:center;"| No.
! style="background:Pink; color:Black; text-align:center;"| Name<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asiawaves.net/india/west-bengal-radio.htm#siliguri-radio|title=Siliguri FM channels names|website=www.asiawaves.net|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=4 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404040641/https://www.asiawaves.net/india/west-bengal-radio.htm#siliguri-radio|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://radio-asia.org/fm/fm.php?itu=India&region=WB|title=FM stations in West Bengal|website=www.radio-asia.org|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=30 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330042418/https://radio-asia.org/fm/fm.php?itu=India&region=WB|url-status=live}}</ref>
! style="background:Pink; color:Black; text-align:center;"| Frequency<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.asiawaves.net/india/west-bengal-radio.htm#siliguri-radio|title=Siliguri FM channels frequency|website=www.asiawaves.net|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=4 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404040641/https://www.asiawaves.net/india/west-bengal-radio.htm#siliguri-radio|url-status=live}}</ref>
! style="background:Pink; color:Black; text-align:center;"| Language
|-
|01|| Nine FM || 91.9 FM || Hindi
|-
|02|| Radio High<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiohigh927fm.com/|title=Radio High 92.7 FM channel Siliguri|website=www.radiohigh927fm.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330095455/http://www.radiohigh927fm.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> || 92.7 FM || Hindi
|-
|03|| [[Red FM 93.5|Red FM]] || 93.5 FM || Hindi
|-
|04|| Radio Misty || 94.3 FM || Bengali
|-
|05|| Radio Mirchi || 98.3 FM || Bengali
|-
|06|| Air Rainbow<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlineradiofm.in/west-bengal/kurseong/fm-rainbow|title=Air rainbow Kurseong-Siliguri FM channel names|website=www.onlineradiofm.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607070700/https://onlineradiofm.in/west-bengal/kurseong/fm-rainbow|url-status=live}}</ref> || 102.3 FM || Hindi/English
|}

;Television: Siliguri receives almost all the television channels received by rest of the country. Apart from the national terrestrial network [[DD Bangla|Doordarshan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ddbangla.gov.in/|title=DD Bangla-State owned channel|website=www.ddbangla.gov.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607090806/http://www.ddbangla.gov.in/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://doordarshan.gov.in/|title=Doordarshan national|website=www.doordarshan.gov.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=21 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621155510/https://doordarshan.gov.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> cable TV serves most of the houses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://main.trai.gov.in/siliguri-internet-cable-tv-private-limited|title=Siliguri Internet & Cable TV Private Limited|website=main.trai.gov.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607085841/https://main.trai.gov.in/siliguri-internet-cable-tv-private-limited|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cccom.in/|title=CCN Siliguri cable network|website=www.cccom.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607085142/http://www.cccom.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> Siliguri also receives some Nepali<ref>{{cite web|url=https://abntv.in/|title=ABN TV Nepali TV channel|website=www.abntv.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=12 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612170537/http://abntv.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> and Bangladeshi channels too. Siliguri has three local channels: CCN,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cccom.in/|title=CCN Siliguri|website=www.cccom.com|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607085142/http://www.cccom.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> Amar Cable and HTV. There is a TV tower in Kurseong,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://doordarshan.gov.in/west-bengal-1|title=Doordarshan west Bengal stations|website=www.doordarshan.gov.in|access-date=7 June 2019|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607082316/https://doordarshan.gov.in/west-bengal-1|url-status=live}}</ref> about {{convert|25|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Siliguri.

==Sports facilities==
Siliguri hosts numerous sporting events and matches to facilitate developing young athletes from the city. Local clubs in Siliguri that conduct matches include cricket, football, volleyball, swimming, and table-tennis. [[Sports Authority of India]] (SAI) in Kanchenjunga Stadium conducts football and athletics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkfile/File1374.pdf|title=Sports Authority of India-Siliguri|website=www.sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in|access-date=8 June 2019|archive-date=8 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608085554/http://www.sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkfile/File1374.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> With the provision for an international outdoor and indoor stadium, Siliguri has enough opportunities to host national level matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/siliguri-prepares-for-big-battle/cid/1324566|title=Third I-League matches in Kanchanjunga stadium|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408051042/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/siliguri-prepares-for-big-battle/cid/1324566|url-status=live}}</ref> This has led Siliguri to become a prominent city for national champions like [[Mantu Ghosh]], the gold medalist winner in the bi-annual South Asian Games (SAF) for table tennis, [[Ankita Das]],<ref name="champs"/> [[Nandita Saha]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thecgf.com/results/team/6241|title=Table Tennis Team-Women Melbourne 2006|publisher=thecgf.com|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424202644/https://thecgf.com/results/team/6241|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Soumyajit Ghosh]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120513/spectrum/main6.htm|title=The Sunday Tribune - Spectrum|website=www.tribuneindia.com|access-date=25 December 2019|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611044434/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120513/spectrum/main6.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> - another internationally acclaimed table tennis player- and [[Wriddhiman Saha]] – Indian international [[cricket]]er who plays [[First-class cricket|First-class]] and [[Test cricket|Test]] cricket for the [[India national cricket team|Indian national team]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;keeper=1;orderby=player;runsmin1=100;runsval1=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings|title=Wriddhiman Saha stats|website=espncricinfo|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324225552/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;keeper=1;orderby=player;runsmin1=100;runsval1=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings|url-status=live}}</ref> Siliguri has done a tremendous job for Indian table tennis.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/sports/london-olympics-2012/siliguri-hailed-as-bhiwani-of-indian-tt-after-twin-oly-berth_741306.html|title=Siliguri hailed as Bhiwani of Indian TT|access-date=1 May 2019|date=22 April 2012|archive-date=1 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501120647/https://zeenews.india.com/sports/london-olympics-2012/siliguri-hailed-as-bhiwani-of-indian-tt-after-twin-oly-berth_741306.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Bikash Ghosh Memorial Swimming Pool is beside Kanchenjunga Stadium in the city, and conducts swimming competitions. White water rafting is done nearby in the [[Teesta River]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darjeeling-tourism.com/darj_0000f1.htm|title=white water rafting in Teesta river|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=1 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501133126/https://www.darjeeling-tourism.com/darj_0000f1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| image1 = Sports 6.jpg|caption1=U-19 football tournament at [[Kanchenjunga Stadium]], Siliguri
| image2 = Sports 2.jpg|caption2=Municipal corporation indoor stadium}}

===Kanchenjunga Stadium===
{{main|Kanchenjunga Stadium}}
Kanchenjunga Stadium, a multipurpose stadium, is the main stadium in Siliguri,<ref>{{cite web | title = Kanchenjunga Stadium in Siliguri, a multipurpose stadium | publisher = World Stadiums | url = http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_pictures/asia/india/siliguri_kanchenjunga.shtml | access-date = 1 May 2019 | archive-date = 8 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211008180610/http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_pictures/asia/india/siliguri_kanchenjunga.shtml | url-status = live }}</ref> and is primarily used for football matches, although it has also hosted several cricket matches. It has a seating capacity of 30,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.millenniumpost.in/kolkata/kanchenjunga-stadium-set-to-get-a-facelift-342689|title=Kunchenjunga stadium-about|website=www.mellenniumpost.in|access-date=1 May 2019|date=27 February 2019|archive-date=1 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501102605/http://www.millenniumpost.in/kolkata/kanchenjunga-stadium-set-to-get-a-facelift-342689|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Football:'''
*This stadium hosted the [[Federation Cup (India)|Federation Cup 2012]] matches of India.
*The final match of the [[2013–14 Santosh Trophy]] was played at the stadium in March 2014.<ref>{{cite web| title = Clinical Mizoram clinch 68th Santosh Trophy in style| url = http://www.saharasamay.com/sports-news/676549354/clinical-mizoram-clinch-68th-santosh-trophy-in-style.html| publisher = Samay Live| date = 10 March 2014| access-date = 1 May 2019| archive-date = 10 March 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140310093905/http://www.saharasamay.com/sports-news/676549354/clinical-mizoram-clinch-68th-santosh-trophy-in-style.html| url-status = live}}</ref>
*Seven rounds of the [[2015 I-League 2nd Division]] match were played on this ground.<ref>{{cite web|title=Second division league venues finalized|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6248|website=The All India Football Federation|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=26 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926131101/https://www.the-aiff.com/news-center-details.htm?id=6248|url-status=live}}</ref>
*It also hosted two [[Kolkata Derby|Kolkata derby]] matches in [[2015–16 I-League 2nd Division|2016 I-league]] and one in 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/siliguri-prepares-for-big-battle/cid/1324566|title=Third I-League matches supposed to held in Siliguri|website=www.telegraphindia.com|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408051042/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/siliguri-prepares-for-big-battle/cid/1324566|url-status=live}}</ref>
*All the matches of [[2016 SAFF Women's Championship]] were played in the Kanchenjunga Stadium.<ref>{{cite web|title=SAFF Women's Championship To Be Held in Siliguri|url=http://goalie365.com/show_details.php?article_id=774|website=goalie365.com|date=11 November 2016|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916022705/http://goalie365.com/show_details.php?article_id=774|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Cricket:'''
*This stadium has hosted 11 [[Ranji Trophy]] matches.
*Two [[Celebrity Cricket League]] matches were played here.

===Municipal corporation indoor stadium===
Indoor sports including [[table tennis]], [[badminton]], [[taekwondo]], [[lawn tennis]] and [[chess]] are played here. Siliguri is renowned for being the training grounds of table tennis players. This stadium can hold 5000 people at a time. The Senior National Table Tennis Championship<ref>{{cite web|title=National table tennis championships 2017 results|url=http://ttfi.org/cmspages/results/Result%20-%202017|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=1 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501100119/http://ttfi.org/cmspages/results/Result%2520-%25202017|url-status=live}}</ref> was recently organised here.<ref>{{cite web|title=National table tennis championships|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/tournament-in-paddlers-hub-siliguri/cid/1524036|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=8 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408051043/https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/tournament-in-paddlers-hub-siliguri/cid/1524036|url-status=live}}</ref> Sports festival, 2017 was also held in this indoor stadium.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://siliguritimes.com/sports-festival-begins-indoor-stadium-siliguri/|title=Sports festival, Siliguri|access-date=1 May 2019|archive-date=1 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501103623/https://siliguritimes.com/sports-festival-begins-indoor-stadium-siliguri/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Visitors' attractions==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| image1 = Tourism 3.jpg|caption1='''[[Coronation Bridge]] on [[Teesta River|Teesta]]'''
| image2 = Tourism 2.jpg|caption2='''Heritage [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway|Toy Train]] at [[New Jalpaiguri Junction railway station|NJP]]'''
| image3 = Tourism 5.jpg|caption3=Bengal Safari Park
| image4 = Tourism 8.jpg|caption4=Gajoldoba view point}}

[[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] toy train runs between [[New Jalpaiguri]], Siliguri and [[Darjeeling]]. It was built between 1879 and 1881 and has been designated as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|title=Mountain Railways of India|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944|access-date=29 April 2019|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|archive-date=3 May 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503143242/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="darjnews">{{cite web|title=History of DHR|url=http://www.darjeelingnews.net/darjeeling_himalayan_railway.html|access-date=29 April 2019|work=darjeelingnews.net|publisher=Darjeelingnews|archive-date=13 December 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031213231046/http://darjeelingnews.net/darjeeling_himalayan_railway.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Coronation Bridge]], also known as Sevoke Bridge, is situated on lower Himalaya about {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Siliguri and was made in 1930.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coronation bridge facts|url=https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/place/siliguri|access-date=30 April 2019|website=www.wbtourismgov.in|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430122553/https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/place/siliguri|url-status=live}}</ref> This bridge spans across [[Teesta River]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Coronation Bridge|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040805/asp/siliguri/story_3584709.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629124159/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040805/asp/siliguri/story_3584709.asp|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 June 2011|access-date=29 April 2019|website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref> [[Gajoldoba]] view point is {{convert|28|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Siliguri, famous for the huge reservoir formed by [[Teesta]] [[Barrage (dam)|Barrage]]. This reservoir is home for many species of migratory birds, including [[river lapwing]], [[great crested grebe]], [[Indian cormorant]], [[purple heron]], [[Eurasian wigeon]], [[common shelduck]], [[cotton teal]], [[tufted duck]], [[little ringed plover]], and [[great cormorant]]. Due to shuttling of migratory birds, the Pakhibitan sanctuary was established here. A boating facility is available.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gajoldoba view point-Mega tourism hub|url=http://www.north-bengal.com/gajaldoba-dooars.html|access-date=29 April 2019|website=www.north-bengal.com|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430100116/http://www.north-bengal.com/gajaldoba-dooars.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

North Bengal Wild Animals Park, about {{cvt|8|km}} away from the city, offers visitors the 'Bengal Safari' to experience sub-Himalayan wildlife closely, such as [[jungle fowl]], [[sambar deer]], [[royal bengal tiger|Bengal tiger]], [[wild boars]], [[spotted deer]], [[wild bear]], and [[rhinoceros]]. It is fundamentally a part of the [[Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary]], spread over an area of 700 acres. The park conducts herbivore safaris, carnivore safaris, and elephant safaris.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bengal safari park|url=http://shiliguri.com/bengal-safari-park|access-date=29 April 2019|archive-date=29 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929002332/http://shiliguri.com/bengal-safari-park|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=North Bengal wild animals park|url=https://www.northbengalwildanimalspark.in/|access-date=29 April 2019|website=www.northbengalwildanimalspark.in|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430100119/https://www.northbengalwildanimalspark.in/|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary]] is located {{cvt|13|km}} away from Siliguri on the foothills of the Himalayas, between [[Teesta River|Teesta]] and [[Mahananda River|Mahananda]].The sanctuary spans over {{cvt|159|km2}} of reserve forest. In 1959, it received the status of a sanctuary mainly to protect the [[Indian bison]] and the Bengal tiger. This sanctuary is home to rare [[mountain goat]], [[chital]], [[Muntjac|barking dear]], [[fishing cat]], sambar deer, tiger, elephant and [[Indian bison]] and migratory birds. It offers mild to medium trekking challenges at some points.<ref>[http://www.westbengalforest.gov.in/ WBFD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190102232008/http://westbengalforest.gov.in/ |date=2 January 2019 }}, West Bengal Forest Department.</ref>

There are some important Hindu and Buddhists monuments in and around the city. [[Salugara Monastery]] is located {{cvt|6|km}} away from Siliguri. The main attraction is the {{cvt|100|ft}} [[stupa]], which is believed to be founded by the Tibetan Lama, [[Kalu Rinpoche]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Salugara monastery|url=https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/details/siliguri|access-date=30 April 2019|website=www.wbtourismgov.in|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430124020/https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/details/siliguri|url-status=live}}</ref> This tranquil location for meditation was established by Tibetan monks and followers of [[Dalai Lama]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Salugara monastery|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/mobi/news/spectrum/bagpack-and-soak-in/612888.html|access-date=29 April 2019|website=www.tribuneindia.com}}</ref> Sed-Gyued monastery is located near Salugara monastery. It is a breath-taking monument which was destroyed by the Chinese army, and then rebuilt. The monastery is home to more than 90 monks of the [[Gelug|Gelukpa]] division, and is used as a research centre.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sed gyued monastery|url=http://www.sed-gyued.org/|access-date=29 April 2019|website=www.sed-gyued.org|archive-date=9 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109082500/http://www.sed-gyued.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> Ewam India Buddhist Monastery is {{cvt|11|km}} from Siliguri and is placed in the lap of nature near Bengal safari.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ewam India Buddhist monastery|url=https://www.ewam.org/centers|access-date=29 April 2019|website=www.ewam.org|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430100141/https://www.ewam.org/centers|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]] temple in the city, also known as Sri Sri Radha Madhav Sundar Mandir locally, is one of the biggest Krishna centres in the North-Eastern region of India.<ref>{{cite web|title=ISCON Siliguri|url=http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/siliguri/|access-date=29 April 2019|website=centres.iscondesiretree.com|date=4 June 2011|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430011001/http://centers.iskcondesiretree.com/siliguri/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Sevoke Kali temple is an ancient temple on the banks of [[Teesta River|Teesta]] river close to the [[Coronation Bridge]].This temple dedicated to [[Kali|Maa Kali]], the Goddess of Destruction.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sevoke kali mandir|url=https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/details/siliguri|access-date=30 April 2019|website=www.wbtourismgov.in|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430124020/https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/details/siliguri|url-status=live}}</ref>

Siliguri also offers amusement and water parks to tourists and locals. Dreamland Amusement Park, located near [[Fulbari]], {{cvt|12|km}} from Siliguri junction, is an agricultural land converted in a fun house. It has 5-6 usual rides and a mini [[Aerial lift|Ropeway]]. Savin Kingdom is an amusement and water park which is located near Dagapur in Siliguri. The water park has a pool, slides, artificial wave, and rain dance.<ref>{{cite web|title=Savin kingdom water park attractions|url=https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/details/siliguri|access-date=30 April 2019|website=www.wbtourismgov.in|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430124020/https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/details/siliguri|url-status=live}}</ref> It also has various joy rides like adrenaline junkies, sky train, break dance, go-carting, and artificial bulls, as well as a multiplex, kids zone, and restaurant.<ref>{{cite web|title=Savin kingdom Siliguri|url=http://savinkingdom.com/retreat|access-date=29 April 2019|website=savinkingdom.com|archive-date=7 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190707090715/http://www.savinkingdom.com/retreat|url-status=live}}</ref>

The North Bengal Science Centre, established in 1997, is the only science centre in North Bengal. The main attractions are the Digital Planetarium, Science Shows, 3D Theatre, Taramandal Shows, science galleries and a green Science Park.<ref>{{cite web|title=North Bengal science centre attractions|url=https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/place/siliguri|access-date=30 April 2019|website=www.wbtourismgov.in|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430122553/https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/place/siliguri|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=North Bengal science centre|url=https://nbscsiliguri.org/about-us.html|access-date=29 April 2019|website=nbscsiliguri.org|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430140400/https://nbscsiliguri.org/about-us.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Hong Kong market is known as the Chandni Chowk of [[Northeast India]], a street market with a variety of shops popping out on the alleyways.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Hong Kong market|url=https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/place/siliguri|access-date=30 April 2019|website=www.wbtourismgov.in|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430122553/https://wbtourismgov.in/destination/place/siliguri|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Notable people==


* [[Anandamoy Bhattacharjee]] former chief justice of the [[Calcutta High Court]].
* [[Ashok Bhattacharya]] - Ex Minister of Urban Development and Municipal Affairs.
* [[Ankita Das]] - Represented India at the [[2012 Summer Olympics]] in [[Table tennis at the 2012 Summer Olympics – Women's singles|Women's singles]] event in Table Tennis.<ref name=champs>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/sanil-ankita-are-national-champs/article5571879.ece|title=Sanil, Ankita are National champs|newspaper=The Hindu|date=13 January 2014|access-date=1 May 2019|last1=Keerthivasan|first1=K.|archive-date=22 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140622164517/http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/sanil-ankita-are-national-champs/article5571879.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Debabrata Das]] Indian [[cricket]]er, who plays domestic cricket for [[Bengal cricket team]] and the IPL franchise [[Kolkata Knight Riders]].
* [[Goutam Deb]] - Incumbent Mayor of Siliguri since February 2022, ex-Cabinet Minister of Department of Tourism, Government of West Bengal
* [[Mantu Ghosh]] - Indian table tennis player, two time national-level Champion and [[Arjuna Award]]ee.
* [[Richa Ghosh]] - Indian cricketer, [[2025 Women's Cricket World Cup]] winner.
* [[Soumyajit Ghosh]] - table tennis player and the youngest Indian to qualify for the [[2012 Summer Olympics|London, 2012 Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120513/spectrum/main6.htm|title=Ankita Das and Soumyajit Ghosh are the youngest Indian players to qualify for the 2012 London Olympics|website=www.tribuneindia.com|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063804/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120513/spectrum/main6.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> He also became the youngest national champion at the age of 19.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/Soumyajit-Ghosh-becomes-youngest-national-table-tennis-champ/articleshow/17996714.cms|title=Soumyajit Ghosh becomes youngest national table tennis champ|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=12 January 2013|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-date=17 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017205341/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/Soumyajit-Ghosh-becomes-youngest-national-table-tennis-champ/articleshow/17996714.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Bappi Lahiri]] - Indian singer, composer and record producer.
* [[Charu Majumdar]] - founder of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist)]].
* [[Sailendra Nath Roy]] - [[Guinness World Records]] holder for the farthest distance travelled on a zip wire and pulled 40 tonnes [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway|DHR]] toy train using hair.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/9553076/Man-pulls-train-with-hair-in-world-record-attempt.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920112925/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/9553076/Man-pulls-train-with-hair-in-world-record-attempt.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 September 2012|title=Man pulls train with hair in world record attempt|website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|date=19 September 2012|access-date=21 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/man-uses-his-hair-to-pull-darjeeling-himalayan-train--17741.html|title=Man uses his hair to pull Darjeeling Himalayan train|publisher=indiatvnews.com|date=20 October 2016|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=23 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123223627/https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/man-uses-his-hair-to-pull-darjeeling-himalayan-train--17741.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Nandita Saha]] - table tennis player who was part of Indian trio, defeated Canada in Commonwealth 2006 at Melbourne and won bronze medal for India.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://thecgf.com/results/team/6241 | title=Table Tennis Team - Women Melbourne 2006 | publisher=thecgf.com | access-date=1 May 2019 | archive-date=24 April 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424202644/https://thecgf.com/results/team/6241 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Wriddhiman Saha]] - Indian [[cricket]]er, who plays [[First-class cricket|First-class]] and [[Test cricket|Test]] cricket for the [[India national cricket team|Indian national cricket team]].

==See also==
*[[Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority]]
* [[Siliguri subdivision]]
* [[List of cities in West Bengal]]
* [[List of metropolitan area in West Bengal]]

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== External links ==
{{sister project links |voy=Siliguri}}
* [https://www.siligurismc.in/ Siliguri Municipality Corporation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070905172720/http://www.sjda.org/ Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority]

{{Darjeeling District}}
{{Jalpaiguri district}}
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}

{{Authority control}}

{{West Bengal}}

[[Category:Siliguri| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Jalpaiguri district]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Darjeeling district]]
[[Category:Cities in West Bengal]]

2011 military intervention in Libya

2026-03-16T19:20:59Z

Davidmam: minor edit

{{Short description|NATO-led air and naval attacks during the civil war}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| subtitle =
| image = [[File:Coalition action against Libya-en.svg|200px]] [[File:2011 War On Libya Belligerents.svg|400px]]
| image_size =
| caption = '''Top''': The [[no-fly zone]] over Libya as well as bases and warships which were involved in the intervention '''Bottom''': Coloured in blue are the states that were involved in implementing the no-fly zone over Libya (coloured in green)
| conflict = 2011 military intervention in Libya
| partof = the [[First Libyan Civil War]]
| Result =
| date = 19 March 2011 – 31 October 2011<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15516795 |title=Nato chief Rasmussen 'proud' as Libya mission ends |work=BBC News |date=31 October 2011 |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927042648/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15516795 |archive-date=27 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=03|day1=19|year1=2011|month2=10|day2=31|year2=2011}})
| place = Libya
| result = NATO coalition/[[Libyan opposition]] victory
* Overthrow and [[killing of Muammar Gaddafi]] by anti-Gaddafi forces.
* Collapse of the [[Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya]].
* Termination and neutralization of [[Libya and weapons of mass destruction#Ballistic missiles|Libyan missile program]]
* Tensions between Libyan factions following the fall of Gaddafi lead to [[Second Libyan Civil War|renewed civil war]] in 2014
* Continuation of the [[Libyan Crisis]]
| combatant1 = {{flag|NATO}}{{efn|'''Enforcing [[UNSC Resolution 1973]]'''}}
*{{flag|Belgium}}
*{{flag|Bulgaria}}
*{{flag|Canada}}
*{{flag|Denmark}}
*{{flag|France|1974}}
*{{flag|Greece}}
*{{flag|Italy}}
*{{flag|Netherlands}}
*{{flag|Norway}}
*{{flag|Romania}}
*{{flag|Spain}}
*{{flag|Turkey}}
*{{flag|United Kingdom}}
*{{flag|United States}}
----
Non-NATO forces
*{{flag|Jordan}}
*{{flag|Qatar}}
*{{flag|Sweden}}
*{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
----
Libyan opposition
*{{flagicon|Libya}} [[Anti-Gaddafi forces]]
| combatant2 = {{Flag|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}}
* [[Armed Forces of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya|Armed Forces]]
* Pro-Gaddafi militias
* [[Mercenaries]] (alleged)<ref>{{cite news| author = Blomfield, Adrian|title=Libya: Foreign Mercenaries Terrorising Citizens|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8343959/Libya-foreign-mercenaries-terrorising-citizens.html|access-date=22 March 2011|work= [[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=23 February 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110310110418/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8343959/Libya-foreign-mercenaries-terrorising-citizens.html| archive-date= 10 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author1=Huma Khan |author2=Helen Zhang |title=Moammar Gadhafi's Private Mercenary Army 'Knows One Thing: To Kill'|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/libya-benghazi-doctor-gadhafi-foreign-mercenaries-quell-protests/story?id=12972216|access-date=22 March 2011|work= [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]]|date=22 February 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110408075336/https://abcnews.go.com/International/libya-benghazi-doctor-gadhafi-foreign-mercenaries-quell-protests/story?id=12972216| archive-date= 8 April 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author = Meo, Nick|title=African Mercenaries in Libya Nervously Await Their Fate|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8349414/African-mercenaries-in-Libya-nervously-await-their-fate.html|access-date=22 March 2011|work= [[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=27 February 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110315034843/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8349414/African-mercenaries-in-Libya-nervously-await-their-fate.html| archive-date= 15 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>
| commander1 = '''[[Opération Harmattan]]:''' {{flagicon|France|1974}} '''[[Nicolas Sarkozy]]''' {{flagicon|France|1974}} [[Alain Juppé]] '''[[Operation Ellamy]]:''' {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} '''[[David Cameron]]''' {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Liam Fox]] '''[[Operation Mobile]]:''' {{flagicon|Canada}} '''[[Stephen Harper]]''' {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Peter MacKay]] '''[[Operation Odyssey Dawn]]:''' {{flagicon|United States}} '''[[Barack Obama]]''' {{flagicon|United States}} [[Hillary Clinton]] {{flagicon|United States}} [[Robert Gates]] '''[[Operation Unified Protector]]:''' {{flagicon|NATO}} [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] {{flagicon|United States|navy}} [[James G. Stavridis]] {{flagicon|Canada|air force}} [[Charles Bouchard]] {{flagicon|Italy|navy}} '''[[Rinaldo Veri]]'''
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} '''[[Muammar Gaddafi]]'''{{Executed|Killing of Muammar Gaddafi}}<ref name="Muammar Gaddafi Killed as Sirte Falls">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/20111020111520869621.html|title=Muammar Gaddafi Killed as Sirte Falls|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=20 October 2011|access-date=24 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023031711/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/10/20111020111520869621.html|archive-date=23 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> {{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} [[Saif al-Islam Gaddafi]]{{POW}}<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15804299 | work=BBC News | title=Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam captured in Libya | date=19 November 2011 | access-date=20 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107121839/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15804299 | archive-date=7 November 2018 | url-status=live }}</ref> {{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} [[Khamis Gaddafi]]{{KIA}} {{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} [[Al-Saadi Gaddafi]] {{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} [[Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr]]{{KIA}}<ref name="Muammar Gaddafi Killed as Sirte Falls" /> {{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} [[Ali Sharif al-Rifi]]
| strength1 = 260 aircraft 21 ships<ref name="oup_factsheet">{{cite web| url=http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2011_11/20111108_111107-factsheet_up_factsfigures_en.pdf| title=Operation Unified Protector Final Mission Stats| publisher=NATO| date=2 November 2012| access-date=13 September 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130613011657/http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2011_11/20111108_111107-factsheet_up_factsfigures_en.pdf| archive-date=13 June 2013| url-status=live}}</ref> {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} 350 soldiers in Libya<ref>{{cite book |last1=Forte |first1=Maximillian |title=Slouching Towards Sirte |pages=127}}</ref>
| strength2 = 200 medium/heavy [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]] launchers 220 light SAM launchers<ref>"The North African Military Balance", Anthony H. Cordesman, [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]], 29 March 2005, pp. 32, 36</ref> 600 anti-aircraft guns<ref name="M. Cherif Bassiouni 2013, p. 138">M. Cherif Bassiouni, "Libya: From Repression to Revolution", 13 December 2013, p. 138</ref>
| casualties1 = {{flagdeco|France|1974}} None {{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} None {{flagdeco|United States|navy}} 1 [[USN]] [[MQ-8]] shot down<ref name=helicrash/> {{flagdeco|Netherlands|navy}} 3 Dutch naval aviators captured (later released)<ref name=Dutchmarines/> {{flagdeco|Netherlands|navy}} 1 [[Royal Netherlands Navy]] [[Westland Lynx|Lynx]] captured<ref name=Dutchmarines>{{cite news | title = Three Dutch Marines Captured During Rescue in Libya| url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12633415|work= BBC News |date= 3 March 2011| access-date=11 May 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110520095810/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12633415| archive-date= 20 May 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> {{flagdeco|United States|air force}} 1 [[USAF]] [[F-15E]] crashed (mechanical failure)<ref>{{cite news|title = US Crew Rescued after Libya Crash|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12816226|work= BBC News | date = 22 March 2011|access-date=22 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110322121549/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12816226| archive-date= 22 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> {{flagdeco|UAE|air force}} 1 [[UAEAF]] [[F-16]] damaged upon landing<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.zawya.com/story.cfm/sidANA20110427T111357ZJAX16 |agency=Zawya/AFP |date=27 April 2011 |access-date=28 April 2011 |title=UAE Fighter Jet Veers Off Runway at Base in Italy: Report |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118195234/http://www.zawya.com/story.cfm/sidANA20110427T111357ZJAX16 |archive-date=18 January 2012}}</ref>
| casualties2 = {{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} 1,000 military targets destroyed
* 600 tanks or armored vehicles
* 400 artillery or rocket launchers
{{flagicon|Libyan Arab Jamahiriya}} Unknown number of soldiers killed or wounded (NATO claim)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-04-29-nato-libya_n.htm|title=NATO: Gadhafi Forces Caught Mining Misrata Port |date=29 April 2011|access-date=16 January 2012|agency=Associated Press|work=USA Today|location=Brussels}}</ref>
| casualties3 = 72+ civilians killed (according to [[Human Rights Watch]])<ref name="Human Rights Watch 12 May 2012">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/05/13/unacknowledged-deaths/civilian-casualties-natos-air-campaign-libya|title=Unacknowledged Deaths: Civilian Casualties in NATOs Air Campaign in Libya|date=14 May 2012|access-date=3 November 2016|publisher=Human Rights Watch|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122133158/https://www.hrw.org/report/2012/05/13/unacknowledged-deaths/civilian-casualties-natos-air-campaign-libya|archive-date=22 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> 40 civilians killed in Tripoli (Vatican claim)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=214560|title=Vatican: Airstrikes Killed 40 Civilians in Tripoli |date=31 March 2011|access-date=31 March 2011 | work = [[The Jerusalem Post]]| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110511143824/http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=214560| archive-date= 11 May 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> 223–403 likely civilian deaths (per Airwars)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://airwars.org/news-and-investigations/ten-years-after-libyan-revolution-victims-wait-for-justice/ |title=Ten years after the Libyan revolution, victims wait for justice |first=Oliver |last=Imhof |date=March 18, 2021 |work=Airwars |access-date=2022-03-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://airwars.org/conflict/all-belligerents-in-libya-2011/ | title=All Belligerents in Libya, 2011 }}</ref>
| notes = The US military claimed it had no knowledge of civilian casualties.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/20/libya.civil.war/ |title=Coalition Targets Gadhafi Compound|publisher= CNN |date=16 March 2011 |access-date=21 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110322025143/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/20/libya.civil.war/| archive-date= 22 March 2011 | url-status= dead}}</ref>
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Libyan civil war}}{{Campaignbox Libya no-fly zone}}
}}
{{Muammar Gaddafi series}}

On 19 March 2011, a [[NATO]]-led coalition began a military intervention into the ongoing [[Libyan civil war (2011)|Libyan Civil War]] to implement [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973]] (UNSCR 1973). The [[UN Security Council]] passed the resolution with ten votes in favour and five abstentions, with the stated intent to have "an immediate ceasefire in Libya, including an end to the current attacks against civilians, which it said might constitute 'crimes against humanity' ... [imposing] a ban on all flights in the country's airspace – a [[no-fly zone]] – and tightened sanctions on [[Muammar Gaddafi]]'s government and its supporters."<ref name="UN-AllNecessaryMeasures"/>

The initial coalition members of Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Qatar, Spain, UK and US<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/libya-unrest-summit.95v/ |title=Qatar, several EU states up for Libya action: diplomat |publisher=EUbusiness.com |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322040847/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/libya-unrest-summit.95v |archive-date=22 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/germany/49710 |title=Paris Summit Talks To Launch Military Action in Libya |publisher=European Jewish Press |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516041335/http://ejpress.org/article/news/germany/49710 |archive-date=16 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12791910 |title= Libya: President Obama Gives Gaddafi Ultimatum |work= BBC News |date=19 March 2011|access-date=26 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110319080849/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12791910| archive-date= 19 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/2011/03/20/libya-raf-jets-join-attack-on-air-defence-systems-91466-28369872/ |title=Libya: RAF Jets Join Attack on Air Defence Systems |work=WalesOnline |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127034759/http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/2011/03/20/libya-raf-jets-join-attack-on-air-defence-systems-91466-28369872/ |archive-date=27 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| author = Batty, David |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/blog/2011/mar/19/libya-live-blog-ceasefire-nofly |title=Military Action Begins Against Libya |work= [[The Guardian]] |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=26 March 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110322195354/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/blog/2011/mar/19/libya-live-blog-ceasefire-nofly| archive-date= 22 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> expanded to nineteen states, with later members mostly enforcing the no-fly zone and naval blockade or providing military logistical assistance. The effort was initially led by France and the United Kingdom, with command shared with the United States. Italy only joined the coalition on the condition that NATO took on overall leadership of the mission instead of individual countries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Horace Campbell|title=NATO's Failure in Libya: Lessons for Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwvJI9RAlXMC&pg=PA77|year=2013|publisher=African Books Collective|isbn=978-0-7983-0343-9|page=77}}</ref> NATO took control of the arms embargo on 23 March, named [[Operation Unified Protector]]. An attempt to unify the military command of the air campaign first failed over objections by the French, German, and Turkish governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/deal-puts-nato-at-head-of-libyan-operation/story-e6frg6so-1226027088954 |title=Deal Puts NATO at Head of Libyan Operation |work=[[The Australian]] |author=Norington, Brad |date=23 March 2011 |access-date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140422191917/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/deal-puts-nato-at-head-of-libyan-operation/story-e6frg6so-1226027088954 |archive-date=22 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/23/libya-no-fly-zone-leadership-squabbles|title=Libya No-Fly Zone Leadership Squabbles Continue Within Nato|work= [[The Guardian]] |date=23 March 2011|access-date=24 March 2011|author1=Traynor, Ian |author2=Watt, Nicholas | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110326232001/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/23/libya-no-fly-zone-leadership-squabbles| archive-date= 26 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone, while command of targeting ground units remained with individual coalition forces.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nationalpost.com/arts/books/NATO+reaches+agreement+Libya+command/4498007/story.html |title=NATO reaches agreement on Libya command (Google cached page) |author1=Brunnstrom, David |author2=Taylor, Paul |date=24 March 2011 |work=[[National Post]] |access-date=22 September 2016 }}{{dead link|date=December 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/2011324221036894697.html|title=NATO to police Libya no-fly zone|date=24 March 2011|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=24 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426134048/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/2011324221036894697.html|archive-date=26 April 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/24/nato-command-no-fly-libya-us-combat_n_840408.html|title=NATO Agrees To Take Over Command of Libya No-Fly Zone, U.S. Likely To Remain in Charge of Brunt of Combat|date=24 March 2011|work=[[Huffington Post]]|agency=Associated Press|access-date=16 January 2012|location=Washington D.C.|first1=Robert|last1=Burns|first2=Erica|last2=Werner|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217150928/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/24/nato-command-no-fly-libya-us-combat_n_840408.html|archive-date=17 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> The handover occurred on 31 March 2011.

On the intervention's first day on 19 March, American and British naval forces fired over 110 [[Tomahawk cruise missile]]s, and imposed a naval [[blockade]].<ref name="al jaz command">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-march-19 |title=Libya Live Blog |access-date=19 March 2011 |date=19 March 2011 |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320235930/http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-march-19 |archive-date=20 March 2011 }}</ref> The [[French Air Force]], British [[Royal Air Force]], and [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12796972|access-date=20 March 2011|title=Libya: US, UK and France attack Gaddafi forces|work= BBC News|date=20 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110320053754/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12796972| archive-date= 20 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> also undertook [[sorties]] across Libya.<ref name=cnn_deployment>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/19/libya.civil.war|title=French Fighter Jets Deployed over Libya|publisher= CNN |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110322034154/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/19/libya.civil.war/| archive-date=22 March 2011| url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=France Uses Unexplosive Bombs in Libya: Spokesman |agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |date=29 April 2011 |access-date=29 April 2011 |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-04/29/c_13850700.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430052853/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-04/29/c_13850700.htm |archive-date=30 April 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Polled N.J. Voters Back Obama's Decision To Establish No-Fly Zone in Libya |work=[[The Star-Ledger]] |url=http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2011/04/nj_voters_back_obamas_decision.html |author=Gibson, Ginger |date=8 April 2011 |access-date=29 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410005906/http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2011/04/nj_voters_back_obamas_decision.html |archive-date=10 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The intervention did not employ foreign [[infantry|ground troop]]s, with the exception of special forces, which were not covered by the UN resolution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/24/nato-will-not-put-troops-ground-libya|title=Nato will not put troops on ground in Libya|first=Richard|last=Norton-Taylor|newspaper=The Guardian |date=24 August 2011|via=www.theguardian.com|access-date=13 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413222319/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/24/nato-will-not-put-troops-ground-libya|archive-date=13 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.armyrecognition.com/august_2011_news_defense_army_military_industry_uk/british_and_french_special_forces_with_libya_rebels.html|title=British and French special forces with Libya rebels | August 2011 news defense army military industry UK | Military army defense industry news year 2011|website=www.armyrecognition.com|date=25 August 2011 |access-date=6 August 2023}}</ref> NATO flew 26,500 sorties over eight months, including 7,000 bombing sorties targeting Gaddafi's forces.<ref>{{Cite web |title=All Belligerents in Libya, 2011 |url=https://airwars.org/conflict/all-belligerents-in-libya-2011/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=airwars.org}}</ref>

The Libyan government's response to the campaign was ineffectual, with Gaddafi's forces failing to shoot down any NATO aircraft, despite the country extensively possessing [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft systems]].<ref name="M. Cherif Bassiouni 2013, p. 138" /><ref>{{cite web|url= http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/050328_norafrimibal[1].pdf|title= The North African Military Balance|author= Anthony H. Cordesman|work= [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]|date= 29 March 2005|at= pp. 32, 36|access-date= 6 December 2021|archive-date= 19 March 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130319061008/http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/050328_norafrimibal[1].pdf}}</ref> The conflict ended in late October following the [[killing of Muammar Gaddafi]] and the overthrow of his government. Libya's [[National Transitional Council|new government]] requested that NATO's mission be extended to the end of 2011,<ref>{{cite news|title=Libya's Mustafa Abdul Jalil asks Nato to stay longer|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15459473|publisher=BBC|access-date=27 October 2011|date=26 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026230501/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15459473|archive-date=26 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> however the Security Council [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 2016|unanimously voted to end NATO's mandate]] on 31 October.<ref>{{cite news|title=UN Security Council votes to end Libya operations|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15481143|work=BBC News|access-date=27 October 2011|date=27 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027170043/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15481143|archive-date=27 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> NATO's rationale for the intervention faced criticism, notably in a report released by the British parliament in 2016, which concluded that the UK government "failed to identify that the threat to civilians was overstated and that the rebels included a significant Islamist element."<ref name=debacle/><ref name="auto"/><ref name="Salon UK Parliament report 2016" />

The official names for the interventions by the coalition members were [[Opération Harmattan]] by France; [[Operation Ellamy]] by the United Kingdom; [[Operation Mobile]] for the Canadian participation and [[Operation Odyssey Dawn]] for the United States.<ref name=OdysseyDawn>{{cite news|title=Gunfire, Explosions Heard in Tripoli|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/19/libya.civil.war/index.html?hpt=T1&iref=BN1|publisher= CNN|access-date=20 March 2011|date=21 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121103203408/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/19/libya.civil.war/index.html?hpt=T1&iref=BN1| archive-date=3 November 2012| url-status= live}}</ref> The operation has also been referred to as the Third Barbary War, in reference to two [[Barbary Wars|19th-century American expeditions in the area]].<ref>{{cite news |author-link=Yoni Appelbaum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322183142/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/03/the-third-barbary-war/72749/ |archive-date=March 22, 2011 |last1=Appelbaum |first1=Yoni |title=The Third Barbary War |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2011/03/the-third-barbary-war/72749/ |access-date=23 September 2025 |work=[[The Atlantic]] |date=21 March 2011 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Stephens |first1=Christopher |title=To the Shores of Tripoli An Alternative History of the Birth of the U.S. Navy |url=https://cimsec.org/to-the-shores-of-tripoli-an-alternative-history-of-the-birth-of-the-u-s-navy/ |access-date=23 September 2025 |publisher=[[Center for International Maritime Security]] |date=24 October 2015}}</ref>

== Proposal for the no-fly zone ==
Both Libyan officials<ref name="Dabbashi_calls_NFZ">{{cite web |url=http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201102219941/Libya-Politics/libyan-ambassador-to-un-urges-international-community-to-stop-genocide.html |title=Libyan Ambassador to U.N. Urges International Community To Stop Genocide |publisher=[[Global Arab Network]] |date=21 February 2011 |access-date=10 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226113522/http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/201102219941/Libya-Politics/libyan-ambassador-to-un-urges-international-community-to-stop-genocide.html |archive-date=26 February 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Jeleil_calls_NFZ">{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/09/libya.civil.war/ |title=Rebel Leader Calls for 'Immediate Action' on No-Fly Zone|publisher= CNN |date=9 March 2011 |access-date=10 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110315005311/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/09/libya.civil.war/| archive-date= 15 March 2011 | url-status= dead}}</ref><ref name=Jalil500k>{{cite news|author=McGreal, Chris |title=Gaddafi's Army Will Kill Half a Million, Warn Libyan Rebels |date=12 March 2011 |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/12/gaddafi-army-kill-half-million |access-date=12 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110315164926/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/12/gaddafi-army-kill-half-million |archive-date=15 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=womennfz>{{cite news |title=Thousands of Libyan Women March for 'No-Fly Zone' |date=12 March 2011 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |work=NOW Lebanon |url=http://nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=249498 |access-date=13 March 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130130045550/http://nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=249498 |archive-date=30 January 2013 }}</ref> and international states<ref name=fbnofly>{{cite news|author=Donnet, Pierre-Antoine |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gjK-uTaUi4eIZffTsS13LCaFVYQw?docId=CNG.49104d077a72cbffeafe9d3689e92793.af1 |title=Britain, France Ready Libya No-Fly Zone Resolution |date=7 March 2011 |access-date=17 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310051829/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gjK-uTaUi4eIZffTsS13LCaFVYQw?docId=CNG.49104d077a72cbffeafe9d3689e92793.af1 |archive-date=10 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="Cameron_calls_NFZ">{{cite news| url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704615504576172383796304482?mod=googlenews_wsj| title= Cameron Doesn't Rule Out Military Force for Libya| date= 28 February 2011| access-date= 28 February 2011| work= [[The Wall Street Journal]]| author= Macdonald, Alistair| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171012022738/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704615504576172383796304482?mod=googlenews_wsj| archive-date= 12 October 2017| url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="France_and_UK_back_Lebanese_UN_Resolution">{{cite news |author=Denslow, James |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/16/libya-lebanon-un-security-council-resolution |title=Lebanon's Role in a U.N. Security Council Resolution Against Libya Is Evidence of Unfinished Business Between the Two States |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=16 March 2011 |access-date=20 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921210421/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/16/libya-lebanon-un-security-council-resolution |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=BBCUKForcesPrepare>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12770467 |title=Libya: UK Forces Prepare after UN No-Fly Zone Vote|date=18 March 2011 |work=BBC News|access-date=18 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110318060331/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12770467| archive-date= 18 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="DeYoung">{{cite news|author1=DeYoung, Karen|author2=Lynch, Colum|title=Europeans Say Intervention in Libya Possible Within Hours of U.N. Vote|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europeans-say-intervention-in-libya-possible-within-hours-of-un-vote/2011/03/17/ABSb9pl_story.html|access-date=18 March 2011|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=17 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629060216/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europeans-say-intervention-in-libya-possible-within-hours-of-un-vote/2011/03/17/ABSb9pl_story.html|archive-date=29 June 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> and organizations<ref name="UN-AllNecessaryMeasures">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10200.doc.htm |title=Security Council Approves 'No-Fly Zone' over Libya, Authorizing 'All Necessary Measures' to Protect Civilians, by Vote of 10 in Favour with 5 Abstentions |publisher= United Nations|date=17 March 2011 |access-date=13 April 2021| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210324155727/https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10200.doc.htm| archive-date= 24 March 2021 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=alnofly>{{cite news|title=Arab States Seek Libya No-Fly Zone |date=12 March 2011 |publisher=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/201131218852687848.html |access-date=12 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110313095409/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/03/201131218852687848.html |archive-date=13 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Rnofly>{{cite news|author=Perry, Tom |title=Arab League Calls for Libya No-Fly Zone-State TV |date=12 March 2011 |work=Reuters |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/energyOilNews/idAFLDE72B0DW20110312 |access-date=12 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121135214/http://af.reuters.com/article/energyOilNews/idAFLDE72B0DW20110312 |archive-date=21 January 2012 }}</ref><ref name="libyafeb17_arableague_nofly">{{cite web |title=Breaking: Arab League Calls on U.N. To Impose No Fly Zone on Libya |publisher=LibyaFeb17.com |date=12 March 2011 |url=http://archive.libyafeb17.com/2011/03/overnight-bombardment-on-ras-lanuf/ |access-date=12 March 2011 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314204723/http://www.libyafeb17.com/2011/03/overnight-bombardment-on-ras-lanuf/ |archive-date=14 March 2011 }}</ref><ref name="UN_authorises_no_fly_zone">{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/201131720311168561.html |title=U.N. Authorises No-Fly Zone over Libya |publisher=Al Jazeera|date=17 March 2011 |access-date=17 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110318102654/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/03/201131720311168561.html| archive-date= 18 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=UNaction>{{cite news| author = Mardell, Mark |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12781009 |title=Libya: UN Backs Action Against Colonel Gaddafi |work=BBC News|date=17 March 2011 |access-date=17 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110318010725/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12781009| archive-date= 18 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="CNN_UN_Security_Council_No_fly_zone">{{cite news |url=http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/03/17/u-n-imposes-no-fly-zone-over-libya/?hpt=T1&iref=BN1 |title=U.N. Security Council Approves No-Fly Zone over Libya |publisher=CNN |date=17 March 2011 |access-date=17 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908204329/http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/03/17/u-n-imposes-no-fly-zone-over-libya/?hpt=T1&iref=BN1 |archive-date=8 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> called for a no-fly zone over Libya in light of allegations that Gaddafi's military had conducted airstrikes against Libyan rebels in the [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libyan Civil War]].

=== Timeline ===
{{Anchor|Chronology}}
{{Main|Timeline of the 2011 military intervention in Libya}}
* 21 February 2011: Libyan deputy Permanent Representative to the UN [[Ibrahim Dabbashi]] called "on the UN to impose a no-fly zone on all of [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] to cut off all supplies of arms and mercenaries to the regime."<ref name="Dabbashi_calls_NFZ"/>
* 23 February 2011: [[French President]] [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] pushed for the [[European Union]] (EU) to pass sanctions against Gaddafi (freezing Gaddafi's family funds abroad) and demand he stops attacks against civilians.
* 25 February 2011: Sarkozy said Gaddafi "must go."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/as-it-happened-libya-uprising-february-25-sz2h2vx8j56|title=As It Happened: Libya Uprising February 25|work=[[The Times]]|date=25 April 2011|access-date=22 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219040003/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/middleeast/article2926163.ece|archive-date=19 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 26 February 2011: [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970]] was passed unanimously, referring the Libyan government to the [[International Criminal Court]] for gross human rights violations. It imposed an arms embargo on the country and a travel ban and assets freeze on Gaddafi's family and certain Government officials.<ref>{{cite web|title=In Swift, Decisive Action, Security Council Imposes Tough Measures on Libyan Regime, Adopting Resolution 1970 in Wake of Crackdown on Protesters|url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10187.doc.htm|website=United Nations|access-date=14 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229233029/http://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10187.doc.htm|archive-date=29 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 28 February 2011: British Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from "[[airlift]]ing mercenaries" and "using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians."<ref name="Cameron_calls_NFZ"/>
* 1 March 2011: The [[US Senate]] unanimously passed non-binding Senate resolution S.RES.85 urging the [[United Nations Security Council]] to impose a Libyan no-fly zone and encouraging Gaddafi to step down. The US had naval forces positioned off the coast of Libya, as well as forces already in the region, including the aircraft carrier {{USS|Enterprise|CVN-65|6}}.<ref name="1march"/>
* 2 March 2011: Canadian Prime Minister [[Stephen Harper]] authorized the deployment of the [[Royal Canadian Navy]] [[frigate]] {{HMCS|Charlottetown|FFH 339|6}} to the Mediterranean, off the coast of Libya.<ref>{{Cite news| last1=Ibbitson| first1=John| author-link=John Ibbitson| last2=Leblanc| first2=Daniel| title=Canada turns commitment into clout in Libya| newspaper=The Globe and Mail| date=21 October 2011| url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/canada-turns-commitment-into-clout-in-libya/article2210169/| access-date=23 October 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022210946/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/canada-turns-commitment-into-clout-in-libya/article2210169/| archive-date=22 October 2011| url-status=live}}</ref> [[Minister of National Defence (Canada)|Canadian National Defence Minister]] [[Peter MacKay]] stated that "[w]e are there for all inevitabilities. And NATO is looking at this as well ... This is taken as a precautionary and staged measure."<ref name="1march">{{cite web |url=http://www.canada.com/technology/Canadian+warship+ordered+Libya/4367124/story.html |title=Canada sending warship to Libya |publisher=Canada.com |date=1 March 2011 |access-date=28 August 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191226183213/https://www.webcitation.org/61HKIBZJZ?url=http://www.canada.com/technology/Canadian%20warship%20ordered%20Libya/4367124/story.html |archive-date=26 December 2019 }}</ref>
* 7 March 2011: [[United States Permanent Representative to NATO|US Ambassador to NATO]] [[Ivo Daalder]] announced that NATO decided to step up surveillance missions of [[Boeing E-3 Sentry|E-3]] AWACS aircraft to twenty-four hours a day. On the same day, it was reported that an anonymous UN diplomat confirmed to [[Agence France Presse]] that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution on the no-fly zone that would be considered by the UN Security Council during the same week.<ref name=fbnofly/> The [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] also on that day called upon the UN Security Council to "take all necessary measures to protect civilians, including enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya."
* 9 March 2011: The head of the Libyan [[National Transitional Council]], [[Mustafa Abdul Jalil]], "pleaded for the international community to move quickly to impose a no-fly zone over Libya, declaring that any delay would result in more casualties."<ref name="Jeleil_calls_NFZ"/> Three days later, he stated that if pro-Gaddafi forces reached [[Benghazi]], then they would kill "half a million" people. He stated, "If there is no no-fly zone imposed on Gaddafi's regime, and his ships are not checked, we will have a catastrophe in Libya."<ref name=Jalil500k/>
* 10 March 2011: France recognized the Libyan NTC as the legitimate government of Libya soon after Nicolas Sarkozy met with them in Paris. This meeting was arranged by [[Bernard-Henri Lévy]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2011/0328/How-a-philosopher-swayed-France-s-response-on-Libya|author=Marquand, Robert|title=How a Philosopher Swayed France's Response on Libya|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|date=28 March 2011|access-date=29 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021051630/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2011/0328/How-a-philosopher-swayed-France-s-response-on-Libya|archive-date=21 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 11 March 2011: Cameron joined forces with Sarkozy after Sarkozy demanded immediate action from international community for a [[no-fly zone]] against air attacks by Gaddafi.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Nicolas Sarkozy calls for air strikes on Libya if Gaddafi attacks civilians|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/11/nicolas-sarkozy-libya-air-strikes|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=2011-03-11|access-date=2025-11-27|issn=0261-3077|language=en-GB|first=Nicholas|last=Watt|location=Brussels}}</ref>
* 12 March 2011: The [[Arab League]] "called on the United Nations Security Council to impose a no-fly zone over Libya in a bid to protect civilians from air attack."<ref name=alnofly/><ref name=Rnofly/><ref name="libyafeb17_arableague_nofly"/><ref name="EscobarUS-Saudi02042011">{{cite news| author = Escobar, Pepe |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/MD02Ak01.html |title=Exposed: The US-Saudi Libya Deal |work = [[Asia Times]] |date=2 April 2011|access-date=14 April 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110404111117/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/MD02Ak01.html| archive-date= 4 April 2011 | url-status= unfit}}</ref> The Arab League's request was announced by [[Foreign Minister of Oman|Omani Foreign Minister]] [[Yusuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah]], who stated that all member states present at the meeting agreed with the proposal.<ref name=alnofly/> On 12 March, thousands of Libyan women marched in the streets of the rebel-held town of Benghazi, calling for the imposition of a no-fly zone over Libya.<ref name=womennfz/>
* 14 March 2011: In Paris at the [[Élysée Palace]], before the summit with the G8 Minister for Foreign Affairs, Sarkozy, who is also the president of the [[G8]], along with [[French Foreign Minister]] [[Alain Juppé]] met with US Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] and pressed her to push for intervention in Libya.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/middleeast/article2946485.ece|title='Clock Is Ticking' on Libya, Cameron Warns|work=[[The Times]]|date=15 March 2011|access-date=22 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008173948/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/middleeast/article2946485.ece|archive-date=8 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:US Supports No-Fly Zone Against Libya.ogv|thumb|left|thumbtime=40|[[Voice of America|VOA News]] report on the United States joining Lebanon, France, and the United Kingdom to support the no-fly zone.]]
* 15 March 2011: A resolution for a no-fly zone was proposed by [[Nawaf Salam]], Lebanon's Ambassador to the UN. The resolution was immediately backed by France and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite news |author=Denselow, James |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/16/libya-lebanon-un-security-council-resolution |title=Libya and Lebanon: A Troubled Relationship |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=16 March 2011 |access-date=17 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921210421/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/16/libya-lebanon-un-security-council-resolution |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 17 March 2011: The UN Security Council, acting under the authority of [[Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter|Chapter VII]] of the [[UN Charter]], approved a no-fly zone by a vote of ten in favour, zero against, and five abstentions, via [[UNSCR 1973]]. The five abstentions were: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Germany.<ref name="UN_authorises_no_fly_zone"/><ref name=UNaction/><ref name="CNN_UN_Security_Council_No_fly_zone"/><ref name="U.N. News Centre">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808&Cr=libya&Cr1= |title=Security Council Authorizes 'All Necessary Measures' To Protect Civilians in Libya |date=17 March 2011 |publisher=[[U.N.]] |access-date=17 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321040853/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=37808&Cr=libya&Cr1= |archive-date=21 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/17/un-security-council-resolution|work=[[The Guardian]]|title=U.N. Security Council Resolution on Libya – Full Text|date=17 March 2011|access-date=10 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202001100/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/17/un-security-council-resolution|archive-date=2 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Less than twenty-four hours later, Libya announced that it would halt all military operations in response to the UN Security Council resolution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/2011318124421218583.html |title=Libya Declares Ceasefire But Fighting Goes On |publisher=Al Jazeera|date=18 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110319105909/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/03/2011318124421218583.html| archive-date= 19 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,14922684,00.html |title=Rebels, West Wary of Libyan Ceasefire |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321203054/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,14922684,00.html |archive-date=21 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:A frontline parade - Flickr - Al Jazeera English (1).jpg|thumb|Libyan anti-government rebels, 1 March 2011]]
* 18 March 2011: The Libyan foreign minister, [[Moussa Koussa]], said that he had declared a ceasefire, attributing the UN resolution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-middle-east-12787056 |title=Libya: Foreign Minister Announces Immediate Ceasefire |work= BBC News |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110318224707/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12787056| archive-date= 18 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> However, artillery shelling on [[Misrata]] and [[Ajdabiya]] continued, and government soldiers continued approaching [[Benghazi]].<ref name="al jaz command"/><ref>{{cite news |author1=Amara, Tarek |author2=Karouny, Mariam |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-libya-misrata-bombard-idUKTRE72H4L520110318 |title=Gaddafi Forces Shell West Libya's Misrata, 25 Dead |work=Reuters |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009053631/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/03/18/us-libya-misrata-bombard-idUKTRE72H4L520110318 |archive-date=9 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Government troops and tanks entered the city on 19 March.<ref>{{cite news|date=19 March 2011|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12793919|title=Libya: Gaddafi Forces Attacking Rebel-Held Benghazi|work= BBC News |access-date=19 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110319172346/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12793919| archive-date= 19 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/201131934914112208.html|title=Gaddafi Forces Encroaching on Benghazi|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=19 March 2011|access-date=24 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531194927/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/201131934914112208.html|archive-date=31 May 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 18 March 2011: U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] orders military air strikes against [[Muammar Gaddafi]]'s forces in [[Libya]] in his address to the nation from the White House.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/18/remarks-president-situation-libya|title=Remarks by the President on the Situation in Libya|date=March 18, 2011|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=June 10, 2020}}</ref> US President Obama later held a meeting with eighteen senior lawmakers at the White House on the afternoon of 18 March<ref>{{cite news|date=18 March 2011|url=http://thecable.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/03/18/inside_the_white_house_congress_meeting_on_libya|title=Inside the White House-Congress Meeting on Libya|work = [[Foreign Policy]]|access-date=18 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110321075518/http://thecable.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/03/18/inside_the_white_house_congress_meeting_on_libya| archive-date= 21 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* 19 March 2011: French<ref>{{cite news |author=Jonathan Marcus |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12795971 |title=Libya: French plane fires on military vehicle |work=BBC News |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=14 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320125209/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12795971 |archive-date=20 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> forces began the military intervention in Libya, later joined by coalition forces with strikes against armoured units south of Benghazi and attacks on Libyan air-defense systems, as UN Security Council Resolution 1973 called for using "all necessary means" to protect civilians and civilian-populated areas from attack, imposed a no-fly zone, and called for an immediate and with-standing cease-fire, while also strengthening travel bans on members of the regime, arms embargoes, and asset freezes.<ref name="UN-AllNecessaryMeasures"/>
* 21 March 2011: Obama sent a letter to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President Pro Tempore of the Senate claiming the actions were justified under the [[War Powers Resolution]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://c-span.org/uploadedfiles/Content/Documents/2011libya.military.rel.pdf |title=Text of a Letter from the President to the Speak of the House of Representatives and the President Pro Tempore of the Senate |publisher=[[C-SPAN]] |date=21 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720165559/http://c-span.org/uploadedfiles/Content/Documents/2011libya.military.rel.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref>
* 24 March 2011: In telephone negotiations, French foreign minister [[Alain Juppé]] agreed to let NATO take over all military operations on 29 March at the latest, allowing Turkey to veto strikes on Gaddafi's ground forces from that point forward.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/23/libya-no-fly-zone-leadership-squabbles |title=Libya No-Fly Zone Leadership Squabbles Continue within Nato – Turkey Calls for an Alliance-Led Campaign To Limit Operations While France Seeks a Broader 'Coalition of the Willing' |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=23 March 2011 |author1=Traynor, Ian |author2=Watt, Nicholas |access-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326232001/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/23/libya-no-fly-zone-leadership-squabbles |archive-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Later reports stated that NATO would take over enforcement of the no-fly zone and the arms embargo, but discussions were still underway about whether NATO would take over the protection of civilians mission. Turkey reportedly wanted the power to veto airstrikes, while France wanted to prevent Turkey from having such a veto.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/24/france-turkey-nato-libya |title=Libya: Nato To Control No-Fly Zone after France Gives Way to Turkey |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=24 March 2011 |author1=Traynor, Ian |author2=Watt, Nicholas |access-date=10 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326194027/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/24/france-turkey-nato-libya |archive-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/25/libya.nato/index.html?hpt=T1 |title=NATO Considers Broader Role in Libya |publisher=CNN |date=25 March 2011 |author=Newton, Paula |access-date=26 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504041751/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/03/25/libya.nato/index.html?hpt=T1 |archive-date=4 May 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 25 March 2011: NATO Allied Joint Force Command in Naples took command of the no-fly zone over Libya and combined it with the ongoing arms embargo operation under the name [[Operation Unified Protector]].<ref name="NATOPressRelease">{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2011_03/20110325_110325-unified-protector-no-fly-zone.pdf|title=NATO No-Fly Zone over Libya Operation Unified Protector|publisher=[[NATO]]|date=25 March 2011|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321021800/http://www.nato.int/nato_static/assets/pdf/pdf_2011_03/20110325_110325-unified-protector-no-fly-zone.pdf|archive-date=21 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 26 March 2011: Obama addressed the nation from the White House, providing an update on the current state of the military intervention in Libya.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/26/weekly-address-president-obama-says-mission-libya-succeeding|title=Weekly Address: President Obama Says the Mission in Libya is Succeeding|date=March 26, 2011|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=June 19, 2020}}</ref>

[[File:Weekly Address-The Military Mission in Libya.ogv|thumb|US President [[Barack Obama]] addressing the people of the United States about the US intervention in Libya (26 March 2011)|200px]]
* 28 March 2011: Obama addressed the American people on the rationale for U.S. military intervention with NATO forces in Libya at the [[National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)|National Defense University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/28/remarks-president-address-nation-libya|title=Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation on Libya|date=28 March 2011|via=[[NARA|National Archives]]|work=[[whitehouse.gov]]|access-date=4 April 2011}}</ref>
* 20 October 2011: When Hillary Clinton learned of the [[death of Muammar Gaddafi]] she was covered to have said: "We came, we saw, he died" in paraphrasing the famous quote of the Roman imperator [[Julius Caesar]] [[veni, vidi, vici]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/clinton-on-qaddafi-we-came-we-saw-he-died/|title=Clinton on Qaddafi: 'We came, we saw, he died'|website=www.cbsnews.com|date=20 October 2011 |access-date=18 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218072544/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/clinton-on-qaddafi-we-came-we-saw-he-died/|archive-date=18 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Enforcement ==
Initial [[NATO]] planning for a possible no-fly zone took place in late February and early March,<ref>{{cite news|author = Borger, Julian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/08/nato-libya-no-fly-zone-options |title=Nato weighs Libya no-fly zone options|work= [[The Guardian]] |date=8 March 2011 |access-date=10 March 2011 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110322192214/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/08/nato-libya-no-fly-zone-options| archive-date= 22 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> especially by NATO members France and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12672640 |title=Libya: UK and French No-Fly Zone Plan Gathers Pace |work= BBC News |date=8 March 2011 |access-date=10 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110320122424/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/world-africa-12672640| archive-date= 20 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> France and the UK were early supporters of a no-fly zone and had sufficient airpower to impose a no-fly zone over the rebel-held areas, although they might need additional assistance for a more extensive exclusion zone.

The US had the air assets necessary to enforce a no-fly zone, but was cautious about supporting such an action prior to obtaining a legal basis for violating Libya's sovereignty. Furthermore, due to the sensitive nature of military action by the US against an Arab nation, the US sought Arab participation in the enforcement of a no-fly zone.

At a [[congressional hearing]], United States Secretary of Defense [[Robert Gates]] explained that "a no-fly zone begins with an attack on Libya to destroy the air defences … and then you can fly planes around the country and not worry about our guys being shot down. But that's the way it starts."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2011/US/03/02/libya.military.options/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707091209/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-03-02/us/libya.military.options_1_gadhafi-government-arab-league-libyan-people?_s=PM:U.S. |archive-date=7 July 2012 |title=U.S. Mulling Military Options in Libya |publisher=CNN |date=2 March 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=10 March 2011}}</ref>

On 19 March, the deployment of French fighter jets over Libya began,<ref name=cnn_deployment /> and other states began their individual operations. Phase One started the same day with the involvement of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Canada.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

On 24 March, NATO ambassadors agreed that NATO would take command of the no-fly zone enforcement, while other military operations remained the responsibility of the group of states previously involved, with NATO expected to take control as early as 26 March.<ref name="bbc handover"/> The decision was made after meetings of NATO members to resolve disagreements over whether military operations in Libya should include attacks on ground forces.<ref name="bbc handover">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12856665 |title=Nato Takes Over Libya No-Fly Zone |access-date=24 March 2011 |date=24 March 2011 |work=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324235415/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12856665 |archive-date=24 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> The decision created a two-level power structure overseeing military operations. In charge politically was a committee, led by NATO, that included all states participating in enforcing the no-fly zone, while NATO alone was responsible for military action.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/24/france-turkey-nato-libya |title=Nato To Oversee Libya Campaign after France and Turkey Strike Deal |access-date=24 March 2011 |date=24 March 2011 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326194027/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/24/france-turkey-nato-libya |archive-date=26 March 2011 |first1=Ian |last1=Traynor |first2=Nicholas |last2=Watt |url-status=live}}</ref> Royal Canadian Air Force Lieutenant-General [[Charles Bouchard]] has been appointed to command the NATO military mission.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/canadian-to-lead-nato-s-libya-mission-1.1046678 |title=Canadian to lead NATO's Libya mission |publisher=CBC News |date=25 March 2011 |access-date=25 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326160600/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/03/25/libya-nato-mission.html |archive-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the [[death of Muammar Gaddafi]] on 20 October 2011, it was announced that the NATO mission would end on 31 October.<ref name="bbc22">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15412529 |title=Libya: Muammar Gaddafi's body to undergo post-mortem |publisher=BBC |date=22 October 2011 |access-date=22 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111022153249/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15412529 |archive-date=22 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Operation names ===

* NATO: '''[[Operation Unified Protector]]'''
Before NATO took full command of operations at 06:00 GMT on 31 March 2011, the military intervention in the form of a no-fly zone and the naval blockade was split between different national operations:
* France: '''[[Opération Harmattan]]'''
* United Kingdom: '''[[Operation Ellamy]]'''
* Canada: '''[[Operation Mobile]]'''
* United States: '''[[Operation Odyssey Dawn]]''' – Belgium, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Qatar, Spain, Greece and the United Arab Emirates placed their national contributions under U.S. command

=== Forces committed ===
These are the forces committed in alphabetical order:
[[File:USS Barry (DDG-52) launching a Tomahawk missile in support of Operation Odyssey Dawn.jpg|thumb|right| {{USS|Barry|DDG-52|6}} fires a [[Tomahawk cruise missile]] on 19 March 2011.]]
* Belgium: Six [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]] fighter jets of the [[Belgian Air Component]], were already stationed at [[Araxos]], Greece for an exercise, and flew their first mission in the afternoon of 21 March. They monitored the no-fly zone throughout the operation and have successfully attacked ground targets multiple times since 27 March, all of them without collateral damage. The [[Belgian Naval Component]] [[minehunter]] {{ship|Belgian minehunter|Narcis|M923|2}} was part of NATO's [[Standing NATO Mine Countermeasures Group 1|SNMCMG1]] at the start of the operation and assisted in NATO's naval blockade from 23 March. The ship was later replaced by the [[minehunter]] {{ship|Belgian minehunter|Lobelia|M921|2}} in August.
* Bulgaria: The [[Bulgarian Navy]] {{sclass|Wielingen|frigate|2}} {{ship|Bulgarian frigate|Drazki||2}} participated in the naval blockade, along with a number of "special naval forces", two medical teams and other humanitarian help.<ref>{{cite web|last=Машева|first=Гергана|title=''Пращаме "Дръзки" да патрулира край Либия''|url=http://dnes.dir.bg/temite/news/boyko-borisov-kadafi-Mid-East-revolution-fregata-drazki-8250907?tag_id=108385|access-date=23 March 2011|date=21 March 2011|publisher=Dir.bg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814203547/http://dnes.dir.bg/temite/news/boyko-borisov-kadafi-Mid-East-revolution-fregata-drazki-8250907?tag_id=108385|archive-date=14 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://paper.standartnews.com/en/article.php?d=2011-03-23&article=35828|title=Bulgaria's Drazki Frigate Ready to Set Sail for Libya|work=[[Standart (newspaper)|Standart]]|date=23 March 2011|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006002806/http://paper.standartnews.com/en/article.php?d=2011-03-23&article=35828|archive-date=6 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://thesofiaecho.com/2011/03/30/1067837_bulgarian-frigate-on-its-way-to-libyan-coast |title=Bulgarian Frigate on Its Way to Libyan Coast |work=[[The Sofia Echo]] |date=30 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831014300/http://thesofiaecho.com/2011/03/30/1067837_bulgarian-frigate-on-its-way-to-libyan-coast |archive-date=31 August 2011}}</ref> The frigate left port on 27 April and arrived off the coast of Libya on 2 May.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=127541|agency=[[Sofia News Agency]]|date=21 April 2011|access-date=24 April 2011|title=Bulgarian Frigate Sets Out for Libya Embargo Operation 27 April|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425215643/http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=127541|archive-date=25 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> It patrolled for one month before returning to Bulgaria, with a supply stop at the Greek port of [[Souda]].
* Canada: The [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] deployed seven (six front line, one reserve) [[CF-18]] fighter jets, two [[CC-150 Polaris]] refueling airplanes, two [[CC-177 Globemaster III]] heavy transports, two [[CC-130J]] Super Hercules tactical transports, and two [[CP-140 Aurora]] maritime patrol aircraft. The [[Royal Canadian Navy]] deployed the {{sclass|Halifax|frigate}}s {{HMCS|Charlottetown|FFH 339|6}} and {{HMCS|Vancouver|FFH 331|6}}. A total of 440 Canadian Forces personnel participated in [[Operation Mobile]]. There were reports that special operations were being conducted by [[Joint Task Force 2]] in association with Britain's [[Special Air Service]] (SAS) and [[Special Boat Service]] (SBS) as part of Canada's contribution.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/Canadian+warship+route+JTF2+sent+Libya/4369428/story.html |title=Canadian Warship En Route, JTF2 Sent to Libya |work=[[Ottawa Citizen]] |date=2 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309222337/http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/Canadian+warship+route+JTF2+sent+Libya/4369428/story.html |archive-date=9 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tvanouvelles.ca/lcn/infos/lemonde/archives/2011/03/20110318-122506.html |title=Harper confirme l'envoi de sept CF-18 |language=fr |publisher=TVA Nouvelles |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320035958/http://tvanouvelles.ca/lcn/infos/lemonde/archives/2011/03/20110318-122506.html |archive-date=20 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lejournaldemontreal.canoe.ca/actualites/national/archives/2011/03/20110318-100858.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710105630/http://lejournaldemontreal.canoe.ca/actualites/national/archives/2011/03/20110318-100858.html |archive-date=10 July 2012 |title=Les CF-18 partent pour la Méditerranée |work=[[Le Journal de Montréal]] |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011 |url-status=usurped |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada-will-fight-to-protect-libyan-civilians-harper-1.620889 |title=Canada Will Fight To Protect Libyan Civilians: Harper |publisher=[[CTV News]] |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321022457/http://www.ctv.ca/CTVNews/TopStories/20110319/harper-leader-talk-gadhafi-paris-110319/ |archive-date=21 March 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cefcom-comfec.forces.gc.ca/pa-ap/ops/mobile/index-eng.asp |title=Operation Mobile |publisher=Canadian Expeditionary Force Command |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=20 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309222211/http://www.cefcom-comfec.forces.gc.ca/pa-ap/ops/mobile/index-eng.asp |archive-date=9 March 2011 }}</ref>
[[File:Palmaria bengasi 1903 0612 b1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Palmaria (artillery)|Palmarias]] of the Libyan Army, destroyed by French air force near [[Benghazi]], 19 March]]

* Denmark: The [[Royal Danish Air Force]] participated with six F-16AM fighters, one [[C-130J Super Hercules]] military transport plane and the corresponding ground crews. Only four F-16s were used for offensive operations, while the remaining two acted as reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://politiken.dk/newsinenglish/ECE1227910/denmark-to-send-squadron-on-libya-op/ |title=Denmark To Send Squadron on Libya Op |work=Politiken |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320205403/http://politiken.dk/newsinenglish/ECE1227910/denmark-to-send-squadron-on-libya-op/ |archive-date=20 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The first mission by Danish aircraft was flown on 20 March and the first strikes were carried out on 23 March, with four aircraft making twelve sorties as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn.<ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/03/23/354714/danish-f-16s-drop-their-first-bombs-on-libya.html |title=Danish F-16s drop their first bombs on Libya |access-date=24 March 2011 |date=23 March 2011 |work=Flight International |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325104034/http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/03/23/354714/danish-f-16s-drop-their-first-bombs-on-libya.html |archive-date=25 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Danish F-16s flew a total of 43 missions dropping 107 precision bombs during Odyssey Dawn before switching to NATO command under Unified Protector<ref>[http://forsvaret.dk/FTK/Nyt%20og%20Presse/missionupdate/Pages/Missionupdate1april.aspx Mission update 1. April]. Forsvaret.dk (11 October 2011). Retrieved 16 August 2013. {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528050132/http://forsvaret.dk/FTK/Nyt%20og%20Presse/missionupdate/Pages/Missionupdate1april.aspx |date=28 May 2013}}</ref> Danish flights bombed approximately 17% of all targets in Libya and together with Norwegian flights proved to be the most efficient in proportion to the number of flights involved.<ref name="dagbladet_a">{{cite web|url = http://www.dagbladet.no/2011/04/20/nyheter/libya/forsvaret/16258002/|title = ''Norske fly bomber mest i Libya''|language = no|work = [[Dagbladet]]|date = 31 May 2011|access-date = 31 May 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110529231644/http://www.dagbladet.no/2011/04/20/nyheter/libya/forsvaret/16258002/|archive-date = 29 May 2011|url-status = live}}</ref> Danish F-16s flew the last fast-jet mission of Operation Unified Protector on 31 October 2011<ref>{{in lang|da}} [http://jyllands-posten.dk/international/article4594447.ece Danske piloter lukkede Libyen-togt – International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307234742/http://jyllands-posten.dk/international/article4594447.ece |date=7 March 2013 }}. Jyllands-posten.dk. Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref> finishing with a total of 599 missions flown and 923 precision bombs dropped during the entire Libya intervention.<ref>[http://forsvaret.dk/FTK/Nyt%20og%20Presse/missionupdate/Pages/Missionupdate31oktober.aspx Mission update 31. oktober]. Forsvaret.dk. Retrieved 16 August 2013. {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528084139/http://forsvaret.dk/FTK/Nyt%20og%20Presse/missionupdate/Pages/Missionupdate31oktober.aspx |date=28 May 2013}}</ref>
* France: The [[French Air Force]], which flew the highest percentage of NATO's strikes (35%), participated in the mission with 18 [[Dassault Mirage 2000|Mirage]], 19 [[Rafale]], 6 [[Mirage F1]], 6 [[Super Etendard]], 2 [[E-2 Hawkeye]], 3 [[Eurocopter Tiger]], 16 [[Aérospatiale Gazelle]] aircraft. In addition, the [[French Navy]] anti-air destroyer {{ship|French frigate|Forbin|D620|2}} and the frigate {{ship|French frigate|Jean Bart|D615|2}} participated in the operations.<ref name=frenchmod1>{{cite web|url=http://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/autres-operations/harmattan/libye-debut-des-operations-aeriennes-francaises |title=''Libye: début des opérations aériennes françaises'' |language=fr |publisher=French Ministry of Defense |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=20 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322155812/http://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/autres-operations/harmattan/libye-debut-des-operations-aeriennes-francaises |archive-date=22 March 2011}}</ref> On 22 March, the aircraft carrier {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Charles de Gaulle|R91|2}} arrived in international waters near [[Crete]] to provide military planners with a rapid-response air combat capability.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web |url=http://www.expatica.com/be/news/belgian-news/french-aircraft-carrier-to-join-libya-effort-from-greece_137446.html |title=French Aircraft Carrier To Join Libya Effort from Greece |publisher=[[Expatica|Expatica Belgium]] |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=22 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501025103/http://www.expatica.com/be/news/belgian-news/french-aircraft-carrier-to-join-libya-effort-from-greece_137446.html |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Accompanying ''Charles de Gaulle'' were the frigates {{ship|French frigate|Dupleix|D641|2}}, {{ship|French frigate|Aconit|F713|2}}, the fleet replenishment tanker {{ship|French ship|Meuse|A607|2}}, and one {{sclass|Rubis|submarine|0}} nuclear attack submarine.<ref>{{cite web |author=Tran, Pierre |title=France Deploys About 20 Aircraft to Enforce Libya No-Fly Zone |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=6007194&c=EUR&s=AIR |publisher=DefenseNews |date=19 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> France did station three Mirage 2000-5 aircraft and six Mirage 2000D at [[Souda Bay]], Crete.<ref name="ekathimerini1">{{cite web |url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_6365_22/03/2011_384167 |title=Greece Will Not Be Neutral on Libya, PM Says |publisher=ekathimerini.com |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=22 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501023240/http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_6365_22/03/2011_384167 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> France also sent an amphibious assault helicopter carrier, the {{ship|French ship|Tonnerre|L9014|2}} (relieved on 14 July by [[Mistral-class amphibious assault ship|Mistral]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Libya: the LPD Mistral relives the Tonnerre|url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/english/operations/missions-achevees/operation-harmattan-2011/actualites/libye-le-batiment-de-projection-et-de-commandement-mistral-releve-le-tonnerre|access-date=2020-11-23|website=www.defense.gouv.fr}}</ref>), carrying 19 rotorcraft to operate off the coast of Libya.<ref>{{cite news|author=Melvin, Don |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-french-official-helicopters-being-sent-to-libya-2011may23-story.html |title=French Official: Helicopters Being Sent to Libya |agency=Associated Press |date=23 May 2011 }}</ref> The French Air Force and Navy flew 5600 sorties<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.opex360.com/2011/11/04/loperation-harmattan-en-chiffres/|title = L'Opération Harmattan en chiffres|date = 4 November 2011}}</ref> (3100 CAS, 1200 reconnaissance, 400 air superiority, 340 air control, 580 air refueling) and delivered 1205 precision guided munitions (950 LGB and 225 AASM "hammer" missiles, 15 SCALP missiles).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/missions-achevees/operation-harmattan-2011/actualites/libye-point-de-situation-n-50-bilan-de-l-operation-unified-protector|title=Libye: point de situation n° 50 – bilan de l'opération Unified Protector|website=Defense.gouv.fr|access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> Helicopter forces from Army Aviation aboard Tonnerre and Mistral LHD performed 41 night raids, 316 sorties, and destroyed 450 military objectives. The ammunition delivered were 432 Hot Missiles, 1500 68-mm rockets and 13,500 20- and 30-mm shells by Gazelle and Tigre helicopters. The French Navy provided Naval gunfire support and fired 3000 76- and 100-mm shells from the Jean Bart, Lafayette, Forbin, and Chevalier Paul destroyers.

[[File:Ghardabiya Airfield - Damaged Aircraft Shelters - Operation Odyssey Dawn.jpg|thumb|Damage to aircraft shelters at [[Ghardabiya|Ghardabiya Airfield]] near Sirte, 20 March]]
* Greece: The {{sclass|Elli|frigate|2}} {{ship|Greek frigate|Limnos|F451|2}} of the [[Hellenic Navy]] was deployed to the waters off Libya as part of the [[Operation Unified Protector|naval blockade]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.keeptalkinggreece.com/2011/03/20/greek-defence-ministry-no-participation-in-operations-outside-the-nato/ |title=Greek Defence Ministry: No Participation in Operations Outside the NATO |publisher=Keep Talking Greece |date=20 March 2011 |access-date=22 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325064807/http://www.keeptalkinggreece.com/2011/03/20/greek-defence-ministry-no-participation-in-operations-outside-the-nato/ |archive-date=25 March 2011 }}</ref> The [[Hellenic Air Force]] provided [[Super Puma]] search-and-rescue helicopters and few [[Embraer 145 AEW&C]] airborne radar planes.<ref name="ekathimerini1"/><ref name="Skai Player">{{cite web |url=http://www.skai.gr/player/tv/?mmid=212187 |script-title=el:''Πρώτη Γραμμή – ΣΚΑΪ'' |language=el |publisher=skai.gr |date=21 March 2011 |access-date=21 March 2011 |title = ΣΚΑΪ Player TV — ΣΚΑΪ (www.skai.gr) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203033724/http://www.skai.gr/player/tv/?mmid=212187 |archive-date=3 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=greeksuperpuma>{{cite news |url=http://greece.greekreporter.com/2011/03/21/greeces-participation-in-operation-against-libya-costs-1-million-euros-daily/ |title=Greece's Participation in Operation against Libya Costs 1 Million Euros Daily |newspaper=Greekreporter.com |publisher=[[Greek Reporter]] |date=21 March 2011 |access-date=21 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201201747/http://greece.greekreporter.com/2011/03/21/greeces-participation-in-operation-against-libya-costs-1-million-euros-daily/ |archive-date=1 February 2016 |url-status=live |last1=Makris |first1=A. }}</ref><ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web |url=http://www.skai.gr/news/politics/article/165299/i-rolos-tis-elladas-sto-endehomeno-epemvasis-sti-livui/ |script-title=el:''Ο ρόλος της Ελλάδας στο ενδεχόμενο επέμβασης στη Λιβύη – ΣΚΑΪ'' |language=el |publisher=skai.gr |date=15 March 2011 |access-date=19 March 2011 |title = Ο ρόλος της Ελλάδας στο ενδεχόμενο επέμβασης στη Λιβύη — ΣΚΑΪ (www.skai.gr) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111212024134/http://www.skai.gr/news/politics/article/165299/i-rolos-tis-elladas-sto-endehomeno-epemvasis-sti-livui/ |archive-date=12 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Italy: At the beginning of the operation, as a contribution to enforce the no-fly zone, the Italian government committed four [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado ECRs]] of the [[Italian Air Force]] in [[SEAD]] operations, supported by two Tornado IDS variants in an air-to-air refueling role and four [[F-16]]ADF fighters as an escort.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.corriere.it/esteri/11_marzo_20/tripoli-bombardamento-chiesta-riunione-onu_2e95d102-52c0-11e0-a725-dbe20f0ba2b5.shtml |title=''Nuovi raid, decollati anche i jet italiani L'esercito libico ordina il cessate il fuoco'' |language=it |work=[[Corriere della Sera]] |date=20 March 2011 |access-date=21 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321020216/http://www.corriere.it/esteri/11_marzo_20/tripoli-bombardamento-chiesta-riunione-onu_2e95d102-52c0-11e0-a725-dbe20f0ba2b5.shtml |archive-date=21 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the transfer of authority to NATO and the decision to participate in strike air-ground operations, the Italian government increased the Italian contribution by adding four Italian Navy [[AV-8B]] plus (from [[Italian aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi]]), four Italian Air Force [[Eurofighter Typhoon|Eurofighters]], and four [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado IDSs]] under NATO command. Other assets under national command participated in air patrolling and air refueling missions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.difesa.it/OPERAZIONI_MILITARI/OPERAZIONI_INTERNAZIONALI_IN_CORSO/LIBIA-ODISSEA-ALBA/Pagine/Contributonazionale.aspx |title=''Contributo nazionale operazione "Odissey Dawn"'' |language=it |publisher=Italian Ministry of Defense |date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720060122/http://www.difesa.it/Operazioni_Militari/Operazioni_internazionali_in_corso/Libia-odissea-alba/Pagine/Contributonazionale.aspx |archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref> As of 24 March, the [[Italian Navy]] was engaged in Operation Unified Protector with the light aircraft carrier {{ship|Italian aircraft carrier|Giuseppe Garibaldi|551|2}}, the {{sclass|Maestrale|frigate|2}} {{ship|Italian frigate|Libeccio|F572|2}} and the auxiliary ship {{ship|Italian oiler|Etna|A5326|2}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.difesa.it/Operazioni+Militari/Operazioni+internazionali+in+corso/Libia_Odissea_all_Alba/notizie_teatro_dett.htm?DetailID=8123 |title = ''Operazione 'Unified Protector': navi italiane partecipano all'embargo'' | language = it | publisher=Italian Ministry of Defense |date = 25 March 2011}}{{Dead link|date=May 2015}}</ref> Additionally, the {{sclass2|Orizzonte|destroyer|2}} {{ship|Italian destroyer|Andrea Doria|D553|2}} and ''Maestrale''-class frigate {{ship|Italian frigate|Euro|F575|2}} were patrolling off the [[Sicily|Sicilian]] coast in an air-defence role.<ref name="italian navy">{{cite web |url=http://www.marina.difesa.it/Conosciamoci/Notizie/Pagine/20110321_libriacrisi.aspx |title=''La Marina Militare in campo per la crisi libica e i flussi migratori'' |language=it |publisher=Ministry of Defence of the Italian Republic |date=21 March 2011 |access-date=24 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209042445/http://www.marina.difesa.it/conosciamoci/notizie/Pagine/20110321_libriacrisi.aspx |archive-date=9 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.grnet.it/news/95-news/2567-libia-nave-andrea-doria-nel-canale-di-sicilia-con-compiti-di-difesa-aerea-da-attacchi-missilistici.html|title = ''Libia: nave Andrea Doria nel canale di Sicilia con compiti di difesa aerea da attacchi missilistici''|language = it|publisher = GrNet.it|date = 19 March 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141207232928/http://www.grnet.it/news/95-news/2567-libia-nave-andrea-doria-nel-canale-di-sicilia-con-compiti-di-difesa-aerea-da-attacchi-missilistici.html|archive-date = 7 December 2014|df = dmy-all}}</ref> At a later stage, Italy increased its contribution to the NATO led mission by doubling the number of AV-8B Harriers and deploying an undisclosed number of [[AMX International AMX|AMX]] fighter-bombers and [[KC-130J]] and [[Boeing KC-767|KC-767A]] tanker planes. The Italian Air Force also deployed its [[General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper|MQ-9A Reaper]] UAVs for real time video reconnaissance.<ref>[http://www.defensenews.com/article/20111214/DEFSECT01/112140301/Italy-Gives-Bombing-Stats-for-Libya-Campaign Italy Gives Bombing Stats for Libya Campaign | Defense News] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120728162540/http://www.defensenews.com/article/20111214/DEFSECT01/112140301/Italy-Gives-Bombing-Stats-for-Libya-Campaign |date=28 July 2012}}. defensenews.com. Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref>
[[File:US Navy 110320-A-4520W-108 U.S. Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcons return to Aviano Air Base after supporting Operation Odyssey Dawn.jpg|thumb|U.S. Air Force [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16s]] return to [[Aviano Air Base]] in [[Italy]] after supporting Operation Odyssey Dawn, on 20 March.]]
* Jordan: Six [[Royal Jordanian Air Force]] fighter jets landed at a coalition airbase in Europe on 4 April to provide "logistical support" and act as an escort for Jordanian transport aircraft using the humanitarian corridor to deliver aid and supplies to [[National Transitional Council|opposition]]-held [[Cyrenaica]], according to Foreign Minister [[Nasser Judeh]]. He did not specify the type of aircraft or what specific roles they may be called upon to perform, though he said they were not intended for combat.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90043651?After%20hesitation%2C%20Jordan%20joins%20in%20Libya%20no-fly%20campaign |publisher=[[All Headline News]] |date=6 April 2011 |access-date=9 April 2011 |title=After Hesitation, Jordan Joins in No-Fly Zone |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412120322/http://www.allheadlinenews.com/briefs/articles/90043651?After%20hesitation%2C%20Jordan%20joins%20in%20Libya%20no-fly%20campaign |archive-date=12 April 2011}}</ref>
* NATO: E-3 [[airborne early warning and control]] (AWACS) aircraft operated by NATO and crewed by member states helped monitor the airspace over the Mediterranean and in Libya.<ref name="norwacs">{{cite web|url=http://www.adressa.no/nyheter/nordtrondelag/article1606878.ece|title=''Her letter de på vei mot Libya''|date=22 March 2011|publisher=adressa.no|access-date=22 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323111036/http://www.adressa.no/nyheter/nordtrondelag/article1606878.ece|archive-date=23 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Netherlands: The [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]] provided six [[F-16]]AM fighters and a [[McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender|KDC-10]] refueling plane. These aircraft were stationed at the [[Decimomannu Air Base]] on [[Sardinia]]. Four F-16s flew patrols over Libya, while the other two were kept in reserve.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dutch F-16s Operational over Libya|url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/bulletin/dutch-f-16s-operational-over-libya|date=28 March 2011|publisher=Radio Netherlands Worldwide|access-date=28 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017170025/http://www.rnw.nl/english/bulletin/dutch-f-16s-operational-over-libya|archive-date=17 October 2012}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]] deployed the {{sclass2|Tripartite|minehunter}} {{HNLMS|Haarlem|M853|6}} to assist in enforcing the weapons embargo.<ref>{{cite web|title=Netherlands To Join NATO Operation Against Libya|url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/bulletin/netherlands-join-nato-operation-against-libya|date=22 March 2011|publisher=Radio Netherlands Worldwide|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326181738/http://www.rnw.nl/english/bulletin/netherlands-join-nato-operation-against-libya|archive-date=26 March 2011}}</ref>
* Norway: The [[Royal Norwegian Air Force]] deployed six F-16AM fighters to Souda Bay Air Base with corresponding ground crews.<ref name=VG1>{{cite news |url=http://www.vg.no/nyheter/utenriks/libya/artikkel.php?artid=10091511 |title=''Her flyr norske jagerfly mot Libya'' |work=[[Verdens Gang]] |language=no |first1=Rune Thomas |last1=Ege |first2=Jon |last2=Magnus |first3=Kari Tone |last3=Sperstad |first4=Jostein |last4=Matre |first5=Geir Arne |last5=Kippernes |date=24 March 2011 |access-date=25 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910161300/http://www.vg.no/nyheter/utenriks/libya/artikkel.php?artid=10091511 |archive-date=10 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=dagbladet>{{cite news |url=http://www.dagbladet.no/2011/03/24/nyheter/libya/utenriks/muammar_kadhafi/15933136/ |title=''To norske F16-fly har tatt av fra Souda Bay-basen'' |language=no |work=[[Dagbladet]] |author1=Egeberg, Kristoffer |author2=Krokfjord, Torgeir P. |access-date=25 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427174005/http://www.dagbladet.no/2011/03/24/nyheter/libya/utenriks/muammar_kadhafi/15933136/ |archive-date=27 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vg.no/nyheter/utenriks/libya/artikkel.php?artid=10091294 |title=''Norske F-16 kan kan være i kamp denne uken – VG Nett om Libya'' |language=no |publisher=VG Nett |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=22 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324225253/http://www.vg.no/nyheter/utenriks/libya/artikkel.php?artid=10091294 |archive-date=24 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 March, the Norwegian F-16s were assigned to the US North African command and [[Operation Odyssey Dawn]]. It was also reported that Norwegian fighters along with Danish fighters had bombed the most targets in Libya in proportion to the number of planes involved.<ref name="dagbladet_a" /> On 24 June, the number of fighters deployed was reduced from six to four.<ref>[http://www.newsinenglish.no/2011/06/13/jets-to-return-from-libya-in-august/ Jets to return from Libya in August] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202062258/http://www.newsinenglish.no/2011/06/13/jets-to-return-from-libya-in-august/ |date=2 December 2011 }}. Newsinenglish.no (13 June 2011). Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref> The Norwegian participation in the military efforts against the Libyan government came to an end in late July 2011, by which time Norwegian aircraft had dropped 588 bombs and carried out 615 of the 6493 NATO missions between 31 March and 1 August (not including 19 bombs dropped and 32 missions carried out under operation Odyssey Dawn). 75% of the missions performed by the [[Royal Norwegian Air Force]] were so-called SCAR (Strike Coordination and Reconnaissance) missions. US military sources confirmed that on the night of 25 April, two F-16s from the [[Royal Norwegian Air Force]] bombed the residence of Gaddafi inside [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]].<ref>[http://www.nrk.no/fordypning/libya-piloter-snakker-ut-1.10944493 Libya-piloter snakker ut – Fordypning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314152032/http://www.nrk.no/fordypning/libya-piloter-snakker-ut-1.10944493 |date=14 March 2013 }}. NRK. Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref><ref>[http://forsvaret.no/operasjoner/operasjoner-i-utlandet/libya/Sider/Oppsummerte-fakta-om-bidraget.aspx Oppsummerte fakta om bidraget]{{Dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} ([[Norwegian language|Norwegian]])</ref>

[[File:Royal Air Force Striking Libyan Warship MOD 45155730.jpg|thumb|A [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] Tornado GR4 attacks a Libyan warship in [[Al Khums]] naval base, on 20 May 2011.]]
* Qatar: The [[Qatar Armed Forces]] contributed with six [[Dassault Mirage 2000|Mirage 2000-5EDA]] fighter jets and two C-17 strategic transport aircraft to coalition no-fly zone enforcement efforts.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.af.mil/News/story/id/123248695/ |title=New Coalition Member Flies First Sortie Enforcing No-Fly Zone over Libya |publisher=Joint Task Force Odyssey Dawn Public Affairs |date=25 March 2011 |access-date=15 April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504233801/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123248695 |archive-date=4 May 2011}}</ref> The Qatari aircraft were stationed in Crete.<ref name=autogenerated2/> At later stages in the Operation, Qatari Special Forces had been assisting in operations, including the training of the [[Tripoli Brigade]] and rebel forces in Benghazi and the Nafusa mountains. Qatar also brought small groups of Libyans to Qatar for small-unit leadership training in preparation for the rebel advance on Tripoli in August.<ref name="EngelbrektMohlin2013">{{cite book|editor1=Kjell Engelbrekt|editor2=Marcus Mohlin|editor3=Charlotte Wagnsson|author1=Jeffrey H. Michaels|title=The NATO Intervention in Libya: Lessons learned from the campaign|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn= 978-0-415-70549-3 |page=31}}</ref>
* Romania: The [[Romanian Naval Forces]] participated in the naval blockade with the frigate {{ship|Romanian frigate|Regele Ferdinand||2}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-politic-8423876-traian-basescu-sustine-declaratie-presa-ora-21-00-dupa-sedinta-csat.htm |title=''Traian Basescu: Romania va trimite fregata Regele Ferdinand cu 205 militari in Mediterana pentru operatiuni de blocare a oricarei nave suspecte ca transporta armament'' |publisher=HotNews.ro |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=22 March 2011 |language=ro |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325033747/http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-politic-8423876-traian-basescu-sustine-declaratie-presa-ora-21-00-dupa-sedinta-csat.htm |archive-date=25 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Spain: The [[Spanish Armed Forces]] participated with six [[F-18]] [[fighter aircraft|fighters]], two [[Boeing 707|Boeing 707-331B(KC)]] tanker aircraft, the {{sclass|Álvaro de Bazán|frigate|2}} {{ship|Spanish frigate|Méndez Núñez|F104|2}}, the submarine {{ship|Spanish submarine|Tramontana|S74|2}} and two [[CN-235 MPA]] maritime surveillance planes. Spain participated in air control and maritime surveillance missions to prevent the inflow of arms to the Libyan regime. Spain also made the Spanish air base at Rota available to NATO.<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Espana/intervendra/cazas/F-18/fragata/F-100/submarino/avion/vigilancia/maritima/elpepuint/20110319elpepuint_14/Tes|title = ''España intervendrá con cuatro cazas F-18'' | language = es | work = [[El País]] |date = 19 March 2011}}</ref>
* Sweden: The [[Swedish Air Force]] committed eight [[JAS 39 Gripen]] jets for the international air campaign after being asked by NATO to take part in the operations on 28 March.<ref>{{cite news |title=Riksdagen gav klartecken till Lybienstyrkan – rapport |newspaper=SVT Nyheter |date=April 2011 |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/utrikes/riksdagen-gav-klartecken-till-libyenstyrkan |publisher=svt.se |access-date=1 June 2022 |language=sv|last1=Magnusson |first1=Örjan }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://svt.se/2.22584/1.2374883/nato_har_fragat_sverige_om_jas-plan_till_libyen |title=''Nato har frågat Sverige om Jas-plan till Libyen – rapport'' |publisher=svt.se |date=28 March 2011 |access-date=29 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401104642/http://svt.se/2.22584/1.2374883/nato_har_fragat_sverige_om_jas-plan_till_libyen |archive-date=1 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.swedishwire.com/politics/9050-sweden-offers-eight-fighter-jets-for-libya-mission |title=Sweden Offers Eight Fighter Jets for Libya Mission |publisher=[[The Swedish Wire]] |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325153449/http://www.swedishwire.com/politics/9050-sweden-offers-eight-fighter-jets-for-libya-mission |archive-date=25 March 2011 }}</ref> Sweden also sent a [[Saab 340 AEW&C]] for [[airborne early warning and control]] and a [[C-130 Hercules]] for [[aerial refueling]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thelocal.se/32958/20110401/ |title=Swedish House Votes for Libya Mission |publisher=thelocal.se |date=1 April 2011 |access-date=1 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110403105654/http://www.thelocal.se/32958/20110401/| archive-date= 3 April 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> Sweden was the only country neither a member of NATO nor the [[Arab League]] to participate in the no-fly zone.
* Turkey: The [[Turkish Navy]] participated by sending the {{sclass|Barbaros|frigate|2}}<nowiki/>s, TCG ''Yildirim'' & TCG ''Orucreis'', the {{sclass|Oliver Hazard Perry|frigate}}s, TCG ''Gemlik'' & TCG ''Giresun'', the tanker TCG ''Akar'', and the submarine TCG ''Yildiray'' to the NATO-led naval blockade to enforce the arms embargo.<ref>{{cite web |date=24 March 2011 |title=>Turkish Contribution to NATO Operations off Libya Takes Shape |url=https://turkishnavy.net/2011/03/24/turkish-contribution-to-nato-operations-off-libya-takes-shape/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110404062620/http://turkishnavy.net/2011/03/24/turkish-contribution-to-nato-operations-off-libya-takes-shape/ |archive-date=4 April 2011 |access-date=16 June 2019}}</ref> It also provided six F-16 jets for aerial operations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,752650,00.html |title=''Nato startet Seeblockade gegen Gaddafi'' |language=de |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |date=23 March 2011 |access-date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324193313/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/0,1518,752650,00.html |archive-date=24 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 March, [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Turkey's parliament]] approved Turkish participation in military operations in Libya, including enforcing the no-fly zone in Libya.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theoaklandpress.com/articles/2011/03/24/news/nation_and_world/doc4d8b80ea4437f164011195.txt|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905115152/http://www.theoaklandpress.com/articles/2011/03/24/news/nation_and_world/doc4d8b80ea4437f164011195.txt|archive-date=5 September 2012|title=Parliament OKs Turkey's Involvement in Libya |work=The Oakland Press |date=24 March 2011 |agency=Associated Press|access-date=16 January 2012|location=Ankara}}</ref>

[[File:Tornado GR4 Targetting Libyan Tank MOD 45155739.jpg|thumb|RAF Tornado GR4 targeting Libyan tank, 12 April]]
* United Arab Emirates: On 24 March, the [[United Arab Emirates Air Force]] sent six [[F-16]] and six [[Mirage 2000]] fighter jets to join the mission. This was also the first combat deployment of the [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon variants#F-16E/F|Desert Falcon]] variant of F-16, which was the most sophisticated F-16 variant at the time. The planes were based at the Italian [[Decimomannu Air Base|Decimomannu]] air base on [[Sardinia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wam.ae/en/article/hsyj9ffu-uae-updates-support-resolution-1973 |title=UAE Updates Support to UN Resolution 1973 |date=25 March 2011 |publisher=WAM }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-march-24|publisher=Al Jazeera|title=Libya Live Blog – March 24|date=24 March 2011|access-date=25 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110324161128/http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-march-24| archive-date= 24 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* United Kingdom: The UK had SAS around 250 forces deployed on the ground in Libya since March, with an additional 100 arriving following the official start of the intervention. The UK deployed the Royal Navy frigates {{HMS|Westminster|F237|6}} and {{HMS|Cumberland|F85|6}}, nuclear attack submarines {{HMS|Triumph|S93|6}} and {{HMS|Turbulent|S87|6}}, the destroyer {{HMS|Liverpool|D92|6}} and the mine countermeasure vessel {{HMS|Brocklesby|M33|6}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/MilitaryOperations/TyphoonJoinsTornadoInLibyaGroundAttackOperations.htm |title= Typhoon Joins Tornado in Libya Ground Attack Operations |publisher=Ministry of Defence |location=UK |access-date=19 May 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110422151027/http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/MilitaryOperations/TyphoonJoinsTornadoInLibyaGroundAttackOperations.htm| archive-date= 22 April 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> The [[Royal Air Force]] participated with 16 [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado]] and 10 [[Eurofighter Typhoon|Typhoon]] fighters<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-13538708 | work=BBC News | title=Libya Typhoon Pilots Sent Home after 'Night Out' | date=25 May 2011 | access-date=20 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102113815/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-13538708 | archive-date=2 November 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref> operating initially from Great Britain, but later forward deployed to the Italian base at [[Gioia del Colle Air Base|Gioia del Colle]]. [[Nimrod R1]] and [[Sentinel R1]] surveillance aircraft were forward deployed to [[RAF Akrotiri]] in support of the action. In addition, the RAF deployed a number of other support aircraft such as the [[Boeing E-3 Sentry|Sentry AEW.1]] [[Airborne early warning and control|AWACS]] aircraft and [[VC10]] air-to-air refueling tankers. According to anonymous sources, members of the SAS, SBS, and [[Special Reconnaissance Regiment]] (SRR) helped to coordinate the air strikes on the ground in Libya.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/apr/04/libya-uk-increase-tornado-jets |title=Libya: UK To Increase Number of Tornado Jets |access-date=4 April 2011 |date=4 April 2011 |work=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407122047/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/04/libya-uk-increase-tornado-jets |archive-date=7 April 2011 |author=Wintour, Patrick |url-status=live}}</ref> On 27 May, the UK deployed four UK [[AgustaWestland Apache|Apache]] helicopters on board {{HMS|Ocean|L12|6}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/MilitaryOperations/ApachesGetReadyToHelpProtectLibyanCivilians.htm |title=Apaches Get Ready To Help Protect Libyan Civilians |publisher=Ministry of Defence (UK) |date=20 February 2007 |access-date=19 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018125919/http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/MilitaryOperations/ApachesGetReadyToHelpProtectLibyanCivilians.htm |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* United States: The US deployed a naval force of 11 ships, including the [[amphibious assault ship]] {{USS|Kearsarge|LHD-3|6}}, the [[amphibious transport dock]] {{USS|Ponce|LPD-15|6}}, the [[guided-missile destroyer]]s {{USS|Barry|DDG-52|6}} and {{USS|Stout|DDG-55|6}}, the [[Nuclear submarine#United States Navy|nuclear attack submarines]] {{USS|Providence|SSN-719|6}} and {{USS|Scranton|SSN-756|6}}, the [[cruise missile submarine]] {{USS|Florida|SSGN-728|6}} and the [[amphibious command ship]] {{USS|Mount Whitney|LCC-20|6}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.news24.com/World/News/Libya-no-fly-zone-should-be-easy-20110318?amp |title=Libya No-Fly Zone Should Be 'Easy' |access-date=19 March 2011 |date=19 March 2011 |work=[[News24 (website)|News24]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305014226/http://www.news24.com/World/News/Libya-no-fly-zone-should-be-easy-20110318?amp |archive-date=5 March 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macleans.ca/article.jsp?content=w6299809 |title=Danish F-16s Land in Sicily, Canada, Spain, U.S. Jets Flying in for Action Against Libya |access-date=19 March 2011 |date=19 March 2011 |work=Maclean's |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204225452/http://www.macleans.ca/article.jsp?content=w6299809 |archive-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, [[A-10]] [[ground-attack aircraft]], two [[B-1B]] bombers,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/29/us/29military.html|title=U.S. Gives Its Air Power Expansive Role in Libya|last=Schmitt|first=Eric|date=2011-03-28|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=2018-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401145709/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/29/us/29military.html|archive-date=1 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> three [[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit]] stealth bombers,<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Tirpak|first=John A.|date=July 2011|title=Bombers Over Libya|url=http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2011/July%202011/0711libya.pdf|magazine=Air Force Magazine|location=US|publisher=Air Force Association|access-date=2018-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401140103/http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2011/July%202011/0711libya.pdf|archive-date=1 April 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[AV-8B Harrier II]] jump-jets, [[EA-18G Growler]] electronic warfare aircraft, P-3 Orions, and both [[McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle]]<ref>[http://www.defencetalk.com/f-15e-incident-in-libya-crew-recovered-32978/ F-15E incident in Libya; crew recovered | Aviation & Air Force News at DefenceTalk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917052811/http://www.defencetalk.com/f-15e-incident-in-libya-crew-recovered-32978/ |date=17 September 2012 }}. Defencetalk.com (23 March 2011). Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref> and [[F-16]] [[fighter aircraft|fighters]] were involved in action over Libya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/03/20/libya-live-blog-allied-airstrikes-continue-against-gadhafi-forces/?hpt=T1/|title=Libya Live Blog: Benghazi Doctor Says 95 People Killed by Pro-Gadhafi Assault|publisher=CNN|date=20 March 2011|access-date=21 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419112901/http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2011/03/20/libya-live-blog-allied-airstrikes-continue-against-gadhafi-forces/?hpt=T1%2F|archive-date=19 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] reconnaissance aircraft were stationed on Cyprus. On 18 March, two [[Lockheed AC-130|AC-130Us]] arrived at [[RAF Mildenhall]] as well as additional tanker aircraft.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} On 24 March 2 E-8Cs operated from [[Naval Station Rota Spain]], which indicated an increase of ground attacks.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} An undisclosed number of [[CIA]] operatives were said to be in Libya to gather intelligence for airstrikes and make contacts with rebels.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Mark |last1=Mazzetti |first2=Eric |last2=Schmitt |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/31/world/africa/31intel.html |title=C.I.A. in Libya Aiding Rebels, U.S. Officials Say |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=31 March 2011 |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216230449/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/31/world/africa/31intel.html |archive-date=16 February 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The US also used [[MQ-1 Predator]] [[UAV]]s to strike targets in Libya on 23 April.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-april-23|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=23 April 2011|access-date=24 April 2011|title=Libya Live Blog – April 23| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110423103538/http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-april-23| archive-date= 23 April 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>

<gallery widths="180" heights="120">
File:US Navy 030114-N-XXXXX-001 USS Florida launches a Tomahawk cruise missile during Giant Shadow in the waters off the coast of the Bahamas.jpg|{{USS|Florida|SSGN-728|6}} launching a [[Tomahawk cruise missile]]
File:HMS Cumberland and CVN-69.jpg|Naval [[blockade]] by British [[frigate]] {{HMS|Cumberland|F85|6}} (here pictured with {{USS|Dwight D. Eisenhower|CVN-69|6}} in view)
File:ITS Giuseppe Garibaldi (C 551).jpg|Italian [[aircraft carrier]] {{ship|Italian aircraft carrier|Giuseppe Garibaldi|551|2}}
File:Charles De Gaulle (R91) underway 2009.jpg|French [[aircraft carrier]] {{ship|French aircraft carrier|Charles de Gaulle|R91|2}}
File:Regele Ferdinand Frigate 23.jpg|Naval [[blockade]] by Romanian [[frigate]] {{ship|Romanian frigate|Regele Ferdinand||2}}
File:B-2 Spirit supporting operation Odyssey Dawn.jpg|American stealth bomber, [[B-2 Spirit]]
File:Dassault Mirage 2000-5 participating in Odyssey Dawn.jpg|Qatari [[Dassault Mirage 2000]] fighter jet
File:Eurofighter Typhoon 02.jpg|[[Eurofighter Typhoon]] of the [[Italian Air Force]]
File:S 100B at Malmen 2010-06-13 2.jpg|Swedish [[Saab S 100B Argus]] airborne early warning
File:Aerial refueling MD F-A-18A Hornet - Boeing 707-331B - Spain National Day.jpg|Spanish [[KC-135]] refuels two F-18s
File:CF-18, Hornet.jpg|A CF-18 Hornet of the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]
File:Kecskemet 2010 Belgian F-16 photo 41.jpg|An F-16 Fighting Falcon of the [[Belgian Air Component]]
File:French frigate chevalier Paul.jpg|French Destroyer [[French frigate Chevalier Paul|''Chevalier Paul'']] provided naval gun support
File:Andrea Doria (D 553).jpg|Italian Destroyer [[Italian destroyer Andrea Doria|''Andrea Doria'']] provided air-defence role
File:Tonnerre (L9014).jpg|French Assault ship [[French ship Tonnerre (L9014)|''Tonnere'']]
File:Rafale receives fuel from a KC-10.jpg|French [[Rafale]] receives fuel from a KC-10
</gallery>

=== Bases committed ===
[[File:Qatari C-17 at Incirlik Air Base, Turkey.JPG|175px|thumb| A Qatari C-17 transport plane at [[Incirlik Air Base]], Turkey]]

* France: [[Saint-Dizier – Robinson Air Base|Saint-Dizier]], [[Dijon Air Base|Dijon]], [[Nancy – Ochey Air Base|Nancy]], [[Istres-Le Tubé Air Base|Istres]], [[Solenzara Air Base|Solenzara]], [[Avord Air Base|Avord]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Le ravitaillement en vol des chasseurs, maillon crucial des opérations aériennes |work=Romandie News |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=http://www.romandie.com/infos/news2/110322193645.qjum8lzx.asp |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=30 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718164001/http://www.romandie.com/infos/news2/110322193645.qjum8lzx.asp |archive-date=18 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Greece: [[Souda Bay#Souda Air Base|Souda]], [[Aktion National Airport|Aktion]], [[Araxos Airport|Araxos]], and [[Andravida Air Base|Andravida]]<ref name=autogenerated2 /><ref name="autogenerated3"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tanea.gr/default.asp?pid=41&nid=1231100410 |publisher=TA NEA On-line |title=Χωρίς τα F-16 η ελληνική συνδρομή στην επέμβαση στη Λιβύη |date=29 April 2010 |access-date=21 March 2011 |language=el |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324131538/http://www.tanea.gr/default.asp?pid=41&nid=1231100410 |archive-date=24 March 2011 }}</ref>
* Italy: Amendola, [[Decimomannu Air Base|Decimomannu]], [[Gioia del Colle Air Base|Gioia del Colle]], [[Trapani-Birgi Airport|Trapani]], [[Pantelleria Airport|Pantelleria]], [[Capodichino]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Libia, inizia l'operazione Odissea all'alba Napoli quartier generale dell'offensiva: "A Capodichino si decide quando colpire"|url=http://www.ilmattino.it/articolo.php?id=142481&sez=NAPOLI|publisher=Il Mattino.It|date=19 March 2011|access-date=19 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724083049/http://www.ilmattino.it/articolo.php?id=142481&sez=NAPOLI|archive-date=24 July 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Spain: [[Naval Station Rota Spain|Rota]], [[Morón Air Base|Morón]], [[Torrejón Air Base|Torrejón]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/english/Missile-carrying/Spanish/F18s/poised/to/begin/patrols/across/Libyan/airspace/elpepueng/20110320elpeng_8/Ten|title=Missile-carrying Spanish F18s poised to begin patrols across Libyan airspace|publisher=ELPAÍS.com|date=20 March 2011|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-date=26 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626041031/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/english/Missile-carrying/Spanish/F18s/poised/to/begin/patrols/across/Libyan/airspace/elpepueng/20110320elpeng_8/Ten}}</ref>
* Turkey: [[Incirlik Air Base|Incirlik]], [[Izmir Air Base|İzmir]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.africom.mil/getArticle.asp?art=6339 |title=Incirlik Airmen Support Operation Odyssey Dawn |author=Hyatt, Anthony J. |publisher=[[United States Africa Command]] |date=26 March 2011 |access-date=30 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720133405/http://www.africom.mil/getArticle.asp?art=6339 |archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-usa-military-idUSTRE72H60520110318 |title=Factbox: U.S. Military Resources as Libya Action Looms |author=Ryan, Missy |work=Reuters |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=30 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321113703/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/18/us-libya-usa-military-idUSTRE72H60520110318 |archive-date=21 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* United Kingdom: [[RAF Akrotiri]], [[RAF Marham]], [[RAF Waddington]], [[RAF Leuchars]], [[RAF Brize Norton]], [[Aviano Air Base|Aviano]] (IT)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafwaddington/newsweather/index.cfm?storyid=A80CB70A-5056-A318-A8C6615C242ECFC4|publisher=Royal Air Force, RAF Waddington|date=9 March 2011|title=Op Deference|access-date=23 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110405225424/http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafwaddington/newsweather/index.cfm?storyid=A80CB70A-5056-A318-A8C6615C242ECFC4|archive-date=5 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* United States: [[Aviano Air Base|Aviano]] (IT), [[RAF Lakenheath]] (UK), [[RAF Mildenhall]] (UK), [[Sigonella]] (IT), [[Spangdahlem Air Base|Spangdahlem]] (GE),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spangdahlem.af.mil |title=Spangdahlem Air Base |publisher=United States Air Force |access-date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303013242/http://www.spangdahlem.af.mil/ |archive-date=3 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ellsworth AFB]] (US)

=== Actions by other states ===
{{anchor|Action taken by international forces}}
[[File:Tornado GR4 Attack on Libyan SCUD Launcher MOD 45155729.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado]] striking the [[Scud]] missile launcher during the military intervention in Libya in 2011.]]
* Albania: Prime Minister [[Sali Berisha]] said that Albania was ready to help. Berisha supported the decision of the coalition to protect civilians from the Gaddafi regime. He also offered assistance to facilitate the coalition's actions. A press release from the Prime Minister's office stated that these operations are entirely legitimate, with their main objective being the protection of freedom and the universal rights that Libyans deserve.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://english.albeu.com/albania-news/albania-supports-the-attacks-on-libya/32495/|title = Albania supports the attacks on Libya|publisher = Albeu|date = 20 March 2011|access-date = 21 March 2011|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110323024547/http://english.albeu.com/albania-news/albania-supports-the-attacks-on-libya/32495/|archive-date = 23 March 2011}}</ref> On 29 March, Foreign Minister [[Edmond Haxhinasto]] said Albania would open its airspace and territorial waters to coalition forces and said its seaports and airports were at the coalition's disposal upon request. He also suggested that Albania could help with international humanitarian efforts.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2011/03/30/nb-09 |work=Southeast European Times |date=30 March 2011 |access-date=24 April 2011 |title=Albania supports international coalition on Libya |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401173045/http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2011/03/30/nb-09 |archive-date=1 April 2011}}</ref> In mid-April, the ''[[International Business Times]]'' listed Albania alongside several other NATO member states, including Romania and Turkey, that have made modest contributions to the military effort, but it did not go into detail.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/134953/20110415/nato-libya-air-strikes-uk-us-france.htm|work=International Business Times|title=Almost half of NATO members not offering any military support to Libya campaign|date=15 April 2011|access-date=24 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426233301/http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/134953/20110415/nato-libya-air-strikes-uk-us-france.htm|archive-date=26 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2020|reason=[[Bharatpedia:Reliable sources/Perennial sources#International Business Times]]}}
* Australia: Prime Minister [[Julia Gillard]] and others in her [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] government said Australia would not contribute militarily to enforcement of the UN mandate despite registering strong support for the mandate. The opposition [[Australian Liberal Party|Liberal Party]]{{'s}} defence spokesman called upon the government to consider dispatching Australian military assets if requested by NATO.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://australianetworknews.com/stories/201103/3169576.htm?desktop |agency=Australia Network News |date=21 March 2011 |access-date=24 March 2011 |title=US To Ease Military Action in Libya |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620151553/http://australianetworknews.com/stories/201103/3169576.htm?desktop |archive-date=20 June 2012}}</ref> Defence Minister [[Stephen Smith (Australian politician)|Stephen Smith]] said the government would be willing to send [[C-17 Globemaster]] heavy transport planes for use in international operations "as part of a humanitarian contribution", if needed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-world/aust-prepared-to-send-c17s-to-libya-smith-20110310-1bo7h.html|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|title=Aust Prepared To Send C17s to Libya: Smith|author=Wald, Tom|date=10 March 2011|access-date=24 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314035728/http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-world/aust-prepared-to-send-c17s-to-libya-smith-20110310-1bo7h.html|archive-date=14 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> On 27 April Foreign Minister [[Kevin Rudd]] described Australia as the "third largest [humanitarian contributor to Libya] globally after the United States and the European Union", after a humanitarian aid ship funded by the Australian government docked in Misrata.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/national/australia-funding-libyan-evacuation-ship-reveals-rudd-20110427-1dwx0.html|work=[[The Age]]|date=28 April 2011|access-date=30 April 2011|title=Australia Funding Libyan Evacuation Ship, Reveals Rudd|author=Willingham, Richard|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110506095617/http://www.theage.com.au/national/australia-funding-libyan-evacuation-ship-reveals-rudd-20110427-1dwx0.html|archive-date=6 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Croatia: President [[Ivo Josipović]] said that if necessary Croatia would honour its NATO membership and participate in actions in Libya. He also stressed that while Croatia was ready for military participation according to its capabilities, it would mostly endeavor to help on the humanitarian side.<ref>{{cite web |last=Šoljaga |first=Ana Kandare |date=21 March 2011 |title=Ako bude potrebno, RH će sudjelovati u akcijama u Libiji |trans-title=If necessary, Croatia will participate in actions in Libya |url=http://dnevnik.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/ako-bude-potrebno-rh-ce-sudjelovati-u-akcijama-u-libiji.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121190907/http://dnevnik.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/ako-bude-potrebno-rh-ce-sudjelovati-u-akcijama-u-libiji.html |archive-date=21 November 2011 |access-date=21 March 2011 |website=Dnevnik.hr |language=hr}}</ref> On 29 April, the government announced it planned to send two [[Croatian Army]] officers to assist with Operation Unified Protector, pending formal presidential and parliamentary approval.<ref>{{cite news|date=29 April 2011 |access-date=30 April 2011 |url=http://www.croatiantimes.com/news/General_News/2011-04-29/18912/Croatia_to_send_two_officers_for_NATO%B4s_Libya_mission |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120731105228/http://www.croatiantimes.com/news/General_News/2011-04-29/18912/Croatia_to_send_two_officers_for_NATO%B4s_Libya_mission |archive-date=31 July 2012 |title=Croatia to send two officers for NATO's Libya mission}}</ref>
* Cyprus: After the passage of UNSCR 1973, President [[Demetris Christofias]] asked the British government not to use its military base at [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia|Akrotiri]], an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the UK on the island, in support of the intervention. However, this request had no legal weight as Cyprus could not legally bar the UK from using the base.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFTRE72J2NJ20110320|work=Reuters|date=20 March 2011|access-date=9 April 2011|title=Cyprus Says Against Use of British Bases for Libya|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423133048/http://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFTRE72J2NJ20110320|archive-date=23 April 2011}}</ref> The Cypriot government reluctantly allowed [[Qatar Emiri Air Force]] fighter jets and a transport plane to refuel at [[Larnaca International Airport]] on 22 March after their pilots declared a fuel emergency while in transit to Crete for participation in military operations.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cyprus-mail.com/cyprus/qatari-warplanes-refuel-cyprus/20110323 |work=Cyprus Mail |date=23 March 2011 |access-date=9 April 2011 |first=Elias |last=Hazou |title=Qatari warplanes refuel in Cyprus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325235401/http://www.cyprus-mail.com/cyprus/qatari-warplanes-refuel-cyprus/20110323 |archive-date=25 March 2011}}</ref>
* Estonia: Foreign Minister [[Urmas Paet]] said on 18 March that his country had no current plans to join in military operations in Libya, but it would be willing to participate if called on to do so by NATO or the EU.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.eata.ee/en/2011/03/estonia-contributes-humanitarian-aid-not-troops-to-libya.html |agency=Eesti NATO Ühing (Estonian Atlantic Treaty Association) |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=9 April 2011 |title=Estonia contributes humanitarian aid, not troops, to Libya |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322114802/http://www.eata.ee/en/2011/03/estonia-contributes-humanitarian-aid-not-troops-to-libya.html |archive-date=22 March 2012}}</ref> The [[Estonian Air Force]] does not {{As of|2023|lc=y}} operate any combat aircraft, although it does operate a few helicopters and transport planes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=World Air Forces 2023 |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/download?ac=90688 |access-date=2 July 2023 |website=[[FlightGlobal]] |format=PDF}}</ref>
* European Union: Finnish Foreign Minister [[Alexander Stubb]] announced that the proposed [[#Proposed troop deployment|EUFOR Libya]] operation was being prepared, and was waiting for a request from the UN.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pop |first=Valentina |date=12 April 2011 |title=Foreign ministers wary of EU military role in Libya |work=EUobserver |url=http://euobserver.com/9/32165 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203034602/https://euobserver.com/news/32165 |archive-date=3 February 2023}}</ref>
* Germany: In March the country withdrew all its forces from NATO operations in the Mediterranean Sea, as its government decided not to take part in any military operations against Libya. However, it was increasing the number of AWACS personnel in Afghanistan by up to 300 to free up the forces of other states. Germany allowed the usage of military installations in its territory for intervention in Libya.<ref>{{cite news |last=Neuerer |first=Dietmar |date=23 March 2011 |title=Deutschland sucht Ausweg aus der Libyen-Falle |language=de |trans-title=Germany is looking for a way out of the Libya trap |work=Handelsblatt |url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/deutschland/deutschland-sucht-ausweg-aus-der-libyen-falle/3980818.html |access-date=4 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326184303/http://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/deutschland/deutschland-sucht-ausweg-aus-der-libyen-falle/3980818.html |archive-date=26 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,752222,00.html |title=Turkey Blocks NATO Mission in Libya |date=21 March 2011 |work=Der Spiegel |access-date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323233052/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,752222,00.html |archive-date=23 March 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acus.org/natosource/germany-mulls-afghan-option-after-libya-abstention|title=Germany mulls Afghan option after Libya abstention|publisher=Atlantic Council|date=18 March 2011|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121003014152/http://www.acus.org/natosource/germany-mulls-afghan-option-after-libya-abstention|archive-date=3 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,14942840,00.html?maca=en-tagesschau_englisch-335-rdf-mp|title=More German troops to be sent to Afghanistan |date=26 March 2011| work=DW}}</ref> On 8 April, German officials suggested that the country could potentially contribute troops to "[ensure] with military means that humanitarian aid gets to those who need it".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-april-8|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=8 April 2011|access-date=9 April 2011|title=Libya Live Blog – April 8| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110408102640/http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-april-8| archive-date= 8 April 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> As of early June, the German government was reportedly considering opening a center for training police in Benghazi.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irna.ir/ENNewsShow.aspx?NID=30422352&SRCH=1 |agency=Islamic Republic News Agency |title=Germany mulls police training in rebel-held Benghazi |date=8 June 2011 |access-date=9 June 2011}}{{Dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> On 24 July, Germany lent 100 million [[Euro]]s (144 million [[US dollars]]) to the rebels for "civilian and humanitarian purposes".
* Indonesia: President [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] called for a ceasefire by all sides, but said that if a UN peacekeeping force was established to monitor a potential truce, "Indonesia is more than willing to take part."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/turkey-indonesia-call-for-ceasefire-in-libya/433604 |work=Jakarta Globe |date=5 April 2011 |access-date=9 April 2011 |title=Turkey, Indonesia Call for Ceasefire in Libya |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110420140900/http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/turkey-indonesia-call-for-ceasefire-in-libya/433604 |archive-date=20 April 2011}}</ref>
* Kuwait: The Arab state would make a "logistic contribution", according to British Prime Minister David Cameron.<ref name="AlJaz23Mar">{{cite news|url=http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-march-23 |title=Libya Live Blog – March 23 |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=23 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323105338/http://blogs.aljazeera.net/live/africa/libya-live-blog-march-23 |archive-date=23 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="BBCLive">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12776418 |title=Libya Crisis |work= BBC News |date=21 March 2011 |access-date=21 March 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110322142004/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12776418| archive-date= 22 March 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>
* Malta: Prime Minister [[Lawrence Gonzi]] said no coalition forces would be allowed to stage from military bases in Malta, but Maltese airspace would be open to international forces involved in the intervention.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20110319/local/priority-is-safety-of-malta-gonzi|work=[[The Times]]|location=Malta|date=19 March 2011|access-date=9 April 2011|title=Priority is safety of Malta– Gonzi|first=Christian|last=Peregrin|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322030140/http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20110319/local/priority-is-safety-of-malta-gonzi|archive-date=22 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> On 20 April, two French Mirages were reportedly allowed to make emergency landings in Malta after running low on fuel.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20110421/world/Foreign-military-advisers-for-Libyan-rebel-bastion.361564|date=21 April 2011|access-date=23 April 2011|title=Foreign Military Advisers for Libyan Rebel Bastion|work=[[The Times]]|location=Malta|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424140356/http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20110421/world/Foreign-military-advisers-for-Libyan-rebel-bastion.361564|archive-date=24 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Poland: US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, UK Secretary of Defence [[Liam Fox]], and NATO Secretary-General [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] urged the Polish government to contribute to military operations. As of June, [[Warsaw]] had not committed to participation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304778304576373793280428126|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=9 June 2011|access-date=9 June 2011|title=Gates Calls Others to Join Libya Fight|first1=Stephen|last1=Fidler|first2=Julian|last2=Barnes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201201747/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304778304576373793280428126|archive-date=1 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=June 2023}}
* Sudan: The government "quietly granted permission" for coalition states to traverse its airspace for operations in the Libyan theatre if necessary, [[Reuters]] reported in late March.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 March 2011 |title=Sudan allows use of airspace for Libya raids |work=[[The Gulf Today]] |publisher= |agency=[[Reuters]] |url=http://gulftoday.ae/portal/0541d362-7d51-4f53-afd1-f225ca1e2c41.aspx |access-date=9 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719151548/http://gulftoday.ae/portal/0541d362-7d51-4f53-afd1-f225ca1e2c41.aspx |archive-date=19 July 2011}}</ref>

== Civilian losses ==
:'''14 May''': NATO air strike hit a large number of people gathered for Friday prayers in the eastern city of [[Brega]] leaving 11 religious leaders dead and 50 others wounded.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/168587/Libya-buries-dead-imams-killed-in-nato-strike/ |title=Libya Buries Dead Imams Killed in NATO Strike | agency = [[Agence France-Presse]]|work=The Express Tribune|date=14 May 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110702033717/http://tribune.com.pk/story/168587/libya-buries-dead-imams-killed-in-nato-strike/| archive-date= 2 July 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>
:'''24 May''': NATO air strikes in Tripoli kill 19 civilians and wound 150, according to Libyan state television.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsfrommiddleeast.com/?new=78030 |title=NATO Air Strikes in Tripoli Kill 19 Civilians: Libyan TV|work=News From Middle East |date=25 May 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110722124010/http://www.newsfrommiddleeast.com/?new=78030| archive-date= 22 July 2011 | url-status= usurped}}</ref>
:'''31 May''': Libya claims that NATO strikes have left up to 718 civilians dead.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/bulletin/libya-says-nato-raids-killed-718-civilians |title=Libya says NATO raids killed 718 civilians |work=Radio Netherlands Worldwide |date=31 May 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603233637/http://www.rnw.nl/english/bulletin/libya-says-nato-raids-killed-718-civilians |archive-date=3 June 2011 }}</ref>
:'''19 June''': NATO air strikes hit a residential house in Tripoli, killing seven civilians, according to Libyan state television.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tripolipost.com/articledetail.asp?c=1&i=6209 |title=NATO Air Strikes Hit Residential House, Kill Seven Civilians |work=Tripoli Post |access-date=19 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721192141/http://tripolipost.com/articledetail.asp?c=1&i=6209 |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref>
:'''20 June''': A NATO airstrike in [[Sorman]], near Tripoli, killed fifteen civilians, according to government officials.<ref name="sorman"/> Eight rockets apparently hit the compound of a senior government official, in an area where NATO confirmed operations had taken place.<ref name="sorman">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13843798 |title=Libya: Nato 'Killed 15 Civilians' in Sorman Air Strike |work=BBC News |date=20 June 2011 |access-date=23 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624020034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13843798 |archive-date=24 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>
:'''25 June''': NATO strikes on Brega hit a bakery and a restaurant, killing 15 civilians and wounding 20 more, Libyan state television claimed. The report further accused the coalition of "crimes against humanity". The claims were denied by NATO.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-06-25-Libya-NATO-airstrike_n.htm|title=Libyan state media say NATO airstrike kills 15|location=Tripoli|date=26 June 2011|access-date=16 January 2012|work=USA Today|agency=Associated Press|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902130433/http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2011-06-25-Libya-NATO-airstrike_n.htm|archive-date=2 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
:'''28 June''': NATO airstrike on the town of [[Tawergha]], 300 km east of the Libyan capital, [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] kills eight civilians.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}
:'''25 July''': NATO airstrike on a medical clinic in [[Zliten]] kills 11 civilians, though the claim was denied by NATO, who said they hit a vehicle depot and communications center.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/25/libya.fighting/index.html |title=Libya's Zlitan increasingly in rebel, NATO sights |publisher=CNN |date=25 July 2011 |access-date=14 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726222641/http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/07/25/libya.fighting/index.html |archive-date=26 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Hafez Ahmed|url=http://www.newstoday.com.bd/index.php?option=details&news_id=34314&date=2011-07-26|title=NATO raids clinic in Libya: 7 killed|work=News Today|date=26 July 2011|access-date=14 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204201058/http://www.newstoday.com.bd/index.php?option=details&news_id=34314&date=2011-07-26|archive-date=4 December 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
:'''20 July''': NATO attacks Libyan state TV, [[Aljamahiriya TV|Al-Jamahiriya]]. Three journalists killed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.skynews.com.au/world/article.aspx?id=644625&vId= |title=NATO raid in Libya kills 3 reporters |publisher=Sky News |date=31 July 2011 |access-date=14 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111204205205/http://www.skynews.com.au/world/article.aspx?id=644625&vId= |archive-date=4 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
:'''9 August''': Libyan government claims 85 civilians were killed in a NATO airstrike in Majer, a village near Zliten. A spokesman confirms that NATO bombed Zliten at 2:34 a.m. on 9 August,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://pakobserver.net/detailnews.asp?id=108593 |title=Photographic Evidence of NATO War Crimes |work=Pakistan Observer |date=11 August 2011 |access-date=12 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316085435/http://pakobserver.net/detailnews.asp?id=108593 |archive-date=16 March 2012}}</ref> but says he was unable to confirm the casualties. Commander of the NATO military mission, [[Lieutenant-General (Canada)|Lieutenant General]] [[Charles Bouchard]] says "I cannot believe that 85 civilians were present when we struck in the wee hours of the morning, and given our intelligence. But I cannot assure you that there were none at all".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hKpomyAdd4B-pnAriRgoZnOb_CvA?docId=CNG.884081aef56acf1a58718197b01abfb5.11 |title=Libya slams UN chief over civilian deaths comments |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=13 August 2011 |access-date=13 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131013826/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hKpomyAdd4B-pnAriRgoZnOb_CvA?docId=CNG.884081aef56acf1a58718197b01abfb5.11 |archive-date=31 January 2013}}</ref>
:'''15 September''': Gaddafi spokesman Moussa Ibrahim declares that NATO air strikes killed 354 civilians and wounded 700 others, while 89 other civilians are supposedly missing. He also claims that over 2,000 civilians have been killed by NATO air strikes since 1 September.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nato-strikes-kill-354-says-gaddafis-spokesman-2356574.html|title=Nato strikes 'kill 354', says Gaddafi's spokesman|work=The Independent|date=18 September 2011|access-date=19 September 2011|first=Kim|last=Sengupta|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925025318/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nato-strikes-kill-354-says-gaddafis-spokesman-2356574.html|archive-date=25 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> NATO denied the claims, saying they were unfounded.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-sirte-idUSTRE78L26X20110922 | title=NATO Strikes, NTC Kill 151 in Sirte: Gaddafi Aide | work=Reuters | date=22 September 2011 | access-date=30 June 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830063531/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/22/us-libya-sirte-idUSTRE78L26X20110922 | archive-date=30 August 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref>
:'''2 March 2012''': [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] release their report about the aftermath of the Libyan civil war, concluding that in total 60 civilians were killed and 55 wounded by the NATO air campaign. In the same report, the UN Human Rights Council concludes that NATO "conducted a highly precise campaign with a demonstrable determination to avoid civilian casualties".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/03/03/world/africa/united-nations-report-on-libya.html | title=International Commission of Inquiry on Libya Report | access-date=23 February 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703011342/http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/03/03/world/africa/united-nations-report-on-libya.html?_r=0 | archive-date=3 July 2017 | url-status=live }}</ref> In May that same year, [[Human Rights Watch]] published a report claiming that at least 72 civilians were killed.<ref name="Human Rights Watch 12 May 2012"/>

== Military losses on the coalition side ==
[[File:P9184302.jpg|thumb|The USAF F-15E that crashed over Libya, numbered 91-0304/LN, in [[Ostrava]], Czech Republic, six months before the accident. Both crew members ejected and were rescued.]]
* '''22 March 2011''': One USAF [[F-15E]] flying from Aviano crashed in Bu Marim, northwest of Benghazi. The pilot was rescued alive by [[US Marines]] from the [[26th Marine Expeditionary Unit]] based on the {{USS|Kearsarge|LHD-3|6}}. The weapons systems officer evaded hostile forces and was subsequently repatriated by Italian forces.<ref>[http://christianfighterpilot.com/blog/2012/01/18/f-15-wso-ejected-over-libya-called-dad/ F-15 WSO Ejected over Libya. Called Dad. | God and Country] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808054016/http://christianfighterpilot.com/blog/2012/01/18/f-15-wso-ejected-over-libya-called-dad/ |date=8 August 2014 }}. Christianfighterpilot.com (18 January 2012). Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/libya-usa-crash-safe-idUSN2213606920110322 Second crewman from crashed US jet in Libya rescued] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119033346/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/22/libya-usa-crash-safe-idUSN2213606920110322 |date=19 November 2015 }}. Reuters. Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref> The aircraft crashed due to a mechanical failure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usaf.aib.law.af.mil/ExecSum2011/F-15E_Libya_21%20Mar%2011.pdf |title=UNITED STATES AIR FORCE AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION BOARD REPORT |access-date=2011-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121233954/http://usaf.aib.law.af.mil/ExecSum2011/F-15E_Libya_21%20Mar%2011.pdf |archive-date=21 January 2012}}</ref> The rescue operation involved two [[Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey]] aircraft, two [[Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion]] helicopters, and two [[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II]] aircraft, all launched from the USS ''Kearsarge''.<ref name="fg rescue"/> The operation involved the Harriers' dropping {{convert|227|kg|abbr=on}} bombs and [[strafing]] the area around the crash site before an Osprey recovered at least one of the downed aircraft's crew;<ref name="fg rescue">{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/03/23/354704/usmc-reveals-details-of-f-15e-pilot-rescue.html |title=USMC Reveals Details of F-15E Pilot Rescue |work=Flight International |date=23 March 2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |author=Hoyle, Craig |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326102409/http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/03/23/354704/usmc-reveals-details-of-f-15e-pilot-rescue.html |archive-date=26 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8402156/Libya-US-warplanes-carried-out-strafing-runs-to-rescue-downed-pilot.html | title=Libya: US Warplanes 'Carried Out Strafing Runs' To Rescue Downed Pilot – US Warplanes Conducted Strafing Runs During an Operation To Rescue a Downed Fighter Pilot, a Military Source Told ''The Daily Telegraph'' | work=The Daily Telegraph | date=23 March 2011 | access-date=7 August 2011 | first=Nick | last=Squires | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326044610/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8402156/Libya-US-warplanes-carried-out-strafing-runs-to-rescue-downed-pilot.html | archive-date=26 March 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref> injuring six local civilians in the process.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.channel4.com/news/third-night-of-bombing-in-libya | title=Six Libyan Villagers Shot by US Team Rescuing Pilot | work=Channel 4 News | date=22 March 2011 | access-date=7 August 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110701085945/http://www.channel4.com/news/third-night-of-bombing-in-libya| archive-date= 1 July 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/04/27/f15.crew.libya.rescue/index.html?hpt=T2 | title=Downed F-15 Crew on Libya Rescue: 'The Best Feeling' | publisher=CNN | date=28 April 2011 | access-date=7 August 2011 | first=Larry | last=Shaughnessy | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121110132938/http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/04/27/f15.crew.libya.rescue/index.html?hpt=T2 | archive-date=10 November 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''27 April 2011''': An F-16 from the [[United Arab Emirates Air Force]] crashed at [[Naval Air Station Sigonella]] at about 11:35 local time; the pilot ejected safely.<ref name="f16"/> The aircraft was confirmed to be from the UAE by the country's General Command of the armed forces, and had been arriving from [[Sardinia]] when it crashed.<ref name="f16">{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5h8d5ep2e9mHsPV2Tb537rf2CdsJA?docId=6680198 |title=NATO: F-16 Fighter-Bomber Crashes on Landing at Italian Airbase |date=27 April 2011 |access-date=7 May 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20191225225905/https://www.webcitation.org/5yVsdwBlT?url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5h8d5ep2e9mHsPV2Tb537rf2CdsJA%3FdocId=6680198 |archive-date=25 December 2019 |agency=The Canadian Press |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''21 June 2011''': An unmanned US Navy [[MQ-8 Fire Scout]] went down over Libya, possibly due to enemy fire.<ref name=helicrash/> NATO confirmed that they lost radar contact with the unmanned helicopter as it was performing an intelligence and reconnaissance mission near Zliten.<ref name=helicrash/> NATO began investigating the crash shortly after it occurred.<ref name=helicrash>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13858200 |title=Libya Conflict: Nato Loses Drone Helicopter |work=BBC News |date=21 June 2011 |access-date=7 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623001726/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13858200 |archive-date=23 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 5 August, it was announced that the investigation had concluded that the cause of the crash was probably enemy fire; with an operator or mechanical failure ruled out and the inability of investigators to access the crash site the "logical conclusion" was that the aircraft had been shot down.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gjq4WZw03V_fCs0F44efTYDXJwWg?docId=729f1c9498f142d783e7d216f8f05c37 |title=Navy says drone lost in Libya likely shot down |date=5 August 2011 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=16 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811114355/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gjq4WZw03V_fCs0F44efTYDXJwWg?docId=729f1c9498f142d783e7d216f8f05c37 |archive-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''20 July 2011''': A British airman, Senior Aircraftman John James Smart, was killed in a traffic accident in Italy while part of a logistical convoy transferring supplies from the UK to NATO bases in the south of Italy from which air strikes were being conducted against Libya.<ref name="autogenerated6">{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/MilitaryOperations/AirmanKilledInRoadAccidentInItaly.htm |title=Airman killed in road accident in Italy |publisher=Ministry of Defence |access-date=7 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725013459/http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/MilitaryOperations/AirmanKilledInRoadAccidentInItaly.htm |archive-date=25 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated7">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2084681,00.html |title=UK Airman Dies in Italy Road Accident |magazine=Time |date=21 July 2011 |agency=Associated Press |access-date=7 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111017143157/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C2084681%2C00.html |archive-date=17 October 2011}}</ref>

== Reaction ==
{{Main|International reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya|Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya|US domestic reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya}}

Since the start of the campaign, there have been allegations of violating the limits imposed upon the intervention by Resolution 1973 and by US law. At the end of May 2011, Western troops were captured on film in Libya, despite Resolution 1973 specifically forbidding "a foreign occupation force of any form on any part of Libyan territory".<ref name=Wester_troops_al_jazeera>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/may/30/western-troops-on-ground-libya |author1=Borger, Julian |author2=Chulov, Martin |date=30 May 2011 |title=Al-Jazeera Footage Captures 'Western Troops on the Ground' in Libya | work = [[The Guardian]] |access-date=6 June 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110603231625/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/may/30/western-troops-on-ground-libya| archive-date= 3 June 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>

In a March 2011 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll, 47% of Americans had approved of military action against Libya, compared with 37% disapproval.<ref>{{cite news |title=Americans Approve of Military Action Against Libya, 47% to 37% |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/146738/americans-approve-military-action-against-libya.aspx |work=Gallup |date=22 March 2011}}</ref>

On 10 June, US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates criticized some of the NATO member nations for their efforts, or lack thereof, to participate in the intervention in Libya. Gates singled out Germany, Poland, Spain, Turkey, and the Netherlands for criticism. He praised Canada, Norway, and Denmark, saying that although those three countries had only provided 12% of the aircraft to the operation, their aircraft had conducted one-third of the strikes.<ref>Cloud, David S. (11 June 2011). "Gates Tells NATO It Must Hold Up Its End". [[McClatchy-Tribune News Services]] (via ''[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]''). p. 3.</ref>

On 24 June, the US House voted against Joint Resolution 68, which would have authorized continued US military involvement in the NATO campaign for up to one year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/112th-congress/house-joint-resolution/68|title=H.J.Res.68 – 112th Congress (2011–2012): Authorizing the limited use of the United States Armed Forces in support of the NATO mission in Libya.|date=24 June 2011|access-date=16 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304101619/https://www.congress.gov/bill/112th-congress/house-joint-resolution/68|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehill.com/blogs/floor-action/house/94851-house-rejects-libya-authorization-measure/|title=House rejects Libya authorization measure|work=TheHill|date=24 June 2011|access-date=16 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213050758/http://thehill.com/blogs/floor-action/house/168347-house-rejects-libya-authorization-resolution|archive-date=13 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The majority of Republicans voted against the resolution,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://politics.nytimes.com/congress/votes/112/house/1/493|title=Congressional Bills and Votes|work=The New York Times|access-date=16 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617195534/http://politics.nytimes.com/congress/votes/112/house/1/493|archive-date=17 June 2016}}</ref> with some questioning US interests in Libya and others criticizing the White House for overstepping its authority by conducting a military expedition without Congressional backing. House Democrats were split on the issue, with 115 voting in favor of and 70 voting against. Despite the failure of the President to receive legal authorization from Congress, the Obama administration continued its military campaign, carrying out the bulk of NATO's operations until the overthrow of Gaddafi in October.

On 9 August, the head of [[UNESCO]], [[Irina Bokova]] deplored a NATO strike on Libyan State TV, [[Aljamahiriya TV|Al-Jamahiriya]], that killed 3 journalists and wounded others.<ref name="reut">{{cite news | url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE77802120110809 | title=UN official "deplores" NATO attack on Libyan TV | access-date=13 August 2011 | date=9 August 2011 | agency=Reuters Africa | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811114339/http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE77802120110809 | archive-date=11 August 2011 }}</ref> Bokova declared that media outlets should not be the target of military activities. On 11 August, after the NATO airstrike on Majer (on 9 August) that allegedly killed 85 civilians, UN Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] called on all sides to do as much as possible to avoid killing innocent people.<ref name="ban">{{cite news | url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8696961/Ban-Ki-moon-alarmed-over-rising-civilian-toll-in-Libya.html | title=Ban Ki-moon alarmed over rising civilian toll in Libya | access-date=13 August 2011 | date=12 August 2011 | work=The Telegraph | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813175612/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8696961/Ban-Ki-moon-alarmed-over-rising-civilian-toll-in-Libya.html | archive-date=13 August 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref>

According to a Gallup poll conducted in March and April 2012, a survey involving 1,000 Libyans showed 75% of Libyans were in favor of the NATO intervention, compared to 22% who were opposed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/156539/opinion-briefing-libyans-eye-new-relations-west.aspx|title=Opinion Briefing: Libyans Eye New Relations With the West|work=Gallup.com|access-date=2018-02-15|language=en-us|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215131918/http://news.gallup.com/poll/156539/Opinion-Briefing-Libyans-Eye-New-Relations-West.aspx|archive-date=15 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> A post-war Orb International poll involving 1,249 Libyans found broad support for the intervention, with 85% of Libyans saying that they strongly supported the action taken to remove the Ghadafi regime.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.orb-international.com/article.php?s=4-in-5-libyans-agree-country-heading-in-right-direction-according-to-post-revolution-citizen-poll|title=4 IN 5 LIBYANS AGREE COUNTRY 'HEADING IN RIGHT DIRECTION', ACCORDING TO POST-REVOLUTION CITIZEN POLL|date=2012|website=Orb International|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608060559/https://www.orb-international.com/article.php?s=4-in-5-libyans-agree-country-heading-in-right-direction-according-to-post-revolution-citizen-poll|archive-date=8 June 2017}}</ref>

=== Responsibility to protect ===
The military intervention in Libya has been cited by the [[Council on Foreign Relations]] as an example of the [[responsibility to protect]] policy adopted by the UN at the [[2005 World Summit]].<ref name="cfr"/> According to [[Gareth Evans (politician)|Gareth Evans]], "[t]he international military intervention (SMH) in Libya is not about bombing for democracy or Muammar Gaddafi's head. Legally, morally, politically, and militarily it has only one justification: protecting the country's people."<ref name="cfr"/> However, the council also noted that the policy had been used only in Libya, and not in countries such as [[Côte d'Ivoire]], undergoing a [[2010–2011 Ivorian crisis|political crisis]] at the time, or in response to [[protests in Yemen]].<ref name="cfr"/> A CFR expert, Stewert Patrick, said that "There is bound to be selectivity and inconsistency in the application of the responsibility to protect norm given the complexity of national interests at stake in...the calculations of other major powers involved in these situations."<ref name="cfr">{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/libya/libya-responsibility-protect/p24480 |title=Libya and the Responsibility to Protect |access-date=12 April 2011 |date=24 March 2011 |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414130131/http://www.cfr.org/libya/libya-responsibility-protect/p24480 |archive-date=14 April 2011 }}</ref> In January 2012, the [[Arab Organization for Human Rights]], [[Palestinian Centre for Human Rights]] and the [[International Legal Assistance Consortium]] published a report describing alleged human rights violations and accusing NATO of war crimes.<ref>{{cite news|last=Shabi|first=Rachel|title=Nato accused of war crimes in Libya|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nato-accused-of-war-crimes-in-libya-6291566.html|access-date=23 January 2012|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|date=19 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122043804/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nato-accused-of-war-crimes-in-libya-6291566.html|archive-date=22 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== United States Congress ===
On 3 June 2011, the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] passed a resolution, calling for a withdrawal of the United States military from the air and naval operations in and around Libya. It demanded that the administration provide, within 14 days, an explanation of why President [[Barack Obama]] did not come to Congress for permission to continue to take part in the mission.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/04/world/africa/04policy.html|title=House Rebukes Obama for Continuing Libyan Mission Without Its Consent|first=Jennifer|last=Steinhauer|newspaper=The New York Times|date=3 June 2011|access-date=30 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411132452/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/04/world/africa/04policy.html|archive-date=11 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 13 June, the House passed a resolution prohibiting the use of funds for operations in the conflict, with 110 Democrats and 138 Republicans voting in favor.<ref>[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/vote.xpd?vote=h2011-415 "On Agreeing to the Amendment: Amendment 6 to H R 2055"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027194529/http://www.govtrack.us/congress/vote.xpd?vote=h2011-415 |date=27 October 2011 }}, GovTrack. 13 June 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=US House votes to block funding for Libya |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/06/20116147535393778.html |publisher=Al-Jazeera |date=14 June 2011 |access-date=30 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231042938/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/06/20116147535393778.html |archive-date=31 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Harold Koh]], the State department's legal advisor, was called to testify in front of the [[Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] to defend the actions of the Obama administration under the [[War Powers Resolution]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web|title=Hearing Before The Committee On Foreign Relations United States Senate|url=https://irp.fas.org/congress/2011_hr/libya.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027175440/https://irp.fas.org/congress/2011_hr/libya.pdf |archive-date=27 October 2021 }}</ref> Koh was questioned by the Committee on the Obama administration's interpretation of the word "hostilities" under the War Powers Resolution § 4(a)(1) and 5(b).<ref name=":0" /> Koh reasoned that under the constitution, the term "hostilities" was left up for interpretation by the executive branch, and therefore the interpretation fit the historical definition of that word. Koh argued that historically the term "hostilities" has previously been used to mean limited military action acting in support of a conflict, and the scope of this operation suits that interpretation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Hughes|first=Siobhan|date=2011-06-29|title=In Washington, Rifts Over Libya Exposed|language=en-US|work=Wall Street Journal|url=https://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304447804576414193387907836.html|access-date=2021-10-14|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> Ultimately the Committee still remained concerned by the actions of the President.<ref name=":1" />

On 24 June, the House rejected Joint Resolution 68, which would have provided the Obama administration with authorization to continue military operations in Libya for up to one year.<ref>{{cite news |title=House of Representatives votes against US Libya role |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-13908202 |work=BBC News |date=24 June 2011 |access-date=30 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105182424/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-13908202 |archive-date=5 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Criticism ===
[[File:Miting podrške Gadafiju u Beogradu.JPG|thumb|Protest in [[Belgrade]], [[Serbia]] on 26 March 2011 against military intervention in Libya]]
[[File:April 2, 2011 Minnesota protest against military action in Libya 3.jpg|thumb|right|Protest in [[Minneapolis]], [[United States]] on 2 April 2011 against US military intervention in Libya]]

The military intervention was criticized, both at the time and subsequently, on a variety of grounds.

==== United Kingdom Parliament investigation ====
An in-depth investigation into the Libyan intervention and its aftermath was conducted by the UK Parliament's [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]' cross-party Foreign Affairs Committee, the final conclusions of which were released on 14 September 2016 in a report titled ''Libya: Examination of intervention and collapse and the UK's future policy options''. The [[Foreign Affairs Select Committee]] saw no evidence that the UK Government carried out a proper analysis of the nature of the rebellion in Libya and it "selectively took elements of Muammar Gaddafi's rhetoric at face value; and it failed to identify the militant Islamist extremist element in the rebellion. UK strategy was founded on erroneous assumptions and an incomplete understanding of the evidence".<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=HC 119 Libya: Examination of intervention and collapse and the UK's future policy options |date=14 September 2016 |page=14 |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmfaff/119/119.pdf |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927090612/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmfaff/119/119.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was strongly critical of the British government's role in the intervention.<ref name="CNN Inquiry">[https://edition.cnn.com/2016/09/13/europe/libya-uk-intervention/index.html Britain's Libya intervention led to the growth of ISIS, inquiry finds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424202423/https://edition.cnn.com/2016/09/13/europe/libya-uk-intervention/index.html |date=24 April 2018 }}, CNN, 14 September 2016</ref><ref name="Salon UK Parliament report 2016"/> The report concluded that the government "failed to identify that the threat to civilians was overstated and that the rebels included a significant Islamist element."<ref name="UK Parliament report">{{cite web|title=Libya: Examination of intervention and collapse and the UK's future policy options|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmfaff/119/119.pdf|work=[[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]' Foreign Affairs Committee|access-date=29 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822020912/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmfaff/119/119.pdf|archive-date=22 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> In particular, the committee concluded that Gaddafi was not planning to massacre civilians, and that reports to the contrary were propagated by rebels and Western governments.<ref name=debacle>{{cite journal |last1=Kuperman |first1=Alan J. |title=Obama's Libya Debacle |journal=Foreign Affairs |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/libya/obamas-libya-debacle |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018105447/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/libya/obamas-libya-debacle |archive-date=18 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto"/><ref>Salon, 16 Sept 2016, [https://www.salon.com/2016/09/16/u-k-parliament-report-details-how-natos-2011-war-in-libya-was-based-on-lies/ "U.K. Parliament Report Details How NATO's 2011 War in Libya Was Based on Lies; British Investigation: Gaddafi Was Not Going to Massacre Civilians; Western Bombing Made Islamist Extremism Worse"]</ref>

====Contestation of evidence of civilian massacres by Gaddafi====

[[Alison Pargeter]], a freelance Middle East and North Africa ([[MENA]]) analyst, told the Committee that when Gaddafi's forces re-took Ajdabiya they did not attack civilians, and this had taken place in February 2011, shortly before the NATO intervention.<ref name="oral_evidence">{{cite web |last1=Pargeter |first1=Alison |title=Oral Evidence to Foreign Affairs Committee |url=http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedocument/foreign-affairs-committee/libya-examination-of-intervention-and-collapse-and-the-uks-future-policy-options/oral/22980.html |website=data.parliament.uk |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222201028/http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedocument/foreign-affairs-committee/libya-examination-of-intervention-and-collapse-and-the-uks-future-policy-options/oral/22980.html |archive-date=22 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> She also said that Gaddafi's approach towards the rebels had been one of "appeasement", with the release of Islamist prisoners and promises of significant development assistance for Benghazi.<ref name="oral_evidence" />{{primary source inline|date=December 2022}} However, evidence which was collected during the intervention suggested otherwise, showing things such as shooting deaths of hundreds of protestors, reports of mass rapes by Libyan Armed Forces and orders from Gaddafi's senior generals to bombard and starve the people of [[Misrata]].<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/05/world/africa/05nations.html?ref=world | work= [[The New York Times]] |author1=Simons, Marlise |author2=MacFarquhar, Neil | title=Libyan Officials' Arrests Sought by Court in Hague | date= 4 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/18/muammar-gaddafi-war-crimes-files|title=Muammar Gaddafi war crimes files revealed|first=Chris|last=Stephen|publisher=www.theguardian.com|date=June 18, 2011|access-date=December 3, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last1= Sidner | first1= Sara | last2= Ahmed | first2= Amir | title= Psychologist: Proof of hundreds of rape cases during Libya's war | date= 2011-05-23 |publisher= [[CNN]]| url= http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/05/23/libya.rape.survey.psychologist/ |access-date= 2019-07-22 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170812100748/http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/05/23/libya.rape.survey.psychologist/ |archive-date= 2017-08-12 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=May 2024}}

In his March 28 address, Barack Obama warned of an imminent risk of a massacre in [[Benghazi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/03/28/remarks-President-address-nation-libya|title=Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation on Libya|date=28 March 2011|website=whitehouse.gov|access-date=6 August 2023}}</ref> However, journalist S.Awan argued that the subsequent airstrikes "destroyed a very small convoy of government vehicles, including ambulances."<ref name="auto1">{{cite book |last= Awan |first= S.|date= 2015 |title=The Libya Conspiracy: A Definitive Guide to the Lies of the Libya 'Intervention' & the Crime of the Century |page= 55}}</ref> Furthermore, Professor Alan J. Kuperman argued against the idea of an imminent massacre in Benghazi, arguing that in captured cities such as [[Zawiya, Libya|Zawiya]], [[Misurata]] and [[Ajdabiya]] no massacre had occurred, so Kuperman believed that there was little reason to think Benghazi would be any different.<ref name="auto1"/> While there were civilian casualties, he argued that there was no effort to target civilian concentrations, with Libya's air force primarily targeting rebel positions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2011/04/14/false_pretense_for_war_in_libya/|title=False pretense for war in Libya? - The Boston Globe|newspaper=Boston.com |date=15 July 2020|access-date=6 August 2023|archive-date=15 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715060802/https://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2011/04/14/false_pretense_for_war_in_libya/|url-status=bot: unknown |last1=Kuperman |first1=Alan J. }}</ref>

==== Briefing to Hillary Clinton ====
According to the report, France's motive for initiating the intervention was economic and political as well as humanitarian. In a briefing to Hillary Clinton on 2 April 2011, her adviser [[Sidney Blumenthal]] reported that, according to high-level French intelligence, France's motives for overthrowing Gaddafi were to increase France's share of Libya's oil production, strengthen French influence in Africa, and improve President Sarkozy's standing at home.<ref>{{cite web |title=France's Client and Q's Gold |url=https://www.foia.state.gov/Search/results.aspx?searchText=C05779612&beginDate=&endDate=&publishedBeginDate=&publishedEndDate=&caseNumber= |website=foia.state.gov |publisher=US Department of State |access-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410234309/https://www.foia.state.gov/Search/results.aspx?searchText=C05779612&beginDate=&endDate=&publishedBeginDate=&publishedEndDate=&caseNumber= |archive-date=10 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> The report also highlighted how Islamic extremists had a large influence on the uprising, which was largely ignored by the West to the future detriment of Libya.<ref name="CNN Inquiry"/><ref name="Salon UK Parliament report 2016">{{cite web|title=U.K. Parliament report details how NATO's 2011 war in Libya was based on lies|url=https://www.salon.com/2016/09/16/u-k-parliament-report-details-how-natos-2011-war-in-libya-was-based-on-lies/|author=Ben Norton|date=16 September 2016|work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]]|access-date=11 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411213529/https://www.salon.com/2016/09/16/u-k-parliament-report-details-how-natos-2011-war-in-libya-was-based-on-lies/|archive-date=11 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

The American [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]] opposed the U.S. military intervention.<ref>Devine, James J.; essay (March 25, 2011). [http://njtoday.net/2011/03/25/voice-of-the-people-this-used-to-be-a-free-country/ "Voice of the People: This Used To Be a Free Country"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306200814/http://njtoday.net/2011/03/25/voice-of-the-people-this-used-to-be-a-free-country/ |date=6 March 2021 }}. NJToday.net.</ref> Former [[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]] presidential candidate [[Ralph Nader]] branded President Obama as a "war criminal"<ref>Avlon, John P.; essay (March 23, 2011). [http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/03/23/avlon.left.obama/ "Left's View on Libya: Is This Bush's Third Term?"]. [[CNN]].</ref> and called for his [[impeachment]].<ref>[[Bill O'Reilly (political commentator)|O'Reilly, Bill]]; essay (March 27, 2011). [http://www.bostonherald.com/news/opinion/op_ed/view/2011_0327a_noble_fight_in_libya/srvc=home&position=also "A Noble Fight in Libya"]''[[Boston Herald]]''. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430101748/http://www.bostonherald.com/news/opinion/op_ed/view/2011_0327a_noble_fight_in_libya/srvc%3Dhome%26position%3Dalso |date=30 April 2011 }}</ref>

==== Resource control ====
Some critics of Western military intervention suggested that resources—not democratic or humanitarian concerns—were the real impetus for the intervention, among them a journalist of London Arab nationalist newspaper Al-Quds Al-Arabi, the Russian TV network RT and the (then-)leaders of Venezuela and Zimbabwe, Hugo Chávez and Robert Mugabe.<ref name="Mugabe vampires">Chiripasi, Thomas. "[http://www.voanews.com/zimbabwe/news/Zimbabwean-President-Mugabe-Says-West-in-Libya-for-Oil-118386309.html Zimbabwean President Mugabe Says Western 'Vampires' in Libya for Oil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325012026/http://www.voanews.com/zimbabwe/news/Zimbabwean-President-Mugabe-Says-West-in-Libya-for-Oil-118386309.html |date=25 March 2011}}." [[Voice of America]]. 21 March 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref><ref name="Chavez martyr">"[http://www.eluniversal.com/nacional-y-politica/111020/chavez-gaddafi-will-be-remembered-as-a-martyr Chávez: Gaddafi will be remembered as a martyr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521145541/http://www.eluniversal.com/nacional-y-politica/111020/chavez-gaddafi-will-be-remembered-as-a-martyr |date=21 May 2012 }}." ''[[El Universal (Caracas)|El Universal]]''. 20 October 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref><ref name="Khamenei">[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/9432055.stm Libya revolt as it happened: Monday] . [[BBC]]. 28 March 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref> [[Gaddafi's Libya]], despite its relatively small population, was known to possess vast resources, particularly in the form of [[oil reserves]] and [[financial capital]].<ref>"[http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/201871/20110822/gold-oil-libya.htm How Much Gold does Libya Have?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204223835/http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/201871/20110822/gold-oil-libya.htm |date=4 February 2012 }}" ''[[International Business Times]]''. 22 August 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref>{{better source needed|date=May 2020|reason=[[Bharatpedia:Reliable sources/Perennial sources#International Business Times]]}}

A left-leaning French daily newspaper published a letter by the NTC which it said had promised France access to 35% of Libyan crude oil.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Boitiaux |first1=Charlotte |title='Friends' gather in Paris to plan future of oil-rich Libya |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20110901-friends-of-libya-uk-france-ntc-paris-conference-gaddafi-nato-sarkozy |access-date=13 April 2025 |work=France 24 |date=1 September 2011 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Criticism from world leaders ====
The intervention prompted a widespread wave of criticism from several world leaders, including: [[Iran]]'s [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]] [[Ali Khamenei|Ayatollah Khamenei]] (who said he supported the [[National Liberation Army (Libya)|rebels]] but not Western intervention<ref name="Khamenei" />), Venezuelan [[President of Venezuela|President]] [[Hugo Chávez]] (who referred to Gaddafi as a "[[martyr]]"<ref name="Chavez martyr" />), South African President [[Jacob Zuma]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Jacob Zuma criticises military action in Libya |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-14180863 |work=BBC News |date=18 July 2011}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=No mention of imperialism in the source provided|date=December 2020}} and [[List of Presidents of Zimbabwe|President]] of [[Zimbabwe]] [[Robert Mugabe]] (who referred to the Western nations as "vampires"<ref name="Mugabe vampires" />), as well as the governments of [[Raúl Castro]] in [[Cuba]],<ref>Hacthoun, Martin. "[http://www.cubaminrex.cu/English/Solidarity/Articles/InternationalS/2011/Cuba%20Condemned.html Cuba Condemned Foreign Military Intervention in Libya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325121633/http://www.cubaminrex.cu/English/Solidarity/Articles/InternationalS/2011/Cuba%20Condemned.html |date=25 March 2011}}." [[Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]. 21 March 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref> [[Daniel Ortega]] in Nicaragua,<ref>"[http://www.ticotimes.net/Current-Edition/News-Briefs/Sandinistas-march-in-Nicaragua-s-capital-against-Libya-offensive_Thursday-March-24-2011 Sandanistas march in Nicaragua's capital against Libya offensive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525025917/http://www.ticotimes.net/Current-Edition/News-Briefs/Sandinistas-march-in-Nicaragua-s-capital-against-Libya-offensive_Thursday-March-24-2011 |date=25 May 2012}}." ''The Tico Times'' ([[Costa Rica]]). 24 March 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref> [[Kim Jong-il]] in North Korea,<ref>"[http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2011/03/22/87/0401000000AEN20110322009900315F.HTML N. Korea condemns U.S. over air strikes on Libya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914013122/http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2011/03/22/87/0401000000AEN20110322009900315F.HTML |date=14 September 2011 }}." [[Yonhap]]. 22 March 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref> [[Hifikepunye Pohamba]] in Namibia,<ref>[http://www.thenewage.co.za/13105-1019-53-Namibia%27s_president_condemns_strikes_on_Libya Namibia's president condemns strikes on Libya | The New Age Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401172253/http://www.thenewage.co.za/13105-1019-53-Namibia%27s_president_condemns_strikes_on_Libya |date=1 April 2011}}. ''The New Age''.South Africaco.za (21 March 2011). Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref> [[Alexander Lukashenko]] in Belarus,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mfa.gov.by/en/press/news_mfa/f75073a623f49a26.html|title=Statement released by the Foreign Ministry in connection with the missile strikes and bombings on Libya|publisher=|access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/russia-and-former-soviet-union/lukashenko-outraged-by-gaddafis-treatment.html|title = Lukashenko outraged by Gaddafi's treatment - Nov. 04, 2011|date = 4 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://wireupdate.com/libya-belarusian-president-lukashenko-says-nato-did-worse-than-the-nazis.html |title=Libya: Belarusian President Lukashenko says NATO 'did worse than the Nazis' » WireUpdate | Update to the Minute NewsWire - |access-date=2012-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704095225/http://wireupdate.com/libya-belarusian-president-lukashenko-says-nato-did-worse-than-the-nazis.html |archive-date=2012-07-04 }}</ref> and others. Gaddafi himself referred to the intervention as a "colonial [[crusade]] … capable of unleashing a full-scale war",<ref>"[http://www.euronews.com/2011/03/20/gaddafi-calls-for-resistance-to-colonial-crusade/ Gaddafi calls for resistance to "colonial crusade"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121211115005/http://www.euronews.com/2011/03/20/gaddafi-calls-for-resistance-to-colonial-crusade/ |date=11 December 2012 }}." [[euronews]]. 20 March 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012./</ref> a sentiment that was echoed by Russian Prime Minister [[Vladimir Putin]]: "<nowiki>[</nowiki>[[UNSC Resolution 1973]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> is defective and flawed...It allows everything. It resembles medieval calls for crusades."<ref>"[http://www.timeslive.co.za/world/article979191.ece/West-in-mediaeval-crusade-on-Gaddafi--Putin West in "medieval crusade" on Gaddafi: Putin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323111540/http://www.timeslive.co.za/world/article979191.ece/West-in-mediaeval-crusade-on-Gaddafi--Putin |date=23 March 2011 }}." ''[[The Times (South Africa)|The Times]]'' ([[Reuters]]). 21 March 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref> President [[Hu Jintao]] of the People's Republic of China said, "Dialogue and other peaceful means are the ultimate solutions to problems," and added, "If military action brings disaster to civilians and causes a humanitarian crisis, then it runs counter to the purpose of the UN resolution."<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-03/30/c_13805658.htm Chinese President meets French counterpart, saying force is no solution to Libyan issue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430052848/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-03/30/c_13805658.htm |date=30 April 2012 }}. News.xinhuanet.com (30 March 2011). Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref> Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] was critical of the intervention as well, rebuking the coalition in a speech at the UN in September 2011.<ref>{{cite news|title=Manmohan slams West for using force to change regimes|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Manmohan-slams-West-for-using-force-to-change-regimes/articleshow/10108923.cms|date=25 September 2011|access-date=14 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025012351/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-25/india/30200524_1_libya-sovereignty-countries|archive-date=25 October 2012|url-status=live|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Italian Prime Minister [[Silvio Berlusconi]], despite the substantial role his country played in the NATO mission, also spoke out against getting involved: "I had my hands tied by the vote of the parliament of my country. But I was against and I am against this intervention which will end in a way that no-one knows" and added, "This wasn't a popular uprising because Gaddafi was loved by his people, as I was able to see when I went to Libya."<ref>[http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/print_news.php?nid=201981 Gaddafi was loved by his people] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622083455/http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/print_news.php?nid=201981 |date=22 June 2012 }}. ''The Daily Star''.net (11 September 2011). Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/i-was-against-libya-intervention-berlusconi-1.1095328 I was against Libya intervention: Berlusconi – Africa | IOL News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701023736/http://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/i-was-against-libya-intervention-berlusconi-1.1095328 |date=1 July 2012 }}. IOL.co.za (7 July 2011). Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref>

Despite its stated opposition to NATO intervention, Russia abstained from voting on [[Resolution 1973]] instead of exercising its veto power as a permanent member of the [[Security Council]]; four other powerful nations also abstained from the vote—[[India]], China, Germany, and [[Brazil]]—but of that group only China has the same veto power.<ref>"[https://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/201131720311168561.html UN authorizes no-fly zone over Libya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318102654/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2011/03/201131720311168561.html |date=18 March 2011 }}." [[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]. 18 March 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2012.</ref>

[[File:Libyan Civil War.png|thumb|210px|Military situation in Libya in early 2016: [[File:Location dot red.svg|11px]] [[House of Representatives (Libya)|House of Representatives]] [[File:Location dot lime.svg|11px]] [[General National Congress]] [[File:Location dot grey.svg|11px]] [[Ansar al-Sharia (Libya)|Ansar al-Sharia]] [[File:Location dot black.svg|11px]] [[Islamic State]] [[File:Location dot yellow.svg|11px]] [[Tuareg]]]]

==== Other criticisms ====
[[Micah Zenko]] argues that the Obama administration deceived the public by pretending the intervention was intended to protect Libyan civilians instead of achieving regime change when "in truth, the Libyan intervention was about regime change from the very start".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/03/22/libya-and-the-myth-of-humanitarian-intervention/|title = The Big Lie About the Libyan War| date=22 March 2016 }}</ref>

A 2013 paper by [[Alan Kuperman]] argued that NATO went beyond its remit of providing protection for civilians and instead supported the rebels by engaging in regime change. It argued that NATO's intervention likely extended the length (and thus damage) of the civil war, which Kuperman argued could have ended in less than two months without NATO intervention. The paper argued that the intervention was based on a misperception of the danger Gaddafi's forces posed to the civilian population, which Kuperman suggests was caused by existing bias against Gaddafi due to his past actions (such as support for terrorism), sloppy and sensationalistic journalism during the early stages of the war and propaganda from anti-government forces. Kuperman suggests that this demonization of Gaddafi, which was used to justify the intervention, ended up discouraging efforts to accept a ceasefire and negotiated settlement, turning a humanitarian intervention into a dedicated regime change.<ref>Kuperman, Alan J. "A model humanitarian intervention? Reassessing NATO's Libya campaign." ''International Security'' 38, no. 1 (2013): 105-136.</ref>{{undue weight inline|date=December 2022}}

Moreover, criticisms have been made on the way the operation was led. According to [[Michael Kometer]] and [[Stephen E. Wright]] in ''[[Focus stratégique]]'', the outcome of the Libyan intervention was reached by default rather than by design. It appears that there was an important lack of consistent political guidance caused particularly by the vagueness of the UN mandate and the ambiguous consensus among the NATO-led coalition. This lack of clear political guidance was translated into an incoherent military planning on the operational level. Such a gap may impact the future NATO's operations that will probably face trust issues.<ref>{{cite web|first1= Michael|last1= Kometer|first2= Stephen|last2= Wright|title= Winning in Libya: By Default or Design?|work= Focus stratégique, No. 41|date= January 2013|url= https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fs41kometerwright.pdf|access-date=May 26, 2023}}</ref>{{undue weight inline|date=December 2022}}

== Costs ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;"
|-
| colspan="20" style="text-align:center; font-size:8pt;"| Funds spent by Foreign Powers on War in Libya.
|-
! Country !! Funds Spent !! By
|-
| United Kingdom || US$336–1,500 million|| September 2011 (estimate)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/DefencePolicyAndBusiness/CostOfLibyaOperations.htm|title=Cost of Libya operations|work=Ministry of Defence|date=8 December 2011|access-date=6 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403173251/http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/DefencePolicyAndBusiness/CostOfLibyaOperations.htm|archive-date=3 April 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hopkins |first=Nick |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/sep/26/uk-operations-libya-costs |title=UK operations in Libya: the full costs broken down |work=The Guardian |date=26 September 2011 |access-date=28 October 2011 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001013134/http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/sep/26/uk-operations-libya-costs |archive-date=1 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| United States || US$896–1,100 million || October 2011<ref>[http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2011/08/30/america-s-secret-libya-war-u-s-spent-1-billion-on-covert-ops-helping-nato.html America's Secret Libya War: U.S. Spent $1 Billion on Covert Ops Helping NATO] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026111152/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2011/08/30/america-s-secret-libya-war-u-s-spent-1-billion-on-covert-ops-helping-nato.html |date=26 October 2012 }}. The Daily Beast (30 August 2011). Retrieved 16 August 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20123941-503543/libya-mission-cost-u.s-more-than-$1-billion/ | work=CBS News | title=Libya mission cost U.S. more than billion | access-date=30 October 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914154052/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503543_162-20123941-503543/libya-mission-cost-u.s-more-than-$1-billion/ | archive-date=14 September 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.foxnews.com/politics/as-cost-of-libyan-war-rises-gates-scolds-nato-for-not-pulling-its-weight/ |title=As Cost of Libyan War Rises, Gates Scolds NATO For Not Pulling Its Weight |publisher=Fox News Channel |date=7 April 2010 |access-date=11 September 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811133242/http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2011/06/10/gates-blasts-nato-questions-future-alliance/ |archive-date=11 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/11d5624c-920f-11e0-b8c1-00144feab49a |title=Pentagon sees Libya military costs soar |work=Financial Times |date=9 June 2011 |access-date=11 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830054545/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/11d5624c-920f-11e0-b8c1-00144feab49a.html |archive-date=30 August 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ukman |first=Jason |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/libya-war-costs-for-us-896-million-so-far/2011/08/23/gIQA5KplYJ_blog.html |title=Libya war costs for U.S.: $896 million so far |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=23 August 2011 |access-date=28 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827221956/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/libya-war-costs-for-us-896-million-so-far/2011/08/23/gIQA5KplYJ_blog.html |archive-date=27 August 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| Italy || €700 million EUR || October 2011<ref>{{Cite news|title=Missioni/A Italia costano 700 milioni a semestre senza la Libia, AP Reports|url=http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/esteri/PN_20110613_00143.shtml|date=20 December 2011|work=tmnews|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604004523/http://www.tmnews.it/web/sezioni/esteri/PN_20110613_00143.shtml|archive-date=4 June 2013}}</ref>
|-
| France || €450 million EUR || September 2011<ref>{{cite news|title=Libyan War Goes a Long Way to Improve the Pentagon's View of France as an Ally|work=The New York Times|date=26 August 2011|access-date=17 November 2011|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/27/world/africa/27military.html|first=Elisabeth|last=Bumiller|location=Washington D.C.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023050132/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/27/world/africa/27military.html|archive-date=23 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://world.seenews.com/news/Libyan_war_to_cost_EUR_320m_to_France__145218|title=Libyan war to cost EUR 320m to France|work=See News|date=6 September 2011|access-date=28 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113150153/http://world.seenews.com/news/Libyan_war_to_cost_EUR_320m_to_France__145218|archive-date=13 January 2012}}</ref>
|-
| Turkey || US$300 million || July 2011<ref>{{Cite news|title=Turkey Recognizes Libyan Rebels, Gives $300 Million, AP Reports|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-07-03/turkey-recognizes-libyan-rebels-gives-300-million-ap-reports.html|access-date=4 November 2011|date=4 July 2011|first1=Zaid|last1=Sabah|first2=Kim|last2=Chipman|work=Bloomberg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217074640/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-07-03/turkey-recognizes-libyan-rebels-gives-300-million-ap-reports.html|archive-date=17 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Denmark || €120 million EUR || November 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://politiken.dk/indland/ECE1497472/dansk-pris-for-gadaffi-exit-620-millioner/|title=Dansk pris for Gadaffi-exit: 620 millioner|work=Politiken|date=4 January 2012|access-date=4 January 2012|language=da|trans-title=Danish price for Gaddafi exit: 620 million|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126121746/http://politiken.dk/indland/ECE1497472/dansk-pris-for-gadaffi-exit-620-millioner/|archive-date=26 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Belgium || €58 million EUR || October 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.demorgen.be/dm/nl/989/Binnenland/article/detail/1388659/2012/02/01/Deelname-aan-NAVO-operatie-in-Libie-kost-32-miljoen-euro.dhtml|title=Deelname aan NAVO-operatie in Libië kost 32 miljoen euro|work=De Morgen|access-date=26 January 2012|language=nl|trans-title=War in Libya costs Belgium 32 million Euro|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209190740/http://www.demorgen.be/dm/nl/989/Binnenland/article/detail/1388659/2012/02/01/Deelname-aan-NAVO-operatie-in-Libie-kost-32-miljoen-euro.dhtml|archive-date=9 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Spain || €50 million EUR || September 2011<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.libertaddigital.com/economia/la-guerra-de-libia-duplicara-el-coste-inicial-previsto-por-el-gobierno-1276418225/|title=La guerra de Libia podría duplicar el coste previsto por el Gobierno|work=Libre Mercado|date=25 March 2011|access-date=1 November 2011|language=es|trans-title=The Libyan war could double the estimated cost by the Government|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831122622/http://www.libertaddigital.com/economia/la-guerra-de-libia-duplicara-el-coste-inicial-previsto-por-el-gobierno-1276418225/|archive-date=31 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| Sweden || US$50 million || October 2011<ref>{{cite news |url=http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=4754046 |title=Gripen jets back from Libya next week |work=Radio Sweden |date=18 October 2011 |access-date=28 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114040530/http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=4754046 |archive-date=14 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| Canada || $50 million CAD incremental Over $347.5 million CAD total|| October 2011<ref>{{cite news|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/libya-mission-cost-seven-times-what-the-government-said-it-would-documents |title=Canada's Libya mission cost seven times what Peter MacKay said it did: documents |work=NationalPost|date=11 May 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231203220931/https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/libya-mission-cost-seven-times-what-the-government-said-it-would-documents |archive-date= 3 December 2023 }}</ref>
|}

On 22 March 2011, BBC News presented a breakdown of the likely costs to the UK of the mission.<ref name="jackson">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12806709 |title=Libya: Is cost of military mission sustainable? |first1= Peter |last1=Jackson |work=BBC News |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171130013926/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12806709 |archive-date=30 November 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Journalist Francis Tusa, editor of Defence Analysis, estimated that flying a [[Tornado GR4]] would cost about [[Pound sterling|£]]35,000 an hour (c. US$48,000), so the cost of patrolling one sector of Libyan airspace would be £2M–3M (US$2.75M–4.13M) per day. Conventional airborne missiles would cost £800,000 each and Tomahawk cruise missiles £750,000 each.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Professor Malcolm Charmers of the [[Royal United Services Institute]] similarly suggested that a single cruise missile would cost about £500,000, while a single Tornado sortie would cost about £30,000 in fuel alone. If a Tornado was downed the replacement cost would be upwards of £50m. By 22 March the US and UK had already fired more than 110 cruise missiles. [[Chancellor of the Exchequer|UK Chancellor]] [[George Osborne]] had said that the MoD estimate of the operation cost was "tens rather than hundreds of millions".<ref name="jackson"/> On 4 April [[Air Chief Marshal]] Sir [[Stephen Dalton]] said that the RAF was planning to continue operations over Libya for at least six months.<ref>{{cite news |author=Blake, Heidi |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/rafbombercommand/8425646/RAF-stretched-to-the-limit-says-chief-in-plea-for-funds.html |title=RAF Stretched to the Limit, Says Chief in Plea for Funds at |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=4 April 2011 |access-date=19 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110407083130/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/rafbombercommand/8425646/RAF-stretched-to-the-limit-says-chief-in-plea-for-funds.html |archive-date=7 April 2011 }}</ref>

The total number of sorties flown by NATO numbered more than 26,000, an average of 120 sorties per day. 42% of the sorties were strike sorties, which damaged or destroyed approximately 6,000 military targets. At its peak, the operation involved more than 8,000 servicemen and women, 21 NATO ships in the Mediterranean and more than 250 aircraft of all types. By the end of the operation, NATO had conducted over 3,000 hailings at sea and almost 300 boardings for inspection, with 11 vessels denied transit to their next port of call.<ref>{{cite news |author =NATO |url =http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_71652.htm |title =NATO and Libya (Archived) |access-date =9 November 2015 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150910114829/http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_71652.htm |archive-date =10 September 2015 |url-status =live }}</ref> Eight NATO and two non-NATO countries flew strike sorties. Of these, Denmark, Canada, and Norway together were responsible for 31%,<ref>Cloud, David S. (11 June 2011). "Gates Tells NATO It Must Hold Up Its End". McClatchy-Tribune News Services (via Stars and Stripes). p. 3.</ref> the United States was responsible for 16%, Italy 10%, France 33%, Britain 21%, and Belgium, Qatar, and the UAE the remainder.<ref>C.J. Chivers, [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/18/world/africa/scores-of-unintended-casualties-in-nato-war-in-libya.html In Strikes on Libya by NATO, an Unspoken Civilian Toll.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406103945/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/18/world/africa/scores-of-unintended-casualties-in-nato-war-in-libya.html?pagewanted=all |date=6 April 2018 }} New York Times. 17 December 2011.</ref>

== Aftermath ==
{{See also|2012 Benghazi attack|Factional violence in Libya (2011–2014)|Libyan civil war (2014–2020)}}
Since the end of the war, which overthrew Gaddafi, there has been [[Factional violence in Libya (2011–2014)|violence involving various militias]] and the new state security forces.<ref>{{cite news |title=Three years after Gaddafi, Libya is imploding into chaos and violence |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/three-years-after-gaddafi-libya-imploding-chaos-and-violence-9194697.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/commentators/three-years-after-gaddafi-libya-imploding-chaos-and-violence-9194697.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |work=The Independent |date=16 March 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Moamar Gaddafi has been dead eight years yet Libya is still at war with itself. What went wrong? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-10-20/libya-civil-war-gaddafi-eight-years-on/11210742 |work=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=19 October 2019}}</ref> The violence has escalated into the [[Second Libyan Civil War]]. Critics described the military intervention as "disastrous" and accused it of destabilizing North Africa, leading to the rise of Islamic extremist groups in the region.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Legacy of Obama's 'Worst Mistake' |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/04/obamas-worst-mistake-libya/478461/ |work=The Atlantic|first=Dominic|last=Tierney |date=16 April 2016}}</ref><ref name=debacle/> Libya became what many scholars described as a [[failed state]] — a state that has disintegrated to a point where the government no longer performs its function properly.<ref>{{cite news |title=Libya: the battle for peace in a failing state |url=https://www.ft.com/content/993cb870-0d2c-11e9-a3aa-118c761d2745 |work=Financial Times |date=10 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Libya Today: From Arab Spring to failed state |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2017/5/30/libya-today-from-arab-spring-to-failed-state |work=Al-Jazeera |date=30 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Con |last=Coughlin |title=Failed state Libya is vulnerable to an Islamist takeover |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/06/24/failed-state-libya-vulnerable-islamist-takeover/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/06/24/failed-state-libya-vulnerable-islamist-takeover/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=24 June 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Libya has become the main exit for [[European migrant crisis|migrants trying to get to Europe]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Once a Destination for Migrants, Post-Gaddafi Libya Has Gone from Transit Route to Containment |url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/once-destination-migrants-post-gaddafi-libya-has-gone-transit-route-containment |work=Migration Policy Institute |date=6 August 2020}}</ref> In September 2015, [[South Africa]]n President [[Jacob Zuma]] said that "consistent and systematic bombing by NATO forces undermined the security and caused conflicts that are continuing in Libya and neighbouring countries ... It was the actions taken, the bombarding of Libya and killing of its leader, that opened the flood gates."<ref>{{cite news |title=Zuma: Blood of refugee crisis is on Nato's hands |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2015-09-16-zuma-blood-of-refugee-crisis-is-on-natos-hands-1/|first=Qaanitah|last=Hunter |work=[[Mail & Guardian]] |date=16 September 2015}}</ref>

In a 2016 interview with Fox News, U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] stated that the "worst mistake" of his presidency was "probably failing to plan for the day after what I think was the right thing to do in intervening in Libya."<ref>{{cite web |date=2016-04-12 |title=Barack Obama says Libya was 'worst mistake' of his presidency |url=http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/apr/12/barack-obama-says-libya-was-worst-mistake-of-his-presidency |access-date=2022-03-07 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-04-11 |title=President Obama: Libya aftermath 'worst mistake' of presidency |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-36013703 |access-date=2022-03-07}}</ref> Obama also acknowledged there had been issues with following up the conflict planning, commenting in a 2016 interview with ''[[The Atlantic]]'' magazine that British Prime Minister [[David Cameron]] had allowed himself to be "distracted by a range of other things".<ref>{{cite news |date= 11 March 2016 |title= Barack Obama is right to criticise David Cameron's handling of Libya – but the US should not get off the hook |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/barack-obama-is-right-to-criticise-david-cameron-s-handling-of-libya-but-the-us-should-not-get-off-a6926666.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220501/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/barack-obama-is-right-to-criticise-david-cameron-s-handling-of-libya-but-the-us-should-not-get-off-a6926666.html |archive-date=1 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper= The Independent |location= London }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Barack Obama accuses David Cameron of getting 'distracted' over Libya and contributing to 's*** show' |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/12190303/Barack-Obama-accuses-David-Cameron-of-getting-distracted-over-Libya-and-contributing-to-s-show.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/12190303/Barack-Obama-accuses-David-Cameron-of-getting-distracted-over-Libya-and-contributing-to-s-show.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=18 April 2017 |newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|first1=David|last1=Lawler|first2=Ben|last2=Rileysmith |date=10 March 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeffrey |title=The Obama Doctrine |url= https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/04/the-obama-doctrine/471525/#9 |work=The Atlantic |location= Washington DC |date=April 2016}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Libya|Politics}}
* [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]
* [[Aftermath of the Libyan civil war (2011)]]
* [[2015 European migrant crisis]]
* [[List of invasions in the 21st century]]
* [[Second Libyan Civil War]]
* [[Killing of Muammar Gaddafi]]
* [[Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya]]
* [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973]]
* [[U.S. intervention in Libya (2015–2019)|US military campaign in Libya against ISIS]]
* [[1986 United States bombing of Libya|Bombing of Libya]], code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon, response to [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing]]
* [[Iraqi no-fly zones]], two similar operations carried out over Iraq:
** [[Operation Northern Watch]]
** [[Operation Southern Watch]]
* [[Operation Deny Flight]], similar operation carried out during the [[Bosnian War]] (1992–1995)
** [[1995 NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[Ouadi Doum air raid]], 1986 French air raid on Libyan airbase in Chad
* [[NATO bombing of Yugoslavia]] during the [[Kosovo War]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist|group=note}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |author-link=Alexander Benard |last=Bernard |first=Alexander |title=Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia on the Theory and Practice of No-Fly Zones |journal=[[Journal of Strategic Studies]] |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=454–478 |year=2004 |doi=10.1080/1362369042000282985|s2cid=154870756 }}
* {{cite journal |author-link=Richard K. Betts |last=Betts |first=Richard K. |year=1994 |title=The Delusion of Impartial Intervention |journal=[[Foreign Affairs]] |volume=73 |issue=6 |pages=20–33 |doi=10.2307/20046926 |jstor=20046926}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chesterman |first=Simon |title='Leading from Behind': The Responsibility to Protect, the Obama Doctrine, and Humanitarian Intervention After Libya |year=2011 |journal=Ethics & International Affairs |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=279–285 |doi=10.1017/S0892679411000190 |ssrn=1855843|s2cid=145791123 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Krain |first=Matthew |title=International Intervention and the Severity of Genocides and Politicides |journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]] |volume=49 |issue=3 |year=2005 |pages=363–388 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2478.2005.00369.x|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Xypolia |first=Ilia |title=From the White Man's Burden to the Responsible Saviour: Justifying Humanitarian Intervention in Libya |journal=[[Middle East Critique]] |volume=31 |issue=1 |year=2022|pages=1–19 |doi=10.1080/19436149.2022.2030981|s2cid=246644730 |doi-access=free |hdl=2164/18262 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal|last=Larsen |first=Henrik Boesen Lindbo |title=Libya: Beyond Regime Change |journal=[[DIIS Policy Brief]] |volume=October 2011 |year=2011 |url=http://www.diis.dk/graphics/publications/policybriefs%202011/libya%20beyond%20regime%20change.web.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526014230/http://www.diis.dk/graphics/publications/policybriefs%202011/libya%20beyond%20regime%20change.web.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2013}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmfaff/119/11902.htm ''Libya: Examination of intervention and collapse and the UK's future policy options'' (html)][https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmfaff/119/119.pdf (pdf)] (2016) Conclusions of an in-depth investigation by the U.K. Parliament's [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]' bipartisan Foreign Affairs Committee.
* [https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/foreign-affairs-committee/inquiries1/parliament-2015/libya-policy/ Libya: Examination of intervention and collapse and the UK's future policy options inquiry]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2011/mar/08/libya-nato-no-fly-zone-interactive-map Libya: allied military assets and initial attack sites]. ''The Guardian''. 21 March 2011, interactive map
* Chulov, Martin; Dehghan, Saeed Kamali; Marsh, Katherine (21 March 2011). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/21/libyan-air-strikes-middle-east-reaction "Libyan Air Strikes: Reactions around the Middle East"]. ''[[The Guardian]]''.
* [http://www.ffaa.net/history/wars-operations/libye/harmattan_moyens_air_fr.htm Unofficial page about aircraft involved in Operation Harmattan]
* [http://www.ffaa.net/history/wars-operations/libye/harmattan_moyens_navals_fr.htm Unofficial page about warships involved in Operation Harmattan]
* [http://www.ffaa.net/ships/aircraft-carrier/charles-de-gaulle/historique8.htm Unofficial page about CVN Charles de Gaulle in Operation Harmattan]
* [https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10200.doc.htm Security Council Approves 'No-Fly Zone' over Libya, Authorizing 'All Necessary Measures' to Protect Civilians, by Vote of 10 in Favour with 5 Abstentions]
* [https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10200.doc.htm#Resolution Text of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973]

{{Libyan civil war}}
{{American conflicts}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Libya military intervention (2011)}}
[[Category:Foreign intervention in the Libyan civil war (2011)| ]]
[[Category:Aerial bombing operations]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 2011]]
[[Category:International security]]
[[Category:Military operations involving Belgium]]
[[Category:Military operations involving Canada]]
[[Category:Military operations involving Denmark]]
[[Category:Military operations involving France]]
[[Category:Military operations involving Italy]]
[[Category:Military operations involving NATO]]
[[Category:Military operations involving Norway]]
[[Category:Military operations involving Spain]]
[[Category:Military operations involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Military operations involving the United States]]
[[Category:No-fly zone operations]]
[[Category:Presidency of Barack Obama]]
[[Category:Responsibility to protect]]
[[Category:French involvement in regime change]]
[[Category:United States involvement in regime change]]
[[Category:Military history of the Mediterranean]]

2011 military intervention in Libya

2026-03-16T19:20:59Z

Davidmam: minor edit

2011 military intervention in Libya

2026-03-16T19:20:59Z

Davidmam: minor edit

Nitin Sahrawat

2026-03-15T13:15:24Z

Davidmam:

{{Short description|Indian actor (born 1981)}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Nitin Sahrawat
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date ={{birth date and age|df=yes|1981|08|13}}
| birth_place = [[Dehradun]], Uttar Pradesh (present{{endash}}day Uttarakhand<ref>Uttarakhand state formed on 9 November 2000 from the Uttar Pradesh state</ref>), India
| occupation = Actor, lawyer, entrepreneur
| years_active = 2002–present
| website ={{URL|https://bestindian.co.in/}}
| spouse ={{marriage|[[Vaishnavi Dhanraj]]|2012|2016|end=divorced}}
}}

'''Nitin Sahrawat''' (born 13 August 1981), is an Indian film-television actor, lawyer, and entrepreneur. He is the founder of the Ayurvedic cosmetics and perfumery company BestIndian Luxuries, under which he has created and trademarked several brands including Moviestar, Elixir of Youth, and GlowPotion. Sahrawat is also known for his environmental work, including the creation of the Atal Vatika [[urban forest]], as well as his extensive career in television commercials and series.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bestindian.co.in/pages/founder-nitin-sahrawat|title=Nitin Sahrawat — From Spotlight to Nature|website=BestIndian Luxuries|access-date=2025-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/160591/mumbai-nitin-sahrawat-dehradun-mini-forest|title=This Man Left Mumbai for a Drive & Ended up Making a Mini-Forest in Dehradun|date=2018-10-01|work=The Better India|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://epaper.amarujala.com/dl/20181005/12.html?format=img&ed_code=dl|title=Letting go of the glamour of Mumbai, he created a heaven of trees|date=2018-10-05|work=Amar Ujala|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Sahrawat was born in Dehradun to a family of academicians; his mother was a professor and his father an attorney. He attended [[Brightlands School]] and [[St. Joseph's Academy, Dehradun]]. He initially pursued a degree in Mechanical Engineering at [[Bapuji Institute of Engineering & Technology]] in Karnataka before leaving to begin a career in modeling and acting in Mumbai.

In his late thirties, after stepping away from his acting career, Sahrawat returned to academia. He completed a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree with high distinction, earning a score that placed him on the first merit list for the LLB program at [[D.A.V. Post Graduate College, Dehradun]]. He continued his studies to become a registered lawyer in his forties while simultaneously building his company.

==Career==

===Modelling===
Nitin started his modelling career in 2002 with a print campaign for [[Standard Chartered]] and in the following years he went on to become one of the most visible faces on Indian television,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=nitin+sahrawat&page=1 |title=nitin sahrawat|publisher=youtube.com/ |author= |date= |accessdate=24 February 2014}}</ref> with TV commercials for brands including [[Tide (brand)|Tide]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vimeo.com/83478850 |title=TIDE – Mrs Ko Bolo TVC |publisher=vimeo.com |author=Karthik Bhat|date=6 January 2014 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref> [[Pillsbury Company]], [[Maruti 800]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDLswiYQJQE |title=Maruti Suzuki 800-Change Your Life Commercial |publisher=youtube.com |author=brarfamilyfilms|date=8 April 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref> [[Hyundai Santro]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.campaignindia.in/Article/227036,hyundai-promotes-new-look-santro-in-new-campaign.aspx|title=Hyundai promotes new-look Santro in new campaign |publisher=campaignindia.in|author=Gunjan Prasad|date= 1 October 2009 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref> [[LG Electronics]], [[Hero MotoCorp]], [[Ariel (detergent)|Ariel]], [[Tropicana Products]] and [[Sunsilk]]. As a result of Indian economy opening up in 1990s (''[[1990s in India]]'') international brands started devising strategies of entering the lucrative Indian market. Nitin Sahrawat was the face of many such launches in India, including his commercial for [[Pedigree Petfoods]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2003-08-06/news/27522393_1_pet-food-dog-and-cat-food-effem-india |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140224104655/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2003-08-06/news/27522393_1_pet-food-dog-and-cat-food-effem-india |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 February 2014 |title=Potential pet food market to grow in India |publisher=The Economic Times |author=C Chitti Pantulu|date=6 August 2003 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=334a4txCxEM |title=Pedigree Centre |publisher=youtube.com |author=Classic films|year=2003 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref> [[Nokia N72]] and [[Tetley]].

In 2004 Samsung rolled out a big budget campaign to commemorate [[Indian cricket team]]'s tour of [[Pakistan]], which was one of the biggest sporting event of the Indian subcontinent as the two nations had resumed sporting ties after a long gap.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/story-print/100149 |title=Samsung Sets Aside Rs 60 Cr For Indo-Pak Cricket |publisher=financialexpress.com |author=The Financial Express|date=4 March 2004 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/samsung-to-launch-new-tv-ad-for-indo-pak-series/articleshow/535502.cms |title=Samsung to launch new TV ad for Indo-Pak series |publisher=economictimes.indiatimes.com |author=Ashish Sinha|date=4 March 2004 |accessdate=22 February 2014|newspaper=The Economic Times }}</ref> Sahrawat acted in this campaign which was named "Jeet Lo Dil" (Win Hearts).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ZS-OtBKsR8 |title=Samsung AC- Nitin Sahrawat |publisher=youtube.com |author=Equas Films|date=March 2004 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref> As a result of this campaign he became popular in Pakistan too, and in spite of Pakistan Government's official ban on using Indian actors for Pakistani ad campaigns, he later went on to act in numerous Pakistani TV commercials.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-11-06/news/30364129_1_advertising-industry-top-ad-international-advertising-association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405093349/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-11-06/news/30364129_1_advertising-industry-top-ad-international-advertising-association |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 April 2013 |title=Making ads in Pakistan: Tough with many formal and informal censors |publisher=economictimes.indiatimes.com |author=Bhanu Pande & Ratna Bhushan|date=6 November 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ses-4VYQ4RY |title=NESTLE PAKISTAN |publisher=youtube.com |author=Genesis Films|date=April 2005 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wPOuJXoKMr8 |title=Telenor Gharana 2 – Talk Shawk-IDD-EUROPE.mp4 |publisher=youtube.com |author=StimulusProductions|date=18 July 2010 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P7vrNiE_vkA&feature=c4-overview&list=UUKYRLdYN1NB5axGoIodMUBQ |title=Nestle Milkpak Powder|publisher=youtube.com |author=Haris Qadeer|date=28 February 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ls3YTW0g-Qg |title=Brite Maximum Power TVC 2012 |publisher=youtube.com |author=Advertistan|date=15 September 2012 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref>

His TV commercial for [[Indian Oil Corporation]] won the IDPA (Indian Documentary Producers' Association) and RAPA (Radio & TV Advertising Practitioners Association of India) Awards in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.idpaindia.org/ind_docu/ind_idpa_award_winners.htm|title= 2005 award winners|publisher= idpaindia.org|author= IDPA|year= 2005|accessdate= 22 February 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130621062754/http://www.idpaindia.org/ind_docu/ind_idpa_award_winners.htm|archive-date= 21 June 2013|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thetribuneonline.com/business-archives04.htm |title=IndianOil's 'Elephant Train' commercial wins RAPA award |publisher=thetribuneonline.com |author=Sushma Arora |date=6 May 2005 |accessdate=22 February 2014 |archive-date=30 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130231008/http://thetribuneonline.com/business-archives04.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1093449311.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611073119/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1093449311.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 June 2014 |title=INDIANOIL'S 'ELEPHANT TRAIN' COMMERCIAL WINS RAPA AWARD |author=Hindustan Times (New Delhi, India) |date=5 May 2005 |accessdate=22 February 2014}}</ref> In 2010 [[Cannes Lions]] winner director duo Nic Osborne and Sune Maroni directed a [[Fiat Punto]] TV commercial starring Nitin Sahrawat which went on to win numerous awards including Creative ABBY 2011 and Adfest 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.campaignindia.in/Article/229261,bates-141-creates-new-tvc-for-the-93-hp-fiat-punto.aspx |title=Bates 141 creates new TVC for the 93 hp Fiat Punto |publisher=campaignindia.in |author=Raahil Chopra |date=18 August 2010 |accessdate=23 February 2014 |archive-date=15 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515181235/http://www.campaignindia.in/Article/229261,bates-141-creates-new-tvc-for-the-93-hp-fiat-punto.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4rRGZmXQaI |title=Fiat Punto Thief |publisher=youtube.com |author=BangBangFilms|date=18 August 2010 |accessdate=23 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afaqs.com/news/story/30067_Goafest-2011:-Creative-ABBY-shortlists-announced-for-Print-Film-and-Interactive-Digital-categories |title=Goafest 2011: Creative ABBY shortlists announced for Print, Film and Interactive Digital categories |publisher=afaqs.com |author=afaqs! news bureau |date=28 March 2011 |accessdate=23 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130225090843/http://www.afaqs.com/news/story/30067_Goafest-2011:-Creative-ABBY-shortlists-announced-for-Print-Film-and-Interactive-Digital-categories |archive-date=25 February 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.campaignindia.in/Article/252024,leo-burnett-india-strikes-6-metals-at-adfest-2011.aspx |title=Leo Burnett India strikes 6 metals at Adfest 2011 |publisher=campaignindia.in |author=Arati Rao |date=22 March 2011 |accessdate=23 February 2014 |archive-date=21 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121203842/http://www.campaignindia.in/Article/252024,leo-burnett-india-strikes-6-metals-at-adfest-2011.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other acclaimed directors who have often worked with Sahrawat include [[Pradeep Sarkar]], Shantanu Bagchi, Oni Sen, Arjun Mukherjee, Manav Menon, Aniket Shirke, [[Prahlad Kakkar]], [[Ram Madhvani]], [[Abhinay Deo]], [[V. K. Prakash]], [[E. Nivas]], [[Pankaj Parashar]] and Abhijit Chaudhuri (Dadu).

===Acting===
In 2010, Sahrawat acted in [[Rann (film)|Rann]], which was directed by [[Ram Gopal Varma]] and co starred [[Amitabh Bachchan]]. After his two-movie contract with Sarvodaya Visuals got delayed, Sahrawat accepted [[Balaji Telefilms]]'s offer for season two of their popular show ''[[Kitani Mohabbat Hai]]''. He enacted the character of Rajveer Singh Ahluwalia, a stoic police officer which was quite different from the amiable characters that he had usually portrayed in his TV commercials.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://forum.punjabijunktion.co.in/f324/kitni-mohabbat-hai-all-about-people-love-174863/ |title=Kitani Mohabbat Hai: All about the people in the love boat |publisher=punjabijunktion |author= |date=27 May 2011 |accessdate=24 February 2014 |archive-date=27 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227130702/http://forum.punjabijunktion.co.in/f324/kitni-mohabbat-hai-all-about-people-love-174863/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[Kitani Mohabbat Hai Season 2]]'' ended in May 2011 with Rajveer getting shot while trying to save Arohi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kitnimohabbathai.weebly.com/1/post/2011/05/kitani-mohabbat-hai-ended-with-arjun-arohi-getting-one-forever.html |title=Kitani Mohabbat Hai ended with Arjun & Arohi getting one forever! |publisher=kitnimohabbathai.weebly.com |author= |date=30 May 2011 |accessdate=24 February 2014 |archive-date=5 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305162941/http://kitnimohabbathai.weebly.com/1/post/2011/05/kitani-mohabbat-hai-ended-with-arjun-arohi-getting-one-forever.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the first half of 2013 Nitin Sahrawat was seen in two other [[Balaji Telefilms]] shows, namely ''[[Savdhaan India]]'' and ''[[Parichay (TV series)|Parichay]]''. In ''[[Parichay (TV series)|Parichay]]'' he played the role of a fictitious [[Bollywood]] superstar called Aman Kumar which was inspired by real life [[Bollywood]] superstar [[Salman Khan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nH2b0dZRTrU |title=Parichay : 1st March 2013 – Full Episode (HD) |publisher=youtube.com |author=Colors TV|date=1 March 2013 |accessdate=24 February 2014}}</ref> In the show Aman Kumar hires Kunal (played by [[Samir Soni]] ) to defend him in a [[DUI]] & [[Hit and run]] case which was based on [[Salman Khan]]'s 2002 Bandra incident.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://colors.in.com/in/news/parichay-ends-on-a-happy-note-weekly-update-11th-march-15th-march-630.html |title=PARICHAY ENDS ON A HAPPY NOTE! WEEKLY UPDATE 11TH MARCH – 15TH MARCH |publisher=colors.in.com |author=Meenakshi Negi |date=20 March 2013 |accessdate=24 February 2014 |archive-date=28 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228181437/http://colors.in.com/in/news/parichay-ends-on-a-happy-note-weekly-update-11th-march-15th-march-630.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the latter half of 2013 Sahrawat signed up for the award-winning show ''[[Bade Achhe Lagte Hain]]'' as the antagonist against the character of Ram Kapoor (played by [[Ram Kapoor]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tv/news-and-gossip/Nitin-Sahrawat-to-lock-horns-with-Ram-Kapoor-in-Bade-Achhe/articleshow/22596454.cms?referral=PM |title=Nitin Sahrawat to lock horns with Ram Kapoor in Bade Achhe |publisher=timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ |author=Neha Maheshwri|date= 15 September 2013 |accessdate=24 February 2014}}</ref> In February 2014 Sahrawat started shooting for [[Star Plus]]'s new show ''[[Ishq Kills]]'' which is directed by [[Vikram Bhatt]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/tv/news-interviews/Ayaz-Ahmed-Nitin-Sahrawat-Kiran-Thapar-bag-Ishq-Kills/movie-review/30607266.cms |title=Ayaz Ahmed, Nitin Sahrawat & Kiran Thapar bag 'Ishq Kills' |publisher=timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ |author=Tejashree Bhopatkar|date= 18 February 2014 |accessdate=24 February 2014}}</ref> In the latter half of the year Sahrawat started shooting for Saurabh Tewari's new show called Do Deewane Ek Shehar Me,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Nitin Sahrawat resumes with "Do Deewane Ek Shehar Mein" on Sony TV!|url = http://www.thetellytimes.com/nitin-sahrawat-resumes-do-deewane-ek-shehar-mein-sony-tv/|website = www.thetellytimes.com|accessdate = 2015-07-09|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150714064446/http://www.thetellytimes.com/nitin-sahrawat-resumes-do-deewane-ek-shehar-mein-sony-tv/|archive-date = 14 July 2015|url-status = dead}}</ref> but this show was scrapped by the channel before its telecast.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Saurabh Tewari's 'Do Deewane Ek Shehar Mein' to get scrapped?|url = http://www.thetellytimes.com/saurabh-tewaris-do-deewane-ek-shehar-mein-scrapped/|website = www.thetellytimes.com|accessdate = 2015-07-09|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150714065137/http://www.thetellytimes.com/saurabh-tewaris-do-deewane-ek-shehar-mein-scrapped/|archive-date = 14 July 2015|url-status = dead}}</ref>

In 2015 Sahrawat was signed up for two shows of [[4 Lions Films]], namely ''[[Qubool Hai]]'' and ''[[Adhuri Kahaani Hamari (TV series)]]''. In ''[[Qubool Hai]]'' he portrayed the part of Bollywood superstar Anand Kumar while in ''[[Adhuri Kahaani Hamari (TV series)]]'' he was seen as Chote Raja Lakshman Dev and was paired opposite [[Shubhangi Atre Poorey]].<ref>{{Cite web|title = All you need to know about Shubhangi Atre - the actress who replaced Shilpa Shinde in 'Bhabi Ji Ghar Par Hai'|url = http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-all-you-need-to-know-about-shubhangi-atre-the-actress-who-replaced-shilpa-shinde-in-bhabi-ji-ghar-par-hai-2203061|website = DNA |date=17 April 2016 |accessdate=3 July 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Nitin Sahrawat makes a superstar entry in 'Qubool Hai'!|url = http://www.thetellytimes.com/nitin-sahrawat-makes-a-superstar-entry-in-qubool-hai/|website = www.thetellytimes.com|date = 11 August 2015|accessdate = 1 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160214114805/http://www.thetellytimes.com/nitin-sahrawat-makes-a-superstar-entry-in-qubool-hai/|archive-date = 14 February 2016|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Nitin Sahrawat enters 'Adhuri Kahaani Hamari'|url = http://www.bollywoodhelpline.com/news-gossips/telly-buzz/Nitin-Sahrawat-enters-%E2%80%98Adhuri-Kahaani-Hamari%E2%80%99/32393|website = www.bollywoodhelpline.com|date = 26 November 2015|accessdate = 1 February 2016|archive-date = 16 September 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180916040737/http://www.bollywoodhelpline.com/news-gossips/telly-buzz/Nitin-Sahrawat-enters-%E2%80%98Adhuri-Kahaani-Hamari%E2%80%99/32393|url-status = dead}}</ref> In September Sahrawat was seen in a special episode of ''[[Code Red (Indian TV series)|Code Red]]'', in which he played the character of a psychopathic killer. This episode was based on truck driver [[M. Jaishankar]] and his killing spree in southern India.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Nitin Sahrawat plays the most challenging role of his life so far in Code Red!|url = http://www.thetellytimes.com/nitin-sahrawat-plays-the-most-challenging-role-of-his-life-so-far-in-code-red/|website = www.thetellytimes.com|date = 17 September 2015|accessdate = 1 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160130095631/http://www.thetellytimes.com/nitin-sahrawat-plays-the-most-challenging-role-of-his-life-so-far-in-code-red/|archive-date = 30 January 2016|url-status = dead}}</ref>

===Entrepreneurship and Intellectual Property===
Sahrawat is the founder of BestIndian Luxuries, a company that develops and markets natural cosmetics and alcohol-free perfumes. He has created several brands under this umbrella, including Moviestar, ElixirOfYouth, GlowPotion, Luxury Of India, and QuiteLit. The company's philosophy is centered on merging traditional Indian Ayurvedic knowledge with modern dermal science. As a specialist in intellectual property, Sahrawat has personally filed and secured over 35 trademarks for his brands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bestindian.co.in/pages/founder-nitin-sahrawat|title=Nitin Sahrawat — From Spotlight to Nature|website=BestIndian Luxuries|access-date=September 12, 2025}}</ref>

The company operates on a [[Social enterprise]] model, with a pledge to utilize 25% of all revenue for social and ecological causes, including animal welfare, environmental restoration, and youth employment initiatives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bestindian.co.in/pages/founder-nitin-sahrawat|title=Nitin Sahrawat — From Spotlight to Nature|website=BestIndian Luxuries|access-date=September 12, 2025}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Nitin Sahrawat was married to Indian television actress [[Vaishnavi Dhanraj]]. The two first met on the set of Nitin's show ''[[Kitani Mohabbat Hai Season 2]]''. After a courtship of two years Nitin and Vaishnavi got married in [[Shantikunj]], [[Haridwar]] according to [[Vedic]] Rituals on 23 December 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://idiva.com/photogallery-entertainment/10-biggest-tv-celebrity-weddings-this-year/20184/9|title=10 Biggest TV Celebrity Weddings This Year|publisher=idiva.com//|author=TNN|date=13 March 2013|accessdate=24 February 2014|archive-date=5 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305104947/http://idiva.com/photogallery-entertainment/10-biggest-tv-celebrity-weddings-this-year/20184/9|url-status=dead}}</ref> The reception in Mumbai was attended by their co actors including [[Meghna Malik]], [[Kritika Kamra]], [[Karan Kundra]], [[Simran Kaur]], [[Sadiya Siddiqui]], [[Dayanand Shetty]], Khalid Siddiqui and [[Hrishikesh Pandey]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/mumbai/Celebs-attend-actor-model-Nitin-Sahrawats-wedding-reception/articleshow/18076828.cms |title=Celebs attend actor-model Nitin Sahrawat's wedding reception|publisher=timesofindia.indiatimes.com// |author= TNN|date= 18 January 2013 |accessdate=24 February 2014}}</ref> The two stayed in Mumbai with their [[Labrador Retriever]] named Thor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/vaishnavi-dhanraj-makes-comeback-tv-sony-tvs-parvarrish |title=Vaishnavi Dhanraj makes a comeback on TV with Sony TV's Parvarrish |publisher=tellychakkar.com/ |author=TellychakkarTeam |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=24 February 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924144735/http://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/vaishnavi-dhanraj-makes-comeback-tv-sony-tvs-parvarrish |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In March 2014 Nitin and Vaishnavi were the guests for the launch episode of [[NDTV]]'s ''The Getaway'' in which the two were given a [[Hyundai Elantra]] which they then drove down to [[Kamshet]]. The theme of the episode being adventure ,the couple then paraglided off the challenging Shelar's site. This episode was shot at their [[Lokhandwala Complex]] home and also featured their pet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/video/player/the-getaway/the-perfect-weekend-getaway-near-mumbai/314090 |title=The perfect weekend getaway near Mumbai|publisher=ndtv.com/|author= NDTV|date= 21 March 2014 |accessdate=10 April 2014}}</ref>

Sahrawat and Dhanraj filed for legal separation in July 2015 and were divorced in January 2016, opting for a mutual and amicable divorce in Bandra family court. Incompatibility and emotional disconnect was cited as the reason for the end of the marriage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/TV-couple-Nitin-and-Vaishnavi-to-divorce/articleshow/48084871.cms |title=TV couple Nitin and Vaishnavi to divorce|publisher=timesofindia.indiatimes.com// |author= Neha Maheshwri|date= 16 July 2015 |accessdate=1 February 2016}}</ref> In December 2016, a celebrity gossip website alleged that even though the divorce was mutual, the reason for the end of the marriage was domestic violence. This version quickly went viral with mainstream news portals and publications quoting the gossip website article. None of these news articles included any quote from Sahrawat, a fact that he lamented in a social media post. This Facebook post was later published by some media outlets as a form of an apology for the unverified publications based on tabloid journalism.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.spotboye.com/bollywood/Bollywood-interviews/tv-actress-vaishnavi-dhanraj-says-her-husband-beat-her-up-until-her-leg-bled/58458ebdaa06626027f19d0f|title=TV Actress Vaishnavi Dhanraj Says Her Husband Beat Her Up Until Her Leg Bled!|last=Lalwani|first=Vickey|work=SpotboyE|date=5 December 2016|accessdate=3 July 2018|archive-date=3 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703133321/https://www.spotboye.com/bollywood/Bollywood-interviews/tv-actress-vaishnavi-dhanraj-says-her-husband-beat-her-up-until-her-leg-bled/58458ebdaa06626027f19d0f|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/news-gossip/368547/nitin-sahrawat-lashes-out-ex-wife-vaishnavi-claims-domestic-violence-be-false|title=Nitin Sahrawat lashes out on ex-wife Vaishnavi; claims domestic violence allegations to be false!|last=Deshpande|first=Rasika|work=Pinkvilla|date=14 December 2016|accessdate=3 July 2018|archive-date=17 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217025823/http://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/news-gossip/368547/nitin-sahrawat-lashes-out-ex-wife-vaishnavi-claims-domestic-violence-be-false|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/physical-abuse-made-me-file-for-divorce-says-cid-actress-vaishnavi-dhanraj/articleshow/56013145.cms|title=Physical abuse made me file for divorce, says CID actress Vaishnavi Dhanraj|last=Bajwal|first=Dimple|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2016|accessdate=25 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/what-s-hot/story/cid-actress-vaishnavi-dhanraj-domestic-violence-abuse-badly-beaten-husband-lifetv-356422-2016-12-08|title=CID actress Vaishnavi Dhanraj opens up on domestic abuse, says she was badly beaten by former husband|last=Singh|first=Anvita|work=India Today|date=8 December 2016|access-date=25 December 2016}}</ref>

Sahrawat has stated that his decision to become a lawyer was partly driven by the desire to be capable of fighting his own battles after facing damaging allegations following his divorce. He resides in Dehradun where his home serves as a sanctuary for his rescue dogs.

==Social causes==
Sahrawat's social work focuses on environmentalism and animal welfare. He founded Atal Vatika, an urban forest in Dehradun, by planting and nurturing hundreds of native and Ayurvedic trees on a formerly barren plot of land, successfully restoring biodiversity to the area.

He is extensively involved in animal rescue. He has organized the sterilization and vaccination of approximately 50 stray dogs. His home is a sanctuary for five dogs he has personally rescued from the streets. He has also supported the Patriot Dogs campaign, which works to rehabilitate retired service dogs from the Indian Army and police forces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.strays.in/index.php/2017/04/patriotdogs/|title=PatriotDogs has the best sportsmen, filmstarts and personalities support dog|date=2018-04-06|work=Straysin|access-date=2018-08-19|archive-date=19 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819182105/http://www.strays.in/index.php/2017/04/patriotdogs/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Over the years Sahrawat has collaborated with the government in the form of his Public Service Films and TV commercials. These include causes like Family Planning in India,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afaqs.com/advertising/creative_showcase/?id=37556&media=TV |title=Freedom 5 |publisher=afaqs.com |author=Adbhakti |date=3 September 2012 |accessdate=23 February 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123839/http://www.afaqs.com/advertising/creative_showcase/?id=37556&media=TV |url-status=dead }}</ref> Public Safety<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZJestC-pMU |title=Mumbai Police- Nitin Sahrawat Film |publisher=afaqs.com |author=Frowning Buddha|date=3 September 2012 |accessdate=23 February 2014}}</ref> and [[World Heart Federation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aAZ1cten4to |title=Saffola – Heart Day |publisher=.youtube.com |author=risingsunrsf|date=1 May 2012 |accessdate=23 February 2014}}</ref>

===Atal Indian===
Sahrawat has conceived and implemented the Atal Indian Project, which aims at creating multiple nature reserves or urban forests called Atal Vatikas, in Indian cities. Color coordinated avenue tree plantation in the urban centers of India, is another stated mission of the project. In August 2018, the capital of the Indian state of Uttarakhand became the first city to support the Atal Indian project.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/tv-actors-campaign-to-bring-colour-to-doon-localities/articleshow/65328399.cms|title=TV actor's campaign to bring colour to Doon localities|date=2018-08-09|work=Times of India|access-date=2018-08-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://epaper.amarujala.com/dc/20180811/08.html?format=img&ed_code=dc|title=TV actor to plant trees in Dehradun|date=2018-08-11|work=Amar Ujala|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref>

Atal Indian is a [[social movement]], focused on providing practical solutions to the challenges faced by the rapidly urbanizing India. It is dedicated to the 10th Prime Minister of India [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] according to its mission statement. Atal Indian's primary activities include ecocentric projects like Atal Vatika, aimed at betterment of the [[quality of life]] of the Indian citizens, in sync with the available natural resources around them.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/tv-actors-campaign-to-bring-colour-to-doon-localities/articleshow/65328399.cms|title=TV actor's campaign to bring colour to Doon localities|date=2018-08-09|work=Times of India|access-date=2018-08-19}}</ref>

It strives for the creation of 'Green' smart cities, and modifying the existing Indian population centers, with nature being the core and the unifying essence. A [[sustainable city]] which is in sync with its natural resources, provides an ideal foundation for comprehensive growth of its denizens.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://epaper.amarujala.com/dl/20181005/12.html?format=img&ed_code=dl|title=Letting go of the glamour of Mumbai, he created a heaven of trees|date=2018-10-05|work=Amar Ujala|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref>

====History====
Atal Indian was conceived by Nitin Sahrawat in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/160591/mumbai-nitin-sahrawat-dehradun-mini-forest|title=This Man Left Mumbai for a Drive & Ended up Making a Mini-Forest in Dehradun|date=2018-10-01|work=The Better India|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref> In 2016, Sahrawat started a pilot project to create an [[urban forest]], and [[Avenue (landscape)]] tree plantation in [[Dehradun]], when he personally dug out fifty pits, and planted [[Gulmohar]] and [[Saraca asoca]] trees, protecting them with tree guards which had been granted by the city council. In two years time, this pilot project proved to be successful enough for Sahrawat to decide on replicating this project in other Indian cities. He has collaborated with the administration of the Indian state of [[Uttarakhand]], and has pledged his support for the [[Rispana Rejuvenation]] project of the Chief Minister [[Trivendra Singh Rawat]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://epaper.amarujala.com/dc/20180811/08.html?format=img&ed_code=dc|title=TV actor to plant trees in Dehradun|date=2018-08-11|work=Amar Ujala|access-date=2018-10-06}}</ref>

====Projects====

Atal Urban Rejuvenation Project aims at inculcating [[landscape architecture]] at the local [[resident welfare association]] level in the cities and villages of India, through the participation of the local population. It aims at better coordination between the RWAs and the administrative bodies, for providing a uniform look to the entire city, brought about by colour coordinated Avenue tree plantation drives, covering the entire city.

An integral part of this project is the waterfront development of the Urban riverside, and creation of greenways. Nature can be used to provide important services for communities by protecting them against flooding or excessive heat, or helping to improve air, soil and water quality. More green space around one's house is associated with better [[mental health]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bos, E.H.|author2=van der Meulen, L.|author3=Wichers, M.|author4=Jeronimus, B.F.| year = 2016 | title = A Primrose Path? Moderating Effects of Age and Gender in the Association between Green Space and Mental Health | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 13 | pages = 492 | doi=10.3390/ijerph13050492 | issue=5| pmc=4881117 | pmid=27187428 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016IJERP..13..492B }}</ref> Also, an availability of green space in neighbourhoods helps the senior citizen segment of the population by encouraging increased physical activity, which results in healthier and longer lifespans.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Gong Y., Gallacher J., Palmer S., Fone D. | year = 2014 | title = Neighbourhood green space, physical function and participation in physical activities among elderly men: the Caerphilly Prospective study | journal = The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity | volume = 11 | issue = 1| page = 40 | pmid = 24646136 | doi = 10.1186/1479-5868-11-40 | pmc = 3994572 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Advertising campaigns==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Brand !! Medium !! Production House !! Language !! Notes
|-
| rowspan="2"|2002 || [[Standard Chartered]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[State Bank of India]] || TV Commercial || Whodunit Films || Hindi ||
|-
| rowspan="8"|2003 || [[Merrill Lynch]] || Print & Outdoor || || English ||
|-
| [[Hindustan Petroleum]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Tetley]] || TV Commercial || Reel Company ||Bengali || Bangladeshi TV Commercial
|-
| Goli ke Hamjoli || TV Commercial || Black Magic || Hindi ||
|-
| Shanti Hair Oil || TV Commercial || Trends Ad Films || Hindi || Director: [[V. K. Prakash]]
|-
| [[Pedigree Petfoods]] || TV Commercial || Classic Films || English ||Director: Minto Singh
|-
| BSL suitings || TV Commercial || Reel Company || English ||
|-
| [[Kotak Mahindra Bank]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| rowspan="13"|2004 || [[Wipro]] Santoor Cream || TV Commercial || Nebula Films || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Indian Oil Corporation]] || TV Commercial || Ramesh Deo Productions || Hindi || Director: [[Abhinay Deo]]
|-
| [[Citibank]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Samsung]] AC || TV Commercial & Print || Equas || English ||
|-
| [[Tide (brand)]] || TV Commercial || Ramesh Deo Productions || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Kenstar]] || TV Commercial || Red Ice || English || Director: [[E. Nivas]]
|-
| [[Sunsilk]] || TV Commercial ||Equinox || Hindi || Director: [[Ram Madhvani]]
|-
| [[TVS Motor Company]] || TV Commercial || Whodunit Films || Hindi ||
|-
| Veedol || TV Commercial || Maaza Films || Hindi || Director: [[Pankaj Parashar]]
|-
| J.M.Mutual Fund || TV Commercial || Ajay Bahl Productions || Hindi || Director: Ajay Bahl
|-
| [[ICICI Bank]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Thomas Cook Group]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Tata Marina]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| rowspan="15"|2005 || [[Maruti 800]] || TV Commercial || Looking Glass || Hindi ||
|-
| [[McDowell's No.1]] || TV Commercial || Black Magic Films || Hindi || Director: Abhijit Chaudhuri
|-
| [[Nestlé]] || TV Commercial || Genesis Films || Urdu || Director: [[Prahlad Kakkar]] Pakistani TV Commercial
|-
| [[LG Electronics]] TV || TV Commercial || MAD Films || English ||
|-
| [[Eureka Forbes]] || TV Commercial || Illusion Films || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Hero MotoCorp]] CD Deluxe || TV Commercial || Foot Candles Films || Hindi || Director: Manav Menon
|-
| Ring Guard || TV Commercial || Illusion Films || Hindi ||
|-
| Odonil || TV Commercial || Working I || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Ariel (detergent)]] || TV Commercial || Saatchi & Saatchi || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Tide (brand)]] || TV Commercial || Code Red Films || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Hindustan Petroleum]] || TV Commercial || Cine Assist || English ||
|-
| ICICI Prudential || TV Commercial || Red Ice Films || Hindi ||
|-
| Shakthi Masala || TV Commercial & Print || TWC Films || Tamil || Director: B Babushankar
|-
| Afterbath Freshness Cream || TV Commercial || Illusion Films || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Life Insurance Corporation of India]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| rowspan="4"|2006 || [[Nokia N72]] || TV Commercial || One Films || Hindi, English ||
|-
| [[Tata Group]] Credit Card || Print || || English ||
|-
| Vinay Corp || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Life Insurance Corporation of India]] Housing Loan || Print || || English ||
|-
| rowspan="15"|2007 || Bank of Maharashtra || TV Commercial & Print || K film Company || Hindi || Director: Arjun Mukherjee
|-
| Future Bazar || TV Commercial || R.M. Creations || Hindi ||
|-
| [[World Heart Day]] Saffola || TV Commercial || Rising Sun || English || Director: Aniket Shirke
|-
| Borosoft || TV Commercial || Rising Sun || Hindi || Director: Aniket Shirke
|-
| [[Vivel]] || TV Commercial ||Footcandle Films || Hindi || Director: Manav Menon
|-
| [[Pidilite]] Rangeela || TV Commercial || Monkey Business || Hindi ||
|-
| VGN Developers || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Organon International]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Fidelity Investments]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Reliance Industries]] || Print || || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Britannia Industries]] Good Day || Print || || English ||
|-
| Emmay HR || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Pepsodent]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Unit Trust of India]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Brooke Bond]] Red Label || Print || || English ||
|-
| rowspan="7"|2008 || Built Matrix || TV Commercial || CNBC || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Tropicana Products]] || TV Commercial || Illusion || English || Director: Shantanu Bagchi
|-
| [[Pillsbury Company]] || TV Commercial || Cine Assist || Hindi || Director: Arjun Mukherjee
|-
| [[Disney]] || TV Commercial || Thumb Nail Films || English ||
|-
| Radio City F.M || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Benign]] || Print || || English ||
|-
| [[Dainik Bhaskar]] || Print || || English||
|-
| rowspan="5"|2009 || [[LG Electronics]] AC || TV Commercial || Ramesh Deo Productions || Hindi ||
|-
| [[Hyundai Motor Company]] Santro Xing || TV Commercial || Illusion || English || Director: Oni Sen
|-
| [[Dabur]] Honitus || TV Commercial || Ravi Deshpande Films || Hindi ||
|-
| [[HSBC]] || Print || || English||
|-
| [[Dabur]] Pudin Hara || Print || || English||
|-
| rowspan="4"|2010 || [[Fiat Punto]]|| TV Commercial || Bang Bang films || Hindi || Director: Nic Osborne and Sune Maroni
|-
| [[Crompton Greaves]]|| TV Commercial || R.M Creations || Hindi||
|-
| IMN|| TV Commercial || || English ||
|-
| [[Telenor]]|| TV Commercial || Haris Qadeer || Urdu|| Director: Ahsan Rahim. Pakistani TV Commercial
|-
| rowspan="3"|2011 || [[Nestle]] Milkpak|| TV Commercial || Haris Qadeer || Urdu || Pakistani TV Commercial
|-
| [[Citibank]] Personal Loans|| Print || || English ||
|-
| ''[[ICICI Bank]]'' Business Loans || Print || || English||
|-
| rowspan="5"|2012 || Freedom 5|| TV Commercial || Illumination Films || Hindi || Director: Shantanu Bagchi Public Service
|-
| [[Marico]] Saffola|| TV Commercial || Apocalypso Filmworks || Hindi || Director: [[Pradeep Sarkar]]
|-
| [[Ensure]]|| TV Commercial || Milestone Films || English ||
|-
| Brite Maximum Power|| TV Commercial || Haris Qadeer || Urdu || Director: Ahsan Rahim. Pakistani TV Commercial
|-
| Zigo Mobile Phones|| TV Commercial || Udara Palliyaguruge || Sinhale || Sri Lankan TV Commercial
|-
| rowspan="3"|2013 || [[ITC Limited]] Sunfeast Yippee|| TV Commercial || Apocalypso Filmworks || Hindi || Director: [[Pradeep Sarkar]]
|-
| Dhatri Hair Oil|| TV Commercial || Lights On || Hindi || Director: Jismon Joy
|-
| [[India Infoline]]|| TV Commercial || Opticus Films || Hindi ||
|-
| rowspan="1"|2014 || [[Bayer]]|| TV Commercial || Dreamcatchers || Hindi ||
|-
|
|Cinthol
|TV Commercial
|MAD films
|Hindi
|Director: Francois Merlet
|-
|
|Muthoot Finance
|TVC & Print
|Apocalypso Filmworks
|
|Director: [[Pradeep Sarkar]]
|}

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Show
! Role
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Kitani Mohabbat Hai Season 2]]''
| Rajveer Singh Ahluwalia
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Parichay (TV series)|Parichay — Nayee Zindagi Kay Sapno Ka]]''
| Superstar Aman Kumar
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2013–2015
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Savdhaan India]]''
| Pawan
|-
| Suresh
|-
| 2013-2014
| ''[[Bade Achhe Lagte Hain]]''
| Rajeev
|-
| 2014
| ''[[Ishq Kills]]''
| Avishek
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2015
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Code Red (Indian TV series)|Code Red]]''
| Amar
|-
| Jaishankar
|-
| ''[[Qubool Hai]]''
| Anand Kumar/Naseer Khan
|-
| ''[[Adhuri Kahaani Hamari (TV series)|Adhuri Kahaani Hamari]]''
| Laxman Dev
|}

== Films ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
!Notes
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Rann (film)|Rann]]''
| Journalist Sahrawat
|
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.facebook.com/nitin.sahrawat]
* [https://www.instagram.com/nitin.sahrawat]
* [https://www.linkedin.com/in/nitin-sahrawat]
* {{IMDb name|8457555}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sahrawat, Nitin}}
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:Male actors from Dehradun]]
[[Category:Writers from Dehradun]]
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Sayee–Subbulakshmi

2026-03-15T08:39:22Z

Davidmam: Started Pg

{{Short description|Indian female Bharatanatyam dancers}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
[[File:Sayee subbulakshmi.jpg|thumb|right|Sayee and Subbulakshmi as they appear in ''Naya Sansar'' (1959), Hindi film]]
Sayee and Subbulakshmi, popularly known as '''Sayee–Subbulakshmi''', were two Indian female [[Bharatanatyam]] dancers who performed on stage in South Indian and Hindi films. They were a ''twin dance'' duo and were popular during the 1950s and 60s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/vintage-heritage-club-to-pay-tributes-to-four-legendary-dancers/articleshow/59233561.cms |title=Vintage Heritage Club to pay tributes to four legendary dancers |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=20 June 2017 |accessdate=25 November 2017 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20171125052114/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/vintage-heritage-club-to-pay-tributes-to-four-legendary-dancers/articleshow/59233561.cms |archivedate=25 November 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> They were noted for their synchronised dancing. They also performed Kathak and folk style dances in some regional language films and Hindi films.

==Family==
They hail from a very large family whose members are well connected to the film industry. They are the descendants of Panrutti Adhilakshmi fondly called "Panrutti Ammal", mother of [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] singers P. A. Rajamani and [[P. A. Periyanayaki]], who were popularly known as the ''Madras Sisters'' (Not to be confused with the Madras Sisters (Sashi, Kala, and Mala). They had also featured in Tamil films in various roles. P. A. Periyanayaki was also known as a [[playback singer]]. ''Lux soap beauty'' R. Padma, who featured in the 1941 comedy film ''[[Sabapathy]]'' is the mother-in-law of Sayee.
Sayee is the daughter of P.A.Rajamani and Subbulakshmi is P.A.Rajamani's maternal first cousin.

('''Note:''' Sayee is said to be the daughter of P. A. Rajamani and Subbulakshmi, who is 3 years older to Sayee, is her cousin. This could not be confirmed. However, both of them are closely related and belong to the same extended family.)

==Dance training==
[[File:Sayee muthuswami subbulakshmi.jpg|thumb|right|Sayee (L) Guru Muthuswami Pillai, Subbulakshmi]]
[[Muthuswamy Pillai]] is a dance teacher<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://tamil.thehindu.com/cinema/cinema-others/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%88-%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88/article9503035.ece |title=Thirai Nadanam -Kaala Chulatchiyil Nadana Kalai |trans-title=Art of Dancing in changing times |language=Tamil |website=The Hindu |date=27 January 2017 |accessdate=25 November 2017}}</ref> who has choreographed dances for films since 1938. [[P. A. Periyanayaki]] approached Muthuswami Pillai when he was choreographing a dance for [[B. S. Saroja]] in the film ''[[Inbavalli]]'' at Salem Ratna Studios. She requested him to train her niece Sayee and her cousin Subbulakshmi in dancing. Muthuswami Pillai accepted. He stayed with the family so that he could give exclusive training to the two. Sayee was about 5 years old at that time and Subbulakshmi was 3 years older. He made both watch dance performances by [[Kumari Kamala]].

The two girls had a rigorous training - 3 hours in the morning and another 3 or 4 hours in the evening. Muthusami Pillai trained them for 7 years in between his film assignments. He took classes whenever he was in town.

Sayee and Subbulakshmi were trained in Kathak dance by Gopi Krishna, who was a dancer and the choreographer for the famed Hindi film ''[[Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baaje]]''.

==Arangetram and Introduction to films==
Sayee and Subbulakshmi had their [[Arangetram (dance)|Arangetram]] on 14 September 1953 at R. R. Sabha Hall in Chennai presided over by [[M. A. Muthiah Chettiar|Rajah Sir M. A. Muthaiah Chettiar]].

Within a year they had their first performance in the 1954 film ''[[Malaikkallan]]''. The film was produced in 6 languages that opened opportunities far and wide for this dancing duo.

Apart from dancing, they have also featured in minor roles in some of the films they danced in.

Since 1954, they have performed in many South Indian regional films and Hindi films.

==Bharatanatyam performances==
They held stage performances as well. When [[Sivaji Ganesan]] built a new house ''Annai Illam'' at Thiyagaraya Nagar in Chennai, the Bharatanatyam performance by Sayee and Subbulakshmi was the main item during reception.

==Style of dancing==
[[File:Sayee subbulakshmi malaikkallan.jpg|thumb|right|''murumandi'' (half-seated) position in dance from the film ''[[Malaikkallan]]'']]
The duo were felicitated by [[N. S. Krishnan]] as ''Pambara Sahodarigal'' (Spinning top sisters). The speed, precision, flexibility, springing leg movements coupled with the synchronisation made them a unique pair.

==Dance Teacher==
After the 1960s, the trend in Indian films underwent a radical change and the type of dances performed by this duo went unnoticed. Subbulakshmi taught Bharatanatyam to students. She was felicitated with the [[Kalaimamani]] award in 2000 for her services as a teacher.

==Personal life==
Sayee was married to V. S. Santaram, eldest son of ''Lux beauty'' R. Padma. They have a son. Sayee suffered from breast cancer and died on 26 January 2010.

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Language
! Song(s) performed
! Notes
|-
| 1954 || ''[[Malaikkallan]]'' || Tamil || “Neeli Magan Nee Allava”; “O Amma O Ayya” || Dance sequence
|-
| 1954 || ''[[Aggi Ramudu]]'' || Telugu || “Rara Yasoda Nandana”; “Paalaveroy” || Dance
|-
| 1954 || ''[[Ratha Kanneer]]'' || Tamil || “Kathavai Saathadi” || Dance
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Azaad (1955 film)|Azaad]]'' || Hindi || “Aplam Chaplam”; “O Balliye Balliye” || Famous dance number
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Doctor Savithri]]'' || Tamil || “Naayagar Patchamadi” || Dance
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Gomathiyin Kaadhalan]]'' || Tamil || Dance sequence || Stage dance
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Jayasimha (1955 film)|Jayasimha]]'' || Telugu || Court dance sequence || Rare appearance
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Donga Ramudu (1955 film)|Donga Ramudu]]'' || Telugu || Festival dance || Rare appearance
|-
| 1955 || ''[[Mangaiyar Thilakam]]'' || Tamil || Stage dance || Rare appearance
|-
| 1956 || ''[[Alibabavum 40 Thirudargalum (1956 film)|Alibabavum 40 Thirudargalum]]'' || Tamil || “Naama Aaduvadhum Paaduvadhum” || Dance
|-
| 1956 || ''[[Chori Chori (1956 film)|Chori Chori]]'' || Hindi || “Man Bhawan Ke Ghar” || Dance
|-
| 1956 || ''[[Thaikkupin Tharam]]'' || Tamil || “Naadu Sezhithida” || Dance
|-
| 1956 || ''[[Madurai Veeran]]'' || Tamil || Temple dance sequence || Rare appearance
|-
| 1956 || ''[[Kudumba Vilakku]]'' || Tamil || Dance sequence || Rare appearance
|-
| 1957 || ''[[Karpukkarasi]]'' || Tamil || “Vizhiyodu Vilaiyaadum” || Dance
|-
| 1957 || ''[[Makkalai Petra Magarasi]]'' || Tamil || “Malliyakka Malliyakka Engadi Pora” || Dance
|-
| 1957 || ''[[Sharada (1957 film)|Sharada]]'' || Hindi || “Joru Ka Ghulam” || Dance
|-
| 1957 || ''[[Mahadevi]]'' || Tamil || Court dance || Rare appearance
|-
| 1957 || ''[[Panduranga Mahatyam]]'' || Telugu || Devotional dance || Rare appearance
|-
| 1958 || ''[[Mangalya Bhagyam]]'' || Tamil || “Nenjathile Achcham” || Dance
|-
| 1958 || ''[[Periya Kovil]]'' || Tamil || “Aathaadi Thallaadha Thaathaavai” || Dance
|-
| 1958 || ''[[Nadodi Mannan]]'' || Tamil || Dance troupe appearance || Rare appearance
|-
| 1959 || ''[[Kan Thiranthathu]]'' || Tamil || “Panam Kaasu Padaichaale” || Dance
|-
| 1959 || ''[[Orey Vazhi]]'' || Tamil || “Kalvi Kalvi Endru Paadu” || Dance
|-
| 1959 || ''[[President Panchatcharam]]'' || Tamil || “Oli Padaitha Kanninaayi” || Dance
|-
| 1959 || ''[[Sivagangai Seemai]]'' || Tamil || “Muthu Pugazh Padaitthu” || Dance
|-
| 1959 || ''[[Veerapandiya Kattabomman]]'' || Tamil || Court dance troupe || Rare appearance
|-
| 1961 || ''[[Sati Sulochana]]'' || Telugu || “Jai Jai Jai Meghanaadhaa” || Dance
|-
| 1963 || ''[[Arivaali]]'' || Tamil || “Vaazhiya Needoozhi” || Dance
|-
| 1963 || ''[[Bharosa]]'' || Hindi || “Dhadka Ho Dil Dhadka Guzra Gali Se” || Dance
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite web |url=http://cinemanrityagharana.blogspot.in/2013/10/sayee-and-subbulakshmis-film-industry.html |title=Sayee and Subbulakshmi's Film-industry Relatives |date=5 October 2013 |publisher=Cinema Nritya Gharana |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610053702/http://cinemanrityagharana.blogspot.in/2013/10/sayee-and-subbulakshmis-film-industry.html |archivedate=10 June 2017}}
*{{Cite web |url=http://cinemanrityagharana.blogspot.in/2013/09/muthuswami-pillais-star-students-sayee.html |title=Muthuswami Pillai's Star Students |date=24 September 2013 |publisher=Cinema Nritya Gharana |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610054105/http://cinemanrityagharana.blogspot.in/2013/09/muthuswami-pillais-star-students-sayee.html |archivedate=10 June 2017}}
*{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2002/sep/09dinesh.htm |title=Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baaje (1955) |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120907134047/http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2002/sep/09dinesh.htm |archivedate=7 September 2012 |url-status=dead}}
*{{Cite web |url=http://roughinhere.wordpress.com/2008/10/24/sai-subbulaxmi/ |title=Dances on the Footpath |publisher=Richard S. |date=24 October 2008 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20170610054654/https://roughinhere.wordpress.com/2008/10/24/sai-subbulaxmi/ |archivedate=10 June 2017 |url-status=dead}}

==External links==
*{{youTube|sIUqh5dnbcE|Neeli Magan}} - Their First film dance in [[Malaikkallan]]. Bharatanatyam based.
*{{youTube|bTZWtTyevtc|Dhadka Ho Dil Dhadka Guzra Gali Se}} - From the film [[Bharosa]]. Kathak based.

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sayee-Subbulakshmi}}
[[Category:Indian female classical dancers]]
[[Category:Indian film choreographers]]
[[Category:Indian women choreographers]]
[[Category:Indian choreographers]]
[[Category:Dance duos]]
[[Category:Indian women playback singers]]
[[Category:Women artists from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women singers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dancers]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Bharatanatyam dancers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women artists]]
[[Category:Dancers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian dance groups]]

Zamindars of Bihar

2026-03-10T21:31:32Z

Davidmam: put up a stub

{{pp|small=yes}}
{{short description|Autonomous chiefs in the Mughal Suba of Bihar}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
[[File:Political map of the Subah of Bihar in 1650 CE.png|thumb|Political map of the Subah of Bihar in 1650 CE showing the main chieftaincies/zamindaris in the region|350px]]
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = Tekari Maharaj Mitrajeet Singh, 1763 - 1840 AD.JPG |caption1= Maharaja Mitrajeet Singh of [[Tekari Raj]]
| image2 = Rai Hari Prasad Lal Gaya.jpg|caption2= Rai Hariprasad Lal of Gaya
| image3 = Koer Singh, watercolour on ivory, c. 1857.png |caption3= [[Kunwar Singh]] of the [[Jagdishpur estate]]
| image4 = Maharaja Lakshmeshwar Singh, 1888.jpg|caption4=Maharaja [[Lakshmeshwar Singh]] of [[Raj Darbhanga]] in 1888.
}}

The '''Zamindars of Bihar''' were the autonomous rulers and administrators of the [[Bihar Subah]] during [[Mughal Empire|Mughal rule]] and later during [[British Raj|British rule]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=McLane |first=John R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YH6ijJnUPmcC&q=zamindari+system |title=Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal |date=25 July 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52654-8 |language=en}}</ref> They formed the [[landed aristocracy]] that lasted until Indian independence in 1947.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zamindar {{!}} Definition, System, & Mughal Empire {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/zamindar |access-date=9 July 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The zamindars of Bihar were numerous and could be divided into small, medium and large depending on how much land they controlled.<ref name="Singh2012">{{cite book|author=Lata Singh|title=Popular Translations of Nationalism: Bihar, 1920–1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8jCrDbHtIMC&pg=PA5|year=2012|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-13-9|pages=5–7}}</ref> Within Bihar, the zamindars had both economic and military power. Each zamindari would have its own standing army which was typically composed of the zamindar's own clansmen.{{sfn|Ansari|2019|p=2}}

The majority of these [[zamindars]] usually belonged to Hindu communities such as [[Bhumihar]]s, [[Rajput]]s, [[Brahmin]]s, [[Kayastha]]s or [[Muslims]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jha |first1=Hetukar |title=Lower-Caste Peasants and Upper-Caste Zamindars in Bihar (1921–1925): An Analysis of Sanskritization and Contradiction between the Two Groups |journal=The Indian Economic and Social History Review |date=1 October 1977 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=549–559 |doi=10.1177/001946467701400404 |s2cid=143558861 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001946467701400404?journalCode=iera |accessdate=28 March 2019|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==History==
===Mughal period===
Mughal rule in Bihar was characterised as turbulent and volatile as many of the region's zamindars made continuous efforts to defy the imperial authority. Unlike the Zamindars of neighbouring [[Bengal Subah]] who had experienced a reduction in their rights and powers, the zamindars of Bihar maintained increased autonomy with "fickle loyalties towards the Government".<ref name="Chatterjee1996">{{cite book|author=Kumkum Chatterjee|title=Merchants, Politics, and Society in Early Modern India: Bihar, 1733–1820|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUeqQ2buQ80C&pg=PA31|year=1996|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-10303-1|pages=31–32}}</ref>

The nineteenth-century British [[Civil service|civil servant]], [[John Beames]] noted about Mughal-ruled Bihar that "everyone who was powerful enough to rob the state or his neighbours, robbed to his heart's content".<ref name="Prakash2003">{{cite book|author=Gyan Prakash|title=Bonded Histories: Genealogies of Labor Servitude in Colonial India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQFvks7lahoC&pg=PA88|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52658-6|pages=88–90}}</ref> Zamindars refusing to pay the state and gathering forces to attack neighbouring zamindars was a common practice in Bihar during this period.<ref name="Prakash2003" /> In a report to the Patna Committee of Revenue, the then Naib Dewan of Bihar, Shitab Rai, had admitted that due to the declining state of the empire in the late seventeenth century, the zamindars had become practically independent of the Mughals.{{sfn|Ansari|2019|p=207}}

This attitude to authority continued into the period when the [[Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad]] became the nominal governors of Bihar. Although Bihar had the potential to provide a large amount of revenue and tax, records show that the Nawabs were unable to extract any money from the chiefs of Bihar until 1748. And even following this, the amount gained was very low. This was again due to the rebellious nature of the zamindars who were "continually in arms".<ref name="Marshall">{{cite book|author=P. J. Marshall|title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740–1828|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C|date= 2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-02822-6|pages=58–60}}</ref>

===Colonia-era===
{{See also|1781 revolt in Bihar}}
After the collapse of the Mughal empire, the [[British East India Company]] held sway over much of [[South Asia]].<ref name="Marshall2006">{{cite book|author=P. J. Marshall|title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740–1828|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&pg=PA95|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-02822-6|pages=95–}}</ref> The colonial power wanted the revenue system "to be simple in its principle and uniform in its operation," but the [[Zamindar|zamindari system]] was so ingrained that even the early British rulers, from the grant of [[Dewan]]i (1765) to the [[Permanent Settlement]] (1793), dared not challenge it fundamentally. The early British rulers did not want any "innovation" or "experimentation," even if the zamindars, taluqdars, and many estates were defaulters to the government for not paying the raised land fee. This was because such a radical measure would have violated the 'customary' rights and privilege.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shukla |first=P.K. |date=1996 |title=The Zamindars of North Bihar During the Early British Rule (1765–1793) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44133355 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=57 |pages=507 |jstor=44133355 |issn=2249-1937 }}</ref> Some of the zamindars took part in a revolt against the British in 1781 following on from a revolt led by the Maharaja of [[Benares State|Benares]], however, this was swiftly put down.<ref>{{cite book |last1=James Marshall |first1=Peter |title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740-1828 |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521028226 |page=96 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&q=bengal+the+british+bridgehead}}</ref>
[[File:Behar - "The Dancing Horse".png|thumb|19th century painting depicting a soldier for a zamindar in Bihar]]
With the exception of a few new men here and there, the old landed nobility formed the social cornerstone of the new establishment in 1793. One could claim that the early British emperors were dependent on a customary class of upper caste [[Aristocracy|aristocrats]]. Since the majority of zamindars involved in estate [[auction]]s were [[Brahmin]]s or members of upper caste families, [[Warren Hastings|Hastings]] was against the open selling of estates and instead supported giving them a higher position in the rural power structure. The zamindars of [[Bihar]] seem to have suffered far less than the old zamindars of [[Bengal]] and [[Odisha|Orissa]], who suffered considerably. The [[Raj Darbhanga|Darbhanga Raj]], the [[Hathwa Raj]], the [[Tekari Raj]], the [[Bettiah Raj ]], and the [[Dumraon Raj|Dumraon]] families in [[Shahabad district|Shahabad]] were among the prominent zamindars of Bihar who enjoyed prosperity.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Shukla |first=P.K. |date=1996 |title=The Zamindars of North Bihar During the Early British Rule (1765–1793) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44133355 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=57 |pages=508–509 |jstor=44133355 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

The goal behind the establishment of the revenue farms in [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] and [[Bihar]] was to obtain the highest possible share of the net produce and then fix it for all time under the Permanent Settlement. The colonial authority began to require the zamindars in place, including those who were established as landowners for all time, to make a regular, ongoing payment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shukla |first=P.K. |date=1996 |title=The Zamindars of North Bihar During the Early British Rule (1765–1793) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44133355 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=57 |pages=513 |jstor=44133355 |issn=2249-1937 }}</ref>

==Social condition in Zamindari areas==
The [[Permanent Settlement]] act by the British East India Company did not significantly alter the landholding patterns in Bihar, leaving Rajputs and Bhumihars as the major ''Zamindars''. It curtailed some of their powers, but also took away the customary occupancy rights of the peasantry.<ref name="Damodaran1992" />

The British rule enabled Rajputs to continue their dominance by cementing their entitlements related to land and tax collection.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jaffrelot |first1=Christophe |title=The Rise of the Other Backward Classes in the Hindi Belt |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=2000 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=86–108 |doi=10.2307/2658585 |jstor=2658585 |s2cid=162845558 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658585 |issn=0021-9118 |quote=But the upper castes remained politically dominant in the Hindi belt also because of the pattern of land ownership that enabled them, especially the Rajputs, to consolidate their grasp over the countryside as zamindars, jagirdars, or taluqdars under the British and to retain some of their influence in spite of the efforts toward land reform after 1947.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Exercise of coercive power by the dominant castes<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=F. G. |title=Tribe Caste and Nation |date=1960 |publisher=Oxford University Press. |pages=258 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.504813/ |quote=The system works the way it does because the coercive sanctions are all in the hands of the dominant caste.}}</ref> over the vulnerable landless labourers took various forms such as forced labour, higher rents, lower wages, social restrictions, evictions and sexual harassment.<ref name="Damodaran1992" />{{rp|75|quote=Control of landless labour through coercive means added a new dimension to an older relationship}} [[Rape]] of women from lower caste by Rajput and Bhumihar landowners was common in the [[Shahabad district]],<ref name="Damodaran1992">{{cite book | author = Vinita Damodaran | date = 1992 | title = Broken Promises: Popular Protest, Indian Nationalism, and the Congress Party in Bihar, 1935–1946 | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = 75| isbn = 978-0-19-562979-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rNa1AAAAIAAJ|quote=The rape of lower-caste women by Rajput and Bhumihar landowners was common in Shahabad where, by the 1930s, anger and resentment against the frequent violation of women were openly expressed on the platform of the Tribeni Sangh}}</ref> particularly in a couple of villages of [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur]] (modern name for Shahabad district), where sexual desire of the upper-castes was satisfied through arrogant and unrestricted access to the modesty of women belonging to [[Chamar]] and [[Musahar]] caste.<ref name="SharmaSinghKumar1994">{{cite book | author1 = Kaushal Kishore Sharma | author2 = Prabhakar Prasad Singh | author3 = Ranjan Kumar | date = 1994 | title = Peasant Struggles in Bihar, 1831–1992: Spontaneity to Organisation | publisher = Centre for Peasant Studies | pages = 247| isbn = 9788185078885 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8tBHAAAAMAAJ|quote=According to them, before the emergence of Naxalism on the scene and consequent resistance on the part of these hapless fellows, "rape of lower caste women by Rajput and Bhumihar landlords used to cause so much anguish among the lower cates, who, owing to their hapless situation, could not dare oppose them. In their own words, "within the social constraints, the suppressed sexual hunger of the predominant castes often found unrestricted outlet among the poor, lower caste of Bhojpur-notably Chamars and Mushars.}}</ref><ref name="Franco2002">{{cite book | author = Fernando Franco | date = 2002 | title = Pain and Awakening: The Dynamics of Dalit Identity in Bihar, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh | publisher = Indian Social Institute | isbn = 9788187218463 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ueRtAAAAMAAJ|quote=Even as late as the 1970s, the rape of lower caste women by Rajputs and Bhumihars had almost become a tradition, 'an accepted social evil, a fate which many bore unquestioningly', in parts of central Bihar|page=52}}</ref> Emerging organisations of middle peasant castes like [[Triveni Sangh]]<ref name="Damodaran1992" /> and [[Kisan Sabha (1919-1922)|Kisan Sabha]]s took up the issues of exploitation,<ref name="UN">{{cite book |last=Kelkar |first=Govind |chapter=Women and Land Rights Movements |title=Case Studies on Strengthening Co-ordination Between Non-governmental Organizations and Government Agencies in Promoting Social Development |publisher=United Nations (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) |year=1989 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-s9SIp1-OsC&pg=PA73 |at=Sec. "Kisan Sabha and Kisan Samiti: Peasant Movements and Women (India)", pp.  72–73}}</ref> with the [[Naxalism|Naxal threat]] also acting as a check.<ref name="SharmaSinghKumar1994" />

==Abolition and decline in political presence of Zamindars==

Following independence in 1947, there was large-scale support in Bihar for the abolition of [[zamindari]] especially among [[peasants]], agricultural labourers and the urban middle-class who stood to gain the most from this.<ref name="KHarihar2018">{{cite book|author1=Mitra Subrata K|author2=Bhattacharyya Harihar|title=Politics And Governance In Indian States: Bihar, West Bengal And Tripura|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDRPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155|date= 2018|publisher=World Scientific Publishing Company|isbn=978-981-320-824-7|pages=155–158}}</ref> This culminated in a large-scale movement in support of abolition led by lower-castes. The [[Bhumihar]] zamindars realised that abolition was going to occur and planned for abolition to be on their terms.<ref name="KHarihar2018" /> However, the [[Rajput]]-[[Kayastha]] zamindars strongly resisted this.
Eventually, the Bihar Abolition of Zamindaris Act was passed in 1949.<ref name="KHarihar2018" /> "The abolition of the zamindari system had a profound impact on the social landscape. Many upper-caste zamindars, who had long held power and privilege, were stripped of their land and influence. Meanwhile, descendants of [[Kayastha]] zamindars, who had historically wielded significant local influence, adapted to the new political landscape by engaging in local [[Panchayati raj|panchayat]] politics. This shift allowed them to maintain their influence and shape the destiny of their communities, fostering a new era of grassroots leadership and social change."{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

In the later period of time, when the abolition of Zamindari took place in Bihar and the castes like [[Yadav]], [[Kurmi]], [[Koeri|Koiri]] and [[Bhumihar]] became the prime movers of the emerging capitalist agriculture system of central Bihar. The new semi-feudal social order brought unintended benefits for these caste groups in which the question of dignity and minimum wages came to the fore. The [[Green Revolution]] further benefited these communities.<ref name="Ashwani2008">{{cite book |first=Ashwani |last=Kumar |title=Community Warriors: State, Peasants and Caste Armies in Bihar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=num2I4NFGqIC&pg=PA94 |year=2008 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-709-8 |pages=94 }}</ref> Hence, in later periods, many landed Other Backward Castes also emerged as zamindars, primarily from a group called [[Upper Backward Castes]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LP4sAQAAIAAJ&q=ahir+zamindar |title=The National Geographical Journal of India |date=1975 |publisher=National Geographical Society of India. |language=en}}</ref>

Prior to the independence of India, many [[Forward Castes|forward caste]] Zamindars like [[Kayastha]] & [[Brahmin]] zamindars started taking interest in politics, and they also participated in the [[Quit India Movement]], anticipating the end of British rule, which protected them. According to DM Diwakar, a former director of Patna's ''AN Sinha Institute of Social Sciences'', these feudal elites had a significant presence in the politics of the state in the first few decades of the post-independence period, but they started losing this significant position in the 1970s. In the first tenure of [[Nitish Kumar]], they staged a comeback in the politics of state, but in the next tenures, they were completely marginalised and according to Diwakar, were converted into "silent onlookers" by 2020.<ref name="HT">{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bihar-election/bihar-assembly-election-2020-royal-zamindar-families-remain-a-marginal-force/story-bYa1K4rEBWaDenzOtcOksO.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710063349/https://www.hindustantimes.com/bihar-election/bihar-assembly-election-2020-royal-zamindar-families-remain-a-marginal-force/story-bYa1K4rEBWaDenzOtcOksO.html|archive-date=10 July 2022|url-status=live |title=Bihar Assembly Election 2020: Royal, zamindar families remain a marginal force|website=Hindustan Times|date=23 October 2020 |accessdate=10 July 2022}}</ref>

==Notable zamindari estates==
Notable zamindaris and principalities in Bihar include:{{sfn|Ansari|2019|p=2}}
*[[Deo Raj]]
*[[Hathwa Raj]]
*[[Tekari Raj]]
*[[Bettiah Raj]]
*[[Kharagpur Raj]]
*[[Jagdishpur estate]]
*[[Dumraon Raj]]
*[[Raj Darbhanga]]
*[[Chero dynasty|Cheros of Palamu]]
*[[Gidhaur chieftaincy]]
*[[Khokhra Chieftaincy]]

==See also==
* [[Indian feudalism]]
* [[Indian honorifics]]
* [[Jagirdar]]
* [[Ghatwals and Mulraiyats]]
* [[Thakur (title)|Thakur]]
* [[Zamindars of Bengal]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
==Sources==
** {{cite book |last1=Ansari |first1=Tahir Hussain |title=Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar |publisher=Routledge |date=2019|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ&q=mughal+administration+and+the+zamindars+of+bihar|isbn=9781000651522}}

[[Category:Zamindars of Bihar| ]]
[[Category:History of Bihar]]
[[Category:Zamindari estates]]
[[Category:Mughal Empire]]

Nabha State

2026-03-09T13:16:29Z

Davidmam: minor cleanup

{{Short description|Phulkian princely state of Punjab during the British Raj in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox Former Subdivision
| conventional_long_name = Nabha State
| common_name = Nabha
| nation = British India
| status_text = Princely State
| era = New Imperialism
| year_start = 1763
| date_start =
| event_start =
| year_end = 1947
| date_end =
| event_end = Accession to the Dominion of India
| event1 =
| date_event1 =
| p1 = Mughal Empire
| s1 = Dominion of India
| flag_p1 =
| flag_s1 = Flag of India.svg
| image_flag = Nabha flag.svg
| image_coat =
| image_map = Ludhiana District 1911.png
| image_map_caption = Nabha State in a 1911 map of [[Ludhiana district]]
| stat_area1 = 2502
| stat_year1 = 1901
| stat_pop1 = 297,949
| today = [[Haryana]], [[Punjab, India]]
| footnotes =
| p2 = Phulkian Misl
}}'''Nabha State''',<ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V18_277.gif Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 18, p. 271.]</ref> with its capital at [[Nabha]], was one of the [[Phulkian]] [[princely state]]s of [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]] during the [[British Raj]] in India.<ref name="EB1911">{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Nabha |volume=19 |page=147}}</ref> This state was ruled by [[Jats]] [[Sidhu]] clan belonging to [[Sikhs|Sikh]] religion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bates |first=Crispin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xZBDwAAQBAJ&q=Jat |title=Mutiny at the Margins: New Perspectives on the Indian Uprising of 1857: Volume I: Anticipations and Experiences in the Locality |date=2013-03-26 |publisher=SAGE Publishing India |isbn=978-81-321-1589-2 |language=en}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}

== History ==
{{Expand section|date=February 2023}}

=== Origin ===
[[File:Detail of the main, continuous tract of territory of Nabha State from a map created by the British East India Company of the Malwa region of Punjab showing the various polities, borders, and settlements of the area, ca.1829–1835.jpg|thumb|Detail of the main, continuous tract of territory of Nabha State from a map created by the British East India Company, ca.1829–1835 (the state also held many exclave territories that can be seen in the full-map).]]
The state originated as one of the many chiefdoms the Sikhs had established in the former Mughal province of Delhi after the collapse of Mughal and Afghan authority in the region.<ref name=":05">{{Cite book |last=Grewal |first=J. S. |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab |date=Oct 8, 1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521637640 |pages=88–96 |chapter=Rise to Political Power}}</ref> The ruling house of Nabha belonged to the [[Phulkian sardars|Phulkian dynasty]], sharing a common ancestor named Tiloka with the [[Jind State|Jind]] rulers. Tiloka (r. 1652–1687) was the eldest son of Phul Sidhu of the [[Phulkian dynasty]].{{Efn|Tiloka's personal name is alt. latinized as 'Tilokha'.}}<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Truhart |first=Peter |title=Regents of Nations: Asia, Australia-Oceania, Part 2 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2017 |isbn=9783111616254 |edition=Reprint |pages=1398}}</ref> The Nabha rulers descend from Gurditta (Gurdit Singh; r. 1687–1754), the elder son of Tiloka.<ref name=":14" /> Gurditta was the founder of the localities of [[Dhanaula]] and [[Sangrur]]. Sangrur was the headquarters of the state till it was captured by [[Jind State]]. Gurditta died in 1754.<ref name=":14" /> His only son Surat (or Suratya) Singh had died two years earlier in 1752, leaving his grandson, Hamir Singh, as the next in line.<ref name=":14" /> Hamir Singh was the founder of the locality of [[Nabha]] and the first ruler of Nabha State.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Bhagat |title=A History of the Sikh Misals |publisher=Publication Bureau, Punjabi University |year=1993 |chapter=Chapter 14 - The Phulkian Misl}}</ref>

=== Foundation of the locality and state ===
The locality of Nabha was founded by Hamir Singh of the Phulkian dynasty in 1755, whilst the state itself was founded slightly after in 1763 by Hamir Singh.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Nabha {{!}} Princely State, Maharaja, Punjab {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nabha |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The state at that period of time was composed of twelve scattered territories.<ref name=":1" /> Hamir Singh died in 1783 and was succeeded by Jaswant Singh.<ref name=":14" /> However, a regency was in-place between 1783–1790.<ref name=":14" /> Jaswant Singh assumed full control on 1790 and ruled until 1840.<ref name=":14" />

=== Alliance with the British ===
Between 1807 and 1808, the ruler of Nabha was afforded British protection from the threat posed by [[Ranjit Singh]] and his encroaching [[Sikh Empire|Lahore State]].<ref name=":1" />

During the [[First Anglo-Sikh War|First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)]], due to Raja Davinder Singh’s sympathy with the [[Sikh Empire]], one-fourth of Nabha State's territory, including areas such as [[Rori Assembly constituency|Rori]] pargana<ref name=":2">[https://sirsa.gov.in/history/# History of Sirsa gov]</ref> & others, was taken by the British. Raja Davinder Singh was removed from power, and his seven-year-old son, Bharpur Singh, was placed on the throne under British supervision. Some of the annexed territory from the state was given to [[Patiala State]] and [[Faridkot State]], while the rest was placed under direct British administration in [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]].<ref name=":3">Source: Page no. - 342, [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.35241|Punjab State Gazetteers Vol. xvii A, Phulkian States, Patiala Jind And Nabha]]</ref><ref name=":4">Source: Page no.- 140, [[iarchive:HistoryOfTheSikhsVol.IvTheSikhCommonwealthOrRiseAndFallOfSikh|History Of The Sikhs Vol. IV The Sikh Commonwealth Or Rise And Fall Of Sikh Misls Hari ram gupta]]</ref><ref>Source: Page 328, [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.105552/page/n23/mode/2up|1908 Gazzetrs of India Punjab V. II Internet archive]]</ref>

Nabha State was loyal to the British during the Indian Mutiny of 1857 and earned the grant of [[Bawal]] territory as a reward.<ref name=":1" /> At the Ambala Darbar held in [[Ambala]] between 18–20 January 1860, a decision was made to exempt Nabha, Patiala, and Jind states from the [[Doctrine of lapse|doctrine-of-lapse]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chatterji |first=Prashanto K. |title=The Making of India Policy, 1853-65: A Study on the Relations of the Court of Directors, the India Board, the India Office, and the Government of India |publisher=University of Burdwan |year=1975 |isbn=9780883868188 |pages=152–153 |quote=Eventually, at the Ambala Durbar (18-20 January 1860), Canning himself promised the three chiefs Sanads, guaranteeing their possessions to themselves and their heirs and the right to adopt from the Phoolkan family whenever ...}}</ref> In 1911, Hira Singh took-on the ''[[maharaja]]'' title.<ref name=":14" /> [[Ripudaman Singh]] abdicated the throne of Nabha on 8 July 1923.<ref name=":14" />which led to the Jaito Morcha.

=== Dissolution ===
In the happenings of Indian independence in 1947, Nabha was one of the three Phulkian states that merged to become [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union|P.E.P.S.U.]], which itself was gradually merged into [[Punjab, India|Punjab state]] in 1956.

== State forces ==
The Nabha State Force consisted of a 500-strong infantry unit, including the Nabha Akal Infantry.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Nabha Administration: A Review of Recent Years |publisher=Council of Regency of Nabha State |year=1939 |pages=29 |chapter=X. Nabha State Forces}}</ref>

== List of rulers ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!{{Abbr|No.|Number}}
!Name
{{small|(Birth–Death)}}
!Portrait
! class="unsortable" |Reign
!Enthronement
!Ref.
|-
! colspan="6" |'''Sardars'''
|-
|1
|Hamir Singh {{Small|(died 1783)}}
|[[File:Painting of a nimbate Sardar Hamir Singh of Nabha holding a flower and leaning on a bolster.jpg|150x150px]]
|1763 – 1783
|?
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":14" />
|-
! colspan="6" |Rajas
|-
|2
|Jaswant Singh {{Small|(1775 – 22 May 1840)}}
|[[File:Miniature painting of Raja Jaswant Singh of Nabha seated and leaning against a bolster, inscribed in Perso-Arabic script.jpg|218x218px]]
|1783 – 1840
|?
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":14" />
|-
|3
|Devinder Singh {{Small|(5 September 1822 – 14/15 November 1865)}}
|[[File:Miniature painting of Raja Devinder Singh of Nabha seated on a chair.jpg|210x210px]]
|1840 – 1846
|15 October 1840
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":14" />
|-
|4
|Bharpur Singh {{Small|(5 October 1840 – 9 November 1863)}}
|[[File:Equestrian painting of a nimbate Raja Bharpur Singh of Nabha, containing Persian inscriptions on border.jpg|150x150px]]
|1846 – November 1863
|?
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":14" />
|-
|5
|Bhagwan Singh {{Small|(30 November 1842 – 31 May 1871)}}
|[[File:Photograph of Raja Bhagwan Singh of Nabha State.jpg|187x187px]]
|1863 – 1871
|17 February 1864
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":14" />
|-
! colspan="6" |Maharajas
|-
|6
|[[Hira Singh Nabha|Hira Singh]] {{Small|(19 December 1843 – 24 December 1911)}}
|[[File:Photograph of Raja Hira Singh (alt. spelt as 'Heera Singh') of Nabha State seated with sword and shield, by Bourne and Shepherd Studio, Shimla, July 1877.jpg|155x155px]]
|1871 – 1911
|10 August 1871
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":14" />
|-
|7
|[[Ripudaman Singh]] {{Small|(4 March 1883 – 14 December 1942)}}
|[[File:Photograph of Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha State, Bourne & Shepherd, 1903.jpg|195x195px]]
|1911 – 1923
|24 January 1912
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":14" />
|-
|8
|[[Pratap Singh Nabha|Pratap Singh]] {{Small|(21 September 1919 – 22 July 1995)}}
|[[File:Photograph captioned 'His Highness The Maharaja of Nabha' (Pratap Singh), Nabha State, ca.1939.jpg|242x242px]]
|1923 – 1948
|
|<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":14" />
|}

== Administration ==
In 1901, the state had an area of 966 square miles and included 4 towns and 492 villages. Administratively, the state was divided into the following three districts:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="8" |'''1901 State Administration'''
|-
!No
!District/Nizāmat
!Remark
![[Population|Pop.]]
![[area]]
![[Village|Vill.]]
![[Town|To]].
!Today
|-
|I
|[[Rampura Phul|Phul]] Nizāmat
|5 [[Enclave and exclave|enclaves]]
|37.4 %
|394
|228
|1
|[[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|-
|II
|[[Amloh]] Nizāmat
|2+ [[Enclave and exclave|enclaves]]
|38.6 %
|291
|96
|2
|[[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
|-
|III
|[[Bawal]] Nizāmat
|Gained in 1858; 3 southern [[Enclave and exclave|enclaves]]
|24 %
|281
|164
|1
|[[Haryana]]
|}

== Demographics ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Nabha State ([[British Punjab province]] era)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881A">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057656 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. I. |year=1881 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057657 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. II. |year=1881 |pages=14 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881C">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057658 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057658 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. III. |year=1881 |pages=14 }}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1891<ref name="Census1891">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25318669 |jstor=saoa.crl.25318669 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=The Punjab and its feudatories, part II--Imperial Tables and Supplementary Returns for the British Territory |year=1891 |pages=14 |last1=Edward Maclagan |first1=Sir |volume=2 }}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25363739 |jstor=saoa.crl.25363739 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. [Vol. 17A]. Imperial tables, I-VIII, X-XV, XVII and XVIII for the Punjab, with the native states under the political control of the Punjab Government, and for the North-west Frontier Province. |year=1901 |pages=34}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393788 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393788 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911 |pages=27}}</ref><ref name="Census1911B">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.62718 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census Of India 1911 Punjab Vol XIV Part II |year=1911 |pages=27 |author=Kaul, Harikishan}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921 |pages=29}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793242 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1931 |pages=277}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215541 |jstor=saoa.crl.28215541 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India, 1941. Vol. 6, Punjab |year=1941 |pages=42 |author1=India Census Commissioner |volume=6 }}</ref>
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931-1941: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| 133,571
| {{Percentage | 133571 | 261824 | 2 }}
| 164,905
| {{Percentage | 164905 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 160,553
| {{Percentage | 160553 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 126,414
| {{Percentage | 126414 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 133,870
| {{Percentage | 133870 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 132,354
| {{Percentage | 132354 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 146,518
| {{Percentage | 146518 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 77,682
| {{Percentage | 77682 | 261824 | 2 }}
| 63,047
| {{Percentage | 63047 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 78,361
| {{Percentage | 78361 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 76,198
| {{Percentage | 76198 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 78,389
| {{Percentage | 78389 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 97,452
| {{Percentage | 97452 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 122,451
| {{Percentage | 122451 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 50,178
| {{Percentage | 50178 | 261824 | 2 }}
| 54,397
| {{Percentage | 54397 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 58,550
| {{Percentage | 58550 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 46,032
| {{Percentage | 46032 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 50,756
| {{Percentage | 50756 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 57,393
| {{Percentage | 57393 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 70,373
| {{Percentage | 70373 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 375
| {{Percentage | 375 | 261824 | 2 }}
| 397
| {{Percentage | 397 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 476
| {{Percentage | 476 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 238
| {{Percentage | 238 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 278
| {{Percentage | 278 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 309
| {{Percentage | 309 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 480
| {{Percentage | 480 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 18
| {{Percentage | 18 | 261824 | 2 }}
| 10
| {{Percentage | 10 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 41
| {{Percentage | 41 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 66
| {{Percentage | 66 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 221
| {{Percentage | 221 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 261824 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 2
| {{Percentage | 2 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 261824 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! Others
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 261824 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 282756 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 297949 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 248887 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 263334 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 287574 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 340044 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 261,824
! {{Percentage | 261824 | 261824 | 2 }}
! 282,756
! {{Percentage | 282756 | 282756 | 2 }}
! 297,949
! {{Percentage | 297949 | 297949 | 2 }}
! 248,887
! {{Percentage | 248887 | 248887 | 2 }}
! 263,334
! {{Percentage | 263334 | 263334 | 2 }}
! 287,574
! {{Percentage | 287574 | 287574 | 2 }}
! 340,044
! {{Percentage | 340044 | 340044 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="15" | {{small|Note: [[British Punjab province]] era district borders are not an exact match in the present-day due to various bifurcations to district borders — which since created new districts — throughout the historic [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province region]] during the post-independence era that have taken into account population increases.}}
|}

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Photograph of Gurdwara Siropao Sahib in Nabha state, where historical Sikh relics and artefacts were kept for safe-keeping, published in Mahan Kosh (1930), ca.1920's.jpg|Photograph of Gurdwara Siropa Sahib in Nabha state, where historical Sikh relics and artefacts were kept for safe-keeping, published in Mahan Kosh (1930), {{circa}}1920s.
File:Photograph of the Hira Mahal building in Nabha state, published in Mahan Kosh (1930), ca.1920's.jpg|Photograph of the Hira Mahal building in Nabha state, published in Mahan Kosh (1930), {{circa}}1920s.
File:Imperial India; an artist's journals (1879) (14597378638).jpg|''[[Hira Singh Nabha|Sir Hira Singh]]'', Raja of Nabha
File:Photograph of Giani Gian Singh with Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha State and the child Pratap Singh of Nabha State, ca.1919–21.jpg|Photograph of [[Giani Gian Singh]] with Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha State and the child Pratap Singh of Nabha State, ca.1920–21
File:Genealogical pedigree (family-tree) of the ruling family of Nabha State, Punjab, revised pedigree-table (1940).jpg|Genealogical pedigree (family-tree) of the ruling family of Nabha State, Punjab, revised pedigree-table (1940)
</gallery>

==See also==

*[[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]]
*[[Political integration of India]]
* [[Phulkian sardars]]
* [[Patiala State]]
* [[Jind State]]
* [[Faridkot State]]
* [[Malaudh]]
* [[Bhadaur]]
* [[Kaithal State]]
* [[Cis-Sutlej states]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==

*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Princely states of India}}
{{Princely states of the Punjab and Simla Hills}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|30.37|N|76.15|E|region:IN_type:landmark_source:kolossus-svwiki|display=title}}

[[Category:1763 establishments in India]]
[[Category:1947 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Patiala district]]
[[Category:Nabha State| ]]
[[Category:Princely states of Punjab]]
[[Category:Phulkian dynasty]]

Bakrid (film)

2026-03-06T03:50:51Z

Davidmam: Adding new page w/ refs.

{{short description|2019 Indian drama film}}
{{for|the religious event|Eid al-Adha}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Bakrid
| image = Bakrid_Poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Release poster
| director = Jagadeesan Subu
| producer = MS Murugaraj
| writer =
| screenplay =
| starring = [[Vikranth]] [[Vasundhara]]
| music = [[D. Imman]]
| cinematography = Jagadeesan Subu
| editing = [[Ruben (film editor)|Ruben]]
| studio = M10 Productions
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|df=y|2019|8|23|}}
| runtime = 122 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| based_on =
}}

'''''Bakrid''''' is a 2019 Indian [[Tamil language]] [[drama film]] written and directed by Jagadeesan Subu. The film stars [[Vikranth]] and a camel called Sarah.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.samayam.com/tamil-cinema/movie-news/vasundhara-pair-to-vikrant-in-bakrid-movie/articleshow/65543568.cms|title='பக்ரீத்' படத்தில் விக்ராந்துக்கு ஜோடியான வசுந்தரா!|date=2018-08-25|website=samayam Tamil|language=ta|access-date=2018-12-27}}</ref> The film is the first Indian and Tamil film in [[Kollywood]] history to portray a camel in the pivotal role.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/250818/bakrid-story-of-a-mans-bond-with-a-camel.html|title=Bakrid, story of a man's bond with a camel|last=Subramanian|first=Anupama|date=2018-08-25|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en|access-date=2018-12-27}}</ref> The film was bankrolled by M10 Productions and the music composed by [[D. Imman]]. This film received positive reviews.

== Plot ==
Rathinam ([[Vikranth]]), a fledgling farmer in [[Tamil Nadu]], accidentally comes into possession of a camel calf. Charmed by the animal, Rathinam decides to keep him as a pet. With time, Rathinam realises that his humble home, despite all the affection showered, might not be the best place for a camel. To ensure the animal lives in his natural setting, he sets out on an unusual road trip to [[Rajasthan]].

== Cast ==
* [[Vikranth]] as Rathinam
* Sara as the camel
* [[Vasundhara Kashyap|Vasundhara]] as Geetha
* Rohit Pathak as Lorry driver
* [[Dinesh Prabhakar]] as Sundaram
* [[Swaminathan]] as Manimaran
* Mogli K. Mohan as Lorry driver's assistant
* Pasupathi Raj
* H. L. Shrutika as Vasuki
* Dakshayini as Radha
* Sethupathi Jayachandran as Arul
* [[Bose Venkat]] as Police Officer
* [[M. S. Bhaskar]] as Veterinarian (guest appearance)
* [[Vinoddh Bhandarri]] as Pondicherry saitt

== Production ==
The film was launched in late August 2018 and the shooting of the film commenced on 21 August 2018. The first look poster (which includes Vikranth sitting close to the camel) of the film was unveiled by music director [[Anirudh Ravichander]] through his [[Twitter]] account.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.moviecrow.com/News/21137/first-look-of-vikranths-bakrid|title=First Look of Vikranth's Bakrid|website=www.moviecrow.com|access-date=2018-12-27}}</ref> It was reported that Vikranth had signed for the film to play the lead role while he was shooting for his upcoming film, ''[[Suttu Pidikka Utharavu]]''. The plot of the film is mainly based on the camel's story, in fact it went onto become the first Indian film to feature camel in a prominent role. This is also the first kind of Indian film to reveal the exploration of the bond shared between a man and a camel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2018/aug/22/vikranths-next-bakrid-1860885.html|title=Vikranth's next, Bakrid|website=The New Indian Express|access-date=2018-12-27}}</ref> A camel named Sarah from the state of [[Rajasthan]] was chosen to cast it in lead role when the shooting took place in Rajasthan. It was revealed that Vikranth had training sessions with the camel for over two months in order to fit for the making of the film. Before the production of the film, the filmmakers received special permission from the Animal Welfare Board to shoot with a camel. The portions of the film were shot in [[Chennai]], [[Goa]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Maharashtra]]. [[Anthony L. Ruben]] was hired for the editing and the cinematography was handled by the director himself.<ref name=":0" />

== Marketing ==
The official [[Teaser campaign|teaser]] of the film was unveiled on 8 February 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=eVMYT1Ea63k|title=BAKRID Official Teaser - Vikranth, Vasundhara, Rohit Pathak - Jagadeesan Subu - D.Imman - Murugaraj|publisher=Star Music India|website=YouTube|date=8 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vikranths-bakrid-teaser-is-out/articleshow/67901745.cms|title=Vikranth's Bakrid teaser is out|website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.samayam.com/news-video/tamil-music-videos/tamil-movie-teasers-trailers/vikranth-vasundhara-bakrid-official-teaser/videoshow/67907505.cms|title=இந்தியா சினிமாவில் முதல் முறையாக ஒட்டகத்தை மையப்படுத்திய பக்ரீத் படத்தின் டிரைலர்!-tamil-music-videos-Video {{!}} Samayam Tamil|last=|first=|date=2019-02-08|website=tamil.samayam|language=ta|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Bakrid
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[D. Imman]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2019|5|17}}
| recorded = 2018–19
| venue =
| studio = D.Imman VGP Studios
| genre = [[Film soundtrack]]
| length = 32:25
| label = [[Star Music]]
| producer = D.Imman
| chronology = D.Imman
| prev_title = [[Kennedy Club]]
| prev_year = 2019
| year = 2019
| next_title = [[Namma Veettu Pillai]]
| next_year = 2019
| misc = {{External media
| audio1 = {{YouTube|KbTTkpet_1c|Audio Jukebox}}}}
}}

The soundtrack of the film is composed by [[D. Imman]], with lyrics by [[Gnanakaravel]] and [[Mani Amuthavan]].

{{Track listing
| headline = Track list
| total length = 32:25
| extra_column = Performer(s)
| title1 = Aalankuruvigalaa
| extra1 = [[Sid Sriram]]
| lyrics1 = Mani Amuthavan
| length1 = 4:06
| title2 = Lorry Lucky Lorry
| extra2 = Ashwin Sharma
| lyrics2 = Gnanakaravel
| length2 = 4:15
| title3 = Karadu Moradu Poove
| note3 = Male version
| extra3 = [[Narayanan Ravishankar]]
| lyrics3 = Gnanakaravel
| length3 = 4:44
| title4 = Endless Journe
| extra4 = Theme Music
| lyrics4 =
| length4 = 1:10
| title5 = Karadu Moradu Poove
| note5 = Female version
| extra5 = [[Punya Selva]]
| lyrics5 = Gnanakaravel
| length5 = 4:42
| title6 = Aalankuruvigalaa
| extra6 = Karaoke
| lyrics6 =
| length6 = 4:06
| title7 = Karadu Moradu Poove
| note7 = Joyful Version
| extra7 = Karaoke
| lyrics7 =
| length7 = 4:40
| title8 = Karadu Moradu Poove
| note8 = Sad Version
| extra8 = Karaoke
| lyrics8 =
| length8 = 4:42
| all_writing =
| title9 =
| length9 =
| title10 =
| length10 =
| total_length =
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=tt10731866}}

[[Category:2019 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2019 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Films shot in Goa]]
[[Category:Films shot in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films about camels]]
[[Category:Films scored by D. Imman]]
[[Category:2019 films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language drama films]]

Kavi Uddheshichathu..?

2026-03-03T20:36:52Z

Davidmam: cleaned up lead based on references per standard format

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kavi Uddheshichathu..?
| image =Kavi Uddheshichathu..? film poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Thomas Kutty & Liju Thomas<ref>{{cite web|last1=Muhammed|first1=Rafi|title=Kavi Udheshichathu movie review 2016 – Film Fever Media|url=http://www.filmfever.co.in/malayalam-movie-review-2016/kavi-udheshichathu-movie-review-2016/|website=Film Fever Media|accessdate=2 December 2016|archive-date=2 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202171643/http://www.filmfever.co.in/malayalam-movie-review-2016/kavi-udheshichathu-movie-review-2016/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| producer = [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] Sajin Jaffer
| writer = Thomas Kutty Martin Duro
| narrator = Dileep
| starring = [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] [[Biju Menon]] [[Narain (actor)|Narain]] [[Anju Kurian]] [[Saiju Kurup]]
| music = [[Jakes Bejoy]] Vinu Thomas
| cinematography = [[Shehnad Jalal]]
| screenplay = Thomas Kutty Martin Duro
| editing = Sunil S. Pilla
| studio = Adam's World Of Imagination
| distributor = Adam's Release
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2016|10|08}}
| runtime = 137 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Malayalam]]
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Kavi Uddheshichathu..?''''' ({{translation|The poet's intention..?
}}) is a 2016 Indian [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam sports film]] directed by duo Thomas Kutty Naduvil and Liju Thomas. It features [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]], [[Biju Menon]],[[Narain (actor)|Narain]] and [[Saiju Kurup]] in lead roles along with [[Anju Kurian]], [[Balu Varghese]], Abhishek Raveendran, [[Ganapathi S Poduval|Ganapathy]], [[Lena (actress)|Lena]] and [[Sija Rose]] in supporting roles. It is produced jointly by [[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] and Sajin Jaffer under the production Adam's World Of Imagination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/kavi-uddheshichathu-to-release-on-oct-8-news-malayalam-qj0j52ghaachj.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002160056/http://www.sify.com/movies/kavi-uddheshichathu-to-release-on-oct-8-news-malayalam-qj0j52ghaachj.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 October 2016|title=Kavi uddheshichathu to release on Oct-8|work=[[Sify]]|date=7 October 2016}}</ref> The soundtrack and background score for the film are composed by Jakes Bijoy and Vinu Thomas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/mollywood/260716/hit-pair-again.html|title=Hit pair again|date=26 July 2016}}</ref> The film was released on 8 October 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/news/2016/kavi-uddheshichathu-gets-a-release-date-242012.html|title=Kavi Uddheshichathu Gets a Release Date!|date=22 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/kavi-uddheshichathu-trailer-view-good-response.html|title = Home}}</ref>

==Plot==
Allimoola is noted for its passionate [[volleyball]] supporters and a great former history of players that is now only a memory. During each year's volleyball event, the villagers place secret bets on which team will win. Because of an event in their school days, Kavalam Jimmy ([[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]]) and Vattathil Bosco ([[Narain (actor)|Narain]]) are always at odds. In an impending yearly game, both of them stake their sisters for marriage. The entire community participates in the bet and organizes volleyball teams. Bosco employs Minnal Simon ([[Biju Menon]]), a pathological debtor with some early negligible experience in the sport, to coach Jimmy's team to failure. The police officer Jimmy had a fight with and was on bad terms with is the one Bosco chooses to lead his team. Bosco pays off Jimmy's university players in the finals, and Simon vows to demonstrate his integrity. Circumstances force Jimmy and his buddies to fill in for their squad, and they win the game using some methods from Simon's playbook. Bosco gets a hint from Jimmy's sister that she likes him and he is content. Jimmy ends up with Bosco's sister, with whom he had developed a sort of affection, while Simon departs with Gladys, Jimmy's Female sponsor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-reviews/kavi-uddheshichathu-malayalam-movie-review-asif-ali.html |title=കളി, ചിരി ഒരൽപം കാര്യം: ഉദ്ദേശിച്ചത് ഇത് |website=www.manoramaonline.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012030900/http://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-reviews/kavi-uddheshichathu-malayalam-movie-review-asif-ali.html |archive-date=2016-10-12}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Asif Ali (actor)|Asif Ali]] as Kavalathu Jimmy
**Surya Kiran as Young Jimmy
*[[Biju Menon]] as Minnal Simon
*[[Narain (actor)|Narain]] as Vattathil Bosco
**Abhinand as Young Vattathil Bosco
*[[Anju Kurian]] as Jasmine
**Merlin as Young Jasmine
*[[Saiju Kurup]] as DYSP Noble Jacob
*[[Lena (actress)|Lena]] as Gladys
*[[Balu Varghese]] as Karal
*[[Sudhi Koppa]] as Dineshan
*Benson as Aneesh
*Abhishek Raveendran as Charles
*[[Ganapathi S Poduval|Ganapathy]] as Sukoor
*Abhijith as Kunjan
*[[Bindu Panicker]] as Shosamma,Jimmy's Mother
*[[Sija Rose]] as Lillykutty
*[[Chithra Shenoy]] as Soosamma, Jasmine's Mother
*[[Bijukuttan]] as Joshy
*[[Dinesh Prabhakar]] as Peter,Jimmy's Brother in law
*Veena Nair as Mollykutty, Jimmy's Sister
*[[Pradeep Kottayam]] as Broker Kunjose
*[[Manoj Guinness]] as Ithilkanni
*[[Alexander Prasanth]] as Shaji
* Renesha Rahman as Crying Baby's Mother
*Akku Melparamb as Panchayat President
*[[Sasi Kalinga]] as Kannettan
*Balaji Sharma as Benny
*Arun Mash as Thel
*[[Alleppey Ashraf]] as Binukuttan
*KTC Abdulla as Umbayikka
*Gokulan as Pallath Balan
*[[Tom Joseph]] as himself
{{colend}}

== Production ==
After the success of their short film [[Ramaniyechiyude namathil|''Ramaniyechiyude Namathil'']], Liju Thomas and Thomas Kutty ventured into making this film. The film was shot in the picturesque area around [[Iritty]], Kannur. To achieve technical perfection, the creators gave detail attention to filming and editing the final climax scenes. Five cameras were used to film the game and 5000 spectators.{{cn|date=August 2022}}

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Kavi Uddheshichathu..?
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Jakes Bejoy Vinu Thomas
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2016|10|07}}
| recorded = 2016
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 13:27
| label = [[Muzik 247]]
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}
The original soundtrack was composed by Jakes Bejoy and Vinu Thomas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/Jakes-Bejoys-latest-songs-get-good-response/articleshow/54833459.cms|title = Jakes Bejoy's latest songs get good response – Times of India|website = [[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
{{Tracklist
| headline = Soundtrack
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 13:27
| title1 = Innaleyum
| lyrics1 = [[Rafeeq Ahammed]]
| extra1 = [[Arun Alat]]
| length1 = 3:03
| title2 = Nerunde Nerunde
| lyrics2 = Jyothish T Kasi
| extra2 = Suchith Suresan,Jakes Bejoy
| length2 = 3:27
| title3 = Kuyilin Paattinu
| lyrics3 = Jyothish T Kasi
| extra3 = [[P. Jayachandran]]
| length3 = 3:01
| title4 = Paisa Paisa
| lyrics4 = Jyothish T Kasi
| extra4 = Jakes Bejoy,Jaya Moorthy,TS Ayyappan
| length4 = 3:26
}}

== Release ==
The film started production in April 2016. ''Kavi Uddheshichathu..?'' released on 8 October 2016 in 73 screens across [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/mammoottys-thoppil-joppan-to-clash-at-box-office-with-mohanlals-pulimurguan-kavi-uddheshichathu-3044284/|title=Mammootty's Thoppil Joppan to clash at box office with Mohanlal's Pulimurguan, Kavi Uddheshichathu|date=22 September 2016|publisher=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref>

===Critical reception===
''[[Deccan Chronicle]]'' reviewer Elizabeth Thomas rated it 2.5/5 and stated: "The plot of Kavi Udeshichathu is hardly unique due to recent [[Karinkunnam 6'S]] film and it is not hard to guess the flow of events. However, the movie is not disappointing either".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/091016/kavi-udheshichathu-movie-review-watch-it-for-village-nostalgia.html|title = Kavi Udheshichathu movie review: Watch it for village nostalgia|date = 9 October 2016}}</ref> Nikhil of ''[[Malayala Manorama|Manorama Online]]'' says it a worth watchable flick with lot of fun. He praised the direction, casting and music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/kavi-uddheshichathu-trailer-view-good-response.html|title = Home}}</ref> Abhijith of Filmibeat.com rated it 3/5 and states: "Kavi Uddheshichathu is a decent entertainer that has its own moments".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/reviews/2016/kavi-uddheshichathu-movie-review/directed-by-thomas-liju-thomas-pf185813-243822.html|title=Kavi Uddheshichathu..? Movie Review: A Well-made Entertainer!|date=8 October 2016}}</ref>

=== Box office ===
The film completed 50 days at the Kerala box office and went on to become an average hit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/intl/?id=_fKAVIUDDHESHICHAT01&country=UK&wk=2016W42&id=_fKAVIUDDHESHICHAT01&p=.htm|title=Kavi Uddheshichathu..?|work=[[Box Office Mojo]]|date=14 October 2016}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|6117088}}

[[Category:2016 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian sports films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kannur]]
[[Category:Films scored by Jakes Bejoy]]
[[Category:Films scored by Vinu Thomas]]

Dhemaji

2026-02-22T06:14:42Z

Davidmam: fixed issues

{{About|the municipality in India|its namesake district|Dhemaji district}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Dhemaji
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = as
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Assam#India
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Assam, India
| coordinates = {{coord|27.48|N|94.58|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Assam]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Dhemaji district|Dhemaji]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Dhemaji Municipal Board
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 12
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 91
| population_total = 25,000(Estimated)
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 787057
| registration_plate = AS 22
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1000:915 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website = {{URL|https://dhemaji.gov.in}}
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-AS]]
| footnotes =
| official_name = Dhemaji Town
}}
'''Dhemaji''' is a town and the headquarters of the [[Dhemaji district]] in the state of [[Assam]], [[India]]. It is situated on the north bank of the [[Brahmaputra River]] and serves as an important administrative and commercial centre for the surrounding area. The town is known for its serene environment, traditional [[Culture of Assam|Assamese]] culture, and proximity to natural attractions like hills, rivers and forests.

==Etymology==
The district's name ''Dhemaji'' is derived from the Deori word ''Dema-ji'' which means ''great water'' indicating it to be a flood-prone region.<ref>Brown, W.B. ''An Outline of the Deori-Chutia language''. Assam secretariat printing office,1895, p. 70.</ref>

== Geography ==
Dhemaji is located at {{Coord|27.48|N|94.58|E|}}.<ref>
[https://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/03/Dhemaji.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Dhemaji]</ref> It has an average elevation of 91 metres (298 feet).
Dhemaji is located to the north of the river Brahmaputra. To its north lies the Arunachal Himalayas. To its east lies the state [[Arunachal Pradesh]] and to the west is [[Lakhimpur district|Lakhimpur]], a district of Assam. It has many large and small rivers flowing through it. Some of them are Jiadhal, Gainodi, Dikhari, Dihang, Dimow and Simen. The [[Subansiri River]] flows by its western border.

== History ==
The area of the present district was under the control of the [[Chutia Kingdom]] until it was annexed and made a part of [[Ahom kingdom]] in 1524. Ruins of the erstwhile capital are still there but not well preserved. A number of monuments Ghuguha Dol, Ma Manipuri Than, Padumani Than built by the several kings are worth visiting.

Dhemaji became a fully-fledged district on 14 October 1989, when it was split from [[Lakhimpur district]].<ref name="Statoids">{{cite web | url = http://www.statoids.com/yin.html | title = Districts of India | accessdate = 2011-10-11 | last = Law | first = Gwillim | date = 2011-09-25 | work = Statoids}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{As of|2011}} India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2011 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Dhemaji had a population of 12816. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Dhemaji has an average literacy rate of 92%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 94% and, female literacy is 89%. In Dhemaji, 11% of the population is under 6 years of age.

===Language===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages spoken in Dhemaji (2011)<ref name="censuslang">{{cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16T/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-1800.XLSX}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
|value1 = 68.62
|color1 = Yellow
|label2 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|value2 = 16.32
|color2 = Red
|label3 = [[Mishing language|Mishing]]
|value3 = 6.96
|color3 = green
|label4 = [[Hindi]]
|value4 = 5.38
|color4 = orange
|label5 = others
|value5 = 2.72
|color5 = purple}}

Assamese is the most spoken language at 8,794 speakers, followed by Bengali at 2,092, Mishing is spoken by 891 people and Hindi at 690.

==Economy==
In 2006, the Indian government named Dhemaji one of the country's 250 [[Poverty in India|most backward districts]] (out of a total of [[Districts of India|640]]).<ref name=brgf/> It is one of the eleven districts in Assam currently receiving funds from the Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme (BRGF).<ref name=brgf>{{cite web|author=Ministry of Panchayati Raj |date=8 September 2009 |title=A Note on the Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme |publisher=National Institute of Rural Development |url=http://www.nird.org.in/brgf/doc/brgf_BackgroundNote.pdf |accessdate=27 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405033402/http://www.nird.org.in/brgf/doc/brgf_BackgroundNote.pdf |archivedate=5 April 2012 }}</ref> During the last 10 years Dhemaji has been witnessing rapid growth in terms of business and education.
The economy of Dhemaji is based on agriculture. In the recent decade a growth in the nursery business has been seen in the region under leadership of Mr.Tankeswar Doloi, who has collected more than 100 varieties of orchids and Mr. Ajit Dutta of Asok Nursery who have created work culture through their own individual enterprises in the region.<ref>http://www.sentinelassam.com/state1/story.php?sec=2&subsec=2&id=293783&dtP=2017-02-15&ppr=1 {{dead link|date=February 2019}}</ref> The prominent employment avenue apart from agriculture is the service sector (government jobs, school teachers). Central government schemes for rural development is changing the scene of the district. People now have different options to enrich themselves. The DRDA, Zilla Parishad, Gram Panchayat are flourishing income opportunities to the people as well as the office-bearers of these organizations.

== Transport ==

The National Highway NH15 passes through Dhemaji and goes towards Lahoal via the [[Bogibeel Bridge|Bogibeel]] bridge. Another National Highway, NH515 separates from the NH15 at [[Kulajan]] and ends at [[Pasighat]] passing through [[Jonai]] . In Railways, the town is served by the [[Dhemaji railway station]] of [[tinsukia railway division]] by its broad-gauge train service and provides connectivity to [[Guwahati]], [[Murkongselek railway station|Murkongselek]] and [[New Tinsukia Junction railway station|Tinsukia]].

Jiadhal and Gainadi are the most ravaging rivers in this district in terms of floods. Every year floods destroy a bulk of the agricultural proceeds and people take refuge in camps.

The nearest airports to Dhemaji are [[Lilabari Airport]], near [[North Lakhimpur]], {{cvt|66|km}} away and [[Dibrugarh Airport|Mohanbari Airport]], near Dibrugarh, {{cvt|80|km}} away.

The [[Bogibeel Bridge]] over the [[Brahmaputra]] connects Dhemaji with [[Dibrugarh]] by road as well as by rail. It was inaugurated by prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] on 25 December 2018. The state-highways here are comparatively well-off compared to its neighbouring districts.

==Education==
Dhemaji has a dozen of schools and colleges.

The names of some notable Colleges, Senior Secondary school and High School of Dhemaji town are :-

A. College :

1.Dhemaji College.

2.Dhemaji Commerce College.

3.Dhemaji City College.

4.Moridhal College.

B. Senior Secondary school :

1. Machkhowa Higher Secondary School

2. Dhemaji Higher Secondary school

3.Dhemaji Girls High School.

4.SFS Jr. College

5.VKV Dhemaji

6.Public Academy

7.Dhemaji Town Jr. College

8.Paramananda Academy

9. JNV Dhemaji

10.Kiran Academy

11. Mother's Pride School, Dhemaji

C. High School :

1.Dhemaji Town High School

2.Dhemaji Public School

3.The Gurukul

4.Sankardev Sisuvidya Niketon

5.Rupnath Brahma High School

6.Suvidya Residential English School

7.Dhemaji Adarsh High School

D. Professional College :

1.Dhemaji PGT College

2.[[Dhemaji Engineering College]]

3. I.t.i dhemaji

==Politics==
Dhemaji is part of [[Lakhimpur (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2001/background/S03/AS_ACPC.pdf
|title=List of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies
|accessdate=2008-10-06
|work=Assam
|publisher=Election Commission of India
|url-status=dead
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060504181808/http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2001/background/S03/AS_ACPC.pdf
|archivedate=2006-05-04
}}</ref> There are two Assembly constituencies in Dhemaji District- [[Dhemaji (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dhemaji]] and [[Jonai (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jonai]]. [[Dhemaji district]] is politically very poor. Community politics is main reason for this. [[Sarbananda Sonowal]] of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] was Member of Parliament until May 2016 when he became [[Chief Minister of Assam]].<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/GE2014/ge.html ECI]</ref> [[Pradan Baruah]] of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] is the present [[Member of Parliament]] of Lakhimpur Lok Sabha Constituency, [[Bhubon Pegu]] an independent [[Member of the Legislative Assembly|M.L.A]] of [[Jonai (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Jonai]].

Students' organisations such as [[Takam Mising Porin Kebang]], [[All Assam Students Union]], [[Asom Jatiyatabadi Yuva Chatra Parishad]], [[All Bodo Students Union]], [[National Students' Union of India]], [[All Tai Ahom Students Union]], [[All Assam Students Union]], and [[Krishak Mukti Sangram Samiti|Krishak Mukti Sangram Samiti(KMSS)]] are popular.

==Economy==
===Banking===

Strengthening the economy among both rural and urban people, many new banks, both Nationalised Bank i.e. [[Public sector banks in India|public sector]] and [[Private-sector banks in India|private-sector bank]]s, have opened their branches in the various rural and urban areas of the district.

* [[State Bank of India]]
* [[Allahabad Bank]]
* [[Canara Bank]]
* [[Central Bank of India]]
* [[IDBI Bank]]
* [[UCO Bank]]
* [[United Bank of India]]
* [[ICICI Bank]]
* [[Assam Gramin Vikash Bank]]
* [[IDBI Bank]]
* [[Axis Bank]]
* [[HDFC Bank]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://dhemaji.gov.in/ Dhemaji district official website]

[[Category:Dhemaji| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Dhemaji district]]

Bombil and Beatrice

2026-02-19T00:26:15Z

Davidmam: updated details

{{Short description|2007 film directed by Kaizad Gustad}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Bombil and Beatrice
| image = Bombil and Beatrice - Movie Poster.jpg
| caption =
| director = [[Kaizad Gustad]]
| producer = Manu Kumaran [[Ayesha Dutt|Ayesha Shroff]] Taizoon Khorakiwala
| writer = [[Kaizad Gustad]]
| narrator =
| starring = [[Prashant Narayanan]] [[Katie McGuinness]] [[Piyush Mishra]]
| music = [[A.R. Rahman]]
| cinematography = Trevor Forrest
| editing = Steve Mercer Robert Wallace
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2007}}
| runtime = 97 minutes
| country = India
| language = English
| budget =
}}

'''''Bombil & Beatrice''''' is an Indian English language [[romantic thriller]] film directed by [[Kaizad Gustad]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://film.britishcouncil.org/bombil-and-beatrice |title=Bombil and Beatrice – Details |publisher=[[British Council]]}}</ref> Presented by [[Medient Studios|Medient]] in association with Crossover Joint Ventures & Quest Films Limited, the film stars [[Katie McGuinness]], [[Prashant Narayanan]] and [[Piyush Mishra]] in lead roles.<ref name="BB" /><ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Ft-5IrPDGQ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/7Ft-5IrPDGQ |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title=Bombil & Beatrice Trailer |via=YouTube }}{{cbignore}}</ref> The film was released at the [[Cannes film festival]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://variety.com/2007/film/asia/idream-scores-with-indian-themed-films-1117965697/ |title=iDream scores with Indian-themed films |date=24 May 2007 |publisher=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/i-don-t-want-to-be-the-next-emraan-hashmi/story-Yt2UFeRE5EpOi0K4Qybv5I.html |title='I don't want to be the next Emraan Hashmi' |date=22 June 2010 |work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.screendaily.com/cannes-market-buzz-titles-2007-asia/4032463.article |title=Cannes market buzz titles 2007: Asia |publisher=[[Screen Daily]]}}</ref>

==Premise==
Many years ago, amid palpable tension between the Britishers and the Indians due to the ongoing struggle for freedom, an English woman named Beatrice and an Indian man named Vilas were in love with each other and promised to wait for even a 100 years if they had to so as to live together. On New Year's Eve Beatrice decides to run away with Vilas but tragedy strikes before she can even meet him and her love story comes to an abrupt end. A century has passed now, and Beatrice finds out that Vilas has been reborn as Bombil. Beatrice decides to meet him and gives him a job to do.<ref name="BB">{{cite web|url=http://www.mediente.com/archives/bombil-and-beatrice |title=Bombil & Beatrice |date=29 September 2016 |publisher=Mediente}}</ref>

==Cast==

* [[Prashant Narayanan]] as Vilas/Bombil
* [[Katie McGuinness]] as Beatrice
* [[Piyush Mishra]]

==Production==
===Filming===
''Bombil and Beatrice'' was filmed in London and Mumbai.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/ayesha-shroffs-next-production-to-release-by-year-end/55963 |title=Ayesha Shroff's next production to release by year-end |date=31 August 2009 |publisher=[[Mid-Day]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0819646}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bombil And Beatrice}}
[[Category:2007 thriller films]]
[[Category:2007 films]]
[[Category:British thriller films]]
[[Category:Films scored by A. R. Rahman]]
[[Category:2007 English-language films]]
[[Category:2007 British films]]
[[Category:English-language thriller films]]

{{2000s-thriller-film-stub}}

Punjab Cricket Association

2026-02-16T13:10:59Z

Davidmam: expanded intro as per guidelines

{{Short description|Sport governing body}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}

{{Infobox sport governing body
|name = Punjab Cricket Association
|abbrev = PCA
|logo = PunjabCricketAssociationLogo.png
|sport = [[Cricket]]
|image =
|caption =
|jurisdiction = [[Punjab]]
|founded = {{Start date|1956}}
|aff = [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]]
|affdate = 1966
|region = North Zone
|regionyear =
|headquarters = [[Punjab Cricket Association IS Bindra Stadium]]
|location = [[Mohali]]
|president = Gulzar Inder Chahal
|chairman = [[Inderjit Singh Bindra]]
|secretary = Dilsher Khanna
|url = http://www.cricketpunjab.in
|countryflag = India
}}
'''Punjab Cricket Association''' is the governing body for [[cricket]] activities in the state of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] in [[India]] and the [[Punjab cricket team (India)|Punjab cricket team]] and the [[Punjab women's cricket team(India)|Punjab women's cricket team]] .<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/post-high-court-order-punjab-cricket-association-postpones-polls-5963812/ |title=Post-High Court order, Punjab Cricket Association postpones polls |date=2019-09-04 |website=The Indian Express |publisher=[[The Indian Express]] |location=India |access-date=2019-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915053104/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/post-high-court-order-punjab-cricket-association-postpones-polls-5963812/ |archive-date=15 September 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/industrialist-rajinder-gupta-elected-punjab-cricket-association-chief-4859794/ |title=Industrialist Rajinder Gupta elected Punjab Cricket Association chief |date=2017-09-25 |website=The Indian Express |publisher=[[The Indian Express]] |location=India |access-date=2019-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216022152/http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/industrialist-rajinder-gupta-elected-punjab-cricket-association-chief-4859794/ |archive-date=16 February 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is affiliated to the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cricketpunjab.in/executive.html|title=Members of the Executive Committee|website=Punjab Cricket Association|url-status=dead|access-date=16 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408115926/http://www.cricketpunjab.in/executive.html|archive-date=8 April 2018}}</ref>

Currently there are two international cricket stadiums ([[Punjab Cricket Association Stadium|Mohali]] and [[Mullanpur International Cricket Stadium|Mullanpur]]) in [[Punjab]] under PCA. It has produced players such as [[Yuvraj Singh]], [[Harmanpreet Kaur]], [[Shubman Gill]], [[Kapil Dev]], [[Abhishek Sharma]], [[Harbhajan Singh]], [[Arshdeep Singh]], [[Amanjot Kaur]], [[Ramandeep Singh (cricketer)| Ramandeep Singh]], [[Mayank Markande]], [[Mandeep Singh]], [[Sidharth Kaul]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tamilmurasu.com.sg/tabla/sports/story20200424-43003|title=His goal: India in football World Cup!|website=tamilmurasu.com.sg|publisher=SPH Digital News|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|date=24 April 2020|access-date=19 February 2021|archive-date=29 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529050003/https://www.tamilmurasu.com.sg/tabla/sports/story20200424-43003}}</ref>

==History==
{{expand section|date=June 2024}}
The Punjab Cricket Association (PCA) was established in '''1956''' and became affiliated with the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) in '''1966''', administering cricketing activities across the state of Punjab and the Union Territory of Chandigarh. PCA built its headquarters at the I.S. Bindra Stadium (originally Mohali Stadium), which was established in '''1993''' and serves as its primary international venue. Over time, PCA’s operations evolved from being headquartered in the residences of officials to constructing world-class infrastructure. It expanded its coaching, tournaments, and talent development programs throughout major districts including Amritsar, Jalandhar, Patiala, Ludhiana, Mohali, as well as outlying regions such as Kapurthala, Hoshiarpur, Bathinda, Faridkot, Ferozepur, Sangrur, Muktsar, Nawanshahar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I.S. Bindra PCA Stadium Mohali |url=https://www.cricketpunjab.in/aboutus.php |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=www.cricketpunjab.in}}</ref>
* 2024 Sher-e-Punjab T20 Cup

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{BCCI Members}}

[[Category:Cricket governing bodies in India]]
[[Category:Cricket in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:1956 establishments in East Punjab]]
[[Category:Sports organizations established in 1956]]

Kaka Radhakrishnan

2026-02-07T23:17:26Z

Davidmam: Refined content and updated sections

{{Short description|Indian film actor (c. 1925 – 2012)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kaka Radhakrishnan
| image =
| caption =
| imagesize =
| birth_name = T. V. Radhakrishnan
| birth_date = c. 1925
| birth_place = [[Sangiliyandapuram]], [[Tiruchirappalli]],
[[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = 14 June 2012 (aged 86)
| death_place = [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| othername =
| years_active = 1940–2011
| spouse =
| parents =
| website =
| occupation = [[Actor]]
}}

'''T. V. Radhakrishnan''', better known as '''Kaka Radhakrishnan''' ({{circa|1925}} – 14 June 2012) was an Indian actor who acted in Tamil language films from the year 1940. He is also notable for having introduced his childhood friend, [[Sivaji Ganesan]], into films.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2007/01/19/stories/2007011900100200.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417050106/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2007/01/19/stories/2007011900100200.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=17 April 2012| title=Into realms of the past| date=19 January 2007| first=Mathi| last=Rangarajan| work=[[The Hindu]]| access-date=15 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2007/01/26/stories/2007012600060200.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204093414/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2007/01/26/stories/2007012600060200.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=4 February 2007| title=Contented with her lot| date=26 January 2007| first=Mathi| last=Rangarajan| work=[[The Hindu]]| access-date=15 June 2012}}</ref>

==Career==
T. V. Radhakrishnan<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pillai|first=Swarnavel Eswaran|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HreICwAAQBAJ&q=Radhakrishnan|title=Madras Studios: Narrative, Genre, and Ideology in Tamil Cinema|publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications]]|year=2015|isbn=978-93-5150-121-3|location=India|pages=270}}</ref> as a child made his debut with Uthama Puthiran (1940) as son of NS Krishnan. He had the prefix "kaka" (crow) attached to his name after a role he played as a young boy, in the film ''[[Mangayarkarasi]]'' (1949). In the film, he literally climbed a tree to catch a crow and since has been associated with the crow, earning him the nickname.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/mangayarkarasi-1949/article3022741.ece | title=Mangayarkarasi 1949 | work=[[The Hindu]] | date=4 April 2008 | access-date=25 May 2017|last=Guy|first=Randor|author-link=Randor Guy | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525115020/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/mangayarkarasi-1949/article3022741.ece| archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>

He acted in 1947 movie "Paithiyakaran" a NSK movie where MGR acted as a supporting character. Radhakrishnan acted in over 400 films which include Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam films. After performing a variety of roles with several actors of yesteryear Tamil cinema, he experienced renewed interest thanks to actor Kamal Haasan who believed newer audiences should not miss watching such talent.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/comedian-kaka-radhakrishnan-passes-away-at-86/article3529248.ece| title=Comedian 'Kaka' Radhakrishnan passes away at 86| date=15 June 2012| work=The Hindu| access-date=27 July 2018}}</ref>

==Family and death==
Radhakrishnan died on 14 June 2012 following a brief illness.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-15/news-interviews/32253467_1_veteran-actor-screen-space-mgr-and-sivaji| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126070329/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-15/news-interviews/32253467_1_veteran-actor-screen-space-mgr-and-sivaji| url-status=dead| archive-date=26 January 2013| title=Veteran actor Kaka Radhakrishnan passes away| date=15 June 2012| work=[[The Times of India]]| access-date=15 June 2012}}</ref>

==Notable filmography==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Notes
|-
|rowspan="2"|1949 || ''[[Nallathambi (1949 film)|Nallathambi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Mangayarkarasi]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1950 || ''[[Laila Majnu (1950 film)|Laila Majnu]]'' || Mohideen ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |1951 || ''[[Vanasundari]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Singari]]'' || ||
|-
| [[Manamagal]] || School Student ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1952 || ''[[Mappillai (1952 film)|Mappillai]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|1954 || ''[[Manohara (film)|Manohara]]'' || Vasanthan ||
|-
| ''[[Thuli Visham]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1955 || ''[[Ulagam Palavidham]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|1956 || ''[[Rambaiyin Kaadhal (1956 film)|Rambaiyin Kaadhal]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Thaikkupin Tharam]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1958 || ''[[Bommai Kalyanam]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|1959 || ''[[Thaai Magalukku Kattiya Thaali]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Manimekalai (1959 film)|Manimekalai]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1963 || ''[[Chittoor Rani Padmini]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1991 || ''[[Guna (film)|Guna]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1992 || ''[[Thevar Magan]]'' || Chinnasamy Thevar ||
|-
|rowspan="3"|1994 || ''[[May Madham]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vietnam Colony (1994 film)|Vietnam Colony]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Pavithra (film)|Pavithra]]'' || Subbu's grandfather ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1995 || ''[[Mr. Madras]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|1997 || ''[[Iruvar]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Kadhalukku Mariyadhai]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|1998 || ''[[Udhavikku Varalaamaa]]'' || Hussein's father ||
|-
|rowspan="6"|1999 ||''[[Unnai Thedi]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Rojavanam]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Poovellam Kettuppar]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Hello (1999 film)|Hello]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Unakkaga Ellam Unakkaga]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Unnaruge Naan Irundhal]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="3"|2000 || ''[[Eazhaiyin Sirippil]]'' || Bus owner ||
|-
| ''[[Maayi]]'' || Mokkaisamy's father ||
|-
| ''[[Seenu (2000 film)|Seenu]]'' || Seenu's grandfather ||
|-
|rowspan="4"|2001 || ''[[Navvuthu Bathakalira]]'' || || Telugu film
|-
|''[[Vinnukum Mannukum]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Manadhai Thirudivittai]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Middle Class Madhavan]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|2002 || ''[[Gummalam]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|2004 || ''[[Maanasthan]]'' || ||
|-
| ''[[Vasool Raja MBBS]]'' || Margabandhu's father||
|-
|rowspan="1"|2006 || ''[[Idhaya Thirudan]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="1"|2008 || ''[[En Uyirinum Melana]]'' || Jeeva's grandfather
|
|}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|0435336}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Radhakrishnan, Kaka}}
[[Category:1920s births]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Tamil comedians]]
[[Category:2012 deaths]]
[[Category:Male actors from Tiruchirappalli]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]

Nayagram (community development block)

2026-01-27T16:16:51Z

Davidmam: fix information as per guidelines for accuracy

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Nayagram
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Community development block
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Nayagram in Jhargram (West Bengal).svg
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|22.0319|N|87.1781|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Jhargram district|Jhargram]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Federalism in India|Federal democracy]]
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 501.44
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 24
| population_total = 142,199
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| demographics1_title2 = Other
| demographics1_info2 = [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Kurmali language|Kudmali/Kurmali]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 721138 (Nayagram) 721125 (Baligeria)
| registration_plate = WB-34
| area_code = 03229
| blank1_name_sec1 = Literacy
| blank1_info_sec1 = 63.70%
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Jhargram Lok Sabha constituency|Jhargram]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = [[Nayagram Assembly constituency|Nayagram]]
| website = {{URL|jhargram.gov.in/}}
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-WB]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Nayagram''' is a [[Community development block in India|community development block]] that forms an administrative division in [[Jhargram subdivision]] of [[Jhargram district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==History==

The Nayagram block, historically part of Nayagram estate, encompassed parganas Khelar Nayagram, Dippa Kiarchand, and Jamirapal, spanning both banks of the [[Subarnarekha River|Subarnarekha river]], with its headquarters situated at [[Kultikri]]. The raja of Nayagram originally held the position of a [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] ''paika [[sardar]]''. Upon the estate's annexation to the [[Midnapore district]] by the British in 1803, the Raja fled due to his allegiance to the Marathas, while his son sided with the British. Within Khelar Nayagram, two forts stand out: Khelar Garh, whose construction commenced under Pratap Chandra Singh in 1490 BC and was finalized by Balabhadra Singh, the third raja of Khelar. Additionally, another fort is said to have been erected by Raja Chandra Ketu in the 16th century. The [[Nawabs of Murshidabad|Nawab of Murshidabad]] held ''de facto'' ownership over the parganas of Nayagram and Khelargram. Dipa Kiarchand was mostly owned by raja of [[Mayurbhanj State|Mayurbhanj]], including the [[Rohini, West Bengal|Rohini]] of [[Sankrail, Paschim Medinipur (community development block)|Sankrail]] and [[Gopiballavpur II|Gopibalavpur]] area. In Dipa Kiarchand there are number of prehistoric memorial pillar indicating aboriginal inhabitants in the northern side of Subarnarekha, and the southern side of the river, which constitute the present-day Nayagram block was a forest land with smaller zaminadris like Jamirapal and Olmara.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Gouripada |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75-a8FSPmvQC&pg=PA114 |title=Midnapore, the Forerunner of India's Freedom Struggle |date=1986 |publisher=Mittal Publications |pages=114–115 |language=en}}</ref> However, historically, the estate collectively had been under the dominion of both Odisha and Bengal.<ref>{{Cite book |last=O’malley |first=L. S. S. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.500664 |title=Bengal District Gazetteers - Midnapore |date=1995 |pages= |language=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Government Of India. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.216236 |title=Indian Historical Records Commission Proceedings Of Meetings Vol Xvii |date=1941}}</ref>

===Red corridor===
{{Main|Red corridor}}
106 districts spanning 10 states across India, described as being a part of the [[Far-left politics|left wing extremism]] activities, constitutes the [[Red corridor]]. In West Bengal the districts of Pashim Medinipur, Bankura, Purulia and Birbhum are part of the Red corridor. However, as of July 2016, there has been no reported incidents of [[Communist Party of India (Maoist)|Maoist]] related activities from these districts for the previous 4 years.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/red-corridor-to-be-redrawn/article8894304.ece |title = Red Corridor to be redrawn |last = Singh|first= Vijayita | publisher= The Hindu, 25 July 2016 | access-date = 1 August 2016}}</ref> In the period 2009-2011 LWE violence resulted in more than 500 deaths and a similar number missing in Paschim Medinipur district.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report: Paschim Medinipur | work = May 2011. Page 271 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 31 July 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040941/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 29 March 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

The [[Operation Lalgarh|Lalgarh movement]], which started attracting attention after the failed assassination attempt on [[Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee]], then chief minister of West Bengal, in the Salboni area of Paschim Medinipur district, on 2 November 2008 and the police action that followed, had also spread over to these areas.<ref name=frontline>{{Cite news| url = http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2614/stories/20090717261412900.htm | title = Lalgarh Battle |magazine = Frontline|date= 17 July 2009 |access-date = 23 July 2016}}</ref> The movement was not just a political struggle but an armed struggle that concurrently took the look of a social struggle. A large number of CPI (M) activists, and others active in different political parties, were killed. Although the epi-centre of the movement was Lalgarh, it was spread across 19 police stations in three adjoining districts – Paschim Medinipur, Bankura and Purulia, all thickly forested and near the border with Jharkhand. The deployment of [[Central Reserve Police Force|CRPF]] and other forces started on 11 June 2009. The movement came to an end after the [[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011 state assembly elections]] and change of government in West Bengal. The death of [[Kishenji]], the [[Communist Party of India (Maoist)|Maoist]] commander, on 24 November 2011 was the last major landmark.<ref name=frontline/><ref>{{Cite news| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kishenjis-death-a-serious-blow-to-maoist-movement/article2657105.ece| title = Kishenji's death a serious blow to Maoist movement |newspaper = The Hindu|date= 25 November 2011|access-date = 23 July 2016}}</ref>

From 2009 Maoist violence had rapidly spread across eleven western CD blocks of the district: Binpur I, Binpur II, Salboni, Garhbeta II, Jamboni, Jhargram, Midnapore Sadar, Gopiballavpur I, Gopiballavpur II, Sankrail and Nayagram.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report: Paschim Medinipur | work = May 2011. Page 271 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 8 January 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040941/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 29 March 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Geography==

The [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] gradually slopes down creating an undulating area with infertile laterite rocks/ soil. In Nayagram CD block 90% of the cultivated area has [[laterite|lateritic]] soil and 10% has [[alluvium|alluvial]] soil. Nayagram CD block is drought prone with a particularly severe drought situation.<ref name="geography">{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report: Paschim Medinipur | work = page 4 (About Paschim Medinipur), page 26 (Predominant Soil), pages 265- 268 (Identification of Flood prone areas, Names of drought prone blocks) | publisher = Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 2 January 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040941/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 29 March 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Nayagram is located at {{coord|22.0319|N|87.1781|E|format=dms|}}.

Nayagram CD block is bounded by [[Gopiballavpur II]], [[Sankrail, Paschim Medinipur (community development block)|Sankrail]] and [[Keshiari]] CD blocks in the north, [[Dantan I]] CD block and Jaleswar CD block/tehsil in [[Balasore district]] in Odisha, in the east, Moroda and Rasabobindapur CD blocks/tehsils, in [[Mayurbhanj district]] in Odisha, in the south and Suliapada CD block/tehsil, in Mayurbhanj district, in the west.

It is located 53 km from [[Midnapore]], the district headquarters.

Nayagram CD block has an area of 501.44 km2. It has 1 [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|panchayat samity]], 12 [[gram panchayat]]s, 104 gram sansads (village councils), 336 [[mouza]]s and 294 inhabited villages. [[Nayagram#Police station|Nayagram]] police station serves this block.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Paschim Medinipur | work = Tables 2.1, 2.2 | publisher = Department of Planning and Statistics, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 20 September 2020 }}</ref> Headquarters of this CD block is at [[Baligeria]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/DCHB/DCHB_A/19/1918_PART_A_DCHB_PASCHIM%20MEDINIPUR.pdf |title = District Census Handbook: Paschim Medinipur | work= Map of Paschim Medinipur with CD block HQs and Police Stations (on the fifth page) |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 20 November 2016 }}</ref>

Nayagram CD block had a forest cover of 15,400 hectares, against a total geographical area of 50,560 hectares in 2005-06.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report, Paschim Medinipur | work = Table 2.4, Page 28 | publisher = Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, May 2011 | access-date = 2 January 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040941/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 29 March 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

[[Gram panchayat]]s of Nayagram block panchayat samiti are: Arrah, Baligeria, Barakhakri, Baranigui, Berajal, Chandabila, Chandrarekha, Jamirapal, Kharikamathani, Malam, Nayagram and Patina.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://wbprd.gov.in/HtmlPage/PANCHAYATS.aspx |title = Directory of District, Subdivision, Panchayat Samiti/ Block and Gram Panchayats in West Bengal |work = Paschim Medinipur - Revised in March 2008 | publisher= Panchayats and Rural Development Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 1 August 2016}}</ref>

==Demographics==

===Population===
According to the [[2011 Census of India]], Nayagram CD block had a total population of 142,199, all of which were rural. There were 71,537 (50%) males and 70,662 (50%) females. Population in the age range 0–6 years was 17,598. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Castes]] numbered 28,899 (20.32%) and [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Tribes]] numbered 56,887 (40.01%).<ref name=census2011>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = C.D. Block Wise Primary Census Abstract Data(PCA) | work= 2011 census: West Bengal – District-wise CD blocks|publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | access-date = 3 May 2016}}</ref>

According to the 2001 census, Nayagram block had a total population of 123,929, out of which 62,588 were males and 61,341 were females. Nayagram block registered a population growth of 16.38 per cent during the 1991-2001 decade. Decadal growth for the combined Midnapore district was 14.87 per cent.<ref name=census>{{cite web | url =http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/Table4_15.htm | title = Provisional population totals, West Bengal, Table 4, (erstwhile) Medinipur District | access-date = 22 July 2016 | work = Census of India 2001 | publisher = Census Commission of India|url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110928205819/http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/Table4_15.htm|archive-date=September 28, 2011}}</ref> Decadal growth in West Bengal was 17.45 per cent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |title=Provisional Population Totals, West Bengal. Table 4 |access-date= 17 July 2016 |work=Census of India 2001 |publisher=Census Commission of India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041813/http://www.wbcensus.gov.in/DataTables/02/Table4_1.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref>

Villages in Nayagram CD block included (2011 census figures in brackets): Nayagram (2,300), Patina (884), Chandabila (967), Chandrarekha (542), Arra (684), Baligeria (444), [[Kharikamathani]] (2002), Malam (991), Jamirapat (769) and Berajal (288).<ref name=census2011/>

===Literacy===
According to the 2011 census the total number of literate persons in Nayagram CD block was 79,369 (63.70% of the population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 46,340 (74.06% of the male population over 6 years) and females numbered 33,029 (53.25% of the female population over 6 years). The gender gap in literacy rates was 20.81%.<ref name=census2011/>

See also – [[List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate]]

{{Literacy in CD Blocks of Paschim Medinipur district|collapsible=y}}

===Language and religion===

{{bar box
|title=Religion in Nayagram CD block (2011)<ref name="religion"/>
|titlebar=#FCD116
|left1=
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in West Bengal|Hinduism]]|darkorange|85.45}}
{{bar percent|Other (tribal religion)|maroon|11.26}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in West Bengal|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|1.77}}

{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.32}}
}}

In the 2011 census Hindus numbered 121,502 and formed 85.45% of the population in Nayagram CD block. Christians numbered 2,514 and formed 1.77% of the population. Others numbered 16,470 and formed 11.58% of the population.<ref name="religion">{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11396/download/14509/DDW19C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> Others include Addi Bassi, Marang Boro, Santal, Saranath, Sari Dharma, Sarna, Alchchi, Bidin, Sant, Saevdharm, Seran, Saran, Sarin, Kheria,<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/SCST-Series/ST14A.html |title = ST-14 A Details Of Religions Shown Under 'Other Religions And Persuasions' In Main Table | work= West Bengal |publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | access-date = 29 July 2016}}</ref> and other religious communities. In 2001, Hindus were 80.59%, Muslims 1.07%, Christians 1.73% and tribal religions 16.53% of the population respectively.<ref name=censusreligion2001>{{cite web| url = https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/21481/download/24613/PC01_C01_19.xls|title = Table C01 Population by Religious Community: West Bengal |publisher = [[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]] |date=2001}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Nayagram CD block (2011)<ref name="languages"/>
|label1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |value1 = 59.88 |color1 = orchid
|label2 = [[Santali language|Santali]] |value2 = 29.79 |color2 = darkturquoise
|label3 = [[Kurmali language|Kurmali]] |value3 = 3.81 |color3 = pink
|label4 = [[Mundari language|Mundari]] |value4 = 3.20 |color4 = teal
|label5 = [[Odia language|Odia]] |value5 = 1.26 |color5 = saddlebrown
|label6 = Others |value6 = 2.06 |color6 = grey
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 59.88% of the population spoke [[Bengali language|Bengali]], 29.79% [[Santali language|Santali]], 3.81% [[Kurmali language|Kurmali]], 3.20% [[Mundari language|Mundari]] and 1.26% [[Odia language|Odia]] as their first language.<ref name="languages">{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: West Bengal |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10226/download/13338/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1900.XLSX |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==BPL families==
In Nayagram CD block 69.26% families were living [[Below Poverty Line (India)|below poverty line]] in 2007.<ref name=bpl>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report: Paschim Medinipur | work = May 2011. Page 177 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 8 January 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040941/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 29 March 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

According to the District [[Human Development Report]] of Paschim Medinipur: The 29 CD blocks of the district were classified into four categories based on the poverty ratio. Nayagram, Binpur II and Jamboni CD blocks have very high poverty levels (above 60%). Kharagpur I, Kharagpur II, Sankrail, Garhbeta II, Pingla and Mohanpur CD blocks have high levels of poverty (50-60%), Jhargram, Midnapore Sadar, Dantan I, Gopiballavpur II, Binpur I, Dantan II, Keshiari, Chandrakona I, Gopiballavpur I, Chandrakona II, Narayangarh, Keshpur, Ghatal, Sabang, Garhbeta I, Salboni, Debra and Garhbeta III CD blocks have moderate levels of poverty (25-50%) and Daspur II and Daspur I CD blocks have low levels of poverty (below 25%).<ref name=bpl/>

==Economy==

===Infrastructure===
280 or 83% of mouzas in Nayagram CD block were electrified by 31 March 2014.<ref name=handbook2014>{{cite web | url = http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Paschim Medinipur | work = Tables 2.1, 8.2, 16.1, 17.2, 18.2, 18.1, 20.1, 21.2, 4.4, 3.1, 3.3 – arranged as per use | publisher = Department of Planning and Statistics, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 20 September 2020 }}</ref>

322 mouzas in Nayagram CD block had drinking water facilities in 2013-14. There were 54 fertiliser depots, 6 seed stores and 38 [[Public distribution system|fair price shops]] in the CD block.<ref name=handbook2014/>

===Agriculture===
{{Pie chart
|caption= '''Persons engaged in agriculture in Nayagram CD block'''
|value1 = 2.52
|label1 = Bargadars
|value2 = 30.78
|label2 = Patta holders
|value3 = 2.73
|label3 = Small farmers
|value4 = 22.66
|label4 = Marginal farmers
|value5 = 41.31
|label5= Agricultural labourers}}

Although the Bargadari Act of 1950 recognised the rights of [[bargadar]]s to a higher share of crops from the land that they tilled, it was not implemented fully. Large tracts, beyond the prescribed limit of land ceiling, remained with the rich landlords. From 1977 onwards major land reforms took place in West Bengal. Land in excess of land ceiling was acquired and distributed amongst the peasants.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/24%20pgsSouth/s24prg_main.htm | title = District Human Development Report: South 24 Parganas | work = (1) Chapter 1.2, South 24 Parganas in Historical Perspective, pages 7-9 (2) Chapter 3.4, Land reforms, pages 32-33 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, 2009 | access-date = 7 August 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161005044029/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/24%20pgsSouth/s24prg_main.htm | archive-date = 5 October 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Following [[Land reform in India|land reforms]] land ownership pattern has undergone transformation. In 2013-14, persons engaged in agriculture in Nayagram CD block could be classified as follows: [[bargadar]]s 2.52%, patta (document) holders 30.78%, small farmers (possessing land between 1 and 2 hectares) 2.73%, marginal farmers (possessing land up to 1 hectare) 22.66% and agricultural labourers 41.31%.<ref name=handbook2014/>

In 2005-06 net cropped area in Nayagram CD block was 22,826 hectares and the area in which more than one crop was grown was 15,126 hectares.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report, Paschim Medinipur | work = Table 2.4, Page 28 | publisher = Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, May 2011 | access-date = 2 January 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040941/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 29 March 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

The extension of irrigation has played a role in growth of the predominantly agricultural economy.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report: Paschim Medinipur | work = Chapter V: Economic Livelihoods, pages 129-131 | publisher = Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 2 January 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040941/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 29 March 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref> In 2013-14, the total area irrigated in Nayagram CD block was 5,300 hectares, out of which 1,500 hectares were by tank water, 300 hectares by deep tubewells, 600 hectares by shallow tube wells, 500 hectares by river lift irrigation, 900 hectares by open dug wells and 1,500 hectares by other methods.<ref name=handbook2014/>

In 2013-14, Nayagram CD block produced 3,745 tonnes of [[Rice#Ecotypes and cultivars|Aman paddy]], the main winter crop, from 3,065 hectares, 784 tonnes of Aus paddy (summer crop) from 367 hectares, 1,234 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop) from 421 hectares and 42,599 tonnes of potatoes from 1,403 hectares. It also produced mustard.<ref name=handbook2014/>

===Banking===
In 2013-14, Nayagram CD block had offices of 10 commercial banks.<ref name=handbook2014/>

==Transport==
Nayagram CD block has 5 ferry services and 11 originating/ terminating bus routes. The nearest railway station is 25 km from the CD block headquarters.<ref name=handbook2014/>

[[State Highway 9 (West Bengal)|State Highway 9]] originating from Durgapur (in Paschim Bardhaman district) terminates at [[Nayagram]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.wbtrafficpolice.com/state-highways.php |title = List of State Highways in West Bengal | publisher= West Bengal Traffic Police | access-date = 23 August 2016}}</ref>

==Education==
In 2013-14, Nayagram CD block had 164 primary schools with 9,046 students, 24 middle schools with 1,355 students and 20 higher secondary schools with 14,309 students. Nayagram CD block had 525 institutions for special and non-formal education with 12,180 students.<ref name=handbook2014/>

The [[United Nations Development Programme]] considers the combined primary and secondary enrolment ratio as the simple indicator of educational achievement of the children in the school going age. The infrastructure available is important. In Sankrail CD block out of the total 151 primary schools in 2008-2009, 113 had pucca buildings, 12 partially pucca and 26 multiple type.<ref name=humandev2>{{cite web | url = http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | title = District Human Development Report: Paschim Medinipur | work = May 2011. Pages: 60-75 | publisher = Development & Planning Department, Government of West Bengal | access-date = 31 July 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040941/http://wbplan.gov.in/HumanDev/DHDR/DHDR_Paschim%20Medinipur.pdf | archive-date = 29 March 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Nayagram and Gopiballavpur I CD blocks have been identified as educationally backward blocks and special efforts are being made through National Programme of Education for Girls at Elementary Level and [[Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya]] hostels. These are the hostels for accommodating girl students from weaker sections of the society and all costs relating to their livelihood are borne by the government so that they are not to be deprived of availing elementary education for want of money or other social issues.<ref name=humandev2/>

[[Nayagram Pandit Raghunath Murmu Government College]] was established in 2014 at [[Baligeria]]. It is affiliated to [[Vidyasagar University]]. It offers courses in Bengali, Santali, English, Sanskrit, history, philosophy, political science and sociology. The college is named after the great scholar [[Raghunath Murmu|Pandit Raghunath Murmu]] (1905–1982) who developed the [[Ol Chiki alphabet]] of [[Santali language]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://nayagramprmgovtcollege.org/ | title = Nayagram PRM Government College | publisher = Government of West Bengal | access-date = 27 October 2016 | archive-date = 1 November 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161101102903/http://nayagramprmgovtcollege.org/ | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Healthcare==
Kharikamathani Rural Hospital, with 30 beds at [[Kharikamathani]], is the major government medical facility in Nayagram CD block. There are [[Primary Health Centre (India)|primary health centres]] at: Chandabila (with 10 beds), Jamirapal (with 6 beds) and Baligeria (with 6 beds).<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/RH.pdf | title =Health & Family Welfare Department | work =Health Statistics – Rural Hospitals | publisher =Government of West Bengal | access-date =1 September 2020 | archive-date =8 October 2022 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20221008143352/https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/RH.pdf | url-status =dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/PHC.pdf | title = Health & Family Welfare Department | work = Health Statistics – Primary Health Centres | publisher = Government of West Bengal | access-date = 1 September 2020 | archive-date = 21 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180421215645/https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/PHC.pdf | url-status = dead }}</ref>

The 300-bedded Superspeciality Hospital at [[Nayagram]] was inaugurated in 2015.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/india/20151124/2732378.html | title = Mamata inaugurates new multi superspeciality hospitals for districts | publisher = Web India 123 | access-date = 4 May 2020 | archive-date = 16 September 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200916231805/https://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/india/20151124/2732378.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}
{{Jhargram district topics}}

[[Category:Community development blocks in Jhargram district]]

Middle English

2026-01-20T08:15:12Z

Davidmam: small enhance page based on references and corrected details per standard format

{{Short description|English language during the Middle Ages}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Middle English
| nativename = {{lang|enm|Englisch}} {{lang|enm|English}} {{lang|enm|Inglis}}
| region = [[England]] (except for west [[Cornwall]]), some localities in the eastern fringe of [[Wales]], south east [[Scotland]] and Scottish [[burgh]]s, to some extent [[Ireland]]
| era = developed into [[Early Modern English]], [[Early Scots]], [[Fingallian]] and [[Yola language|Yola]] by the 15th century
| image = Chaucer-canterburytales-miller.jpg
| imagescale = 1
| imagecaption = A page from [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', published in the late 14th century
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3 = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4 = [[Ingvaeonic languages|North Sea Germanic]]
| fam5 = [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam6 = [[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| ancestor = [[Old English]]
| iso2 = enm
| iso3 = enm
| glotto = midd1317
| glottorefname = Middle English
| iso6 = meng
| notice = IPA
|script=Latin
}}

'''Middle English''' (abbreviated to '''ME''')<ref>Simon Horobin, ''Introduction to Middle English'', Edinburgh 2016, s. 1.1.</ref> is the forms of the [[English language]] that were spoken in England after the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066, until the late 15th century, roughly coinciding with the [[High Middle Ages|High]] and [[Late Middle Ages]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fuster-Márquez |first1=Miguel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQLBqKjxuvAC |title=A Practical Introduction to the History of English |last2=Calvo García de Leonardo |first2=Juan José |publisher=Universitat de València |year=2011 |isbn=9788437083216 |location=[València] |page=21 |access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> The Middle English dialects displaced the [[Old English]] dialects under the influence of [[Anglo-Norman French]] and [[Old Norse]], and were in turn replaced in England by [[Early Modern English]].

Middle English had significant regional variety and churn in its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and [[orthography]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Horobin |first1=Simon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDBF5TJZHzQC&dq=middle+english&pg=PP9 |title=An Introduction to Middle English |last2=Smith |first2=Jeremy |date=2002 |publisher=Oup USA |isbn=978-0-19-521950-0 |access-date=2023-12-01}}</ref> The main dialects were Northern, East Midland, West Midland, and Southern in England, as well as [[Early Scots]] and the Irish [[Fingallian]] and [[Yola dialect|Yola]].

During the Middle English period, many Old English grammatical features either became simplified or disappeared altogether. Noun, adjective, and verb [[inflection]]s were simplified by the reduction (and eventual elimination) of most [[grammatical case]] distinctions. Middle English also saw considerable adoption of [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] vocabulary, especially in the areas of politics, law, the arts, and religion, as well as poetic and emotive diction. Conventional English vocabulary remained primarily Germanic in its sources, with [[Old Norse]] influences becoming more apparent. Significant changes in pronunciation took place, particularly involving long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

Little survives of early [[Middle English literature]], due in part to Norman domination and the prestige that came with writing in French rather than English. During the 14th century, a new style of literature emerged with the works of writers including [[John Wycliffe]] and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], whose ''[[The Canterbury Tales|Canterbury Tales]]'' remains the most studied and read work of the period.{{refn|The name "tales of Canterbury" appears within the surviving texts of Chaucer's work.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Carlson, David. |title= The Chronology of Lydgate's Chaucer References |journal= [[The Chaucer Review]] |volume=38 |issue=3 |year=2004 |pages=246–254 |doi=10.1353/cr.2004.0003 |citeseerx= 10.1.1.691.7778 |s2cid= 162332574 }}</ref>}}

By the end of the period (about 1470), and aided by the [[movable type|invention of the printing press]] by [[Johannes Gutenberg]] in 1439, a standard based on the London dialects (Chancery Standard) had become established. This largely formed the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. In England, Middle English was succeeded by [[Early Modern English]], which lasted until about 1650. In Scotland, [[Scots language|Scots]] developed concurrently from a variant of the [[Northumbrian dialect]] (prevalent in [[Northern England]] and spoken in southeast [[Scotland]]).

==History==

=== Transition from Old English ===
[[File:Middle English Dialects.png|thumb|The dialects of Middle English {{circa|1300}}]]

The transition from Late [[Old English]] to Early Middle English had taken place by the 1150s to 1180s, the period when the [[Augustinians|Augustinian canon]] [[Orrm]] wrote the ''[[Ormulum]]'', one of the oldest surviving texts in Middle English.<ref name="Johannesson2">{{Cite book |last1=Johannesson |first1=Nils-Lennart |url=https://reunido.uniovi.es/index.php/SELIM/article/download/20530/16515 |title=Ormulum |last2=Cooper |first2=Andrew |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-289043-6 |series=Early English text society}}</ref>

Contact with [[Old Norse]] aided the development of English from a [[synthetic language]] with relatively free word order to a more [[analytic language]] with a stricter word order, as both Old English and Old Norse were synthetic languages with complicated inflections. Communication between [[Vikings]] in the [[Danelaw]] and their Anglo-Saxon neighbours resulted in the erosion of inflection in both languages; this effect was characterized as being of a "substantive, pervasive, and of a democratic" manner. Like close cousins, Old Norse and Old English resembled each other, and with a lot of vocabulary and grammatical structures in common, speakers of each language roughly understood each other, but according to the historian Simeon Potler, the main difference lay in their inflectional endings, which led to much confusion within the mixed population that existed in the Danelaw, thus endings tended gradually to become obscured and finally lost, "simplifying English grammar" in the process,<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Baugh |first=Albert |title=A History of the English Language |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |year=1951 |location=London |pages=110–130 (Danelaw); 131–132 (Normans)}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Jespersen |first=Otto |title=Growth and Structure of the English Language |publisher=B. G. Teubner |year=1919 |location=Leipzig |pages=58–82}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Potter |first=Simeon |url=https://archive.org/details/ourlanguage00pott |title=Our Language |publisher=Penguin |year=1950 |location=Harmondsworth |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourlanguage00pott/page/33 33] |url-access=registration}}</ref> leading to the emergence of the analytic pattern.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Thomason |first1=Sarah Grey |title=Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics |last2=Kaufman |first2=Terrence |date=1988 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-07893-2 |edition=1. paperback print |series=Anthropology: Linguistics |location=Berkeley |pages=303}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=McCrum |first1=Robert |title=The Story of English |last2=Cran |first2=William |last3=MacNeil |first3=Robert |date=1986 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-0-14-200231-5 |location=New York |publication-date=2002 |pages=79}}</ref> The dramatic changes that happened in English contribute to the acceptance of the hypothesis that Old Norse had a more profound impact on the development of Middle and Modern English than any other language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00crys |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-40179-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00crys_012/page/n35 32] |url-access=limited}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |title=The Story of English |last=McCrum |first=Robert |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=1987 |location=London |pages=70–71}}</ref><ref>{{Cite AV media |date=27 December 2014 |publisher=BBC |title=Birth of a Language |time=35:00–37:20 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-OiNxknXdY |via=YouTube}}</ref>

Viking influence on Old English is most apparent in [[pronouns]], modals, comparatives, [[pronominal adverbs]] (like ''hence'' and ''together''), conjunctions, and prepositions show the most marked Danish influence. The best evidence of Scandinavian influence appears in extensive word borrowings; however, texts from the period in Scandinavia and Northern England do not provide certain evidence of an influence on syntax.

While the Old Norse influence was strongest in the dialects under Danish control, which approximately covered [[Yorkshire]], the central and eastern [[Midlands]], and the [[East of England]], words in the spoken language emerged in the 10th and 11th centuries near the transition from Old to Middle English. Influence on the written languages only appeared from the beginning of the 13th century onwards;<ref name=":3" /> this delay in Scandinavian lexical influence in English has been attributed to the lack of written evidence from the areas of Danish control, as the majority of written sources from Old English were produced in the [[West Saxon dialect]] spoken in [[Wessex]], the heart of Anglo-Saxon political power at the time.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=Mary Anne |url=https://blogs.ncl.ac.uk/elldr/files/2022/09/Wright2022.pdf |title=The Old Norse Influence on English, the 'Viking Hypothesis', and Middle English Word Order Parallels with Icelandic |year=2022 |publisher=English Language & Linguistics Dissertation Repository (ELLDR) |edition=2nd |location=Newcastle University |page=11 |access-date=August 24, 2024}}</ref>

The [[Norman Conquest]] of England in 1066 saw the replacement of the top levels of the English-speaking political and ecclesiastical hierarchies by [[Normans|Norman]] rulers who spoke a dialect of [[Old French]], now known as [[Old Norman]], which developed in England into [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]]. The use of Norman as the preferred language of literature and polite discourse fundamentally altered the role of Old English in education and administration, even though many Normans of this period were illiterate and depended on the clergy for written communication and record-keeping. A significant number of [[Norman language|Norman]] words were borrowed into English and used alongside native Germanic words with similar meanings. Examples of Germanic/Norman pairs in Modern English include ''pig'' and ''pork'', ''calf'' and ''[[veal]]'', ''wood'' and ''forest'', and ''freedom'' and ''liberty''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Taylor |date=1901 |title=A Philological Study in Natural History |url=https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/periodicals/TPRSNZ1901-34.2.8.1.9 |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand |volume=34}}</ref>
The role of Anglo-Norman as the language of government and law can be seen in the abundance of Modern English words for the mechanisms of government that are derived from Anglo-Norman, such as ''court'', ''judge'', ''jury'', ''appeal'', and ''parliament''. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the [[chivalric]] cultures that arose in the 12th century, an era of [[feudalism]], [[seigneurialism]], and [[crusading]].

Words were often taken from Latin, usually through French transmission. This gave rise to various synonyms, including ''kingly'' (inherited from Old English), ''royal'' (from French, inherited from Vulgar Latin), and ''regal'' (from French, which borrowed it from Classical Latin). Later French appropriations were derived from standard, rather than Norman, French. Examples of the resulting [[doublet (linguistics)|doublet]] pairs include ''warden'' (from Norman) and ''guardian'' (from later French; both share a common ancestor loaned from Germanic).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://deaf-server.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/book/garder |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829010554/https://deaf-server.adw.uni-heidelberg.de/book/garder |archive-date=2023-08-29 |encyclopedia=Dictionnaire Étymologique de l'Ancien Français (DEAF) |title= Garder |language=fr}} </ref>

The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not result in immediate changes to the language. The general population would have spoken the same [[Old English dialects|dialects]] as they had before the Conquest. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, only dialects that evolved individually from Old English.<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=12 April 2023 |title=From Old to New: How the English Language Evolved Throughout History |url= https://online.utpb.edu/about-us/articles/humanities/from-old-to-new-how-the-english-language-evolved-throughout-history/|website=UTPB |location=Odessa, Texas |publisher=University of Texas Permian Basin |access-date=7 March 2025}}</ref>

[[Ralph d'Escures]]’
''Homily on the Virgin Mary'', a French work translated into Latin and then English in the first half of the 12th Century, was either one of "the very latest compositions in Old English, or, as some scholars would
have it, the very earliest in Middle English," having an Old English vocabulary co-existing with simplified inflexion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Treharne |first1=Elaine |chapter=The Life of English in the Mid-Twelfth Century: Ralph d'Escures's Homily on the Virgin Mary |title=Writers of the Reign of Henry II |date=2006 |pages=169–186 |doi=10.1007/978-1-137-08855-0_8|isbn=978-1-349-73340-8 }}</ref>

===Early Middle English===
Early Middle English (1150–1350)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fuster-Márquez |first1=Miguel |last2=Calvo García de Leonardo |first2=Juan José |year=2011 |title=A Practical Introduction to the History of English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQLBqKjxuvAC |location=[València] |publisher=Universitat de València |page=21 |isbn=9788437083216 |access-date=19 December 2017 }}</ref> has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary (with [[Scandinavian influence in English|many Norse borrowings]] in the northern parts of the country) but a greatly simplified [[inflection]]al system. The grammatical relations that were expressed in Old English by the [[dative]] and [[instrumental case]]s were replaced in Early Middle English with [[preposition]]al constructions. The Old English [[genitive]] -{{lang|ang|es}} survives in the ''-'s'' of the modern [[English possessive]], but most of the other case endings disappeared in the Early Middle English period, including most of the [[Old English declension#Articles|roughly one dozen forms]] of the [[definite article]] ("the"). The [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] personal pronouns (denoting exactly two) also disappeared from English during this period.

The loss of case endings was part of a general trend from inflections to fixed [[word order]] that also occurred in other Germanic languages (though more slowly and to a lesser extent). Therefore, it cannot be attributed simply to the influence of French-speaking sections of the population; English did, after all, remain the [[vernacular]]. It is also argued<ref>McWhorter, ''Our Magnificent Bastard Tongue,'' 2008, pp. 89–136.</ref> that Norse immigrants to England had a great impact on the loss of inflectional endings in Middle English. One argument is that, although Norse and English speakers were somewhat comprehensible to each other due to similar morphology, the Norse speakers' inability to reproduce the ending sounds of English words influenced Middle English's loss of inflectional endings.

Important texts for the reconstruction of the evolution of Middle English out of Old English are the ''[[Peterborough Chronicle]]'', which continued to be compiled up to 1154; the ''[[Ormulum]]'', a biblical commentary probably composed in [[Lincolnshire]] in the second half of the 12th century, incorporating a unique phonetic spelling system; and the {{lang|enm|[[Ancrene Wisse]]}} and the [[Katherine Group]], religious texts written for [[anchoress]]es, apparently in the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] in the early 13th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burchfield |first=Robert W. |chapter=Ormulum |editor-first=Joseph R. |editor-last=Strayer |title=Dictionary of the Middle Ages |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |year=1987 |volume=9 |page=280 |isbn=978-0-684-18275-9 }}, p. 280</ref> The language found in the last two works is sometimes called the [[AB language]], one of a range of regional dialects: East Midlands (London), South West (Kentish), Western (AB) and Northern.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Murchison |first1=Krista |title=Theme: Middle English Dialects |url=https://openmedieval.leidenuniv.nl/pages/dialects.html |website=Tomes |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref>

Additional literary sources of the 12th and 13th centuries include ''[[Layamon's Brut]]'' and ''[[The Owl and the Nightingale]]''.

Some scholars<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hcmc.uvic.ca/makingEME/about.html|title=Making Early Middle English: About the Conference|website=hcmc.uvic.ca}}</ref> have defined "Early Middle English" as encompassing English texts up to 1350. This longer time frame would extend the corpus to include many Middle English Romances (especially those of the ''[[Auchinleck manuscript]]'' {{circa|1330}}).

===Late Middle English===
Gradually, the wealthy and the government [[Anglicisation|Anglicised]] again, although Norman (and subsequently [[Law French|French]]) remained the dominant language of literature and law until the 14th century, even after the loss of the majority of the continental possessions of the [[English monarchy]].

In the aftermath of the [[Black Death]] in the 14th century, there was significant migration into [[London]], particularly from the counties of the [[East of England]] and the [[East Midlands]] and, to a lesser extent, from the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] and the [[North of England]],{{sfn|Upward|Davidson|2011|p=76–77; 79–80}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crystal |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PBnCDwAAQBAJ&dq=great+vowel+shift+central+midlands&pg=PA55 |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |date=29 November 2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-42359-5 |language=en}}</ref> and a new [[prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige]] London dialect began to develop as a result of this clash of the different dialects,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Montgomery |first1=Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=isd_AgAAQBAJ&dq=great+vowel+shift+londoners&pg=PA56 |title=Ways of Reading: Advanced Reading Skills for Students of English Literature |last2=Durant |first2=Alan |last3=Fabb |first3=Nigel |last4=Furniss |first4=Tom |last5=Mills |first5=Sara |date=24 January 2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-28025-4 |language=en |access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref> that was based chiefly on the speech of the East Midlands (roughly corresponding to the official regions of the East of England and the East Midlands) but also influenced by that of other regions.<ref name="Wright">{{cite encyclopedia |author= Wright, L. |title=About the evolution of Standard English |encyclopedia= Studies in English Language and Literature |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2012 |page=99ff |isbn=978-1138006935}}</ref> The writing of this period, however, continues to reflect a variety of regional forms of English. The {{lang|enm|[[Ayenbite of Inwyt]]}}, a translation of a French confessional prose work, completed in 1340, is written in a [[Kentish dialect]]. The best known writer of Middle English, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], wrote in the second half of the 14th century in the emerging London dialect, although he also portrays some of his characters as speaking in northern dialects, as in "[[The Reeve's Tale]]".

In the English-speaking areas of lowland [[Scotland]], an independent standard was developing, based on the [[Northumbrian dialect]]. This would develop into what came to be known as the [[Scots language]].

A large number of terms for abstract concepts were adopted directly from [[medieval Latin|scholastic philosophical Latin]] (rather than via French). Examples are "absolute", "act", "demonstration", and "probable".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Franklin |first1=James |author-link1=James Franklin (philosopher) |date=1983 |title=Mental furniture from the philosophers |url=http://www.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/mental.pdf |journal=Et Cetera |volume=40 |issue= |pages=177–191 |doi= |access-date=29 June 2021}}</ref>

{{anchor|Chancery Standard}}

===Transition to Early Modern English===
The [[Chancery Standard]] of written English emerged {{circa|1430}} in official documents that, since the [[Norman Conquest]], had normally been written in French.<ref name="Wright"/> Like Chaucer's work, this new standard was based on the East Midlands-influenced speech of London. Clerks using this standard were usually familiar with [[French language|French]] and [[Latin]], influencing the forms they chose. The Chancery Standard, which was adopted slowly, was used in England by bureaucrats for most official purposes, excluding those of the Church and legalities, which used Latin and [[Law French]] respectively.

The Chancery Standard's influence on later forms of written English is disputed, but it did undoubtedly provide the core around which [[Early Modern English]] formed.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} Early Modern English emerged with the help of [[William Caxton]]'s printing press, developed during the 1470s. The press stabilized English through a push towards standardization, led by Chancery Standard enthusiast and writer [[Richard Pynson]].<ref name="ReferenceA">cf. 'Sawles Warde' (The protection ''of the soul'')</ref> [[Early Modern English]] began in the 1540s after the printing and wide distribution of the [[English Bible]] and [[Book of Common Prayer|Prayer Book]], which made the new standard of English publicly recognisable and lasted until about 1650.

==Phonology==
{{Main|Middle English phonology}}
The main changes between the [[Old English phonology|Old English sound system]] and [[Middle English phonology|that of Middle English]] include:
*Emergence of the voiced [[fricative]]s {{IPA|/v/}}, {{IPA|/ð/}}, {{IPA|/z/}} as separate [[phoneme]]s, rather than mere [[allophone]]s of the corresponding [[voiceless]] fricatives
*Reduction of the Old English [[diphthong]]s to monophthongs and the emergence of new diphthongs due to vowel breaking in certain positions, change of Old English post-vocalic {{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/w/}} (sometimes resulting from the {{IPA|[ɣ]}} allophone of {{IPA|/ɡ/}}) to offglides, and borrowing from French
*Merging of Old English {{IPA|/æ/ and /ɑ/}} into a single vowel {{IPA|/a/}}
*Raising of the long vowel {{IPA|/æː/}} to {{IPA|/ɛː/}}
*Rounding of {{IPA|/ɑː/}} to {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in the southern dialects
*Unrounding of the front [[rounded vowel]]s in most dialects
*Lengthening of vowels in [[open syllable]]s (and in certain other positions). The resultant long vowels (and other preexisting long vowels) subsequently underwent changes of quality in the [[Great Vowel Shift]], which began during the later Middle English period.
*Loss of [[gemination]] (double consonants came to be pronounced as single ones)
*Loss of weak final vowels ([[schwa]], written {{angle bracket|e}}). By [[Chaucer]]'s time, this vowel was silent in normal speech, although it was normally pronounced in verse as the [[meter (verse)|meter]] required (much as occurs in modern [[French language|French]]). Also, nonfinal unstressed {{angle bracket|e}} was dropped when adjacent to only a single consonant on either side if there was another short {{angbr|e}} in an adjoining syllable. Thus, {{lang|ang|every}} began to be pronounced as {{lang|enm|evry}}, and {{lang|ang|palmeres}} as {{lang|enm|palmers}}.

The combination of the last three processes listed above led to the spelling conventions associated with [[silent e|silent {{vr|e}}]] and [[Digraph (orthography)#Homogeneous_digraph|doubled consonants]] (see under [[#Orthography|Orthography]], below).

==Morphology==

=== Nouns ===
Middle English retains only two distinct noun-ending patterns from the more complex system of [[Old English grammar#Nouns|inflection in Old English]]:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Middle English nouns
! rowspan="2" |Nouns
! colspan="2" |[[Strong noun]]s
! colspan="2" |[[Weak noun]]s
|-
!Singular
!Plural
!Singular
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
| rowspan="2" | -({{lang|enm|e|italic=unset}})
| rowspan="2" | -{{lang|enm|es|italic=unset}}
| -{{lang|enm|e}}
| rowspan="4" | -{{lang|enm|en|italic=unset}}
|-
!Accusative
| rowspan="3" | -{{lang|enm|en|italic=unset}}
|-
!Genitive
| -{{lang|enm|es|italic=unset}}<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
| -{{lang|enm|e|italic=unset}}({{lang|enm|ne|italic=unset}})<ref>cf. 'Ancrene Wisse' (The ''Anchoresses''' Guide)</ref>
|-
!Dative
| -{{lang|enm|e|italic=unset}}
| -{{lang|enm|e|italic=unset}}({{lang|enm|s|italic=unset}})
|}
Nouns of the weak declension are primarily inherited from Old English ''n''-stem nouns but also from ''ō''-stem, ''wō''-stem, and ''u''-stem nouns,{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} which did not inflect in the same way as ''n''-stem nouns in Old English, but joined the weak declension in Middle English. Nouns of the strong declension are inherited from the other Old English noun stem classes.

Some nouns of the strong type have an ''-e'' in the nominative/accusative singular, like the weak declension, but otherwise strong endings. Often, these are the same nouns that had an ''-e'' in the nominative/accusative singular of Old English (they, in turn, were inherited from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''ja''-stem and ''i''-stem nouns).

The distinct dative case was lost in early Middle English, and although the genitive survived, by the end of the Middle English period only the strong ''-'s'' ending (variously spelled) was in use.<ref>Fischer, O., van Kemenade, A., Koopman, W., van der Wurff, W., ''The Syntax of Early English'', CUP 2000, p. 72.</ref> Some formerly feminine nouns, as well as some weak nouns, continued to make their genitive forms with ''-e'' or no ending (e.g., {{lang|enm|fole hoves}}, horses' hooves), and nouns of relationship ending in ''-er'' frequently have no genitive ending (e.g., {{lang|enm|fader bone}}, "father's bane").<ref name="Burrow-2005-p23">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 23</ref>

The strong ''-(e)s'' plural form has survived into Modern English. The weak ''-(e)n'' form is now rare and used only in ''oxen'' and as part of a [[double plural]], in ''children'' and ''brethren''. Some dialects still have forms such as ''eyen'' (for ''eyes''), ''shoon'' (for ''shoes''), ''hosen'' (for ''hose(s)''), ''kine'' (for ''cows''), and ''been'' (for ''bees'').

[[Grammatical gender]] survived to a limited extent in early Middle English<ref name="Burrow-2005-p23"/> before being replaced by natural gender in the course of the Middle English period. Grammatical gender was indicated by agreement of articles and pronouns (e.g., {{lang|enm|þo ule}} "the feminine owl") or using the pronoun {{lang|enm|he}} to refer to masculine nouns such as {{lang|enm|helm}} ("helmet"), or phrases such as {{lang|enm|scaft stærcne}} (strong shaft), with the masculine accusative adjective ending ''-ne''.<ref name="Burrow-2005-p38">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 38</ref>

===Adjectives===
Single-syllable adjectives added ''{{lang|enm|-e}}'' when modifying a noun in the plural and when used after the definite article ({{lang|enm|þe}}), after a demonstrative ({{lang|enm|þis}}, {{lang|enm|þat}}), after a possessive pronoun (e.g., {{lang|enm|hir}}, {{lang|enm|our}}), or with a name or in a form of address. This derives from the Old English "weak" declension of adjectives.<ref name="Burrow-2005-pp27-28">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, pp. 27–28</ref> This inflexion continued to be used in writing even after final -e had ceased to be pronounced.<ref name="Burrow-2005-p28">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 28</ref> In earlier texts, multisyllable adjectives also receive a final ''-e'' in these situations, but this occurs less regularly in later Middle English texts. Otherwise, adjectives have no ending and adjectives already ending in ''{{lang|enm|-e}}'' etymologically receive no ending as well.<ref name="Burrow-2005-p28"/>

Earlier texts sometimes inflect adjectives for case as well. ''[[Layamon's Brut]]'' inflects adjectives for the masculine accusative, genitive, and dative, the feminine dative, and the plural genitive.<ref name="Burrow-2005-pp28-29">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, pp. 28–29</ref> ''The Owl and the Nightingale'' adds a final ''-e'' to all adjectives not in the nominative, here only inflecting adjectives in the weak declension (as described above).<ref name="Burrow-2005-p29">Burrow & Turville-Petre 2005, p. 29</ref>

[[Comparative]]s and superlatives were usually formed by adding ''{{lang|enm|-er}}'' and ''{{lang|enm|-est}}''. Adjectives with long vowels sometimes shortened these vowels in the comparative and superlative (e.g., {{lang|enm|greet}}, great; {{lang|enm|gretter}}, greater).<ref name="Burrow-2005-p29"/> Adjectives ending in ''{{lang|enm|-ly}}'' or ''{{lang|enm|-lich}}'' formed comparatives either with ''{{lang|enm|-lier}}'', ''{{lang|enm|-liest}}'' or ''{{lang|enm|-loker}}'', ''{{lang|enm|-lokest}}''.<ref name="Burrow-2005-p29"/> A few adjectives also displayed [[Germanic umlaut]] in their comparatives and superlatives, such as {{lang|enm|long}}, {{lang|enm|lenger}}.<ref name="Burrow-2005-p29"/> Other irregular forms were mostly the same as in modern English.<ref name="Burrow-2005-p29"/>

===Pronouns===
Middle English [[personal pronoun]]s were mostly developed from [[Old English pronouns|those of Old English]], with the exception of the third person plural, a borrowing from [[Old Norse]]. (The original Old English form clashed with the third person singular and was eventually dropped.) Also, the nominative form of the feminine third person singular was replaced by a form of the [[demonstrative]] that developed into {{lang|enm|sche}} (modern ''she''), but the alternative {{lang|enm|heyr}} remained in some areas for a long time.

As with nouns, there was some inflectional simplification (the distinct Old English [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] forms were lost), but pronouns, unlike nouns, retained distinct nominative and accusative forms. Third person pronouns also retained a distinction between accusative and dative forms, but that was gradually lost: The masculine {{lang|nme|hine}} was replaced by {{lang|enm|him}} south of the [[River Thames]] by the early 14th century, and the neuter dative {{lang|enm|him}} was ousted by ''it'' in most dialects by the 15th.<ref>Fulk, R.D., ''An Introduction to Middle English'', Broadview Press, 2012, p. 65.</ref>

The following table shows some of the various Middle English pronouns. Many other variations are noted in Middle English sources because of differences in spellings and pronunciations at different times and in different dialects.<ref>See {{cite book |last=Stratmann |first=Francis Henry |year=1891 |title=A Middle-English dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/middleenglishdic00stra |place=London |publisher = Oxford University Press |ol=7114246M }} and {{cite book |last1=Mayhew |first1=AL |last2=Skeat |first2=Walter W |year=1888 |title=A Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.D. 1150 to 1580 |place=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |url= http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10625/10625-h/main.html}}</ref>

{{Middle English personal pronouns (table)}}

===Verbs===
As a general rule, the indicative first person singular of verbs in the present tense ended in ''-e'' (e.g., {{lang|enm|ich here}}, "I hear"), the second person singular in ''-(e)st'' (e.g., {{lang|enm|þou spekest}}, "thou speakest"), and the third person singular in ''-eþ'' (e.g., {{lang|enm|he comeþ}}, "he cometh/he comes"). (''[[Thorn (letter)|þ]]'' (the letter "thorn") is pronounced like the unvoiced ''th'' in "think", but under certain circumstances, it may be like the voiced ''th'' in "that"). The following table illustrates a typical conjugation pattern:<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Principles of English Composition.|year = 1831|url = https://archive.org/details/principlesengli01bootgoog|last = Booth|first = David|authorlink = David Booth (lexicographer) | publisher = Cochrane and Pickersgill}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title = Introduction to Middle English|date = 9 September 2016|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sjVYDwAAQBAJ|last = Horobin|first = Simon|publisher = Edinburgh University Press |isbn = 9781474408462}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Middle English verb inflection
! rowspan="3" |Verbs inflection
! rowspan="3" |Infinitive
! colspan="5" |Present
! colspan="5" |Past
|-
! rowspan="2" |Participle
! colspan="3" |Singular
! rowspan="2" |Plural
! rowspan="2" |Participle
! colspan="3" |Singular
! rowspan="2" |Plural
|-
!1st person
!2nd person
!3rd person
!1st person
!2nd person
!3rd person
|-
! colspan="12" |Regular verbs
|-
!Strong
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|enm|-en}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|enm|-ende}}, -{{lang|enm|ynge}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|enm|-e}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|enm|-est}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|enm|-eþ}} ({{lang|enm|-es}})
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|enm|-en}} {{lang|enm|(-es}}, {{lang|enm|-eþ}})
|{{lang|enm|i-}} {{lang|enm|-en}}
| –
| {{lang|enm|-e}} ({{lang|enm|-est}})
| –
| {{lang|enm|-en}}
|-
!Weak
| {{lang|enm|-ed}}
| {{lang|enm|-ede}}
| {{lang|enm|-edest}}
| {{lang|enm|-ede}}
| {{lang|enm|-eden}}
|-
! colspan="12" |Irregular verbs
|-
! rowspan="2" |Been "{{lang|enm|be}}"
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|enm|been}}
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|enm|beende}}, {{lang|enm|beynge}}
|{{lang|enm|am}}
|{{lang|enm|art}}
|{{lang|enm|is}}
|{{lang|enm|aren}}
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|enm|ibeen}}
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|enm|was}}
|wast
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|enm|was}}
| rowspan="2" |{{lang|enm|weren}}
|-
|{{lang|enm|be}}
|{{lang|enm|bist}}
|{{lang|enm|biþ}}
|{{lang|enm|beth}}, {{lang|enm|been}}
|{{lang|enm|were}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Cunnen}} "can"
|{{lang|enm|cunnen}}
|{{lang|enm|cunnende}}, {{lang|enm|cunnynge}}
|{{lang|enm|can}}
|{{lang|enm|canst}}
|{{lang|enm|can}}
|{{lang|enm|cunnen}}
|{{lang|enm|cunned}}, {{lang|enm|coud}}
|{{lang|enm|coude}}, {{lang|enm|couthe}}
|{{lang|enm|coudest}}, {{lang|enm|couthest}}
|{{lang|enm|coude}}, {{lang|enm|couthe}}
|{{lang|enm|couden}}, {{lang|enm|couthen}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Don}} "do"
|{{lang|enm|don}}
|{{lang|enm|doende}}, {{lang|enm|doynge}}
|{{lang|enm|do}}
|{{lang|enm|dost}}
|{{lang|enm|doþ, doth}}
|{{lang|enm|doþ}}, {{lang|enm|don}}
|{{lang|enm|idon}}
|{{lang|enm|didde}}
|{{lang|enm|didst}}
|{{lang|enm|didde}}
|{{lang|enm|didden}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Douen}} "be good for"
|{{lang|enm|douen}}
|{{lang|enm|douende}}, {{lang|enm|douynge}}
|{{lang|enm|deigh}}
|{{lang|enm|deight}}
|{{lang|enm|deigh}}
|{{lang|enm|douen}}
|{{lang|enm|idought}}
|{{lang|enm|dought}}
|{{lang|enm|doughtest}}
|{{lang|enm|dought}}
|{{lang|enm|doughten}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Durren}} "dare"
|{{lang|enm|durren}}
|{{lang|enm|durrende}}, {{lang|enm|durrynge}}
|{{lang|enm|dar}}
|{{lang|enm|darst}}
|{{lang|enm|dar}}
|{{lang|enm|durren}}
|{{lang|enm|durst}}, {{lang|enm|dirst}}
|{{lang|enm|durst}}
|{{lang|enm|durstest}}
|{{lang|enm|durst}}
|{{lang|enm|dursten}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Gon}} "go"
|{{lang|enm|Gon}}
|{{lang|enm|goende}}, {{lang|enm|goynge}}
|{{lang|enm|go}}
|{{lang|enm|gost}}
|{{lang|enm|goþ}}
|{{lang|enm|goþ}}, {{lang|enm|gon}}
|{{lang|enm|igon}}(gen)
|{{lang|enm|wend}}, {{lang|enm|yede}}, {{lang|enm|yode}}
|{{lang|enm|wendest}}, {{lang|enm|yedest}}, {{lang|enm|yodest}}
|{{lang|enm|wende}}, {{lang|enm|yede}}, {{lang|enm|yode}}
|{{lang|enm|wenden}}, {{lang|enm|yeden}}, {{lang|enm|yoden}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Haven}} "have"
|{{lang|enm|haven}}
|{{lang|enm|havende}}, {{lang|enm|havynge}}
|{{lang|enm|have}}
|{{lang|enm|hast}}
|{{lang|enm|haþ}}
|{{lang|enm|haven}}
|{{lang|enm|ihad}}
|{{lang|enm|hadde}}
|{{lang|enm|haddest}}
|{{lang|enm|hadde}}
|{{lang|enm|hadden}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Moten}} "must"
| –
| –
|{{lang|enm|mot}}
|{{lang|enm|must}}
|{{lang|enm|mot}}
|{{lang|enm|moten}}
| –
|{{lang|enm|muste}}
|{{lang|enm|mustest}}
|{{lang|enm|muste}}
|{{lang|enm|musten}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Mowen}} "may"
|{{lang|enm|mowen}}
|{{lang|enm|mowende}}, {{lang|enm|mowynge}}
|{{lang|enm|may}}
|{{lang|enm|myghst}}
|{{lang|enm|may}}
|{{lang|enm|mowen}}
|{{lang|enm|imought}}
|{{lang|enm|mighte}}
|{{lang|enm|mightest}}
|{{lang|enm|mighte}}
|{{lang|enm|mighten}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Owen}} "owe, ought"
|{{lang|enm|owen}}
|{{lang|enm|owende, owynge}}
|{{lang|enm|owe}}
|{{lang|enm|owest}}
|{{lang|enm|owe}}
|{{lang|enm|owen}}
|{{lang|enm|iowen}}
|{{lang|enm|owed}}
|{{lang|enm|ought}}
|{{lang|enm|owed}}
|{{lang|enm|ought}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Schulen}} "should"
| –
| –
|{{lang|enm|schal}}
|{{lang|enm|schalt}}
|{{lang|enm|schal}}
|{{lang|enm|schulen}}
| –
|{{lang|enm|scholde}}
|{{lang|enm|scholdest}}
|{{lang|enm|scholde}}
|{{lang|enm|scholde}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Þurven/Þaren}} "need"
| –
| –
|{{lang|enm|þarf}}
|{{lang|enm|þarst}}
|{{lang|enm|þarf}}
|{{lang|enm|þurven, þaren}}
| –
|{{lang|enm|þurft}}
|{{lang|enm|þurst}}
|{{lang|enm|þurft}}
|{{lang|enm|þurften}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Willen}} "want"
|{{lang|enm|willen}}
|{{lang|enm|willende, willynge}}
|{{lang|enm|will}}
|{{lang|enm|wilt}}
|{{lang|enm|will}}
|{{lang|enm|wollen}}
| –
|{{lang|enm|wolde}}
|{{lang|enm|woldest}}
|{{lang|enm|wolde}}
|{{lang|enm|wolden}}
|-
!{{lang|enm|Witen}} "know"
|{{lang|enm|witen}}
|{{lang|enm|witende, witynge}}
|{{lang|enm|woot}}
|{{lang|enm|woost}}
|{{lang|enm|woot}}
|{{lang|enm|witen}}
|{{lang|enm|iwiten}}
|{{lang|enm|wiste}}
|{{lang|enm|wistest}}
|{{lang|enm|wiste}}
|{{lang|enm|wisten}}
|}
Plural forms vary strongly by dialect, with Southern dialects preserving the Old English ''-eþ'', Midland dialects showing ''-en'' from about 1200, and Northern forms using ''-es'' in the third person singular as well as the plural.<ref name="cambridge">{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/211/1905.html|title=The Cambridge History of English and American Literature| first1 =AW | last1 = Ward | first2 = AR | last2 = Waller| date= 1907–21| access-date= Oct 4, 2011 | publisher = Bartleby}}</ref>

The past tense of weak verbs was formed by adding an ''-ed(e)'', ''-d(e)'', or ''-t(e)'' ending. The past-tense forms, without their personal endings, also served as past participles with past-participle prefixes derived from Old English: ''i-'', ''y-'', and sometimes ''bi-''.

[[Germanic strong verb|Strong verbs]], by contrast, formed their past tense by changing their stem vowel (e.g., {{lang|enm|binden}} became {{lang|enm|bound}}, a process called [[apophony]]), as in Modern English.

==Orthography==

With the discontinuation of the [[Late West Saxon]] standard used for the [[Old English orthography|writing of Old English]] in the period prior to the Norman Conquest, Middle English came to be written in a wide variety of scribal forms, reflecting different regional dialects and orthographic conventions. Later in the Middle English period, however, and particularly with the development of the [[#Chancery Standard|Chancery Standard]] in the 15th century, orthography became relatively standardised in a form based on the East Midlands-influenced speech of London. Spelling at the time was mostly quite [[regular spelling|regular]]. (There was a fairly consistent correspondence between letters and sounds.) The irregularity of [[English orthography|present-day English orthography]] is largely due to [[Phonological history of English|pronunciation changes]] that have taken place over the [[Early Modern English]] and [[Modern English]] eras.

Middle English generally did not have [[silent letter]]s. For example, ''knight'' was pronounced {{IPA|enm|ˈkniçt|}} (with both the {{vr|k}} and the {{vr|gh}} pronounced, the latter sounding as the {{angle bracket|ch}} in German {{lang|de|Knecht}}). The major exception was the [[silent e|silent {{angbr|e}}]] – originally pronounced but lost in normal speech by Chaucer's time. This letter, however, came to indicate a lengthened – and later also modified – pronunciation of a preceding vowel. For example, in ''name'', originally pronounced as two syllables, the /a/ in the first syllable (originally an open syllable) lengthened, the final weak vowel was later dropped, and the remaining long vowel was modified in the [[Great Vowel Shift]] (for these sound changes, see [[#Phonology|Phonology]], above). The final {{angbr|e}}, now silent, thus became the indicator of the longer and changed pronunciation of {{angbr|a}}. In fact, vowels could have this lengthened and modified pronunciation in various positions, particularly before a single consonant letter and another vowel or before certain pairs of consonants.

A related convention involved the doubling of consonant letters to show that the preceding vowel was not to be lengthened. In some cases, the double consonant represented a sound that was (or had previously been) [[gemination|geminated]] (i.e., had genuinely been "doubled" and would thus have regularly blocked the lengthening of the preceding vowel). In other cases, by analogy, the consonant was written double merely to indicate the lack of lengthening.

===Alphabet===
The basic [[Old English Latin alphabet]] consisted of 20 standard letters plus four additional letters: [[ash (letter)|ash]] {{angbr|æ}}, [[eth]] {{angbr|ð}}, [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] {{angbr|þ}}, and [[wynn]] {{angbr|ƿ}}. There was not yet a distinct ''j'', ''v'', or ''w'', and Old English scribes did not generally use ''k'', ''q'', or ''z''.

Ash was no longer required in Middle English, as the Old English vowel {{IPA|/æ/}} that it represented had [[#Phonology|merged into /a/]]. The symbol nonetheless came to be used as a [[typographic ligature|ligature]] for the digraph {{angle bracket|ae}} in many words of Greek or Latin origin, as did {{angbr|œ}} for {{angbr|oe}}.

Eth and thorn both represented {{IPA|/θ/}} or its [[allophone]] {{IPAslink|ð}} in Old English. Eth fell out of use during the 13th century and was replaced by thorn. Thorn mostly fell out of use during the 14th century and was replaced by [[th (digraph)|{{vr|th}}]]. Anachronistic usage of the scribal abbreviation [[File:EME ye.svg|10px]] ({{lang|enm|þe}}, "the") has led to the modern mispronunciation of ''thorn'' as {{angle bracket|[[y]]}} in this context; see ''[[ye olde]]''.<ref>''Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary'', [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ye] retrieved February 1, 2009</ref>

Wynn, which represented the phoneme {{IPA|/w/}}, was replaced by {{angle bracket|[[w]]}} during the 13th century. Due to its similarity to the letter {{angle bracket|p}}, it is mostly represented by {{angle bracket|w}} in modern editions of Old and Middle English texts even when the manuscript has wynn.

Under Norman influence, the continental [[Carolingian minuscule]] replaced the [[insular script]] that had been used for Old English. However, because of the significant difference in appearance between the old [[insular G|insular ''g'']] and the [[Carolingian G|Carolingian ''g'']] (modern ''g''), the former continued in use as a separate letter, known as [[yogh]], written {{angbr|ȝ}}. This was adopted for use to represent a variety of sounds: {{IPA|[ɣ], [j], [dʒ], [x], [ç]}}, while the Carolingian ''g'' was normally used for [g]. Instances of yogh were eventually replaced by {{angbr|j}} or {{angbr|y}} and by {{angbr|gh}} in words like ''night'' and ''laugh''. In [[Middle Scots]], yogh became indistinguishable from cursive ''z'', and printers tended to use {{angle bracket|z}} when ''yogh'' was not available in their fonts; this led to new spellings (often giving rise to new pronunciations), as in [[Mackenzie (surname)|''McKenzie'']], where the {{angbr|z}} replaced a yogh, which had the pronunciation {{IPA|/j/}}.

Under continental influence{{Clarify|reason=What continental influence? See Talk.|date=February 2025}}, the letters {{vr|k}}, {{vr|q}}, and {{vr|z}}, which had not normally been used by Old English scribes, came to be commonly used in the writing of Middle English. Also, the newer Latin letter {{vr|w}} was introduced (replacing wynn). The distinct letter forms [[v|{{vr|v}}]] and [[u|{{vr|u}}]] came into use but were still used interchangeably; the same applies to [[j|{{vr|j}}]] and [[i|{{vr|i}}]].<ref name="Salmon">Salmon, V., (in) Lass, R. (ed.), ''The Cambridge History of the English Language'', Vol. III, CUP 2000, p. 39.</ref> (For example, spellings such as {{lang|enm|wijf}} and {{lang|enm|paradijs}} for "wife" and "paradise" can be found in Middle English.)

The consonantal {{vr|j}}/{{vr|i}} was sometimes used to transliterate the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] letter [[yodh]], representing the [[palatal approximant]] sound {{IPA|/j/}} (and transliterated in [[Greek language|Greek]] by [[iota]] and in Latin by {{vr|i}}); words like ''Jerusalem'', ''Joseph'', etc. would have originally followed the Latin pronunciation beginning with {{IPA|/j/}}, that is, the sound of {{vr|y}} in ''yes''. In some words, however, notably from [[Old French]], {{vr|j}}/{{vr|i}} was used for the [[affricate consonant]] {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, as in {{lang|fro|joie}} (modern "joy"), used in [[Wycliffe's Bible]].<ref name="j-oed">"J", ''Oxford English Dictionary,'' 2nd edition (1989)</ref><ref>"J" and "jay", ''Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged'' (1993)</ref> This was similar to the [[gemination|geminate sound]] {{IPA|[ddʒ]}}, which had been represented as {{vr|cg}} in Old English. By the time of Modern English, the sound came to be written as {{vr|j}}/{{vr|i}} at the start of words (like "joy"), and usually as {{vr|dg}} elsewhere (as in "bridge"). It could also be written, mainly in French loanwords, as {{vr|g}}, with the adoption of the [[hard and soft G|soft G]] convention (''age'', ''page'', etc.)

===Other symbols===
Many [[scribal abbreviation]]s were also used. It was common for the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] to abbreviate the name of [[Jesus]] (as in Latin manuscripts) to ''[[Christogram|ihc]]''. The letters {{vr|n}} and {{vr|m}} were often omitted and indicated by a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]] above an adjacent letter, so for example, ''in'' could be written as ''ī''. A thorn with a superscript {{vr|t}} or {{vr|e}} could be used for ''that'' and ''the''; the thorn here resembled a {{vr|Y}}, giving rise to the ''ye'' of "[[Ye Olde]]". Various forms of the [[ampersand]] replaced the word ''and''.

Numbers were still always written using [[Roman numerals]], except for some rare occurrences of [[Arabic numerals]] during the 15th century.

===Letter-to-sound correspondences===
Although Middle English spelling was never fully standardised, the following table shows the pronunciations most usually represented by particular letters and [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s towards the end of the Middle English period, using the notation given in the article on [[Middle English phonology]].<ref>For certain details, see "Chancery Standard spelling" in Upward, C., Davidson, G., ''The History of English Spelling'', Wiley 2011.</ref> As explained above, single vowel letters had alternative pronunciations depending on whether they were in a position where their sounds had been subject to lengthening. Long vowel pronunciations were in flux due to the beginnings of the [[Great Vowel Shift]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Symbol !! Description and notes
|-
! a
| {{IPAslink|a}}, or in lengthened positions {{IPA|/a{{IPA link|ː}}/}}, becoming {{IPA|[{{IPA link|æ}}ː]}} by about 1500. Sometimes {{IPA|/au/}} before {{vr|l}} or nasals (see [[Phonological history of English diphthongs#Late Middle English|Late Middle English diphthongs]]).
|-
! ai, ay
| {{IPA|/{{IPA link|a}}{{IPA link|i}}/}} (alternatively denoted by {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɛ}}i/}}; see [[Vein–vain merger|''vein–vain'' merger]]).
|-
! au, aw
| {{IPA|/{{IPA link|a}}{{IPA link|u}}/}}
|-
! b
| {{IPAslink|b}}, but in later Middle English became silent in words ending ''-mb'' (while some words that never had a {{IPA|/b/}} sound came to be spelt ''-mb'' by analogy; see [[Phonological history of English consonant clusters#mb|reduction of /mb/]]).
|-
! c
| {{IPAslink|k}}, but {{IPAslink|s}} (earlier {{IPAslink|ts}}) before {{vr|e}}, {{vr|i}}, {{vr|y}} (see [[C]] and [[hard and soft C]] for details).
|-
! ch
| {{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|-
! ck
| {{IPAslink|k}}, replaced earlier {{vr|kk}} as the doubled form of {{vr|k}} (for the phenomenon of doubling, see above).
|-
! d
| {{IPAslink|d}}
|-
! e
| {{IPAslink|e}}, or in lengthened positions {{IPA|/e{{IPA link|ː}}/}} or sometimes {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɛ}}ː/}} (see '''ee'''). For silent {{vr|e}}, see above.
|-
! ea
| Rare, for {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɛ}}{{IPA link|ː}}/}} (see '''ee''').
|-
! ee
| {{IPA|/{{IPA link|e}}{{IPA link|ː}}/}}, becoming {{IPA|[{{IPA link|i}}ː]}} by about 1500; or {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɛ}}ː/}}, becoming {{IPA|[eː]}} by about 1500. In [[Early Modern English#Orthography|Early Modern English]] the latter vowel came to be commonly written {{vr|ea}}. The two vowels [[meet-meat merger|later merged]].
|-
! ei, ey
| Sometimes the same as {{vr|ai}}; sometimes {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɛ}}{{IPA link|ː}}/}} or {{IPA|/{{IPA link|e}}ː/}} (see also [[fleece merger|''fleece'' merger]]).
|-
! ew
| Either {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɛ}}{{IPA link|u}}/}} or {{IPA|/{{IPA link|i}}u/}} (see [[Phonological history of English diphthongs#Late Middle English|Late Middle English diphthongs]]; these later merged).
|-
! f
| {{IPAslink|f}}
|-
! g
| {{IPAslink|ɡ}}, or {{IPAslink|dʒ}} before {{vr|e}}, {{vr|i}}, {{vr|y}} (see [[g|{{vr|g}}]] for details). The {{vr|g}} in initial ''gn-'' was still pronounced.
|-
! gh
| {{IPAblink|ç}} or {{IPAblink|x}}, post-vowel allophones of {{IPAslink|h}} (this was formerly one of the uses of [[yogh]]). The {{vr|gh}} is often retained in Chancery spellings even though the sound was starting to be lost.
|-
! h
| {{IPAslink|h}} (except for the allophones for which {{vr|gh}} was used). Also used in several digraphs ({{vr|ch}}, {{vr|th}}, etc.). In some French loanwords, such as ''horrible'', the {{vr|h}} was silent.
|-
! i, j
| As a vowel, {{IPAslink|i}}, or in lengthened positions {{IPA|/i{{IPA link|ː}}/}}, which had started to be diphthongised by about 1500. As a consonant, {{IPAslink|dʒ}} ((corresponding to modern {{vr|j}}); see above).
|-
! {{Not a typo|ie}}
| Used sometimes for {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɛ}}{{IPA link|ː}}/}} (see '''ee''').
|-
! k
| {{IPAslink|k}}, used particularly in positions where {{vr|c}} would be softened. Also used in {{vr|kn}} at the start of words; here both consonants were still pronounced.
|-
! l
| {{IPAslink|l}}
|-
! m
| {{IPAslink|m}}
|-
! n
| {{IPAslink|n}}, including its allophone {{IPAblink|ŋ}} (before {{IPAslink|k}}, {{IPAslink|ɡ}}).
|-
! o
| {{IPAslink|o}}, or in lengthened positions {{IPA|/ɔ{{IPA link|ː}}/}} or sometimes {{IPA|/{{IPA link|o}}ː/}} (see '''oo'''). Sometimes {{IPAslink|u}}, as in ''sone'' (modern ''son''); the {{vr|o}} spelling was often used rather than {{vr|u}} when adjacent to ''i, m, n, v, w'' for legibility, i.e. to avoid a succession of vertical strokes.<ref>Algeo, J., Butcher, C., ''The Origins and Development of the English Language'', Cengage Learning 2013, p. 128.</ref>
|-
! oa
| Rare, for {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɔ}}{{IPA link|ː}}/}} (became commonly used in Early Modern English).
|-
! oi, oy
| {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɔ}}{{IPA link|i}}/}} or {{IPA|/{{IPA link|u}}i/}} (see [[Phonological history of English diphthongs#Late Middle English|Late Middle English diphthongs]]; these later merged).
|-
! oo
| {{IPA|/{{IPA link|o}}{{IPA link|ː}}/}}, becoming {{IPA|[{{IPA link|u}}ː]}} by about 1500; or {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɔ}}ː/}}.
|-
! ou, ow
| Either {{IPA|/{{IPA link|u}}{{IPA link|ː}}/}}, which had started to be diphthongised by about 1500, or {{IPA|/{{IPA link|ɔ}}u/}}.
|-
! p
| {{IPAslink|p}}
|-
! qu
| {{IPA|/{{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|w}}/}}
|-
! r
| {{IPAslink|r}}
|-
! s
| {{IPAslink|s}}, sometimes {{IPAslink|z}} (formerly {{IPA|[z]}} was an allophone of {{IPA|/s/}}). Also appeared as '''ſ''' ([[long s]]).
|-
! sch, sh
| {{IPAslink|ʃ}}
|-
! t
| {{IPAslink|t}}
|-
! th
| {{IPAslink|θ}} or {{IPAslink|ð}} (which had previously been allophones of a single phoneme), replacing earlier [[eth]] and [[thorn (letter)|thorn]], although thorn was still sometimes used.
|-
! u, v
| Used interchangeably. As a consonant, {{IPAslink|v}}. As a vowel, {{IPAslink|u}}, or {{IPA|/{{IPA link|i}}u/}} in "lengthened" positions (although it had generally not gone through the same lengthening process as other vowels – see [[Phonological history of English close back vowels#ju|Development of /juː/]]).
|-
! w
| {{IPAslink|w}} (replaced Old English [[wynn]]).
|-
! wh
| {{IPAslink|ʍ|hw}} (see [[English wh|English {{vr|wh}}]]).
|-
! x
| {{IPA|/{{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|s}}/}}
|-
! y
| As a consonant, {{IPAslink|j}} (earlier this was one of the uses of yogh). Sometimes also {{IPAslink|ɡ}}. As a vowel, the same as {{vr|i}}, where {{vr|y}} is often preferred beside letters with downstrokes.
|-
! z
| {{IPAslink|z}} (in Scotland sometimes used as a substitute for yogh; see above).
|}

==Sample texts==
{{main|Middle English literature}}
Most of the following [[Modern English]] translations are poetic [[sense-for-sense translation]]s, not [[word-for-word translation]]s.

===Ormulum, 12th century===
{{further|Ormulum}}
This passage explains the background to the [[Nativity of Jesus|Nativity]] (3494–501):<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Ormulum: with the notes and glossary of Dr R. M. White. ''Two vols''|url=https://archive.org/details/ormulum00holtgoog|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1878|editor-last=Holt|editor-first=Robert|location=Oxford}} Internet Archive: [[iarchive:ormulum00holtgoog|Volume 1]]; [[iarchive:ormulum01holtgoog|Volume 2]].</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|{{lang|enm|Forrþrihht anan se time comm{{pb}}þatt ure Drihhtin wollde{{pb}}ben borenn i þiss middellærd{{pb}}forr all mannkinne nede{{pb}}he chæs himm sone kinnessmenn{{pb}}all swillke summ he wollde{{pb}}and whær he wollde borenn ben{{pb}}he chæs all att hiss wille.}}
|Forthwith when the time came{{pb}}that our Lord wanted{{pb}}be born in this earth{{pb}}for all mankind sake,{{pb}}He chose kinsmen for Himself,{{pb}}all just as he wanted,{{pb}}and where He would be born{{pb}}He chose all at His will.
|}

===Epitaph of John the smyth, died 1371===
{{further|Brightwell Baldwin}}
An epitaph from a [[monumental brass]] in an Oxfordshire parish church:<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bertram |first=Jerome |year=2003 |title=Medieval Inscriptions in Oxfordshire |journal=Oxoniensia |volume=LXVVIII |page=30 |issn=0308-5562 |url= http://oxoniensia.org/volumes/2003/bertram.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Utechin>{{cite book |last=Utechin |first=Patricia |year=1990 |orig-year=1980 |title=Epitaphs from Oxfordshire |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Robert Dugdale |isbn=978-0-946976-04-1 |pages=39 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!'''Original text'''
![[Word-for-word translation]] into [[Modern English]]
!'''Translation''' ''by Patricia Utechin''<ref name=Utechin/>
|-
|{{lang|enm|man com & se how schal alle dede li: wen þow comes bad & bare{{pb}}noth hab ven ve awaẏ fare: All ẏs wermēs þt ve for care:—{{pb}}bot þt ve do for godẏs luf ve haue nothyng yare:{{pb}}hundyr þis graue lẏs John þe smẏth god yif his soule heuen grit}}
| Man, come and see how shall all dead lie: when thou comes bad and bare{{pb}}naught have when we away fare: all is worms that we for care:—{{pb}}but that we do for God's love, we have nothing ready:{{pb}}under this grave lies John the smith, God give his soul heaven grith
| Man, come and see how all dead men shall lie: when that comes bad and bare,{{pb}}we have nothing when we away fare: all that we care for is worms:—{{pb}}except for that which we do for God's sake, we have nothing ready:{{pb}}under this grave lies John the smith, God give his soul heavenly peace
|}

===Pre-Wycliffite Bibles===
{| class="wikitable"
|+[[Epistle of James|James]] 1:5,6
!West Midlands (Herefordshire) dialect
(Selwyn College lOS. L. 1.)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kraebel |first1=Andrew |title=Biblical Compilation, Regional Reading, and Tailored Texts: The Making of Selwyn College MS 108 L. 1 |journal=The Practice and Politics of Reading, 650-1500 |date=6 September 2022 |pages=200–227 |doi=10.1017/9781800106352.010}}</ref>
!Southern dialect
(MS. Bodl. Douce 250.)
!Early Modern English
(KJM 1611)
!Modern English
|-
|{{lang|enm|5. And who-efere of ȝou nedeþ wysdom, axe he of God, þat graunteþ eferich man plentyuouslyche and obbraydeþ no man. 6. & axe he in feiþ & trust, doutynge no þing: For he þat douteþ is lyche to þe flod of þe see þat is y-mefed & y-boren aboute of þe wynd.}}
|{{lang|enm|5. & whuche of ȝow so haþ nede of wysdom, aske of God þat ȝeveþ plentyuously to alle, & withstonde him nouȝte, & it schal be ȝove to him. 6. Aske he soþely in feiþ, nouȝte faylynge: for soþely he þat is faylynge (þat is, faylynge in þe feiþ) he is lyke to þe flowynge of þe see þe whuche is mevyd wiþ þe wynde & bore a-boute.}}
|5. If any of you lack wisdom, let him ask of God, that giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not; and it shall be given him.
6. But let him ask in faith, nothing wavering. For he that wavereth is like a wave of the sea driven with the wind and tossed.
|5. Any of you who lacks wisdom must ask God, who gives to all generously and without scolding; it will be given.
6. But the prayer must be made with faith, and no trace of doubt, because a person who has doubts is like the waves thrown up in the sea by the buffeting of the wind.
|}

===Wycliffite Bibles===
{{anchor|Wycliffe's Bible, 1384}}
From the [[Wycliffe's Bible]]:
{| class="wikitable"
|+[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 8:1–3
!Early version (c. 1380s)
!Later version (c. 1390s)
!Translation
|-
|{{lang|enm|1And it was don aftirward, and Jhesu made iorney by citees and castelis, prechinge and euangelysinge þe rewme of God, 2and twelue wiþ him; and summe wymmen þat weren heelid of wickide spiritis and syknessis, Marie, þat is clepid Mawdeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis wenten 3 out, and Jone, þe wyf of Chuse, procuratour of Eroude, and Susanne, and manye oþere, whiche mynystriden to him of her riches.}}
|{{lang|enm|1And it was don aftirward, and Jhesus made iourney bi citees and castels, prechynge and euangelisynge þe rewme of 2God, and twelue wiþ hym; and sum wymmen þat weren heelid of wickid spiritis and sijknessis, Marie, þat is clepid Maudeleyn, of whom seuene deuelis 3wenten out, and Joone, þe wijf of Chuse, þe procuratoure of Eroude, and Susanne, and many oþir, þat mynystriden to hym of her ritchesse.}}
|1And it was done afterwards, that Jesus made a journey by cities and castles, preaching and evangelising the realm of 2God: and with him (the) Twelve; and some women that were healed of wicked spirits and sicknesses; Mary who is called Magdalene, from whom 3seven devils went out; and Joanna the wife of Chuza, the procurator of Herod; and Susanna, and many others, who ministered to Him out of her riches.
|}

===Chaucer, 1390s===
The following is the very beginning of the [[General Prologue]] from ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. The text was written in a dialect associated with London and spellings associated with the then-emergent Chancery Standard.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|+First 18 lines of the General Prologue
|-
! style="text-align:center" |Original in Middle English
! style="text-align:center" |[[Word-for-word translation]] into [[Modern English]]<ref>This Bharatpedia translation closely mirrors the translation found here: {{cite book
|translator-first1=Vincent |translator-last1=Foster Hopper
|title=Canterbury Tales (selected)
|publisher=Barron's Educational Series
|year=1970
|edition=revised
|page=[https://archive.org/details/canterburytaless0000chau/page/2 2]
|url=https://archive.org/details/canterburytaless0000chau|url-access=registration
|quote=when april, with his.
|isbn=9780812000399
}}</ref>
! style="text-align:center" | Translation into Modern U.K. English prose<ref>{{cite book |author-link1=Henry Sweet |last1=Sweet |first1=Henry |title=First Middle English Primer (updated) |publisher=Evolution Publishing: [[Bristol, Pennsylvania]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-889758-70-1}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2025}}

|-
| {{lang|enm|Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote}}
| When [that] April with his showers sweet
| When April with its sweet showers
|-
| {{lang|enm|The droȝte of March hath perced to the roote}}
| The drought of March has pierced to the root
| has drenched March's drought to the roots,
|-
| {{lang|enm|And bathed every veyne in swich licour,}}
| And bathed every vein in such [[sap|liquor]],
| filling every capillary with nourishing sap
|-
| {{lang|enm|Of which vertu engendred is the flour;}}
| From which goodness is engendered the flower;
| prompting the flowers to grow,
|-
|{{lang|enm|Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth}}
|When [[Zephyrus]] even with his sweet breath
|and when Zephyrus with his sweet breath
|-
|{{lang|enm|Inspired hath in every holt and heeth}}
|Inspired has in every holt and heath
|has coaxed in every wood and dale, to sprout
|-
|{{lang|enm|The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne}}
|The tender crops; and the young sun
|the tender plants, as the springtime sun
|-
|{{lang|enm|Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne,}}
|Has in [[Aries (astrology)|the Ram]] his half-course run,
|passes halfway through the sign of [[Aries (astrology)|Aries]],
|-
|{{lang|enm|And smale foweles maken melodye,}}
|And small birds make melodies,
|and small birds that chirp melodies,
|-
|{{lang|enm|That slepen al the nyght with open ye}}
|That sleep all night with open eyes
|sleep all night with half-open eyes
|-
|{{lang|enm|(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages);}}
|(So Nature prompts them in their courage);
|their spirits thus aroused by Nature;
|-
|{{lang|enm|Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages}}
|Then folk long to go on pilgrimages.
|it is at these times that people desire to go on pilgrimages
|-
|{{lang|enm|And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes}}
|And pilgrims ([[Palmer (Pilgrim)|palmer]]s) [for] to seek new [[wikt:strand|strands]]
|and pilgrims ([[Palmer (pilgrim)|palmers]]) seek new shores
|-
|{{lang|enm|To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;}}
|To far-off shrines ([[Saint|hallows]]), respected (couth, known) in sundry lands;
|and distant shrines venerated in other places.
|-
|{{lang|enm|And specially from every shires ende}}
|And specially from every shire's end
|Particularly from every county
|-
|{{lang|enm|Of Engelond, to Caunterbury they wende,}}
|Of England, to Canterbury they went,
|from England, they go to Canterbury,
|-
|{{lang|enm|The hooly blisful martir for to seke}}
|The [[Thomas Becket|holy blissful martyr]] [for] to seek,
|in order to visit the [[Thomas Becket|holy blessed martyr]],
|-
|{{lang|enm|That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke.}}
|That has helped them, when [that] they were sick.
| who has helped them when they were sick.
|}

===Gower, 1390===
The following is the beginning of the Prologue from ''[[Confessio Amantis]]'' by [[John Gower]].

{| class="wikitable"
!Original in Middle English
!Near word-for-word translation into Modern English:
!Translation into Modern English: (by Richard Brodie)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.richardbrodie.com/Prologue.html|work=John Gower's 'Confessio Amantis' Modern English Version|last=Brodie|first=Richard|year=2005|title=Prologue|access-date=March 15, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329074902/http://www.richardbrodie.com/Prologue.html |archive-date= Mar 29, 2013 }}</ref>
|-
|
:
:Of hem that written ous tofore
:The bokes duelle, and we therfore
:Ben tawht of that was write tho:
:Forthi good is that we also
:In oure tyme among ous hiere
:Do wryte of newe som matiere,
:Essampled of these olde wyse
:So that it myhte in such a wyse,
:Whan we ben dede and elleswhere,
:Beleve to the worldes eere
:In tyme comende after this.
:Bot for men sein, and soth it is,
:That who that al of wisdom writ
:It dulleth ofte a mannes wit
:To him that schal it aldai rede,
:For thilke cause, if that ye rede,
:I wolde go the middel weie
:And wryte a bok betwen the tweie,
:Somwhat of lust, somewhat of lore,
:That of the lasse or of the more
:Som man mai lyke of that I wryte:
|
:
:Of them that wrote us before
:The books dwell, and we therefore
:Been taught of that was written then:
:For it is good that we also
:In our time among us here
:Do write some new matter,
:Exampled by these old ways
:So that it might in such a way,
:When we be dead and elsewhere,
:Be left to the world's ear
:In time coming after this.
:But for men say, and so it is,
:That who that all of wisdom writes
:It dulls often a man's wit
:To him that shall it every day read,
:For that like cause, if that you read,
:I would go the middle way
:And write a book between the two,
:Somewhat of lust, somewhat of lore,
:That of the less or of the more
:Some man may like of that I write:
|
:
:Of those who wrote before our lives
:Their precious legacy survives;
:From what was written then, we learn,
:And so it's well that we in turn,
:In our allotted time on earth
:Do write anew some things of worth,
:Like those we from these sages cite,
:So that such in like manner might,
:When we have left this mortal sphere,
:Remain for all the world to hear
:In ages following our own.
:But it is so that men are prone
:To say that when one only reads
:Of wisdom all day long, one breeds
:A paucity of wit, and so
:If you agree I'll choose to go
:Along a kind of middle ground
:Sometimes I'll write of things profound,
:And sometimes for amusement's sake
:A lighter path of pleasure take
:So all can something pleasing find.
|}

'''Translation in Modern English: (by J. Dow)'''

{{blockquote|Of those who wrote before we were born, books survive,
So we are taught what was written by them when they were alive.
So it's good that we, in our times here on earth, write of new matters –
Following the example of our forefathers –
So that, in such a way, we may leave our knowledge to the world after we are dead and gone.
But it's said, and it is true, that if one only reads of wisdom all day long
It often dulls one's brains. So, if it's alright with you,
I'll take the middle route and write a book between the two –
Somewhat of amusement, and somewhat of fact.
In that way, somebody might, more or less, like that.}}

==See also==
*''[[Medulla Grammatice]]'' (collection of glossaries)
*[[Middle English creole hypothesis]]
*[[Middle English Dictionary]]
*[[Middle English literature]]
*[[A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Brunner, Karl (1962) ''Abriss der mittelenglischen Grammatik''; 5. Auflage. Tübingen: M. Niemeyer (1st ed. Halle (Saale): M. Niemeyer, 1938)
*Brunner, Karl (1963) ''An Outline of Middle English Grammar''; translated by Grahame Johnston. Oxford: Blackwell
*{{cite book |last1=Burrow |first1=J. A. |last2=Turville-Petre |first2=Thorlac |title=A Book of Middle English |edition=3 |publisher=Blackwell |year=2005}}
*[[Tauno Frans Mustanoja|Mustanoja, Tauno]] (1960) "A Middle English Syntax. 1. Parts of Speech". Helsinki : Société néophilologique.
*{{Cite book |last1=Upward |first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNfebt79zdwC |title=The History of English Spelling |last2=Davidson |first2=George |isbn=978-1-4443-4297-0 |location=England |publication-date=2011 |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://vdoc.pub/download/the-history-of-english-spelling-7v6df6d33sv0 |archive-date=26 April 2025 |url-status=}}

==External links==
{{Wikisourcecat|Middle English works}}
*[http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/concise/concise.html A. L. Mayhew and Walter William Skeat. ''A Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.D. 1150 to 1580'']
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120222235404/http://victorcauchi.fortunecity.com/EuCmp/o/oldeng.htm Middle English Glossary] (archived 22 February 2012)
*{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/amiddleenglishr01emergoog|title=A Middle English Reader|editor=[[Oliver Farrar Emerson]] |publisher=Macmillan|year=1915|via=[[Internet Archive]]}} With grammatical introduction, notes, and glossary.
*[https://incubator.miraheze.org/wiki/Wp/enm/Mayne_Page Middle English encyclopedia] on Miraheze

{{History of English}}
{{Germanic languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Anglic languages]]
[[Category:Medieval languages|English, Middle]]
[[Category:History of the English language]]
[[Category:Middle English| Middle English]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 11th century]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 15th century]]

2022 Indian National Congress leadership election

2026-01-02T16:53:52Z

Davidmam:

{{short description|Internal party poll to elect new party president}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2022}}

{{Infobox election
| election_name = 2022 Indian National Congress leadership election
| country = India
| flag_image = [[File:Indian National Congress Flag.svg|50px]]
| type = leadership
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 2017 Indian National Congress leadership election
| previous_year = 2017
| election_date = 17 October 2022
| turnout = 95.78%<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-17 |title=Congress Presidential poll sees 95.78% turnout from delegates |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/national-politics/congress-presidential-poll-sees-96-turnout-from-delegates-1154403.html |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>
| next_election =
| next_year =
| votes_for_election = 9915 [[Pradesh Congress Committee|PCC delegates]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-17 |title=Congress votes to elect its next party president |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/congress-votes-to-elect-its-next-party-president-101666030735877.html |access-date=2022-10-17 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
| 1blank = PCC delegates' vote
| image1 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Mallikarjun Kharge (crop).jpg|bSize=120|cWidth=100|cHeight=135|oLeft=10|oTop=8}}
| candidate1 = '''[[Mallikarjun Kharge]]'''
| home_state1= [[Karnataka]]
| home_state2= [[Kerala]]
| color1=0000FF
| color2=FF0000
| candidate2 = [[Shashi Tharoor]]
| image2 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Sasi Tharoor 2021 at Kollam (1).jpg|bSize=120|cWidth=100|cHeight=135|oLeft=10|oTop=8}}
| electoral_vote1 = '''7,897'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Congress President - Mallikarjun Kharge: 7897, Shashi Tharoor: 1072 |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mallikarjun-kharge-is-new-congress-president-will-be-first-non-gandhi-to-hold-post-in-over-2-decades-3444883 |date=2022-10-19 |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=NDTV |language=en}}</ref>
| electoral_vote2 = 1,072
| title = [[List of presidents of the Indian National Congress|President]]
| before_election = [[Sonia Gandhi]] (interim)
| after_election = [[Mallikarjun Kharge]]
| percentage1 = '''84.14%'''
| percentage2 = 11.42%
}}

The '''2022 Indian National Congress leadership election''' was an internal party election that was held to elect the next [[List of presidents of the Indian National Congress|president]] of the [[Indian National Congress]]. A formal notification for the election was issued on 22 September 2022. The election was held on 17 October 2022 and counting of votes took place on 19 October 2022.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2022-08-28 |title=Congress president election to be held on Oct 17, CWC announces revised schedule |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/congress-president-election-to-be-held-on-oct-17-cwc-announces-revised-schedule-101661686816576.html |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> [[Mallikarjun Kharge]] won the election amassing 7,897 votes compared to 1,072 of [[Shashi Tharoor]].

The election was triggered by resignation of [[Rahul Gandhi]] as party leader on 10 August 2019. However, the party's [[presidium]], the [[All India Congress Committee]], elected former president [[Sonia Gandhi]] as interim president. Due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], the election for the next president was postponed until 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-10 |title=Elections for Congress party president further postponed due to Covid-19 pandemic |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/may/10/elections-for-congress-party-president-further-postponed-due-to-covid-19-pandemic-2300770.html |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> The election was administered by the party's Central Election Authority headed by [[Madhusudan Mistry]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Phukan |first=Sandeep |date=2022-10-03 |title=Congress presidential polls {{!}} CEA issues dos and don'ts for 'fair' election |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-releases-guidelines-for-party-presidential-polls-office-bearers-cannot-campaign/article65966716.ece |access-date=2022-10-04 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Central Election Authority |url=https://inc.in/ |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=[[Indian National Congress]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Background ==

[[Rahul Gandhi]] was unanimously elected as president in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Rahul Gandhi elected Congress president unopposed, to take charge on Dec 16 |newspaper=[[Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rahul-gandhi-elected-congress-president-unopposed/articleshow/62021172.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109021611/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rahul-gandhi-elected-congress-president-unopposed/articleshow/62021172.cms |archive-date=9 November 2020 |date=11 December 2017 |access-date=31 August 2022}}</ref> However, following the party's poor performance in the [[2019 Indian general election]], Gandhi resigned.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Full text of Rahul Gandhi's resignation letter |newspaper=[[India Today]] |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/rahul-gandhi-congress-president-resignation-full-text-statement-1561262-2019-07-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214125921/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/rahul-gandhi-congress-president-resignation-full-text-statement-1561262-2019-07-03 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |date=3 July 2019 |access-date=31 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/latest/929278/rahul-gandhi-says-he-is-no-longer-congress-president-asks-party-to-choose-new-chief-without-delay|title=Rahul Gandhi says he is no longer Congress president, urges party to 'radically transform itself'|website=Scroll.in}}</ref> [[Sonia Gandhi]] was selected by the party's [[All India Congress Committee|presidium]] as the interim president. Sonia Gandhi is Rahul Gandhi's [[Nehru-Gandhi family|mother]], and was the party's longest serving president from 1998 to 2017.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rahul Gandhi takes over as Congress president|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rahul-gandhi-takes-over-as-congress-president/articleshow/62093451.cms|date=16 December 2017|access-date=12 November 2017}}</ref> There was also election held in [[1997 Indian National Congress leadership election|1997]], Sitaram Kesari defeated Sharad Pawar.

It was reported by news outlets that [[Rahul Gandhi]] was not likely to contest the election.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-20 |title=Rahul Gandhi unlikely to contest for Congress party president post: Report |url=https://www.livemint.com/politics/news/rahul-gandhi-unlikely-to-contest-for-congress-party-president-post-report-11663678041080.html |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rahul Gandhi not likely to contest Congress president polls |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/national/politics/rahul-gandhi-not-likely-to-contest-congress-president-polls20220920190213/ |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=ANI News |language=en}}</ref> It was confirmed by Congress spokesperson [[Jairam Ramesh]] that Rahul Gandhi would not file nomination for the election.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022-09-23 |title=In big hint, Congress indicates Rahul Gandhi won't contest president election {{!}} India News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-big-hint-congress-indicates-rahul-gandhi-wont-contest-president-election/articleshow/94357176.cms |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-21 |title='If Rahul Gandhi flies to Delhi on Sept 23, it won't be for…': Jairam Ramesh |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/on-if-ashok-gehlot-contests-in-congress-election-jairam-ramesh-says-101663743438858.html |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> Rahul Gandhi told [[Ashok Gehlot]] that no member of the [[Nehru–Gandhi family|Gandhi family]] should be the next President.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2022-09-23 |title=No Gandhi family member should be next Congress chief: Rahul Gandhi tells Ashok Gehlot |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/congress-presidential-poll-rahul-gandhi-ashok-gehlot-no-gandhi-should-be-party-chief-2003731-2022-09-23 |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

=== Prior elections ===
The last party leadership election was held in 2017, which Rahul Gandhi won unanimously.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-04 |title=Rahul Gandhi chosen unanimously by 9,000 PCC delegates |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/congress-president-sonia-gandhi-rahul-gandhi-chosen-unanimously-by-9000-congress-workers-4967465/ |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> The last contested election was held in 2000, when Sonia Gandhi defeated [[Jitendra Prasada]] by a huge margin of 97%.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-08-30 |title=Congress prez poll: When Jitendra Prasada challenged Sonia Gandhi and lost |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/congress-prez-poll-when-jitendra-prasad-challenged-sonia-gandhi-and-lost-122083000423_1.html |access-date=2022-09-23}}</ref> She had been repeatedly selected for the position without any election being held.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-16 |title=The Long Reign Of Sonia Gandhi As Congress Party President |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/the-long-reign-of-sonia-gandhi-as-congress-party-president-news-230379 |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=www.outlookindia.com/ |language=en}}</ref>

=== Nomination ===
On 19 September 2022, it was reported that [[Shashi Tharoor]] and [[Ashok Gehlot]] were interested in running for the post. Both Tharoor and Ashok officially confirmed on 24 September that they would be running for the post. Gehlot and Tharoor confirmed they would file their nominations in the coming days. During the same day [[Sonia Gandhi]] met [[Anand Sharma]] a prominent leader of the [[G-23 (political group)|G-23]] on the discussion of the post and [[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|Himachal Pradesh Election]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Phukan |first=Sandeep |date=2022-09-24 |title=Congress president election {{!}} Shashi Tharoor set to file papers next week |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/shashi-tharoor-gets-nomination-forms-collected-for-congress-president-poll/article65930424.ece |access-date=2022-09-29 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sudhi |first=K. S. |date=2022-09-23 |title=Ashok Gehlot announces run for Congress president, say Sonia Gandhi will pick his successor |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ashok-gehlot-announces-his-candidature-for-the-post-of-congress-president/article65926573.ece |access-date=2022-09-29 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-23 |title=Ashok Gehlot makes it official: Will contest for Congress top post |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/gehlot-makes-official-will-contest-for-cong-top-post-8168995/ |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> In the following days various reports emerged that [[Digvijaya Singh]] was looking to compete for the post and has started collecting signatures from party members for his nominations. During the process for nominations, multiple Congress MPs flew to Delhi to support various candidates. On 29 September, Digvijaya Singh officially announced he would be contesting for the post and that he would file his papers on 30 September.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Digvijaya Singh Is On. Congress President Polls Gets Another Contender |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/congresss-digvijaya-singh-joins-party-president-race-says-will-file-nomination-tomorrow-3387743 |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-29 |title=Congress president polls: Digvijaya Singh collects nomination forms, confirms he is contesting for chief's post |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/digvijaya-singh-congress-president-polls-nomination-8179984/ |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

Post Gehlot announcing his intentions to run for the post, multiple MLA in Rajasthan expressed dissatisfaction. Concerns over the government power in Rajasthan grew within the party, with pro-Gehlot MLAs planning on submitting resignations if [[Sachin Pilot]] were to become the CM.<ref>{{Cite web |title=After Ashok Gehlot, Sachin Pilot To Meet Sonia Gandhi Later Today: Report |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/after-ashok-gehlot-sachin-pilot-to-meet-sonia-gandhi-later-today-report-3388042 |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Rajasthan government crisis: Main actors in Jaipur's political theatre |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/rajasthan-political-crisis-main-actors-in-jaipurs-political-theatre/articleshow/94463593.cms |access-date=2022-09-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-26 |title=Rajasthan Congress crisis Highlights: CM Gehlot not resigning today, will meet central leadership in Delhi this evening, says PS Khachariyawas |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/rajasthan-congress-crisis-live-updates-ashok-gehlot-sachin-pilot-loyalist-mlas-resignation-8173057/ |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> On 29 September, Gehlot met with Congress president Sonia Gandhi for an hour long meeting, post meeting Gehlot confirmed he will no longer be contesting for the post. Later reports emerged that former Jharkhand MLA, K. N. Tripathi was looking to enter the race which was confirmed few hours later.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Congress presidential polls: Former Jharkhand MLA K N Tripathi enters race |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/congress-presidential-polls-former-jharkhand-mla-k-n-tripathi-enters-race/videoshow/94533403.cms |access-date=2022-09-30 |website=The Economic Times |language=en}}</ref>

On 30 September, Shashi Tharoor and K. N. Tripathi officially filed their nomination for the post while Digvijaya Singh pulled out on the last minute. After various meetings from 28 to 30 September, several senior leaders decided to support [[Mallikarjun Kharge]] for the post. Singh and Gehlot who pulled out from the contest earlier announced they will be extending their support to Kharge, whereas Tripathi's nomination was rejected by the AICC Central Election Authority.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-30 |title=Congress President Elections: Shashi Tharoor, KN Tripathi file nominations |url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/congress-president-elections-live-updates-party-chief-sonia-gandhi-rahul-gandhi-ashok-gehlot-digvijay-singh-11352961.html |access-date=2022-09-30 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" />

== Schedule ==
The election schedule was announced by the [[Congress Working Committee]] on 28 August 2022.<ref name=":2" />
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Event
! Schedule
|-
| Date of Notification
| 22 September 2022
|-
|Date for Nominations
|24 September 2022
|-
| Last Date for filing Nominations
| 30 September 2022
|-
| Date for scrutiny of nominations
| 1 October 2022
|-
| Last date for withdrawal of candidatures
| 8 October 2022
|-
| Date of poll
| 17 October 2022
|-
| '''Date of counting'''
| '''19 October 2022'''
|}

== Candidates ==
===Nominated===
{| class="wikitable" width="60%" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Candidate
! Political office
! Campaign announced {{small|(Nomination filed)}}
! Ref
|-
| [[File:Sasi Tharoor 2021 at Kollam.jpg|100px]] [[Shashi Tharoor]]
|[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] from [[Thiruvananthapuram Lok Sabha constituency|Thiruvananthapuram]] {{small|(2009–present)}}
|24 September 2022 {{small|(30 September 2022)}}
|<ref name=sr>{{Cite web |date=September 19, 2022 |first1=Rajdeep |last1=Sardesai |first2=Supriya |last2=Bhardwaj |title=Shashi Tharoor to run for Congress president, gets Sonia Gandhi's nod: Sources |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/shashi-tharoor-to-run-for-congress-president-with-sonia-gandhi-s-nod-sources-2002129-2022-09-19 |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/shashi-tharoor-gets-nomination-forms-collected-for-congress-president-poll/article65930424.ece | title=Congress president election | Shashi Tharoor set to file papers next week | newspaper=The Hindu | date=24 September 2022 | last1=Phukan | first1=Sandeep }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shashi Tharoor files nomination for Cong presidential poll, says he is for change while Mallikarjun Kharge is 'candidate of continuity' |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/shashi-tharoor-files-nomination-for-cong-presidential-poll-says-he-is-for-change-while-mallikarjun-kharge-is-candidate-of-continuity/cid/1889711 |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Mallikarjun Kharge.jpg|100px]] [[Mallikarjun Kharge]]
|[[Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha]] {{small|(2021–present)}} [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]] from [[List of Rajya Sabha members from Karnataka|Karnataka]] {{small|(2020–present)}}
| 30 September 2022 {{small|(30 September 2022)}}
|<ref>{{Cite news |agency=PTI |date=2022-09-30 |title=Congress polls {{!}} Mallikarjun Kharge to contest, says Pramod Tiwari |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-president-polls-mallikarjun-kharge-to-contest-says-pramod-tiwari/article65953973.ece |access-date=2022-10-02 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2022-09-30 |title=Amid growing support, Kharge files nomination to contest Congress prez polls |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/growing-support-for-mallikarjun-kharge-in-congress-presidential-poll-contest-101664525193346.html |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=2022-09-30 |title=Kharge files nomination for Cong president poll |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/kharge-files-nomination-for-cong-president-poll/articleshow/94556538.cms |access-date=2022-10-02}}</ref>
|-
|}

===Rejected===
{| class="wikitable" width="72%" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Candidate
! Political office
! Campaign announced {{small|(Nomination filed)}}
! Nomination rejected
! Ref
|-
|[[File:K N Tripathi Congress.jpg|100px]] [[Krishna Nand Tripathi]]
|[[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly|Member of Legislative Assembly, Jharkhand]] from [[Daltonganj Assembly constituency|Daltonganj]] {{small|(2009–2014)}}
|29 September 2022 {{small|(30 September 2022)}}
|1 October 2022
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-30 |title=K N Tripathi: Ex-minister from Jharkhand stakes claim for post of Congress prez |url=https://www.livemint.com/politics/news/k-n-tripathi-the-former-minister-from-jharkhand-who-staked-claim-for-the-post-of-congress-president-5-points-11664524789928.html |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-30 |title=Former Jharkhand minister K N Tripathi files nomination for Congress presidential poll |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/national-politics/former-jharkhand-minister-k-n-tripathi-files-nomination-for-congress-presidential-poll-1149689.html |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2022-10-01 |title=Former Jharkhand Minister KN Tripathi's Nomination For Congress Top Post Rejected |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/former-jharkhand-minister-kn-tripathis-nomination-for-congress-top-post-rejected-3395001 |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>
|}

=== Withdrew ===
{| class="wikitable" width="75%" style="text-align:center"
!Candidate
!Political office
!Campaign announced
!Campaign suspended
!Ref
|-
|[[File:Ashok Gehlot 2012.jpg|100px]] [[Ashok Gehlot]]
|[[Chief Minister of Rajasthan]] {{small|(1998–2003, 2008–2013, 2018–2023)}} [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly|Member of Legislative Assembly, Rajasthan]] from [[Sardarpura Assembly constituency|Sardarpura]] {{small|(1998–present)}}
|23 September 2022
|29 September 2022
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-23 |title=Ashok Gehlot makes it official: Will contest for Congress top post |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/gehlot-makes-official-will-contest-for-cong-top-post-8168995/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sudhi |first=K. S. |date=2022-09-23 |title=Ashok Gehlot announces run for Congress president, say Sonia Gandhi will pick his successor |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ashok-gehlot-announces-his-candidature-for-the-post-of-congress-president/article65926573.ece |access-date=2022-09-24 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2022-09-29 |title=Congress chief post: Ashok Gehlot opts out of the race for Congress President |url=https://www.livemint.com/politics/news/ashok-gehlot-says-he-will-not-contest-the-congress-president-elections-11664437835583.html |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-29 |title=Won't contest Congress chief polls, apologise to Sonia Gandhi: Ashok Gehlot |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/amid-congress-crisis-ashok-gehlot-meets-sonia-gandhi-sachin-pilot-next-101664441211823.html |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| [[File:Digvijaya Singh (cropped).jpg|100px]] [[Digvijaya Singh]]
|[[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]] from [[Madhya Pradesh]] {{small|(2014–present)}}
|29 September 2022
|30 September 2022
| <ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-29 |title=Digvijaya Singh confirms Cong president poll bid, to file nomination tomorrow |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/digvijaya-singh-confirms-cong-president-poll-bid-to-file-nomination-tomorrow-101664434832014.html |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-30 |title=Congress prez poll: Digvijaya Singh opts out citing Kharge's decision to contest |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/congress-prez-poll-digvijaya-singh-opts-out-citing-kharge-s-decision-to-contest-101664521658441.html |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-30 |title=Congress president poll anti-climax: Digvijaya Singh pulls out; it's now Shashi Tharoor vs Mallikarjuna Kharge |url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/congress-president-poll-anti-climax-digvijay-singh-pulls-out-its-now-shashi-tharoor-vs-mallikarjuna-kharge-11361601.html |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref>
|}

=== Declined ===

* [[Sonia Gandhi]], [[List of presidents of the Indian National Congress|President of the Indian National Congress]] (1998–2017, 2019–October 2022), [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] from [[Amethi Lok Sabha constituency|Amethi]] (1999–2004), [[Rae Bareli Lok Sabha constituency|Rae Bareli]] (2004–2024), [[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha]] (2024–present)<ref name="Gehlot">{{Cite news |date=23 August 2022 |title=Sonia Gandhi urges Ashok Gehlot to 'lead' Congress |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-may-find-its-non-gandhi-chief-in-ashok-gehlot/article65802719.ece |access-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220826000821/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/congress-may-find-its-non-gandhi-chief-in-ashok-gehlot/article65802719.ece |archive-date=26 August 2022}}</ref>
* [[Rahul Gandhi]], [[List of presidents of the Indian National Congress|President of the Indian National Congress]] (2017–2019), [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] from [[Amethi Lok Sabha constituency|Amethi]] (2004–2019), [[Wayanad Lok Sabha constituency|Wayanad]] (2019–2024), from [[Rae Bareli Lok Sabha constituency|Rae Bareli]] (2024–present)<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== Incidents ==
On the day of counting, Tharoor's team alleged [[electoral fraud]] and said that there were "extremely serious irregularities" in [[Uttar Pradesh Congress Committee]]. They also cited serious issues with polls in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and [[Telangana]]. Tharoor's chief election agent, Salman Soz further alleged that poll agents were threatened when reporting cases of voter malpractice.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2022-10-19 |title=Cong President LIVE: Tharoor's election agent alleges serious irregularities |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/congress-president-poll-results-2022-live-updates-mallikarjun-kharge-shashi-tharoor-rahul-gandhi-sonia-gandhi-11666147187739.html |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2022-10-19 |title=‘Serious irregularities’ in Cong Chief poll, team Tharoor's 4 big allegations |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/serious-irregularities-in-cong-chief-poll-team-tharoor-s-4-big-allegations-11666164000179.html |access-date=2022-12-06 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

After the allegations were leaked to the media, the Tharoor camp softened their stance and met with [[Madhusudan Mistry]], the Congress central election authority chairman. After the meeting, Soz was assured of a proper probe and the issue was dismissed by Mistry as a "general complaint" whose accusations were not specific.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mistry terms baseless Tharoor’s election complaint of voter fraud in UP |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/mistry-terms-baseless-tharoors-election-complaint-of-voter-fraud-in-up-442790}}</ref>

== Results ==
The results were announced on 19 October 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-19 |title=LIVE: Shashi Tharoor concedes Congress president poll defeat, wishes Mallikarjun Kharge 'all success' |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/congress-presidential-polls-live-results-shashi-tharoor-mallikarjun-kharge-rahul-gandhi-sonia-gandhi-october-19-latest-news-101666140143855.html |access-date=2022-10-19 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

:
<section begin="Results"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; text-align:right" |
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan=2|Candidate
! colspan="2"|PCC Delegates' vote
|-
! style="width: 100px"|Votes
! style="width: 90px"|%
|-
! style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| style="width: 170px; text-align:left" | [[File:Mallikarjun Kharge.jpg|100px]] '''[[Mallikarjun Kharge]]'''
| '''7,897'''
| '''84.14%'''
|-
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| style="width: 170px; text-align:left" |[[File:Sasi Tharoor 2021 at Kollam.jpg|100px]] '''[[Shashi Tharoor]]'''
| 1,072
| 11.42%
|-
| colspan=2|Invalid votes
| 416
| 4.43%
|-
| colspan=2|'''Votes counted'''
| '''9,385'''
!
|}<section end="Results"/>

== See also ==
* [[List of presidents of the Indian National Congress]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2022 elections in India]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress events]]
[[Category:October 2022 in India]]
[[Category:2022 political party leadership elections]]

ZBD

2025-12-25T00:31:11Z

Davidmam: Starting initial info v1

'''ZBD''' may refer to:

* [[ZBD-03]], a Chinese airborne infantry fighting vehicle
* [[ZBD-04]], a Chinese infantry fighting vehicle
* [[ZBD-2000]], a Chinese amphibious tracked armored fighting vehicle
* [[ZBD-86]], a Chinese infantry fighting vehicle
* [[Zafarabad Junction railway station]], railway station in Jaunpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India
* [[ZBD transformer]], a kind of closed-core transformer

==See also==
* [[Zebedee (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation}}

Rajgram

2025-12-14T05:40:25Z

Davidmam: expanded references per sources and updated info

'''Rajgram''' may refer to:
*[[Rajgram, West Bengal]], is an Indian village Birbhum district
*[[Rajgram Vivekananda Hindu Vidyalaya]], government school in Bankura district, West Bengal
*[[Rajgram railway station]], is a railway station in Birbhum district
{{Disambiguation}}

Thatteem Mutteem

2025-11-27T01:20:02Z

Davidmam:

{{short description|Indian sitcom}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2015}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Thatteem Mutteem.jpg
| caption = Thattem Mutteem S1 poster
| genre = {{Plainlist|
* [[Soap opera]]
* [[Comedy drama|Comedy Drama]]
* [[Cinema of India|Indian]] [[television series]]
}}
| creator =
| writer = Gireesh Gramika
| director = {{Plainlist|
* R. Unnikrishnan
* Gopalan Manoj
* Midhun Chettur
* Shahbaaz C. N
}}
| creative_director = Sukil
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Manju Pillai]]
* [[KPAC Lalitha]]
* [[Jayakumar Parameswaran Pillai]]
* [[Naseer Sankranthi]]
* Rajesh Paravur
* Shalu Kurian
* Bhagyalakshmi Prabhu
* Sidharth Prabhu
* Anoop Vincent
}}
| open_theme = Onnum Rendum Mindum Neram (Season 1) Thattiyalum Kerum Chonan (Season 2)
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| num_seasons = 4
| num_episodes = 881
| producer = MM TV
| editor =
| runtime = 25 minutes (approx.)
| first_aired = {{Start date|2012|07|01|df=yes}}
| last_aired = {{End date|2023|07|02|df=yes}}
| channel = [[Mazhavil Manorama]]
| image_alt =
| list_episodes =
| network =
| released =
| related =
| location = [[Eramalloor]]
}}

'''''Thatteem Mutteem''''' ({{Translation|Hit and knock}}) was a Malayalam-language sitcom that has broadcast on Mazhavil Manorama from 1 July 2012. It was one of Malayalam television's oldest and longest-running series, having premiered at the channel's launch. The show stars veteran actors [[K. P. A. C. Lalitha|K.P.A.C Lalitha]], [[Manju Pillai]], [[Jayakumar Parameswaran Pillai]], [[Naseer Sankranthi]], Bhagyalakshmi Prabhu, Sidharth Prabhu, Rajesh Paravoor, [[Shalu Kurian]], Shara Sherly Samuel Koshy, Parvathy Lal and Anoop Vincent in lead roles. It has been critically acclaimed, winning the Kerala State Television Award for the Best Comedy Show in both 2014 and 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/all-for-laughs/article3894567.ece|title=All for laughs|newspaper=The Hindu |date=13 September 2012 |publisher=Thehindu.com|access-date=23 February 2015}}</ref>

The show went on an extended hiatus from November 11, 2022, returning to air with a new lead character, Madhuriamma, played by actress [[Bindu Panicker]], on April 22, 2023. However, the show discontinued airing on July 2, 2023.

All series episodes are available on [[ManoramaMAX]], [[Amazon Prime Video|Prime Video]], and the official [[Mazhavil Manorama]] [[YouTube]] channel.

== Broadcast ==
The first season of the show, which premiered in 2011, followed a [[sitcom]] format and broadcast every weekend for six years. The show switched to a prime time [[soap opera]] format on December 3, 2018, airing Monday through Friday at 9:00 p.m. IST. The show's format was changed to a weekend airing in late 2020.

In June 2023, the programme switched from airing on the weekends to Monday through Wednesday at 10:00 p.m. IST.

=== Death of lead actress ===
Due to the illness and subsequent passing of lead actress [[K. P. A. C. Lalitha]] in February 2022, the series was temporarily put on hold. It resumed airing on April 16, 2022.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/oru-kodi-sidharth-bharathan-remembers-mother-kpac-lalitha-says-i-badly-expected-a-medical-miracle/articleshow/92855602.cms|title=Oru Kodi: Sidharth Bharathan remembers mother KPAC Lalitha; says "I badly expected a medical miracle"|newspaper=The Times of India |date=13 July 2022 |publisher=indiatimes.com|access-date=13 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2022/02/23/popular-mollywood-actor-kpac-lalitha-dies.html|title=Popular Mollywood actor KPAC Lalitha dies|publisher=theweek.in|access-date=23 February 2022}}</ref>

==Season(s)==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! style="padding: 0 8px" colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Season
! style="padding: 0 8px" rowspan="2" | No. of episodes
! colspan="2" | Originally broadcast ([[India]])
|-
! style="padding: 0 8px" | First aired
! style="padding: 0 8px" | Last aired
|-
| '''1'''
| 311
| {{Start date|2012|07|01|df=yes}}
| {{End date|2018|||df=yes}}
|-
| '''2'''
| 533
| 2018
| 2022
|-
| 3
| 37
| {{Start date|2023|04|22|df=yes}}
| {{Start date|2023|07|02|df=yes}}
|}

===Premise===
====Season 1====
The recurring theme is the dispute between Mayavathyamma and her daughter-in-law Mohanavalli, and the struggle of the children and Arjunan to resolve it. Although the daughter-in-law and mother-in-law often get into disagreements followed by a cat and mouse fight, they share mutual respect and love .

Arjunan's best friend, Kamalasanan, Mohanavalli's mother, Komalavalli, and Arjunan's sister, Kokila, pay them frequent visits, causing additional strife and drama in the family. The whole family moves to a new home after having a dispute with the son of the owner of their previous home.

'''Season 2'''

The daughter of the Arjunan' family, Meenakshi is now married to Aadhi Shankaran. Meenakshi found out that Aadhi is a lazy employee and is the son of Pravasi Shankaran, who is a poor NRI owed to many debts, but she kept this a secret and marries him believing that she can change him. She shows the same trait as her mother by having disputes with her mother-in-law, Vasavadatha, the wife of Pravasi Shankaran, who became mentally ill after winning a lottery which put ends to their debts. Despite their hateful relationship, the daughter-in-law and mother-in-law duo loved each other and shared mutual respect.

Meanwhile, Arjunan's millionaire brother Sahadevan, his wife Vidhubala, and his three children, Chinnu, Chikku and Chinnan, arrive from the United States. They are the owners of the house to which Mayavathi and her family belong.

Kannan, the only son of Mohanavalli and Arjunan falls in love with Rosamma, a Christian girl after a series of events that disapproved of the family. But later, for the dowry, they agree to their marriage to pay off a loan taken for Meenakshi's wedding, but the plan fails when Kannan unknowingly informs Rosamma's parents that he wants nothing from them except for their daughter. Meenakshi gives birth to [[multiple birth|triplets]] - Kunjumani, Muthumani and Kuttappayi and not so late after, she goes to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] as a nurse to pay off the loan.

Mayavathi Amma, the house's sole breadwinner, has died, leaving Arjunan and Mohanavalli unsure how to maintain the household. In the meantime, Meenakshi has returned from London during the covid period. Mohanavally and Arjunan tried numerous methods to make a living but were unsuccessful. Only with the support of Sahadevan and Meenakshi are they able to advance in their lives. Meanwhile, Kannan and Rosamma's relationship grew stronger, and they married after overcoming several obstacles.

====Season 3====
Arjunan is retired from his government job in water authority, and Sahadevan lost his house and assets playing online rummy. Kannan's wife Rosamma now houses Arjunan and Sahadevan's family. They both travells to Punjab to visit Mayawati's long-eloped sister Madhuri in order to take possession of their deceased uncle's property. Meanwhile, Madhuri Amma arrives earlier at their home. Madhuri assists Mohanavally financially to stabilise her home by disguising herself for a former acquaintance of Mayavathi and then revealing her true identity. Arjunan and Kamalasanan found out that Sahadevan had lied about losing all of his assets, he then invites Arjunan's family to live in their former home.

=== Crossover episodes ===
In 2016 and 2021, the show aired crossover episodes with Marimayam, a situation comedy that airs on the same channel on weekends and depicts numerous painful and amusing scenarios while visiting government organisations. The special episodes were titled "Marithatteem Mayammutteem" and "Thatteem Mayam Mutteem Mayam" in 2016, and "Thatteem Mayam Mutteem Mayam" in 2021, respectively. The Onam celebrations were the backdrop for all of the special episodes.

==Cast==
===Main cast===
{| class="wikitable" line-height:20px; font-size:80%; width:70%;"
|-
! rowspan="2" width=200px | Actor
! rowspan="2" width=200px| Character
! colspan="4" width=200px | Seasons
! rowspan="2" width=300px| Note
|-
! width=100px | 1
! width=100px | 2
! width=100px | 3
! width=100px | 4
|-
| [[K. P. A. C. Lalitha]]
| Mayavathi Amma
| colspan="2" {{cMain}}
| colspan="2" {{n/a|''Deceased''}}
| Mother of Arjunan, Nakulan, Sahadevan and Kokilakshi. Mother in law of Mohanavall, Shishupalan,Mandakini and Vidhubala. Grandmother of Meenakshi and Kannan. She has died.
|-
| scope="row" | [[Manju Pillai]]
| Mohanavalli Arjunan
| colspan="4" {{cMain}}
| Mayavathi's daughter in law, Arjunan's wife, Meenakshi and Kannan's mother and Kommalavally's daughter
|-
| scope="row" | [[Jayakumar Parameswaran Pillai]]
| Arjunan Krishnan
| colspan="4" {{cMain}}
| Mayavathi's son, Mohanavalli's husband, Meenakshi and Kannan's father. Sahadevan, Nakulan and Kokilakshi's elder brother
|-
| scope="row" | [[Naseer Sankranthi]]
| Kamalasanan
| colspan="4" {{cMain}}
| Arjunan's best friend
|-
| [[Bindu Panicker]]
| Madhuri Amma
| colspan="3" {{n/a|}}
| {{cMain}}
| Sister of late Mayavathi Amma, maternal aunt to Arjunan, Nakulan, Sahadevan and Kokila
|-
| scope="row" | Bhagyalakshmi Prabhu
| rowspan=2| Meenakshi Arjunan
| colspan="2" {{cMain}}
| colspan="2" {{n/a|''Replaced''}}
| rowspan=2| Mohanavalli and Arjunan's daughter. Mayavathi and Kommalavalli's granddaughter. Kannan's elder sister. Aadhi's wife.
|-
| Shara Sherly Samuel Koshy
| colspan=2 {{n/a|}}
| colspan=2 {{cMain}}
|-
| scope="row" | Sidharth Prabhu
| Kannan Arjunan
| colspan="4" {{cMain}}
| Arjunan and Mohanavalli's only son. Mayavathi and Kommalavalli's grandson and Meenakshi's younger brother.
|-
| Parvathy Lal
| Rosamma
| {{n/a|}}
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| colspan="2" {{cMain}}
| Kannan's girlfriend-turned-wife
|-
| scope="row" | [[Sagar Surya]]
| rowspan=2| Aadhi Shankaran / Aadhi
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cMain}}
| {{n/a|''Replaced''}}
| rowspan=2| Vasavadatha and Shankaran's only son. Meenakshi's husband.
|-
| Anoop Vincent
| colspan=3 {{n/a|}}
| {{cMain}}
|-
| scope="row" | Rajesh Paravoor
| Sahadevan Krishnan / Sahu
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="3" {{cMain}}
| Mayavathi's son. Vidhubala's husband.
|-
| scope="row" | [[Shalu Kurian]]
| Vidhubala Sahadevan / Vidhu
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="3" {{cMain}}
| Mayavathi's second daughter in law. Sahadevan's wife.
|-
| scope="row" | Riyas Narmakala
| Maheendar Singh
| colspan="3" {{n/a|}}
| {{cMain}}
| Madhuri Amma's husband, Arjunan, Nakulan, Sahadevan and Kokila's uncle.
|}

===Recurring cast===
{| class="wikitable" line-height:20px; font-size:90%; width:70%;"
|-
! rowspan="2" width=200px | Actor
! rowspan="2" width=200px| Character
! colspan="3" width=200px | Seasons
! rowspan="2" width=300px| Note
|-
! width=100px | 1
! width=100px | 2
! width=100px | 3
|-
| Veena Nair
| Kokilakshi Shishupalan/ Kokila
| colspan="3" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Arjunan's sister. Mayavathi's only daughter
|-
| [[Sreelatha Namboothiri]]
| Komalavalliamma
| colspan="3" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Mohanavalli's mother
|-
| [[Kochu Preman]]
| Madhevan / Ammavan
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{n/a|}}
| Mayavathi's brother
|-
| Rashmi Anil
| Susheela
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{n/a|}}
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| A fish seller, paternal aunt of Rosamma
|-
| Kavita
| Mallika
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| colspan="2" {{n/a|}}
| Rich and jealous old neighbour of Mayavati's family, an impostor to Arjunan's poems
|-
| Murugan
| Shishubalan / Shishu
| colspan="2" {{cGuest}}
| {{n/a|}}
| Kokilakshi's husband
|-
| Harisree Yousaf
| Nakulan
| {{cGuest}}
| colspan="2" {{n/a|}}
| Arjunan's brother and Mayavathi's son
|-
| Maneesha K. Subrahmaniam
| Vasavadattha
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Adhi's mother and Meenakshi's mother in law
|-
| Parvathy Lal
| Rosamma
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cAlso starring|Also starring}}
| Kannan's girlfriend, later wife
|-
| Nandakishor Nellickal
| Pravasi Shankaran
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Adhi's father and Meenakshi's father in law
|-
| Thushara Nambiar
| Shakuntala
| {{n/a|}}
| {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| {{n/a|}}
| Arjunan's neighbour
|-
| Unni Nair
| Ambooty
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Vidhubala's father
|-
| Arun G Arun
| Chakkara/ Chakkaraparambil Arun
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Kannan's friend
|-
| Anitha Nair
| Thankamani/ Thanku
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Kamalasanan's wife
|-
| Dhatri
| Chinnu
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Sahadevan and Vidhubala's daughter
|-
| Aadhish Sudhakaran
| Chikku
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cRecurring|Recurring}}
| Sahadevan and Vidhubala's son
|-
| Vaishnav Menon
| Chinnan
| {{n/a|}}
| colspan="2" {{cGuest}}
| Sahadevan and Vidhubala's son
|-
| Anumol R. S
| Chakki
| {{n/a|}}
| {{cGuest}}
| {{n/a|}}
| Adhi's cousin
|}

===Additional guests===
* [[Kaviyoor Ponnamma]] as herself, and Krishnan Vakkeel's co-star in a film (Season 1: Ep. 108)
* [[Vishnu Unnikrishnan]] as himself (Season 2: Epi 189)
* Bibin George as himself (Season 2: Epi 189)
* [[K. T. S. Padannayil]] as Mohanavalli's uncle (Season 1: Ep 276)
* Promy as Subru(Arjunan’s friend)
* Nitha Promy as Rukku (Subru’s wife)
* Vivek Pillay as Richard Buttenhole (Sahadevan’s friend)
* Archana Menon as Adv. Kamala, Mohanavalli's friend (Season 1: Episode 306)
* Mintu Maria Vincent as Mrunalini
* Sini Prasad as Annamma Chacko, Arjunan's strict, new boss, executive engineer (Season 2: 313,314)

===Former cast===
* Bhagyalakshmi Prabhu as Meenakshi; Mohanavalli and Arjunan's daughter. Mayavathi and Kommalavalli's granddaughter. Kannan's elder sister. Aadhi's wife.
* Sagar Surya as Aadhi Shankaran / Aadhi; Vasavadatha and Shankaran's Only son. Meenakshi's husband.
* [[Sethu Lakshmi]] as Komalavally, Mohanavally's mother

==Production==
===Season 1===
[[K. P. A. C. Lalitha]] and [[Manju Pillai]] play the role of the mother-in-law and the daughter-in-law respectively. The mother-in-law outwits her daughter-in-law and is always ready to start a fight with her and the daughter-in-law rises to the occasion. [[Jayakumar Parameswaran Pillai|Jayakumar]] plays Manju's husband who is a government officer unwilling to go to work and who lives on his mother's pension.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/style/style-factor/2019/01/29/thatteem-mutteem-actor-jayakumar-interview.html|title='പയ്യൻസിന്റെ' ജീവതം മാറ്റിമറിച്ച രാജസേനൻ; 'തട്ടീം മുട്ടീം' 7 വർഷങ്ങൾ|website=ManoramaOnline|language=ml|access-date=11 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=M|first=Athira|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/for-a-long-innings/article7006897.ece|title=For a long innings|date=19 March 2015|work=The Hindu|access-date=11 July 2022|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Their children Kannan and Meenakshi were played by real-life siblings Siddharth and Bhagyalakshmi Prabhu. They were cast after the show creators were impressed by their performance in the [[reality TV]] show ''Veruthe Alla Bharya'' on [[Mazhavil Manorama]], in which their parents were contestants. Bhagyalakshmi was studying in class 11 when she received the offer, she is a nursing graduate in real-life and in the show too.<ref>{{cite news |title=#TuesdayTrivia: Did you know Thatteem Mutteem's Kannan and Meenakshi are real-life siblings |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/tuesdaytrivia-did-you-know-thatteem-mutteems-kannan-and-meenakshi-are-real-life-siblings/articleshow/70860196.cms |access-date=7 December 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=27 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Nair|first=Radhika|title=It was just an on-screen wedding, I am not planning to get married soon: Thatteem Mutteem actress Bhagyalakshmi Prabhu |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/it-was-just-an-on-screen-wedding-i-am-not-planning-to-get-married-soon-thatteem-mutteem-actress-bhagyalakshmi-prabhu/articleshow/67653810.cms |access-date=7 December 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=23 January 2019}}</ref> The children are one of the main attractions in the series as they frequently instigate fights between the two women. [[Naseer Sankranthi]] plays the role of Kamalasanan who is the best friend of Mahakavi Arjunan (Arjunan) and old classmate of Sahadevan, who boasts that he will be the Panchayat Member in the upcoming years.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/style/love-n-life/2019/09/20/manorama-online-see-real-star-naseer-sankranthy.html|title='മിമിക്രിക്ക് നടക്കുന്ന സമയം മീൻ വിൽക്കാൻ പൊയ്ക്കൂടെ എന്ന് ഭാര്യ ചോദിച്ചു'|work=Manorama Online}}</ref>

==Reception==
The series is successful. ''Thatteem Mutteem'' is considered special because the show is recorded using "spot dialogue". This technique creates a natural sound and appearance. The artists behave as in real situations. In addition, the performance is natural and simple and the series is related to the current reality that led to its success.

==Awards==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Award
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Recipient
! scope="col" | Result
|-
| 2013<ref>{{cite news |author=Special correspondent |title=State television awards announced |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/state-television-awards-announced/article7128384.ece |access-date=7 December 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=22 April 2015}}</ref>
| rowspan=3|Kerala State Television Awards
| rowspan=2|Best Comedy Programme
|''Thatteem Mutteem''
|{{Won}}
|-''
| rowspan=2|2015
|-
| Best Comedian || [[Naseer Sankranthi]]
|{{Won}}
|-
| 2016
| rowspan=3|Flowers Television Award
| Best Serial-Comedy
| ''Thatteem Mutteem''
|{{Won}}
|-
| rowspan=2|2017
| rowspan=2|Best Comedy Artist
| [[Manju Pillai]]
|{{Won}}
|-
| [[Jayakumar Parameswaran Pillai]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan=2|2019
| rowspan=2|Janmabhoomi Awards
| rowspan=2|Best Comedy artist
| [[Manju Pillai]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Jayakumar Parameswaran Pillai]]
| {{won}}
|-
| 2020
| Kerala State Television Awards
| Best Comedian
| [[Naseer Sankranthi]]
| {{won}}
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|5602308}}
* [https://www.manoramamax.com/programs/detail/167195/thatteem-mutteem Thatteem Mutteem on ManoramaMAX]
* [https://www.primevideo.com/detail/0MAX2YF24NIEA712UED5EAA54P/ref=atv_dp_season_select_s1 Thatteem Mutteem on Prime Video]

{{Mazhavil Manorama programs}}

[[Category:Malayalam-language television shows]]
[[Category:Indian television sitcoms]]
[[Category:2010s television soap operas]]
[[Category:Mazhavil Manorama original programming]]
[[Category:2011 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2023 Indian television series endings]]

Vinod Vijayan

2025-11-25T07:48:45Z

Davidmam: Started Post

{{Short description|Indian film director, writer and producer}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Vinod K Vijayan
| image = DirectorVinodVijayan at Berlinale.jpg
| caption = Vijayan in 2015
| birth_place = [[Ernakulam]], [[Kerala, India]]
| occupation = Director, Producer, Screenwriter
| spouse = Swati Vinod
}}

'''Vinod Kumar Vijayan''' is an Indian film director, writer and producer. He got International Video Festival Award for his first Short Film MASK in age of 18. He also won Berlinale international crystal bear award for the movie [[Ottaal|OTTAL]]. In 2013, he received National Award for his film [[Annayum Rasoolum]]. He is known for his works in [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]] and [[Telugu cinema]]. His films include ''Quotation'' (2004),<ref name="Krishnakumar">{{Cite news |first=G. |last=Krishnakumar |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/when-a-college-showed-them-the-direction/article4501726.ece |title=When a College Showed Them the Direction |date=March 13, 2013 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |issn=0971-751X |access-date=July 13, 2016}}</ref> ''[[Red Salute (2006 film)|Red Salute]]'' (2006){{r|Krishnakumar}} and ''D Company: The Judgement Day'' (2013).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thiruvananthapuram |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/south/story/malayalam-film-d-company-dawood-ibrahim-poster-police-213536-2013-10-06 |title=Malayalam Film D-Company Sued for Showing Dawood Ibrahim on Poster |date=October 7, 2013 |access-date=July 13, 2016}}</ref>

==As director==
Vijayan began assisting with filming under the guidance of [[K. K. Haridas]] and [[Rajeev Ravi]].{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} His first film, ''MASK'', has won the International Video Festival award in the category of best short film.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} His debut in mainstream filmmaking as a director was with the 2004 Malayalam Film ''Quotation''. {{citation needed|date=July 2016}} Rajeev Ravi was the cinematographer for the film.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

His second film as a director was [[Red Salute (2006 film)|Red Salute]], starring [[Kalabhavan Mani]] and Sree Devika in lead roles.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/ragstoriches-story/article3218887.ece|title=Rags-to-riches story|date=2006-07-28|newspaper=The Hindu|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|access-date=2016-07-13}}</ref> This film was also the debut film of cinematographer Vinod Illampally{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} and editor [[Vivek Harshan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archives.deccanchronicle.com/130519/entertainment-mollywood/article/cutting-edge|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413203528/http://archives.deccanchronicle.com/130519/entertainment-mollywood/article/cutting-edge|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 April 2014|title=Cutting edge|website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|access-date=2016-07-13}}</ref>

Vijayan also directed ''Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan'', a message-oriented short film for girls' education in India.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} The film starred child actor [[Esther Anil]] as the protagonist.
His next film was Malayalam anthology film ''[[D Company (film)#The Day of Judgement|D Company - The Day of Judgement]]'' (2013).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/D-Company/movie-review/22595351.cms|title=D Company Movie Review, Trailer, & Show timings at Times of India|website=The Times of India|access-date=2016-07-13}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/d-company-review-malayalam-pcmbaSibgefga.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128174558/http://www.sify.com/movies/d-company-review-malayalam-pcmbaSibgefga.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 January 2016|title=D Company|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=2016-07-13}}</ref> Vijayan's installment in the anthology starred [[Fahadh Faasil]] and [[Bhama Kurup|Bhama]] in lead roles.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

As of 2019, Vijayan is directing a Telugu feature film, "OKA PATHAKAM PRAKARAM" starring [[Sairam Shankar]] in the lead role.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150604/entertainment-tollywood/article/raam-shankar%E2%80%99s-next-will-be-big|title=Raam Shankar's next will be big|last=|first=|date=2015-06-05|website=Deccan Chronicle|publisher=|access-date=2016-07-13}}</ref> The Cinematography is by [[Rajeev Ravi]],<ref name=":2" /> editing by [[Vivek Harshan]],<ref name=":2" /> art by Santosh Raman,{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} makeup by Pattanam Shah and [[Pattanam Rasheed]],<ref name=":2" /> and musical score by [[Rahul Raj]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gulte.com/movienews/39243/Star-Directors-Brother-Set-To-Turn-His-Fate|title=Star Director's Brother Set To Turn His Fate|language=en-us|access-date=2016-07-13}}</ref>

==As producer==
Vinod Vijayan has produced a number of films including ''[[Annayum Rasoolum]]'' (2013),<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Zachariah |first=Ammu |title=Andrea in Annayum Rasoolum's Tamil Remake? |date=July 19, 2013 |work=[[Times of India]] |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/Andrea-in-Annayum-Rasoolums-Tamil-remake/articleshow/21142380.cms |access-date=July 13, 2016}}</ref>{{failed verification |reason=Source does not say anything about Cutz Film Company and K. Mohanan, as the sentence suggests. It also doesn't say that Annayum Rasoolum is a romance film, as the sentence says. Both need to be cited. |date=July 2016}} and ''[[Ottaal]]'' (2015).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shedde |first=Meenakshi |title=Berlinale 2016 Winner: Filmmaker Jayaraj on Making 'Ottaal' |date=February 21, 2016 |website=The Quint |url=http://www.thequint.com/entertainment/2016/02/21/dont-need-money-to-make-good-film-jayaraj-nair-on-ottaal |access-date=July 13, 2016}}</ref>{{failed verification |reason=Source does not say anything about Cutz Film Company and K. Mohanan, as the sentence suggests. |date=July 2016}}

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Year
! rowspan="2" |Title
! colspan="3" |Credited as
! rowspan="2" |Language
|-
! style="width:75px;" | Director
! style="width:75px;" | Producer
! style="width:75px;" | Story
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Quotation (film)|Quotation]]''
|{{Yes}}
|
|{{Yes}}
| rowspan="6" | [[Malayalam]]
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Red Salute (2006 film)|Red Salute]]'' ||{{Yes}}
|
|
|-
| 2010 || ''Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan'' ||{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Annayum Rasoolum]]''
|
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| 2013 || ''[[D Company (film)|D Company]]'' ||{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
|2015 || ''[[Ottaal]]''
|
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| 2025 || ''[[Oka Padhakam Prakaram]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|2781113}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vijayan, Vinod}}
[[Category:Malayalam film directors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malayalam film producers]]
[[Category:Film directors from Kochi]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Film producers from Kochi]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Telugu film directors]]
[[Category:Telugu screenwriters]]
[[Category:Telugu film producers]]

Santosh Kumar Singh

2025-11-21T15:38:14Z

Davidmam:

{{Short description|Indian Politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name =
| image =File:Chief Minister Nitish Kumar with minister Santosh Kumar Singh (cropped).jpg
| party = [[Bhartiya Janata Party]]
| office = Minister of Labour Resources [[Government of Bihar]]
| term_start = 15 March 2024
| term_end = 20 November 2025
| 1blankname = [[Chief Minister of Bihar|Chief Minister]]
| 1namedata = [[Nitish Kumar]]
| predecessor = Surendra Ram
| successor = [[Sanjay Singh Tiger]]
| office2 = Member of [[Bihar Legislative Council]]
| term_start2 = 8 April 2022
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 = ''himself''
| constituency2 = ''Rohtas & Kaimur Local Bodies''
| term_start3 = 17 July 2015
| term_end3 = 16 July 2021
| predecessor3 = Krishna Kumar Singh
| successor3 = ''himself''
| constituency3 = ''Rohtas & Kaimur Local Bodies''
| father = Rameshwar Singh
| profession = Agriculture
}}

'''Santosh Kumar Singh''' is an Indian politician, currently a member of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and two times [[Member of Legislative Council]] from [[Rohtas district|Rohtas]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Navigation |url=https://www.biharvidhanparishad.gov.in/Members/Member_List.htm |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=www.biharvidhanparishad.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=nda-candidate-santosh-singh-won-second-time-in-rohtas-kaimur-mlc-seat |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/local/bihar/patna/sasaram/news/nda-candidate-santosh-singh-won-second-time-in-rohtas-kaimur-mlc-seat-129624206.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=रोहतास में पूर्व एमएलसी संतोष सिंह को पहनाया गया चांदी का मुकुट |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/gaya-silver-crown-was-worn-to-former-mlc-santosh-singh-in-rohtas-21859537.html |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Dainik Jagran |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=रोहतास-कैमूर एमएलसी पद पर दूसरी बार जीते संतोष सिंह |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/sasaram/story-santosh-singh-won-the-post-of-rohtas-kaimur-mlc-for-the-second-time-6206980.html |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Hindustan |language=hindi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Santosh Kumar Singh(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):(LOCAL AUTHORITIES) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/biharmlc/candidate.php?candidate_id=237 |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

Recently he inaugurated the Gramin Payjal Yojana in Haudih village of Rohtas district and lauded the Bihar Government for their resolve of village development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=रोहतास में बोले MLC संतोष सिंह, गांवों के विकास के संकल्प को पूरा कर रही नीतीश सरकार, बढ़ रहा बिहार |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/gaya-mlc-santosh-singh-said-in-rohtas-nitish-government-is-fulfilling-the-resolve-of-development-of-villages-bihar-is-growing-21900335.html |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Dainik Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Santosh Kumar}}
[[Category:State cabinet ministers of Bihar]]
[[Category:Members of the Bihar Legislative Council]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Bihar]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{Bihar-BJP-politician-stub}}

Marudhar Express (via Faizabad)

2025-11-11T09:51:21Z

Davidmam: basic reworked formatting for accuracy additionally

{{Short description|Indian train service}}
{{multiple issues|
{{original research|date=June 2014}}
{{unreferenced|date=June 2014}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Marudhar Express
| image=
| caption =
| type = [[Express train|Express]]
| first = 15 August 1998
| last =
| operator = [[North Western Railway zone|North Western Railways]]
| start = {{stnlnk|Jodhpur Junction}} (JU)
| stops = 34 as 14854 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, 33 as 14853 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express, 30 as 14864 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, 29 as 14863 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express, 31 as 14866 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, 29 as 14865 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express.
| end = {{stnlnk|Varanasi Junction}} (BSB)
| distance = {{convert|1203|km|0|abbr=on}} as 14854 / 53 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, {{convert|1161|km|0|abbr=on}} as 14864 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, {{convert|1163|km|0|abbr=on}} as 14863 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express, {{convert|1179|km|0|abbr=on}} as 14866 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, {{convert|1181|km|0|abbr=on}} as 14865 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express.
| journeytime = 24 hours 45 mins as 14854 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, 24 hours 30 mins as 14853 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express, 22 hours 50 mins as 14864 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, 23 hours 35 mins as 14863 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express, 23 hours 45 mins as 14866 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, 23 hours 35 mins as 14865 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express.
| frequency = 14854 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express–Monday, Thursday & Saturday, 14853 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express–Monday, Wednesday & Saturday, 14864 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express–Tuesday, Friday & Sunday, 14863 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express–Tuesday, Friday & Sunday, 14866 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express–Wednesday, 14865 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express – Thursday.
| class = AC 2 tier, AC 3 tier, Sleeper class, General Unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = No [[pantry car]] attached
| observation = Rake sharing between 14853 / 54 / 63 / 64 / 65 / 66 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express
| entertainment =
| baggage =
| other facilities=
| stock = Standard [[Indian Railways]] coaches
| gauge = [[LHB Coaches]]
| el =
| trainnumber = 14853 / 54 / 63 / 64 / 65 / 66
| speed = {{convert|110|km/h|0|abbr=on}} maximum {{convert|48.85|km/h|0|abbr=on}} as 14854 / 53 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express, 14864 / 63 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express – {{convert|50.07|km/h|0|abbr=on}}, 14866 / 65 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express – {{convert|49.86|km/h|0|abbr=on}} including halts.
| map =
| map_state =
}}

The 14853 / 54 / 63 / 64 / 65 / 66 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction '''Marudhar Express''' is an [[Express trains in India|Express]] train belonging to [[Indian Railways]] – [[North Western Railway zone]] that runs between {{stnlnk|Jodhpur Junction}} & {{stnlnk|Varanasi Junction}} in India.

It operates as train number 14854 / 64 / 66 from Jodhpur Junction to Varanasi Junction and as train number 14853 / 63 / 65 in the reverse direction, serving the states of [[Uttar Pradesh]] & [[Rajasthan]]. It is the fastest train between Jaipur and Lucknow and one of the most important train of NWR.

The word Marudhar translates as Master of Air.

==Coaches==

The 14853 / 54 / 63 / 64 / 65 / 66 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express has 2 AC 2 tier, 3 AC 3 tier, 12 Sleeper class, 4 General Unreserved & 2 SLR (Seating cum Luggage Rake) coaches hence total 23 coaches. It does not carry a [[pantry car]].

As is customary with most train services in India, coach composition may be amended at the discretion of Indian Railways depending on demand.

==Service==

* 14854 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express covers the distance of {{convert|1203|km|0}} in 24 hours 45 mins (48.61 km/h).
* 14853 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express covers the distance of {{convert|1203|km|0}} in 24 hours 30 mins (49.10 km/h).
* 14864 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express covers the distance of {{convert|1161|km|0}} in 22 hours 50 mins (50.85 km/h).
* 14863 Varanasi Junction-Jodhpur Marudhar Express covers the distance of {{convert|1163|km|0}} in 23 hours 35 mins (49.31 km/h).
* 14866 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express covers the distance of {{convert|1179|km|0}} in 23 hours 45 mins (49.64 km/h).
* 14865 Varanasi Junction-Jodhpur Marudhar Express covers the distance of {{convert|1181|km|0}} in 23 hours 35 mins (50.08 km/h).

As the average speed of the train is below {{convert|55|km/h|0|abbr=on}}, as per Indian Railways rules, its fare does not include a Superfast surcharge.

==Routeing==

The 14853 / 54 / 63 / 64 / 65 / 66 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express runs from Jodhpur Junction via [[Degana|Degana Junction]], {{stnlnk|Jaipur Junction}}, [[Bharatpur, Rajasthan|Bharatpur Junction]], {{stnlnk|Agra Fort}}, {{stnlnk|Kanpur Central}}, [[Lucknow Charbagh railway station|Lucknow NR]], thereafter {{stnlnk|Faizabad Junction}} (14854 / 53) '''or''' [[Sultanpur, Uttar Pradesh|Sultanpur]] (14864 / 63) '''or''' {{stnlnk|Rae Bareli Junction}} (14866 / 65) to Varanasi Junction.

==Traction==

The entire route is yet to be fully electrified.

* 14854 / 53 / 66 / 65 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express via {{stnlnk|Faizabad Junction}} & {{stnlnk|Rae Bareli Junction}} – a [[Diesel Loco Shed, Bhagat Ki Kothi|Bhagat Ki Kothi]]-based [[WDP-4]] locomotive hauls the train from Jodhpur Junction up to {{stnlnk|Agra Fort}} handing over to a [[Electric Loco Shed, Ghaziabad|Ghaziabad]]-based [[WAP-4]] or [[WAP-7]] locomotive until [[Lucknow Charbagh railway station|Lucknow NR]] following which a [[Diesel Loco Shed, Lucknow|Lucknow]]-based [[WDM-3A]] locomotive powers the train for the remainder of the journey.
* 14864 / 63 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express via [[Sultanpur, Uttar Pradesh|Sultanpur]] – a [[Diesel Loco Shed, Bhagat Ki Kothi|Bhagat Ki Kothi]]-based [[WDP-4]] locomotive hauls the train from Jodhpur Junction up to {{stnlnk|Agra Fort}} handing over to a [[Electric Loco Shed, Ghaziabad|Ghaziabad]]-based [[WAP-4]] or [[WAP-7]] locomotive which powers the train for the remainder of the journey.

==Operation==

* 14854 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express via {{stnlnk|Faizabad Junction}} leaves Jodhpur Junction every Monday, Thursday & Saturday and reaches Varanasi Junction the next day.
* 14853 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express via {{stnlnk|Faizabad Junction}} leaves Varanasi Junction every Monday, Wednesday & Saturday and reaches Jodhpur Junction the next day.
* 14864 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express via [[Sultanpur, Uttar Pradesh|Sultanpur]] leaves Jodhpur Junction every Tuesday, Friday & Sunday and reaches Varanasi Junction the next day.
* 14863 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express via [[Sultanpur, Uttar Pradesh|Sultanpur]] leaves Varanasi Junction every Tuesday, Friday & Sunday and reaches Jodhpur Junction the next day.
* 14866 Jodhpur–Varanasi Junction Marudhar Express via {{stnlnk|Rae Bareli Junction}} leaves Jodhpur Junction every Wednesday and reaches Varanasi Junction the next day.
* 14865 Varanasi Junction–Jodhpur Marudhar Express via {{stnlnk|Rae Bareli Junction}} leaves Varanasi Junction every Thursday and reaches Jodhpur Junction the next day.

== See also ==

* [[Varanasi Junction railway station]]
* [[Jodhpur Junction railway station]]
* [[Marudhar Express (via Pratapgarh)]]
* [[Marudhar Express (via Sultanpur)]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{Railways in Northern India}}
{{Railways in Eastern India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Marudhar Express}}
[[Category:Passenger trains originating from Varanasi]]
[[Category:Transport in Jodhpur]]
[[Category:Named passenger trains of India]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Rajasthan]]

EKA Mobility

2025-09-06T08:49:27Z

Davidmam: added basic pg w/ sources

{{Short description|Indian electric vehicle manufacture}}
{{Undisclosed paid|date=November 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox company
| name = EKA Mobility
| logo = EKA Mobility.svg
| type = [[Privately held company|Private]]
| ISIN = {{ISIN|sl=n|pl=y|INE0SF503017}}
| industry = [[Electric vehicle]]s
| founded = {{Start date and age|df=yes| 2019 |07}} in Pune, [[Maharashtra|Maharastra]], India
| founder = Sudhir Mehta
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people = •⁠ ⁠Sudhir Mehta (Chairman)
| products = •⁠ ⁠[[Electric bus]]es
•⁠ ⁠Electric small commercial vehicles
| parent = Pinnacle Mobility Solutions Private Limited
| website = [https://ekamobility.com ekamobility.com]
}}

'''EKA Mobility''' is an Indian [[electric vehicle]] manufacturer headquartered in [[Pune]], Maharashtra.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meet Indias first electric bus with Level 2 ADAS made by EKA Mobility, NuPort Robotics |url=https://zeenews.india.com/electric-vehicles/eka-mobility-nuport-robotics-introduce-indias-first-electric-bus-with-level-2-adas-2551569.html |access-date=2024-10-17 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref>

The company was founded in 2019 as a subsidiary of Pinnacle Industries, a leading [[Automotive industry|automotive components manufacturer]].

EKA Mobility specializes in the production of [[electric bus]]es and electric small commercial vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Naik |first=Pranali |date=2024-09-14 |title=Top 10 Electric Bus Manufacturers In India - List 2024 - E Vehicle Info |url=https://e-vehicleinfo.com/top-10-electric-bus-manufacturers-in-india-electric-bus/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pinnacle Mobility Solutions Profile |url=https://www.thecompanycheck.com/company/pinnacle-mobility-solutions-private-limited/U34100PN2019PTC196186 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=IKEA Partners With EKA Mobility For Green Delivery Vans In India |url=https://www.news18.com/auto/ikea-partners-with-eka-mobility-for-green-delivery-vans-in-india-9030293.html |work=News18 |date=28 August 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=This EV maker has partnered with Skyline Motors to deploy e-buses in Uttarakhand |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/auto/latest-auto-news/story/this-ev-maker-has-partnered-with-skyline-motors-to-deploy-e-buses-in-uttarakhand-2602177-2024-09-18 |work=India Today |date=18 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
Pinnacle Mobility Solutions Private Limited was incorporated on 2 July 2019 as a non-government company and is registered under the [[Registrar of Companies (India)|Registrar of Companies, Pune]].<ref>{{cite news |title=EKA Mobility to deliver 57 electric buses to Mira-Bhayandar Municipal Corporation |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/auto/commercial-vehicles/eka-mobility-to-deliver-57-electric-buses-to-mira-bhayandar-municipal-corporation/articleshow/101548990.cms |work=The Times of India |date=6 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=Pinnacle Mobility Solutions Private Limited Company Information | url=https://www.zaubacorp.com/company/PINNACLE-MOBILITY-SOLUTIONS-PRIVATE-LIMITED/U34102PN2019PTC185172 | website=Zauba Corp}}</ref> It operates as a subsidiary of Pinnacle Industries, a prominent company specializing in [[Automotive industry|automotive seating]], interiors, and specialty vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-27 |title=EKA Mobility Joins Forces with IKEA to Accelerate Sustainable Delivery with New Electric Vans |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/auto/electric-vehicles/eka-mobility-joins-forces-with-ikea-to-accelerate-sustainable-delivery-with-new-electric-vans-article-112839631 |access-date=2024-10-17 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>

EKA was launched by Pinnacle Industries to cater to the growing demand for [[Electric mobility|electric mobility solutions]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Pinnacle Industries launches EKA, as a subsidiary for electric CVs, solutions - ET Auto |url=https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/commercial-vehicle/pinnacle-industries-launches-eka-as-a-subsidiary-for-electric-cvs-solutions/89802851 |work=ETAuto.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pinnacle Industries Launches EKA EV Tech Company |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/express-mobility-pinnacle-industries-launches-eka-ev-tech-company-2443729/ |work=Financialexpress |date=24 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Pinnacle Industries eyes INR 750-cr revenue in FY24, seeks JV partners abroad for exports - ET Auto |url=https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/auto-components/pinnacle-industries-eyes-inr-750-cr-revenue-in-fy24-seeks-jv-partners-abroad-for-exports/104492641 |work=ETAuto.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=EKA Mobility Unveils India's First Electric Bus with Level 2 ADAS Tech, Details Here |url=https://www.news18.com/news/auto/eka-mobility-unveils-indias-first-electric-bus-with-level-2-adas-tech-details-here-6663931.html |work=News18 |date=21 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

== Operations and products ==
EKA Mobility specializes in the production of [[electric bus]]es and small commercial vehicles. The brand is part of Pinnacle Industries' broader effort to diversify into the electric vehicle market.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Sandeep |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_IcEQAAQBAJ |title=ProjectX India: 1st July 2024 -> New projects, contracts, and tenders information from India |date=2024-07-01 |publisher=Sandeep Sharma |language=en}}</ref>

EKA has also collaborated with the Dutch conglomerate [[VDL Group]], a global leader in the manufacture of electric buses, trucks, and coaches.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Adani to electrify intra-city mobility with e-bus supply | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/adani-to-electrify-intra-city-mobility-with-e-bus-supply/articleshow/107543681.cms?from=mdr | website=The Economic Times | date=2024-10-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-27 |title=EKA Mobility partners with Mitsui and VDL Groep |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/eka-mobility-partners-with-mitsui-and-vdl-groep/article67679235.ece |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=BusinessLine |language=en}}</ref>

== Key initiatives ==
EKA Mobility is one of the 20 companies approved under the Central Government's [[Production Linked Incentive schemes in India|Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme]], which seeks to boost domestic manufacturing of advanced automotive technology products.<ref>{{Cite web | title=PLI Scheme Approved Companies | url=https://www.autoindia.com/pli-scheme/approved-companies/ | website=AutoIndia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 Jan 2024 |title=government of NCT of Delhi - transport department |url=https://transport.delhi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Transport/circulars-orders/circular_six_0001-5.pdf }}</ref> In partnership with Skyline Motors, EKA has deployed electric buses in the [[state of Uttarakhand]].<ref>{{Cite web | title=EKA Mobility partners with Skyline Motors to deploy electric buses in Uttarakhand | url=https://motorindiaonline.in/eka-mobility-partners-with-skyline-motors-to-deploy-electric-buses-in-uttarakhand/ | website=Motor India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kavitha |date=2024-09-19 |title=EKA Mobility Partners with Skyline Motors to Launch Electric Bus Service in Uttarakhand |url=https://emobilityplus.com/2024/09/19/eka-mobility-partners-with-skyline-motors-to-launch-electric-bus-service-in-uttarakhand/ |access-date=2024-10-10 |website=EMobility+ |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Investments ==
In 2023, Japan's [[Mitsui & Co.|Mitsui & Co]]. invested Rs 600 crore in EKA Mobility to support its electric vehicle expansion plans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mitsui Invests in EKA Mobility for EV Expansion |url=https://money.rediff.com/news/market/mitsui-invests-in-eka-mobility-for-ev-expansion/11585120240620 |access-date=2024-10-17 |website=Rediff |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Investment in Pinnacle Mobility, an Indian Company Developing Mobility Electrification Business under the EKA Brand - MITSUI & CO., LTD. |url=https://www.mitsui.com/jp/en/release/2023/1248079_13943.html |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=Investment in Pinnacle Mobility, an Indian Company Developing Mobility Electrification Business under the EKA Brand - MITSUI & CO., LTD. |language=en}}</ref> This was Mitsui's second investment into the company, signaling continued interest in its growth potential.<ref>{{Cite news | title=Japan's Mitsui invests Rs 200 crore in Pune-based EKA Mobility | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/renewables/japans-mitsui-invests-rs-200-crore-in-pune-based-eka-mobility/articleshow/111144525.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst | website=The Economic Times| date=20 June 2024 | last1=Mukherjee | first1=Sharmistha }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-05-03 |title=EV maker Eka Mobility to invest 600cr in Pune plants |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/ev-maker-eka-mobility-to-invest-600cr-in-pune-plants/articleshow/109798378.cms |access-date=2024-10-06 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Leadership ==
EKA Mobility is led by Sudhir Mehta, the chairman and managing director of Pinnacle Industries.<ref>{{Cite web | title=EKA Mobility appoints new leadership team | url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/power/eka-mobility-appoints-vijaykumar-yelne-as-president-murali-raju-as-cco-and-zoeb-karampurwala-as-cpo/110767955 | website=Energy Economic Times}}</ref> Additionally, Mr. Lakshminarayan, Chairman of [[TVS Motor Company|TVS Automotive Systems Limited]], and Ms. Rashmi Urdhwareshe, former director of [[Automotive Research Association of India|ARAI]], are members of the advisory board, bringing decades of experience in the automotive and electric vehicle sectors.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Advisory Board of EKA Mobility | url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/eka-mobility-advisory-board/ | website=The Hindu Business Line}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=LMOTY 2024: Dr. Sudhir Mehta and Vishal Chordia Receive Lokmat Maharashtrian of the Year Award for Industry and Business Category - www.lokmattimes.com |url=https://www.lokmattimes.com/maharashtra/lmoty-2024-dr-sudhir-mehta-and-vishal-chordia-receive-lokmat-maharashtrian-of-the-year-award-for-a505/ |work=Lokmat Times |date=15 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* •⁠ ⁠[[Electric vehicle industry in India]]
* •⁠ [[Production Linked Incentive schemes in India|Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme]]

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

[[Category:Electric vehicle manufacturers of India]]
[[Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 2019]]
[[Category:Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Pune]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 2019]]
[[Category:Electric buses]]
[[Category:Automotive companies of India]]

{{India-company-stub}}
{{electric-vehicle-stub}}

Chauri-Chaura Assembly constituency

2025-08-08T04:54:21Z

Davidmam: added basic details initial version

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}

{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Chauri-Chaura
| map_image = 326-Chauri-Chaura.svg
| mla = [[Sarvan Kumar Nishad]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janta Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Gorakhpur district|Gorakhpur]]
| reservation = None
| electors = 3,39,854 (2017)
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 326
}}

'''Chauri-Chaura''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] from the city of Chauri-Chaura in the [[Gorakhpur district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.

Chauri-Chaura is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Bansgaon Lok Sabha constituency]]. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 326 amongst 403 constituencies.

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| colspan="4" |{{Center|''Till 2012 : Constituency did not exist''}}
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|[[Jai Prakash Nishad (Gorakhpur)|Jai Prakash Nishad]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
|[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|[[Sangeeta Yadav]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Sarvan Kumar Nishad|Sarvan Nishad]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]:<ref name="election2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-05-25 |title=Uttar Pradesh General Legislative Election 2022|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/|website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sarvan Kumar Nishad
|votes = {{formatnum:91958}}
|percentage = 44.65
|change = {{decrease}}0.7
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Brijesh Chandra Lal
|votes = {{formatnum:50831}}
|percentage = 24.68
|change = {{increase}}2.89
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ajay Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:29582}}
|percentage = 14.36
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Virendra
|votes = {{formatnum:25077}}
|percentage = 12.18
|change = {{decrease}}7.17
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1214}}
|percentage = 0.59
|change = {{decrease}}0.01
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:41127}}
|percentage = 19.97
|change = {{decrease}}3.59
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:205952}}
|percentage = 57.99
|change = {{increase}}0.99
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
[[Bharatiya Janta Party]] candidate [[Sangeeta Yadav]], won in last Assembly election of [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections]] defeating [[Samajwadi Party]] candidate Manurojan Yadav by a margin of 45,660 votes.<ref name="election2017">{{Cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/chauri-chaura.html|title=Assembly result 2017|website=Elections.in|access-date=2017-08-25}}</ref><ref name="election2017-1">{{cite web |title=Uttar Pradesh 2017 Result |url=https://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2017/UP/10.Detailed%20Results.pdf |access-date=3 December 2018 |website=Election Commission of India}}</ref><ref name="election2012">{{cite web |title=Uttar Pradesh 2012 Results |url=https://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2012/Stats_Report_UP2012.pdf |access-date=3 December 2018 |website=Election Commission of India}}</ref>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Chauri Chaura|Chauri-Chaura]]<ref name="election2017"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Sangeeta Yadav]]
|votes = {{formatnum:87863}}
|percentage = 45.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Manurojan Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:42203}}
|percentage = 21.79
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Jay Prakash Nishad
|votes = {{formatnum:37478}}
|percentage = 19.35
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = NISHAD Party
|candidate = Ishwar Chand
|votes = {{formatnum:13048}}
|percentage = 6.74
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = Dudhnath Kewat
|votes = {{formatnum:2045}}
|percentage = 1.06
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1150}}
|percentage = 0.6
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:45660}}
|percentage = 23.56
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:193724}}
|percentage = 57.0
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|loser = Bahujan Samaj Party
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = {{increase}}16.35
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: [[Chauri Chaura|Chauri-Chaura]]<ref name="election2012"/>}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Jay Prakash Nishad
|votes = 49,687
|percentage = 29.28
|change = {{unchanged}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Anoop Kumar Pandey
|votes = 29,086
|percentage = 17.14
|change = {{unchanged}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Vinay Kumar Singh
|votes = 22,515
|percentage = 13.27
|change = {{unchanged}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Suheldev Bharatiya Samaj Party
|candidate = Nilesh
|votes = 10,620
|percentage = 6.26
|change = {{unchanged}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Peace Party of India
|candidate = Hari Lal
|votes = 9,438
|percentage = 5.56
|change = {{unchanged}}
}}

{{Election box majority
|votes = 20,601
|percentage = 12.13
|change = {{unchanged}}
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = 1,69,696
|percentage = 53.56
|change = {{unchanged}}
}}
{{Election box new seat win|
|winner = Bahujan Samaj Party
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{Uttar Pradesh elections|state=collapsed}}

{{coord|26.65|83.59|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Gorakhpur district]]

Parkala massacre

2025-08-07T19:19:04Z

Davidmam: creating new stub

{{Short description|1947 massacre in Parkala, Telangana}}
{{Use Indian English|date = May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date = May 2019}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = Parkala Massacre
| location = [[Parkal|Parkala]]
| target = Civilians
| date = 2 September 1947
| timezone = [[UTC+05:30]]
| type = [[Mass murder]]
| fatalities = 22
| injuries = 150
| perp = [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakars]]
}}

The '''Parkala Massacre''' was the killing of 22 Protestors on 2 September 1947, by the [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakar]]s in the town of [[Parkal|Parkala]]. The massacre suppressed the popular movement for India to annex the [[Hyderabad State]].<ref name="Hindu">{{cite news|last1=Rao|first1=Gollapudi Srinivasa|title=Elders recount Parkal massacre|accessdate=24 May 2018|work=The Hindu|date=3 September 2010|language=en-IN|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/Elders-recount-Parkal-massacre/article15901477.ece}}</ref><ref name="Hans"/>

==History==
[[India]] became independent from the [[British Raj]] on 15 August 1947. Immediately after, the people of [[Hyderabad State]] began a civil revolt, agitating for a merger with India and against the authoritarian rule of the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]]. Farmers in the town of Parkala also took part in the resistance.<ref name="Hindu"/>

On 2 September 1947, they prohibited all gatherings in [[Warangal]], but more than 1,500 people from nearby villages ignored this [[diktat]] and came together to hoist the flag of India. According to eyewitnesses, the Razakars fired indiscriminately, killing 22 people and seriously wounding over 150. The Razakars killed three people by tying them to a tree and shooting them. In the nearby village of [[Laxmipuram, Srikakulam|Laxmipuram]], they sexually assaulted women, looted money, and set the huts ablaze.<ref name="Hindu"/>{{Better source|date=October 2019}}

==Legacy==
Years later, Indian Prime Minister [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]] deemed the Parkala Massacre as the "[[Jallianwala Bagh massacre|Jallianwala Bagh]] of the south".<ref>{{cite news |title=BJP to launch campaign against Seemandhra leaders' 'false propaganda' |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/bjp-to-launch-campaign-against-seemandhra-leaders-false-propaganda/article5084592.ece |work=The Hindu |date=2 September 2013 |language=en-IN}}</ref> The Jallianwala Bagh massacre was a major turning point for the Indian independence movement when a British general, Reginald Dyer, marched into Jallianwala Bagh and ordered his troops to fire on peaceful protesters, killing 379 and injuring 1,200.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=William |title=British Children Must Be Taught Imperial History |journal=Pakistan Historical Society. Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society |volume=61 |issue=4 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-3178363971/british-children-must-be-taught-imperial-history |archive-date=17 June 2018 |access-date=17 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617115630/https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-3178363971/british-children-must-be-taught-imperial-history |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On 17 September 2003, [[C. Vidyasagar Rao|Vidyasagar Rao]], a politician from [[Telangana]], built a memorial named the "Amaradhamam", in tribute to the victims of the massacre.<ref>{{cite news|title=RSS fought against Nizam’s rule: BJP|date=8 September 2003|newspaper=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/RSS-fought-against-Nizams-rule-BJP/articleshow/170882.cms|accessdate=25 October 2019}}</ref> The memorial was inaugurated by the then Indian Deputy Prime Minister [[L. K. Advani]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Advani to inaugurate Parkal memorial|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=2003-09-07|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2003/09/07/stories/2003090703660400.htm}}{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> According to Rao, the massacre was an issue neglected by the government, and the memorial honored the people of Telangana in their [[Indian annexation of Hyderabad|struggle for the liberation of Hyderabad]]. The memorial has been used as a platform by the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] to demand that the government recognize 17 September as "Liberation Day" of Telangana.<ref name="Hans">{{cite news|last1=Edwin|first1=James|title=Nizam’s tyranny recalled|accessdate=24 May 2018|work=The Hans India|date=2 September 2016|language=en|url=http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Commoner/2016-09-02/Nizams-tyranny-recalled/251862}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=BJP pushes for Liberation Day on September 17 in Telangana|work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|date=3 September 2017|language=en|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/030917/bjp-pushes-for-liberation-day-on-september-17-in-telangana.html}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Bhairanpally Massacre]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hyderabad State]]
[[Category:Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:September 1947 in Asia|September]]
[[Category:Massacres in India]]
[[Category:Massacres in 1947]]

Farming systems in India

2025-07-31T01:24:45Z

Davidmam: put up a bio

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
[[File: Rice Paddy Fields in Tamil Nadu.jpg|thumb|Rice semi-paddy fields in Tamil Nadu]]
'''Farming systems in India''' are strategically utilized, according to the locations where they are most suitable. The farming systems that significantly contribute to the agriculture of India are [[subsistence farming]], [[organic farming]] and [[industrial farming]].<ref name="India's Role">[https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:BXFNiE5DMSkJ:ec.europa.eu/agriculture/publi/map/03_07.pdf+India%E2%80%99s+Role+in+World+Agriculture&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiYlhjDIMJvyjmMiWhAnbEtWUhIV8XaVb1S3WBzor00KGD4n98S9g4MpoaX7j3-V7eVrUoZoDjIae_Xi0uYcxL_Ix_h1mgXo6xNYPvcZi0n6vED_iFz3P_wHRhigfRQpq68l5Q2&sig=AHIEtbS-YfoOeaF6Tpv9uOqRaW78lje4iQ "India's Role in World Agriculture."] Monitoring Agricultural trade Policy. European Commission, December 2007.</ref> Regions throughout India differ in the types of farming they use; some are based on [[horticulture]], [[ley farming]], [[agroforestry]], and many more.<ref name="India's Role" /> Due to India's geographical location, certain parts experience different climates, thus affecting each region's agricultural productivity differently. India is very dependent on its monsoon cycle for large crop yields. India's agriculture has an extensive background which goes back to at least 9 thousand years. In India, in the alluvial plains of the [[Indus River]] in [[Pakistan]], the old cities of [[Mohenjo-Daro]] and [[Harappa]] experienced an apparent establishment of an organized farming urban culture. That society, known as the Harappan or [[Indus civilization]], flourished until shortly after 4000 BP; it was much more comprehensive than those of [[Egypt]] or [[Babylonia]] and appeared earlier than analogous societies in northern [[China]]. Currently, the country holds the second position in agricultural production in the world. In 2007, agriculture and other industries made up more than 16% of India's GDP. Despite the steady decline in agriculture's contribution to the country's GDP, agriculture is the biggest industry in the country and plays a key role in the socio-economic growth of the country. India is the second-largest producer of wheat, rice, cotton, [[sugarcane]], silk, [[Peanut|groundnuts]], and dozens more. It is also the second biggest harvester of vegetables and fruit, representing 8.6% and 10.9% of overall production, respectively. The major fruits produced by India are [[mangoes]], [[papayas]], [[sapota]], and bananas. India also has the biggest number of livestock in the world, holding 281 million. In 2008, the country housed the second-largest number of cattle in the world with 175 million.<ref>Krishna, K. L., and Uma Kapila (eds) (2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kYX1ipzTckoC&pg=PA77&lpg=PA77 ''Readings in Indian Agriculture and Industry'']. Darya Ganj, New Delhi: Academic Foundation. {{ISBN|8171887384}}</ref>

==Climate effect on farming systems==
Each region in India has a specific soil and [[climate]] that is only suitable for certain types of farming. Many regions on the western side of India experience less than 50  cm of rain annually, so the farming systems are restricted to cultivating crops that can withstand drought conditions and farmers are usually restricted to single cropping.<ref name="Aggarwal">{{cite journal|author=Aggarwal, P. K. |url=http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Global%20Climate%20Change.pdf |title=Global Climate Change and Indian Agriculture: Impacts, Adaptation, and Migitation|journal=Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences |volume=10 |year=2008|pages= 911–19}}</ref> Gujarat, Rajasthan, [[Punjab (region)|Punjab]], and northern Maharashtra all experience this climate and each region grows suitable crops like jowar, bajra, and [[peas]]{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}. In contrast, the eastern side of India has an average of 100–200  cm of rainfall annually without irrigation, so these regions can double the crop production. West Coast, [[West Bengal]], parts of [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh|U.P.]] and [[Assam]] are all associated with this climate and they grow crops such as rice, sugarcane, jute,<ref name="Aggarwal" /> and many more.

[[File:India climatic zone map en.svg|thumb|right|Climate regions of India]]

There are three different types of crops that are cultivated throughout India. Each type is grown in a different season depending on their compatibility with certain weather. [[Kharif]] crops are grown at the start of the monsoon until the beginning of the winter, relatively from June to November. Examples of such crops are rice, corn, millet, groundnut, moong, and urad. Rabi crops are winter crops that are sown in October -November months and harvested in February – March. Its typical examples are wheat, boro paddy, jowar, nuts, etc. The third type is Zaid crops which are summer crops. It is sown in February – March and harvested in May – June. Examples are aush paddy, vegetables, and jute.

==Irrigation farming==
Irrigation farming is when crops are grown with the help of irrigation systems by supplying water to land through rivers, reservoirs, tanks, and wells. Over the last century, the population of India has tripled. With a growing population and increasing demand for food, the necessity of water for agricultural productivity is crucial. India faces the daunting task of increasing its food production by over 50 percent in the next two decades, and reaching the goal of [[sustainable agriculture]] requires a crucial role of water. Empirical evidence suggests that the increase in agricultural production in India is mostly due to irrigation; close to three-fifths of India's grain harvest comes from irrigated land. The land area under irrigation expanded from 22.6 million hectares in FY 1950 to 59 million hectares in FY 1990. The main strategy for these irrigation systems focuses on public investments in surface systems, such as large dams, long canals, and other large-scale works that require large amounts of capital. Between 1951 and 1990, nearly 1,350 large- and medium-sized irrigation works were started, and about 850 were completed.

===Problems of irrigation===
Because funds and technical expertise were in short supply, many projects moved forward at a slow pace, including The Indira Gandhi Canal project. The central government's transfer of huge amounts of water from [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] to [[Haryana]] and Rajasthan contributed to the civil unrest in Punjab during the 1980s and early 1990s. Problems also have arisen as groundwater supplies used for irrigation face depletion. Drawing water off from one area to irrigate another often leads to increased salinity receiving water through irrigation are poorly managed or inadequately designed; the result often is too much water and water-logged fields incapable of production.

==Geography of irrigation in India==
Irrigation farming is very important for crop cultivation in regions of seasonal or low rainfall. Western U.P., Punjab, Haryana, parts of Bihar, [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], A.P., [[Tamil Nadu]], Karnataka, and other regions thrive on irrigation and generally practice multiple or double cropping. With irrigation, a large variety of crops can be produced such as rice, sugarcane, wheat and tobacco.<ref>Bhaduri, Anik, Upali Amarasinghe, and Tushaar Shah. "Future of Irrigation in India." Web. 14 October 2011</ref>

==Shifting cultivation==
[[Shifting cultivation]] is a type of subsistence farming where a plot of land is cultivated for a few years until the crop yield declines due to soil exhaustion and the effects of pests and weeds. Once crop yield has stagnated, the plot of land is deserted and the ground is cleared by [[slash and burn|slash-and-burn]] methods, allowing the land to replenish. Crops like yarn, cassava, maize and potatoes are mostly grown. This type of cultivation is predominant in the eastern and north-eastern regions on hill slopes and in forest areas such as [[Assam]], Meghalaya, [[Nagaland]], Manipur, [[Tripura]], Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, [[Madhya Pradesh]], Orissa, and [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Crops such as rain-fed rice, corn, [[buckwheat]], small millets, root crops, and vegetables are grown in this system.<ref name="Ecological Problems">Ranjan, Rajiv, and V. P. Upadhyay (23 March 1999). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070101210718/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/nov25/articles12.htm "Ecological Problems Due to Shifting Cultivation."] ias.ac.in</ref> Eighty-five percent of the total cultivation in northeast India is by shifting cultivation. Due to the increasing requirement for cultivation of land, the cycle of cultivation followed by leaving land fallow has reduced from 25 to 30 years to 2–3 years. This significant drop in uncultivated land does not give the land enough time to return to its natural condition. Because of this, the resilience of the [[ecosystem]] is broken down and the land increasingly deteriorates <ref name="Ecological Problems" />

===Shifting cultivations in Odisha===
[[Odisha, India|Odisha]] accounts for the largest area under shifting cultivation in India. Shifting cultivation is locally known as the [[Podu (agriculture)|Podu cultivation]]. More than 30,000 square km of land (about 1/5 land surface of Odisha) is under such cultivation. Shifting cultivation is prevalent in [[Kalahandi]], [[Koraput]], [[Phulbani]] and other southern and western districts. Tribal communities such as [[Kondha]], Kutia Kondha, Dongaria Kondha, Lanjia Sauras, and Paraja are all involved in this practice. Many festivals and rituals revolve around the podu fields because the tribals view podu cultivation as more than just a means of their livelihood, they view it as a way of life. In the first year of podu cultivation, tribals sow kandlan (a variety of arhar dal). Sowing means spraying the seeds and is used at pre-monsoon time and the area is adequately protected. Yield differs from area to area depending on local climatic factors. After harvest, the land is left fallow. During the pre-monsoon, varieties of rice, corn, and ginger are also sown. Generally, after the third year, the tribals abandon this land and shift to new land. On the abandoned land, natural regeneration starts from the available rootstocks and seed banks. [[Bamboo]] grows naturally; along with many other climbers that regenerate. Generally, this land is not cultivated for the next ten years.<ref name="Ecological Problems" />

Frequent shifting from one land to the other has affected the ecology of these regions. The area under natural forest has declined; the fragmentation of habitat, local disappearance of native species and invasion by exotic weeds and other plants are some of the other environmental consequences of shifting agriculture. Areas that have a fallow cycle of 5 to 10 years are more vulnerable to weed invasion compared to 15-year cycles, which have more soil nutrients, a larger variety of species, and higher agronomic yield.<ref name="Ecological Problems"/>

==Commercial agriculture==
In a commercial-based agriculture, crops are raised in large-scale [[plantation]]s or estates and shipped off to other countries for money. These systems are common in sparsely populated areas such as Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, and Maharashtra. Wheat, cotton, sugarcane, and corn are all examples of crops grown commercially.<ref name="Farming for the Future">Van, Veenhuizen René. ''Cities Farming for the Future Urban Agriculture for Green and Productive Cities''. Silang, Cavite, Philippines: International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, 2006. Print. < http://www.ruaf.org/node/961 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031061358/http://www.ruaf.org/node/961 |date=31 October 2011 }}></ref>

===Types of commercial agriculture===
Intensive commercial farming is a system of agriculture in which relatively large amounts of capital or labor are applied to relatively smaller areas of land. It is usually practiced where the population pressure is reducing the size of landholdings. [[West Bengal]] practices intensive commercial farming.<ref name="Farming for the Future"/>

Extensive commercial farming is a system of agriculture in which relatively small amounts of capital or labor investment are applied to relatively large areas of land. At times, the land is left fallow to regain its fertility. It is mostly mechanized because of the cost and availability of labor. It usually occurs at the margin of the agricultural system, at a great distance from the market or on poor land of limited potential and is usually practiced in the tarai regions of southern [[Nepal]]. Crops grown are sugarcane, rice and wheat.<ref name="Farming for the Future"/>

Plantation agriculture involves a large farm or estate usually in a tropical or sub-tropical country where crops are grown for sale in distant markets rather than local consumption.<ref name="Farming for the Future"/>

Commercial grain farming is a response to farm mechanization and it is the major type of activity in the areas of low rainfall and low density of population where extensive farming is practiced. Crops are prone to the vagaries of weather and droughts, and monoculture of wheat is the general practice.

==Ley farming==
With increases in both human and animal populations in the Indian arid zone, the demand for grain, fodder, and fuelwood is increasing. Agricultural production in this region is low due to the low and uneven distribution of rainfall (100–400  mm yr"1) and the low availability of essential mineral nutrients. These demands can be met only by increasing production levels of these [[Aridisols]] through the adoption of farming technologies that improve physical properties as well as the biological processes of these soils. Alternate farming systems are being sought for higher sustainable crop production at low input levels and to protect the soils from further [[Environmental degradation|degradation]].

In India's drylands, ley farming is used as a way to restore [[soil fertility]]. It involves rotations of grasses and food grains in a specific area. It is now being promoted even more to encourage organic farming, especially in the drylands.<ref name=Sharma>Sharma, Arun K. (2005) [http://ag.arizona.edu/oals/ALN/aln58/sharma.html "The Potential for Organic Farming in the Drylands of India."] ''Arid Lands Newsletters''.</ref> Ley farming acts as insurance against crop failures by frequent droughts. Structurally related physical properties and biological processes of soil often change when different cropping systems, tillage, or management practices are used. Soil fertility can be increased and maintained by enhancing natural soil biological processes. Farming provides balanced nutrition for sustainable production through the continuous turnover of organic matter in the soil.<ref name=Sharma/>

==Plantation farming==
This extensive commercial system is characterized by the cultivation of a single cash crop in plantations of estates on a large scale. Because it is a capital-centered system, it is important to be technically advanced and have efficient methods of cultivation and tools including fertilizers and irrigation and transport facilities. Examples of this type of farming are the tea plantations in Assam and West Bengal, the coffee plantations in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, and the rubber plantations in Kerala and Maharashtra.<ref name=Gulati>Gulati, Ashok, P. K. Joshi, and Maurice Landes (2003). [http://www.ncap.res.in/contract_%20farming/Resources/1.Introduction.pdf "Contract Farming in India: An Introduction."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425064407/http://www.ncap.res.in/contract_%20farming/Resources/1.Introduction.pdf |date=25 April 2012 }} ncap.res.in</ref>

===Forestry===
In contrast to a naturally regenerated forest, tree plantations are typically grown as even-aged [[monocultures]], primarily for timber production. These plantations are also likely to contain tree species that would not naturally grow in the area. They may include unconventional types of trees such as hybrids, and [[genetically modified trees]] are likely to be used in the future. Plantation owners will grow trees that are best suited to industrial applications such as [[pine]], [[spruce]], and [[eucalyptus]] due to their fast growth rate, tolerance of rich or degraded agricultural land, and potential to produce large quantities of raw material for industrial use. Plantations are always young forests in ecological terms; this means that these forests don't contain the type of growth, soil or wildlife that is typical of old-growth natural ecosystems in a forest.

The replacement of natural forests with tree plantations has also caused social problems. In some countries, there is little concern or regard for the rights of the local people when replacing natural forests with plantations. Because these plantations are made solely for the production of one material, there is a much smaller range of services for the local people. India has taken measures to avoid this by limiting the amount of land that can be owned by someone. As a result, smaller plantations are owned by local farmers who then sell the wood to larger companies.<ref name=Gulati/>

===Teak and bamboo===
[[Teak]] and bamboo plantations in India are a good alternative crop solution for farmers of central India, where conventional farming is popular. Due to rising input costs of farming, many farmers have grown teak and bamboo plantations because they only require water during the first two years. Bamboo, once planted, provides the farmer with output for 50 years until it flowers. Production of these two trees positively impacts and contributes to the climate change problem in India.<ref name="Status of Organic Farming">Ramesh, P., N. R. Panwar, A. B. Sing, S. Ramana, Sushil Kumar Yadav, Rahul Shrivastava, and A. Subba Rao. [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:hxPj_XOkt0EJ:www.ias.ac.in/currsci/10may2010/1190.pdf+Status+of+Organic+Farming+in+India&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESh1HAGEmX-MHPAb9T_BsXcjHedXe97DefpsPQxbPgJbVxp-2gEQcKqkO6md_czr_O4gRZJosO9o04EipANDa0YEy9UgIJrjQn3fqKNE63eR5ThH7iuJoF9fwCvSG-kk3b1k5ymG&sig=AHIEtbQoYxCv8MXnNRSs-15rcqWQOaGnpA "Status of Organic Farming in India."] www.ias.ac.in.</ref>

==Crop rotation==
[[Crop rotation]] can be classified as a type of subsistence farming if there is an individual or communal farmer doing the labor and if the yield is solely for their consumption. It is characterized by different crops being alternately grown on the same land in a specific order to have more effective control of weeds, pests, diseases, and more economical utilization of soil fertility. In India, leguminous crops are grown alternately with wheat, barley, and mustard. An ideal cropping system should use natural resources efficiently, provide stable and high returns, and avoid environmental damage.<ref name="Status of Organic Farming"/>

===Different sequences of crop rotation===
Rotation of two crops within a year i.e.:
:Year 1: Wheat
:Year 2: Barley
:Year 3: Wheat again

Three crop rotation i.e.:
:Year 1: Wheat
:Year 2: Barley
:Year 3: Mustard
:Year 4: Wheat again<ref name="Status of Organic Farming"/>

===Pearl millet===
[[Pearl millet]] crop is mostly grown as a rain-fed monsoon crop during kharif (June–July to September–November) and also as an irrigated hot weather (February–June) crop in north, central and south India. Pearl millet is often grown in rotation with [[sorghum]], groundnut, cotton, [[foxtail millet]], [[finger millet]] (ragi), [[Castor oil plant|castor]], and sometimes, in south India with rice.<ref name="Status of Organic Farming"/>

On the red and iron-rich soils of Karnataka, pearl millet and ragi rotation are practiced although pearl millet is not always grown annually.

Cluster bean – Pearl millet crop sequence with crop residue incorporation has significantly increased the productivity in the arid zone of Western Rajasthan where fallow – pearl millet/pearl millet after pearl millet crop sequence is practiced.

In Punjab, the dry-land rotation may be a small grain-millet-fallow. In irrigated lands, pearl millet is rotated with [[chickpea]], fodder sorghum, and wheat.

In the dry and light soils of Rajasthan, southern Punjab and Haryana, and northern Gujarat, pearl millet is most often rotated with a pulse-like moth or mungbean, or is followed by fallow, [[sesame]], potato, [[Mustard plant|mustard]], [[moth bean]], and [[guar]]. Sesame crops may be low-yielding and may be replaced by castor or groundnut.<ref name="Status of Organic Farming"/>

==Dairy farming==
In 2001 India became the world leader in milk production with a production volume of 84 million tons. India has about three times as many dairy animals as the US, which produces around 75 million tons. Dairy farming is generally a type of subsistence farming system in India, especially in Haryana, the major producer of milk in the country. More than 40% of Indian farming households are engaged in milk production because it is a livestock enterprise in which they can engage with relative ease to improve their livelihoods. Regular milk sales allow them to move from subsistence to earning a market-based income. The structure of the livestock industry is globally changing and putting poorer livestock producers in danger because they will be crowded out and left behind. More than 40 million households in India are at least partially dependent on milk production, and developments in the dairy sector will have important repercussions on their livelihoods and rural poverty levels. Haryana was chosen to assess possible developments in the Indian dairy sector and to broadly identify areas of interventions that favor small-scale dairy producers. A methodology developed by the International Farm Comparison Network (IFCN) examined the impacts of change on milk prices, farm management and other market factors that affect the small-scale milk production systems, the whole farm and related household income.<ref name="India's Role"/>

==Co-operative farming==
Co-operative farming refers to the pooling of farming resources such as fertilizers, pesticides, and farming equipment such as tractors. However, it generally excludes pooling of land unlike in collective farming where pooling of land is also done. Cooperative farming is a relatively new system in India. Its goal is to bring together all of the land resources of farmers in such an organized and united way so that they will be collected in a position to grow crops on all of the land to the best of the fertility of the land. This system has become an essential feature of India's Five Year Plans. There is immense scope for co-operative farming in India although the movement is as yet in its infancy. The progress of cooperative financing in India has been very slow. The reasons are fear of unemployment, attachment to the land, lack of proper propaganda renunciation of membership by farmers and the existence of fake societies.<ref name=Gulati/>

[[Aaqua]] is a Farmer Knowledge Exchange.

==See also==
*[[Agriculture in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''Fertilizer Industry in India: Share of Labour & Productivity Trends''. Dr. Kalyan Lal Meena. [http://www.rubypressco.com Ruby Press & Co.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019131146/http://www.rubypressco.com/ |date=19 October 2013 }}, New Delhi. (2013). {{ISBN|978-93-82395-10-2}}
* "[http://www.world-agriculture.com/dry-land-farming/work-on-dry-farming-in-india.php Dryland Farming – Work on Dryland Farming in India.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007130521/http://www.world-agriculture.com/dry-land-farming/work-on-dry-farming-in-india.php |date=7 October 2011 }}" Agriculture, Environmental Articles for Education at World Agriculture. Articles for Education. Web. 7 November 2011.

{{Agriculture in India}}

[[Category:Agriculture in India]]

Kota State

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Madammakki

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Indian Idol (season 14)

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Bullygunge Cultural Association

2023-09-21T16:55:08Z

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{{Infobox Hindu temple|name=Cultural Association|image=|caption=Association, 2009|native_name=|native_name_lang=Bengali|governing_body=Bullygunge Cultural Association|festival=[[Durga Puja]]|district=[[Kolkata]]|state=[[West Bengal]]|established=|deity=}}

'''Bullygune Cultural Association''' is the most famous Sarbojanin (''public'') [[Durga]] idol kept at Bullygunge, a prominent locality in [[south Kolkata]] in the state of [[West Bengal]], during the [[Durga Puja]] festival. The idol is kept for public display for approximately 5 days Or more; thereafter it is immersed in the Ganges at Babu Ghat on the auspicious day of [[Vijayadashami]].

From 2017, this puja participates in the annual immersion carnival organised by [[Government of West Bengal]] on the iconic Red Road in the city of [[Kolkata]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=72 idols to be showcased at Red Road next week|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/west-bengal-puja-carnival-72-idols-kolkata-showcased-red-road-next-week-5410971/|access-date=2020-08-23|website=www.indianexpress.com|date=21 October 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

Over a million people visit this Pandal daily during the [[Durga Puja]] festival.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bullygunge Cultural Association a puja that launched thousand footfalls|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/ballygunge-cultural-association-a-puja-that-launched-thousand-footfalls/story-MEIlLalNXesep553IRVi0H.html|access-date=2020-08-23|website=www.hindutantimes.com|date=22 September 2016 |language=en}}</ref>

In 2015, the Bullygunge Cultural Association entered 65 years. In 2019, for their 69th Durga Puja, Ballygunge Cultural Association illustrated the fusion of tradition and modernism in its theme, which is to be presented as ‘Jugalbandi’.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jugalbandi of bamboo and steel for Ballygunge Cultural|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/durga-puja-jugalbandi-bamboo-steel-ballygunge-cultural-1502804912.html|access-date=2020-08-23|website=www.thestatesman.com|date=29 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Durga Puja]]

Jetpur

2023-05-31T14:31:26Z

Davidmam: stub

'''Jetpur''' may refer to the following entities in Gujarat, western India:

* [[Jetpur, Navagadh]], a municipality
* [[Jetpur State]], a former princely state with seat in the above town
* [[Jetpur Taluka]], in Rajkot district
* [[Jetpur, Rajkot (Vidhan Sabha constituency)]], which includes the above taluka plus Jamkandorna Taluka and another village
* [[Jetpur, Chhota Udaipur (Gujarat Assembly constituency)]], another Gujarat Assembly constituency in Chhota Udaipur district.

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Kolathiri Rajas

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