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Jangipur, Murshidabad

2026-05-08T16:12:58Z

Creativesketchbook: reworked page for clarity and updated info for clarity

{{other uses|Jangipur (disambiguation){{!}}Jangipur}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Jangipur
| other_name = Jahangirpur
| nickname =
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = Full view of Jangipur Station.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = [[Jangipur Road railway station]]
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India3
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|24.4691|N|88.1032|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]]
| leader_title = Administrative Division

| leader_name = [[Malda division|Malda]]
| established_title = Jangipur Municipality (JM)
| established_date = 1869
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipality]]
| governing_body = Jangipur Municipality
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name='Jangipur City'>{{cite web|title=Jangipur City|url=https://www.sudawb.org/wbdma_oldversion/HTM/DIS/MUNI_ULB_Jangipur.htm}}</ref>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 8.20
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 11
| population_total = 88,165
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name='Jangipur City'/>
| population_metro = 122,875
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Jangipur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jangipur]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Jangipur, West Bengal Assembly constituency|Jangipur]]
| website = {{URL|http://jangipurmunicipality.org/}}
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-WB]]
| footnotes = {{URL|https://murshidabad.nic.in/}}
}}

'''Jangipur''' is a city and a municipality in [[Murshidabad district]] in the state of [[West Bengal]], [[India]]. It is the headquarters of the [[Jangipur subdivision]]. It is situated on the banks of the [[Bhagirathi]]. Jangipur is an old town having reference from the historical period of Moghul emperor Jahangir when an army camp was established here.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to jangipurmunicipality.org |url=http://jangipurmunicipality.org/Default.aspx?PageId=71 |access-date=2022-05-14 |website=jangipurmunicipality.org}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=400| height=550| zoom=11
| coord={{coord|24|26|0|N|88|6|0|E}}| float=left|caption='''Cities, towns and locations in the southern portion of Jangipur subdivision, Murshidabad district (including Suti I, Raghunathganj I, Raghunathganj II, Sagardighi CD blocks)''' M: municipal town, CT: census town, R: rural/ urban centre, F: Facility Abbreviation- TPS: Thermal Power Station, AMU: Aligarh Muslim University Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1={{coord|24|33|50|N|88|3|18|E}} | label-pos1=right|label1= Ramakantapur | numbered1=CT| mark-title1=[[Ramakantapur]] (CT)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1= #A40000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|24|31|52|N|88|4|6|E}} | label-pos2=right|label2= Fatellapur| numbered2=CT| mark-title2=[[Fatellapur]] (CT)
|mark-coord3={{coord|24|34|8|N|88|2|13|E}} | label-pos3=left|label3= Madna| numbered3=CT| mark-title3=[[Madna, West Bengal]] (CT)
|mark-coord4={{coord|24|33|0|N|88|3|46|E}} | label-pos4=right|label4= Nayabahadurpur| numbered4=CT| mark-title4=[[Nayabahadurpur]] (CT)
|mark-coord5={{coord|24|28|2|N|88|2|2|E}} | label-pos5=left|label5= Ghorsala| numbered5=CT| mark-title5=[[Ghorsala]] (CT)
|mark-coord6={{coord|24|27|36|N|88|3|0|E}} | label-pos6= bottom|label6= Srikantabati| numbered6=CT| mark-title6=[[Srikantabati]] (CT)
|mark-coord7={{coord|24|27|0|N|88|4|45|E}} | label-pos7=right|label7= Charka| numbered7=CT| mark-title7=[[Charka, Jangipur]] (CT)
|mark-coord8={{coord|24|26|35|N|88|6|9|E}} | label-pos8=left|label8= Dafarpur| numbered8=CT| mark-title8=[[Dafarpur]] (CT)
|mark-coord9={{coord|24|26|9|N|88|6|24|E}} | label-pos9=right|label9= Ramnagar| numbered9=CT| mark-title9=[[Ramnagar, Murshidabad]] (CT)
|mark-coord10={{coord|24|24|27|N|88|4|4|E}} | label-pos10=right|label10= Mirzapur| numbered10=CT| mark-title10=[[Mirzapur, Murshidabad]] (CT)
|mark-coord11={{coord|24|30|30|N|88|4|36|E}} | label-pos11=right|label11= Giria| numbered11=CT| mark-title11=[[Giria, India]] (CT)
|mark-coord12={{coord|24|29|11|N|88|4|57|E}} | label-pos12=right|label12= Mithipur| numbered12=CT| mark-title12=[[Mithipur]] (CT)
|mark-coord13={{coord|24|28|20|N|88|5|37|E}} | label-pos13=left|label13= Jot Kamal| numbered13=CT| mark-title13=[[Jot Kamal]] (CT)
|mark-coord14={{coord|24|27|54|N|88|5|44|E}} | label-pos14=left|label14= Osmanpur| numbered14=CT| mark-title14=[[Osmanpur]] (CT)
|mark-coord15={{coord|24|0|36|N|88|28|36|E}} | label-pos15=right|label15= Sahajadpur| numbered15=CT| mark-title15=[[Sahajadpur]] (CT)
|mark-coord16={{coord|24|27|45|N|88|6|27|E}} | label-pos16=right|label16= Khodarampur| numbered16=CT| mark-title16=[[Khodarampur]] (CT)
|mark-coord17={{coord|24|27|21|N|88|7|22|E}} | label-pos17=right|label17= Donalia| numbered17=CT| mark-title17=[[Donalia]] (CT)
|mark-coord18={{coord|24|26|55|N|88|7|53|E}} | label-pos18=right|label18= Teghari| numbered18=CT| mark-title18=[[Teghari, Murshidabad]] (CT)
|mark-coord19={{coord|24|26|26|N|88|9|9|E}} | label-pos19=right|label19= Krishna Sali| numbered19=CT| mark-title19=[[Krishna Sali]] (CT)
|mark-coord20={{coord|24|26|0|N|88|10|32|E}} | label-pos20=bottom|label20= Bara Jumla| numbered20=CT| mark-title20=[[Bara Jumla]] (CT)
|mark-coord21={{coord|24|31|6|N|88|2|38|E}} | label-pos21=right|label21= AMU: Murshidabad Centre| numbered21=F| mark-title21= [[Aligarh Muslim University: Murshidabad Centre]] (F) |shape-color21=#967117
|mark-coord22={{coord|24|22|9|N|88|6|22|E}} | label-pos22=left|label22= Sagardighi TPS| numbered22=F| mark-title22= [[Sagardighi Thermal Power Station]] (F) |shape-color22=#967117
|mark-coord23={{coord|24|28|18|N|88|6|11|E}} | label-pos23=right|label23= Jangipur| numbered23=M| mark-title23=Jangipur, Murshidabad (M) |shape-color23=black| label-size23=13|label-color23=black 
|mark-coord24={{coord|24|31|5|N|88|1|12|E}} | label-pos24=left|label24= Ahiran| numbered24=R| mark-title24= [[Ahiran]] (R) |shape-color24=#C40000
|mark-coord25={{coord|24|29|24|N|87|59|40|E}} | label-pos25=right|label25= Bansabati| numbered25=R| mark-title25= [[Bansabati]] (R) |shape-color25=#C40000
|mark-coord26={{coord|24|31|32|N|87|59|23|E}} | label-pos26=right|label26= Harua| numbered26=R| mark-title26= [[Harua]] (R) |shape-color26=#C40000
|mark-coord27={{coord|24|21|33|N|88|6|51|E}} | label-pos27=right|label27= Manigram| numbered27=R| mark-title27= [[Manigram]] (R) |shape-color27=#C40000
|mark-coord28={{coord|24|18|20|N|88|1|48|E}} | label-pos28=right|label28= Morgram| numbered28=R| mark-title28= [[Morgram]] (R) |shape-color28=#C40000
|mark-coord29={{coord|24|28|14|N|88|2|58|E}} | label-pos29=top|label29= Raghunathganj| numbered29=R| mark-title29= [[Raghunathganj]] (R) |shape-color29=#C40000
|mark-coord30={{coord|24|33|0|N|88|2|1|E}} | label-pos30=top|label30= Sadikpur| numbered30=R| mark-title30= [[Sadikpur, Murshidabad]] (R) |shape-color30=#C40000
|mark-coord31={{coord|24|17|50|N|88|5|5|E}} | label-pos31=right|label31= Sagardighi| numbered31=R| mark-title31= [[Sagardighi, Murshidabad]] (R) |shape-color31=#C40000
|mark-coord32={{coord|24|17|38|N|88|11|9|E}} | label-pos32=right|label32= Nurpur| numbered32=R| mark-title32= [[Nurpur, Murshidabad]] (R) |shape-color32=#C40000
|mark-coord33={{coord|24|25|56|N|88|5|4|E}} | label-pos33=left|label33= Rajnagar| numbered33=R| mark-title33= [[Rajnagar, Murshidabad]] (R) |shape-color33=#C40000
|mark-coord34={{coord|24|34|0|N|88|9|0|E}} | label34= Padma River| label-color34 = #77A1CB| label-angle34= 80| label-pos34=right| label-size34=10| mark-size34=0| mark-title34 =none
|mark-coord35={{coord|24|35|0|N|87|58|20|E}} | label35= Farakka Feeder Canal | label-color35 = #77A1CB| label-angle35= 43| label-pos35=right| label-size35=10| mark-size35=0| mark-title35 =none
|mark-coord36={{coord|24|33|20|N|87|58|40|E}}| label36=Bansloi River| label-color36 = #77A1CB| label-angle36= 30| label-pos36=right| label-size36=10| mark-size36=0| mark-title36 =none
|mark-coord37={{coord|24|23|0|N|88|9|0|E}} | label37= Bhagirathi River| label-color37 = #77A1CB| label-angle37= 40| label-pos37=right| label-size37=10| mark-size37=0| mark-title37 =none
|mark-coord38={{coord|24|20|57|N|88|4|23|E}} | label-pos38= left|label38=Kherur Mosque| numbered38=H| mark-title38= [[Kherur Mosque]] (H)| shape-color38=#AA6666
|arc-coordA={{coord|24|35|0|N|88|10|0|E}}|arc-textA= BANGLADESH| arc-text-colorA=hard grey| arc-angleA=50| arc-gapA=4.0| arc-radiusA=0.35}}

===Location===
Jangipur is located at {{Coord|24.4691|N|88.1032|E|}}.<ref>[https://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/28/Jangipur.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Jangipur]</ref> It has an average elevation of 11 metres (36 [[foot (length)|feet]]).

===Jangipur Barrage===
There is a 1 km long barrage across the Bhagirathi at Jangipur.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://wrmin.nic.in/writereaddata/Publications/anu141200246187.pdf| title = Chapter 14: Farakka Barrage Project | publisher = Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India |access-date = 3 September 2017}}</ref>

===Area overview===
Jangipur subdivision is crowded with 52 [[census towns]] and as such it had to be presented in two location maps. One of the maps can be seen alongside. The subdivision is located in the [[Rarh region]] that is spread over from adjoining [[Santhal Pargana division]] of [[Jharkhand]]. The land is slightly higher in altitude than the surrounding plains and is gently undulating.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf |title = District Census Handbook: Murshidabad, Series 20 Part XII A | work= Physiography, Page 13 |publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal, 2011 | access-date = 24 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://murshidabad.gov.in/About.aspx#2 | title= Murshidabad | work= Geography | publisher= Murshidabad district authorities | access-date= 24 July 2017 | archive-date= 29 August 2017 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170829154116/http://murshidabad.gov.in/About.aspx#2 | url-status= dead }}</ref> The river [[Ganges]], along with its distributaries, is prominent in both the maps. At the head of the subdivision is the 2,245 m long [[Farakka Barrage]], one of the largest projects of its kind in the country.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://fbp.gov.in/ | title = Farakka Barrage Project | publisher = FBP | access-date = 12 September 2017}}</ref> Murshidabad district shares with Bangladesh a porous international border which is notoriously crime prone (partly shown in this map).<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edgeofhumanity.com/2020/12/27/child-labor-illnesses-lost-childhoods-indias-tobacco-industry/ |title = Child labour, illness & lost childhoods, India's tobacco industry |date = 27 December 2020 |publisher= Edge of Humanity Magazine, 27 December 2020| access-date = 13 July 2021}}</ref> The subdivision has two large power plants - the 2,100 MW [[Farakka Super Thermal Power Station]] and the 1,600 MW [[Sagardighi Thermal Power Station]].<ref>{{cite web | url= http://ntpc.co.in/power-generation/coal-based-power-stations/farakka | title= Power Generation | work= Farakka | publisher= NTPC | access-date= 7 August 2016 | archive-date= 30 October 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161030030445/http://www.ntpc.co.in/power-generation/coal-based-power-stations/farakka | url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wbpdcl.co.in/wbpdcl/sagardighipowerstation.html | title = The West Bengal Power Development Corporation Limited | work = Sagardighi Thermal Power Project | publisher = WBPDCL | access-date = 15 August 2017 | archive-date = 23 August 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170823115439/http://www.wbpdcl.co.in/wbpdcl/sagardighipowerstation.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> According to a 2016 report, there are around 1,000,000 (1 million/ ten lakh) workers engaged in the [[beedi]] industry in Jangipur subdivision. 90% are home-based and 70% of the home-based workers are women.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/28080/6/06_chapter%201.pdf| title = Child workers in household industry: a study of beedi industry in Murshidabad district of West Bengal | first= Sunirmal| last= Kar| work = Viswa Bharati University thesis, page 5 | publisher = Shodhganga | access-date = 28 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.thestatesman.com/features/the-poor-man-s-cigarette-1485045757.html | title = The 'Poor man's cigarette' | work = Gurvinder Singh | date = 22 January 2017 | publisher = The Statesman, 22 January 2017 | access-date = 28 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/Beedi-workers-of-Jangipur-hold-key/article16588097.ece#! | title = Beedi workers of Jangipur hold key | work = Indrani Dutta | date = 30 April 2009 | publisher = The Hindu, 1 May 2009 | access-date = 28 August 2017}}</ref> As of 2013, an estimated 2.4 million people reside along the banks of the [[Ganges]] alone in Murshidabad district. [[River bank erosion along the Ganges in Malda and Murshidabad districts|Severe erosion]] occurs along the banks.<ref name="erosion1">{{cite web | url = http://gangawaterway.in/assets/7-murshidabad.pdf | title = Types and sources of floods in Murshidabad, West Bengal | work = Swati Mollah | publisher = Indian Journal of Applied Research, February 2013 | access-date = 5 September 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170820073737/http://gangawaterway.in/assets/7-murshidabad.pdf | archive-date = 20 August 2017 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Note: The two maps present some of the notable locations in the subdivision. All places marked in the maps are linked in the larger full screen maps.

== History ==
The city is said to have been founded by the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Jahangir]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=B. |title=District Census Handbook, Murshidabad, 1961 |publisher=The superintendent, Government Printing, West Bengal |location=Calcutta |pages=111}}</ref> During Moghul period, it was known as Jahangirpur and an army camp was established in this place. During the early years of British rule (then it was known as Jungypore, Jungypoor etc) it was an important centre of the Silk Trade and the site of [[British East India Company|East India Company's]] commercial residencies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sherer |first=Moyle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NcRAAAAYAAJ&dq=jungypore&pg=PA169 |title=Sketches of India |date=1821 |publisher=Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=B. |title=District Census Handbook, Murshidabad, 1961 |publisher=The superintendent, Government Printing, West Bengal |location=Calcutta |pages=111}}</ref> The Jungypore silk was very famous during that time period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Affairs of the East India Company: Minutes of evidence, 29 April 1830 {{!}} British History Online |url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/lords-jrnl/vol62/pp1044-1050 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=www.british-history.ac.uk}}</ref> It was also an important centre of indigo cultivation during the later years of Company rule.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t0MTCfTz_OoC&dq=jungypoor+indigo&pg=RA1-PA217 |title=The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australia |date=1838 |publisher=Parbury, Allen, and Company |language=en}}</ref> In the early twentieth century, it was best known as the toll station for registering all the traffic on the Bhagirathi.<ref>{{EB1911 |wstitle=Jangipur |volume=15 |page=150 |inline=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Andrew |first=sir William Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hkEAAAAQAAJ&q=Jungypore |title=Indian railways, by an old Indian postmaster [sir W.P. Andrew]. |date=1848 |language=en}}</ref> But now the trade and traffic has fallen and much of the town has been swept away by the river [[Bhagirathi River|Bhagirathi]].

The subdivisional courts and offices formerly stood on the east bank of the Bhagirathi, and were moved to the west bank in consequence of the encroachments of the river. This quarter of the town is called [[Raghunathganj]] and is within municipal limits.

Here there is an old mosque with an inscription saying that it was built by Saiyad Kasim and containing a chronogram, which gives 1075 A. H., or 1664 A. D., as the date.

Sir Ashley Eden, Lieutenant Governor of Bengal from 1877 to 1882, was once stationed at Jangipur and transferred the subdivisional headquarters there from Aurangabad in 1856.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=B. |title=District Census Handbook, Murshidabad, 1961 |publisher=The superintendent, Government Printing, West Bengal |location=Calcutta |pages=112}}</ref>

North of Jangipur is [[Giria, India|Giria]], where two important battles were fought. One between [[Alivardi Khan]] and [[Sarfaraz Khan]] on April 29, 1740, and the other between the English under Major Adams and the troop of [[Mir Qasim]] in 1763.

In 1858, [[Sir William Herschel, 2nd Baronet|W. J. Herschel]], while serving as Magistrate at Jangipur, first began the use of [[fingerprint]]s for identification at the beginning of a road building project when he made a supplier named Rajyadhar Konai sign the contract with the impression of his right hand.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sarkar |first=Abhishek |date=2021-01-25 |title=Origins of Fingerprint Classification in Bengal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348778064 |journal= |quote="In July 1858, at the beginning of a road-building project in Jangipur (now in Murshidabad district of West Bengal), Herschel almost serendipitously made a supplier named Rajyadhar Konai sign the contract with the impression of his right hand. This was the beginning of Herschel’s life-long fascination with fingerprints"}}</ref>

==Demographics==
In the 2011 census, Jangipur [[Urban Agglomeration]] had a population of 122,875, out of which 62,734 were males and 60,141 were females. The 0–6 years population was 16,299. Effective literacy rate for the 7+ population was 75.71 per cent.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title = Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date = 2011-10-21 }}</ref>

{{see also|List of cities in West Bengal}}

{{As of|2001}} India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Jangipur had a population of 74,464. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Jangipur has an average literacy rate of 62%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 68%, and female literacy is 56%. In Jangipur, 15% of the population is under 6 years of age.

==Infrastructure==
According to the ''District Census Handbook, Murshidabad'', 2011, Jangipur covered an area of 8.2 km2. The protected water-supply involved overhead tank etc. It had 6,968 domestic electric connections. Among the medical facilities it had 1 hospital (with 250 beds), 3 charitable hospitals/ nursing homes, 100 medicine shops. Among the educational facilities, it had 57 primary schools, 6 middle schools, 5 secondary schools, 5 senior secondary schools, 1 general degree college. It had 46 non-formal education centres (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan). Among the social, recreational & cultural facilities it had 1 working women's hostel, 1 stadium, 1 cinema theatre, 1 auditorium/ community hall, 3 public libraries, 3 reading rooms. It produced [[beedi]], napkins. It had the branch offices of 7 nationalised banks, 1 private commercial bank, 1 cooperative bank.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1907_PART_A_DCHB_MURSHIDABAD.pdf | title = District Census Handbook Murshidabad, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A | work= Section II Town Directory, Pages 981-987: Statement I: Growth History, Pages 990-993: Statement III: Civic & Other Amenities, Pages 993-995: Statement IV: Medical Facilities 2009, Pages 995-1001 Section V: Educational, Recreational and Cultural Facilities; Pages 1 001- 1002: Statement VI: Industry & Banking | publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal |access-date = 26 June 2021}}</ref>

== Transport ==
Jangipur is well connected with [[Kolkata]] and district headquarter [[Baharampur]] via [[NH 12]]. A railway station, (In Azimganj - Farakka line) [[Jangipur Road railway station]] is situated in Raghunathganj. Many express and passengers trains pass regularly over the city. Raghunathganj is a twin town of Jangipur opposite of the [[Bhagirathi River]].

==Education==
[[Jangipur College]] was established in 1950 at Jangipur. Affiliated to the [[University of Kalyani]] it offers honours courses in Bengali, English, Sanskrit, history, geography, philosophy, political science, economics, physics, chemistry, mathematics, botany, zoology and accountancy. From 2016 to 2017, it is offering post-graduate courses in Bengali, English, history and education in distance mode.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.jangipurcollege.in/ | title = Jangipur College | publisher = JC |access-date = 12 September 2017}}</ref> There is a Management Development Institute of Murshidabad which is operational from 2014.This was inaugurated by then Indian President Shri Pranab Mukherjee.This institute is one of the premier educational institution of India.

*[[Mahasweta Devi]] Memorial Academy in 2018.

*[[Jangipur Government Polytechnic]] (2015), recognized by the [[All India Council for Technical Education]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Polytechnic with the West Bengal State Council of Technical Education |url=http://wbscte.net/info/list-of-politichnic.html |access-date=10 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627082310/http://wbscte.net/info/list-of-politichnic.html |archive-date=27 June 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Healthcare ==
Jangipur Subdivisional Hospital at Jangipur functions with 250 beds.<ref name=medical>{{cite web | url = https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/ | title = Health & Family Welfare Department | work = Health Statistics | publisher = Government of West Bengal | access-date = 6 July 2021 | archive-date = 28 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211028134305/https://qphs.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-99a499ee367f0c1530476c81086270c8 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Jangipur Superspeciality Hospital is functional.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://murshidabad.gov.in/public-utility-category/hospitals/ | title = Hospitals | work = Jangipur Super Speciality Hospital | publisher = Murshidabad district administration | accessdate = 6 July 2021}}</ref>
==Notable residents==
*[[Sarat Chandra Pandit]]
*[[Md. Sohrab]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Murshidabad District}}
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Murshidabad district]]
[[Category:Cities in West Bengal]]

Firose Khan

2026-05-07T00:23:02Z

Creativesketchbook: adding

{{About|the Tamil film actor, director, writer and producer |other people|Feroz Khan (disambiguation){{!}}Feroz Khan}}
{{distinguish|Firoz Khan}}
{{Infobox person
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1969|10|2}}<ref name="P">{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5znNJuc9g5E|title=Kollywood Actor Feroz Khan | Chennai Pattinam|date=19 December 2013|language=ta|via=YouTube|work=[[Peppers TV]]|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Thalassery]], Kerala<ref name="P"/>
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = Actor, screenwriter, director
| years_active = 2010{{endash}}present
| known_for =
| spouse = Manisha Khan<ref name="P"/>
| notable_works =
| children = 2,<ref name="P"/> including [[Yuvan (actor)|Yuvan]]
}}

'''Firose Khan''' is an Indian actor, screenwriter, and director, who has worked in Tamil-language films.

==Career==
Firose Khan, who was originally a Malayali from Kerala, received the opportunity to work in the Malayalam film ''[[Charithram]]'' (1989) as a junior artist and shot for a deleted scene in which he had to jump in a swimming pool at the [[VGP Universal Kingdom]] but endured a stomach injury. He worked as an assistant director to [[Thangar Bachan]], [[Arun Pandian]] and [[Salangai Durai]] for ''[[Kathavarayan (2008 film)|Kathavarayan]]'' (2008). He was to work as a hero for the film ''Aasaiyila Paathi Katti '' but the film was dropped.<ref name="P"/>

He made his lead acting debut in ''[[Thambi Arjuna]]'' (2010) in which he played [[Ramana (actor)|Ramana]]'s brother.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2009/Dec/22/war-for-love-115061.html|title=War for love|date=22 December 2009|access-date=12 February 2026|publisher=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> A critic noted that "He fits in comfortably, and plays it like a seasoned veteran".<ref name="TA"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Stale-saga-of-revenge/article16214390.ece|title=Stale saga of revenge|date=29 July 2010|accessdate=15 March 2019|author=S. R. Ashok Kumar|work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> He made his directorial debut through ''[[Pasakkara Nanbargal]]'' (2011) starring his son [[Yuvan (actor)|Yuvan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Itsy-Bitsy/article14962566.ece|title=Itsy-Bitsy|first=Nikhil|last=Raghavan|date=26 March 2011|work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325142353/https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/Itsy-Bitsy/article14962566.ece|archive-date=25 March 2023|url-access=subscription|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/firose-khan-does-it-for-his-son/articleshow/7725690.cms|title=Firose Khan does it for his son|date=January 14, 2017|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2011/Apr/24/lending-the-paternal-hand-to-stardom-247229.html|title=Lending the paternal hand to stardom|date=24 April 2011|website=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref> The film was based on kickboxing and Firose Khan played a coach in the film. A critic wrote, "The director has done his homework on the sport. It’s an exciting build-up to the finish, with a twist in the end".<ref name="PN"/> He played a negative role in ''Venmani'' (2011) and the unreleased ''Om'' co-starring [[Arjun Sarja|Arjun]] before directing and co-starring in ''[[Keeripulla]]'' (2013), marking his second collaboration with Yuvan.<ref name="V"/><ref name="P"/> Regarding the film, one critic noted, "Firose has concentrated on keeping the momentum going, but the film could have done with a more balanced, coherent screenplay" whilst another felt that "Had the director given the story some thought, ‘''Keeripulla''’ would have not been as forgettable as it has turned out to be".<ref name="K"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/keeripulla/movie-review/19288343.cms|title=Keeripulla Movie Review {1/5}: Critic Review of Keeripulla by Times of India|date=10 May 2016|access-date=12 February 2026|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
*''Note: all films are in Tamil, unless otherwise noted.''
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background:#B0C4DE; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" scope="col"| Year
! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" colspan="4"| Credited as
! rowspan="2" class="unsortable" scope="col" | Role
! rowspan="2" class="unsortable" scope="col" | Notes
! rowspan="2" class="unsortable" scope="col" | Ref.
|-
! Director !! Writer !! Producer !! Actor
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Thambi Arjuna]]'' || {{partial|Assistant}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || Dharma || || <ref name="TA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2010/Aug/02/thambi-arjuna-174728.html|title=Thambi Arjuna|date=2 August 2010 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|2011 || ''[[Pasakkara Nanbargal]]'' || {{Yes}} || {{yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || Khader || || <ref name="PN">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2011/May/10/director-kicks-off-quite-literally-251974.html|title=Director kicks off, quite literally|date=10 May 2011|website=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref>
|-
| ''Venmani'' || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || Senthil || || <ref name="V">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2011/Dec/16/venmani-321005.html|title=Venmani|date=16 December 2011|website=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref>
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Keeripulla]]'' || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || Dorai || ||<ref name="K">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/review/2013/Mar/30/keeripulla-tamil-463353.html|title=Keeripulla (Tamil)|first=Malini|last=Mannath|date=30 March 2013|website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Thalakonam]]'' || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || ACP || || <ref name="P"/>
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Samrajyam II: Son of Alexander]]'' || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || Police Inspector || [[Malayalam]] film ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Vilayattu Aarambam]]'' || {{No}} || {{partial|Story}} || {{No}} || {{Yes}} || CBI officer || ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/tamil/2017/Jun/08/vilayattu-aarambam-to-hit-kerala-screens-this-week-1614010.html|title=Vilayattu Aarambam to hit Kerala screens this week|date=8 June 2017|website=[[The New Indian Express]]|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb name|12018422}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Firose}}
[[Category:Actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Tamil film directors]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Ucchi Pillayar Temple, Rockfort

2026-05-06T03:33:44Z

Creativesketchbook: starting place

{{Short description|Temple in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Ucchi Pillayar Temple
| image = തിരുച്ചിമലക്കോട്ട.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = Tamil Nadu#India
| map_caption = Ucchi Pillayar Temple, Rockfort, [[Tiruchirapalli]], ([[Tamil Nadu]])
| coordinates = {{coord|10|49|42.7|N|78|41|49.4|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ucchi_Pillayar_Temple,_Rockfort&params=10_49_42.7_N_78_41_49.4_E_type:landmark_region:IN]
| country = India
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district =
| location = [[Tiruchirappalli]]
| elevation_m = 126.17
| deity = Thayumanavar ([[Shiva]]) Manikka Vinayagar ([[Ganesha]]) Ucchi Pillaiyar ([[Ganesha]]) Mattuvar Kuyalammai ([[Parvati]])
| architecture = [[Dravidian architecture]]
| year_completed = 20th century
| website = {{URL|http://trichyrockfort.tnhrce.in/}}
}}

{{Hinduism small}}

The '''Ucchi Pillayar Temple''' is a 7th-century-CE [[Hindu]] temple, one dedicated to [[Lord Ganesha|Ganesha]] located a top of ''[[Tiruchirapalli Rock Fort|Rock Fort]]'', [[Trichy]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. According to legend, this rock is the place where Ganesha ran from King [[Vibishana]], after establishing the [[Ranganathaswamy]] deity in Srirangam.

==Architecture==
The Rock Fort temple stands {{Convert|83|m|ft}} tall perched atop a rock. The smooth rock was first cut by the Pallavas but it was the [[Nayaks of Madurai]] who completed both the temples under the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].<ref name="India">India By Sarina Singh, Joe Bindloss, Paul Clammer, Janine Eberle</ref>

The Ganesha temple is much smaller with an access through steep steps carved on the rock and provides views of Trichy, Srirangam and the rivers Kaveri and [[Kollidam]]. Due to its ancient architecture, created by the [[Pallavas]], the temple is maintained by the Archaeological department of India.{{fact|date=September 2022}}

==Legend ==
According to the ''Sri Ranga Mahatmya'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knapp |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=d1JJCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT350&dq=uchi+pillaiyar+temple+legend&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiwj9DT16OUAxXUamwGHdA2EXgQ6AF6BAgREAM#v=onepage&q=uchi%20pillaiyar%20temple%20legend&f=false |title=Seeing Spiritual India: A Guide to Temples, Holy Sites, Festivals and Traditions |date=2008-05-29 |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-0-595-61452-3 |pages=350 |language=en}}</ref> after the war in the [[Ramayana]], [[Rama]] blessed [[Vibhishana]] with a ''vigraham'' (idol for worship) of [[Ranganatha]], a form of [[Vishnu|Vishnu.]] He was informed that once he set the idol on the ground, he would be unable to move it again.

The [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] did not wish the idol to taken away to [[Lanka]], so they devised a plan. During his journey, Vibhishana stopped by the [[Kaveri]] river to bathe and perform worship. Spotting a young [[Brahmin|Brahmana]] boy on the riverbank, he entrusted the idol to him, instructing him not to set it on the ground. But as Vibhishana bathed, the boy set the idol down and ran towards a nearby hill.

Angered, Vibhishana chased after the boy and upon catching him, struck him on the forehead. To his astonishment, the boy revealed himself to be [[Ganesha]]. As Vibhishana apologised, Ganesha blessed him and explained that the idol was destined to remain in Srirangam. He instructed Vibhishana to return to Lanka, leaving the idol behind.

The place in which the Ranganatha idol was kept was later covered in deep fores. It was eventually discovered when a Chola king chasing a parrot came upon it. He consecrated the idol and built the [[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam]]. Meanwhile, the Pallavas built the Ucchi Pillaiyar temple and the Thayumanaswamy temple, upon the hill that Ganesha used to escape Vibishana.

Ucchi Pillayar is associated with Manicka Vinayagar at the foothills. It is a general worship practise to pray obeisance to Manicaka Vinayagar before visiting Ucchi Pillayar.<ref name=Meena>{{cite book|title=Temples in South India|last=V.|first=Meena|publisher=Harikumar Arts|location=Kanniyakumari|year=1974|edition=1st|page=21}}</ref>

The temple is maintained and administered by the [[Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department]] of the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tnhrce.org/|title=TNHRCE.org - TNHRCE|date=7 August 2022}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode=packed widths=175 heights=125>
File:Interior of a Temple on the Rock of Trichinopoly (IV, 1847, Vignette) - Copy.jpg|Interior of a Temple on the Rock of Trichinopoly (1847)<ref name=Offering1847>{{cite journal|title=Interior of a Temple on the Rock of Trichinopoly |journal=Wesleyan Juvenile Offering|date=January 1847|volume=IV|page=Vignette|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S1wEAAAAQAAJ|access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref>
File:Tiruchiramalai3.jpg|Rockfort as viewed from [[Our Lady of Lourdes Church, Tiruchirapalli|Lourdes Church]]
File:UchipillayarEntrance.JPG|Main entrance to the temple
File:Uchi Pillayaar view from East.jpg|View from the east side of the temple
File:View from the ROCK FORT TEMPLE, Trichy.JPG|View from atop the temple
File:Rockfort Temple, Tiruchirapalli.JPG|[[Gopuram]] of the Temple
File:Trichy at night, as viewed from the Uchchi Pillayar Temple, Rockfort.jpg|Trichy at night, as viewed from the Uchchi Pillayar Temple, Rockfort
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Tiruchirapalli]]
*[[Srirangam]]
*[[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple (Srirangam)|Ranganathaswamy temple]] at Srirangam
*[[Thiruvanaikaval]]

==References==
{{commons category}}
<references/>

{{Tiruchirappalli}}

{{Famous Shiva temples}}
{{HinduMythology}}

[[Category:Ganesha temples]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Tiruchirappalli]]

Shailendra Beldale

2026-05-02T14:47:21Z

Creativesketchbook: starting new data

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1973)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = DSC-5889-copy.png
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1974|09|30|df=y}}
}}
'''Shailendra Beldale''' (born 1973) is an Indian politician from [[Karnataka]]. He is a member of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly from [[Bidar South Assembly constituency]] in [[Bidar district]]. He won the [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] representing [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karnataka Election Result 2023: Full List Of BJP Winning Candidates |url=https://www.india.com/karnataka/karnataka-election-results-live-constituency-wise-bjp-candidates-winners-list-jp-nadda-basavaraj-bommai-narendra-modi-amit-shah-6047957/ |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=www.india.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bidar South Election and Results 2023, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/karnataka/assembly-constituencies/bidar-south.html |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=Elections in India}}</ref><ref name="Karnataka elections: BJP wrests one seat each from Congress and JD(S) in Bidar">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Karnataka elections: BJP wrests one seat each from Congress and JD(S) in Bidar |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/karnataka-assembly/karnataka-elections-bjp-wrests-one-seat-each-from-congress-and-jds-in-bidar/article66846973.ece |access-date=20 April 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |date=13 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250420083136/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/karnataka-assembly/karnataka-elections-bjp-wrests-one-seat-each-from-congress-and-jds-in-bidar/article66846973.ece |archive-date=20 April 2025 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Beldale is from Bidar taluk, [[Bidar]] district, Karnataka.<ref>http://www.bidarcity.mrc.gov.in/en/elected-representatives</ref> His father's name is Kashinath Beldale. He completed his Bachelor of Homeopathy Medical Science in 1996 at HKE Society's Homeopathy Medical College, which is affiliated with [[Gulbarga University]], Gulbarga.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Shailendra Beldale(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- BIDAR SOUTH(BIDAR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/Karnataka2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=7151 |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Beldale won from Bidar South Assembly constituency representing Bharatiya Janata Party in the 2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election. He polled 49,872 votes and defeated his nearest rival, [[Ashok Kheny]] of [[Indian National Congress]], by a margin of 1,263 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr Shailendra Beldale in Karnataka Assembly Elections 2023 |url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2023/karnataka/dr-shailendra-beldale-bidar-south-candidate-s10a049c006/ |access-date=2024-08-26 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

In March 2025, Beldale along with Manjula Limbavali, received relief from the High Court which struck down the proceedings against them in a private complaint, on charges of allegedly concealing their property details in the affidavit filed to the Election Commission of India before the last elections.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-13 |title=Karnataka HC quashes proceedings against two BJP MLAs |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2025/Mar/13/karnataka-hc-quashes-proceedings-against-two-bjp-mlas |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> The court further said that only the election commission has the right to file complaint on such matters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Only Election Commission has right to register complaint under section 125A of (RP) Act: Karnataka High Court |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/only-election-commission-has-right-to-register-complaint-under-section-125a-of-rp-act-karnataka-high-court-3444209 |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>
He previously served as Chairman of KSIIDC, where he worked on industrial and infrastructure development initiatives in Karnataka.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beldale, Shailendra}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:People from Bidar district]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2023–2028]]

Kehar Singh (artist)

2026-04-29T18:15:41Z

Creativesketchbook: Stub

{{Short description|Sikh artist}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Kehar Singh
| honorific_suffix = Musawar
| image = Self-portrait of Kehar Singh, the court painter of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.jpg
| caption = Self-portrait
| honorific_prefix = Baba
| style = [[Sikh art|Sikh School]]
| birth_date = 1820
| death_date = 1882
}}

'''Kehar Singh''' (1820–1882<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narula |first=S. S. |title=Aspects of Punjabi Culture |publisher=Department of Development of Punjabi Language, Punjabi University |year=1995 |pages=99}}</ref>) was a [[Sikh painting|Sikh artist]] who was employed as a [[court painter]] by the [[Sikh state]]s of [[Sikh Empire|Lahore]] and [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]].{{Efn|His personal name is alternatively spelt as 'Kher' or 'Keher'.|group=note}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Srivastava |first=R. P. |title=Punjab Painting |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=1983 |isbn=9788170171744 |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=xxi}}<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Ikeda |first=Atsushi |title=Portraying the Guru: Art, Devotion and Identity in Sikhism |date=Sep 24, 2024 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=9781837652389 |pages=41}}</ref> Baba Kehar Singh Musawar was a prominent artist of the Sikh Naqqashi school of art and helped innovate it.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web |last=Kaur |first=Maneet |date=28 November 2018 |title=Mohrakashi and the Naqqashes of Harmandir Sahib - Module |url=https://www.sahapedia.org/mohrakashi-and-the-naqqashes-of-harmandir-sahib-0 |access-date=18 August 2023 |website=Sahapedia}}</ref><ref name=":132">{{Cite web |title=Sikh Art and Architecture - Paintings |url=https://canadiansikhheritage.ca/art-and-architecture/ |website=Canadian Sikh Heritage}}</ref> The art of frescoes was introduced by the artist Bhai Kehar Singh Musawar under the patronage of Maharaja Ranjit Singh during the era of the Sikh Empire.''<ref name=":12">{{Cite news |last=Walia |first=Varinder |date=30 August 2007 |title=He protected Takht podium |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070831/punjab1.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711192816/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070831/punjab1.htm |archive-date=11 July 2009 |work=The Tribune |access-date=10 September 2024 }}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite news |last=Walia |first=Varinder |date=7 October 2002 |title=Restoring Takht glory |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20021008/main10.htm |work=The Tribune}}</ref><ref name=":132"/>'' He was one of the most important of the court painters of [[Ranjit Singh]].<ref name=":203">{{Cite journal |last=Kaur |first=Sukhandeep |last2=Viranjan |first2=Ram |date=January–June 2023 |title=A Historical Overview of Emergence and Development of Sikh Art in Punjab |url=https://www.granthaalayahpublication.org/Arts-Journal/ShodhKosh/article/download/293/408/3680 |journal=ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing Arts |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=389–402 |doi=10.29121/shodhkosh.v4.i1.2023.293 |eissn=2582-7472 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Kehar Singh and his family were honoured as ''Fakhr-e-Qoum'' ("pride of the nation").<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}}

== Family and work ==
[[File:Ambir Singh Naqqash, the father of Kehar Singh, circa 19th century.jpg|thumb|Ambir Singh Naqqash, the father of Kehar Singh, circa 19th century]]
Kehar Singh was of [[Ramgarhia]] origin, specifically belonging to the carpenter ([[Tarkhan (Punjab)|Tarkhan]]) caste.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}} His family had a background in art.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}} Some of the members of his family worked alongside members of the famous [[Chughtai|Chughtai family]] of Lahore, but never at the cost of each-other.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}} Kehar and his family resided at Kucha Tarkhana, Gali Naqqashan, in Amritsar.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}} They would travel from there to other regions to earn a living working as artists.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}} The themes the family painted were Sikh, covering both religious and secular areas.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Srivastava |first=R. P. |title=Punjab Painting |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=1983 |isbn=9788170171744 |pages=}}</ref>{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}}

According to family genealogy narrated by Hakim Gurcharan Singh, a descendant of Kehar Singh (with the information being cross-checked and verified by the artist Hari Singh of Amritsar), it can be known that Kehar Singh was the son of Bhai Ambir Singh and that Kehar had a brother named Ram Singh (with Ram Singh being the father of Ishar Singh).<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}} Kehar Singh had a daughter named Ishri who was married to Rood Singh, another naqqashi artist.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}}

According to a tale narrated by K. C. Aryan, Kehar Singh found employment as a court painter of Ranjit Singh after he painted a dead sparrow and convinced a sweeper of the Lahore court to place it on the throne of Ranjit Singh.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Khalid |first=Kanwal |date=July–December 2015 |title=Miniature Painters as Historiographers |url=https://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/HistoryPStudies/PDF-FILES/9-Kanwal_V28_no2.pdf |journal=Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=124–132}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Aryan |first=Krishan Chand |title=Punjab Painting |publisher=Punjab University, Patiala |year=1975 |pages=20}}</ref> The feat worked and Kehar Singh was hired as a court painter.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />

Kehar Singh was responsible for decorating the interiors of Ranjit Singh's Lahori palace with frescoes.<ref name=":21">{{Cite news |date=2 January 2023 |title=Book on city-based artist GS Sohan Singh released |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/amritsar/book-on-city-based-artist-gs-sohan-singh-released-466920 |access-date=28 August 2023 |work=The Tribune}}</ref> After Ranjit Singh witnessed the fine artwork of Kehar Singh, he decided to commission him for beautifying the Golden Temple shrine in Amritsar to embellish it with mural work (such as the domes, walls, and roofs).<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |title=Mārg̲ |publisher=Marg Publications |year=1976 |volume=30 |pages=56}}</ref> Kehar Singh also worked at decorating the [[Akal Takht]] complex.<ref name=":3" /> He also worked on adornment work.''<ref name=":1022">{{Cite web |last=Kaur |first=Maneet |date=5 December 2018 |title=Mohrakashi and the Naqqashes of Harmandir Sahib - Overview |url=https://www.sahapedia.org/mohrakashi-and-the-naqqashes-of-harmandir-sahib |website=Sahapedia}}</ref>'' Types of structures in Amritsar and Lahore that were decorated by Kehar Singh include havelis and temples (both gurdwaras and mandirs), with him also being active in neighbouring areas of Amritsar and Lahore.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}} Him and his family specialized in ''mussawir'' (painters of miniatures).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ikeda |first=Atsushi |title=Portraying the Guru: Art, Devotion and Identity in Sikhism |date=24 September 2024 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=9781837652389 |pages=37}}</ref> Kehar Singh is credited with establishing a school of ''naqqashes'' in Punjab.<ref name=":3" />

The Naqqash artists often were linked to each-other by family bonds, an example being the household of Kehar Singh.<ref name=":203" /> Kehar Singh had two nephews named [[Bishan Singh (artist)|Bishan Singh]] and [[Kishan Singh (artist)|Kishan Singh]], whom were accomplished artists in their own right.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Panjab Past and Present |publisher=Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University |year=1989 |volume=23 |pages=117}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Most of the prominent Sikh artists of 19th and early 20th century Punjab could be traced back to the lineage of Kehar Singh, whether through blood or mentorship.<ref name=":3" /> His lineage specialized in murals and other forms of pictorial artwork.<ref name=":3" />

== Style ==
[[File:Self-portrait of Kehar Singh painting an equestrian painting of Maharaja Sher Singh of the Sikh Empire, detail from 'Darbar Maharaja Sher Singh' by Kehar Singh, ca.1842–46 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Self-portrait of Kehar Singh painting an equestrian painting of Maharaja Sher Singh of the Sikh Empire, detail from 'Darbar Maharaja Sher Singh' by Kehar Singh, ca.1842–46.]]
Kehar Singh is distinguishable from other contemporary painters as he painted common-folk going about their daily-lives and occupations, even recording the names of the persons he portrayed, where-as other contemporary painters focused on portraying courtly settings and noble individuals.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Goswamy |first=Brijinder Nath |date=10 June 2019 |title=Art N Soul: The Smell of the Earth |url=https://www.sahapedia.org/art-n-soul-smell-earth |access-date=10 September 2024 |website=Sahapedia}}</ref> He was influenced by European-styles of [[Watercolor painting|watercolour]], print, photography, and [[oil painting]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> Kehar Singh was influenced by the breakdown of central Sikh authority and the introduction of European manners of artwork and [[Photography in India|photography]], leading to the rise of the [[Company style|Company School]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Goswamy |first=Brijinder Nath |date=27 February 2000 |title=The Smell of the Earth |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000227/spectrum/art.htm |access-date=10 September 2024 |website=The Tribune}}</ref> B. N. Goswamy distinguishes the works of Kehar Singh from that of the Bazaar School, as they are more "more serious, more aware of quality".<ref name=":1" /> Attention to detail can be seen in the facial expressions of the figures portrayed in his paintings.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |others=Fakir Khana Museum |title=Court of Maharaj Sher Singh - Kher Singh |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/court-of-maharaj-sher-singh-kher-singh/2QE-usFuhmso7g |access-date=13 October 2024 |website=Google Arts and Culture}}</ref> To suit English tastes, Kehar Singh began producing artwork using translucent wash, which is unalike the opaque watercolor used in [[Indian painting|traditional Indian painting]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Man twisting thread |url=https://umma.umich.edu/objects/man-twisting-thread-1964-2-116/ |access-date=10 September 2024 |website=University of Michigan Museum of Art}}</ref> As to Kehar Singh's work, there was European influence on the effects of light and shade in his art pieces.<ref name=":203"/> He is believed to have been the first to introduce avian (bird) designs to the Sikh frescoes.''<ref name=":1022"/>'' There are examples of Kehar Singh portraying himself in his paintings, as a form of [[self-portraiture]].<ref name=":4" /> One self-portrait depicts him seated on a mat whilst leaned against a bolster, with a board on his lap and a large, open wooden-box with his painting materials before him.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Desvergnes |first=Amélie Couvrat |date=22 December 2022 |title=Change of Posture and Materials Among Nineteenth-Century South Asian Painters |url=https://amelieconservation.com/2022/12/26/change-of-posture-and-materials-in-nineteenth-century-south-asian-painters/ |access-date=13 October 2024 |website=Amélie Conservation}}</ref> Many real-life locations are depicted in his extant paintings, such as the [[Naulakha Pavilion]] of the [[Lahore Fort]].<ref name=":4" /> When portraying a particular societal grouping, such as an occupation or caste, Kehar Singh portrayed actual living, breathing individuals rather than creating generalized depictions.<ref name=":1" />

== Collection ==
Artwork that was produced by the familial atelier and lineage of Kehar Singh can be found in the collections of the Lahore Museum (Pakistan), Government Museum and Art Gallery (Chandigarh), Victoria and Albert Museum (London), and the Central Sikh Museum (Amritsar, pre-1984).<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=49–53}} A series of work attributed to Kehar Singh dating to circa 1875 are kept in the collection of the [[Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh|Government Museum and Art Gallery]] in [[Chandigarh]].<ref name=":1" />

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:'A Couple Carrying Water Pitchers', by Kehar Singh, Punjab, circa 19th century.jpg|'A Couple Carrying Water Pitchers', by Kehar Singh, Punjab, circa 19th century
File:Nihang and Nihangni, by Kehar Singh.jpg|Nihang and Nihangni, by Kehar Singh
File:'Maharaja Sher Singh on Horseback' by Keher Singh, ca.1842–46.jpg|'Maharaja Sher Singh on Horseback' by Keher Singh, ca.1842–46
File:Maharaja Sher Singh & Courtiers in Naulakha Pavilion, Lahore Fort with river Ravi flowing, by Kehar Singh.jpg|Maharaja Sher Singh & Courtiers in Naulakha Pavilion, Lahore Fort with river Ravi flowing, by Kehar Singh. A self-portrait of the artist at-work can be seen at the bottom of the frame.
File:Painting of the Sikh saint Ajab Singh Nihang by Kehar Singh, ca.1850–75.jpg|Painting of the Sikh saint Ajab Singh Nihang by Kehar Singh, ca.1850–75
File:Watercolour sketch of two noblemen of the Punjab seated in discussion, attributed to the artist Kehar Singh, circa 1875.webp|Watercolour sketch of two noblemen of the Punjab seated in discussion, attributed to the artist Kehar Singh, circa 1875
File:'Bawa Lekh Ram' by Keher Singh, ca.1830–40.jpg|'Bawa Lekh Ram' by Keher Singh, ca.1830–40
File:A Sketch of Sardarni Sada Kaur.jpg|A Sketch of Sardarni Sada Kaur, by Kehar Singh
File:Women cooking in tandoor by Kehar Singh.jpg|Women cooking in tandoor, by Kehar Singh
</gallery>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:19th-century Indian male artists]]
[[Category:1820 births]]
[[Category:1882 deaths]]

1937 Indian provincial elections

2026-04-29T06:38:27Z

Creativesketchbook: minor cleanup

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox election
| election_name = 1937 Indian provincial elections
| country = British India
| type = parliamentary
| ongoing = no
| previous_election = 1934 Indian general election
| previous_year = 1934
| next_election = 1946 Indian provincial elections
| next_year = 1946
| election_date = {{Start date|1937|01|18}} – {{End date|1937|02|20}}
| seats_for_election = 1585 provincial seats contested
| image1 = {{CSS image crop|Image= Jawaharlal Nehru stamp (cropped).jpg|bSize=120|cWidth=116|cHeight=150|oTop=0|oLeft=4}}
| image1_size = 100x100px
| leader1 = [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
| party1 = Indian National Congress
| alliance1 =
| leaders_seat1 =
| seats1 = 706
| seat_change1 =
| popular_vote1 =
| percentage1 =
| swing1 = 
| image2 = {{CSS image crop|Image=Jinnah1945c.jpg|bSize=120|cWidth=116|cHeight=150|oTop=0|oLeft=4}}
| image2_size = 100x100px
| leader2 = [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]
| leaders_seat2 =
| party2 = All-India Muslim League
| alliance2 =
| seats2 = 111
| seat_change2 =
| popular_vote2 =
| percentage2 =
| swing2 = 
| image3 = {{Multiple candidates images|{{CSS image crop|Image=SikanderHayatKhan.jpg|bSize=120|cWidth=116|cHeight=150|oTop=0|oLeft=4}}|{{CSS image crop|Image=A K Fazlul Huq.jpg|bSize=120|cWidth=116|cHeight=150|oTop=0|o=Left=4}}}}
| image3_size = 100x100px
| leader3 = [[Sikandar Hayat Khan (Punjabi politician)|Sikandar Hayat Khan]], [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]] & [[Allah Bux Soomro|Allah Baksh Soomro]]
| leaders_seat3 =
| party3 = [[Unionist Party (Punjab)|Unionist Party]], [[Krishak Praja Party]] & [[Sind United Party]]
| alliance3 =
| seats3 = 137
| seat_change3 =
| popular_vote3 =
| percentage3 =
| swing3 =
| colour3 = 0066ff
| map = [[File:1937 Provincial Elections.png|280px]]
}}
Provincial elections were held in [[British India]] in the winter of 1936–37 as mandated by the [[Government of India Act 1935]]. Elections were held in all gubernational eleven provinces - [[Madras Presidency|Madras]], [[Central Provinces]], [[Bihar Province|Bihar]], [[Orissa Province|Orissa]], [[United Provinces (1937–1950)|United Provinces]], [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]], [[Assam Province|Assam]], [[North-West Frontier Province]], [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] and [[Sind Province (1936–1955)|Sind]]. No elections were held in the British provinces of [[Delhi]], [[Ajmer-Merwara]], [[Coorg Province|Coorg]] & [[Baluchistan (Chief Commissioner's Province)|Baluchistan]] and in the [[princely state]]s.

The final results of the elections were declared on 20 February 1937. The [[Indian National Congress]] emerged in power in five of the provinces, Bombay, Madras, the Central Provinces, the United Provinces, the North-West Frontier Province, Bihar, and Orissa. The exceptions were Punjab, Sindh (where it failed to obtain majority), Assam & Bengal (where it was nevertheless the single-largest party). The [[All-India Muslim League]] failed to form the government in any province on its own.

The Congress ministries resigned in October and November 1939, in protest against Viceroy [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]]'s action of declaring India to be a belligerent in the [[Second World War]] without consulting the elected representatives of the Indian population.

==Electorate==
Although the Congress's demands of [[Universal suffrage|universal adult franchise]] were not met, the [[Government of India Act 1935]] did increase the number of enfranchised people, on the recommendations of the Lothian Committee Report of 1932 headed by [[Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian|Lord Lothian]], the [[Under-Secretary of State for India]] alongside those of the [[Viceroy's Executive Council|Viceroy's cabinet]] & provincial governments.<ref name="The Partition of India">{{cite book |author1=Ian Talbot |author2=Gurharpal Singh |title=The Partition of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-13aHAAACAAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85661-4 |page=32}}</ref><ref name="low">{{Cite book |author=David Anthony Low |title=Eclipse of empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |page=154 |isbn=0-521-45754-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QBaYddlnKBEC&pg=PA154}}</ref>
Approximately 30 million people, among them some women, gained voting rights. This number constituted one-sixth of Indian adults. The Act provided for a limited adult franchise based on property qualifications such as land ownership and rent, and therefore favored landholders and richer farmers in rural areas.<ref name="low"/> The eligibility criteria differed significantly across the states, according to their conditions.

[[Islam in South Asia|Muslims]] had been given separate electorates by the [[Government of India Act 1909]]. This was extended to include [[Sikhs]], [[Britons in India|Europeans]] & [[Anglo-Indian people|Anglo-Indians]] by the [[Government of India Act 1919]]. The [[Communal Award]], declared in 1932 by the British Prime Minister [[Ramsay MacDonald]], & incorporated into the 1935 Act, extended the separate electorates to include [[Christianity in India|Christians]], [[Adivasi|Backward Tribes]], women & special interest groups (business representatives, labour representatives, [[Zamindar|landholders]] & [[University constituency|university constituencies]]).<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Understanding the 1932 Communal Award in British India |url=https://www.thesikhencyclopedia.com/communal-award/ |access-date=2025-08-31 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Women's suffrage]] activist [[Eleanor Rathbone]] successfully led a campaign for the inclusion of wives and widows of men qualified to vote into the electoral roll, alongside [[Female education in India|educated women]]. An attempt to create a separate electorate for [[Dalit]]s was thwarted by the [[Poona Pact]].

=== Seats contested ===
'''Legislative Assemblies'''<ref name=":0" />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:centre
|-
!Province
!Total
!Hindu
!Muslim
!Others
!Women
!Christian
!Anglo-Indian
!European
!Commerce
!Landholders
!Labour
!Universities
|-
|[[Assam Legislative Assembly|Assam]]
|108
|47 (inclusive of 7 reserved for Dalits)
|34
|9 (Backward Tribes)
|1
|1
|0
|1
|11
|0
|4
|0
|-
|[[Bengal Legislative Assembly|Bengal]]
|250
|78 (66 rural & 12 urban, inclusive of 30 reserved for Dalits)
|117 (111 rural & 6 urban)
|0
|4 (2 Hindu & 2 Muslim)
|2
|4
|11
|19
|5
|8
|2 ([[Calcutta University]] & [[Dhaka University]])
|-
|[[Bihar Legislative Assembly|Bihar]]
|152
|93 (88 rural & 5 urban, inclusive of 15 reserved for Dalits)
|39 (34 rural & 5 urban)
|0
|4 (3 Hindu & 1 Muslim)
|1
|1
|2
|4
|4
|3
|1 ([[Patna University]])
|-
|[[Bombay Legislative Assembly|Bombay]]
|175
|115 (101 rural & 14 urban, inclusive of 15 reserved for Dalits)
|29 (23 rural & 6 urban)
|0
|6 (4 Hindu urban, 1 Muslim urban & 1 Hindu rural)
|3 (2 rural & 1 urban)
|2
|3
|7
|2
|7
|1 ([[Bombay University]])
|-
|[[Central Provinces and Berar|Central Provinces]]
|113
|84 (74 rural & 10 urban, inclusive of 20 reserved for Dalits)
|14 (12 rural & 2 urban)
|1 (Backward Tribes)
|3 (Hindu)
|0
|1
|2
|2
|3
|2
|1 ([[Nagpur University]])
|-
|[[Madras Legislative Assembly|Madras]]
|215
|146 (131 rural & 15 urban, inclusive of 30 reserved for Dalits)
|28 (26 rural & 2 urban)
|1 (Backward Tribes)
|8 (3 Hindu urban, 3 Hindu rural, 1 Muslim urban & 1 Christian urban)
|8
|2
|3
|6
|6
|6
|1 ([[Madras University]])
|-
|[[Provincial Assembly of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North West Frontier Province]]
|50
|9 (6 rural & 3 urban)
|36 (33 rural & 3 urban)
|3 (Sikhs)
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|0
|-
|[[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Orissa]]
|60
|45 (inclusive of 6 reserved for Dalits)
|4
|4 (nominated members)
|2 (Hindu)
|1
|0
|0
|1
|2
|1
|0
|-
|[[Punjab Provincial Assembly (British India)|Punjab]]
|175
|42 (34 rural & 8 urban, inclusive of 8 reserved for Dalits)
|84 (75 rural & 9 urban)
|31 (29 Sikh rural & 2 Sikh urban)
|4 (2 Muslim, 1 Hindu & 1 Sikh)
|2
|1
|1
|1
|5
|3
|1 ([[University of the Punjab]])
|-
|[[Provincial Assembly of Sindh|Sind]]
|60
|18 (15 rural & 3 urban)
|33 (31 rural & 2 urban)
|0
|2 (1 Hindu urban & 1 Muslim urban)
|0
|0
|2
|2
|2
|1
|0
|-
|[[United Provinces Legislative Assembly|United Provinces]]
|228
|140 (123 rural & 17 urban, inclusive of 20 reserved for Dalits)
|64 (51 rural & 13 urban)
|0
|6 (3 Hindu rural, 1 Hindu urban, 1 Muslim rural & 1 Muslim urban)
|2
|1
|2
|3
|6
|3
|1 ([[Lucknow University]])
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''1586'''
|'''817''' (inclusive of '''151''' reserved for Dalits)
|'''468'''
|'''49''' (34 Sikh, 11 Backward Tribes & 4 nominated)
|'''40''' (28 Hindu, 10 Muslim, 1 Christian & 1 Sikh)
|'''20'''
|'''12'''
|'''27'''
|'''56'''
|'''37'''
|'''38'''
|'''8'''
|}

'''Legislative Councils'''<ref name=":0" />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:centre
|-
!Province
!Hindu
!Muslim
!European
!Others
!Total
|-
|[[Assam Legislative Council|Assam]]
|10
|6
|2
|0
|18
|-
|[[Bengal Legislative Council|Bengal]]
|10 (8 rural & 2 urban)
|17 (16 rural & 1 urban)
|3
|27 (elected by MLAs)
|57
|-
|[[Bihar Legislative Council|Bihar]]
|9
|4
|1
|14 (elected by MLAs)
|28
|-
|[[Bombay Legislative Council|Bombay]]
|20
|5
|1
|0
|26
|-
|[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Council|Madras]]
|35
|7
|1
|3 (Christian)
|46
|-
|[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council|United Provinces]]
|34 (29 rural & 5 urban)
|17 (12 rural & 5 urban)
|1
|0
|52
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''118'''
|'''56'''
|'''9'''
|'''44'''
|'''227'''
|}

== Schedule ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Source<ref name=":0" />
!Province
!Polling begins
!Polling ended
|-
|[[Assam Province|Assam]]
|18 January
|8 February
|-
|[[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]]
|18 January
|26 January
|-
|[[Bihar Province|Bihar]]
|22 January
|28 January
|-
|[[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]]
|11 February
|18 February
|-
|[[Central Provinces and Berar|Central Provinces]]
|4 February
|19 February
|-
|[[Madras Presidency|Madras]]
|15 February
|20 February
|-
|[[North-West Frontier Province|North West Frontier Province]]
|1 February
|1 February
|-
|[[Orissa Province|Orissa]]
|20 January
|27 January
|-
|[[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]]
|18 January
|3 February
|-
|[[Sind Province (1936–1955)|Sind]]
|1 February
|1 February
|-
|[[United Provinces (1937–1950)|United Provinces]]
|7 February
|18 February
|}

==Election campaign==

=== Indian National Congress ===
[[File:Indian National Congress, New Delhi , 1937.jpg|thumb|A Congress rally in 1937.]]

Having adopted the resolution of ''[[Purna Swaraj]]'' at the 1929 [[Lahore]] session & conducting the [[civil disobedience]] movement beginning with the [[Salt March|Salt Satyagraha]] under the leadership of [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]],<ref>{{cite book |author1=Barbara Metcalf |author1-link=Barbara D. Metcalf |url=https://apnaorg.com/books/english/concise-history-india/concise-history-india.pdf |title=A Concise History of Modern India |author2=Thomas Metcalf |author2-link=Thomas R. Metcalf |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-86362-9 |edition=2nd |page=195}}</ref> the Congress adopted a new constitution in 1934 & participated in [[1934 Indian general election|general elections held that year]]. The widespread reception of the civil disobedience movement by the masses and Congress's foray into electoral politics largely alienated it from other political parties of the country (with which it had allied up in the 1928 [[All Parties Conference]]), who were alarmed at the Congress adopting an increasing confrontational & [[Majoritarianism|majoritarian]] stance. Previously the Congress had refused to participate in the electoral systems created by the 1909 & 1919 Acts, which saw the creation of the breakaway parties like the [[Indian Liberal Party]] headed by [[Surendranath Banerjee]], [[Swaraj Party]] headed by [[Chittaranjan Das]] & [[Responsive Cooperation Party]] headed by [[M. R. Jayakar]] made up of Congressmen that participated in elections, but these parties went into dissolution with the Congress's participation in elections. The Congress had also boycotted 2 out of the 3 [[Round Table Conferences (India)|Round Table Conferences]] that had been attended by its competitors like the [[Hindu Mahasabha]], [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] & [[Shiromani Akali Dal|Akali Dal]]. The Congress consistently refused to acknowledge the relevance of these parties, with Gandhi, as the sole Congress representative in the 2nd Round Table Conference, declaring the Congress to be the sole legitimate representatives of all Indians, irrespective of religion & caste - a claim that was widely denounced by many Indians.<ref name="The Partition of India" /> Despite having boycotted the last Round Table Conference, the Congress at its 1936 [[Lucknow]] session, agreed to contest the provincial elections to be held in 1937.<ref name="Tomlinson 1976">{{cite book |author=B. R. Tomlinson |title=The Indian National Congress and the Raj, 1929–1942: The Penultimate Phase |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5OuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP7 |year=1976 |publisher=The Macmillan Press |isbn=978-1-349-02873-3 |pages=57–60}}</ref> The Congress's refusal to oppose the Communal Award saw the creation of [[Congress Nationalist Party]] by [[Madhav Shrihari Aney]], made up of Congress dissidents resenting its ideological rigidity.<ref name=":0" />

The Congress at this point acted as a federation of its state units, all of which acted in a largely autonomous manner. Factionalism was rife within the Congress party as a whole. Although Gandhi had largely retired from active political participation at this time and focused on social activities like conducting relief work at the [[1934 Nepal–India earthquake|1934 Bihar earthquake]], campaigning against [[untouchability]] and setting up the [[Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Rural Industrialization|All-India Village Industries Association]] from his [[Sevagram|ashram]] at [[Wardha district|Wardha]], his influence remained strong within the Congress party as the ultimate arbitrator in times of crisis, a mass leader during agitations & through his followers like [[Rajendra Prasad]], [[Vallabhbhai Patel]], [[C. Rajagopalachari]] & [[Maulana Azad|Abul Kalam Azad]], who dominated the core Congress bodies like the [[All India Congress Committee]] & the [[Congress Working Committee]]. Apart from this [[Gandhism|Gandhian]] faction, there also existed another faction, led by the likes of [[Govind Ballabh Pant]], [[Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari]] and [[Asaf Ali]], composed mostly of new members who began their political activity after the [[Non-cooperation movement (1919–1922)|non-cooperation movement]] as members of the aforementioned Congress breakaway parties but joined the Congress after the civil disobedience movement. They were Gandhian in ideology but didn't endorse the skepticism towards electoral politics & [[Abstentionism|abstentionist]] stance of the Gandhian faction. There also existed a [[Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalist]] faction headed by [[Madan Mohan Malaviya|Madanmohan Malaviya]] (as the Congress at this time didn't bar its members from having simultaneous membership of the Hindu Mahasabha) which supported electoral participation & government formation and a [[Socialism in India|socialist]] faction represented by the [[Congress Socialist Party]] headed by [[Sampurnanand]], & some individual radicals like [[Subhas Chandra Bose|Subhashchandra Bose]] & [[Sardul Singh Kavishar|Shardulsingh Kavishar]], supporting participation in elections but opposed to government formation. [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], although adhering to [[Fabian Society|Fabian socialism]], didn't openly affiliate himself with this socialist group, choosing instead to work with the Gandhian establishment.<ref name=":0" />

Increase in membership of the Congress party following the civil-disobedience movement hastened factionalism within state & district units. A notable example was seen in the Bengal unit, where the left-wingers headed by Bose were locked in a power struggle with the Gandhians led by Dr. [[Bidhan Chandra Roy]], with Bose emerging victorious with the appointment of his brother [[Sarat Chandra Bose|Saratchandra Bose]] as the state Congress president. In Bombay, Jayakar and [[Narasimha Chintaman Kelkar|N. C. Kelkar]] formed the [[Democratic Swarajya Party]] due to resentment against the dominance of [[Gujarati people|Gujaratis]] like Patel, [[Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi|K. M. Munshi]] & [[Bhulabhai Desai|Bhalubhai Desai]] over [[Marathi people|Marathis]] like [[Shankarrao Deo]] in the state unit. The Assam unit was plagued with conflict between [[Sylhetis|Sylheti]] [[Bengali Hindus in Assam|Bengalis]] led by [[Basanta Kumar Das (Pakistani politician)|Basantakumar Das]] & the [[Assamese people|Assamese]] led by [[Gopinath Bordoloi]]. In Central Provinces, the Congress unit was divided between its Marathi unit divided between followers of [[Narayan Bhaskar Khare|N. B. Khare]] (who also happened to be a Hindu nationalist) & T. Poonamchand Ranka and the Hindi unit, divided between [[Ravishankar Shukla]] & [[Dwarka Prasad Mishra|Dwarkaprasad Mishra]] groups. The Orissa unit was divided between a Gandhian [[Karan (caste)|Karan]] faction centered around [[Cuttack district|Cuttack]] & [[Balasore district|Balasore]] led by [[Harekrushna Mahatab]] & a [[Puri district|Puri]] based [[Utkala Brahmin|Brahmin]] group in support of electoral politics led by [[Nilakantha Das|Nilkantha Das]]. The Punjab unit was divided between [[Satyapal]] & [[Gopi Chand Bhargava|Gopichand Bhargava]] factions. The Sindh unit was divided between the [[Karachi]]-based Swami Govindanand faction & the [[Amils|Amil]]-supported [[Jairamdas Daulatram]] faction.<ref name=":0" />

The Congress didn't publish a formal election manifesto, but its 1931 Karachi Resolution acted as one.

=== All India Muslim League ===
The Muslim League at this point, consisted of mostly rich, educated and powerful Muslim urban middle class, merchants & landlords who had risen through the government ranks following the [[1920 Indian general election|elections]] held after the 1919 Act. By this time, authority of the League had been firmly consolidated under [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], having overcome the split caused by [[Mian Muhammad Shafi]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-12-30 |title=DAWN - Features; December 30, 2006 |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1069712 |access-date=2025-09-07 |website=Dawn |language=en}}</ref> However, its power as a nationwide political party was very weak, with provincial Muslim Leagues & leaders in their individual capacities exercising more power than the party. Although Muslims had actively supported the Congress during the [[Khilafat movement]], but by the time of the elections, the Congress had almost entirely lost its Muslim support base (except in the North West Frontier Province, due to the [[Khudai Khidmatgar]] movement) due to resentment over Gandhi unilaterally halting the movement over the [[Chauri Chaura incident|Chaurichaura incident]], the Congress's decision to boycott the 1920 elections, controversy over the usage of ''[[Vande Mataram]]'' by the Congress in its 1923 [[Kakinada]] session, rejection of the 1923 Bengal Pact,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bengal Pact, 1923 |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Bengal_Pact,_1923 |access-date=2025-09-07 |website=Banglapedia }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Khilafat Movement |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Khilafat_Movement |access-date=2025-09-07 |website=Banglapedia }}</ref> rejection of separate electorates for Muslims in the 1928 [[Nehru Report]] & increasing [[Islamophobia|anti-Muslim rhetoric]] among [[Hindus]] following the [[Malabar rebellion]], controversy around the ''[[Rangila Rasul]]'' & the outbreak of sporadic [[Religious violence in India|communal clashes]] all over the nation throughout the 1920s & early 1930s over issues like public [[Cattle slaughter in India|cow slaughter]] during [[Eid al-Adha|Bakrid]] & playing of [[Islam and music|music]] by Hindu processions passing by mosques. By this time, many Muslim leaders had distanced themselves away from the party (except for a handful like Azad, [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai]] & Tassaduq Ahmed Khan Sherwani). Jinnah took a nationalist stance and emulated the Congress's electoral campaign and appointed Muslim League Parliamentary Boards for the 1937 elections. Through this, he expected to advance the party as a coalition partner for the Congress, which they might need to form provincial governments. He miscalculated that the separate electorates system, with a larger electorate, would produce good results for the Muslim League.<ref name="Kulke2004p314" /> He also undertook countrywide tours in order to unite various Muslim leaders & influential members of the Muslim society under the Muslim League, but failed to do so due their vested interests. The [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind|Jamiat-e-Ulema-i-Hind]], the country premier organisation of Muslim clerics, remained neutral towards the Muslim League. Jinnah held talks with Rajendra Prasad at Delhi in February 1935 over dropping separate electorates in exchange of joint electorates but at the cost of securing reservation of seats for Muslims in Bengal & Punjab, but it fell apart.<ref name=":0" /> Jinnah's campaign was based on [[Muslim nationalism in South Asia|Muslim nationalism]] & communal issues like the [[Shaheed Ganj Mosque|Shahidganj dispute]] & promotion of [[Urdu]] (see [[Hindi–Urdu controversy|Hindi-Urdu controversy]]) but avoided intra-communal polarising issues like the status of [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmaddiyas]] (which was the campaign issue for the [[Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam|Majlis-e-Ahrar]]) or giving the [[Ulama|ulema]] any say in policymaking. The Muslim League's support in rural areas independent of zamindari support or among the workers and small traders in cities was non-existent. Here it faced challenge from various regional Muslim parties composed of former Khilafat activists opposed to the Muslim League due to personal or ideological reasons.

=== Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha ===
The Hindu Mahasabha, in its 1935 [[Pune|Poona]] session & 1936 Lahore session, decided to participate in the elections & government formation. Representing Hindu mercantile community & upper-caste landlords, it derived its strength following the Congress's refusal to condemn the [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila Muslim]] perpetrators of the Malabar rebellion, Gandhi's refusal to condemn the assassination of [[Arya Samaj]] activist [[Swami Shraddhanand]] by Muslims because of his campaign of [[Shuddhi (Hinduism)|reconverting]] Hindus [[Forced conversion|forcibly converted]] [[Conversion to Islam|to Islam]] (which the Muslims interpreted as promoting [[Apostasy in Islam|apostasy]]) & collapse of [[Hindu–Muslim unity|Hindu-Muslim unity]] by the 1920s & 1930s. It campaigned over issues like Hindu nationalism, [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalism]], opposition to reservation for [[Other Backward Class|backward castes]] & non-Hindus in government bodies and implementation of [[reactionary]] policies. However, it was divided into a pro-Congress faction headed by Malaviya & an anti-Congress faction headed by Ganpat Rai & Padmaraj Jain. Like the Congress, the Hindu Mahasabha also acted as a federation of autonomous provincial Hindu Sabhas. While in the [[Central Legislative Assembly]], the Congress parliamentarians were willing to cooperate with the Hindu Mahasabha member [[Bhai Parmanand]], Nehru was outright opposed to it. The Hindu Mahasabha held talks with the Congress Nationalist Party (of which Malaviya was a key member) & the Democratic Swarajya Party (as it adhered to a model of Hindu nationalism espoused by [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]]) over fielding a common candidate & even a possible merger, but it ultimately failed. It was a significant player in the Muslim-majority provinces of Bengal, Punjab, Sindh & North-West Frontier Province. A major campaign issue of the Hindu Mahasabha was the Congress's neutrality towards the Communal Award, in which Muslim seats in Muslim majority provinces were designated on the basis of actual population ratios based on the [[Census in British India|1931 census]] report but Muslim seats in Hindu-majority provinces were allotted on the basis of a negotiated ratio with favourable weightage towards the Muslims as determined in the 1916 [[Lucknow Pact]],<ref name=":3" /> alongside the British government partially conceding to [[Fourteen Points of Jinnah|Jinnah's 14 Points]] by separating the Muslim-majority Sindh from the larger Hindu majority Bombay & upgrading Muslim-majority NWFP from a [[Chief Commissioner's Province]] to a gubernatorial province.

=== Communist Party of India ===
The [[Communist Party of India]] didn't participate in the elections as it was banned as a political outfit by the British authorities following the [[Meerut Conspiracy Case|1929 Meerut conspiracy]] & the party saw the electoral system as a whole to be a bourgeois setup. However, its peasant wing, the [[All India Kisan Sabha]], derived significant influence in the rural areas from its campaign on agrarian distress. Many Kisan Sabha leaders, like [[N. G. Ranga]] & [[Sahajanand Saraswati]], held Congress membership and had close contacts with the socialist faction of the Congress & with Nehru. Its trade wing, the [[All India Trade Union Congress]], also exerted a considerable amount of influence among the [[Trade unions in India|trade unions]]. The AIKS extended its support to the Congress in the elections.<ref name=":0" />

=== Other parties ===
Landlords also stood as candidates in the rural seats apart from landholders' seats (as ownership of land in the constituency was a criterion for candidature), campaigning over issues of rural development like irrigation, education & [[Agricultural cooperative|co-operative finances]]. They favoured cooperation with the British & opposed change in tenancy rights which affected their social & economic status. Landlord parties like the [[Muslim Independent Party]] in Bihar, Khoti Sabha in Bombay & [[National Agriculturist Party]] in United Provinces acted as mere [[Parliamentary group|legislative groupings]] meant to serve the vested interests of its members than a political party with a definite political agenda. Some members of these landlord parties also held simultaneous membership of [[Communalism (South Asia)|communalist]] groups like the Hindu Mahasabha & the Muslim League.<ref name=":0" />

The [[Unionist Party (Punjab)|Unionist Party]] of Punjab, although dominated by landlords, campaigned on the [[Urban–rural political divide|urban-rural divide]] & over the [[Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900|Land Alienation Act]], thereby attracting a large following of the peasantry across religious lines. The dominance of [[Punjabi Muslims|Punjabi Muslim]] landlords in the Unionist Party was challenged by the Hindu Election Board of Raja Narendra Nath, supported by urban Hindu mercantile groups.<ref name=":0" />

The [[Krishak Sramik Party|Krishak Praja Party]] of Bengal, was a tenant party, in that its campaign issues were the abolition of [[Zamindars of Bengal|zamindari system]] & [[Income inequality in India|wealth inequality]] between the rural peasantry & the urban [[bhadralok]], which assumed a communal turn as most of the zamindars & educated gentry in the Muslim-majority region of eastern Bengal happened to be Hindus, where they acted as a [[dominant minority]].<ref name=":0" />

Resentment against the dominance of [[Brahmin]]s in public life and within the Congress saw the formation of caste-based outfits like the Non-Brahman Party in Bombay, patronized by [[Shahu of Kolhapur|Chhatrapati Shahu of Kolhapur]] & the [[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]] in Madras. The Non-Brahman party suffered from caste rivalry between the [[Kunbi]]s & the [[Lingayats]] & lost support to the non-Brahman Congress leaders like [[Keshavrao Jedhe|K. M. Jedhe]] & [[Anna Babaji Latthe|A. B. Latthe]]. The Justice Party which once dominated Madras politics, suffered from its record of despotism while in office, caste infighting like those between [[Kamma (caste)|Kammas]] & [[Reddy]]s, infighting among its members like the clash between the [[R. S. Ramakrishna Ranga Rao|Raja of Bobbili]] & the [[Rao Venkata Kumara Mahipati Surya Rau|Raja of Pithapuram]] (who formed the People's Party in response) and loss of non-Brahman support following the election of [[C. N. Muthuranga Mudaliar]] as state Congress president. Many of these parties were also dominated by landholders & campaigned on issues of rural development. The [[Parsis|Parsi community]] of Bombay, put off by the socialist leanings of the Congress, joined the Non-Brahman party (although some like [[Khurshed Nariman]] remained with the Congress) and stood as candidates in Hindu seats. In addition to this, there were also Dalit based parties, like the Depressed Classes League in Bihar, the [[Satnampanth|Satnami]] Mahasabha in Central Provinces, & the [[Independent Labour Party (India)|Independent Labour Party]] of Dr. [[B. R. Ambedkar]], campaigning for Dalit interests. However, outside of Bombay the Independent Labour Party support was largely confined to the [[Mahar]] community & failed to attract the support of other Dalit groups like the [[Chamar]]s. Dalit leaders like [[Jagjivan Ram]] & the [[Harijan Sevak Sangh]] also played a crucial role in consolidation of Dalit support for the Congress.<ref name=":0" />

The Shiromani Akali Dal in Punjab campaigned on grounds of Sikh interests, but suffered a split with the emergence of the Sikh landlord based [[Khalsa National Party]]. The Congress was unable to obtain much Sikh support due to its neutrality to the Communal Award, which both Sikh parties vehemently opposed.<ref name=":0" />

Due to restrictions over finance & campaigning, the personal connection of the candidate with the electorate assumed far greater importance than party affiliation. Zamindars participating from rural constituencies relied on the influence among their [[Ryot|tenants]]. Caste & community consolidation also played a crucial factor alongside the reputation & history of personal political activism of the candidate. Most of the non-partisan [[Press in India|press of India]] were sympathetic to the Congress, except for those operated by Anglo-Indians & Europeans.<ref name=":0" />

==Results==
The Congress won 706 out of around 1586 seats in a resounding victory, and went on to form seven provincial governments. The Congress formed governments in United provinces, Bihar, the Central Provinces, Bombay and Madras.<ref name="Metcalf2006p196" />

[[File:Jawaharlal Nehru in a procession at Peshawar,North West Frontier Province, 14 October 1937.jpg|thumb|Nehru being felicitated by the masses in a victory rally at [[Peshawar]] during his visit in October 1937.]]

The 1937 elections demonstrated that neither the Muslim League nor the Congress represented Muslims. It also demonstrated the provincial moorings of Muslim politics.<ref name="The Muslims of British India">{{cite book |author1=Peter Hardy |author-link=Peter Hardy (historian) |title=The Muslims of British India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDw4AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09783-3 |page=224}}</ref> The Muslim League captured around 25 percent of the seats reserved for Muslims. The Congress Muslims achieved 6 percent of them. Most of the Muslim seats were won by regional Muslim parties.<ref name="Kulke2004p314">{{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke |author1-link=Hermann Kulke |author2=Dietmar Rothermund |author2-link=Dietmar Rothermund |title=A History of India |url=http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/A%20History%20of%20India_Kulke.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226092618/http://ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/A%20History%20of%20India_Kulke.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 February 2015 |year=2004 |orig-year=First published 1986 |edition=4th |publisher=Routledge |page=314}}</ref> None of Congress' Muslim candidates won in Sindh, Punjab, Bengal, Orissa, United Provinces, Central Provinces, Bombay and Assam.<ref name="The Muslims of British India" /> Most of the 25 Muslim seats the Congress captured were in NWFP, Madras and Bihar.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Peter Hardy |author-link=Peter Hardy (historian) |title=The Muslims of British India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDw4AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09783-3 |pages=224–225}}</ref>

'''Legislative assembly results'''<ref name=":0">{{cite thesis |last=Taylor |first=David Denis |year=1971 |title=Indian Politics and the Elections of 1937 |url=https://soas-repository.worktribe.com/OutputFile/389306 |degree=PhD |publisher=[[University of London]] |access-date=26 August 2025}}</ref>
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:centre
|-
!Province
!Congress
!Muslim League
!Other parties
!Independents
!Muslim seats
!Total
|-
|align=left|[[Assam Province|Assam]] || 33 || 10 || 5 ([[Assam Valley Party|Assam Valley Muslim Party]])
5 ([[Surma River|Surma]] Valley Muslim Party)

3 ([[United People's Party of Assam|United People's Party]])

1 ([[Krishak Praja Party]])

| 21 (Hindus)
10 (Muslims)

9 (Backward Tribes)

8 (Commerce)

1 (European)

1 (Christian)

1 (Woman)
|34 || 108
|-
|align=left|[[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] || 54 || 40 || 36 ([[Krishak Sramik Party|Krishak Praja Party]])
5 ([[Tippera Krishak Samiti|Tipperah Krishak Samiti]])

4 ([[Hindu Mahasabha]])

1 ([[Congress Nationalist Party]])
| 42 (Muslims)
37 (Hindus)

14 (Commerce)

11 (Europeans)

4 (Anglo-Indians)

2 (Christians)
|120 || 250
|-
|align=left|[[Bihar Province|Bihar]] || 92 || 0 || 16 ([[Muslim Independent Party]])
6 (Muslim United Party)

3 ([[Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam|Majlis-e-Ahrar]])

3 (Depressed Classes League)
| 15 (Hindus)
11 (Muslims)

2 (Commerce)

2 (Europeans)

1 (Anglo-Indian)

1 (Christian)
|40 || 152
|-
|align=left|[[1937 Bombay Presidency election|Bombay]] || 85 || 18 || 13 ([[Independent Labour Party (India)|Independent Labour Party)]]
10 (Non-Brahman Party)

3 ([[Democratic Swarajya Party]])

2 (Khoti Sabha)

1 ([[Congress Nationalist Party]])
|18 (Hindus)
13 (Muslims)

4 (Commerce)

3 (Europeans)

2 (Anglo-Indians)

3 (Christians)
|30 || 175
|-
|align=left|[[Central Provinces]] || 70 || 5 || 8 (Muslim Parliamentary Board)
3 ([[Independent Labour Party (India)|Independent Labour Party]])

3 (Non-Brahman Party)

2 ([[Congress Nationalist Party]])

1 ([[Hindu Mahasabha]])
| 13 (Hindus)
1 (Muslim)

2 (Europeans)

1 (Anglo-Indian)
| 14|| 113
|-
|align=left|[[1937 Madras Presidency Legislative Assembly election|Madras]] || 159 || 9 || 21 ([[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]])
1 (People's Party)

1 (Muslim Progressive Party)
|7 (Hindus)
7 (Muslims)

4 (Commerce)

3 (Europeans)

2 (Anglo-Indians)

1 (Christian)
|29 || 215
|-
|align=left|[[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North West Frontier Province]] || 19 || 0 || 21 (Muslim Independent Party)
7 (Hindu-Sikh Nationalist Party)

| 2 (Muslims)
1 (Hindu)
|36 || 50
|-
|align=left|[[Orissa Province|Orissa]] || 36 || 0 || 6 (United Party)
4 ([[Congress Nationalist Party]])
| 6 (Hindus)
4 (Nominated)

3 (Muslims)

1 (Christian)
| 4|| 60
|-
|align=left|[[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] || 18 || 2 || 94 ([[Unionist Party (Punjab)|Unionist Party]])
14 ([[Khalsa National Party]])

11 (Hindu Election Board)

10 ([[Shiromani Akali Dal]])

2 ([[Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam|Majlis-e-Ahrar]])

2 (Majlis-e-Ittehad-e-Millat)

1 ([[Congress Nationalist Party]])

1 ([[Socialist Party (India, 1948)|Socialist Party]])
| 11 (Hindus)
5 (Muslims)

3 (Sikhs)

1 (Labour)
|86 || 175
|-
|align=left|[[Sind Province (1936–1955)|Sind]] || 7 || 0 || 17 ([[Sind United Party]])
16 ([[Sindh Muslim League]])

12 ([[Hindu Mahasabha]])

1 ([[Sind Azad Party]])
| 3 (Hindus)
2 (Europeans)

1 (Muslim)

1 (Commerce)
|34 || 60
|-
|align=left|[[United Provinces (1937–1950)|United Provinces]] || 133 || 27 || 22 ([[National Agriculturist Party]])
1 ([[Indian Liberal Party|Liberal Party]])
| 30 (Muslims)
10 (Hindus)

2 (Europeans)

2 (Christians)

1 (Anglo-Indian)
|65 || 228
|-
|align=left|'''Total'''|| '''706''' (including 25 seats reserved for Muslims) || 111 || 398
(including '''236 Muslim representatives''' from parties other than the Congress & the Muslim League)
| 367 (including '''125 Muslims''')
| '''468''' || 1586
|}

=== [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLAs]] elected ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Province
!Members
|-
|[[Assam Legislative Assembly|Assam]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Mitra |first=H. N. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.45819 |title=The Indian Annual Register Vol. 2 (1937) |date=1937}}</ref>
|Kumar Ajitnarayan Deb of [[Sidli Assembly constituency|Sidli]], [[Akshay Kumar Das|Akshaykumar Das]], [[Arun Kumar Chanda|Arunkumar Chanda]], Baidyanath Mukherjee, Balaram Sarkar, [[Basanta Kumar Das (Pakistani politician)|Basantakumar Das]], [[Beli Ram Das|Beliram Das]], Bhubanchandra Gogoi, Bipinchandra Medhi, Dakshinaranjan Gupta Choudhury, [[Debeswar Sarmah|Debeshwar Sarma]], Ghanashyam Das, Gaurikanta Talukdar, [[Gopinath Bordoloi]], Haladhar Bhuyan, Harendranarayan Choudhury, Hirendrachandra Chakraborty, Jadavprasad Chaliha, Jogendrachandra Nath, Jogendranarayan Mandal, Jogendranath Barua, Jogeshchandra Gohain, Kalachand Roy, Kameshwar Das, Kaminikumar Sen, Karunasindhu Roy, Kedarmal Brahman, [[Krishna Nath Sarmah|Krishnanath Sarma]], Lakshesvar Barua, Lalitmohan Kar, Mahadev Sarma, Dr. Mahendranath Saikia, Mahichandra Bora, Nabakumar Dutta, Amiyakumar Das, Paramananda Das, [[Rai Bahadur|Ray Bahadur]] Pramodchandra Dutta, Purandar Sarma, Purnachandra Sarma, Rajanikanta Barua, Ramnath Das, Sir [[Rohini Kumar Chaudhuri|Rohinikumar Choudhury]], Shankarchandra Barua, [[Rajendranath Barua]], Santoshkumar Barua, Sarveshwar Barua, Shibendrachandra Biswas, Siddhinath Sarma, Bhairabchandra Das, Bideshi Pan Tanti, Binodkumar J. Sarwan, Dhirsingh Deuri, Karka Dalay Miri, Khorsingh Terang Mauzadar, P. Parida, Rabichandra Kachari, [[Rupnath Brahma]], Abdul Aziz, Abdul Bari Choudhury, [[Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani|Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Haji [[Abdul Majid Chowdhury|Abdul Majid Choudhury]], [[Abdul Matin Chaudhury|Abdul Matin]], Abdur Rahman, [[Syed Abdur Rouf]], Mohammad Abdus Salam, Dewan Mohammad Ahbab Choudhury, [[Ali Haider Khan|Mohammad Ali Haider Khan]], Dewan Ali Raja, Muhammad Amiruddin, [[Amjad Ali (Assam politician)|Muhammad Amjad Ali]], Ashrafuddin Muhammad Choudhury, Badaruddin Ahmed, [[Khan Bahadur]] Dewan Eklimur Roza, [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]], Ghyasuddin Ahmed, [[Jahan Uddin Ahmed|Jahanuddin Ahmed]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Keramat Ali, Muhammad Maqbul Hussain, [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Mahmud Ali (politician)|Mahmud Ali]], Matiur Rahman Mia, Mubarak Ali, [[Khan Sahib]] Mudabbir Hussain Choudhury, [[Khan Bahadur]] Mufizur Rahman, Munawwar Ali, Muzarraf Ali Laskar, Namwar Ali Barbhuiya, Naziruddin Ahmed, [[Osman Ali Sadagar|Sheikh Osman Ali Sadagar]], Saiyid Sir [[Muhammed Saadulah|Muhammad Saadulah]], [[Khan Sahib]] Sayidur Rahman, Shamsul Ulema [[Abu Nasr Waheed|Abu Nasr Mohammad Waheed]], Benjamin Ch. Momin, Rev [[James Joy Mohan Nichols Roy|J. J. M. Nichols Roy]], Rev L. Gatphoh, Colonel A. B. Beddow, A. F. Bendall, J. R. Clayton, W. R. Faull, W. Fleming, B. I. Barry, F. W. Hockenhull, D. B. H. Moore, R. A. Palmer, Miss Mavis Dunn Lyngdoh
|-
|[[Bengal Legislative Assembly|Bengal]]<ref name=":1" />
|[[Khawaja Nazimuddin|Sir Khwaja Nazimuddin]], [[Abul Hassan Ispahani|M. A. H. Ispahani]], [[Khwaja Nooruddin]], Muhammad Solaiman, [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy|H. S. Suhrawardy]], [[Nawab Bahadur]] [[Khwaja Habibullah]] of [[Nawab of Dhaka|Dhaka]], [[Abul Hashim]], [[Abdur Rashid Tarkabagish|Abdur Rashid]], Dr. [[Syed Muhammed Siddique|Syed Muhammad Siddique]], [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Alfazuddin Ahmed]], Abdul Qasem, [[Khan Sahib]] Syed Abdur Rauf, Jashimuddin Ahmed, Quara Yusuf Mirza, [[Khan Bahadur]] A. F. M. Abdur Rahman, [[Shamsuddin Ahmed (Pakistani politician)|Shamsuddin Ahmed]], Muhammad Mohsin Ali, Aftab Hossain Joardar, [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Azizul Haque (educator)|Azizul Huq]], Abdul Bari, [[Nawabs of Murshidabad|Sahibzada Kawan Jah]] Syed Kazim Ali Mirza (son of [[Wasif Ali Mirza]]), Muhammad Farhad Raza Choudhury, [[Syed Nausher Ali]], Waliur Rahman, Serajul Islam, [[Khan Sahib]] [[Ahmed Ali Enayetpuri]], Abdul Hakeem, [[Syed Jalaluddin Hashmey|Syed Jalaluddin Hashemi]], Syed Mustagaswal Haq, [[Ashraf Ali Khan Chowdhury|Ashraf Ali Khan Choudhury]], Maniruddin Akhund, Muhammad Amir Ali Mia, [[Moslem Ali Mollah]], Mafizuddin Choudhury, Hafiuddin Choudhury, Abdul Jabbar, [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Mahtab Uddin Ahmad|Mehtabuddin Ahmed]], [[Nawab Bahadur]] [[Kazi Musharraf Hussain|Mossharaf Hossain Khan]], [[Khan Bahadur]] A. M. L. Rahman, Haji Safiruddin Ahmed, [[Shah Abdur Rauf]], Kazi Emdadul Haq, Abdul Hafiz, [[Abu Hussain Sarkar|Abu Hossain Sarkar]], Ahmed Hossain, Rajibuddin Tarafdar, Muhammad Ishaque, Dr. [[Mafizuddin Ahmad|Mafizuddin Ahmed]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Muhammad Ali, Azhar Ali, A. M. Abdul Hamid, Abdul Rashid Mahmud, [[Abdullah al Mahmood|Abdullah al-Mahmud]], Muhammad Barat Ali, Zahur Ahmed Choudhury, [[Idris Ahmed Mia]], [[Khawaja Shahabuddin|Khwaja Shahabuddin]], Abdul Aziz, S. A. Salim, [[Abdul Hakim Bikrampuri|Mohammad Abdul Hakim Bikrampuri]], Razaur Rahman Khan, Aulad Hossain Khan, [[Abdul Latif Biswas (Pakistani politician)|Abdul Latif Biswas]], Muhammad Abdus Shaheed, [[Khan Bahadur]] Syed Abdul Hafiz, Fazlul Rahman, Muhammad Abdul Jabbar Palowan, Giasuddin Ahmed, [[Khan Bahadur Abdul Karim|Abdul Karim]], Abdul Majid, [[Abdul Wahed Bokainagari|Abdul Wahed]], [[Shamsul Huda Panchbagi|Maulana Shamsul Huda]], Abdul Hakim, Masud Ali Khan Panni, Mirza Abdul Hafiz, [[Syed Hasan Ali Chowdhury|Syed Hasan Ali Choudhury]], [[Khan Sahib]] Kabiruddin Khan, Abdul Hossain Ahmed, Muhammad Israil, Abdul Hamid Shah, [[Khan Sahib]] Hamiduddin Ahmed, Shamsuddin Ahmed Khondkar, Ahmed Ali Mridha, [[Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan|Tamizuddin Khan]], [[Yusuf Ali Chowdhury|Yusuf Ali Choudhury]], Muhammad Abul Fazl, Ghiyasuddin Ahmed Choudhury, [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]], [[Abdul Kader Mia|Abdul Kader]], [[Khan Sahib]] [[Hatem Ali Jamadar]], [[Syed Muhammad Afzal]], [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Hasem Ali Khan|Hashem Ali Khan]], Sadaruddin Ahmed, [[Abdul Wahab Khan (politician)|Abdul Wahab Khan]], [[Mohammad Mozammel Haq|Mohammad Mozammel Huq]], Haji Maulvi Tofel Ahmed Choudhury, Dewan Mustafa Ali, [[Nawab of Dhaka|Nawabzada]] Khwaja Nasarullah, Maqbul Hossain, [[Kazi Golam Mohiuddin Faroqui|Nawab Mohiuddin Faroqui]], [[Ramizuddin Ahmed]], Asimuddin Ahmed, [[Muhammad Hasanuzzaman]], [[Janab Ali Majumdar]], [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Abidur Reza Chowdhury|Abidur Reza Choudhury]], [[Shahed Ali Patwary|Shahed Ali]], Muhammad Ibrahim, Maulvi Aminullah, [[Gholam Sarwar Husseini|Shah Syed Golam Sarwar Hossaini]], Syed Ahmed Khan, Syed Abdul Majid, Abdur Razzak, [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Jalaluddin Ahmad|Jalaluddin Ahmed]], Ahmed Kabir Choudhury, [[Maniruzzaman Islamabadi|Muhammad Maniruzzaman Islamabadi]], [[Sana Ullah|Al-Haj Maulana Dr. Sanaullah]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Fazlul Qudir, [[Abdur Rahman Siddiqui|Abdul Rahman Siddiqi]], [[Aftab Ali]], [[A.M.A. Zaman|A. M. A. Zaman]], [[Fazlur Rahman (politician)|Fazlur Rahman]], Jatindranath Basu, Santoshkumar Basu, [[Prabhu Dayal Himatsingka|Prabhudayal Himmatsinghka]], Dr. J. M. Dasgupta, Jogeshchandra Gupta, [[Sarat Chandra Bose|Saratchandra Basu]], Baradaprasanna Pyne, Tulshichandra Goswami, Ray Harendranath Choudhury, Dr. [[Nalinaksha Sanyal]], Surendramohan Maitra, Birendranath Majumdar, [[Bardhaman Raj|Maharajakumar]] [[Uday Chand Mahtab|Udaychand Mahtab]] of [[Bardhaman]], [[Pramathanath Banerjee]], Dr. Saratchandra Mukherjee, Ashutosh Mullick, Kamalkrishna Roy, Debendralal Khan, Kishoripati Roy, Gobindachandra Bhaumik, Ishwarchandra Mal, [[Nikunja Behari Maiti|Nikunjabihari Maiti]], Gourhari Som, Sukumar Dutta, Manmathanath Roy, [[Rai Bahadur|Ray Bahadur]] Jogeshchandra Sen, P. Banerjee, [[Haripada Chattopadhyay]], Sasankasekhar Sanyal, Atulkrishna Ghosh, Nisithanath Kundu, [[Khagendra Nath Dasgupta|Khagendranath Dasgupta]], Jatindranath Chakraborty, Narendranarayan Chakraborty, Manoranjan Banerjee, [[Kiran Shankar Roy|Kiranshankar Roy]], Charuchandra Roy, Birendrakishore Roychoudhuri, Surendranath Biswas, Narendra Dasgupta, [[Jogendra Nath Mandal|Jogendranath Mandal]], [[Dhirendranath Datta|Dhirendranath Dutta]], [[Harendra Kumar Sur|Harendrakumar Sur]], Mahimchandra Das, [[Damber Singh Gurung]], Advaitakumar Majhi, Bankubihari Mandal, Dhirendranath Das, Manindrabhushan Singha, Krishnaprasad Mandal, Harendra Dolui, Radhanath Das, Pulinbihari Mullick, Hemchandra Naskar, Anukulchandra Das, Lakshminarayan Biswas, Kiritbhushan Das, Rasiklal Biswas, [[Mukunda Behari Mullick|Mukundabihari Mullick]], Patiram Roy, Tarinicharan Pramanik, [[Prem Hari Barma|Premhari Barma]], Shyamaprasad Barman, [[Prasanna Deb Raikut|Prasannadeb Raikut]], [[Upendranath Barman]], Pushpajit Barma, Kshetranath Singha, Madhusudan Sarkar, [[Dhananjoy Roy|Dhananjay Roy]], Amritalal Mandal, [[Mono Mohan Das|Monomohan Das]], [[Birat Chandra Mandal|Biratchandra Mandal]], [[Pramatha Ranjan Thakur|Pramatharanjan Thakur]], Upendranath Edbar, Jagatchandra Mandal, Sir Harishankar Pal, [[Nalini Ranjan Sarkar|Naliniranjan Sarkar]], [[Debi Prasad Khaitan|Debiprasad Khaitan]], [[Rai Bahadur]] Manturam Tapuria, [[Bijoy Prasad Singh Roy|Sir Bijoy Prasad Singh Roy]], Maharaja [[Srish Chandra Nandy|Srischandra Nandi]] of [[Cossimbazar|Kashimbazar]], Kumar Shibshekhareshwar Roy of [[Bagmara Upazila|Tahirpur]], Maharaja Shashikanta Acharya Choudhury of [[Muktagacha Upazila|Muktagacha]], [[Rai Bahadur|Ray Bahadur]] Khirod Chandra Roy, J. N. Gupta, Dr. Sureshchandra Banerjee, Niharendu Dutta Majumdar, [[Sibnath Banerjee|Shibnath Banerjee]], B. Mukherjee, [[Shyama Prasad Mukherjee|Shyamaprasad Mukherjee]], Litta Munda Sirdar, Dr. [[Harendra Coomar Mookerjee|H. C. Mukherjee]], S. A. Gomes, [[Hasina Murshed]], [[Farhat Banu|Begum Farhat Bano Khanam]], [[Mira Datta Gupta|Mira Dutta Gupta]], Hemaprabha Majumdar, Mrs Ellen West, J. W. Chippendale, L. T. Maguire, C. Griffiths, W. L. Armstrong, J. R. Walker, C. S. Maclauchlan, F. C. Brasher, C. Millar, W. W. K. Page, G. Morgan, R. H. Ferguson, W. C. Patton, J. E. Ordish, L. M. Crosfield, Eric Studd, David Henry, I. A. Clark, R. M. Sassoon, A. P. Blair, W. C. Wordsworth, K. A. Hamilton, H. R. Norton, C. G. Cooper, T. B. Nimmo, H. C. Bannerman, C. W. Milks, J. B. Ross
|-
|[[Bihar Legislative Assembly|Bihar]]<ref name=":2" />
|[[Sarangdhar Sinha]], [[Jagat Narain Lal|Jagatnarayan Lal]], [[Bindeshwari Prasad Verma|Vindhyeshwariprasad Varma]], Upendranath Mukherjee, Jimutbahan Sen, Indra Dewan Saran Singh, Shyamnandan Sinha, Pandit [[Sheel Bhadra Yajee|Shilbhadra Yajee]], Ram Prasad, Birendra Bahadur Sinha, [[Anugrah Narayan Sinha|Anugrahanarayan Sinha]], Jamunaprasad Sinha, Bundi Ram, Jugalkishorenarayan Sinha, Hargobind Mishra, Pandit Gupteshwar Dubey, Harinandan Singh, Budhan Rai Sharma, [[Jagjivan Ram]], Harihar Sinha, Biresh Dutta Sinha, Dwarkanath Tiwari, Narayanprasad Sinha, Shiveshwarprasad Narayan Sinha, Prabhunath Sinha, Pandit Govindpati Tiwari, Ram Besawan Ravidas, Ganesh Prasad, Gorakh Prasad, Harivansh Sahay, Pandit Baidyanath Mishra, Vishwanath Singh, Balgobind Bhagat, Maheshprasad Sinha, Shivanandan Ram, Brijnandan Sahi, Ramdayalu Sinha, [[Rameshwar Prasad Sinha|Rameshwarprasad Sinha]], [[Deep Narayan Singh|Dipnarayan Sinha]], Thakur Ramnandan Sinha, Ramashish Thakur, Rajendranarayan Choudhury, Chaturanan Das, Jamuna Karjee, Suryanandan Thakur, Keshav Ram, Rajeshwarprasad Narayan Sinha, Ramcharan Sinha, Sundar Mahato, [[Shri Krishna Sinha|Shrikrishna Sinha]], Dr. Raghunandan Prasad, Nirapada Mukherjee, Ramcharitra Singh, Brahmadeonarayan Singh, Kumar Kalikaprasad Singh of [[Gidhaur chieftaincy|Gidhaur]], Pandit Mewalal Jha, Shivadhari Singha, Harikishore Prasad, Rajendra Mishra, [[Shivnandan Prasad Mandal|Shivanandanprasad Mandal]], Rambaras Das, Ramdin Tiwari, Kishorilal Kundu, Dhirnarayan Chand, [[Jaglal Choudhary|Jaglal Chaudhury]], [[Binodanand Jha]], Buddhinath Jha, Bhagabanchandra Das, Charan Murmu, Brijlal Dokania, Debu Murmu, [[Krishna Ballabh Sahay|Krishnaballabh Sahay]], Hopna Santhal, Sukhlal Singh, Karu Dushadh, Deokinandan Prasad, Ram Bhagat, Baralal Kandarpnath Shah Deo of [[Palkot]], Purnachandra Mitra, Rajkishore Sinha, Jitu Ram, Jadubansh Sahay, Upendramohan Dasgupta, Tikaram Majhi, Kumar Ajitprasad Singh Deo of [[Panchkot Raj|Panchkote]], Gulu Dhopa, Ambikacharan Mullick, Pramatha Bhattashali, Debendranath Samanta, Rasik Ho, Chakreshwar Kumar Jain, Manindranath Mukherjee, [[Ganesh Dutt|Ganesh Dutta Singh]], [[Chandeshwar Prasad Narayan Singh|Chandeshwarprasad Narayan Sinha]], Suryamohan Thakur, [[Khokhra Chieftaincy|Maharajakumar]] Rajkishorenath Shah Deo (son of [[Udai Pratap Nath Shah Deo|Udaypratapnath Shah Deo]]), Natha Ram, Harendrabahadur Chandra, Kshetranath Sengupta, [[Sachchidananda Sinha|Sacchidananda Sinha]], Syed Abdul Aziz, Hafiz Zafar Hasan, Abdul Jalil, [[Khan Bahadur]] Nawab Abdul Wahab Khan, Syed Mohiuddin Ahmad, [[Mohammad Yunus (Indian politician)|Muhammad Yunus]], Sharfuddin Hasan, Saijid Najmul Hasan, Muhammad Latifur Rahman, Chaudhury Sharafat Hussain, Nur Hasan, Muhammad Qasim, [[Khan Bahadur]] Saghirul Haq, [[Syed Mahmud]], Muhammad Abdul Majid, Hafiz Sheikh Muhammad Sani, [[Khan Sahib]] Muhammad Yaqub, Badrul Hasan, Tajmul Hussain, Muhammad Shafi, Ahmed Ghafoor, Saiyidul Haq, Muhammad Salim, Chaudhury Muhammad Nazirul Hasan, Saijid Rafiuddin Ahmad Rizvi, Muhammad Mahmud, [[Minnatullah Rahmani|Syed Muhammad Minnatullah]], Sheikh Ziaur Rahman, Zainuddin Hossain Mirza, Sheikh Fazlur Rahman, [[Muhammad Islamuddin]], Sheikh Shafiqul Haq, Muhammad Tahir, Saijid Ali Manzar, [[Abdul Bari (professor)|Abdul Bari]], Abdul Majid, Sheikh Ramzan Ali, Sheikh Muhammad Hussain, Qazi Muhammad Ilyas, Kamakhya Devi, Sharadakumari Devi, Saraswati Devi, [[Anees Fatima|Lady Anees Imam]], [[Boniface Lakra]], A. M. Hayman, E. C. Danry, J. Richmond, [[Ignace Beck|Ignes Beck]], W. H. Meyrick, E. A. Paterson
|-
|[[Bombay Legislative Assembly|Bombay]]<ref name=":2" />
|Jivappa Sudhana Aidale, Dr. [[B. R. Ambedkar|Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar]], Dr. Krishnarao Bhimrao Antrolikar, Dattatrey Trimbak Aradhye, Shaligram Ramchandra Bharatiya, Ramkrishna Gangaram Bhatankar, [[R. R. Bhole|Rajaram Ramji Bhole]], Bhaskarrao Bhaurao Chakranarayan, Purushottam Lalji Chauhan, [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] Ganesh Krishna Chhale, Anant Vinayak Chitre, Dhanaji Nana Choudhury, Fulsinghji Dhansinghji Dabhi, Vishnu Waman Dandekar, Sir Dimkarrao Narbheram Desai, Gursiddhappa Kadappa Desai, [[Khandubhai Kasanji Desai]], [[Morarji Desai|Morarji Ranchhodji Desai]], Randhir Prasanvadam Desai, Shankreppagudda Basalingappagouda Desai, Keshav Balwant Deshmukh, [[G H Deshpande|Govind Hari Deshpande]], [[Andanappa Doddameti|Andanappa Jnanappa Doddameti]], Kundanmal Sobhachand Firodia, Vinayak Atmram Gadkari, [[Bhaurao Gaikwad|Bhaurao Krishnarao Gaikwad]], [[Maneklal Gandhi|Maneklal Maganlal Gandhi]], Shankar Krishnaji Gavankar, Damji Posala Gavit, Gangadhar Raghoram Ghatge, Champaklal Jaikisandas Ghia, M. G. Ghia, Gulabsingh Bhila Girasey, Ramchandra Bhagawant Girme, Keshav Govind Gokhale, Mahabaleshwar Ganpati Bhatt Gopi, Bhalchandra Maheshwar Gupte, Lingappa Fakirappa Hallikeri, Bhaurao Sakharam Hire, Revappa Somappa Holer, Daulatrao Gulaji Jadhav, [[Tulsidas Jadhav|Tulsidas Subhanrao Jadhav]], Dadasaheb Khaserao Jagtap, Parappa Chambasappa Jakati, Jinabhai Parvatishankar Joshi, Narayanrao Gururao Joshi, Vishwanathrao Narayanrao Jog, [[Rai Sahib|Rao Sahib]] Annappa Narayan Kalyani, [[Siddappa Kambli|Siddhappa Totappa Kambli]], Shivram Lakshman Karandikar, Ramchandra Krishna Karavade, Shripad Shyamaji Kariguddi, Appaji Yashwantrao Kate, Bhagwan Shambhuppa Kathale, Sheshgiri Narayanrao Keshwain, Ramchandra Annaji Khedgikar, [[B. G. Kher|Bal Gangadhar Kher]], [[Bhavanji Arjan Khimji|Bhawanji A. Khimji]], [[Nanasaheb Kunte|Dattatrey Kashinath Kunte]], Bhogilal Dhirajlal Lala, [[Lalchand Hirachand]], [[Anna Babaji Latthe]], Maganlal Nagindas, Ramchandra Narayan Mandlik, Namdeorao Buddhajirao Marathe, Rajmal Lakhichand Marwadi, Nagindas Tribhuvandas Master, [[Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar]], Hariprasad Pitambar Mehta, Jamnadas Madhavji Mehta, Morarbhai Kasanji, Jayavant Ghanshyam More, Wamanrao Mukadam, [[Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi]], Vasant Narayan Naik, Girimalappa Rachappa Nalwadi, [[Gulzarilal Nanda]], [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] Namdeo Eknath Navle, Timappa Rudrappa Nesvi, Prithvichand Amolakchand Nimani, [[Shamrao Vishnu Parulekar]], [[Hari Vinayak Pataskar]], Babubhai Jasbai Patel, Bhailabhai Bhaikhabhai Patel, Mangesh Patel, Atmaram Nana Patil, Gambhirrao Avachitrao Patil, Kallangouda Siddhagouda Patil, Lakshman Govind Patil, Lakshman Madhav Patil, Malgouda Pungouda Patil, Narhar Rajaram Patil, Sadashiv Ranoji Patil, Shankargouda Timmagouda Patil, Vitthal Nathu Patil, Ganesh Krishna Phadke, Chhotalal Balkrishna Purani, [[Rai Sahib|Rao Sahib]] Babajirao Rane, Bachajee Ramchandra Rane, Dattatrey Waman Raut, Prabhakar Janardan Roham, Sakarlal Balbhai, Shankar Hari Sathe, Khanderao Sakharam Savant, Kanji Govind Sheth, Bajirao Jagdeorao Shinde, Panduram Keshav Shiralkar, Lakshmidas Mangaldas Shrikant, Savalram Gundaji Songavkar, Murigappa Sidhappa Sugandhi, Kamalaji Ragho Talkar, Balvantrai Parmadrai Thakore, [[Rai Sahib|Rao Sahib]] Bhausaheb Thorat, [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] Vitthalrao Lakshmanrao Thube, Hari Vitthal Thulpule, Bhaijibhai Ukhabhai Vaghela, Balwant Hanmant Varale, Govind Dharmaji Vartak, Sardar Narayanrao Ganpatrao Vinchurkar, Ishvarlal Kalidas Vyas, Purushottam Vasudeo Wagh, Balaji Bhawansa Walvekar, Dattatrey Nathoba Wandekhar, [[Runchorelal baronets|Baronet]] Sir [[Girjaprasad Chinubhai|Girijaprasad Chinubhai Madhavlal]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Ali Bahadur, [[Khan Bahadur]] Haji Hajrat Abdul Latif, Hussain Abubakr Beg Muhammad, [[Khan Sahib]] Abdullah Haji Isa Bhagat, [[I. I. Chundrigar|Ismail Ibrahim Chundrigar]], Sir [[Ali Muhammad Khan Dehlavi]], [[Khan Sahib]] Faiz Muhammad Khan Mohabbat Khan, Asmal Musa Abhram, Abdul Majid Abdul Khadar Gheewale, [[Khan Sahib]] Abdul Hakim Babu Hakim, Abdur Karim Aminsab Hanagi, Sheikh Muhammad Hasan, Allisa Nabisa Ilkar, Khalilullah Abasaheb Janvekar, Muhammad Amin Jitekar, [[Khan Sahib]] Haji Ahmad Kasam Kacchi, Khwaja Bashiruddin Kazi, Aziz Gafur Kazi, Muhammad Musa Qilledar, Muhammad Ali Allah Baksh, Akhtar Hasan Mirza, Muhammad Suleiman Kassam Mitha, Muhammad Yasin Nuri, Musaji Yusufji Patel, Muhammad Bawa Patel, [[Khan Bahadur]] Sardar Haji Amirsaheb Mohiuddin Sahib Raees, Sardar Mehbub Ali Khan Akbar Khan Savanur, [[Khan Bahadur]] Sheikh Jan Muhammad Haji Sheikh Kalla, Ismail Hassan Bapu Siddiq, Ahmed Ebrahim Singapori, [[Khurshed Nariman|K. F. Nariman]], [[Dhanjishah Cooper|Dhanjishah Bomanji Cooper]], Manchershah Dhanjibhoy Gilder, Shavaksha Hormusji Jhabvala, Sorabji Dorabji Saklatvala (brother of [[Shapurji Saklatvala|Sapurji Saklatvala]]), Annapurna Gopal Deshmukh, Vijayagauri Balvantrai Kanuga, [[Lilavati Munshi|Lilavati Kanaiyalal Munshi]], Nagamma Veerangouda Patil, Lakshmibai Ganesh Thuse, Salima Faiz [[Badruddin Tyabji]], Sir John Abercromble, Courtney Parker Bramble, Dr. Joseph Altino Collaco, Fred J. Currion, Dominic Joseph Ferreira, Francis Holroy French, Cyril Frederick Golding, G. O. Pike, [[Stanley Henry Prater]], W. W. Russell
|-
|[[Central Provinces and Berar|Central Provinces]]<ref name=":2" />
|Ghanshyam Singh Gupta, [[Narayan Bhaskar Khare]], [[L. N. Hardas]], Chaturbhujbhai Jasani, Khushalchand Ghasiram Khajanchi, Narmadaprasad Mishra, Keshaorao Ramchandrarao Khandekar, Dr. Jagannath Ganpatrao, [[Thakur Pyarelal Singh|Pyarelal Singh]], Samahajirao V. Gokhale, P. B. Gole, Bajrang Thekkedar, Sitaram Lakshman Patil, Bhikulal Lakshmichand Chandak, A. N. Udhoji, T. J. Kedar, Pukhraj Kochar, Dashrath Lakshman Patil, R. S. Dube, D. B. Khobragade, Nilkanth Yadaorao Deotale, Dharamrao Bhujangrao, Seth Dipchand Lakshmichand, Biharilal Deorao Patel, Gulabchand Choudhury, G. R. Jambholkar, Prabhakar D. Jatar, Durgashankar Kripashankar Mehta, Pandit [[Dwarka Prasad Mishra|Dwarkaprasad Mishra]], Matua Ghaitu Mehra, [[Kashi Prasad Pandey|Kashiprasad Pande]], N. Hanumantha Rao, Jalam Moti, Vasudeorao Venkatrao Subedar, Premshankar Lakshmishankar Dhagat, Bhagirath Rakhan Choudhury, Mahendra Lal, Lalchoodaman Shah, Lala Arjun Singh, Dattatreya Bhikaji Naik, Shankarlal Choudhury, Rameshwar Agnibhoj, [[Bhagwantrao Mandloi|Bhagwantrao Annabhau Mandloi]], M. R. Majumdar, Anant Ram, Mahant Purandas Suddin Satnami, Mahant Lakshminarayandas Bairagi, [[Ravishankar Shukla]], Mahant Naindas Rajaram Satnami, Jamnalal Tejmal Chopra, [[E. Raghavendra Rao]], Sukrit Das, [[Ram Gopal Tiwari|Ramgopal Tiwari]], Muktawandas Ajabdas, Sardar [[Amar Singh Sahgal|Amarsingh Baijnathsingh Sehgal]], Thakur Chhedilal, Bahorik Ledwa Ravidas, M. L. Bakliwal, Posu Satnami, Vishvanathrao Yadaorao Tamaskar, Kanhaiya Lal, Seth Badrinarayan Agarwal, Ganpatrao Pande, Raghoba Gambhira Ghodichore, V. M. Jakatdar, Suganchandra Chunilal, [[Ramrao Deshmukh]], Ganeshrao Ramchandra Deshmukh, Lakshman Narayan Nathe, Ganesh Akaji Gavai, Bhimsingh Govindsingh, Keshao Januji, Umedsingh Narayansingh Thakur, Vithalrao Narayanrao Jamadar, [[Rai Sahib|Rao Sahib]] Dinkarrao Dharrao Rajurkar, Bhimrao Hanmantrao Jatkar, Daulat Kishan Bhagat, Narayan Balaji Bobde, M. P. Kolhe, [[Pandharinath Sitaramji Patil|Pandhari Sitaram Patil]], [[Laxman Shrawan Bhatkar|Lakshman Shrawan Bhatkar]], [[T. S. Patil|Tukaram Shankar Patil]], Krishnarao Ganpatrao Deshmukh, Udebhan Shah, Chhaganlal Jaideoprasad Bharuka, Seth Gopaldas Bulakidas Mehta, Beohar Rajendra Sinha, Madhav Gangadhar Chitnavis, R. M. Deshmukh, Ganpati Sadashiv Page, V. R. Kalappa, [[Balkrishna Ganesh Khaparde|B. G. Khaparde]], [[Khan Sahib]] Syed Muzaffar Hussain, Muhammad Mohibbul Huq, Muhammad Yusuf Sharif, [[Khan Sahib]] Syed Yasin, Abdul Razak Khan, Iftikhar Ali, Majiduddin Ahmad, [[Khan Bahadur]] Syed Hifazat Ali, S. W. A. Rizvi, Mohiuddin Khan, Hidayat Ali, [[Khan Bahadur]] Mirza Rahman Beg, Syed Abdul Rauf Shah, [[Khan Sahib]] Abdul Rahman Khan, [[Anasuyabai Kale]], [[Subhadra Kumari Chauhan|Subhadrakumari Chauhan]], Durgabai Joshi, Rev. G. C. Rogers, L. H. Bartlett
|-
|[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly|Madras]]<ref name=":2" />
|[[Bulusu Sambamurthy|B. Sambamurti]], P. Achuthan, [[P. M. Audikesavalu Naicker|P. M. Adikeshavalu Naicker]], B. Anantachariar, N. Annamalai Pillai, H. B. Ari Gouder, Muthu Kr. Ar. Kr. Arunachalam Chettiyar, Adimulam Jamedar, S. S. Balakrishna, M. Bapineedu, [[M. Bhaktavatsalam]], B. Bhaktavatsalu Naidu, K. Bhashyam Aiyangar, Y. V. A. Bhaskara Rao, V. Bhuvarahan, P. Buchappa Naidu, K. Chandramauli, G. Chelvapathi Chetty, O. Chengam Pillai, S. Chidambara Aiyer, P. Chinnamuthu, T. S. Chokhalingam Pillai, M. P. Damodaran, M. Doraikannu, A. R. A. S. Doraiswami Nadar, [[V. V. Giri]], [[Bezawada Gopala Reddy|B. Gopala Reddy]], Govinda Dass, C. K. Govindan Nayar, V. J. Gupta, S. Guruvulu, N. Halashyam Aiyar, K. Ishwara, D. Kadirappa, K. Venkata Rao, [[Ayyadevara Kaleswara Rao|A. Kaleshwara Rao]], [[K. Kamaraj|K. Kamaraja Nadar]], E. Kannan, K. R. Karant, A. Karunakaran Menon, K. Kolandavelu Nayanar, [[K. Koti Reddi|K. Koti Reddy]], G. Krishna Rao, S. Krishnakutumban, [[T. T. Krishnamachari]], G. Krishnamurti, K. Kulasekharan, [[L. Krishnaswami Bharathi|L. Krishnaswami Bharati]], [[Raja of Chettinad|Kumararaja]] [[M. A. Muthiah Chettiar|M. A. Muthiah Chettiyar]] of [[Chettinad]], P. S. Kumaraswami Raja, K. Kuppuswami Aiyar, V. Kurmaiya, Lakshmi Ammal, O. Lakshmanaswami, P. Lakshmanaswami, P. Madhavan, R. S. Manickam, M. Marimuthu, S. T. P. Marimuthu Pillai, R. Maruthai, [[V. I. Munuswamy Pillai|V. I. Munuswami Pillai]], [[Bayya Suryanarayana Murthy|B. S. Murti]], [[Pasumpon Muthuramalinga Thevar|U. Muthuramalinga Thevar]], K. A. Nachiyappa Gounder, A. P. N. V. Nadimuthu Pillai, S. Nagappa, N. Nagaraja Aiyangar, S. Nagiah, K. N. Nanjappa Gounder, D. L. Narasimha Raju, P. L. Narasimha Raj, C. Narasimhan, V. V. Narasimhan, D. Narayana Raju, K. V. Narayana Rao, M. G. Natesha Chettiyar, P. Natesha Mudaliar, C. Obi Reddy, V. C. Palaniswami Gounder, V. K. Palaniswami Gounder, [[R. M. Palat]], M. Pallam Raju, C. R. Parthasarathi Aiyangar, P. Pedda Padalu, K. S. Periyaswami Gounder, K. Periyaswami Gounder, M. P. Periyaswami, V. R. Perumal Chettiyar, B. Perumal Naidu, R. Ponnuswami Pillai, [[Tanguturi Prakasam|T. Prakasham]], R. Raghava Menon, [[C. Rajagopalachari]], [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] [[M. C. Rajah]], Maharaja [[Pusapati]] Alakanarayana Gajapati Raju of [[Vizianagaram Estate|Vizianagaram]]/Raja [[Yarlagadda Sivarama Prasad|Y. Shivarama Prasad]] of [[Challapalli]],{{Efn|The former died soon after being elected, the latter was elected in bypolls held in March 1937}} B. Raja Rao, A. K. A. Ramachandra Reddiar, R. B. Ramakrishna Raju, T. N. Ramakrishna Reddy, D. Ramalinga Reddiar, A. Ramalingam, K. Raman Menon, [[S. Ramanathan (politician)|S. Ramanathan]], D. V. Ramaswami, K. S. Ramaswami Gounder, V. M. Ramaswami Mudaliar, N. G. Ramaswami Naidu, A. Rami Reddy, N. Ranga Reddy, C. Rangiah Naidu, P. Ratnavelu Tevar, A. S. Sahajananda Swami, K. Shaktivadivelu Gounder, P. R. K. Sharma, K. S. Saptarishi Reddiar, L. Satyanatha Karayalar, [[A. B. Shetty]], K. Shanmugam, K. A. Shanmuga Mudaliar, B. T. Sheshadrichariar, H. Sitarama Reddy, K. Sitarama Reddiar, J. Shivashanmughan Pillai, Raja Bahadur Vasireddy Durgasadashiveshwara Prasad of Muktyala (in [[Krishna district]]), D. Srinivasa Aiyar, P. S. Srinivasa Aiyar, [[Kallur Subba Rao|K. Subba Rao]], Karunakaram Subba Rao, N. M. R. Subbarama Aiyar, [[P. Subbarayan]], P. Subbiah, C. P. Subbiah Mudaliar, B. M. P. Subbaraya Chettiar, A. Subramanian, K. V. R. Swami, P. Shyamasundara Rao, V. S. R. M. Valliappa Chettiar, [[K. Varadachari]], [[N. S. Varadachari]], A. Vedaratnam Pillai, S. V. Venaudaya Gounder, G. Venkanna, G. Venkata Reddy, [[Grandhi Venkata Reddy Naidu|G. Venkata Reddy Naidu]], K. Venkata Reddy, B. Venkatachalam Pillai, P. T. Venkatachari, B. Venkatanarayana Reddy, S. C. Venkatappa Chettiar, R. Venkatappa Naidu, K. Venkatappaya Pantulu, P. Venkatarama Aiyar, R. S. Venkataramiah, B. Venkatarao Baliga, R. Venkata Subba Reddiar, V. Venkatasubbaiya, T. Vishwanatham, K. P. Yagneshwara Sharma, T. V. K. Kamaraja Padiya Nayakar of [[Bodinayakkanur|Bodinayakkannur]], V. Narayana Gajapati Raju of [[Chemudu]], Raja M. Venkataramaia Appa Rao of Mirzapuram (in Krishna district), Abdul Hamid Khan, [[C. Abdul Hakim|Nawab C. Abdul Rahman Hakim]], Abdur [[Ali Raja]] of [[Arakkal kingdom|Arakkal]], K. Abdur Rahman Khan, D. Abdul Rauf, [[Khan Bahadur]] P. M. Attakoya Thangal, Syed Bashir Ahmed, Syed Mohiuddin Ghaus, H. S. Hussain, A. K. Kaderkutti, [[Khan Bahadur]] [[P. Khalifulla Sahib|P. Khalifullah Rowther Sahib]], P. I. Kunhammad Kutti Haji, [[Mahboob Ali Baig Sahib Bahadur|Mehbub Ali Beg]], Mir Akram Ali, P. K. Moideen Kutty, [[Khan Sahib]] Muhammad Abdul Kadir Rowther, Muhammad Abdur Rahman, Muhammad Mohideen Maracair Ahmad Thambi, [[Khan Bahadur]] Muhammad Schamnad, K. Muhammad Rahmatullah, Syed Ibrahim, M. A. Salam, S. K. Sheikh Rowther, Sheikh Muhammad Laljan, [[Khan Sahib]] K. A. Sheikh Dawood, V. S. T. Sheikh Mansur Tharaganar, [[Khan Sahib]] V. K. Unnikammoo, [[Yakub Hasan Sait|Yakub Hassan]], [[Dewan Bahadur|Diwan Bahadur]] A. Appadurai Pillai, [[Chunkath Joseph Varkey|C. J. Varkey]], D. R. Isaac, [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] [[A. T. Pannirselvam]], J. Raja Rao, V. J. Samu Pillai, [[J. L. P. Roche Victoria]], Dr. M. J. Samuel, [[Rukmini Lakshmipathi]], Mrs [[Chodagam Ammanna Raja|C. Ammanna Raja]], [[Anjalai Ammal]], [[A. V. Kuttimalu Amma]], K. Lakshmi Ammal, Dr. N. Lakshmi Devi, Mrs Khadija Yakub Hassan, Mrs Jebamoney Masilamoney, E. H. M. Bower, W. M. Browning, C. R. T. Congreve, E. M. D'Mello, W. K. M. Langley, J. Nuttald, G. B. Reade, J. M. Smith, Sir William Owen Wright
|-
|[[Provincial Assembly of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North West Frontier Province]]<ref name=":1" />
|Malik Khuda Baksh Khan, Khan Muhammad Sarwar Khan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Nawab Sir Sahibzada [[Abdul Qayyum Khan]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Sadullah Khan, Khan Abdullah Khan, Khan Abdul Aziz Khan, [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan|Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], Arbab Abdul Ghafoor Khan, Abdur Rab Khan Nishtar, [[Khan Sahib]] Raja Abdur Rahman Khan, Arbab Addur Rahman Khan, [[Khan Sahib]] [[Abdul Majid Khan Tarin|Abdul Majid Khan]], Khan Akbar Ali Khan, Nawabzada Allah Nawaz Khan of [[Dera Ismail Khan]], Khan Amir Muhammad Khan, [[Khan Sahib]] Sardar Asadullah Khan, [[Qazi Ataullah Khan]], Khan Azizullah Khan, Captain Nawab Baz Muhammad Khan of [[Teri, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Teri]], Khan Faizullah Khan Ghazni, M. Faqira Khan, Mian Jaffar Shah, Pir Syed Jalal Shah, [[Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan]], Khan Malik ur Rahman Khan, [[Khan Mohammad Abbas Khan|Khan Muhammad Abbas Khan]], Khan Muhammad Afzal Khan, [[Khan Sahib]] Muhammad Attai Khan, Sardar Muhammad Aurangzeb Khan, Pir Muhammad Kamran, Nawabzada Muhammad Said Khan, Khan Muhammad Samin Jan, Nawab Muhammad Zaffar Khan, Lieutenant M. Muhammad Zaman Khan, Khan Nasrullah Khan, M. Pir Baksh Khan, Khan Zarin Khan, Mian Ziauddin, [[Rai Bahadur]] [[Mehr Chand Khanna|Meherchand Khanna]], Lala Bhanjuram Gandhi, [[Rai Bahadur]] Lala Chimanlal Setalvad, Dr. C. C. Ghosh, Lala Hukumchand, [[Rai Bahadur]] Lala Ishwardas Sahni, Lala Jamuna Das, [[Rai Bahadur]] Lala Ruchiram Khattar, [[Rai Sahib]] Lala Kanwar Bhan Bagai, Sardar Ajit Singh, Sardar Jagat Singh Narag, [[Rai Sahib]] Parmanand
|-
|[[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Orissa]]<ref name=":2" />
|Rajakrushna Basu, Bichitrananda Das, Atalabihari Acharya, Kanai Samal, [[Nabakrushna Choudhuri|Nabakrushna Choudhury]], [[Nityanand Kanungo|Nityananda Kanungo]], Jadumani Mangaraj, Gobindaprasad Singh, [[Lokenath Mishra]], Birakishore Behara, Dwarkanath Das, Raja Birabara Narayanchandra Dhiranarendra of Gadamadhupur (in [[Jajpur district]]), Sadhucharan Das, Girijabhushan Dutta, Mohan Das, Jagabandhu Sinha, Biswanath Behara, Jagannath Mishra, [[Prananath Patnaik]], [[Godabarish Misra|Godabarish Mishra]], [[Mukunda Prasad Das (politician)|Mukundaprasad Das]], Nandakishore Das, Charuchandra Ray, [[Chakradhar Behera|Chakradhar Behara]], Nidhi Das, Jagannath Das, Nrupalal Singh, [[Bodhram Dubey]], Prahaladarai Lath, Fakira Behara, Bibhar Bishi, Lal Artatran Singh Deo of [[Khariar]], [[Bishwanath Das]], Raja Bahadur Ramachandra Mardaraja Deo of [[Khallikote]], Mandhata Gorachand Patnaik, Gobindo Pradhan, Punya Naik, [[Dibakar Patnaik]], Ramachandra Deb, Vyasaraju Kashivishvanadham Raju, Gobindachandra Thatraj Bahadur, Captain Maharaja [[Krushna Chandra Gajapati|Krushnachandra Gajapati Narayana Deo]] of [[Paralakhemundi Estate|Paralakhemudi]], [[Sadashiva Tripathy]], Radhamohan Sahu, Radhakrishna Biswas Roy, Premananda Mohanty, Ranga Lal, [[Braja Sundar Das|Brajasundar Das]], Raja Krushnachandra Mansingh Harichandan Mardaraja Brahmabara Rai of [[Nilgiri State|Nilagiri]], Pyarishankar Ray, Haripani Jena, Balabhadranarayana Samanta, Radhamohan Panda, [[Khan Bahadur]] Saiyid Ahmad Baksh, Saiyid Fazle Haque, Abdus Sobhan Khan, Latifur Rahman, [[Sarala Devi|Sarala Debi]], A. Lakshmi Bai, Rev. E. M. Evans
|-
|[[Punjab Provincial Assembly (British India)|Punjab]]<ref name=":1" />
|Mian Abdul Aziz, Sufi Abdul Hamid Khan, Mian [[Abdul Haye]], Mian Abdul Rab, [[Chaudhry Abdul Rahim|Chaudhury Abdul Rahim]], Abdul Rahim Chaudhuri, Syed Afzal Ali Hasnik, Ahmad Baksh Khan, Chaudhury Ahmad Yar Khan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Mian [[Ahmad Yar Khan Daultana|Ahmad Yar Khan Daulatana]], Pir Akbar Ali, [[Chaudhry Ali Akbar Khan|Chaudhury Ali Akbar]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Nawab Malik Allah Baksh Khan, [[Syed Amjad Ali|Syed Amjad Ali Shah]], Captain Ashiq Hussain, Mian Badr Mohiuddin, [[Malik Barkat Ali]], Rai Faiz Muhammad Khan, Sheikh Faiz Muhammad, Chaudhury Fakir Hussain Khan, [[Subedar-major|Subedar Major]] Farman Ali Khan, Raja Fateh Khan, Fateh Muhammad Mian, Fateh Sher Khan Malik, [[Khan Bahadur]] Nawab Chaudhury Fazal Ali Khan, [[Khan Sahib]] Fazal Din, Mian Fazal Karim Baksh, [[Ghazanfar Ali Khan|Ghazanfar Ali Khan Raja]], Khwaja Ghulam Hussain, M. Ghulam Mohiuddin, Khwaja Ghulam Murtaza, [[Khan Sahib]] Ghulam Qadar Khan, Chaudhury Ghulam Rasul, Khwaja Ghulam Samad, Malik Habibullah Khan, Khan Haibat Khan Daha, Chaudhury Jahangir Khan, [[Sheikh Karamat Ali]], [[K. L. Gauba|Khalid Latif Gauba]], [[Khizar Hayat Tiwana|Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana]], Mir Maqbul Mahmud, [[Mazhar Ali Azhar|M. Mazhar Ali Azhar]], Pir Mohiuddin Lal Badshah, Syed Mubarak Ali Shah, [[Chaudhry Abdul Rehman Khan|Chaudhury Muhammad Abdul Rahman Khan]], Muhammad Akram Khan, Dr. Muhammad Alam, Chaudhury Muhammad Ashraf, Nawabzada Muhammad Faiyaz Ali Khan, Muhammad Hassan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Sardar Muhammad Hassan Khan Gurchani, [[Khan Bahadur]] Makhdum Syed Muhammad Hassan, Nawab Sir Malik Muhammad Hayat Khan Noon (father of [[Feroz Khan Noon]]), Sardar Muhammad Hussain, Chaudhury Muhammad Hussain, [[Mian Iftikharuddin|Mian Muhammad Iftikaruddin]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Nawab Sir Muhammad Jamal Khan Leghari, Major Sardar Muhammad Nawab Khan, Makhdumzada Haji Syed Muhammad Raza Shah Gilani, [[Khan Sahib]] Nawab Muhammad Saadat Ali Khan, Chaudhury Muhammad Sarfraz Khan, [[Raja Muhammed Sarfraz Khan|Raja Muhammad Sarfraz Khan]], [[Khan Sahib]] Muhammad Shafi Ali Khan, Makhdumzada Haji Syed Muhammad Wilayat Hussain Gilani, [[Yasin Khan|Choudhury Muhammad Yasin Khan]], M. Muhammad Yusuf Khan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Mian Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani, [[Muzaffar Ali Khan Qizilbash|Sardar Muzaffar Ali Khan]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Captain Malik Muzaffar Khan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Nawab Muzaffar Khan, Chaudhury Nasiruddin, Pir Nasiruddin Shah, Rana Nasrullah Khan, Syed Nawazish Ali Shah, [[Khan Sahib]] Mian Nur Ahmad Khan, Mian Nurullah, [[Khan Sahib]] Chaudhury Pir Muhammad, [[Khan Sahib]] Chaudhury Riaqat Ali, Chaudhury Sahib Daud Khan, Dr. [[Saifuddin Kitchlew]], Chaudhury Sir [[Shahab-ud-Din Virk|Shahabuddin Virk]], Rai Shahadat Khan, Nawab Khan [[Shahnawaz Khan Mamdot|Shahnawaz Khan]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Major Sardar Sir [[Sikandar Hayat Khan]], Mian Sultan Mahmud Hatiana, Khan Talib Hussain Khan, Chaudhury Umar Hayat Khan, Sardar Wali Muhammad Syed Hiraj, Chaudhury Anant Ram, [[Rai Sahib]] Lala Atma Ram, [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] Captain Rao Balbir Singh, Lala Bhagat Ram Choda, Pandit Bhagat Ram Sharma, Rai Bhagwant Singh, Lala [[Bhim Sen Sachar|Bhimsen Sachar]], [[Rai Bahadur]] Binda Saran, [[Diwan Chaman Lall|Diwan Chaman Lal]], [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] Chaudhury [[Chhotu Ram]], Lala [[Deshbandhu Gupta]], Lieutenant Dina Nath, Lala Duni Chand, Chaudhury Fakir Chand, Mahant Girdhari Das, Dr. Sir Gokul Chand Narang, [[Rai Sahib]] Lala Gopal Das, Sardar Gopal Singh, Dr. [[Gopi Chand Bhargava|Gopichand Bhargava]], Bhagat Hans Raj, [[Rai (title)|Rai]] Hari Chand, Lala Harnam Das, [[Rai Sahib]] Chaudhury Hey Ram, Jugal Kishore, Chaudhury Kartar Singh, [[Seth Kishan Dass|Seth Kishan Das]], Krishna Gopal Dutt, [[Manohar Lal (economist)|Manohar Lal]], [[Rai Bahadur]] Mukandlal Puri, Mula Singh, Pandit Munilal Kalia, [[Dewan Bahadur|Diwan Bahadur]] Raja Narendra Nath, Chaudhury Rai, Chaudhury Prem Singh, Seth Ram Narain Arora, Chaudhury Ram Sarup, Chaudhury Ranpat, Thakur Ripudaman Singh, Dr. Santram Seth, Chaudhury Sumar Singh, [[Rai Bahadur]] Lala Shyam Lal, Lala Shiv Dayal, Shriram Sharma, Lala Sitaram, Lala Sudarshan, Chaudhury Surajmal, Chaudhury Tikaram, Sardar Ajit Singh, Sardar [[Baldev Singh]], Sardar Balwant Singh, [[Rai Bahadur]] Sardar Basakha Singh, Sardar Charan Singh, Sardar Dasaundha Singh, Sardar Sahib Sardar Gurbachan Singh, Sardar Hari Singh, Sardar Harjap Singh Bains, Lieutenant Harnam Singh Sodhi, Sardar Indar Singh, Sardar Jagjit Singh Bedi, Jagjit Singh Tikka, Sardar Joginder Singh Man, Sardar Joginder Singh, Master Kabul Singh, Sardar Kapoor Singh, Sardar Kartar Singh, Sardar Lal Singh Kamla, Sardar Narottam Singh, Lieutenant Sardar Naunihal Singh Mann, Sardar [[Partap Singh Kairon]], Mahant Prem Singh, Sardar Pritam Singh Siddhu, Sardar Rur Singh, Sardar Sampuran Singh, Sardar Sahib Sardar Santokh Singh, Sardar [[Sohan Singh Josh]], [[Sardar Bahadur]] Dr Sardar Sir [[Sundar Singh Majithia]], Sardar [[Tara Singh (activist)|Tara Singh]], Sardar Sahib Sardar [[Ujjal Singh]], Sardar Uttam Singh Duggal, [[Jahanara Shahnawaz]], Rashida Latif, Parbati Jai Chand, Raghbir Kaur, [[Satya Prakash Singha|S. P. Singha]], Chaudhury Jalaluddin Amber, E. Few, William Roberts
|-
|[[Provincial Assembly of Sindh|Sindh]]<ref name=":2" />
|[[Abdul Majid Sindhi|Abdul Majid Lilaram]], [[Abdus Sattar Abdur Rahman|Abdus Satar Abdur Rahman]], [[Khan Sahib]] [[Allah Bakhsh Gabol|Allah Baksh Khudadad Gabol]], [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Allah Bux Soomro|Allah Baksh Muhammad Soomro]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Mir Allahdad Khan Imam, [[Khan Bahadur]] Haji Amir Ali Tharu, Arbab Togachi Mir Muhammad, [[Mir Bandeh Ali Khan Talpur]], [[Ghulam Ali Talpur|Mir Ghulam Ali Khan Talpur]], Mir Ghulam Allah Khan, Sir [[Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah]], Makhdum Ghulam Hyder Makhdum Zahiruddin, Pir Ghulam Hyder Shah Sahibdino Shah, Ghulam Muhammad Abdullah Khan Isran, [[G. M. Syed|Syed Ghulam Murtaza Shah Muhammad Shah]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Syed Ghulam Nabi Shah Mauj Ali Shah, [[Pir Ilahi Bux|Pir Illahi Baksh Nawaz Ali]], [[Khan Sahib]] Jaffar Khan Gul Muhammad Khan Burdi, Jam Jan Muhammad Khan Muhammad Sharif Junejo, [[Khan Bahadur]] Kaiser Khan Ghulam Muhammad Khan, Syed Khair Shah Imam Ali Shah, [[Miran Mohammad Shah|Miran Muhammad Shah Zainulabdin Shah]], Syed Muhammad Ali Shah Allahando Shah, [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Muhammad Ayub Khuhro|Muhammad Ayub Khan Shah Muhammad Khan Khuhro]], [[Muhammad Hashim Gazdar|Muhammad Hashim Faiz Muhammad Gazdar]], Mir Muhammad Khan Nawab Ghaibi Khan Chandio, Muhammad Usman Muhammad Khan Soomro, [[Khan Bahadur]] Muhammad Yusuf Khan Muhammad Khan Chandio, Syed Noor Muhammad Shah Murad Ali Shah, Rasul Baksh Khan Muhammad Baksh Khan Uner, [[Khan Sahib]] Rasul Baksh Shah Mahbub Shah, Shamsuddin Khan Abdul Kabir Khan, [[Khan Sahib]] Sohrab Khan Sahibdino Khan Sharqi, Mir Zenuddin Khan Sundar Khan Sundarani, Dewan [[Bhojsing Gurdinomal Pahalajani|Bhojsingh Gurdinomal Pahlajani]], [[Mukhi Gobindram Pritamdas]], [[Rai Sahib]] Gokaldas Mewaldas, Hassaram Sundardas Pamnani, Hemandas Rupchand Wadhwani, Hotchand Hirachand, [[Dewan Bahadur|Diwan Bahadur]] Hiranand Khemsingh, Iswardas Varandmal, Narayandas Anandji Bechar, Newandram Vishindas, Nihchaldas Chatumal Vazirani, Partabrai Khaisukhdas, Dr. Popatlal A. Bhoopatkar, Shitaldas Perumal, Ghanshyam Jethanand Shivadasani, Daulatram Mohandas, Ghanumal Tarachand, Dialmal Daulatram, Akhiji Ratansingh Sodhi, Jenubai [[G. Allana|Ghulam Ali Allana]], [[Jethi Sipahimalani|Jethibai Tulsidas Sipahimalani]], [[Jamshed Nusserwanjee Mehta|Jamshed Nauserwanji Mehta]], Rustomji Khurshedji Sidwa, Colonel H. J. Mahon, J. J. Flock, G. H. Raschen
|-
|[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly|United Provinces]]<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6" />
|[[Chandra Bhanu Gupta|Chandrabhanu Gupta]], Chaudhury Narain Das Chamar, Dr. [[Jawaharlal Rohatgi|Jawaharlal Rohtagi]], Dayal Dass Chamar, [[Seth Achal Singh]], Karan Singh Jatav, [[Sampurnanand]], [[Purushottam Das Tandon]], Hari Lal, [[Ajit Prasad Jain|Ajitprasad Jain]], Pandit Pyarelal Sharma, Acharya Jugal Kishore, [[Atmaram Govind Kher]], Prof. Ram Saran, Pandit [[Govind Ballabh Pant|Govindballabh Pant]], Acharya [[Narendra Deva]], Bindvasiniprasad Varma, Mrs Sharmada [[Mahavir Tyagi]], Thakur Phul Singh, Chaudhury Bihari Lal, Thakur Manik Singh, Chaudhury Bhim Sen, Thakur Todar Singh Tomar, Lala Jwalaprasad Jigyasu, Thakur Malkhan Singh, Prof. Krishna Chandra, Chaudhury Shivamangal Singh, Ramchandra Paliwal, Dr. [[Manik Chand Jatav-vir|Manikchand Jatav Vir]], Pandit Jaganprasad Rawat, Pandit Jivalal Dwivedi, Chaudhury Mizazilal Dhanuk, Chaudhury Bireshwar Singh, Baburam Varma, Vidyavati Rathore, Kunwar Charat Singh Shamsher Jung of [[Sahanpur]], Chaudhury Khub Singh, Daudayal Khanna, Pandit Shankardutt Sharma, Thakur Prithviraj Singh, Pandit Dwarka Prasad, Pandit Devnarain Bharaya, Thakur Sadho Singh, Thakur Rukum Singh Rathore, Lakhandas Jatav, Chaudhury Badan Singh, Thakur Bhagwan Singh, Pandit Rameshwar Dayal Vaidya, [[Uma Nehru]], Suba Balwant Singh, Chaudhury Buddhu Singh, [[Hoti Lal Agarwal|Hotilal Agarwal]], Ramswarup Gupta, Pandit Venkateshnarain Tiwari, Dr. Murari Lal, [[Charan Singh]], Pandit Shivadayal Upadhyay, Dr. [[Kailash Nath Katju|Kailashnath Katju]], [[Ranjit Sitaram Pandit]], [[Lal Bahadur Shastri|Lalbahadur Shastri]], Pandit [[Raghunath Vinayak Dhulekar]], Pandit Bhagwatnarain Bhargava, Pandit Mannilal Pandey, Chaudhuri Lotan Ram, Diwan Shatrughan Singh, Chaudhury Keshavchandra Singh, Thakur Harprasad Singh, Pandit Yajnanarain Upadhyay, Pandit Kamlapati Tiwari, [[Vizianagaram Estate|Maharajakunwar]] [[Maharajkumar of Vizianagram|Vijayananda Gajapatiraj]], Vishwanath Prasad, Raja Shardamaheshprasad Singh Shah of Barhar (in [[Sonbhadra district]]), Thakur Birbal Singh, Pandit [[Keshav Dev Malviya|Keshavdev Malaviya]], Parasram Rai, Pandit Indradev Tripathi, Thakur Radhamohan Singh, Thakur Surajnarain Singh, Pandit Mohanlal Gautam, Thakur Gurcharan Singh, Dr. Biswanath Mukherjee, Prayagdhwaj Singh, Shibhanlal Saksena, Puranmaal Chamar, Pandit Ramdhari Pandey, Kashiprasad Rai, Pandit Ramkumar Shastri, Pandit Sitaram Shukla, Harnath Prasad Chamar, Pandit Ramcharittar Pandey, Sitaram Asthana, Gajadhar Prasad Chamar, Pandit Radhakant Malaviya, Pandit Algurai Shastri, Kunwar Anand Singh of [[Kashipur, Uttarakhand|Kashipur]], Pandit [[Hargovind Pant]], Munshi [[Ram Prasad Tamta|Ramprasad Tamta]], Thakur Jagmohan Singh Negi, Pandit Anasuyaprasad Bahuguna, Gopinath Srivastava, Pandit Vishambhardayal Tripathi, Pandit Jatashankar Shukla, Lal Surendrabahadur Singh of Simri (in [[Unnao district]]), Suniti Devi Mitra, Bhawani Pasi, Pandit Lakshmishankar Bajpai, Chhedalal Gupta, Pandit Shanti Swarup, [[Rai Sahib]] Thakur Bhabhuti Singh, Pandit Shivaram Dwivedi, Pragi Lal, Jagannath Prasad Agarwal, Thakur Laltabaksh Singh, Pandit Bansidhar Mishra, Kunwar Khuswaqt Rai of [[Lakhimpur, Uttar Pradesh|Lakhimpur]], Maharani Jagadamba Devi of [[Ayodhya]], Pandit Krishnanath Kaul, Paltu Ram, Thakur Ramnaresh Singh, Kunwar Jung Bahadur Singh of [[Amethi Estate|Amethi]], Sundarlal Gupta, Thakur Hukum Singh, Pandit Bhagwandin Mishra, Lalbihari Tandon, Munshi Iswar Saran, Kunwar Raghuvendrapratap Singh of [[Mankapur]], Pandit Harishchandra Bajpai, Pandit [[Govind Malaviya]], Krishnanandnath Khare, Rajmata Thakurain Parvati Kunwari of Ramnagar Dhamari (in [[Barabanki district]]), Chetram Pasi, Raja Bishweshwardayal Seth of Kotra (in [[Sitapur district]]), Raja Jagannathbaksh Singh of [[Rahwan, Raebareli|Rahwan]], [[Rai Bahadur]] Lala Prayag Narain, Raja Durganarain Singh of Tirwa (in [[Kannauj district]]), Rai Govindchandra Agarwal, Sir [[Jwala Prasad Srivastava|Jwalaprasad Srivastava]], Lala [[Padampat Singhania]], Binoykumar Mukherjee, [[Nawab Mohammad Ismail Khan|Nawab Muhammad Ismail Khan]] of [[Kamboh Nawabs of Meerut|Meerut]], Sheikh Ghalib Rasul, [[Khan Bahadur]] Hafiz Muhammad Ghazanfarullah Khan, Maulvi Aziz Ahmad Khan, Maulvi Karim-ur-Raza Khan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Maulvi Akhtar Ali, [[Khan Bahadur]] Nawab [[Abdul Samad Khan]] of [[Talib Nagar|Talibnagar]], Dr. Abdus Samad, Zahur Ahmad, Muhammad Ikram Khan, Maulvi Rizwanullah, [[Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman|Chaudhuri Khaliquzzaman]], Muhammad Wasim, Maulvi Qazi Abdul Wali Khan, Maulvi Munfait Ali, [[Khan Bahadur]] Sheikh Muhammad Ziaul Haq, Sahibzada Syed Hasan Ali Khan, [[Najabat Khan|Nawabzada]] Muhammad [[Liaquat Ali Khan|Liaqat Ali Khan]] of [[Kunjpura]], Tahir Hussain, Nawab Muhammad Jamshed Ali Khan of [[Baghpat]], Muhammad Shaukat Ali Khan, Nawab Sir [[Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari|Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan]] of [[Chhatari]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Haji Maulvi Muhammad Obaidur Rehman Khan Sherwar, [[Khan Bahadur]] Sheikh Badruddin, Haji Maulvi Muhammad Jan Khan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Sheikh Khaliluddin Ahmad, [[Khan Bahadur]] Muhammad Raza Khan, Chaudhuri Islamullah Khan, [[Hafiz Mohamad Ibrahim|Hafiz Muhammad Ibrahim]], Akhtar Hasan Khan, Chaudhuri Zafar Hasan Khan, Maulvi Muhammad Ismail, Zainul Abidin, [[Khan Bahadur]] Maulvi Fasiuddin, [[Khan Bahadur]] Maulvi Muhammad Fazlur Rahman Khan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Sheikh Imitiaz Ahmad, [[Khan Bahadur]] Muhammad Sultan Alam Khan, Nafisul Hasan, Mahmud Hussain Khan, Nawab Sir Muhammad Yusuf of [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]], Rafiuddin Ahmad, [[Khan Sahib]] Muhammad Hasan, Syed Muhammad Athar, Munshi Muhammad Suleiman Ansari, Muhammad Faruq, [[Zahirul Hasnain Lari]], Qazi Muhammad Adil Abbasi, Abdul Hakim, Muhammad Ishaq Khan, Maulvi Iqbal Ahmad Khan, Sheikh Zahiruddin Faruqi, Raja Syed Ahmad Ali Khan Alavi of [[Salempur, Uttar Pradesh|Salempur]], [[Chaudhari Hyder Husein|Chaudhuri Haider Hussain]], Mubashir Hussain Kidwai, Syed Alfaz Rasul, Raja Syed Sajid Hussain Ali of Kotwara (in [[Lakhimpur Kheri district]]), Raja Syed Muhammad Mehdi of [[Pirpur, Mainpuri|Pirpur]], Mirza Mahmud Beg, Ghulam Hassan Butt, Raja Syed Muhammad Sadat Ali Khan of [[Nanpara]], Thakur Muhammad Asghar Ali of Tipraha (in [[Bahraich district]])/[[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai|Rafi Ahmad Kidwai]],{{Efn|The former died soon after declaration of election results, causing the latter to be elected in his place in bypolls held on March 1937}} Raja Muhammad Ahmad Ali Khan of [[Hasanpur]], [[Khan Bahadur]] Sheikh Sayiduddin Ahmad, [[Jahangirabad Raj|Maharaja]] Sir Muhammad Ejaz Rasul Khan of [[Jahangirabad]], Syed Muhammad Habibullah, [[Syed Husain Zaheer|Syed Hussain Zahir]], Kr. Sir Maharaj Singh, S. C. Chatterjee, Satyavati Devi, Prakashvati Sood, [[Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit|Vijayalakshmi Pandit]], [[Sathasi Raj|Kunwarani]] Lakshmi Devi of Birwa (in [[Deoria district]]), Begum Inam Fatima Habibullah, Begum Kulsam Shahid Hussain, H. G. Walford, Desmond Young, Edward Matheson Souter, Captain S. R. Pocock
|}
'''Legislative councils results'''<ref name=":0" />
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:centre
|-
!Province
!Congress
!Muslim League
!Other parties
!Independents
!Europeans
!Total
|-
|align=left|[[Assam Province|Assam]]|| 0|| 0||6 ([[Muhammed Saadulah|Assam Valley Muslim Party]])||10 (Hindus)
|2||18
|-
|align=left|[[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]]|| 9 || 14 ||8 ([[Krishak Praja Party]])
2 ([[Hindu Mahasabha]])

1 ([[Congress Nationalist Party]])
|12 (Hindus)
5 (Muslims)
|6||57
|-
|align=left|[[Bihar Province|Bihar]]||8|| 0||3 (Muslim United Party)
3 ([[Muslim Independent Party]])
|11 (Hindus)
2 (Muslims)
|1||28
|-
|align=left|[[1937 Bombay Presidency election|Bombay]]||13||2||2 ([[Democratic Swarajya Party]])
1 ([[Indian Liberal Party|Liberal Party]])
| 4 (Hindus)
3 (Muslims)
|1||26
|-
|align=left|[[1937 Madras Presidency Legislative Assembly election|Madras]]|| 26 || 3 || 5 ([[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]])
1 (People's Party)
| 6 (Hindus)
2 (Muslims)

2 (Christians)
|1||46
|-
|align=left|[[United Provinces (1937–1950)|United Provinces]]|| 8 || 0|| 4 ([[National Agriculturist Party|National Agriculturists]])
1 ([[Indian Liberal Party|Liberal Party]])
| 22 (Hindus)
16 (Muslims)
| 1 ||52
|-
|align=left|'''Total'''|| '''64''' || '''19''' || 37 (including '''22 Muslims''') || 95 (including '''28 Muslims)'''|| 12 ||'''227'''
|}

=== [[Member of the Legislative Council (India)|MLCs]] elected ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Province
!Members elected directly
!Members elected from the Assembly
!Members nominated by Governor
|-
|[[Assam Legislative Council|Assam]]<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Das |first=Bilash Chandra |date=1986-12-31 |title=The second chamber legislative council in Assam 1937 1947 |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/67976 |journal=University |hdl=10603/67976 |language=English}}</ref>
|Apurbakumar Ghosh, Satyendramohan Lahiri, Gajananda Agarwalla, Rameswar Saharia, Hemchandra Dutta, Saratchandra Bhattacharya, Sureshchandra Das, Monomohan Choudhury, [[Rai Sahib]] Balbaksh Agarwalla Hanchoria, Abdul Hye, Tafazzul Hussain Hazarika, Golam Mustafa Choudhury, Abdur Rahim Choudhury, Mohammad Asaduddin Choudhury, H. P. Gray, W. E. D. Cooper
|NA
|Herambaprasad Barua, Sonadhar Das Senapati, Mrs Zubida Ataur Rahman
|-
|[[Bengal Legislative Council|Bengal]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Not Available |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.228079 |title=Bengal Legislative Council Debates (1937) Vol. 3 |date=1937}}</ref>
|[[Rai Bahadur]] Keshabchandra Banerjee, [[Rai Bahadur]] Manmathanath Basu, Srishchandra Chakraborty, Lalitchandra Das, Kanailal Goswami, [[Rai Bahadur]] Brajendramohan Maitra, [[Rai Bahadur]] Satishchandra Mukherjee, Ranajit Pal Choudhury, Indubhushan Sarkar, [[Rai Sahib]] Jatindramohan Sen, Nur Ahmed, [[Naziruddin Ahmad|Naziruddin Ahmed]], Muazzem Ali Choudhury, [[Khan Sahib]] [[Abdul Hamid Chowdhury|Abdul Hamid Choudhury]], Khorshed Alam Choudhury, [[Razzaqul Haider Chowdhury|Razzaqul Haider Choudhury]], Humayun Reza Choudhury, Sheikh Fazal Elahi, Khwaja Muhammad Ismail, Syed Mohammad Ghaziul Huq, [[Khan Bahadur]] Mohammad Ibrahim, [[Khan Bahadur]] Sheikh Mohammad Jan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Mohammad Abdul Karim, [[Khan Bahadur]] Mohammad Asaf Khan, [[Khan Bahadur]] Ataur Rahman, Mukhlesur Rahman, [[Khan Bahadur]] Kazi Abdur Rashid, W. B. G. Laidaw, J. A. McKerrow, C. K. Nicholl
|Bankimchandra Dutta, [[Narendra Chandra Dutta|Narendrachandra Dutta]], [[Kamini Kumar Dutta|Kaminikumar Dutta]], [[Satyendra Chandra Mitra|Satyendrachandra Mitra]], Nareshnath Mukherjee, Dr. [[Radha Kumud Mukherjee|Radhakumud Mukherjee]], [[Hanuman Prasad Poddar|Hanumanprasad Poddar]], [[Nagendra Narayan Ray|Nagendranarayan Roy]], Maharaja Sir [[Manmatha Nath Roy Chowdhury|Manmathanath Roychoudhuri]] of [[Santosh, Bangladesh|Santosh]], [[Rai Bahadur]] Radhikhabhusan Roy, Sachindranarayan Sanyal, Shaileshwar Singha Roy, [[Rai Bahadur]] Surendranarayan Sinha, [[Rai Bahadur]] Bhupendranarayan Sinha of [[Nashipur]], Mesbahuddin Ahmed, Kader Baksh, [[Hamidul Huq Choudhury]], Nawabzada Kamruddin Haider, [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Syed Muazzemuddin Hossain|Syed Muazzamuddin Hossain]], Mohammad Hossain, [[Humayun Kabir (Bengal politician)|Humayun Kabir]], [[Mohammad Akram Khan|Maulana Mohammad Akram Khan]], [[Khan Sahib]] Subid Ali Mollah, [[Khan Bahadur]] M. Shamsuzzoha, T. Lamb, E. C. Ormond, D. H. Wilmer
|Dr. Arabinda Barua, Krishnachandra Roychoudhuri, Latafat Hossain, D. J. Cohen, Begum Hamida Momin, Mrs K. D. Rosario
|-
|[[Bihar Legislative Council|Bihar]]<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ambastha |first=G.S.P. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.119227 |title=Congress Government in Bihar |publisher=Classical Publishing Company |edition=1st |location=New Delhi |publication-date=1985 |pages=299–300}}</ref>
|Kumar Rajivranjan Prasad Singh of [[Surajpura Raj|Surajpura]], Bishunlal Singh, Raja Bahadur Hariharprasad Narayan Singh of Amawan (in [[Nalanda district]]) [[Order of the British Empire|O.B.E]]., Kumar Ganganand Singh of Srinagar (in [[Purnia district]]), [[Rai Bahadur]] Deonandan Prasad Singh, Kumar Ramanand Singh of [[Banaili]], Bishwanath Prasad Narayan Singh of [[Chainpur, Gumla|Chainpur]], [[Rai Sahib]] Nalinikumar Sen, Baldeo Sahay, [[Khan Bahadur]] Syed Muhammad Ismail, Syed Naqi Imam, Syed Mubarak Ali, Jamilur Rahman, Alan Campbell Combe
|Rai Brijraj Krishna, Bansi Lal, Puneydeo Sharma, Kamaleshwari Mandal, Gajindranarayan Singh, Balram Rai, Nageshwar Prasad Singh, Maheshwar Prasad Narayan Singh of Parsagarh (in [[Saran district]]), Tribeni Prasad Singh, [[Rai Bahadur]] Satishchandra Sinha, Gurusahay Lal, [[Khan Bahadur]] Syed Shah Wajid Hussain, Syed Muhammad Hafiz, Abdul Ahad Muhammad Noor
|Brajnandan Prasad, Samuel Purti, Mrs Malcolm Sinha
|-
|[[Bombay Legislative Council|Bombay]]<ref name=":2" />
|Atmaram Mahadeo Atawane, Madhavrao Gopalrao Bhonsle, Narayan Damodar Deodhekar, Dadubhai Purshottamdas Desai, Narsinghrao Shriniwasrao Desai, Sardar [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] Chandrappa Baswantrao Desai, Ratilal Mulji Gandhi, Subray Ramchandra Haldipur, Mahadeo Rajaji Virkar, Ganesh Sakharam Mahajani, Premraj Shaligram Marwari, Chinubhai Lallubhai Mehta, [[Hansa Jivraj Mehta]], [[Mangal Das Pakvasa|Mangaldas Mancharam Pakvasa]], Bheemji Badaji Poddar, Ramchandra Ganesh Pradhan, Shantilal Harjivan Shah, Ramchandra Ganesh Soman, Dr. K. A. Hameed, Abdul Sattar Khan Amir Khan Inamdar, [[Khan Sahib]] Muhammad Ibrahim Makhan, Muhammad Amin Wazir Muhammad Tambe, [[Ebrahim baronets|Baronet]] [[Currimbhoy Ebrahim|Ebrahim Currimbhoy]], Prof. Sohrab R. Davar, Behram Naurosji Karanjia, Frederick Stones
|NA
|S. C. Joshi, Purshottamrai G. Solanki, Major Sardar Bhimrao Nagojirao Patankar, Terrance Martin D'Souza Guido
|-
|[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Council|Madras]]<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=1937-01-01 |title=Proceedings of the Madras legislative council: Proceedings of the Madras legislative council |url=https://jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.29894884 |language=en |volume=001-002 |jstor=saoa.crl.29894884}}</ref>
|[[Rai Sahib|Rao Sahib]] A. S. Alaganan Chettiyar, B. Bheema Rao, [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] K. Daivasigamani Mudaliar, V. Ganga Raju, M. D. Kumaraswami Mudaliar, K. Madhava Menon, K. P. Mallikarjunudu, [[Manjayya Heggade|D. Manjaya Hegde]], M. Narayana Menon, M. Narayana Rao, B. Narayanaswami Naidu, P. Peddi Raju, C. Perumalaswami Reddiyar, [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] M. Ramakrishna Reddy, [[T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar|T. A. Ramalingam Chettiyar]], S. A. Ramanathan Chettiyar, [[U. Rama Rao]], A. Rangaswami Aiyangar, N. R. Samiappa Mudaliar, N. Shankara Reddy, S. K. Shathakopa Mudaliar, K. S. Shivasubrahmanya Aiyer, K. V. Srinivasa Aiyanger, R. Srinivasa Aiyanger, T. C. Srinivasa Aiyanger, D. Sriramamurti, N. Subba Raju, L. Subbarami Reddy, L. Subba Rao, [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] V. Vasanta Rao, P. Veerabhadraswami, N. Venkatachalamaji, V. Venkata Jogayya Pantulu, V. Venkatapunnayya, [[K. Venkataswami Naidu]], Munshi Abdul Wahab, Syed Abdul Wahab Bukhari, S. K. Ahmed Miran, [[Khan Bahadur]] Maulvi Gulam Jilani Qureshi, [[Khan Bahadur]] Hamid Sultan Marakkayar, C. P. Mammu Keyi, [[Khan Bahadur]] T. M. Moidu, S. J. Gonsalves, [[Dewan Bahadur|Diwan Bahadur]] [[S. E. Runganadhan]], Jerome A. Saldanha, Sir Frank Birley
|NA
|Dr. [[T. S. S. Rajan]], C. Ramalinga Reddy, [[Rai Bahadur|Rao Bahadur]] M. Raman, [[Dewan Bahadur|Diwan Bahadur]] R. Srinivasan, [[V. S. Srinivasa Sastri|V. S. Srinivasa Shastri]], [[Rai Bahadur]] [[Kurma Venkata Reddi Naidu|Sir Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu]], [[Khan Bahadur]] [[Mohammad Usman of Madras|Sir Muhammad Usman]], Dr. [[P. J. Thomas, Parakunnel|P. J. Thomas]], Mrs H. S. Hensman
|-
|[[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council|United Provinces]]<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last1=Reeves |first1=P. D. |url=https://ia902900.us.archive.org/16/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.118516/2015.118516.A-Handbook-To-Elections-In-Uttar-Pradesh-1920-1951_text.pdf |title=A Handbook of Elections in Uttar Pradesh 1920-1951 |last2=B. D. |first2=Graham |last3=J. M. |first3=Goodman |publisher=Manohar Book Service |year=1975 |location=New Delhi}}</ref>
|Baij Nath, [[Rai (title)|Rai]] [[Amar Nath Agarwal|Amarnath Agarwal]], [[Rai Bahadur]] Brijendra Swarup, Mohan Krishna Varma, Chandra Bhal, [[Rai Sahib]] Lala Mathura Das, Lala Janardan Swarup, Lala Babulal Gohil, Lakshmi Narain, Harsahay Gupta, Lala Radheyraman Lal, Thakur Gopal Singh, Lala Ratanlal Jain, [[Rai Bahadur]] Chaudhury Badansingh Tewari, [[Rai Sahib]] Lala Rupchandra Jain, Kunwar Rameshwar Pratap Singh of [[Shankargarh|Kasauta]], Badriprasad Kakkar, Pandit Benimadho Tewari, [[Rai Bahadur]] Thakur Lakshmiraj Singh of Gabhana (in [[Aligarh district]]), Ramchandra Gupta, [[Rai Bahadur]] Lala Raghuraj Singh, [[Rai Sahib]] Lala Mohanlal Shah, [[Rai Bahadur]] Seth Kedarnath Khaitan, Raja Astabhujaprasad Srivastava of Changera (in [[Siddharthnagar district]]), Madhoprasad Khanna, Dr. Ram Ugrah Singh, Pandit Ramakant Malaviya (son of [[Madan Mohan Malaviya|Madanmohan Malaviya]]), [[Rai Bahadur]] Thakur Hanuman Singh, Raja Sri Ram, Kunwar Diwakarprasad Singh of Kasmanda (in Sitapur district), [[Rai Bahadur]] Mohan Lal, Rup Narain, Bhaiya Durgaprasad Singh, [[Bajrang Bahadur Singh|Rai Bajrang Bahadur Singh]] of [[Bhadri (estate)|Bhadri]], Islam Ahmad Khan, Nawab Muhammad Faiyaz Khan, Dr. Mahmudullah Jung, [[Khan Bahadur]] Syed Ahmad Hussain Rizvi, [[Khan Bahadur]] Muhammad Zaki, Syed Agha Hyder, [[Khan Bahadur]] Syed Akbar Ali Khan, Muhammad Abid Khan Sherwani, Hafiz Ahmad Hussain, Waheed Ahmad, Muhammad Faruq, [[Khan Bahadur]] Haji Maulvi Muhammad Nisarullah, Syed Kalbe Abbas, [[Begum Aizaz Rasul]], Chaudhury Akhtar Hussain, Ishar Ahmad Faruqi, Sir Tracey Gavin Jones
|NA
|Dr. Sir Sitaram, [[Rai Bahadur]] N. K. Mukherjee, Ram Sahay, Pandit [[Harihar Nath Shastri|Hariharnath Shastri]], [[Risaldar-major|Risaldar Major]] Captain Amir Muhammad Khan, C. St. L. Teyen, Mrs H. S. Gupta, Lady [[Syed Wazir Hasan|Wazir Hasan]]
|}

== Government formation ==
The Congress initially refused to form governments in the provinces it had won because the Government of India Act empowered the Governor to over-rule Cabinet decisions & wield control over finances. However, [[S. Satyamurti]] launched a campaign within the Congress party, convincing Mahatma Gandhi to direct Congress leaders in accepting premiership positions. On 22 June, Governor-General [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]] issued a statement declaring the willingness of the British administration to work alongside the Congress within the ambit of the GoI Act. On 1 July, the [[Congress Working Committee]] formally took the decision to form governments in the provinces.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Satyamurti |first=S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NY_XjIE6sVUC&pg=PA301 |title=The Satyamurti Letters: The Indian Freedom Struggle Through the Eyes of a Parliamentarian |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1488-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=Visalakshi |title=From Movement to Government: The Congress in the United Provinces, 1937-42 |url=https://archive.org/details/frommovementtogovernmentcongressintheunitedprovinces193742visalakshimenon_936_H/page/75/mode/1up |year=2003 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-7619-9620-0 |page=75}}</ref>

===Madras Presidency===
{{Main|1937 Madras Presidency legislative assembly election|Madras Presidency legislative council election, 1937}}
In [[Madras Presidency|Madras]], the Congress formed the government by winning 159 seats, eclipsing the incumbent [[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]] (21 seats).<ref name=dsal>{{cite book |author1=Joseph E. Schwartzberg |author-link=Joseph E. Schwartzberg |title=A Historical Atlas of South Asia |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=260&view=text |year=1992 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-506869-6 |page=222 |edition=2nd impression, with additional material |access-date=2012-04-05}}</ref> The Muslim League won 9 out of the 28 seats reserved for the Muslims. On the initial refusal of Congress to assume power, [[Kurma Venkata Reddi Naidu|Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu]] of the Justice Party was sworn in as [[Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu|Chief Minister of Madras State]] on 1 April by the governor [[John Erskine, Lord Erskine|John Erskine]]. Three months later, the Congress staked claim & [[C. Rajagopalachari]] was sworn in. The legislatures convened under the chairmanship of [[Bulusu Sambamurthy|B. Sambamurthy]] (assembly) & [[U. Rama Rao|Dr. U. Rama Rao]] (council).
{| class="wikitable"
|+Rajagopalachari ministry<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=H.N. Mitra |url=http://archive.org/details/HindSwaraj.iar.10973.17895 |title=Indian Annual Register, 1937. January - June. Vol. I |date=1937 |publisher=Annual Register Office}}</ref>
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[C. Rajagopalachari]]
|'''Chief Minister''', Home and Finance
|-
|[[Tanguturi Prakasam|T. Prakasham]]
|Revenue
|-
|[[T. S. S. Rajan|Dr. T. S. S. Rajan]]
|Public Health
|-
|[[P. Subbarayan|Dr. P. Subbarayan]]
|Education and Law
|-
|[[Yakub Hasan Sait|Yakub Hasan]]
|Public works
|-
|[[V. I. Munuswamy Pillai]]
|Agriculture and Rural Development
|-
|[[S. Ramanathan (politician)|S. Ramanathan]]
|Public Information
|-
|[[V. V. Giri]]
|Industries and Labour
|-
|K. Raman Menon
|Courts and Prisons
|-
|[[Bezawada Gopala Reddy|B. Gopala Reddy]]
|Local administration
|}

===Sind===
{{Main|1937 Sind legislative assembly election}}

The Sind Legislative Assembly had 60 members. The Sind United Party emerged the leader with 21 seats, and the Congress secured 5 seats.<ref name="Jones2002">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Allen Keith |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsinsindh10000jone/page/72/mode/1up |title=Politics in Sindh, 1907-1940: Muslim identity and the demand for Pakistan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-579593-6 |pages=73, 81 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Mohammad Ali Jinnah had tried to set up a League Parliamentary Board in Sindh in 1936, but he failed, though 72% of the population was Muslim.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ayesha Jalal |author-link=Ayesha Jalal |year=1994 |orig-year=First published 1985 |title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D63KMRN1SJ8C&pg=PA28 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=28 |isbn=978-0-521-45850-4}}</ref> Though 34 seats were reserved for Muslims, the Muslim League could secure none of them.<ref>{{cite book |author=Shila Sen |title=Muslim Politics in Bengal, 1937-1947 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.16505/page/89/mode/1up |year=1976 |publisher=Impex India |oclc=2799332 |page=89}}</ref> [[Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah]] of the Sindh Muslim League was sworn in as the [[Chief Minister of Sindh|Chief Minister of Sind]] with Hindu Mahasabha support on 28 April by Governor [[Lancelot Graham|Sir Lancelot Graham]]. Within a year, he was replaced by [[Allah Bux Soomro]] of the Sind United Party. The assembly convened under the chairmanship of [[Bhojsing Gurdinomal Pahalajani|Bhojsingh Pahlajani]].
{| class="wikitable"
|+Hidayatullah ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah]]
|'''Chief Minister''', Home and Finance
|-
|[[Mukhi Gobindram Pritamdas]]
|Irrigation
|-
|[[Mir Bandeh Ali Khan Talpur]]
|Revenue
|}

===United Provinces===
The UP legislature consisted of a Legislative Council of 52 elected and 6 or 8 nominated members and a Legislative Assembly of 228 elected members: some from exclusive Muslim constituencies, some from "General" constituencies, and some "Special" constituencies.<ref>{{cite journal |author=P. D. Reeves |year=1971 |title=Changing Patterns of Political Alignment in the General Elections to the United Provinces Legislative Assembly, 1937 and 1946 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=111–142 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00002973 |jstor=312028 |s2cid=145663295}}</ref> The Congress won a clear majority in the United Provinces, with 133 seats,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=Visalakshi |title=From Movement to Government: The Congress in the United Provinces, 1937-42 |url=https://archive.org/details/frommovementtogovernmentcongressintheunitedprovinces193742visalakshimenon_936_H/page/60/mode/1up |year=2003 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-7619-9620-0 |page=60}}</ref> while the Muslim League won only 27 out of the 64 seats reserved for Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |author=Abida Shakoor |title=Congress-Muslim League tussle 1937-40: a critical analysis |year=2003 |publisher=Aakar Books |page=90}}</ref>

The Congress refused to form a coalition with the League, even though the two parties had a verbal understanding to do so.<ref name="Metcalf2006p196" /> The party offered the Muslim League a role in government if it merged itself into the Congress Party. While this position had a good basis it proved to be a mistake.<ref name="The Partition of India"/> The Congress disregarded that even though they had captured the large part of UP's general seats, they had not won any of the reserved Muslim seats, of which the Muslim League had won 29.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Barbara Metcalf |author1-link=Barbara D. Metcalf |author2=Thomas Metcalf |author2-link=Thomas R. Metcalf |title=A Concise History of Modern India |url=https://apnaorg.com/books/english/concise-history-india/concise-history-india.pdf |edition=2nd |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86362-9 |pages=196–197}}</ref>

On the Congress' refusal to assume power, the [[Muhammad Ahmad Said Khan Chhatari|Nawab of Chhatari]] from the National Agriculturist Party was sworn in on 3 April by the governor [[Harry Graham Haig]]. Three months later, the Congress laid claim to government formation and [[Govind Ballabh Pant]] was sworn in as the [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh|Chief Minister of United Provinces.]] The legislatures convened under the chairmanship of [[Purushottam Das Tandon|Purushottamdas Tandon]] (assembly) & Sir Sitaram (council).
{| class="wikitable"
|+Pant ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[Govind Ballabh Pant]]
|'''Chief Minister''', Finance, Forest and Police
|-
|[[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai]]
|Revenue, Agriculture, Publicity and Jails
|-
|[[Kailash Nath Katju|Dr. Kailashnath Katju]]
|Justice, Industries and Co-operatives
|-
|[[Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit]]
|Local self-government
|-
|Pyarelal Sharma
|Education
|-
|[[Hafiz Mohamad Ibrahim|Hafiz Muhammad Ibrahim]]
|Communication
|}

===Assam===
In Assam, the Congress won 33 seats out of a total of 108 making it the single largest party,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiriyankandath |first1=James |title='Democracy' under the Raj: Elections and separate representation in British India |journal=The Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |date=March 1992 |volume=30 |issue=1 |page=57 |doi=10.1080/14662049208447624}}</ref> but initially refused to form government. So Sir [[Muhammed Saadulah]] of the Assam Valley Muslim Party was sworn in as the [[Chief Minister of Assam]] on 1 April by the governor [[Robert Reid (civil servant)|Robert Niel Raid]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ministry-making in Assam |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19370313&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=13 March 1937 |page=12 }}</ref> One year later he was replaced with [[Gopinath Bordoloi]] of the Congress. The legislatures convened under the chairmanship of [[Basanta Kumar Das (Pakistani politician)|Basanta Kumar Das]] (assembly) & Monomohan Lahiri (council).
{| class="wikitable"
|+Saadulah ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[Muhammed Saadulah]]
|Chief Minister
|-
|[[Rohini Kumar Chaudhuri]]
|
|-
|[[Abu Nasr Waheed]]
|
|-
|[[Ali Haider Khan]]
|
|-
|[[James Joy Mohan Nichols Roy|Rev. J. J. M. Nichols Roy]]
|
|}

=== Bombay Presidency ===
{{Main|1937 Bombay Presidency elections}}

In Bombay, the Congress won 86 out of the 175 seats, falling just short of gaining half the seats. However, it was able to draw on the support of some small pro-Congress groups to form a working majority. After the Congress initially refuse to take power, the governor [[Michael Knatchbull, 5th Baron Brabourne|Michael Knatchbull]] sworn in [[Dhanjishah Cooper]] of the Non-Brahmin party as the [[Chief Minister of Bombay]] on 1 April. Four months later, the Congress staked claim for government formation and [[B. G. Kher|B.G. Kher]] was sworn in. The legislatures convened under chairmanship of [[Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar]] (assembly) & [[Mangal Das Pakvasa|Mangaladas Mancharam Pakvasa]] (council).
{| class="wikitable"
|+Kher ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[B. G. Kher|Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher]]
|'''Chief Minister''', Education
|-
|[[Anna Babaji Latthe]]
|Finance
|-
|[[Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi]]
|Home and Legal Affairs
|-
|Manchershah Dhanjibhai Gilder
|Health and Excise
|-
|[[Morarji Desai]]
|Revenue, Agriculture and Rural Development
|-
|M. Y. Nuri
|Public Works
|-
|L. M. Patel
|Local self-government and miscellaneous
|}

===Punjab===
{{Main|1937 Punjab Provincial Assembly election}}

[[Sikandar Hayat Khan]] of the Unionist Party, with support of the Khalsa National Party and Hindu Election Board was sworn in as the [[Premier of the Punjab|Chief Minister of Punjab]] on 5 April by the governor Sir [[Herbert William Emerson|Herbert Emerson]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arora |first1=Subhash Chander |title=Turmoil in Punjab politics |year=1990 |publisher=Mittal Publications |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7099-251-6 |page=17}}</ref> The assembly convened under the chairmanship of [[Shahab-ud-Din Virk|Shahabuddin Virk]].
{| class="wikitable"
|+Hayat Khan ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[Sikandar Hayat Khan]]
|'''Chief Minister''', Law & Order
|-
|[[Manohar Lal (economist)|Manohar Lal]]
|Finance
|-
|[[Sundar Singh Majithia]]
|Revenue
|-
|[[Chhotu Ram]]
|Development
|-
|[[Khizar Hayat Tiwana]]
|Public Works
|-
|[[Abdul Haye]]
|Education
|}

===Bengal===
{{Main|1937 Bengal Legislative Assembly election}}

[[A. K. Fazlul Huq]] of the Krishak Praja Party formed a coalition government with the support of [[Khawaja Nazimuddin]] of the [[Bengal Provincial Muslim League|Muslim League]] & independent Dalit MLAs like [[Jogendra Nath Mandal|Jogendranath Mandal]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Ayesha Jalal |author-link=Ayesha Jalal |year=1994 |orig-year=First published 1985 |title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D63KMRN1SJ8C&pg=PA26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=26–27 |isbn=978-0-521-45850-4}}</ref> He was sworn in on 1 April as the [[Prime Minister of Bengal|Chief Minister of Bengal]] by the governor Sir [[John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley|John Anderson]]. The legislatures convened under the chairmanship of [[Azizul Haque (educator)|Azizul Huq]] (assembly) & [[Satyendra Chandra Mitra]] (council).
{| class="wikitable"
|+Huq ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[A. K. Fazlul Huq]]
|'''Chief Minister''', Education
|-
|[[Nalini Ranjan Sarkar]]
|Finance
|-
|[[Khawaja Nazimuddin]]
|Home
|-
|[[Bijoy Prasad Singh Roy|Bijoy Prasad Singh Ray]]
|Revenue
|-
|[[Khwaja Habibullah|Khawaja Habibullah]]
|Agriculture and Industry
|-
|[[Srish Chandra Nandy|Sris Chandra Nandy]]
|Communication and Public Works
|-
|[[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy|Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy]]
|Commerce and Labour
|-
|[[Kazi Musharraf Hussain|Musharraf Hossain]]
|Judicial and Legislature
|-
|[[Syed Nausher Ali]]
|Local self-government
|-
|[[Prasanna Deb Raikut]]
|Forest and Excise
|-
|[[Mukunda Behari Mullick]]
|Co-operative Credit & Rural indebtedness
|}

=== North West Frontier Province ===
In the overwhelmingly Muslim majority [[North-West Frontier Province]], Congress won 19 out of 50 seats and was able, with minor party support, to form a ministry.<ref name="dsal" /> Due to the Congress' initial refusal to form government, the governor Sir [[George Cunningham (civil servant)|George Cunningham]] sworn in [[Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum]] of the Muslim Independent Party as the [[Chief Minister of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Chief Minister]] on 1 April. Five months later, the Congress laid claims to government formation & [[Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan]], (brother of [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan|Bacha Khan]]) was sworn in. The assembly convened under the chairmanship of Malik Khuda Baksh Khan.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Jabbar Khan ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan]]
|'''Chief Minister'''
|-
|[[Qazi Ataullah Khan]]
|
|-
|[[Khan Mohammad Abbas Khan]]
|
|-
|Bhanjuram Gandhi
|
|}

=== '''Orissa province''' ===
As the Congress initially refused to assume power, other people had to be sworn in. On 1 April, governor [[Sir John Austen Hubback]], the Maharaja of [[Paralakhemundi Estate|Paralakhamudi]] [[Krushna Chandra Gajapati]] (representing paralakhimudi seat) was sworn in as [[Chief Minister of Odisha|Prime Minister of Odisha]]. In July, when the Congress laid stake to government formation, [[Bishwanath Das]] in Orissa were sworn in as [[Chief Minister of Odisha|Prime Minister of Odisha]]. Sri Das resigned on Legislative assemblies in Orissa were chaired by [[Mukunda Prasad Das (politician)|Mukunda Prasad Das]] .
{| class="wikitable"
|+Das ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[Bishwanath Das]]
|'''Prime Minister''', Home, Finance and Education
|-
|[[Nityanand Kanungo|Nityananda Kanungo]]
|Revenue, Health, Public Works and Local self-government
|-
|[[Bodhram Dubey]]
|Law and Commerce
|}
===Other provinces===
As the Congress initially refused to assume power, other people had to be sworn in. On 1 April, governor Sir [[Maurice Garnier Hallett]] sworn in [[Mohammad Yunus (Indian politician)|Muhammad Yunus]] of the Muslim Independent Party as the [[Chief Minister of Bihar]]. In Central Provinces, an interim government was formed by Dr. [[E. Raghavendra Rao]], sworn in by the governor Sir [[Hyde Gowan]].

In July, the Congress laid stake to government formation, thus [[Shri Krishna Sinha]] in Bihar was sworn in. In August, [[Narayan Bhaskar Khare]] was sworn in as Chief Minister of Central Provinces. Within a year, he was sacked from the Congress & replaced by [[Ravishankar Shukla]]. The legislatures in Bihar were convened under the chairmanship of [[Sachchidananda Sinha]] (assembly) & Rajivranjan Prasad Singh (council). Legislative assemblies in Central Provinces was Ghanshyam Singh Gupta respectively.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Sinha ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[Shri Krishna Sinha]]
|'''Chief Minister''', Education and Local self-government
|-
|[[Anugrah Narayan Sinha]]
|Land Revenue, Finance and Development
|-
|[[Syed Mahmud|Dr. Syed Mahmud]]
|Law and Order
|-
|[[Jaglal Choudhary|Jaglal Choudhury]]
|Agriculture, Labour and Unemployment
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Khare ministry<ref name=":1" />
!Name
!Department
|-
|[[Narayan Bhaskar Khare]]
|'''Chief Minister''', Home
|-
|P. B. Gole
|Revenue
|-
|D. K. Mehta
|Finance
|-
|[[Ravishankar Shukla]]
|Education
|-
|N. Y. Shareef
|Law and Justice
|-
|[[Ramrao Deshmukh]]
|Public Works
|-
|[[Dwarka Prasad Mishra]]
|Local self-government
|}

==Analysis==
The Congress received the support from all sections of the Hindu society, across provincial identities, caste lines & the rural-urban divide. Although having a significant upper-caste leadership (which was extremely acute in places like Bihar, Bombay & Madras), no caste group felt itself unrepresented within the Congress. While the Congress was able to consolidate the support of Hindus in Hindu majority provinces, it failed to do so in Sindh, Punjab & North West Frontier Province - places where Hindus were in minority, due to its position on the Communal Award. In these areas, Congress support was mostly restricted to the urban areas. The only exception was Bengal, where the Hindu support consolidated behind the Congress as the ''bhadralok'' found the Hindu Mahasabha's reactionary stance unappealing. Outside of rural Sindh, whose separation from the Hindu majority Bombay it bitterly opposed, the Hindu Mahasabha found little electoral support among Hindus elsewhere. The Hindu Mahasabha's emphasis on Brahmin supremacy alienated the non-Brahmins & Dalits. Bengal was an exception, where it won 2 rural seats reserved for Dalits in Muslim majority districts due to the 1932 pact between Dalit leader M. C. Rajah & Hindu Mahasabha leader [[B. S. Moonje]]. The conservative rural Hindu electorate in Hindu majority areas didn't found the Hindu Mahasabha's campaign of achieving a Hindu theocracy & preventing government interference in religious matters like temple entry of Dalits over Nehru's concern for agrarian distress in the backdrop of the [[Great Depression in India|Great Depression]] through promises of land reforms, adjustment of taxation rates, declaration of moratorium of debts & increased spending on rural development in his 1936 presidential address in Lucknow, appealing. Although patronized by zamindars, many of the Hindu Mahasabha supporters chose to participate as independents or other landlord parties rather than under the Mahasabha affiliation. Even Shyamaprasad Mukherjee, future leader of the Hindu Mahasabha, contested the elections as an independent, and got elected from the Calcutta University constituency, by virtue of being its [[Vice Chancellor of Calcutta University|vice-chancellor]]. However, it did have significant support from within the right-wing faction of the Congress supporting [[Hindu revivalist|Hindu revivalism]] who shared the paranoia about a possible [[state capture]] by Muslims, with Nehru writing in 1942; "many a Congressman was a communalist under his national cloak".<ref name=":0" /> Out of the 468 Muslim seats the Congress had contested just 58 of them and won only 25, 15 in North West Frontier Province, 4 in Bihar, 4 in Madras & 2 in Punjab, but the Congress refused to accept its failure in attracting Muslims & wouldn't recognise the Muslim League's claims of being the representative of Indian Muslims until [[Partition of India|Partition]] negotiations began in 1946.<ref name="Metcalf2006p196">{{cite book |author1=Barbara Metcalf |author1-link=Barbara D. Metcalf |url=https://apnaorg.com/books/english/concise-history-india/concise-history-india.pdf |title=A Concise History of Modern India |author2=Thomas Metcalf |author2-link=Thomas R. Metcalf |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-86362-9 |edition=2nd |page=196}}</ref> Similarly, it also failed to attract Sikh support, winning only 4 Sikh rural seats in Punjab, due to the Sikh opposition to the Communal Award. Nevertheless, the Congress persisted in its claim of being the sole legitimate representative of all Indians.

Within Bombay, Ambedkar's party won 10 out of 15 seats reserved for Dalits. Although winning 80 out of the 151 Dalit seats nationwide, the Congress was unable to win a majority of Dalit seats outside United Provinces, Bihar, Orissa & Madras, with a significant number of Dalit MLA's being elected as independents.<ref name=":0" />

Of the 478 seats reserved for Muslims, the League won 111, emerging as the single largest Muslim party, but it was vastly outnumbered by independents (126) & other Muslim parties (236). The League won 29 seats in the United Provinces where it had competed for 35 out of the 66 seats for Muslims.<ref name="The Muslims of British India" /> Emerging as the single largest Muslim party in Muslim minority states of Assam, United Provinces, Bombay & Madras, it won the majority of urban Muslim seats but in rural areas faced strong competition from independents and landlord parties. Its performance in Punjab, where it won just two of the seven seats it vied for, was unsuccessful. It performed better in Bengal, capturing 40 of the 120 seats for Muslims, winning all 6 urban Muslim seats, seats in areas where Muslims were in minority & where Muslim League supporting zamindars stood as candidates. A notable example was the [[Nawab of Dhaka|Nawab family of Dhaka]], whose several individuals were elected from rural Muslim seats. But the League lost a large amount of the rural Muslim support to the Krishak Praja Party & independents, who prioritised rural issues over communal ones. Hence, it could not form a government on its own in Bengal.<ref name="The Muslims of British India" /> Muslim preference was clearly represented for regional parties which were not supportive of the Congress.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book |author1=Peter Hardy |author-link=Peter Hardy (historian) |title=The Muslims of British India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDw4AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09783-3 |page=225}}</ref> The Muslim League was confronted with the fact that Hindu majority provinces would be ruled by Hindus, but Muslim League would not rule the provinces with Muslim majorities. The Congress domination over the government made the prospects of federal Muslim politicians appear dismal.<ref name="books.google.com" /> Regional parties kept the League out of power in those provinces with Muslim majorities while in the Hindu majority provinces it was unwanted by the Congress.<ref name="Kulke2004p314" /> Antagonised by this rebuff the League stepped up its efforts to attract a popular following.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Barbara Metcalf |author1-link=Barbara D. Metcalf |author2=Thomas Metcalf |author2-link=Thomas R. Metcalf |title=A Concise History of Modern India |url=https://apnaorg.com/books/english/concise-history-india/concise-history-india.pdf |edition=2nd |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86362-9 |page=197}}</ref>

Apart from the Congress, the only other parties able to elect members from more than one religious denomination were the Justice Party in Madras (5 Hindus including 2 Dalits, 8 Muslims & 4 Christians), the United Party in Orissa (5 Hindus inclusive of 1 Dalit & 1 Muslim), the Hindu-Sikh Nationalist Party in North West Frontier Province (4 Hindus & 3 Sikhs) & the Unionist Party in Punjab (13 Hindus inclusive of 4 Dalits, 73 Muslims inclusive of 1 woman & 2 Christians).<ref name=":0" />

==Aftermath==
The Congress ministries went on expanding [[civil liberties]] as promised in its 1931 Karachi manifesto. Draconian powers of the police were curbed, press censorship was lifted, surveillance over politicians by the [[Criminal Investigation Department (India)|CID]] was curtailed (although right-wing leaders like Rajagopalachari in Madras & Munshi in Bombay diverted the CID to track the activities of left-wing elements & the ever-increasing number of [[Communism in India|communists]] instead, the most famous incident being the detaining of left-wing Congress member [[Yusuf Meherally|Yusuf Meher Ali]]), political prisoners from the [[Cellular Jail]] were repatriated back, those who lost their jobs for participating in the civil disobedience movement were rehabilitated & laws were made to curb exploitation of the rural poor by moneylenders. However, due to the significant number of zamindars in the legislative bodies, the Congress governments were unable to take decisive action in amending tenancy laws. This caused resentment among the peasants, manifesting in the form of peasant agitations. Dissatisfaction with the pace of labour reforms caused massive industrial strikes in various cities. Many Dalit leaders considered the work done by the Congress governments (such as legalising temple entry & increasing scholarship) to improve conditions of the Dalits as 'token legislature'.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Edukemy |date=2023-10-04 |title=The Election of 1937 and the Formation of Congress Ministries – Modern History Notes - Blog |url=https://edukemy.com/blog/the-election-of-1937-and-the-formation-of-congress-ministries-modern-history-notes/ |access-date=2025-09-14 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The Congress's assumption of power saw a massive influx of self-serving opportunists enrolling themselves as Congress members with the aim of obtaining lucrative positions in state governments & local administrative bodies. One observer notes<ref name=":5" />

{{Blockquote|text=Congressmen were suddenly seized with a desire to capture power at all cost. So long it was a fighting machine, it was functioning on a high moral plane and followed strict moral discipline. Once they won the elections, they felt that it was time for reward for their past sacrifices....[[Khadi]], which was the symbol of truth and non-violence, now became a qualification for its wearers to secure jobs for themselves and for their friends and families.|author=B. R. Tomilson|title=|source=The Indian National Congress and the Raj, 1929-1942:The Penultimate Phase}}

This in turn led to widespread [[Corruption in India|corruption]], [[Nepotism in India|nepotism]], [[clientelism]], abuse of power & despotism within the Congress ranks. Gandhi bemoaned this transformation of the Congress & wrote in the May 1939 issue of the ''[[Harijan (magazine)|Harijan]]''<ref name=":4" />

{{Blockquote|text=I would go to the length of giving the whole Congress organisation a decent burial, rather than put up with the corruption that is rampant|author=Mahatma Gandhi}}

This time period also saw increased infighting within the Congress, between its socialist & Gandhian factions, beginning with the election of Bose as Congress president in its 1938 [[Haripura]] session. Gandhian leader Sardar Patel (who harboured personal enmity with Bose due to the dispute surrounding the last will of his brother [[Vithalbhai Patel]]), worked to undermine Bose's authority within the Congress. Bose's clash of ideas with Gandhi ultimately led to his resignation even after being re-elected Congress president in the next year's [[Tewar, Madhya Pradesh|Tripuri]] session, leading to the formation of the [[All India Forward Bloc|Forward Bloc]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rediff on the NeT: Sardar differed with Netaji over Congress policies |url=https://m.rediff.com/news/mar/25sardar.htm |access-date=2025-09-14 |publisher=Rediff.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=sabrang |date=2025-01-23 |title=Debunking "Popular Myths" through a study of Bose |url=https://sabrangindia.in/debunking-popular-myths-through-a-study-of-bose/ |access-date=2025-09-14 |website=SabrangIndia |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sengupta |first=Hindol |date=2018-09-17 |title='Stunk in my nostrils': How Gandhi and Patel clashed bitterly with Bose over Congress presidentship |url=https://scroll.in/article/894580/stunk-in-my-nostrils-how-gandhi-and-patel-clashed-bitterly-with-bose-over-congress-presidentship |access-date=2025-09-14 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref>

Although the Muslim League failed miserably in Punjab, Jinnah reached an agreement with Sikandar Hayat Khan in October 1937, called the Sikandar-Jinnah Pact, under which Muslim members of the Unionist Party were allowed to hold simultaneous membership in the Muslim League (thereby eliminating the need for a separate [[Punjab Muslim League|provincial Muslim League]] wing), in exchange for the Muslim League to represent the interests of the Unionist Party at the [[Imperial Legislative Council]]. Although initially seen as extremely humiliating & disadvantageous for the League,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sheehan |first=Jeanne |date=Fall 2020 |title=No Shades of Views, No Variation of Opinion: A Case Study of Undivided Punjab's First Premier Sikander Hyat-Khan |url=https://giss.org/jsps_vol_27/17_sheehan.pdf |journal=Journal of Sikh and Punjab Studies |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=309–336}}</ref> the Pact allowed the League to consolidate its influence among the rural Muslim population, following the government's violent clamp down on Ahrars & [[Khaksar movement|Khaksars]] over the escalating Shahidganj dispute. Communal riots between Muslims & Hindus in [[Panipat district|Panipat]] on [[Holi]] and between Muslims & [[Nihang]] Sikhs in [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]] in that year hastened religious polarisation in the state, manifested by the formation of armed Hindu militias in the cities in opposition to the Khaksars & the paramilitary groups of the political parties (like the [[Muslim National Guard]] & [[Seva Dal|Congress Seva Dal]]), most notably among them was the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muhammad |first=Shan |url=https://ia601404.us.archive.org/11/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.118136/2015.118136.Khaksar-Movement-In-India_text.pdf |title=Khaksar Movement in India |publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan |year=1973 |location=[[Meerut]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yasmeen |first=Samina |year=2018 |title=Communal Currents : The Fate of Unionist Party in the Punjab |url=https://pu.edu.pk/images/journal/studies/PDF-FILES/Article_4_2018_07_12.pdf |journal=Journal of Pakistan Vision |publisher=[[University of the Punjab]] |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=60–75}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sandhu |first1=Akhtar Hussain |last2=Garcia |first2=Maria Isabel Maldonado |year=2015 |title=Communalism in the British Punjab During 1937-1939: Focus on Religion and Language |url=https://www.academia.edu/36187957 |journal=Al-Hikmat |publisher=[[University of the Punjab]] |volume=35 |pages=1–21 |via=[[Academia.edu]]}}</ref>

In Sindh, Sir [[Abdullah Haroon]] was able to secure the mergers of the outfits led by Hidayatullah & Pir Ilahi Baksh in October 1938. He also engineered defection of 10 legislators from the Sind United Party under G. M. Syed. But Soomro survived the no-confidence motion by giving ministerial positions to the defectors. The Muslim League hastened communal polarisation caused by riots in [[Shikarpur District|Shikarpur]] in March 1937<ref>{{Cite news |date=1937-05-22 |title=MOSLEM RIOTS IN INDIAN; Curfew at Lucknow Follows Killing of Hindu at Shikarpur (Published 1937) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1937/05/22/archives/moslem-riots-in-indian-curfew-at-lucknow-follows-killing-of-hindu.html |access-date=2025-09-12 |language=en}}</ref> through its agitation over the [[Masjid Manzilgah|Manzilgarh dispute]] to discredit his government.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ali |first=Zahid |year=2021 |title=The All-India Muslim League's Battle for Pakistan in Sindh 1937–1947: Quaid's Strategies and Policies |url=https://pjhc.nihcr.edu.pk/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/3-TheAllIndiaMuslimLeaguesBattleforPakistaninSindh1937-1947QuaidsStrategiesandPolicies.pdf |journal=Pakistan Journal of History and Culture |volume=LXII |issue=2 |pages=39–58}}</ref>

By late 1937, the provincial wing of the Muslim League was created in the North West Frontier Province, bolstered due to the defection of many leaders from the landlord-based Muslim Independent Party over the Congress's anti-feudal laws. In 1938 [[bypoll]]s, it won 4 seats, 1 in [[Hazara District|Hazara]] & 3 in [[Haripur District|Haripur]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shāh |first=Sayyid Vaqār ʻAlī |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FqpHAAAAMAAJ |title=Muslim League in N.W.F.P. |date=1992 |publisher=Royal Book Company |isbn=978-969-407-135-0 |language=en}}</ref>

Hindu-Muslim relations continued to deteriorate after the elections, with the outbreak of religious violence in Madras, Central Provinces & Punjab throughout May 1937.<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=[[B. R. Ambedkar]] |url=https://franpritchett.com/00ambedkar/ambedkar_partition/307c.html#part_4 |title=Pakistan or The Partition of India |publication-date=1945 |chapter=VII.4:The riot-torn history of Hindu-Muslim relations, 1920-1940}}</ref> In his address on 17 April 1938 at [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], Jinnah accused the Congress members of collaborating with outfits like the Hindu Mahasabha & Arya Samaj in perpetuating violence against Muslims during these riots. The Muslim League sharpened its claims of Islamophobia in the Congress through the Pirpur report, Shareef report & Fazlul Haq's report titled ''Muslim Sufferings Under Congress Rule''. Apart from allegation of collaborating with rioting Hindus, other grievances made by the Muslim League were:<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Samanta |first=Sidhartha |date=2011-12-01 |title=The Final Transfer of Power in India, 1937-1947: A Closer Look |url=https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/258 |journal=Graduate Theses and Dissertations}}</ref>

# Imposition of ''Vande mataram'' over Muslims.
# Imposition of [[Hindi]] as a compulsory language{{Efn|which led to [[Anti-Hindi agitation of 1937-1940|protests in Madras]].}} over Muslims & suppression of Urdu
# Imposition of the [[Tiranga|Congress's tricolour flag]] over the Muslim population
# Discrimination against Muslim candidates in job appointments
# (Selectively) instigating Hindu ''[[ryot]]s'' to launch peasant movements in areas where the zamindar happened to be a Muslim.
# [[Cow protection movement|Banning cow-slaughter]]
# [[Cult of personality|Mandating veneration]] of Gandhi's image & ideas among Muslims studying in government-run schools.

The Congress rejected the veracity of these allegations. Rajendra Prasad openly challenged Jinnah to have the allegations verified by a judicial committee headed by Sir [[Maurice Gwyer]], [[Chief Justice of India|Chief Justice]] of the [[Federal Court of India|Federal Court]]. But the Muslim League refused to formally lodge the complaint, with Chaudhury Khaliquzzaman privately confessing that the allegations were heavily exaggerated & somewhat baseless, but it successfully created a sense of paranoia among Muslims about their future in a Hindu majority independent India.<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=Yunas Samad |url=https://sanipanhwar.com/uploads/books/2024-08-27_11-42-16_d744e51fa701b80a80f0a43e0ab34411.pdf |title=A Nation in Turmoil:Nationalism and Ethnicity in Pakistan, 1937-1958 |date=1995 |publisher=[[Sage Publishing]] |isbn=0803992149}}</ref> Nehru refused to attach any importance to either the Muslim League or its allegations & did nothing to dispel the sense of mistrust among the Muslim population. He did, however, launch a mass contact programme to reach the Muslims, which Jinnah exploited as a vindication of his allegations. The Pant administration in United Provinces was seen as attempting to undermine Muslim solidarity by escalating [[Sunni-Shia conflict]] through the [[Madhe Sahaba Agitation|''Madh-i-Sahaba'' dispute]].

On 3 September 1939, Viceroy of India [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]] declared [[India in World War II|India to be at war]] with [[Nazi Germany]] immediately after [[British declaration of war on Germany (1939)|Britain's declaration]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Ayesha Jalal |author1-link=Ayesha Jalal |title=The sole spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the demand for Pakistan |year=1994 |orig-year=First published 1985 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-45850-4 |page=47}}</ref> The Congress objected strongly to the declaration of war without prior consultation with Indians in the [[Legislatures of British India|legislatures]]. The Congress Working Committee suggested that it would cooperate if a central Indian national government were formed and a commitment were made to India's independence after the war.<ref name="plassey-to-partition">{{cite book |author=Sekhar Bandyopadhyay |author-link=Sekhar Bandyopadhyay |year=2004 |title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EpNz0U8VEQC |location=India |publisher=Orient Longman |page=412 |isbn=978-81-250-2596-2}}</ref> The Muslim League promised its support to the British,<ref name="afghan-frontier">{{cite book |author=Victoria Schofield |author-link=Victoria Schofield |year=2003 |title=Afghan Frontier: Feuding and Fighting in Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7OIcYibR7pUC |publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks |pages=232–233 |isbn=978-1-86064-895-3 |access-date=2007-12-10}}</ref> with Jinnah calling on Muslims to help the Empire by "honourable co-operation" at the "critical and difficult juncture", while asking the Viceroy for increased protection for Muslims.<ref name="wolpert-jinnah-speech">{{cite web |url=http://www.humsafar.info/wolp02.htm |author=Stanley Wolpert |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |title=Lecture by Prof. Stanley Wolpert: Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah's Legacy to Pakistan |access-date=2007-12-11 |date=1998-03-22 |work=Jinnah of Pakistan |publisher=Humsafar.info |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227015059/http://www.humsafar.info/wolp02.htm |archive-date=27 December 2007}}{{self-published source|date=August 2016}}</ref>

The government did not come up with any satisfactory response. Viceroy Linlithgow could only offer to form a 'consultative committee' for advisory functions. Thus, Linlithgow refused the demands of the Congress. On 22 October 1939, all Congress ministries were called upon to tender their resignations. Both Viceroy Linlithgow and Muhammad Ali Jinnah were pleased with the resignations.<ref name="british-empire-fall">{{cite web |url=http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/kenanderson/histempsequel/page5.html |title=Gandhi - The Great Soul |access-date=2007-12-04 |last=Anderson |first=Ken |work=The British Empire: Fall of the Empire |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016002706/http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/kenanderson/histempsequel/page5.html |archive-date=2012-10-16}}{{self-published source|date=August 2016}}</ref><ref name="plassey-to-partition"/> On 2 December 1939, Jinnah put out an appeal, calling for Indian Muslims to celebrate 22 December 1939 as a "[[Day of Deliverance (India)|Day of Deliverance]]" from Congress:<ref name="nazaria-e-pakistan">{{cite web |url=http://www.nazariapak.info/quaid/students/2ndDecember-1939.asp |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070729232113/http://www.nazariapak.info/quaid/students/2ndDecember-1939.asp |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-07-29 |title=Appeal for the observance of Deliverance Day, issued from Bombay, on 2nd December, 1939 |access-date=2007-12-04 |author=Nazaria-e-Pakistan Foundation |work=Quaid-i-Azam's Speeches & Messages to Muslim Students}}</ref>

{{blockquote|text=I wish the Musalmans all over India to observe Friday 22 December as the "Day of Deliverance" and thanksgiving as a mark of relief that the Congress regime has at last ceased to function. I hope that the provincial, district and primary Muslim Leagues all over India will hold public meetings and pass the resolution with such modification as they may be advised, and after [[Friday prayers|Jumma prayers]] offer prayers by way of thanksgiving for being delivered from the unjust Congress regime.
}} With the Congress out in political wilderness, Jinnah got a free rein to pursue his agenda, culminating in the [[Lahore Resolution]] in 1940 & launching of the [[Pakistan Movement]].

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Members of Punjab Provincial Assembly 1st.jpg|MLAs of the Punjab Legislative Assembly in 1937
File:1937 Madras Legislative Assembly.jpg|Madras Legislative Assembly session in 1937
File:Members of the N.W.F.P. Legislative Assembly 1937.jpg|MLAs of the NWFP Legislative Assembly in 1937
File:AK Fazlul Huq Cabinet 1937.jpg|[[A. K. Fazlul Huq]]'s first cabinet in 1937. Huq is seated at the centre, to his left is [[Khwaja Nazimuddin]]. Behind Huq, on the right is Sir [[Bijoy Prasad Singh Roy]].
File:Pandit Nilakanth With Nehru in Odisha.jpg|[[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] in Odisha while campaigning for the elections in 1937, accompanied by [[Nilakantha Das]].
File:The Delegates of the All-India Convention of the Congress - New Delhi 1937.jpg|1937 AICC session in Delhi, where the decision to stake claim in provincial government formation was communicated to the newly elected Congress MLAs who had convened.
File:Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar (in the center) with activists of 'Scheduled Caste Federation' (1937).jpg|[[B. R. Ambedkar|Ambedkar]] surrounded by the party workers of the Independent Labour Party in 1937
File:Muslim League Working Committee, Lucknow Session (Photo 429-4).jpg|Muslim League Working Committee members in Lucknow in October 1937. From left to right are [[Iftikhar Hussain Khan Mamdot]], [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]], Sir [[Sikandar Hayat Khan]] (as a guest) & [[Amir Mohammad Khan|Amir Muhammad Khan]]. Standing from right are Khwaja Nazimuddin and [[Liaquat Ali Khan|Liaqat Ali Khan]].
File:Indian Congress Metting 1937 Calcutta.jpg|AICC session in October 1937, held at [[Netaji Bhawan|Bose's Calcutta residence]]. Seated from left to right are [[J. B. Kripalani]], [[Vallabhbhai Patel|Sardar Patel]], [[Achyut Patwardhan]], [[Narendra Deva]] and [[Govind Ballabh Pant]].
File:Subhas Chandra Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru and others proceeding to the AICC meeting on October 1937.jpg|Nehru and [[Subhas Chandra Bose|Bose]] at Calcutta, proceeding to attend the above-mentioned session.
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Indian elections}}
{{Pakistani elections}}

[[Category:1937 elections in India]]
[[Category:Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:Pakistan Movement]]
[[Category:Bombay Presidency]]
[[Category:Political history of India]]
[[Category:Political history of Pakistan]]
[[Category:1937 in British India]]
[[Category:Provincial Assembly elections in British India]]

Indian rupee

2026-04-28T16:30:16Z

Creativesketchbook: slightly adjusted citations after review and updated info for accuracy

{{Short description|Currency of India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox currency
| currency_name = Indian rupee
| subunit_ratio_1 = {{frac|100}}
| currency_name_in_local = {{collapsible list
|titlestyle = text-align:center; font-size:85%;
|title = {{nobold|Scheduled official languages:}}
|{{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle= font-size:80%;
| rowclass1 = mergedrow| label1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]: | data1 = {{lang|as|ভাৰতীয় টকা}}
| rowclass2 = mergedrow| label2 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]: | data2 = {{lang|bn|ভারতীয় টাকা}}
| rowclass3 = mergedrow| label3 = [[Boro language (India)|Bodo]]: | data3 = {{lang|brx|भारतारी रां}}
| rowclass4 = mergedrow| label4 = [[Dogri language|Dogri]]: | data4 = {{lang|doi|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass5 = mergedrow| label5 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]: | data5 = {{lang|gu|ભારતીય રૂપિયો}}
| rowclass6 = mergedrow| label6 = [[Hindi]]: | data6 = {{lang|hi|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass7 = mergedrow| label7 = [[Kannada]]: | data7 = {{lang|kn|ಭಾರತೀಯ ರೂಪಾಯಿ}}
| rowclass8 = mergedrow| label8 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]: | data8 = {{lang|ks|ہِندوستٲنؠ رۄپَے}}
| rowclass9 = mergedrow| label9 = [[Konkani language|Konkani]]: | data9 = {{lang|kok|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass10 = mergedrow| label10 = [[Maithili language|Maithili]]: | data10 = {{lang|mai|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass11 = mergedrow| label11 = [[Malayalam]]: | data11 = {{lang|ml|ഭാരതീയ രൂപ}}
| rowclass12 = mergedrow| label12 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]: | data12 = {{lang|mr|भारतीय रुपया}}
| rowclass13 = mergedrow| label13 = [[Meitei language|Meitei]]: | data13 = {{lang|mni|ꯚꯥꯔꯠꯀꯤ ꯂꯨꯄꯥ}}
| rowclass14 = mergedrow| label14 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]]: | data14 = {{lang|ne|भारतीय रुपैयाँ}}
| rowclass15 = mergedrow| label15 = [[Odia language|Odia]]: | data15 = {{lang|or|ଭାରତୀୟ ଟଙ୍କା}}
| rowclass16 = mergedrow| label16 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]: | data16 = {{lang|pa|ਭਾਰਤੀ ਰੁਪਿਆ}}
| rowclass17 = mergedrow| label17 = [[Sanskrit]]: | data17 = {{lang|sa|भारतीय रुपये}}
| rowclass18 = mergedrow| label18 = [[Santali language|Santali]]: | data18 = {{lang|sat|ᱵᱷᱟᱨᱚᱛᱤᱭᱚ ᱴᱟᱠᱟ}}
| rowclass19 = mergedrow| label19 = [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]: | data19 = {{lang|sd|هندستاني روپيو}}
| rowclass20 = mergedrow| label20 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: | data20 = {{lang|ta|இந்திய ரூபாய்}}
| rowclass21 = mergedrow| label21 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]: | data21 = {{lang|te|భారత రూపాయి}}
| rowclass22 = mergedrow| label22 = [[Urdu]]: | data22 = {{lang|ur|ہندوستانی روپیہ}}
}}
}}
| image_1 = Banknote of india.png
| image_2 = File:INR Coins.jpg
| image_title_1 = [[Banknotes of the Indian rupee]]
| image_title_2 = [[Coins of the Indian rupee]]
| iso_code = INR
| symbol = [[Indian rupee sign|{{INR}}]]
| frequently_used_banknotes = [[Indian 10-rupee note|{{INR}}10]], [[Indian 20-rupee note|{{INR}}20]], [[Indian 50-rupee note|{{INR}}50]], [[Indian 100-rupee note|{{INR}}100]], [[Indian 200-rupee note|{{INR}}200]], [[Indian 500-rupee note|{{INR}}500]]
| rarely_used_banknotes = [[Indian 1-rupee note|{{INR}}1]], [[Indian 2-rupee note|{{INR}}2]], [[Indian 5-rupee note|{{INR}}5]]
| frequently_used_coins = [[Indian 1-rupee coin|{{INR}}1]], [[Indian 2-rupee coin|{{INR}}2]], [[Indian 5-rupee coin|{{INR}}5]], [[Indian 10-rupee coin|{{INR}}10]], [[Indian 20-rupee coin|{{INR}}20]]
| rarely_used_coins = [[File:Indian Paisa symbol.svg|10px|frameless|upright=0.6|class=skin-invert]]50 (discontinued, but still legal tender for amounts up to ₹10)
| unit = rupee
| subunit_name_1 = [[Indian paisa|paisa]]
| symbol_subunit_1 = [[File:Indian_Paisa_symbol.svg|12px|frameless|upright=0.6|class=skin-invert]]
| coin_article = Modern Indian Coins
| using_countries = {{ubl|{{flag|India}}|{{flag|Bhutan}}|<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.rma.org.bt/FAQ.jsp#2 |publisher=[[Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan]]Zimbabwe |access-date=20 January 2020 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206104607/http://www.rma.org.bt/FAQ.jsp#2 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| date_of_introduction = {{ start date and age|1835}}
| unofficial_users = {{ubl| {{flag|Nepal}}|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}|<ref>{{cite news |title=Nepal writes to RBI to declare banned new Indian currency notes legal |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/nepal-writes-to-rbi-to-declare-banned-new-indian-currency-notes-legal/articleshow/67406624.cms |access-date=20 January 2020 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |publisher=[[Times Internet]] |date=6 January 2019 |archive-date=5 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205184338/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/nepal-writes-to-rbi-to-declare-banned-new-indian-currency-notes-legal/articleshow/67406624.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| issuing_authority = [[Reserve Bank of India]]<ref name="rbi">{{cite web|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView.aspx?Id=39 |title=FAQ – Your Guide to Money Matters |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=5 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112123135/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView.aspx?Id=39 |archive-date=12 January 2012 }}</ref>
| issuing_authority_website = {{URL|https://www.rbi.org.in/}}
| printer = [[Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited]]<ref name=SPMCIL>{{cite book |last1=[[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]] – [[Department of Economic Affairs (India)|Department of Economic Affairs]] |title=Sixth Report, Committee on Public Undertakings – Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited |date=30 April 2010 |publisher=[[Lok Sabha Secretariat]] |page=8 |url=http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Public%20Undertakings/15_Public%20Undertakings_6.pdf |access-date=8 June 2020 |archive-date=12 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412213713/http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Public%20Undertakings/15_Public%20Undertakings_6.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| printer_website = {{URL|spmcil.com}}
| mint = [[India Government Mint]]<ref name=SPMCIL />
| mint_website = {{URL|indiagovtmint.in}}
| inflation_rate = {{decrease}}3.4% (September 2024)<ref>{{cite web |last1= |first1= |title=Inflation Rate In India: September 2024 Data |url=https://www.forbes.com/advisor/in/personal-finance/inflation-rate-in-india/#:~:text=Core%20inflation%20is%20at%203.4%25%20versus%20the%20expectation%20of%203.35%25. |website=Forbes Advisor INDIA |date=16 September 2024}}</ref>
| inflation_source_date = [https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/AnnualReport/PDFs/4TBE93D257F71548D48A75D589A53E9DEF.PDF RBI – Annual Inflation Report]
| inflation_method = [[Consumer price index]] ([[Consumer price index by country#India|India]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India - Annual Report |url=https://rbi.org.in/scripts/AnnualReportPublications.aspx?Id=1331 |website=rbi.org.in |access-date=9 April 2022 |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517210417/https://rbi.org.in/scripts/AnnualReportPublications.aspx?Id=1331 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| pegged_by = {{flagd|Bhutan|size=20px}} [[Bhutanese ngultrum]] (at par) {{flagd|Nepal|size=20px}} [[Nepalese rupee]] (₹1 = रु1.60)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/nepal-to-keep-currency-pegged-at-to-indian-rupee/article9689230.ece |title=Nepal to keep currency pegged to Indian rupee |work=[[Business Line]] |date=11 January 2018 |access-date=13 May 2019 |archive-date=10 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310065324/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/nepal-to-keep-currency-pegged-to-indian-rupee/article9689230.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>
| footnotes = {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
}}

The '''Indian rupee''' ([[Currency symbol|symbol]]: '''[[Indian rupee sign|₹]]'''; [[ISO 4217|code]]: '''INR''') is the official [[currency]] of [[India]] and the erstwhile [[British Raj]]. The rupee is subdivided into 100 ''[[Indian paisa|paise]]'' (singular: ''paisa''). The issuance of the currency is controlled by the [[Reserve Bank of India]]. The Reserve Bank derives this role from powers vested in it by the [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934]]. It is the world's [[Template: Most traded currencies|eleventh-most-traded currency]] as of April 2025.<ref>{{cite report |title=Triennial Central Bank Survey Foreign exchange turnover in April 2025 |url=https://www.bis.org/statistics/rpfx25_fx.pdf |publisher=[[Bank for International Settlements]] |page=14 |date=30 September 2025 |archive-date=2025-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251012053635/https://www.bis.org/statistics/rpfx25_fx.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Etymology ==


[[Pāṇini]] (6th to 4th century BCE), the ancient Indian grammarian and logician, writes of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|rūpya}} ({{lang|sa|रूप्य}}). While it is unclear whether Pāṇini was referring specifically to coinage,<ref>{{citation |first=Shankar |last=Goyal |title=The Origin and Antiquity of Coinage in India |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |publisher=[[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]] |volume=80 |number=1/4 |year=1999 |jstor=41694581 |page=144|quote=[[Panini (grammarian)|Panini]] makes the statement (V.2.120) that a 'form' (''rüpa'') when 'stamped' (''ahata'') or when praise-worthy (prašamsa) takes the ending ''ya'' (i.e. ''rupya''). ... Whether Panini was familiar with coins or not, his ''[[Astadhyayi]]'' does not specifically state.}}</ref> [[Coinage of India#Early|some scholars conclude]] that
he uses the term ''rūpa'' to mean a piece of precious metal (typically silver) used as a coin, and a ''rūpya'' to mean a stamped piece of metal, a coin in the modern sense.{{sfn|Mookerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Times|1966|p=214}} The ''[[Arthashastra]]'', written by [[Chanakya]], prime minister to the first [[Maurya Empire|Maurya emperor]] [[Chandragupta Maurya]] ({{circa|340–290 BCE}}), mentions silver coins as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|rūpyarūpa}}. Other types of coins, including gold coins ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|suvarṇarūpa}}), copper coins ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|tāmrarūpa}}), and lead coins ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|sīsarūpa}}), are also mentioned.<ref>{{citation |title=Arthashastra Of Chanakya |url=https://archive.org/details/arthashastraofchanakyaenglishrshamasastry/page/n11/mode/2up |pages=115, 119, 125 |author=R Shamasastry |year=1915 |access-date=15 April 2021 }}</ref> The immediate precursor to the rupee is the ''rūpiya''—the silver coin weighing 178 [[Grain (mass)|grains]] minted in northern India, first by [[Sher Shah Suri]] during his brief rule between 1540 and 1545, and later by the [[Mughal Empire]]. The weight remained unchanged well beyond the end of Mughal rule into the 20th century.<ref name="mogul">{{cite web |title=Mogul Coinage |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html|website=[[RBI Monetary Museum]] |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021005231609/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 October 2002 |quote=Sher Shah issued a coin of silver which was termed the Rupiya. This weighed 178 grains and was the precursor of the modern rupee. It remained largely unchanged till the early 20th Century }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|Rupee|History of the rupee|:Category:Historical currencies of India|l3 = Historical currencies of India|Paisa|Coinage of India}}
[[File:MauryanCoin.JPG|right|thumb|[[Silver]] [[Punch-marked coins|punch mark coin]] of the [[Maurya Empire]], known as ''Rūpyarūpa'', 3rd century BCE]]
[[File:Gupta Kings. Skandagupta. AD 455-467.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of [[Skandagupta]] of [[Gupta Empire]] known as ''Rūpaka'' (रूपक) in Sanskrit, in the style of the [[Western Satrap]]s, with [[Indian peacock|peacock]] on reverse, 455—467]]
[[File:Sher shah's rupee.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Rupiya]]'' issued by [[Sher Shah Suri]], 1540–1545|alt=Silver coins with raised writing]]

The history of the Indian [[rupee]] traces back to [[ancient India]] around the 6th century BCE; ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of [[coin]]s in the world,<ref>{{cite book |first=Subodh |last=Kapoor |title=The Indian encyclopaedia: biographical, historical, religious ..., Volume 6 |publisher=Cosmo Publications |date=January 2002 |page=1599 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5ZM0nZXZEkC&pg=PA1599 |isbn=81-7755-257-0 }}</ref> alongside the [[Chinese wen]] and [[Lydia]]n [[stater]]s.<ref>{{citation |first=David M. |last=Schaps |chapter=The Invention of Coinage in Lydia, in India, and in China |title=XIV International Economic History Congress |location=Helsinki |year=2006 |publisher=[[International Economic History Association]] |chapter-url=http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers1/Schaps.pdf |access-date=27 December 2018 |archive-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712184842/http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers1/Schaps.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[Arthashastra]]'', written by [[Chanakya]], the prime minister to the first [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan emperor]] [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (c. 340–290 BCE), mentions silver coins as ''rūpyarūpa'', gold coins as ''suvarṇarūpa'', copper coins as ''tamrarūpa'', and lead coins as ''sīsarūpa''. {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Rūpa}} means 'shape' or 'form'.<ref name="Redy">{{cite web |author= |title=A short history of ancient Indian coinage. |url=http://worldcoincatalog.com/AC/C3/India/AIndia.htm |access-date=20 June 2013 |publisher=worldcoincatalog.com |archive-date=3 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403184349/http://worldcoincatalog.com/AC/C3/India/AIndia.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Gupta Empire]] under [[Chandragupta II]] produced large numbers of silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier [[Western Satraps]].<ref name="EBAllan&Stern">Allan & Stern (2008)</ref> The silver ''Rūpaka'' ({{langx|sa|रूपक}}) coins weighed approximately 20 [[Ratti (unit)|rattis]] (2.2678 g).<ref>{{cite web |title=Rupaka, Rūpaka: 23 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/rupaka |website=Wisdom Library |date=3 August 2014 |access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623033054/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/rupaka |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the intermediate times following the Guptas, there appears to have been no fixed monetary system of coinage as reported in the travelogue ''[[Great Tang Records on the Western Regions|Da Tang Xi Yu Ji]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Da Tang Xiyu Ji. [[Great Tang Records on the Western Regions|Great Tang Dynasty Records of the Western World]] |publisher=[[Kegan Paul, Trench Trubner & Co.]] |year=1906 |edition=First |series=Trübner's Oriental Series |volume=1-2 |location=London |translator=[[Samuel Beal]] |orig-date=1884}}</ref>

During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, [[Sultan]] [[Sher Shah Suri]] issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 [[Grain (mass)|grains]] (or 11.53 grams), which was also termed the ''rupiya''.<ref name="etymonline1">{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=rupee&searchmode=none|title=Etymology of rupee|date=20 September 2008|website=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]|access-date=20 September 2008|archive-date=10 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110165256/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=rupee&searchmode=none|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mughal Coinage |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516085855/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-mogul.html |archive-date=16 May 2008 |website=[[RBI Monetary Museum]] |publisher=Reserve Bank of India}}</ref> During [[Babur]]'s time, the brass to silver exchange ratio was roughly 50:2.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dughlat |first=Mirza Muhammad Haidar |url=https://archive.org/details/TheTarikh-i-rashidi |title=The Tarikh-I-Rashidi |publisher=Karakoram Books |others=Ebook Version 1.0 Edited and Presented By Mohammed Murad Butt |editor-last=Elias |editor-first=N. |translator-last=Ross |translator-first=E. Denison |chapter=CXII |author-link=Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat |orig-date=1895 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> The silver coin remained in use during the [[Mughal period]], the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha era]] as well as in [[British India]].<ref name="rbi-c-colo">{{cite web |title=Pre-Colonial India & Princely States: Coinage |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-colo.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215222137/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/c-colo.html |archive-date=15 December 2018 |access-date=20 June 2013 |website=RBI Monetary Museum |publisher=Reserve Bank of India}}</ref> Some of the earliest issuers of [[banknote|paper rupees]] include the [[Bank of Hindostan|Bank of Hindustan]] (1770–1832), the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1773–1775, established by [[Warren Hastings]]), and the Bengal Bank (1784–91).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-25 |title=Throwback: How India's paper currency came into existence and evolved over decades |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/business-economy/industry/article/throwback-how-indias-paper-currency-came-into-existence-and-evolved-over-decades/749261 |access-date=2025-10-28 |website=www.timesnownews.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== 1800s ===
{| class="wikitable floatright collapsible collapsed"
!colspan="3" style="background:#ffdead;"|Indian silver rupee value (1820–1900)<ref name="Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade">{{cite web |last=Andrew |first=A. Piatt |author-link=A. Piatt Andrew |date=August 1901 |title=Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade |url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-1884973 |access-date=18 April 2018 |publisher=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |pages=483–514}}</ref>
|-
| Year ||Exchange rate (pence per rupee)||Melt value (pence per rupee)
|-
| 1850||24.3||22.7
|-
| 1851||24.1||22.7
|-
| 1852||23.9||22.5
|-
| 1853||24.1||22.8
|-
| 1854||23.1||22.8
|-
| 1855||24.2||22.8
|-
| 1856||24.2||22.8
|-
| 1857||24.6||22.9
|-
| 1858||25.7||22.8
|-
| 1859||26.0||23.0
|-
| 1860||26.0||22.9
|-
| 1861||23.9||22.6
|-
| 1862||23.9||22.8
|-
| 1863||23.9||22.8
|-
| 1864||23.9||22.8
|-
| 1865||23.8||22.7
|-
| 1866||23.1||22.7
|-
| 1867||23.2||22.5
|-
| 1868||23.2||22.5
|-
| 1869||23.3||22.5
|-
| 1870||22.5||22.5
|-
| 1871||23.1||22.5
|-
| 1872||22.7||22.4
|-
| 1873||22.3||22.0
|-
| 1874||22.1||21.6
|-
| 1875||21.6||21.1
|-
| 1876||20.5||19.6
|-
| 1877||20.8||20.4
|-
| 1878||19.8||19.5
|-
| 1879||20.0||19.0
|-
| 1880||19.9||19.4
|-
| 1881||19.9||19.2
|-
| 1882||19.5||19.3
|-
| 1883||19.5||18.7
|-
| 1884||19.3||18.8
|-
| 1885||18.2||18.0
|-
| 1886||17.4||16.8
|-
| 1887||16.9||16.6
|-
| 1888||16.4||15.9
|-
| 1889||16.5||15.8
|-
| 1890||18.0||17.7
|-
| 1891||16.7||16.7
|-
| 1892||15.0||14.8
|-
| 1893||14.5||13.2
|-
| 1894||13.1||10.7
|-
| 1895||13.6||11.1
|-
| 1896||14.4||11.5
|-
| 1897||15.3||10.2
|-
| 1898||16.0||10.0
|-
| 1899||16.0||10.2
|-
| 1900||16.0||10.4
|}
[[File:INDIAN SILVER RUPEE VALUE 1850-1900.png|thumb|Chart showing exchange rate of Indian [[Silver rupee|silver rupee coin]] (blue) and the actual value of its silver content (red), against [[Penny (British pre-decimal coin)|British pence]] (from 1850 to 1900)]]

Historically, the [[rupee]] was a [[Bullion coin|silver coin]]. This had severe consequences in the nineteenth century when the strongest economies in the world were on the [[gold standard]] (that is, paper linked to gold). The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies caused the [[panic of 1873]] which resulted in a decline in the [[Relative value (economics)|value]] of [[Silver as an investment|silver relative]] to gold, devaluing India's standard currency, an event known as "the fall of the rupee". Following the panic, the world descended into a '[[Long Depression]]', which resulted in bankruptcies, escalating unemployment, a halt in public works, and a major trade slump that lasted until 1897.<ref>[[W. B. Sutch]], ''The Long Depression, 1865–1895''. (1957)</ref>

India was unaffected by the imperial [[Order in Council|order-in-council]] of 1825, which attempted to introduce British [[Pound sterling|sterling]] coinage to the British colonies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teucher |first1=Andy |last2=Albers |first2=Sam |last3=Hazlitt |first3=Stephanie |date=2017-12-20 |title=bcmaps: Map Layers and Spatial Utilities for British Columbia |url=https://doi.org/10.32614/cran.package.bcmaps |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=CRAN: Contributed Packages |doi=10.32614/cran.package.bcmaps }}</ref> India, at that time, was [[Company rule in India|controlled]] by the British [[East India Company]]. The [[Silver rupee|silver rupee coin]] continued as the currency of India through the [[British Raj]] and beyond. In 1835, British India adopted a [[Fine silver|mono-metallic]] [[Silver standards|silver standard]] based on the rupee coin; this decision was influenced by a letter written by [[Lord Liverpool]] in 1805 extolling the virtues of mono-metallism.<ref>{{Citation |last=Garg |first=Sanjay |title=Acts, Proclamations, Declarations and Notifications of the Government of India Concerning the Coinage, Currency and its Legal Tender (1835–56) |date=2019-05-14 |work=Monetary Foundations of the Raj |pages=415–434 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315271903-27 |access-date=2025-12-26 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315271903-27 |isbn=978-1-315-27190-3|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Liverpool |first=Charles Jenkinson |url=http://archive.org/details/treatiseoncoinso00liveuoft |title=A treatise on the coins of the realm, in a letter to the King |date=1805 |publisher=Oxford, Univ. Press |others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref>

Following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Rebellion]] in 1857, the British government took direct [[British Raj|control]] of India. From 1851, gold sovereigns were produced ''en masse'' at the [[Royal Mint]] in [[Sydney]]. In an 1864 attempt to make the British [[gold sovereign]] the "imperial coin", the treasuries in [[Bombay]] and [[Calcutta]] were instructed to receive (but not to issue) gold sovereigns; therefore, these gold sovereigns never left the vaults. As the British government gave up hope of replacing the rupee in India with the pound [[Sterling silver|sterling]], a conclusion was reached that it could not replace the [[trade coin|silver dollar]] in the [[Straits Settlements]] with the Indian rupee (as the British East India Company had desired). Since the [[silver crisis of 1873]], several nations switched over to a [[Gold standard#Gold exchange standard|gold exchange standard]] (wherein silver or banknotes circulate locally but with a fixed gold value for export purposes), including India in the 1890s.<ref>{{Cite wikisource|Indian Currency and Finance|chapter=Chapter II}}</ref>

=== India Council Bill ===
In 1870, India was connected to Britain by a submarine [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] cable.
Around 1875, Britain started paying India for exported goods in India Council (paper) Bills (instead of silver).
<blockquote>If, therefore, the India Council in London should not step in to sell bills on India, the merchants and bankers would have to send silver to make good the (trade) balances. Thus a channel for the outflow of silver was stopped, in 1875, by the India Council in London.<ref name="The silver question">{{cite web |last=Moore |first=J S |date=23 October 2016 |title=The Silver Question |url=https://archive.org/stream/jstor-25110026/25110026_djvu.txt |access-date=18 April 2018 |publisher=The North American Review}}</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>The great importance of these (Council) Bills, however, is the effect they have on the Market Price of Silver: and they have in fact been one of the most potent factors in recent years in causing the diminution in the Value of Silver as compared to Gold.<ref name="Henry Dunning Macleod">{{cite web |last1=MacLeod |first1=Henry Dunning |author-link=Henry Dunning Macleod |year=1883 |title=The Theory and Practice of Banking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEMIAAAAQAAJ&q=syria&pg=PA10 |access-date=18 April 2018 |via=Google Books}}</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>The Indian and Chinese products for which silver is paid were and are, since 1873–74, very low in price, and it therefore takes less silver to purchase a larger quantity of Eastern commodities. Now, on taking the several agents into united consideration, it will certainly not seem very mysterious why silver should not only have fallen in price<ref name="The silver question" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>The great nations had recourse to two expedients for replenishing their exchequers, {{ndash}} first, loans, and, second, the more convenient forced loans of paper money۔<ref name="The silver question" /></blockquote>

=== Fowler Committee (1898) ===
{{Main|Indian Currency Committee}}

[[File:Government_of_India_5_Rupee_Note_1858.jpg|thumb|[[Government of India]] - 5-[[rupee]] note (1858)]]

The [[Indian Currency Committee]] or Fowler Committee was a government committee appointed by the [[British Raj|British-run Government of India]] on 29 April 1898 to examine the currency situation in India.<ref name="chishti2001">{{Citation |author=Chishti |first=M. Anees |title=Committees and commissions in pre-independence India 1836–1947, Volume 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5JipbQyOCQC |year=2001 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-803-7 |quote=... The Indian Currency Committee was appointed by the Royal Warrant of 29 April 1898 ... by the closing of the Indian Mints to what is known as the free coinage of Silver ...}}</ref> They collected a wide range of testimony, examined as many as 49 witnesses, and only reported their conclusions in July 1899, after more than a year's deliberation.<ref name="Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade" />
<blockquote>The prophecy made before the Committee of 1898 by Mr. A. M. Lindsay, in proposing a scheme closely similar in principle to that which was eventually adopted, has been largely fulfilled. "This change," he said, "will pass unnoticed, except by the intelligent few, and it is satisfactory to find that by this almost imperceptible process, the Indian currency will be placed on a footing which Ricardo and other great authorities have advocated as the best of all currency systems, viz., one in which the currency media used in the internal circulation are confined to notes and cheap token coins, which are made to act precisely as if they were bits of gold by being made convertible into gold for foreign payment purposes.<ref name="John Maynard Keynes">{{cite wikisource|Indian Currency and Finance|chapter=Chapter I |author=John Maynard Keynes|author-link=John Maynard Keynes |year=1913}}</ref> The committee concurred in the opinion of the Indian government that the mints should remain closed to the unrestricted coinage of silver and that a gold standard should be adopted without delay...they recommended (1) that the British sovereign be given full legal tender power in India, and (2) that the Indian mints be thrown open to its unrestricted coinage (for gold coins only).</blockquote>
These recommendations were acceptable to both governments and were shortly afterwards translated into laws. The act making gold a legal tender was promulgated on 15 September 1899, and preparations were soon thereafter undertaken for the coinage of gold sovereigns in the mint at Bombay.<ref name="Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade" />

<blockquote>Silver, therefore, has ceased to serve as, and standard; and the Indian currency system of to-day (that is 1901) may be described as that of a "limping" gold standard similar to the systems of France, Germany, and Holland, and the United States.<ref name="Indian Currency Problems of the Last Decade" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>The Committee of 1898 explicitly declared themselves to be in favour of the eventual establishment of a gold currency. This goal, '''if it was their goal''', the Government of India have never attained.<ref name="John Maynard Keynes" /></blockquote>

=== 1900s ===
[[File:IND-1c-Government of India-1 Rupee (1917).jpg|thumb|[[British Raj|Government of India]] {{ndash}} [[Indian 1-rupee note|1 rupee]] (1917)]]

In 1913, [[John Maynard Keynes]] writes in his book ''Indian Currency and Finance'' that during the financial year 1900{{ndash}}1901, gold coins (sovereigns) worth £6,750,000 were given to the Indian people in the hope that they would circulate as currency. But against the expectation of the Government, not even half of that was returned to accounts. As this experiment failed spectacularly, the government abandoned the practice but did not abandon the narrative of the gold standard. Subsequently, much of the gold held by the Government of India was shipped to the [[Bank of England]] in 1901 and held there.<ref>{{cite wikisource|Indian Currency and Finance|chapter=Chapter IV}}</ref>


During [[World War II]], Colonial British control over parts of Nagaland was [[Battle of Imphal|lost to Japanese forces]], the [[Coins of British India|British Indian rupee]] was banned and the [[Japanese government–issued rupee in Burma|Japanese rupee]] (1942–44) was introduced.

In the autumn of 1917 (when the silver price rose to 55 [[Penny (British pre-decimal coin)|pence]]), there was danger of uprisings in India (against paper currency) which would handicap seriously British participation in the war. Inconvertibility (of paper currency into silver coin) would lead to a run on [[Postal savings system|Post Office Savings Banks]]. It would prevent the further expansion of (paper currency) note issues and cause a rise of prices, in paper currency, that would greatly increase the cost of obtaining war supplies for export; to have reduced the silver content of this historic [rupee] coin might well have caused such popular distrust of the Government as to have precipitated an internal crisis, which would have been fatal to British success in the war... and the Government could not afford to buy silver at 55 pence per ounce to coin into rupees with a bullion parity of 43.1 pence per ounce. To let silver be replaced by gold, as Mexico had done in 1906, was also impossible, for the world had no gold to spare.
The Government, therefore, did the only possible thing, and raised the value of the (silver) rupee in terms of gold...<ref name="Silver Money">{{cite web |author=Leavens |first=Dickson H |year=1939 |title=Silver Money |url=http://cowles.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/pub/mon/m04-all.pdf |website=[[Cowles Foundation]] |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=18 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151218012440/http://cowles.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/pub/mon/m04-all.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Problems caused by the gold standard ===
{{See also|Gold standard}}
At the onset of the [[First World War]], the cost of gold was very low and therefore the pound sterling (silver) had high value. But during the war, the value of the pound fell alarmingly due to rising war expenses. At the end of the war, the value of the pound was only a fraction of what it had been before the war. It remained low until 1925, when the then [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] (finance minister) of the United Kingdom, [[Winston Churchill]], restored it to pre-war levels. As a result, the price of gold fell rapidly. While the rest of Europe purchased large quantities of gold from the United Kingdom, there was little increase in her gold reserves (in United Kingdom). This dealt a blow to an already deteriorating British economy. The United Kingdom began to look to its possessions as India to compensate for the gold that was sold.<ref>Balachandran, G. (1996). John Bullion's Empire: Britain's Gold Problem and India Between the Wars. Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-7007-0428-6}}, p. 6</ref>

However, the price of gold in India, '''on the basis of the official exchange rate''' of the (silver) rupee around 1[[Shilling (British coin)|s.]] 6[[Penny (British pre-decimal coin)|d]]., was lower than the price prevailing abroad practically throughout{{clarify|date=May 2023}}; the disparity in prices made the export of the (gold) metal profitable; and this continued for almost a decade. Thus, in 1931–32, there were net exports of 7.7 million [[troy ounce|ounces]], valued at INR 57.98 [[crore]]. In the following year, both the quantity and the price rose further: net exports totalled 8.4 million ounces, valued at INR 65.52 crore. In the ten years ended March 1941, total net exports were of the order of 43 million ounces (1337.3 tons (of gold)) valued at about INR 375 crore, or an average price of INR 32-12-4 per [[tola (unit)|tola]].<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/content/PDFs/89630.pdf |title=History of the Reserve Bank of India |publisher=The Reserve Bank of India |editor=S. L. N. Simha |year=2005 |pages=40–81 |chapter=2. Currency, Exchange and Banking Before 1935 |orig-date=1970 |access-date=28 October 2022 |archive-date=28 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028142244/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/content/PDFs/89630.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 1931 to 1941, the United Kingdom purchased large amounts of gold from India and its many other colonies just by increasing price of gold, as Britain was able to pay in printable paper currency. Similarly, on 19 June 1934, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] made{{clarify|date=May 2023}} [[American Silver Purchase Act|Silver Purchase Act]] (which increased the price of silver) and purchased about 44,000 tons of silver, paying with paper [[silver certificate]]s.<ref>[http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1937121400 Four Years of the Silver Program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222234329/http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1937121400 |date=22 December 2019 }}. 14 December 1937. [[CQ Press]].</ref>

In 1939, Dickson H. Leavens wrote in his book ''Silver Money'': "In recent years the increased price of gold, measured in depreciated paper currencies, has attracted to the market (of London) large quantities (of gold) formerly hoarded or held in the form of ornaments in India and China".<ref name="Silver Money" />

In their respective former colonies, the Indian rupee replaced the [[Danish Indian rupee]] in 1845, the [[French Indian rupee]] in 1954 and the [[Portuguese Indian escudo]] in 1961. Following the [[independence of India]] in 1947 and the [[Instrument of Accession|accession]] of the [[princely state]]s to the new [[Dominion of India|Union]], the Indian rupee replaced all the currencies of the previously autonomous states (although the [[Hyderabadi rupee]] was not demonetised until 1959).<ref>{{cite book|first1=Rezwan |last1=Razack |first2=Kishore |last2=Jhunjhunwalla |title=The Revised Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money|year=2012|publisher=Coins & Currencies|isbn=978-81-89752-15-6|title-link=The Revised Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money }}</ref> Some of the states had issued rupees equal to those issued by the British (such as the [[Travancore rupee]]). Other currencies (including the Hyderabadi rupee and the [[Kutch kori]]) had different values.

The values of the subdivisions of the rupee during [[British Raj|British rule]] (and in the first decade of independence) were:
{| class="wikitable"
|+Subdivisions of the rupee during the 20th century
!Value (in [[Anna (monetary subunit)|anna]])
!Popular name
!Value (in [[Indian paisa|paise]])
|-
|16 anna
|1 [[rupee]]
|100 paise
|-
|8 anna
|1 ardharupee / 1 [[athanni]] (dheli)
|[[Indian 50-paisa coin|50 paise]]
|-
|4 anna
|1 pavala / 1 [[chawanni]]
|[[Indian 25-paisa coin|25 paise]]
|-
|2 anna
|1 beda / 1 duanni
|12 paise
|-
|1 anna
|1 ekanni
|6 paise
|-
|{{frac|1|2}} anna
|1 paraka / 1 [[History of the taka|taka]] / 1 adhanni
|3 paise
|-
|{{frac|1|4}} anna
|1 kani ([[pice]]) / 1 [[paisa]] (old paise)
|1{{frac|1|2}} paise
|-
|{{frac|1|8}} anna
|1 dhela
|{{frac|3|4}} paisa
|-
|{{frac|1|12}} anna
|1 [[Pie (monetary subunit)|pie]]
|{{frac|1|2}} paisa
|}
* In 1957, the rupee was [[decimalised]] and divided into 100 ''[[Naya paise|naye paise]]'' (Hindi for "new paise"); in 1964, the initial ''naye'' was dropped.
* Many still refer to [[Indian 25-paisa coin|25-]], [[Indian 50-paisa coin|50-]] and 75-paise coins as 4, 8, and 12 [[Anna (monetary subunit)|annas]], respectively; compare the expression "two [[Bit (money)|bits]]" in colloquial [[American English]] for a quarter-dollar coin.

===New currency sign for the Indian rupee===
In 2010, a [[Indian rupee sign|new rupee sign]] ({{INR}}) was officially adopted. As [[D. Udaya Kumar|its designer]] explained, it was derived from the combination of the [[Devanagari]] consonant "[[र]]" (''ra'') and  the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] capital letter "R" without its vertical bar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idc.iitb.ac.in/events/Indian_Rupee_Symbol.pdf |title=Currency Symbol for Indian Rupee |first=D. Udaya |last=Kumar |author-link=D. Udaya Kumar |publisher=Indian Institute of Technology Bombay |website=IDC School of Design |access-date=5 October 2022 |archive-date=21 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821132944/http://www.idc.iitb.ac.in/events/Indian_Rupee_Symbol.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The parallel lines at the top (with white space between them) are said to make an allusion to the [[flag of India]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theworldreporter.com/2010/07/indian-rupee-joins-elite-currency-club.html |title=Indian Rupee Joins Elite Currency Club |publisher=Theworldreporter.com |date=17 July 2010 |access-date=25 September 2010 |archive-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427203838/http://www.theworldreporter.com/2010/07/indian-rupee-joins-elite-currency-club.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and also depict an equality sign that symbolises the nation's desire to reduce [[Economic inequality|economic disparity]]. The first series of coins with the new rupee sign started in circulation on 8 July 2011. Before this, India used "[[Rupee sign|₨]]" and "Re" as the symbols for multiple rupees and one rupee, respectively, and these symbols are still used in situations where the official symbol is unavailable. At an international level, like India, some nations' currencies are also Rupees. When the ({{INR}}) symbol is unavailable, then INR is used to represent the Indian currency.

=== Digitization of Indian rupee ===
{{Main|Digital rupee}}

{{Excerpt|Digital rupee}}

==Legal framework==
{{ anchor | Legal | Framework }}

British East India Company (EIC) was given the right in 1717 to mint coins in the name of the [[Mughal emperor]] [[Farrukhsiyar]] on the island of Bombay. By 1792 the EIC demonetised all other coins till they were reduced to only 3 types of coins, i.e. EIC, Mughal and [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] coins. After EIC expanded its control over India, it brought the "Coinage Act of 1835" and started to mint coins in the name of the British king. [[Company rule|EIC rule]] was replaced by [[British Raj|British Crown raj]] which brought the "Paper Currency Act of 1861" and the "Uniform Coinage Act of 1906".<ref name=act1>[https://theprint.in/feature/around-town/east-india-company-fought-hard-for-its-coins-in-india-even-aurangzebs-fury-couldnt-stop-it/1687918/ East India Company fought hard for its coins in India. Even Aurangzeb’s fury couldn’t stop it] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230727120630/https://theprint.in/feature/around-town/east-india-company-fought-hard-for-its-coins-in-india-even-aurangzebs-fury-couldnt-stop-it/1687918/ |date=27 July 2023 }}, The Print, 27 July 2023.</ref>

After 2021, the government of independent India amended "The Coinage Act, 2011",<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2011|title=THE COINAGE ACT, 2011|url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/COIN281114.pdf|access-date=7 August 2021|website=Reserve Bank of India|archive-date=7 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807120234/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/COIN281114.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> the "[[Foreign Exchange Management Act]] (FEMA), 1999," the "[[Information Technology Act, 2000]]" and the "Crypto-currency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2021".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bhattacharya|first=Saurya|date=25 July 2021|title=Cryptocurrency, CBDC and the RBI Act|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/business-laws/cryptocurrency-cbdc-and-the-rbi-act/article35527446.ece|access-date=2021-08-07|website=Business Line|language=en|archive-date=26 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626193538/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/business-laws/cryptocurrency-cbdc-and-the-rbi-act/article35527446.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Variath|first=Adithya Anil|date=26 November 2021|title=Cryptocurrency Bill {{!}} India's First Step To Exercise Its Sovereignty Over Digital Currency|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/opinion/cryptocurrency-bill-indias-first-step-to-exercise-its-sovereignty-over-digital-currency-7764891.html|access-date=2021-11-26|website=Moneycontrol|language=en|archive-date=21 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921214010/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/opinion/cryptocurrency-bill-indias-first-step-to-exercise-its-sovereignty-over-digital-currency-7764891.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Coins ==
=== Post-independence issues ===
{{Main|Coins of the Indian rupee|Indian paisa}}

==== Independent pre-decimal issues, 1950–1957 ====
India's first coins after independence were issued in 1950 in denominations of 1 [[Indian pice|pice]], {{frac|1|2}}, one and two annas, {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|2}} and [[Indian 1-rupee coin|one-rupee]]. The sizes and composition were the same as the final regal issues, except for the one-piece (which was bronze, but not holed).

==== Independent decimal issues, 1957–present ====
[[File:IN Aluminium Series Paise.jpg|thumb|In 1964, India introduced [[aluminium]] coins for denominations up to 20p.|alt=Row of six differently-shaped aluminium coins, arranged by size]]

The first [[Decimal coinage|decimal-coin]] issues in India consisted of [[1 naya paisa (Indian coin)|1]], [[2 naye paise (Indian coin)|2]], [[5 naye paise (Indian coin)|5]], 10, 25 and 50 [[Naya paise|naye paise]], and [[Indian 1-rupee coin|1 rupee]]. The 1 naya paisa was bronze; the 2, 5, and 10 naye paise were cupro-nickel, and the 25 naye paise (nicknamed ''[[chawanni]]''; 25 naye paise equals 4 [[Indian anna|annas]]), 50 naye paise (also called ''[[athanni]]''; 50 naye paise equalled 8 old annas) and 1-rupee were nickel. In 1964, the words ''naya''/''naye'' were removed from all coins. Between 1957 and 1967, aluminium [[Indian 1-paisa coin|one]]-, [[Indian 2-paisa coin|two]]-, [[Indian 3-paisa coin|three]]-, [[Indian 5-paisa coin|five]]- and [[Indian 10-paisa coin|ten-paise]] coins were introduced. In 1968 nickel-brass [[Indian 20-paisa coin|20-paise]] coins were introduced, and replaced by aluminium coins in 1982. Between 1972 and 1975, cupro-nickel replaced nickel in the [[Indian 25-paisa coin|25-]] and [[Indian 50-paisa coin|50-paise]] and the 1-rupee coins; in 1982, cupro-nickel [[Indian 2-rupee coin|two-rupee]] coins were introduced. In 1988 [[stainless steel]] 10-, 25- and 50-paise coins were introduced, followed by 1- and [[Indian 5-rupee coin|5-rupee]] coins in 1992. Five-rupee coins, made from [[brass]], are being minted by the [[Reserve Bank of India]] (RBI).

In 1997 the 20 paise coin was discontinued, followed by the 10 paise coin in 1998, and the 25 paise in 2002.

Between 2005 and 2008 new, lighter fifty-paise, one-, two-, and five-rupee coins were introduced, made from ferritic stainless steel. The move was prompted by the melting-down of older coins, whose face value was less than their scrap value. The demonetisation of the 25-paise coin and all paise coins below it took place, and a new series of coins (50 paise – nicknamed ''athanni'' – one, two, five, and ten rupees with the new rupee sign) were put into circulation in 2011. In 2016 the 50 paise coin was last minted. Coins commonly in circulation are one, two, five, ten, and twenty rupees.<ref name="newcoin">{{cite web|title=Issue of new series of Coins|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=24773|publisher=RBI|access-date=4 November 2011|archive-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729043050/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=24773|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="TimesofIndia29082011">{{cite news|title=This numismatist lays hands on coins with Rupee symbol|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/This-numismatist-lays-hands-on-coins-with-Rupee-symbol/articleshow/9788223.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107053256/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-08-29/vadodara/29940658_1_coins-nandan-parikh-new-symbol|url-status=live|archive-date=7 November 2011|access-date=4 November 2011|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=29 August 2011}}</ref> Although it is still legal tender, the 50-paise (''athanni'') coin is rarely seen in circulation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coins of 25 paise and below will not be Legal Tender from June 30, 2011: RBI appeals to Public to Exchange them up to June 29, 2011|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=24418|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|date=18 May 2011|archive-date=4 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111004170924/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=24418|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto;"
|+Circulating coins<ref name=newcoin /><ref name="rbi_coins">{{cite web |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_coins_5.aspx |title=Reserve Bank of India – Coins |publisher=Rbi.org.in |access-date=5 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119035314/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_coins_5.aspx |archive-date=19 November 2011 }}</ref>
|-
!rowspan="2"| Value !!colspan="4"| Technical parameters !!colspan="2"| Description !!colspan="2"| Year of
|-
! Diameter !! Mass !! Composition !! Shape !! Obverse !! Reverse !! First minting !! Last minting
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| [[Indian 50-paisa coin|50 paise]]|| 19 mm || 3.79 g || [[Ferritic stainless steel]]|| Circular || [[Emblem of India]]|| Value, the word "[[Paisa|PAISE]]" in English and Hindi, floral motif and year of minting || 2011 || – |2016
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| 50 paise || 22 mm || 3.79 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, hand in a fist || 2008 || – |
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
|[[Indian 1-rupee coin|{{INR}}1]]|| 25 mm || 4.85 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India, value || Value, two stalks of [[wheat]] || 1992 || – |2004
|-
|{{INR}}1
|25 mm
|4.95 g
|Ferritic stainless steel
|Circular
|Unity from diversity, cross dividing 4 dots
|Value, Emblem of India, Year of minting
|2004
|2007
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}1 || 25 mm || 4.85 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, hand showing thumb (an expression in the [[Bharatanatyam|Bharata Natyam]] Dance) || 2007 || – |2011
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}1 || 22 mm ||3.79 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting || 2011 || – |2018
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
|[[Indian 2-rupee coin|{{INR}}2]]|| 26 mm || 6 g || [[Cupronickel|Cupro-Nickel]] || Eleven-sided|| Emblem of India, Value || National integration || 1982 || – |2004
|-
|{{INR}}2
|26.75 mm
|5.8 g
|Ferritic stainless steel
|Circular
|Unity from diversity, cross dividing 4 dots
|Value, Emblem of India, Year of minting
|2005
|2007
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}2 || 27 mm || 5.62 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular|| Emblem of India, year of minting || Value, hand showing two fingers (Hasta Mudra – hand gesture from the dance Bharata Natyam) || 2007 || – |2011
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}2 || 25 mm || 4.85 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular|| Emblem of India || Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting || 2011 || – |2018
|-{{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}2 || 23 mm || 4.07 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular|| Emblem of India || Value, rupee sign, year of issue, grains depicting the agricultural dominance of the country || 2019 || – |
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| [[Indian 5-rupee coin|{{INR}}5]]|| 23 mm || 9 g || Cupro-Nickel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value || 1992 || |2006
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}5 || 23 mm || 6 g || Ferritic stainless steel || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, wavy lines || 2007 || – |2009
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}5 || 23 mm || 6 g || Brass || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, wavy lines || 2009 || – |2011
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}5 || 23 mm || 6 g || [[Nickel silver|Nickel-Brass]] || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting || 2011 || – |2018
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}5 || 25 mm || 6.74 g || Nickel-Brass || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, rupee sign, year of issue, grains depicting the agricultural dominance of the country || 2019|| – |
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| [[Indian 10-rupee coin|{{INR}}10]] || 27 mm || 7.62 g || [[Bi-metallic coin|Bimetallic]]|| Circular || Emblem of India and year of minting
|| Value with outward radiating pattern of 15 spokes || 2006 || – |2010
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
|{{INR}}10 || 27 mm || 7.62 g || Bimetallic || Circular|| Emblem of India and year of minting || Value with an outward radiating pattern of 10 spokes, new rupee sign || 2011 || – |2018
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| {{INR}}10 || 27 mm || 7.74 g || Bimetallic || Circular || Emblem of India || Value, rupee sign, year of issue, grains depicting the agricultural dominance of the country || 2019|| – |
|- {{Coin-silver-color}}
| [[Indian 20-rupee coin|{{INR}}20]]|| 27 mm || 8.54 g || Bimetallic || [[Dodecagon]]al|| Emblem of India || Value, rupee sign, year of issue, grains depicting the agricultural dominance of the country || 2020|| – |
|}

The coins are minted at the four locations of the [[India Government Mint]]. The {{INR}}1, {{INR}}2, and {{INR}}5 coins have been minted since independence. The Government of India is set to introduce a new {{INR}}20 coin with a dodecagonal shape, and like the {{INR}}10 coin, also bi-metallic, along with new designs for the new versions of the {{INR}}1, {{INR}}2, {{INR}}5 and {{INR}}10 coins, which were announced on 6 March 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2019 |title=PM releases new series of visually impaired friendly coins |url=https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/news_updates/pm-releases-new-series-of-visually-impaired-friendly-coins/ |access-date=16 May 2019 |website=[[Prime Minister's Office (India)|Prime Minister's Office]] |archive-date=16 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516175026/https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/news_updates/pm-releases-new-series-of-visually-impaired-friendly-coins/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Minting ====
{{Main|India Government Mint|Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India}}

[[File:BOMBAY MINT Post Card.jpg|thumb|A postcard depicting the [[India Government Mint, Mumbai|Bombay Mint]].]]

The [[Government of India]] has the only right to mint the coins and one rupee note. The responsibility for coinage comes under the Coinage Act, 1906 which is amended from time to time. The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the responsibility of the Government of India. Coins are minted at the four [[India Government Mint]]s at [[India Government Mint, Mumbai|Mumbai]], [[India Government Mint, Kolkata|Kolkata]], [[India Government Mint, Hyderabad|Hyderabad]], and [[India Government Mint, Noida|Noida]].<ref>[https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/AboutUsDisplay.aspx?pg=DeptOfCM.htm About Us – Dept. of Commerce] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123074521/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/AboutUsDisplay.aspx?pg=DeptOfCM.htm |date=23 January 2021 }}. [[Reserve Bank of India]].</ref> The coins are issued for circulation only through the [[Reserve Bank of India|Reserve Bank]] in terms of the [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934|RBI Act]].<ref>[http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/coins.html Reserve Bank of India – Coins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628233910/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/coins.html |date=28 June 2013 }}. Rbi.org.in. Retrieved 28 July 2013.</ref>

==== Commemorative coins ====
{{Main|Commemorative coins of India}}

After independence, the [[India Government Mint|Government of India Mint]], minted [[numismatics|numismatic]] coins imprinted with Indian statesmen, historical and religious figures. In the years 2010 and 2011, for the first time ever, {{INR}}75, {{INR}}150 and {{INR}}1000 coins were minted in India to commemorate the Platinum Jubilee of the [[Reserve Bank of India]], the 150th birth anniversary of the birth of [[Rabindranath Tagore]] and 1000 years of the [[Brihadeeswarar Temple]], respectively. In 2012, a {{INR}}60 piececoins was also issued to commemorate 60 years of the Government of India Mint, Kolkata. {{INR}}[[Indian 100-rupee coin|100 coin]] was also released commemorating the 100th anniversary of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s return to India.<ref>{{cite news|title=India, South Africa discuss UNSC reforms|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/india-south-africa-discuss-unsc-reforms/article6769452.ece|access-date=9 January 2015|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=9 January 2015|location=Chennai, India|first=Rahi|last=Gaikwad|archive-date=16 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116210219/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/india-south-africa-discuss-unsc-reforms/article6769452.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Commemorative coin]]s of {{INR}}125 were released on 4 September 2015 and 6 December 2015 to honour the 125th anniversary of the births of [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] and [[B. R. Ambedkar]], respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/article/industry/banking-finance/teachers-day-pm-narendra-modi-releases-rs-125-coins-in-honour-of-dr-s-radhakrishnan/130734/ |title=Teachers' day: PM Narendra Modi releases Rs 125 coin in honour of Dr S Radhakrishnan |date=4 September 2016 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=10 November 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423104638/http://www.financialexpress.com/article/industry/banking-finance/teachers-day-pm-narendra-modi-releases-rs-125-coins-in-honour-of-dr-s-radhakrishnan/130734/ |archive-date=23 April 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/article/economy/pm-narendra-modi-releases-rs-10-rs-125-commemorative-coins-honouring-dr-babasaheb-ambedkar/175185/ |title=PM Narendra Modi releases Rs 10, Rs 125 commemorative coins honouring Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar |date=6 December 2016 |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=10 November 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423090709/http://www.financialexpress.com/article/economy/pm-narendra-modi-releases-rs-10-rs-125-commemorative-coins-honouring-dr-babasaheb-ambedkar/175185/ |archive-date=23 April 2016 }}</ref>

=== Pre-independence issues ===
{{Main|Coins of British India}}

{{more citations needed section|date=November 2016}}
[[File:India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpg|thumb|1835 [[East India Company]] 2 [[Mohur]]s]]
[[File:Rupee, 1840 - British India, Victoria.jpg|thumb|right|225px|1840 [[East India Company]] rupee. It was minted in [[Bombay]], [[Calcutta]] and [[Madras]]]]
{{multiple image
| header = Indian rupee (from 1862)
| width = 108
| image1 = India 1 Rupee 1884 Victoria(obv)-4037.jpg
| alt1 = India 1 rupee 1884 Victoria (obverse)
| image2 = India 1 Rupee 1884 Victoria(rev)-4038.jpg
| alt2 = India 1 rupee 1884 Victoria (reverse)
| caption1 = '''Obverse''': Crowned bust of [[Queen Victoria]]
| caption2 = '''Reverse''': Face value, country and year of issue
| footer = Coin made of 91.7% silver
}}
[[File:India 1862 One Mohur.jpg|thumb|1862 Indian One [[Mohur]]]]
[[File:Silver rupee of Sayaji Rao III of Baroda.jpg|thumb|Silver rupee of [[Sayajirao Gaekwad III]] of [[Baroda State]] (ruled 1875–1939), showing his profile. This coin is dated 1955 in the [[Vikrami calendar]] (1897 CE)]]
[[File:INDIAGeorge V King Emperor.jpg|thumb|right|Regal issue minted during the reign of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King/Emperor George V]]]]
[[File:1 Indian rupee coin, 1947.jpg|thumb|[[Indian 1-rupee coin|1 Indian rupee]] (1947) featuring [[George VI]] on obverse and [[Indian Lion]] on reverse]]
[[File:Indian one pice minted in 1950.jpg|thumb|[[Indian 1-paisa coin|Indian one pice]], minted in 1950|alt=Both sides of copper-coloured coin]]
[[File:1 Indian rupee (1905).jpg|thumb|[[Indian 1-rupee coin|1 Indian rupee]] (1905) featuring [[Edward VII]]]]
[[File:Hyderabad_-_One_Rupee_-_Mahboob_Ali_Khan_-_1329_AH_Silver_-_Kolkata_2016-06-28_5271-5272.png|thumb|One-rupee coin issued by [[Mahbub Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VI|Mir Mahbub Ali Khan]] of [[Hyderabad State]], 1329 [[Islamic calendar|AH]] (1911)]]
[[File:1 Indian rupee (1918).jpg|thumb|[[Indian 1-rupee coin|1 Indian rupee]] (1918) featuring [[George V]]]]

==== East India Company, 1835 ====
The three [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|Presidencies]] established by the British [[East India Company]] ([[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]], [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] and [[Madras Presidency|Madras]]) each issued their [[Coins of British India|own coinages]] until 1835. All three issued rupees and fractions thereof down to {{frac|1|8}}- and {{frac|1|16}}-rupee in silver. Madras also issued two-rupee coins.

Copper denominations were more varied. Bengal issued one-[[Pie (monetary subunit)|pie]], {{frac|1|2}}-, one- and two-[[Paisa|paise]] coins. Bombay issued 1-pie, {{frac|1|4}}-, {{frac|1|2}}-, 1-, 1{{frac|1|2}}-, 2- and 4-paise coins. In Madras, there were copper coins for two and four pies and one, two and four paise, with the first two denominated as {{frac|1|2}} and one dub (or {{frac|1|96}} and {{frac|1|48}}) rupee. Madras also issued the [[Madras fanam]] until 1815.

All three Presidencies issued gold [[mohur]]s and fractions of mohurs including {{frac|1|16}}, {{frac|1|2}}, {{frac|1|4}} in Bengal, {{frac|1|15}} (a gold rupee) and {{frac|1|3}} (pancia) in Bombay and {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|3}} and {{frac|1|2}} in Madras.

In 1835, a single coinage for the [[East India Company|EIC]] was introduced. It consisted of copper {{frac|1|12}}, {{frac|1|4}} and {{frac|1|2}} [[Indian anna|anna]], silver {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|3}} and 1 rupee and gold 1 and 2 mohurs. In 1841, silver 2 annas were added, followed by copper {{frac|1|2}} [[Indian pice|pice]] in 1853. The coinage of the EIC continued to be issued until 1862, even after the company had been [[Crown rule in India|taken over by the Crown]].

==== Regal issues, 1862–1947 ====
In 1862, coins were introduced (known as "regal issues") which bore the profile of [[Queen Victoria]] and the designation "India". Their denominations were {{frac|1|12}} [[Indian anna|anna]], {{frac|1|2}} [[Indian pice|pice]], {{frac|1|4}} and {{frac|1|2}} anna (all in copper), 2 annas, {{frac|1|4}}, {{frac|1|2}} and one rupee (silver),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jfcampbell.us/india/victoria/rupee-mm.htm|title=VICTORIA {{!}} The Coins of British India One Rupee: Mint Mark Varieties (1874–1901)|website=jfcampbell.us|date=13 October 2004|author= J. Franklin Campbell|access-date=17 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913183949/http://jfcampbell.us/india/victoria/rupee-mm.htm|archive-date=13 September 2019}}</ref> and five and ten rupees and one [[mohur]] (gold). The gold denominations ceased production in 1891, and no {{frac|1|2}}-anna coins were issued after 1877.

In 1906, bronze replaced copper for the lowest three denominations; in 1907, a [[Cupronickel|cupro-nickel]] one-anna coin was introduced. In 1918–1919 cupro-nickel two-, four- and eight-annas were introduced, although the four- and eight-annas coins were only issued until 1921 and did not replace their silver equivalents. In 1918, the Bombay mint also struck [[gold sovereign]]s and 15-rupee coins identical in size to the sovereigns as an emergency measure during the First World War.

In the early 1940s, several changes were implemented. The {{frac|1|12}} [[Indian anna|anna]] and {{frac|1|2}} [[Indian pice|pice]] ceased production, the {{frac|1|4}} anna was changed to a bronze, [[holed coin]], cupro-nickel and [[Nickel brass|nickel-brass]] {{frac|1|2}}-anna coins were introduced, nickel-brass was used to produce one- and two-annas coins, and the silver composition was reduced from 91.7 to 50 per cent. The last of the regal issues were cupro-nickel {{frac|1|4}}-, {{frac|1|2}}- and one-rupee pieces minted in 1946 and 1947, bearing the image of [[George VI]], King and Emperor on the obverse and an [[Indian lion]] on the reverse.

== Banknotes ==
=== Post-independence issues ===
{{Main|Lion Capital Series}}

{{See also|The High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978|2016 Indian banknote demonetisation}}
[[File:First banknote of independent India, one rupee, 1949.jpg|thumb|First banknote of [[independent India]], [[Indian 1-rupee note|one rupee]] (1949)]]
After independence, new designs were introduced to replace the portrait of [[George VI]]. The government continued issuing the [[Indian 1-rupee note|₹1 note]], while the [[Reserve Bank of India]] (RBI) issued other denominations (including the {{INR}}5,000 and {{INR}}10,000 notes introduced in 1949). All pre-independence banknotes were officially demonetised with effect from 28 April 1957.<ref>{{cite web|title=Currency Notes without Asoka Pillar Emblem to Cease to be Legal Tender|url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_47/ACC%20NO%20921-BR/FIN-1956-04-28_2423.pdf|website=[[Press Information Bureau of India]] – Archive|access-date=8 August 2017|archive-date=8 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808194012/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_47/ACC%20NO%20921-BR/FIN-1956-04-28_2423.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Legal Tender of Currency and Bank Notes|url=http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_47/ACC%20NO%20922-BR/FIN-1956-10-25_2659.pdf|website=[[Press Information Bureau of India]] – Archive|access-date=8 August 2017|archive-date=8 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808193909/http://pib.nic.in/archive/docs/DVD_47/ACC%20NO%20922-BR/FIN-1956-10-25_2659.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the 1970s, {{INR}}[[Indian 20-rupee note|20]] and {{INR}}[[Indian 50-rupee note|50 notes]] were introduced; denominations higher than {{INR}}[[Indian 100-rupee note|100]] were [[The High Denomination Bank Notes (Demonetisation) Act, 1978|demonetised in 1978]]. In 1987, the {{INR}}[[Indian 500-rupee note|500 note]] was introduced, followed by the {{INR}}[[Indian 1000-rupee note|1,000 note]] in 2000 while {{INR}}[[Indian 1-rupee note|1]] and {{INR}}[[Indian 2-rupee note|2 notes]] were discontinued in 1995.

[[File:10 Rupees banknotes of India.jpg|thumb|10-rupee banknote from the 1990s]]
The design of banknotes is approved by the [[Government of India|central government]], on the recommendation of the central board of the [[Reserve Bank of India]].<ref name="rbi" /> Currency notes are printed at the Currency Note Press in [[Nashik]], the Bank Note Press in [[Dewas]], the [[Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran]] (P) Ltd at [[Salboni]] and [[Mysore]] and at the Watermark Paper Manufacturing Mill in Narmadapuram. The [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]] of banknotes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India as legal tender. The series is so named because the obverse of each note features a portrait of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. Since its introduction in 1996, this series has replaced all issued banknotes of the [[Lion Capital Series]]. The RBI introduced the series in 1996 with {{INR}}[[Indian 10-rupee note|10]] and {{INR}}500 banknotes. The printing of {{INR}}[[Indian 5-rupee note|5 notes]] (which had stopped earlier) resumed in 2009.

As of January 2012, the new [[Indian rupee sign|'{{INR}}' sign]] has been incorporated into banknotes of the [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]] in denominations of {{INR}}10, {{INR}}20, {{INR}}50, {{INR}}100, {{INR}}500 and {{INR}}1,000.<ref name="10notes">{{cite web|title=Issue of ' 10/- Banknotes with incorporation of Rupee symbol (')|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25121|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-date=11 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611055008/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25121|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="500notes">{{cite web|title=Issue of ' 500 Banknotes with incorporation of Rupee symbol|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25448|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729042118/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25448|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="1000notes">{{cite web|title=Issue of ' 1000 Banknotes with incorporation of Rupee symbol|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25448|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-date=29 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729042118/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25448|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="100notes">{{cite web|title=Issue of '100 Banknotes with incorporation of Rupee symbol|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25462|publisher=RBI|access-date=23 January 2012|archive-date=11 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611233300/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewCurrencyPressRelease.aspx?Id=25462|url-status=dead}}</ref> In January 2014 RBI announced that it would be withdrawing from circulation all currency notes printed prior to 2005 by 31 March 2014. The deadline was later extended to 1 January 2015. The deadline was further extended to 30 June 2016.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=107510 | title=Withdrawal of Currencies Issued Prior to 2005 | publisher=Press Information Bureau | date=25 July 2014 | access-date=25 July 2014 | archive-date=28 July 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728232422/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=107510 | url-status=live }}</ref>

On 8 November 2016, the RBI announced the issuance of new {{INR}}500 banknotes in a new series after [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation|demonetisation of the older {{INR}}500 and {{INR}}1000 notes]]. The new {{INR}}500 banknote has a stone-grey base colour with an image of the [[Red Fort]] along with the [[Flag of India|Indian flag]] printed on the back. Both the banknotes also have the [[Swachh Bharat Abhiyan]] logo printed on the back. The banknote denominations of {{INR}}[[Indian 200-rupee note|200]], {{INR}}100 and {{INR}}50 have also been introduced in the new [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]] intended to replace all banknotes of the previous [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]].<ref name="new">{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/rbi-to-issue-1000-100-50-with-new-features-design-in-coming-months/article9328285.ece |title=RBI to issue ₹1,000, ₹100, ₹50 with new features, design in coming months |work=[[Business Line]] |access-date=18 April 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016075731/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/rbi-to-issue-1000-100-50-with-new-features-design-in-coming-months/article9328285.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> On 13 June 2017, RBI introduced new {{INR}}50 notes, but the old ones continue being legal tender. The design is similar to the current notes in the Mahatma Gandhi (New) Series, except they will come with an inset 'A'.

On 8 November 2016, the [[Government of India]] announced [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation|the demonetisation of {{INR}}500 and {{INR}}1,000 banknotes]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/feel-super-rich-rs-100-rs-10-purse/|title=How I feel super rich with Rs 100 and Rs 10 in my purse|last=Mukherjee|first=Amrita|date=14 November 2016|website=[[Asia Times]]|access-date=16 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/article/indias-demonetization-takes-toll-major-sectors/|title=India's demonetization takes its toll on major sectors|date=15 November 2016|website=[[Asia Times]]|access-date=16 November 2016}}</ref> with effect from midnight of the same day, making these notes invalid.<ref name=rbi-demonetise>{{cite press release |first=Alpana |last=Killawala |url=https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=38520 |title=Withdrawal of Legal Tender Status for ₹ 500 and ₹ 1000 Notes: RBI Notice |date=8 November 2016 |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=13 November 2016 |archive-date=18 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118080913/https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=38520 |url-status=live }}</ref> A newly [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series|redesigned series]] of {{INR}}[[Indian 500-rupee note|500 banknote]], in addition to a new denomination of {{INR}}[[Indian 2000-rupee note|2,000 banknote]] is in circulation since 10 November 2016.<ref name=rbi-500-new>{{cite press release |first=Alpana |last=Killawala |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/PR114610FD822AC70142AEB274AF376755C293.PDF |title=Issue of ₹500 Banknotes (Press Release) |date=8 November 2016 |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=8 November 2016 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108201007/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/PR114610FD822AC70142AEB274AF376755C293.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=rbi-2000-new>{{cite press release |first=Alpana |last=Killawala |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/PR1144EFECD860ED0D479D88AB8D5CA036FC35.PDF |title=Issue of ₹2000 Banknotes (Press Release) |date=8 November 2016 |publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] |access-date=8 November 2016 |archive-date=10 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110043657/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PressRelease/PDFs/PR1144EFECD860ED0D479D88AB8D5CA036FC35.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>

From 2017 to 2019, the remaining banknotes of the [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]] were released in denominations of [[Indian 10-rupee note|{{INR}}10]], [[Indian 20-rupee note|{{INR}}20]], [[Indian 50-rupee note|{{INR}}50]], [[Indian 100-rupee note|{{INR}}100]] and [[Indian 200-rupee note|{{INR}}200]].<ref>{{cite news|title=RBI Introduces ₹ 200 denomination banknote|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=41460#mainsection|website=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|date=24 August 2017|access-date=26 March 2018|archive-date=5 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005145255/https://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=41460#mainsection|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=RBI to Issue New Design ₹ 100 Denomination Banknote|url=https://rbi.org.in/scripts/FS_PressRelease.aspx?prid=44533&fn=2753|date=19 July 2018|website=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|access-date=25 December 2018|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225175349/https://rbi.org.in/scripts/FS_PressRelease.aspx?prid=44533&fn=2753|url-status=live}}</ref> The {{INR}}[[Indian 1000-rupee note|1,000 note]] has been suspended.<ref name="new" />

==== Current circulating banknotes ====
{{Main|Mahatma Gandhi Series|Mahatma Gandhi New Series}}

As of 27 April 2025, current circulating banknotes are in denominations of ₹[[Indian 1-rupee note|1]], {{INR}}[[Indian 5-rupee note|5]], {{INR}}[[Indian 10-rupee note|10]], {{INR}}[[Indian 20-rupee note|20]], {{INR}}[[Indian 50-rupee note|50]] and {{INR}}[[Indian 100-rupee note|100]] from the [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]] (retired) and in denominations of ₹10, ₹20,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.rbi.org.in//Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=46913|title=Reserve Bank of India – Press Releases|website=rbi.org.in|access-date=26 April 2019|archive-date=12 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012171214/https://m.rbi.org.in//Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=46913|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Indian 50-rupee note|₹50]], {{INR}}100, {{INR}}[[Indian 200-rupee note|200]], {{INR}}[[Indian 500-rupee note|500]] and ₹[[Indian 2000-rupee note|2000]] (recalled but still legal tender)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-19 |title=RBI on 2000 Rupee note: RBI to withdraw Rs 2,000 notes from circulation; notes will continue to be legal tender |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rbi-to-withdraw-rs-2000-currency-notes-from-circulation-notes-will-continue-to-be-legal-tender-till-september-30/articleshow/100360257.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-09-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> from the [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+
|-
!colspan="2"| Image !!rowspan="2"| Value !!rowspan="2"| Dimensions !!rowspan="2"| Main colour !!colspan="3"| Description !!rowspan="2"| Date of issue !!rowspan="2"| Circulation
|-
! Obverse !! Reverse !! Obverse !! Reverse !! Watermark
|-
|[[File:Indian 1 Rupee 2020 Front.jpg|97x97px]]
|[[File:Indian 1 Rupee 2020 Reverse.jpg|97x97px]]
|[[Indian 1-rupee note|₹1]]
|97mm × 63mm
|[[Shades of pink|Pink]]
|New ₹1 coin
|[[Mercator (company)#Sagar Samrat|Sagar Samrat oil rig]]
|[[State Emblem of India|National Emblem of India]]
|2020{{cn|date=April 2026}}
| rowspan="2" |Limited
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[File:5 Rupees (Obverse).jpg|117x117px]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[File:5 Rupees (Reverse).jpg|117x117px]]
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Indian 5-rupee note|{{INR}}5]] || 117mm × 63mm || [[Green]] || rowspan="7" | [[Mahatma Gandhi]] || [[Tractor]] || rowspan="7" | Mahatma Gandhi and electrotype denomination || 2002 / 2009
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+New series banknotes
|-
!colspan="2"| Image !!rowspan="2"| Value !!rowspan="2"| Dimensions !!rowspan="2"| Main colour !!colspan="3"| Description !!rowspan="2"| Date of issue !!rowspan="2"| Circulation
|-
! Obverse !! Reverse !! Obverse !! Reverse !! Watermark
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 10 INR, MG series, 2018, obverse.jpg|122px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 10 INR, MG series, 2018, reverse.jpg|122px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Indian 10-rupee note|{{INR}}10]]|| 123mm × 63mm ||[[Chocolate (color)|Chocolate Brown]]|| rowspan="7" | [[Mahatma Gandhi]] ||[[Konark Sun Temple]] || rowspan="7" | Mahatma Gandhi and electrotype denomination || 2017 || rowspan="6" | Wide
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 20 INR, MG series, 2019, obverse.jpg|130px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 20 INR, MG series, 2019, reverse.jpg|130px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Indian 20-rupee note|{{INR}}20]] || 129mm × 63mm ||[[Shades of yellow|Greenish Yellow]]||[[Ellora Caves]] || 2019
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 50 INR, MG series, 2018, obverse.jpg|139px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 50 INR, MG series, 2018, reverse.jpg|139px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Indian 50-rupee note|{{INR}}50]] || 135mm × 66mm ||[[Shades of blue|Fluorescent Blue]]||[[Hampi]] || 2017
|-
|[[File:100 rs note obverse.jpg|147px]]
|[[File:100 rs note reverse.jpg|147px]]
|[[Indian 100-rupee note|{{INR}}100]]
|142mm × 66 mm
|[[Lavender (color)|Lavender]]
|[[Rani ki vav]]
|2018
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India, 200 INR, 2018, obverse.jpg|154px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India, 200 INR, 2018, reverse.jpg|154px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Indian 200-rupee note|{{INR}}200]] || 146mm × 66mm || [[Shades of orange|Orange]]||[[Sanchi Stupa]] || 2017
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 500 INR, MG series, 2016, obverse.jpg|160px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India new 500 INR, MG series, 2016, reverse.jpg|160px]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Indian 500-rupee note|{{INR}}500]] || 150mm × 66mm || [[Shades of gray#Stone gray|Stone Grey]] || [[Red Fort]]
| rowspan="2" |2016
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India_new_2000_INR,_MG_series,_2016,_obverse.jpg|160px]]
| style="text-align:center;"| [[File:India_new_2000_INR,_MG_series,_2016,_reverse.jpg|160px]]
|[[Indian 2000-rupee note|₹2000]]
|166mm × 66mm
|[[Magenta]]
|[[Mars Orbiter Mission|Mangalyaan]]
|Withdrawn from 2023 circulation (still legal tender)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/commonperson/English/Scripts/FAQs.aspx?Id=3443#:~:text=for%20normal%20transactions?-,Yes.,or%20before%20September%2030,%202023 |access-date=2025-09-10 |website=www.rbi.org.in}}</ref>
|-
| colspan="10" style="text-align:left;"|{{Standard banknote table notice}}
|}

===== Micro printing =====
{{See also|Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran|Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India}}
The new Indian banknote series features a few micro-printed texts in various locations. The first one lies on the inner surface of the left temple of Gandhi's spectacles that reads "भारत" ([[Names for India#Bharat|Bhārata]]), the Hindi word for India. The next one (which is printed only in 10 and 50 denominations) is placed on the outer surface of the right temple of Gandhi's spectacles near his ear and reads "RBI" ([[Reserve Bank of India]]) and the face value in numerals "10" or "50". The last one is written on both sides of Gandhi's collar and reads "भारत" and "INDIA" respectively. Currency notes have 17 languages on the panel which appears on the reverse of the notes.
[[File:Gandhi's Spectacles.jpg|none|thumb|500x500px|Micro printed texts on [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]]'s spectacles]]
[[File:Gandhi's Collar.jpg|none|thumb|500x500px|Micro printed texts on [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]]'s collar]]

=== Pre-independence issues ===
[[File:IND-A10a-Government of India-10 Rupees (1910).jpg|thumb|[[British Raj|Government of India]] {{En dash}} [[Indian 10-rupee note|10 rupees]] (1910), Red Underprint Series]]
[[File:KGVI rupee 1 note obverse.jpg|thumb|British Indian [[Indian 1-rupee note|one rupee note]], [[Reserve Bank of India]] 1940 issue|alt=Old 1 rupee note]]

In 1861, the [[British Raj|Government of India]] introduced its first paper money through the [[The Paper Currency Act, 1861|Paper Currency Act]].<ref name="Spink">{{cite web|url=https://spink.com/media/view?id=48|publisher=Spink and Son|title=Banknotes For The Raj|author=Dr. K. A. Rodgers|access-date=November 4, 2025}}</ref> The {{INR}}10 note was introduced in 1864, {{INR}}5 note in 1872, {{INR}}10,000 note in 1899, {{INR}}100 note in 1900, {{INR}}50 note in 1905, {{INR}}500 note in 1907 and {{INR}}1,000 note in 1909. The first set of notes, known as the "Victoria Portrait" Series, were unifaced and featured two language panels on hand-moulded paper. This series' name is derived from the portrait of [[Queen Victoria]] which appeared in the upper-left corner of the notes.<ref name="RBI">{{cite web|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/pm_britishindia.aspx|publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|title=British India Issues|access-date=November 4, 2025}}</ref> In 1917, {{INR}}1 and {{INR}}2{{frac|1|2}} notes were introduced.<ref name="oneindia">{{cite web|url=https://oneindiaonline.com/history-of-indian-currency-notes.php|publisher=oneindiaonline|title=History of Indian Money: The Journey of Currency Notes|access-date=November 4, 2025}}</ref>

In 1867, the Victoria Portrait series was withdrawn and replaced with the unifaced "[[Underprint]] Series" in response to [[forgery]]. Underprint Series notes featured 4 language panels in the "Green Series" (notes which featured a green underprint). The languages on the notes differed in relation to where the note was issued. The amount of language panels was increased to 8 in the "Red Series" (notes which featured a red underprint). The Underprint Series remained largely unchanged until the introduction of the "King's Portrait" Series in 1923.<ref name="RBI"></ref>

The King's Portrait Series were introduced in May of 1923 on a [[Indian 10-rupee note|ten rupee note]].

After the accession of [[King George V]] lower denominations such as ₹1 and ₹2.5 were printed along with notes for specific territories like [[British rule in Burma|Burma]].<ref name="oneindia"></ref>

The [[Reserve Bank of India]] began banknote production in 1938, issuing {{INR}}2, {{INR}}5, {{INR}}10, {{INR}}50, {{INR}}100, {{INR}}1,000 and {{INR}}10,000 notes while the government continued issuing {{INR}}1 note but demonetized the {{INR}}500 and {{INR}}2 {{frac|1|2}} notes.<ref name="RBI"></ref>

== Convertibility ==
{{See also|Monetary policy of India|Monetary Policy Committee (India)}}{{Most traded currencies}}
Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-determined exchange rate. However, the [[Reserve Bank of India]] trades actively in the USD/INR currency market to impact [[Trade weighted index|effective exchange rates]]. Thus, the currency regime in place for the Indian rupee with respect to the [[US dollar]] is a ''[[de facto]]'' controlled exchange rate. This is sometimes called a "[[managed float]]". On 9 May 2022, the Indian rupee traded at ₹77.41 against the US dollar, hitting an all-time low.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Rupee falls to all-time low against US dollar |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/indian-rupee-falls-to-all-time-low-against-us-dollar-332778-2022-05-09 |access-date=2022-05-12 |website=Business Today |date=9 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=9 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509135601/https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/indian-rupee-falls-to-all-time-low-against-us-dollar-332778-2022-05-09 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other rates (such as the EUR/INR and INR/JPY) have the volatility typical of [[floating exchange rate]]s, and often create persistent [[arbitrage]] opportunities against the RBI.<ref>[http://icrier.org/pdf/wp108.pdf "Convertibility: Patnaik, 2004"] (PDF). Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations.</ref> Unlike [[China]], successive [[Government of India|administrations]] (through RBI, the central bank) have not followed a policy of pegging the INR to a specific foreign currency at a particular exchange rate. RBI intervention in currency markets is solely to ensure low volatility in exchange rates, and not to influence the rate (or direction) of the Indian rupee in relation to other currencies.<ref>{{cite news|last=Chandra |first=Shobhana |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080&sid=alS4DteWrtco&refer=asia |title='Neither the government nor the central bank takes a view on the rupee (exchange rate movements), as long as the movement is orderly', says Indian Minister of Finance |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |date=26 September 2007 |access-date=5 November 2011}}</ref>

Also affecting convertibility is a series of [[customs]] regulations restricting the import and export of rupees. Legally, only up to {{INR}}25000 can be imported or exported in cash at a time, and the possession of {{INR}}200 and higher notes in [[Nepal]] is prohibited.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rbi.org.in/commonman/English/scripts/Notification.aspx?Id=301#Foreign |title=RBI Master Circular on Import of Goods and Services |publisher=Rbi.org.in |access-date=25 August 2013 |archive-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023063023/http://www.rbi.org.in/commonman/English/scripts/Notification.aspx?Id=301#Foreign |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewMasCirculardetails.aspx?id=7354#b22 |title=RBI Master Circular on Export of Goods and Services |publisher=Rbi.org.in |access-date=25 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130817130904/http://rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_ViewMasCirculardetails.aspx?id=7354#b22 |archive-date=17 August 2013 }}</ref> The conversion of currencies for and from rupees is also regulated.

RBI also exercises a system of [[capital control]]s in addition to (through active trading) in currency markets. On the current account, there are no currency-conversion restrictions hindering buying or selling foreign exchange (although trade barriers exist). On the capital account, foreign institutional investors face restrictions on convertibility when bring money into/out of the country and buying securities (subject to quantitative restrictions). Local firms can take capital out of the country to expand globally. However, local households are restricted in their ability to diversify globally. Because of the expansion of the current and capital accounts, India is increasingly moving towards full ''de facto'' convertibility.

There is some confusion regarding the interchange of the currency with gold, but the system that India follows is that money cannot be exchanged for gold under any circumstances due to gold's lack of liquidity;{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} therefore, money cannot be converted into gold by the RBI. India follows the same principle as Great Britain and the US.

Reserve Bank of India clarifies its position regarding the promissory clause printed on each banknote:

''"As per Section 26 of [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934]], the Bank is liable to pay the value of banknote. This is payable on demand by RBI, being the issuer. The Bank's obligation to pay the value of banknote does not arise out of a contract but out of statutory provisions. The promissory clause printed on the banknotes i.e., "I promise to pay the bearer an amount of X" is a statement that means that the banknote is a legal tender for X amount. The obligation on the part of the Bank is to exchange a banknote for coins of an equivalent amount."''<ref>[http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView.aspx?Id=39#12 Reserve bank of India Frequently Asked Questions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112123135/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FAQView.aspx?Id=39 |date=12 January 2012 }} rbi.org.in Retrieved 27 August 2013</ref>

=== Chronology ===
* 1991 – India began to lift restrictions on its currency. Several reforms removed restrictions on current account transactions (including trade, interest payments, and [[remittances]]) and some capital asset-based transactions. Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System (LERMS) (a [[Dual exchange rate|dual-exchange-rate]] system) introduced partial convertibility of the rupee in March 1992.<ref>Rituparna Kar and Nityananda Sarkar: ''Mean and volatility dynamics of Indian rupee/US dollar exchange rate series: an empirical investigation'' in Asia-Pacific Financial Markets (2006) 13:41–69, p. 48. {{doi|10.1007/s10690-007-9034-0}} .</ref>
* 1997 – A panel (set up to explore capital account convertibility) recommended that India move towards full convertibility by 2000, but the timetable was abandoned in the wake of the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|1997–1998 Asian financial crisis]].
* 2006 – [[Prime Minister]] [[Manmohan Singh]] asked the [[P. Chidambaram|Finance Minister]] and the [[Reserve Bank of India]] to prepare a road map for moving towards [[capital account convertibility]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The 'Fuller Capital Account Convertibility Report'|date=31 July 2006|url=http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs/72250.pdf|access-date=23 January 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205135704/http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs/72250.pdf|archive-date=5 February 2009}}</ref>
* 2016 – The [[Government of India]] announced the [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation|demonetisation]] of all ₹500 and ₹1,000 banknotes of the [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]].<ref name="withdrawaloflegal">{{cite web|url=https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=38520|title=Withdrawal of Legal Tender Status for ₹ 500 and ₹ 1000 Notes: RBI Notice (Revised)|date=8 November 2016|publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|access-date=8 November 2016|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118080913/https://rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=38520|url-status=live}}</ref> The government claimed that the action would curtail the shadow economy and crack down on the use of illicit "black money" and counterfeit cash to fund illegal activity and terrorism.<ref name="India Today2">{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/live-pm-narendra-modi-addresses-nation-350943-2016-11-08|title=Here is what PM Modi said about the new Rs 500, Rs 2000 notes and black money|date=8 November 2016|access-date=9 November 2016|work=[[India Today]]|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118082404/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/live-pm-narendra-modi-addresses-nation/1/805755.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rs-500-and-Rs-1000-notes-pulled-out-of-circulation-immediately-PM-Narendra-Modi/articleshow/55315473.cms|title=Notes out of circulation|date=8 November 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=3 June 2017|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118082725/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rs-500-and-Rs-1000-notes-pulled-out-of-circulation-immediately-PM-Narendra-Modi/articleshow/55315473.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2023 – [[Reserve Bank of India]] issued a circular on [[May 19|19 May]] stating currency notes of ₹2,000 denomination will be withdrawn from circulation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=ET Online |title=Rs 2,000 notes to be withdrawn from circulation, exchange window open till September 30 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/rs-2000-notes-to-be-withdrawn-from-circulation-to-continue-as-legal-tender/articleshow/100360379.cms |website=economictimes.indiatimes.com |publisher=The Economic Times |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519173725/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/rs-2000-notes-to-be-withdrawn-from-circulation-to-continue-as-legal-tender/articleshow/100360379.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The reason given for this withdrawal is the decline in the number of currency notes in circulation. According to the circular, there were only 10.8% of Notes in Circulation on March 31, 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rs 2,000 notes withdrawn from circulation, RBI says will remain legal tender |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/rbi-to-withdraw-rs-2000-currency-note-from-circulation-2381590-2023-05-19 |website=www.indiatoday.in |date=19 May 2023 |publisher=India Today |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519135549/https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/rbi-to-withdraw-rs-2000-currency-note-from-circulation-2381590-2023-05-19 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Exchange rates ==
{{See also|Foreign Exchange Management Act}}

=== Historic exchange rates ===
{{Main|Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee}}

==== Pre-Independence ====
[[File:INR-USD, GBP, EUR, JPY.svg|thumb|upright=2.04|Graph of exchange rates of Indian rupee (INR) per USD 1, GBP 1, EUR 1, JPY 100 averaged over the month, from September 1998 to May 2013. ''Data Source: Reserve Bank of India reference rate'']]
For almost a century following the [[Great Recoinage of 1816]], and adoption of the [[Gold Standard]], until the outbreak of World War I, the silver-backed Indian rupee lost its value against a basket of gold-pegged currencies and was periodically devalued to reflect the then current [[gold silver ratio|gold to silver reserve ratios]]. In 1850, the official conversion rate between the pound sterling and the rupee was £0 / 2[[shilling|s]] / 0d (or £1:₹10), while between 1899 and 1914, the official conversion rate was set at £1 to 1[[shilling|s]] to 4[[Penny|d]] (or £1:₹15). However, this was just half of market exchange rates between 1893 and 1917.

The [[gold silver ratio|gold-to-silver ratio]] expanded between 1870 and 1910. Unlike India, Britain was on the gold standard. To meet the Home Charges (i.e., expenditure in the United Kingdom), the colonial government had to remit a larger number of rupees, and this necessitated increased taxation, unrest and nationalism.

Between both world wars, the rate improved from 1[[shilling|s]] to 6[[Penny|d]] (or £1:₹13.33), and remained pegged at this rate for the duration of the [[Bretton Woods system|Bretton Woods agreement]], to its devaluation and pegging to the US dollar, at $1:{{INR}}7.50, in 1966.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chandra |first=Saurabh |date=21 August 2013 |title=The fallacy of 'dollar = rupee' in 1947 |url=http://zeenews.india.com/business/news/finance/the-fallacy-of-dollar-rupee-in-1947_82327.html |access-date=22 August 2013 |archive-date=21 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821093246/http://zeenews.india.com/business/news/finance/the-fallacy-of-dollar-rupee-in-1947_82327.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Historical exchange rates from 1953 with graph and charts |url=http://fxtop.com/en/historical-exchange-rates.php?YA=1&C1=GBP&C2=USD&A=1&YYYY1=1953&MM1=01&DD1=01&YYYY2=2017&MM2=09&DD2=18&LANG=en |access-date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Fxtop.com |archive-date=1 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032700/http://fxtop.com/en/historical-exchange-rates.php?YA=1&C1=GBP&C2=USD&A=1&YYYY1=1953&MM1=01&DD1=01&YYYY2=2017&MM2=09&DD2=18&LANG=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Post-Independence ====
Following the country's independence, India implemented a [[Par value]] exchange rate regime until 1971. The country switched to [[Fixed exchange rate system|a fixed exchange rate regime]] in 1971 and graduated to a basket peg against five major currencies in 1975. Since 1991, the rupee has been under a floating exchange rate regime.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India - Publications |url=https://m.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=12252 |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=m.rbi.org.in |archive-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522005114/https://m.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=12252 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The first major impact on the rupee's exchange rate after independence was the devaluation of the pound sterling against the US dollar in 1949, which impacted currencies that maintained a peg to the sterling, which included the Indian rupee.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 September 1949 |series=Guardian Century 1940-1949 |title=Pound devalued 30 per cent |url=https://www.theguardian.com/century/1940-1949/Story/0,,105127,00.html |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209092533/https://www.theguardian.com/century/1940-1949/Story/0,,105127,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1966, the Indian rupee was devalued by 57% against [[United States dollar]], which also led to the depreciation of the sterling.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Gupta |first=Sujay |date=7 Jun 2016 |title=Forgotten legacy of 6/6/66 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/forgotten-legacy-of-6/6/66/articleshow/52629071.cms |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=22 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422075118/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/forgotten-legacy-of-6/6/66/articleshow/52629071.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Five years later, when the [[Bretton Woods system]] was suspended, India initially announced that it would maintain a fixed rate of $1 to INR 7.50 and leave the sterling under a floating regime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Verghese |first=S. K. |year=1973 |title=International Monetary Crises and the Indian Rupee |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4362898 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=8 |issue=30 |pages=1342–1348 |jstor=4362898 |issn=0012-9976 |access-date=19 April 2022 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416174616/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4362898 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, by the end of 1971, following the [[Smithsonian Agreement]] and the subsequent devaluation of the US dollar, [[India]] pegged the rupee with the pound sterling once again at a rate of £1 to INR 18.9677.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wadhva |first1=Charan D. |last2=Paul |first2=Samuel |year=1973 |title=The Dollar Devaluation and India's Balance of Payments |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4362402 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=8 |issue=10 |pages=517–522 |jstor=4362402 |issn=0012-9976 |access-date=19 April 2022 |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416174751/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4362402 |url-status=live }}</ref> During this period, [[India]] had a non-commercial exchange rate with the [[Soviet Union]]. The ruble to rupee exchange rates was announced by the Soviet Union, as the ruble was not a freely traded currency and the commercial trade between both nations used to take place in rupees following a [[India–Russia relations|treaty between India and the Soviet Union]] in 1953.

In September 1975, the exchange rate of the Indian rupee started to be determined based on the basket peg. The details of currencies which form the basket, and their weightage were kept confidentially by [[Reserve Bank of India]] and the exchange rate of the rupee based on market fluctuation of these currencies was periodically announced by the RBI.<ref>{{Cite magazine |author=Tikku |first=M. K. |date=7 April 2015 |title=High-powered Indian team of financial experts to visit Moscow to sort out rouble-rupee exchange rate differences |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19760531-high-powered-indian-team-of-financial-experts-to-visit-moscow-to-sort-out-rouble-rupee-exchange-rate-differences-819182-2015-04-07 |magazine=India Today |language=en |access-date=2022-04-19 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419174839/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/indiascope/story/19760531-high-powered-indian-team-of-financial-experts-to-visit-moscow-to-sort-out-rouble-rupee-exchange-rate-differences-819182-2015-04-07 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Verghese |first=S. K. |year=1979 |title=Exchange Rate of Indian Rupee since Its Basket Link |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4367782 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=14 |issue=28 |pages=1160–1165 |jstor=4367782 |issn=0012-9976 |access-date=19 April 2022 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419174839/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4367782 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The next major change that occurred was the devaluation of the rupee by about 18% in July 1991 following the [[1991 Indian economic crisis|balance of payments crisis]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reserve Bank of India |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/commonman/English/History/Scripts/Chron1991to2000.aspx |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=rbi.org.in |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628091901/https://www.rbi.org.in/commonman/English/History/Scripts/Chron1991to2000.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Thereafter, in March 1992, the Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System was introduced, enabling the transition to a [[floating exchange rate]] regime.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
|+ Indian rupees per currency unit averaged over the year<ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=FXHistory: historical currency exchange rates |publisher=OANDA Corporation |url=http://www.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory |format=database |access-date=1 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060403020304/http://oanda.com/convert/fxhistory |archive-date=3 April 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web | title = The fallacy of 'dollar = rupee' in 1947 | publisher = DNA | url = http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-the-fallacy-of-dollar-rupee-in-1947-1876776 | access-date = 19 August 2013 | archive-date = 26 October 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131026004214/http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-the-fallacy-of-dollar-rupee-in-1947-1876776 | url-status = live }}</ref>
! Currency !! [[ISO 4217|ISO code]] !! 1947 !! 1966 !! 1995!! 1996 !! 2000 !! 2004 !! 2006 !! 2007 !! 2008 !! 2009 !! 2010 !! 2013 !! 2014 !! 2015 !! 2016 !! 2017 !! 2018 !! 2019 !! 2020 !! 2021 !! 2022 !! 2023
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Australian dollar]] || AUD || – || 5.33 || – || 27.69 || 26.07 || 33.28 || 34.02 || 34.60 || 36.81 || 38.22 || 42.00 || 56.36 || 54.91 || 48.21 || 49.96 || 49.91 || 50.64 || 50.01 || 56.30
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Bahraini dinar]] || BHD || – || 13.35 || 91.75 || 91.24 || 117.78 || 120.39 || 120.40 || 109.59 || 115.65 || 128.60 || 121.60 || 155.95 || 164.55 || 170.6 || 178.3 || – || 169.77
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Bangladeshi taka]] || BDT || – || – || 0.84 || 0.84 || 0.77 || 0.66 || 0.63 || 0.57 || 0.71 || 0.66 || 0.68 || 0.80 || 0.88 || 0.84 || 0.85 || – || 0.76
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Canadian dollar]] || CAD || – || 5.90 || 23.63 || 26.00 || 30.28 || 34.91 || 41.09 || 42.92 || 44.59 || 52.17 || 44.39 || 56.88 || 49.53 || 47.94 || 52.32 || 50.21 || 51.38
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Renminbi]] || CNY || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 5.80 || – || – || – || 9.93 || 10.19 || 10.15 || – || 9.81
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[United Arab Emirates dirham|Emirate dirham]] || AED || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 17.47 || 18.26 || 17.73 || 17.80
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Euro]]a || EUR || – || – || 42.41 || 44.40 || 41.52 || 56.38 || 64.12 || 68.03 || 60.59 || 65.69 || – || – || 70.21 || 72.60 || 75.84 || 73.53 || 79.52
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Israeli new shekel|Israeli shekel]]b || ILS || 13.33 || 21.97 || 11.45 || 10.76 || 10.83 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 17.08 || 16.57 || 17.47 || – || 18.36
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Japanese yen]]c || JPY || 6.6 || 2.08 || 32.66 || 32.96 || 41.79 || 41.87 || 38.93 || 35.00 || 42.27 || 51.73 || 52.23 || 60.07 || 57.79 || 53.01 || 62.36 || – || 56
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Kuwaiti dinar]] || KWD || – || 17.80 || 115.5 || 114.5 || 144.9 || 153.3 || 155.5 || 144.6 || 161.7 || 167.7 || 159.2 || 206.5 || 214.3 || 213.1 || 222.4 || || 211.43
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Malaysian ringgit]] || MYR || 1.55 || 2.07 || 12.97 || 14.11 || 11.84 || 11.91 || 12.36 || 11.98 || 13.02 || 13.72 || 14.22 || 18.59 || 18.65 || 16.47 || 16.37 || – || 15.72
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Maldivian rufiyaa]] || MVR || 1.00 || 1.33 || 2.93 || 2.91 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 4.58 || 4.76 || 5.01 || 5.23 || – || 4.13
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Pakistani rupee]] || PKR || 1.00 || 1.33 || 1.08 || 0.95 || 0.80 || 0.77 || 0.75 || 0.67 || 0.61 || 0.59 || 0.53 || 0.57 || 0.60 || 0.62 || 0.64 || – || 0.57 || 0.46 || 0.45
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Pound sterling]] || GBP || 13.33 || 17.76 || 51.14 || 55.38 || 68.11 || 83.06 || 80.63 || 76.38 || 71.33 || 83.63 || 70.63 || 91.08 || 100.51 || 98.11 || 92.00 || 83.87 || 90.37
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Russian ruble]]d || RUB || 6.60 || 15.00 || 7.56 || 6.69 || 1.57 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 1.05 || 0.99 || – || 1.10
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Saudi riyal]] || SAR || – || 1.41 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 17.11 || 17.88 || – || 17.02
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Singapore dollar]] / [[Brunei dollar]]e || SGD / BND || 1.55 || 2.07 || 23.13 || 25.16 || 26.07 || 26.83 || 30.93 || 33.60 || 34.51 || 41.27 || 33.58 || 46.84 || 45.86 || 46.67 || 48.86 || – || 47.70
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Sri Lankan rupee]] || LKR || – || 1.33 || 0.63 || 0.64 || 0.58 || – || – || – || – || – || – || 0.47 || 0.46 || 0.45 || 0.46 || – || 0.41 || 0.39 || 0.39
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Swiss franc]] || CHF || – || 1.46 || 27.48 || – || – || – || – || – || – || – || 43.95 || 66.95 || 66.71 || 66.70 || 68.40 || – || 65.48
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | [[United States dollar|US dollar]] || USD || 3.30 || 7.50 || 32.45 || 35.44 || 44.20 || 45.34 || 43.95 || 39.50 || 48.76 || 45.33 || 45.00 || 68.80 || 66.07 || 66.73 || 67.19 || 65.11 || 72.10 || 74.20 || 74.50 || 82.62 || 83.25
|-
| colspan="20" style="text-align: left;" | a Before 1 January 1999, the [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU) b Before 1980, the [[Israeli pound]] (ILP) c 100 [[Japanese yen]] d Before 1993, the [[Soviet ruble]] (SUR), in 1995 and 1996 – per 1000 rubles e Before 1967, the [[Malaya and British Borneo dollar]]
|}

=== Current exchange rates ===
{{Exchange rate|INR|AED|||style=navbox}}

== Worldwide rupee usage ==
{{See also|Gulf rupee|Bhutanese ngultrum|Nepalese rupee|Pakistani rupee|Mauritian rupee}}
As the [[Straits Settlements]] were originally an outpost of the British [[East India Company]], the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency of the Straits Settlements in 1837, as it was administered as part of [[British India]]. This attempt was resisted by the locals. However, [[Spanish dollar]]s continued to circulate and 1845 saw the introduction of coinage for the Straits Settlements using a system of 100 [[Cent (currency)|cents]] = 1 dollar, with the dollar equal to the Spanish dollar or [[Mexican peso]]. In 1867, the administration of the Straits Settlements was separated from India and the [[Straits dollar]] was made the standard currency, and attempts to reintroduce the rupee were finally abandoned.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dcstamps.com/?p=739 |title=Straits Settlements (1867–1946) |publisher=Dcstamps.com |date=13 May 2014 |access-date=18 April 2018 |archive-date=24 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024084205/http://www.dcstamps.com/?p=739 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the [[Partition of India]], the [[Pakistani rupee]] came into existence, initially using Indian coins and Indian currency notes simply over-stamped with "Pakistan". Previously the Indian rupee was an official currency of other countries, including [[Colony of Aden|Aden]], [[Oman]], [[Dubai]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], the [[Trucial States]], [[Kenya]], [[Tanganyika (territory)|Tanganyika]], [[Uganda]], the [[Seychelles]] and [[Mauritius]].

The Indian government introduced the [[Gulf rupee]] as a replacement for the Indian rupee for circulation outside the country with the Reserve Bank of India (Amendment) Act of 1 May 1959.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamalakaran |first=Ajay |date=14 September 2021 |title=Gulf rupee: When the Reserve Bank of India played central banker in West Asia |url=https://scroll.in/magazine/1005110/gulf-rupee-when-the-reserve-bank-of-india-played-central-banker-in-west-asia |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416181455/https://scroll.in/magazine/1005110/gulf-rupee-when-the-reserve-bank-of-india-played-central-banker-in-west-asia |url-status=live }}</ref> The creation of a separate currency was an attempt to reduce the strain on India's foreign reserves from gold smuggling. After India devalued the rupee on 6 June 1966, those countries still using it – Oman, Qatar, and the Trucial States (which became the [[United Arab Emirates]] in 1971) – replaced the [[Gulf rupee]] with their own [[Currency|currencies]]. Kuwait and Bahrain had already done so in 1961 with the [[Kuwaiti dinar]] and in 1965 with the [[Bahraini dinar]], respectively.<ref name="commoncurrency">{{cite web |last1=Ranjan |first1=Rajiv |last2=Prakash |first2=Anand |date=April 2010 |title=Internationalisation of currency: the case of the Indian rupee and Chinese renminbi |url=http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs/RRSS180510F.pdf |access-date=1 March 2010 |series=RBI Staff Studies |publisher=Department of Economic Analysis and Policy, Reserve Bank of India |archive-date=26 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226115513/http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/PublicationReport/Pdfs/RRSS180510F.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Bhutanese ngultrum]] is pegged at par with the Indian rupee; both currencies are accepted in Bhutan. The [[Nepalese rupee]] is pegged at {{INR}}0.625; the Indian rupee is accepted in Bhutan, except {{INR}}[[Indian 500-rupee note|500]] and {{INR}}[[Indian 1000-rupee note|1000 banknotes]] of the [[Mahatma Gandhi Series]] and the {{INR}}[[Indian 200-rupee note|200]], {{INR}}500 banknotes of the [[Mahatma Gandhi New Series]], which are not legal tender in Bhutan and Nepal and are banned by their respective governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/dont-take-1-000-and-500-indian-rupee-notes-to-nepal/20120725.html |title=Don't take 1,000 and 500 Indian rupee notes to Nepal |publisher=RBI Staff Studies |access-date=27 October 2014 |archive-date=27 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027133004/http://www.rediff.com/news/report/dont-take-1-000-and-500-indian-rupee-notes-to-nepal/20120725.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 29 January 2014, Zimbabwe added the Indian rupee as a [[legal tender]] to be used.<ref name="deccanherald.com">{{cite news |title=Indian Rupee to be legal tender in Zimbabwe |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/383402/indian-rupee-legal-tender-zimbabwe.html |access-date=8 November 2019 |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |publisher=The Printers Mysore |date=29 January 2014 |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108094711/https://www.deccanherald.com/content/383402/indian-rupee-legal-tender-zimbabwe.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hungwe |first=Brian |date=6 February 2014 |title=Zimbabwe's multi-currency confusion |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26034078 |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=16 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416041444/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26034078 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{annotated link|British currency in the Middle East}}
* {{annotated link|Coinage of India}}
* {{annotated link|Coins of British India}}
* {{annotated link|Coins of the Indian rupee}}
** {{annotated link|Anna (monetary subunit)}}
** {{annotated link|Pie (monetary subunit)}}
* {{annotated link|Digital rupee}}
* {{annotated link|Fake Indian currency note}}
* {{annotated link|Great Depression in India}}
* {{annotated link|History of the taka}}
* {{annotated link|Paisa}}
** {{annotated link|Indian paisa}}
* {{annotated link|Reserve Bank of India}}
** {{annotated link|RBI Monetary Museum}}
** {{annotated link|Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934}}
* {{annotated link|Rupee}}
** {{annotated link|History of the rupee}}
* {{annotated link|The Revised Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money|''The Standard Reference Guide to Indian Paper Money''}}
* {{annotated link|Zero-rupee note}}
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{numis cite SCWC |date = 1991 }}
* {{numis cite SCWPM |date = 1994 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radhakumud |title=Chandragupta Maurya and His Times |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27 |edition=Second |year=1966 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |orig-date=1943 |isbn=978-81-208-0405-0 |ref={{sfnref|Mookerji, Chandragupta Maurya and His Times|1966}} |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-date=31 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531130644/https://books.google.com/books?id=i-y6ZUheQH8C&pg=PA27%2F |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Rupee (India)}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121008074636/http://indianbanknotes.com/book-chapters.html A gallery of all Indian currency issues]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/pm_republicindia.aspx |title=Gallery of Indian Rupee Notes introduced till date| publisher=Reserve Bank of India|access-date=9 January 2015}}
* [http://www.bis-ans-ende-der-welt.net/Indien-B-En.htm The banknotes of India] {{in lang|en|de}}
* [https://www.worldbanknotescatalog.com/india Banknotes catalog of India] {{in lang|en}}

{{Indian currency|state=expanded}}
{{Historic Indian currency and coinage|state=collapsed}}
{{Rupee}}
{{Currencies of Asia}}
{{Symbols of India}}
{{Economy of India}}
{{British Ceylon period topics}}
{{Mohandas K. Gandhi}}
{{Portal bar|Asia|India|Money|Numismatics}}
[[Category:Currencies of India]]
[[Category:Currencies of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Currencies of Zimbabwe]]
[[Category:Currencies of Asia]]
[[Category:Circulating currencies]]
[[Category:Rupee]]

George Town, Chennai

2026-04-25T19:32:04Z

Creativesketchbook: new

{{redirect|Black Town|towns called Black|Black (disambiguation)|Blacktown|Blacktown (disambiguation)|Blackton|Blackton (disambiguation)|Black Township|Black Township (disambiguation)}}
{{Use Indian English|date= January 2017}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = George Town
| other_name = Muthialpet, Parry's Corner, Broadway
| settlement_type = Neighbourhood
| image_skyline = Chennai High Court.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = [[Madras High Court|High Court of Madras at Chennai.]]
| nickname =
| map_alt =
| map_caption = George Town, Chennai.
| pushpin_map = India Chennai
| pushpin_label_position =
| mapframe =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|13.0939|N|80.2839|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Chennai District]]
| subdivision_type3 = Metro
| subdivision_name3 = Chennai
| subdivision_type4 = Ward
| subdivision_name4 = Muthialpet
| established_title = 
| established_date = 1640
| founder = [[British East India Company]]
| named_for = [[King George V]]
| government_type =
| governing_body = Chennai Corporation
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 4
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 600001
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Chennai Central (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chennai Central]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Urban planning|Planning]] agency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority|CMDA]]
| blank3_name_sec1 = Civic agency
| blank3_info_sec1 = Chennai Corporation
| website = {{URL|www.chennai.tn.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''George Town''', also known as '''Muthialpet''', '''Parry's Corner''' and '''Broadway''', is a neighbourhood in [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. It is near the [[Fort St. George]] and is a [[History of Chennai|historical area of Madras city]] from where its expansion began in the 1640s. It extends from the [[Bay of Bengal]] in the east to [[Park Town, Chennai|Park town]] on the west, The Fort St. George on the south to [[Royapuram]] in the north. The [[Fort St. George (India)|Fort St. George]] houses the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]] and the Secretariat. The [[Madras High Court|High court of Tamil Nadu at Chennai]], [[Dr. Ambedkar Government Law College, Chennai|Dr. Ambedkar Law College]], [[Stanley Medical College]] and Hospital are located here.

==History==
[[File:Frederick Fiebig — Black Town, Madras, Bay of Bengal, 1851.jpg|180px|thumb|Black Town around 1851]]
[[File:Frederick Fiebig — Black Town, Madras, 1851.jpg|180px|thumb|Black Town around 1851]]
[[File:The road leading to Parry's Corner, Madras.jpg|thumb|180px|An aerial view of N.S.C. Bose road, leading to 'Parry' Corner]]
[[File:Fort St. George, Chennai 2.jpg|thumb|270px|[[Fort St. George, India|Fort St. George]], Tamil Nadu's Legislative Assembly and the Secretariat.]]

During the colonial period, the area in and around Muthialpet was renamed as "George Town" by the British in 1911, in honour of [[George V|King George V]] when he was crowned as the [[Emperor of India]].<ref>{{cite news
| last = Muthiah
| first = S.
| title = Madras miscellany: A forgotten name-change
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 1 January 2012
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/metroplus/article2763617.ece
| access-date = 28 Apr 2012}}</ref> George Town is one of the names used for Muthialpet. It has the landmark '[[EID Parry|Parry]] building', after which the locality is called '[[Parry's Corner]]'. The area is also called [[Broadway, Chennai|Broadway]], named after a main thoroughfare in Muthialpet.

The first settlement of the city of Madras began here, near the fort. [[Fort St. George (India)|Fort St George]] began in 1640 as a fortified warehouse for the [[Kingdom of England|English]] [[East India Company]]. It was built by [[Francis Day (Madras)|Francis Day]]. The township of native people that began to grow up around it was called the ''Black Town'' by the British. As the city grew, this area became the base for development and construction activities, meeting the needs of people for their livelihood and rulers' administrative comforts. With the construction of one of India's major ports in the area, Madras became an important naval base for the British.<ref name="TH_Top5Streets">{{cite news
| title = Top 5 streets of George Town in Chennai
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| publisher = Kasturi & Sons
| date = 28 August 2017
| url = https://www.thehindu.com/real-estate/top-5-streets-of-george-town-in-chennai/article19575578.ece
| access-date = 24 September 2020}}</ref>

By the early 18th century, growing population and commercial activities resulted in expansion to neighbouring areas. In 1733, the weaving community started to settle down in [[Chintadripet]] and Collepetta near Tiruvottiyur, since abundant open space was available for weaving. The community of washermen in the Mint area then moved towards the west, forming the present [[Washermanpet]]. Potters from this area moved outside the Fort on the north side and formed a new colony named Kosapet. With the construction of a bridge in 1710 to connect [[Egmore]], people started moving towards the present Moore Market area.<ref name="CMDA_StructureOfChennai">{{cite web
|title=Structure of Chennai
|work=Chapter 1
|publisher=CMDA
|url=http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/Volume3_English_PDF/Vol3_Chapter01_Structure%20of%20Chennai.pdf
|access-date=24 Feb 2013
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826201439/http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/Volume3_English_PDF/Vol3_Chapter01_Structure%20of%20Chennai.pdf
|archive-date=2013-08-26
}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Plan of Fort St George and the City of Madras 1726.jpg|Plan of Fort St George and the city of Madras in 1726.
File:Frederick Fiebig — Black Town, Madras, 1851.jpg|Hand-coloured photograph of Black Town taken in c.1851 by [[Frederick Fiebig]].
File:Black town of Madras.jpg|Painting titled 'Black town of Madras' by Sears, Robert (1810-1892).
File:The Bank of Madras.jpeg|The [[Bank of Madras]], c. 1900.
File:The Law College.jpg|The Law College at George Town, c. 1905.
</gallery>

When the [[French People|French]] occupied Madras in 1746 and returned it to the [[British People|English]] in 1749 in exchange for [[Quebec]] by the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]], the English flattened a part of Black Town in order to have a clear field for fire in the event of a future attack. In 1773, the English erected 13 pillars along the flattened area of the Black Town and banned construction in any form between the pillars and the fort which would otherwise block the view of possible invaders. Soon a new township, known as the new Black Town, came up beyond these pillars and the old Black Town gave way to the [[Madras High Court]]. A thoroughfare was formed along the stretch between the pillars and the high court which later became the [[China Bazaar Road, Chennai|China Bazaar Road]]. The only surviving one of the 13 pillars is being maintained in the compound of the Parry's building.<ref name="TOI_ChennaiHigh">{{cite news
| last = TNN
| title = Chennai High: Where history beckons
| location = Chennai
| date = 27 August 2010
| url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Chennai-High-Where-history-beckons/articleshow/6442396.cms
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130216064603/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-08-27/chennai/28292743_1_pillars-fort-st-george-madras
| url-status = live
| archive-date = 16 February 2013
| newspaper = [[The Times of India]]
| access-date = 19 Jan 2013}}</ref>

In 1772, the first organised water supply of Madras began with the Seven Wells Scheme.<ref>{{cite web| title =1751 A.D. to 1800 A.D.| work =History of Chennai| publisher =ChennaiBest.com| url =http://www.chennaibest.com/discoverchennai/sightseeing/history/1751.asp| access-date =20 Jan 2013| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120606182012/http://www.chennaibest.com/discoverchennai/sightseeing/history/1751.asp| archive-date =6 June 2012| df =dmy-all}}</ref> On one occasion, [[Mysore State|Mysore]] ruler [[Hyder Ali]]'s troops even tried to poison the water source one night.<ref name="TOI_ChennaiHigh"/>

In the following centuries, [[Madras High Court|High Court buildings]] and first light house tower with architectural beauty came up in an area where an old [[Hindu]] temple of [[Chennakesava Perumal Temple, Chennai|Sri Chenna Kesava perumal]]<ref name="twin temple">{{Cite web|url=http://chennakesavaperumaltemple.tnhrce.in/|title=Chenna kesava perumal temple, Chennai.|website=Official temple website|access-date=30 January 2017}}</ref> and [[Mallikesvarar Temple, Chennai|Chenna Malleswara swamy]]<ref name="twin temple"/> existed. This temple was demolished and later shifted to the present place near [[Mint Street, Chennai|Mint Street]] on [[China Bazaar Road, Chennai|Nethaji Subhash Chandra Bose Road]] and is popular amongst Hindus as Pattanam Koil.

Several Tamil refugees from Burma, who fled Myanmar during the early sixties, arrived in George Town. In 1969, the [[Burma Bazaar]], a market selling imported foreign goods in shops on pavements, was established by these Burmese refugees-turned-entrepreneurs.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Venkat
| first = Vidya
| title = Grey markets, but never in the red
| location = Chennai
| date = 21 July 2008
| url = http://www.hindu.com/2008/07/21/stories/2008072158440400.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080724163404/http://www.hindu.com/2008/07/21/stories/2008072158440400.htm
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 24 July 2008
| newspaper = [[The Hindu]]
| access-date = 16 Mar 2014}}</ref>

===Religions and holy shrines===
[[File:Kaalikaambaal Temple Gopuram, Chennai.jpg|thumb|[[Kalikambal Temple|Kāligāmbāl Temple's]] Gopuram (Gateway tower) entrance. The Marāthi, [[Chatrapati Shivaji|Chatrapathi Shivāji]] is said to have visited this temple.]]
[[File:Anderson Church, Chennai.JPG|thumb|[[Anderson Church, Chennai|Anderson Church]] near Madras High court.]]
[[File:Jain Mandir,(BHAGWAN SHRI PARSVANATHJI) Mint Street, Chennai - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|Shri Chandraprabhu Jain temple]]
George Town has a rich congregation of shrines of different faiths within its boundaries. The first Hindu temples of British Madras were built in this neighbourhood between 1640 and 1680. Many of the temples were built since then by the leading merchants of the city, mostly dubashes (middlemen) of British merchants and business establishments. Several of the streets in the neighbourhood are named after these dubashes.<ref name="UnhurriedCity">{{cite book |editor=Lakshmi, C. S. |title=The Unhurried City: Writings on Chennai |year=2004 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=9780143030263 |pages=30–31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnflUVu0w2QC&q=coral+merchant+street+chennai&pg=PA30 |access-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>

The city's '''first Jain temples''' were built in the central part of the western half of the neighbourhood occupied by settlers from Rajasthan and Saurashtra, now known as [[Sowcarpet]]. Today, festivals such as Holi, Diwali, and Ganesh Chathurthi are celebrated in the North Indian style.<ref name="UnhurriedCity"/>

The '''first mosque''' in the neighbourhood was built in the 1670s on Moor Street. The mosque, however, does not exist today. The oldest surviving mosque is the huge [[Mamoor Mosque|Masjid Mamoor]] in Angappa Naicken Street, which was built in the eighteenth century.<ref name="UnhurriedCity"/>

The '''first [[Madras Synagogue]]''' was built in Coral Merchant Street, which had a large presence of Portuguese [[Paradesi Jews]] in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The [[Madras Synagogue]] does not exist today.

The '''oldest church''' is the Armenian Church on Armenian Street. The Cathedral of St Mary of the Angels located next to the church has its presence since 1642. However, the first Catholic place of worship in the neighbourhood was built before the St. Mary's cathedral. Protestant churches, however, were built only in the nineteenth century, with the first English Protestant Church built in 1810 on Davidson Street.<ref name="UnhurriedCity"/>

The Muthialpet area, the western part of George Town extending northwards from the [[Madras High Court]], is one of the 163 notified areas (megalithic sites) in the state of Tamil Nadu.<ref name="Hindu_NISModifiesExpansionPlan">{{cite news
| last = Madhavan
| first = D.
| title = National Institute of Siddha modifies expansion plan
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 20 December 2012
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/national-institute-of-siddha-modifies-expansion-plan/article4218676.ece
| access-date = 23 Dec 2012}}</ref>

==Demographics==
Residents of George Town in earlier days were mainly [[Telugu people|Telugus]] with sizable population of [[Tamil people|Tamils]]. A major part of trade and business was in the hands of Telugus. Apart from locals, people from other parts of the country as well as foreign nationals who had trade and business links with the [[East India Company]] were living in this area. Many of the streets bear the name of the business that people in the locality were engaged in. Men who were doing business in corals lived together in Coral Merchants Street, and people from [[Armenia]] doing business with the English were living in [[Armenian Street, Chennai|Armenian Street]]. A church called [[Armenian Church, Chennai|Armenian Church]] was also constructed in the same area for them. As the town was developing manifold, people from all over India settled here doing business in all fields, chiefly from [[Rajasthan]], [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]]. The area occupied by the North Indians, chiefly [[Marwari people|Marwari]]s from Rajasthan and Gujarat, in the twentieth century came to be known as [[Sowcarpet]] (literally 'area of the rich', derived from the word 'sahukar' meaning money lender in [[Hindi]]).<ref name="TravelMag_HotMintInChennai">{{cite web
| last = Todhunter
| first = Colin
| title = Hot mint in Chennai: welcome to India
| publisher = Travelmag
| date = 14 February 2013
| url = http://travelmag.co.uk/2013/02/hot-mint-in-chennai-welcome-to-india/
| access-date = 16 Mar 2014}}</ref>

== Geography ==
George Town extends roughly from [[Chennai Central railway station]] and [[People's Park, Chennai|People's Park]] in the west to the [[Bay of Bengal]] in the east. To the north is [[Basin Bridge]] and [[Royapuram]] while [[Fort St George]] bounds it on the south. [[Broadway, Chennai|Broadway]], originally Popham's Broadway, and officially Prakasam Salai, divided George Town into two portions, the eastern part of which was historically known as Muthialpet and the western part, [[Peddanaickenpettah|Peddanaickenpet]].

==Roads and streets==
[[File:Fort St. George George Town Chennai India - panoramio (1).jpg|thumb|Fort St.George]]
[[Image:EID Parry headquarters.jpg|thumb|Parry's corner is named after the landmark [[EID Parry|Parry]] building of the [[Murugappa Group]], an industrial conglomerate.]]
Major roads of the neighbourhood include [[China Bazaar Road, Chennai|Netaji Subash Chandra Bose Road]] (popularly known as China Bazaar Road), [[Rajaji Salai, Chennai|Rajaji Salai]] (formerly First Line Beach road) and [[Wall Tax Road, Chennai|Wall Tax Road]]. The streets are generally small and narrow with several lanes branching out of them. The longest street is Mint Street, which starts near [[Chennai Central|Central Railway Station]] making way across the neighbourhood for about 4 km towards north and ends near Vallalar Nagar. The street derived its name from a mint of the East India Company that existed at the end of this street during the British era.<ref name="TravelMag_HotMintInChennai"/> Now the building houses Central Printing Press of [[Government of Tamil Nadu]]. This is considered one of few longest streets in the world.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} Several government offices, both state and central governments, including [[Andaman & Nicobar Island]] government's administrative offices of Shipping and Tourism Departments, are located on Rajaji Salai. The very attractive Burma Bazaar, noted for selling electronic goods and other items at cheaper rates, once mostly run by Burmese refugees, is also located on this road.

[[File:Armenian Church Madras.jpg|thumb|
[[Armenian Church, Chennai|Armenian Church]] in [[Armenian Street, Chennai]]. Marked on the building are years 1712 and 1772.]]

===Parry's Corner===
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Parry's Corner
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Neighborhood
| image_skyline =
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| coordinates = {{coord|13.08882|N|80.29038|E|display=inline}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Chennai
| subdivision_type3 = Metro
| subdivision_name3 = Chennai
| established_title = 
| established_date =
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| government_type =
| governing_body = [[Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority|CMDA]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
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| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 600001
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Urban planning|Planning]] agency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority|CMDA]]
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Parry's Corner''' ({{langx|ta|பாரி முனை|Paari Munai}})<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.timeout.com/chennai/events/street-photo-workshop-at-parrys-corner-chennai-february-2017 |title=Street Photo Workshop at Parrys Corner - Chennai, November 2016 |date=November 20, 2016 |work=[[Time Out (magazine)|Time Out]] |access-date=2018-04-10 |language=en}}</ref> is a locality in George Town. Often referred to as Parry's, it is situated near the [[Chennai Port]], at the intersection of [[Rajaji Salai, Chennai|North Beach Road]] and [[NSC Bose Road, Chennai|NSC Bose Road]]. It is named after [[Thomas Parry (Chennai merchant)|Thomas Parry]], a [[Wales|Welsh]] merchant who set up the [[EID Parry]] Company in 1787, the corporate headquarters of which stand on the corner.<ref name="Hindu_ThoroughfareOfGeorgeTown">{{cite news
| last = Madhavan
| first = T.
| title = NSC Bose Road: Thoroughfare of George Town
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 12 May 2012
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/article3404384.ece
| access-date = 14 Jan 2013}}</ref>

The place is an important center for [[commercial bank]]ing and trading, and also a major hub for the intracity bus service. It is one of the most congested areas in the city. The area has many popular schools like [[St. Mary's Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School]], St. Columban's Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School. The [[Anderson Church, Chennai|Anderson Church]] is the oldest and most prominent church in the region.

===Streets and specialities===
Several streets in the neighbourhood is known for their dedicated businesses and services. The following table lists some of the streets and the chief services they are known for.
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|-
! Street name
! Speciality
|-
| Mannadi Street
| Textiles, imported goods, eateries
|-
|Moore Street
|Cereals and pulses, hotels and lodges
|-
|Angappa Naicken Street
| Masjid, textile, eateries
|-
|[[Burma Bazaar]]
|Grey market for electronic goods, cameras, luggage, perfumes and accessories
|-
|Linghi Chetty Street
| Steel hardware, electric motors and pump sets
|-
|Thambu Chetty Street
| Hardware, ceramic tiles and sanitary ware
|-
|Sembudoss Street
|Steel sheets and rods, pipes
|-
|[[Broadway, Chennai|Broadway]]
| Cycles and optical goods
|-
|Anderson Street
|Stationery
|-
|Godown Street
|Textiles
|-
|Govindappa Naicken Street
| Electrical goods, dry fruits
|-
|Nainiappa Naicken Street
|Chemicals and surgical instruments, pharma, plywood, glass, laminates, photo frames
|-
|Coral Merchant Street
| Transport and shipping offices
|-
|Savarimuthu Street
|Warehouse, storage godowns and toiletries consumables
|-
|Evening Bazaar
|Household appliances and domestic utensils
|-
|Kasi Chetty Street
| Imported goods, gift items, toys, perfumes, bags, and novelties<ref name="TH_Top5Streets"/>
|-
|Bunder Street
| Fruits, books, stationery and crackers
|-
|Badrian Street
| Flowers, crackers
|-
|Elephant Gate
| Textiles, chocolates
|-
|[[Rajaji Salai, Chennai|Rajaji Salai]]
| Banks, trading offices, shipping corporations
|}

==Architecture==
Being one of the oldest settlements in the modern city of Chennai, George Town remains a classic example of a confluence of different architectural styles. The neighbourhood is known for several classic styles of buildings such as [[Indo-Saracenic]], [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]], [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]], and [[Art Deco]], apart from several traditional vernacular styles. Each building presents its uniqueness in its architectural character. [[Dare House]] in [[Parrys Corner]], an Art Deco–style building, for instance, sports an emphasis on vertical lines and a distinct design of a 'sunburst jaali' for ventilation.<ref name="Hindu_MadrasInherited">{{cite news
| last = Lakshmi
| first = K.
| title = Madras Inherited to unravel city's architectural treasures
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| publisher = Kasturi & Sons
| date = 15 June 2018
| url = https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/madras-inherited-to-unravel-citys-architectural-treasures/article24167335.ece
| access-date = 17 October 2018}}</ref>

==Buildings and landmarks==
This area has many heritage and modern buildings on [[Rajaji Salai, Chennai|Rajaji salai]] and [[China Bazaar Road, Chennai|NSC Bose Road]]. Heritage buildings include the [[Madras High Court|High Court]] Buildings, the Old Lighthouse Tower and the [[Dr. Ambedkar Government Law College, Chennai|Law College]] building at Parry's Corner and the [[General Post Office, Chennai|GPO]] building and [[Reserve Bank of India, South Zonal Office|Reserve Bank of India Building]] on Rajaji Salai. Other modern buildings are Parry's [[Dare House]], the State Bank of Mysore Building, the New Collectorate Office Building (Singaravelar Maaligai), Kuralagam, and the BSNL office buildings. Raja Annamalai Mandram is a big hall where indoor meetings, cultural activities and dramas are held. In addition, there are lot of buildings owned by business community and government.
[[File:Georgetown panorama.jpg|thumb|centre|700px|Panoramic view of the [[Madras High Court|Chennai High Court]] and its surroundings]]

==Land use==
The land use in George Town primarily comprises residential and mixed-residential zones. It is classified as a 'continuous building area', permitting structures of ground-plus-one floor, with a floor space index of 1.5. As of 2014, the business district has more than 14,000 buildings with around 25,000 property tax assessees.<ref name="Hindu_GTBuildingsFloutRules">{{cite news
| last = Lopez
| first = Aloysius Xavier
| title = George Town buildings flout rules
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 7 November 2014
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/george-town-buildings-flout-rules/article6571651.ece
| access-date = 16 November 2014}}</ref>

All buildings in George Town have been found in violation of development regulations, with several buildings found to have been constructed without obtaining building approval from the corporation.<ref name="Hindu_GTBuildingsFloutRules"/>

==Economy==
[[File:Parrys Corner, Chennai, India.jpg|thumb|Commercial buildings at Parry's Corner, Chennai]]
George Town is the birthplace of the economy of the city that began to flourish in the 17th century. Being the primary neighbourhood of the then burgeoning city of Madras, George Town houses several commercial establishments of national importance. It long housed the [[central business district]] of the city, until the 1960s, when it began to drift towards the south to reach the [[Gemini circle, Chennai|Gemini circle]].

===Banking===

The neighbourhood and the surrounding areas were home to several ''Nattukottai Chettiars'' or ''Nagarathars'', who offered banking services to the public in the city before the establishment of modern commercial banks. They both offered loans to and accepted money deposits from the public, besides offering loans to the agricultural labourers. Several banking and financial offices were housed in heritage structures from the Colonial era, clustered chiefly around [[Rajaji Salai, Chennai|North Beach Road]], many of which continue to exist to the present day.<ref name="TOI_BankingHeritageOfMadras">{{cite news
| last = Suresh
| first = S.
| title = The Banking Heritage of Madras
| newspaper = The Times of India
| location = Chennai
| date = 3 November 2012
| url = http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOICH/2012/11/03&PageLabel=50&EntityId=Ar05001&ViewMode=HTML
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130521054707/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOICH/2012/11/03&PageLabel=50&EntityId=Ar05001&ViewMode=HTML
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 21 May 2013
| access-date = 28 December 2012}}</ref>

The first European-style banking system in India was started in George Town with the establishment of the 'Madras Bank' on 21 June 1683, almost a century before the establishment of the first commercial banks, such as the Bank of Hindustan and the General Bank of India, which were established in 1770 and 1786, respectively. However, the bank proved a failure.<ref name="InsightIntoProgressOfBanking">{{cite news
| last = Mukund
| first = Kanakalatha
| title = Insight into the progress of banking
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 3 April 2007
| url = http://www.hindu.com/br/2007/04/03/stories/2007040300301600.htm
| access-date = 28 December 2012}}</ref> Upon the recommendation of the British Finance Committee on the formation of a government bank, the Madras Bank, then known as the 'Government Bank', started functioning again from 1806. In 1843, the bank merged with the Carnatic Bank (1788), the British Bank of Madras (1795) and the Asiatic Bank (1804) and became the [[Bank of Madras]], which was one of the three Presidency banks of India. In 1921, it merged with the other two Presidency banks, namely the [[Bank of Bengal]] and the [[Bank of Bombay]], to form the [[Imperial Bank of India]], which later became the [[State Bank of India]] in 1955.<ref name="200YearsAndGoingStrong">{{cite news
| last = Kumar
| first = Shiv
| title = 200 years and going strong
| newspaper = The Tribune
| date = 26 June 2005
| url = http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050626/spectrum/main1.htm
| access-date = 28 December 2012}}</ref> The neighbourhood is also home to the [[Reserve Bank of India, South Zonal Office|south zonal office]] of the [[Reserve Bank of India]], the country's central bank.<ref>{{cite web
|title = About Us
|publisher = Reserve Bank of India
|url = http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/AboutUsDisplay.aspx?pg=Offices.htm#colleges
|access-date = 28 December 2012
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130111101938/http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/AboutUsDisplay.aspx?pg=Offices.htm#colleges
|archive-date = 11 January 2013
}}</ref>

==Transportation==
George Town remains the geographical and geometrical focal point of Chennai where all the radial roads and railroads of the city converge. The arterial roads, namely, North and South Beach Roads, [[Anna Salai]], [[Poonamallee High Road]], Grand Northern Trunk Road, and Ennore High Road radiate from the neighbourhood, and both the primary terminal railway stations of the city, namely, [[Chennai Central]] and [[Chennai Beach]] borders the western and eastern sides of the neighbourhood. In addition to the two terminal stations, many suburban railway stations are located circumferentially around the neighbourhood, namely, [[Chennai Central Suburban]], [[Chennai Fort]], [[Chennai Park]] and [[Chennai Park Town (Chennai MRTS)|Park Town]], all located in the south and southwest fringes, [[Basin Bridge|Basin Bridge Junction]] at the western fringe, and [[Royapuram Railway Station|Royapuram railway station]] at the northern fringe. The neighbourhood has a bus terminus, the [[Broadway Bus Stand]] near Parry's Corner.

The intercity and interstate express bus terminus originally functioned at the Broadway terminus near [[Madras High Court]] in an area covering about 1.5 acres.<ref>{{cite news
| title = கலக்கப் போகுது பிராட்வே பஸ் நிலையம்
| newspaper = Dinamalar
| location = Chennai
| date = 22 July 2012
}}</ref> With increasing transportation needs, the terminus was shifted to the [[Chennai Mofussil Bus Terminus|new premises]] covering 36.5 acres at [[Koyambedu]] in 2002 constructed at a cost of {{INR}} 1,030 million.<ref name="businessline20021119">{{cite news
| title = Jayalalithaa inaugurates new bus terminus in Chennai
| newspaper = The Hindu Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 19 November 2002
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2002/11/19/stories/2002111901991700.htm
| access-date = 16 Oct 2011}}</ref><ref name="Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority">{{cite web
| title = Chennai Mofussil Bus Terminal (CMBT)
| publisher = CMDA
| url = http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/chennai_mufussil_bus_terminus(cmbt).html
| access-date = 16 Oct 2011
| archive-date = 5 October 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111005052213/http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/chennai_mufussil_bus_terminus(cmbt).html
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

In January 2013, further to the public interest litigation petition filed in the court, the [[Corporation of Chennai|Corporation]] decided to improve the [[Broadway bus terminus]] at an estimated cost of {{INR}} 33.6 million.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Broadway bus stand to get facelift
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| date = 9 January 2013
| url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/broadway-bus-stand-to-get-facelift/article4287844.ece
| access-date = 9 Jan 2013}}</ref>

==Education==

===Colleges and universities===

[[File:A building in Chennai.JPG|thumb|Chennai High court building with statue of [[Manu Needhi Cholan]] in the foreground. Also housed here is the [[Dr. Ambedkar Government Law College, Chennai|Dr. Ambedkar Law College]], Chennai.]]

George Town is home to various government-run colleges and institutions. [[Dr. Ambedkar Government Law College, Chennai|Dr. Ambedkar Law College]], initially known as Madras Law College, was established in 1891. The medical college of the [[Stanley Medical College|Government Stanley Medical College and Hospital]] was established in 1938 although the hospital was established by the turn of the 19th century. The [[Government Dental Hospital and College, Chennai|Government Dental College and Hospital]] was established in 1953. Bharathi Women's College is located in the northern side of the neighbourhood.

===Primary and secondary schools===
It has many premier schools which includes [[St. Mary's Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School]], St Francis Xavier Anglo-Indian Hr secondary school, St. Columban's Anglo-Indian Higher Secondary School and other schools including The Muthialpet Higher Secondary School, St.Gabriel's Higher Secondary School, Ramiah Girls High School, MEASI Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Muthialpet Girls School, Bishop Corrie Higher Secondary School and Dominic Savio School.

==Developments==
Although George Town is the origin of the modern city of Chennai and remained the chief commercial hub of the city till the early 20th century, the city's central business district gradually moved towards the south since the mid-20th century, presently lying at the [[Gemini circle, Chennai|Gemini Circle]] on [[Anna Salai]]. This resulted in paucity of development funds for the northern region of the city. However, some of the community-specific areas of George Town, such as [[Sowcarpet]] where the prosperous [[Marwari people|Marwari]] community resides, still remains an important commercial hub of the city.<ref name="TOI_ChennaiHigh"/>

==Political awareness==
Political awareness among citizens of George Town is very high. Almost all leaders of national and state political parties used to hold street meetings contacting people and propagating their aims and principles. Leaders such as [[C. N. Annadurai]], [[K. Kamaraj]], [[C. Rajagopalachari|C. Rajagopalachary]], [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy|E. V. K. Ramaswamy Naicker]], [[M. P. Sivagnanam]] (Ma. Po. Si), Andhra leaders such as [[T. Prakasam]] and also [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Annie Besant]] and many others did not miss this part of the city. With huge immigrant population settled here, not only local and state politics but also politics of all other states of the country and even foreign nations are well known here. All political parties make it a point to be in good books of the citizens.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} The DMK party, one of the chief political parties of Tamil Nadu, counts Coral Merchant Street as its birthplace in 1949.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Ghosh
| first = Bishwanath
| title = In Search of 7, Coral Merchant Street
| location = Chennai
| date = 5 May 2011
| url = http://www.hindu.com/mp/2011/05/05/stories/2011050551010100.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110508131727/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2011/05/05/stories/2011050551010100.htm
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 8 May 2011
| newspaper = [[The Hindu]]
| access-date = 30 Mar 2014}}</ref>

==Location in context==
{{Geographic location
|title = '''Areas of Chennai'''
|Northwest = [[Washermanpet]]
|North = [[Royapuram]]
|Northeast = [[Chennai Port]]
|West = [[Basin Bridge]]
|Centre = George Town
|East = [[Chennai Port]]
|Southwest = [[Park Town, Chennai|Park Town]]
|South = [[Fort St George]]
|Southeast = [[Bay of Bengal]]
}}

==See also==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Timeline of Chennai history#17th century|Timeline of Chennai history]]
* [[History of Chennai]]
* [[Peddanaickenpettah]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://indiahistoryspeaks.blogspot.com/2007/12/british-and-tamil-jab-they-meet-fort-st.html History of Fort St George and Georgetown]
* [http://www.hackwriters.com/Chennai4CT.htm Sowcarpet/Mint Street]

{{Neighborhoods of Chennai}}
{{Chennai Topics}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}

[[Category:Coastal neighbourhoods of Chennai]]

Trikāṇḍī

2026-04-24T13:27:32Z

Creativesketchbook: starting a post

{{for|the thesarus|Amarakosha}}

'''''Trikāṇḍī''''' ("Three books") is a [[Sanskrit]] treatise on the [[philosophy of language]] and grammar (''[[vyakarana|vyākaraṇa]]''), written by the 5th-century Indian grammarian and philosopher [[Bhartṛhari]]. Some 19th-20th century printed editions refer to it by the title '''''Vākyapadiya''''', which is actually the title of a part of it. Bhartṛhari's work is significant for its comprehensive treatment of the relationship between language, thought, and reality.

== Naming ==
''Trikāṇḍī'' which literally means three books, is the name of the works.<ref name=":0" /> However, the early printed editions of the work, such as those from 1888 and 1905, incorrectly presented ''Vākyapadiya'' as the title of the entire collection containing the three books. ''Vākyapadiya'' originally referred only to the second book of the collection, and later came to refer to the first two books.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|pp=23-24}}

The term "Vākya-padiya" likely referred to the first two books by time of Vṛṣabha (c. 650{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=179}}), and definitely in the time of Hela-raja (c. 980{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=193}}) and Vardhamana (the author of ''Gana-ratna-mahodadhi'', c. 1140{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=478}}).{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|pp=23-24}} Scholar [[Ashok Aklujkar]] theorizes that Bhartṛ-hari originally conceived the three books as "relatively independent" treatises, but later thought of unifying them into a single work. However, he died after composing commentaries (''vṛtti'') on the first two books. Dharma-pala (6th century{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=177}}) wrote the ''vṛtti'' on the third book.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|pp=25-26}}

== Structure and content ==

Trikāṇḍī comprises three books (''kāṇḍas''):{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=27,33}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies |date=1977 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-07281-4 |editor-last=Potter |editor-first=Karl H. |location=Princeton, N.J}}</ref>

# ''Agama-samuchchaya'' ("Collection of traditionally received knowledge") or ''Brahma-kāṇḍa'' ("Book of Brahman)
# ''Vākya-padiya'' or ''Vākya-kāṇḍa'' ("Book of Sentences")
# ''Prakirna(ka)'' ("Miscellany") or ''Pada-kāṇḍa'' ("Book of Words")

The alternative titles - ''Brahma-kāṇḍa'', ''Vakyā-kāṇḍa'', and ''Pada-kāṇḍa'' - likely do not originate from the author.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=28}}

The text presents [[Vedas]] as the organizing principle of the world, serving not just as a guide (''upadestr'') for proper conduct and knowledge, but as the underlying essence (''prakrti'') of the universe, suggesting that the Veda is both the source of knowledge and the foundation of the world's existence.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Defining Hinduism: a reader |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-904768-73-9 |editor-last=Llewellyn |editor-first=John Earl |edition=First issued in paperback 2018 |series=Critical categories in the study of religion |location=London New York |pages=19–20}}</ref>

The first two parts are divided into ''kārikā''s (verses) and ''vṛtti'' (commentary).{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=14}} Since the earliest times, tradition attributes the authorship of the ''vṛtti''s to Bhartṛhari himself, although some manuscripts name Harivṛṣabha alias Vṛṣabha as their author.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=54-55}}

The structure of the text provides a holistic view of language, encompassing its philosophical foundations, sentence structurer, and word formation.<ref name=":0" />

=== Brahmakāṇḍa ===
The ''Brahmakāṇḍa'' discusses the concept of [[Brahman]], stating that it "creates the diversity of the world out of language".{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=126–127}} It briefly discusses the Vedic branches and the Vedas as a source of rites, [[smṛti]], [[Hindu philosophy|schools of philosophy]], and [[traditional knowledge]]. The author highlights the importance of the grammar (''[[vyakarana]]''), calling it "the door to liberation", and describing it as the first among the [[Vedanga|six auxiliary sciences]], because other sciences can be understood only through it.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=128}}

The text then discusses various topics, including words, meanings, and the relationship between them; the scope of grammar; linguistic forms; [[sphota]]; cognizance of the sound, etc.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=128–134}} The author states that children understand language because of "dispositional tendencies" from their previous births; they attempt to speak out of intuition, not because they are taught to speak. In the ''vrtti'', the author explains that something that exists is as good as non-existent unless spoken of using language; similarly, non-existent things become as good as real when language brings them to one's mind.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=135}}

The author describes language as the basis of all branches of knowledge, and of all arts and crafts. He discusses the relationship between language and other concepts, such as cognition, consciousness, merit, spirituality, and scriptures. He also discusses the use of incorrect linguistic forms (''[[apabhramsha]]'').{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=135–138}}

=== Vākyakāṇḍa ===
The author lists various definitions of a sentence by different authorities, such as Katyayana, the Mimamsa school, and different logicians (''nyaya-vadins'').{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=138}} He then discusses the concept of ''[[sphota]]'', and various views regarding the divisibility and indivisibility of a sentence and its meaning.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=139–142}}

The author discusses 12 views regarding the meaning of linguistic forms. He lists six varieties of intuition, and discusses the role of intuition in understanding the meaning of a sentence. He then discusses constituents of words (such as prefix, suffix, stem, and roots); linguistic forms (nouns, verbs, prepositions, particles, and postpositions); phonemes; compound words; homophones; concatenations of words.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=143–147}}

The author states that one must distinguish between the possible and intended meanings of the linguistic forms, and discusses various factors that determine the meaning. He also discusses various views on the relationship between language and meaning. For example, some people think that language only produces a memory, it does not establish the meaning: a burned man understands the meaning of burning when he comes in contact with fire, as opposed to learning the meaning of the word "burning" through language. The author also discusses other related topics, such as completeness of a sentence, emphasis, and related topics.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=147–152}}

In the epilogue, the author talks about different grammar traditions of India, stating that his teacher had mastered all of them. He mentions several earlier scholars, including [[Pāṇini|Panini]], [[Mahabhashya|Patanjali]], Chandra, Baiji, Saubhava, and Haryaska. He states that it is important to learn about various traditions and the works of earlier scholars.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=153}}

=== Padakāṇḍa ===
The final book is focused on individual words, their formation, and their meanings. The rules governing the formation and interpretation of words is also discussed here.<ref name=":0" />

Book 3 comprises 14 chapters (''samuddeśas''):{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|pp=14, 153-172}}

# On Universal Property (''Jāti-samuddeśa'')
# On Substance (''Dravya-samuddeśa'')
# On Relation (''Saṃbandha-parīkṣā'')
# More on Substance (''Bhūyodravya-samuddeśa'')
# On Quality (''Guṇa-samuddeśa'')
# On Spatial Direction (''Dik-samuddeśa'')
# On the Means to Action (''Sādhana-samuddeêa'')
# On Action (''Kriyā-samuddeśa'')
# On Time (''Kāla-samuddeśa'')
# On Person (''Puruṣa-samuddeśa'')
# On Number (''Saṃkhyā-samuddeśa'')
# On Aspect (''Upa-graha-samuddeśa'')
# On Gender (''Liṅga-samuddeśa'')
# On Linguistic Formations (''Vṛtti-samuddeśa'')

== Commentaries ==

The following commentaries of the work are known:

'''Book 1'''

* Original, longer ''vritti'' by Bhartṛ-hari or Hari-vṛṣabha{{efn|Some manuscripts attributed the authorship of the ''kārikā'' and the ''vritti'' to Hari-vṛṣabha.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}} }}
* Shorter ''vritti'' by an unknown redactor{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
* ''Paddhati'' or ''Sphutakshara'', a ''tika'' by Vṛṣabha-deva.{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}} Hari-vṛṣabha alias Vṛṣabha (c. 650 CE) was a son of Deva-yashas and a protege of king Vishnu-gupta; his ''Vakyapadiya-paddhati'' is the earliest known commentary on Bhartṛ-hari's work, composed by someone other than Bhartṛ-hari.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=179}}

'''Book 2'''

* Original ''vritti'' by Bhartṛ-hari or Hari-vṛṣabha{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
* A ''tika'', probably titled ''Vakya-pradipa'', by Punya-raja or Rajanaka-shura-varman; this work contains an explanation of the ''kārikās''{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
* A summary in verses of the ''tika'' by Punya-raja or Rajanaka-shura-varman; this was likely a summary of a now-lost commentary by Hela-raja{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}
* ''Vākya-padiya-prameya-samgraha'', a summary of the ''tika'', by an unknown redactor{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}

'''Book 3'''

* ''Prakirna-vrtti'' by the [[Yogachara]] teacher Dhrama-pala (6th-7th century); this work is now lost, and is known from the Chinese tradition and I-tsing. The title ''Prakirna-vrtti'' is known from Durveka Mishra's ''Dharmottara-pradipa''.{{sfn|Harold G. Coward|1990|p=177}}
* ''Prakirna[ka]-prakasha'' by Hela-raja, with two gaps filled by Phulla-raja (likely same as Punya-raja{{efn|"Phulla" as a variation of "Punya" may have originated because of a misreading of the [[Sharada script]].{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=23}} }}); this work contains an explanation of the ''kārikās''{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=33}}

== Editions ==

* 1887: Gangadhara-shastri Manavalli's edition containing{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
** the ''kārikās'' and shorter ''vṛtti'' of the first book
** the ''kārikās'' and tika of the second book
* 1934: Charu-deva Shastri's edition containing{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
** the ''kārikās'' nad the longer ''vṛtti'' of the first book
** excerpts from Vṛṣabha's ''tika''
* 1935: K. Samba-shiva-shastri's edition of chapters 8-13 of the third book and Hela-raja's commentary on these{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
* 1941: Charu-deva Shastri's incomplete edition of the ''kārikās'' and ''vṛtti'' of the second book{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
* 1942: L.A. Ravi Varma's edition of hcapter 14 of the third bok and Hela-raja's ''tika'' on it{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=34}}
* K.A. Subramania Iyer's editions,{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|pp=34-35}} with English translations{{sfn|Ashok Aklujkar|1994|p=19-20}}
** 1963: chapters 1-7 of the third book and Hela-raja's commentary on these
** 1966: Complete text of Vṛṣabha's ''tika'' to the first book
** 1973: Chapters 8-14 of the third book and Hela-raja's ''tika'' on these
* 1977: Wilhelm Rau's edition of the ''kārikās'' of the three books

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |author=Ashok Aklujkar |author-link=Ashok Aklujkar |chapter=An introduction to the study of Bhartṛ-hari |editor1=Saroja Bhate |editor2=Johannes Bronkhorst |title=Bhartr̥hari, Philosopher and Grammarian |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SbrQ44SCnGUC }}
* {{cite book |editor1=Harold G. Coward |editor2=K. Kunjunni Raja |editor2-link=K. Kunchunniraja |title=The Philosophy of the Grammarians |series=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies |volume=5 |year=1990 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |page=371 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC |ref={{harvid|Harold G. Coward|1990}} }}
{{refend}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ancient Indian grammar works]]
[[Category:5th-century Sanskrit literature]]
[[Category:5th-century books]]

Sathyapriya

2026-04-21T12:54:36Z

Creativesketchbook:

{{short description|Indian actress (born 1948)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sathyapriya
| birth_name = Sathyavathi
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1953|03|04|df=yes}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-bhagavatula-satyapriya-enjoys-her-69th-birthday-with-loved-ones-actresses-priya-dharshini-haripriyaa-and-others-wish-her/articleshow/108234642.cms|title= Actress Bhagavatula Satyapriya enjoys her 69th birthday with her loved ones|website=Times of India}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Vizianagaram]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| occupation = Actress
| other names =
| spouse = N. S. Mukunda (died)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2023/ethirneechal-serial-actress-sathyapriyas-painful-real-life-story-revealed-netizens-call-her-bold-355339.html|title=Ethirneechal Serial Actress Sathyapriya's Painful Real Life Story Revealed; Netizens Call Her 'Bold Lady'|website=filmibeat}}</ref>
| children = Ravi Siddartha<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/ethirneechal-actress-satyapriya-wishes-her-son-ravi-siddartha-with-a-sweet-note-on-his-birthday/articleshow/105312454.cms|title=Ethirneechal actress Satyapriya wishes her son Ravi Siddartha|website=Times of India}}</ref> Lakshmi<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/ethirneechal-actress-satyapriya-pens-a-heart-touching-birthday-wish-to-daughter-says-i-am-so-proud-of-the-person-you-have-become/articleshow/107226756.cms|title=Ethirneechal actress Satyapriya pens a heart touching birthday wish to daughter|website=Times of India}}</ref>
}}

'''Sathyapriya''' (born '''Sathyavathi'''; 4 March 1953<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/heres-how-jai-akash-and-nivashini-divya-celebrated-satyapriya-bhagavatulas-birthday-see-pics/articleshow/81343633.cms|title=Here's how actress Sathyapriya's birthday was celebrated|website=Times of India}}</ref>) is an Indian actress who predominantly works in Tamil and Kannada films along with few Telugu and Malayalam films.

==Career==
Some of her films are ''[[Pudhea Paadhai]]'' (1989), ''[[Chinna Gounder]]'' (1992), ''[[Roja (film)|Roja]]'' (1992), ''[[Baashha]]'' (1995) and ''[[Solla Marandha Kadhai]]'' (2002).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://chiloka.com/celebrity/sathyapriya|title = Sathyapriya}}</ref>

Later Sathyapriya acted in various TV shows like ''[[Kolangal (TV series)|Kolangal]]'', ''Chithiram Pesuthadi'', ''[[Avalum Naanum]]'', ''[[Kalyana Parisu (TV series)|Kalyana Parisu]]'', ''[[Mahalakshmi (TV series)|Mahalakshmi]]'', ''[[Neethane Enthan Ponvasantham]]'', ''Rajamannar Vagaiyara'' and ''[[Ethirneechal (TV series)|Ethirneechal]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/tv-actress-bhagavatula-satyapriya-enjoys-vacation-with-family-in-paris/articleshow/104644704.cms|title =TV actress Bhagavatula Satyapriya enjoys vacation with family in Paris|newspaper =The Times of India|date =23 October 2023}}</ref>

==Partial filmography==
===Tamil films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#000;"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1975 || ''Manjal Mugame Varuga'' || ||
|-
| 1975 || ''Munniravu Neram'' || ||
|-
| 1976 || ''Perum Pugazhum'' || Radha ||
|-
| 1977 || ''Enna Thavam Seithen'' || ||
|-
| 1977 || ''[[Dheepam]]'' || Asha ||
|-
| 1977 || ''[[Thaaliya Salangaiya]]'' || Bhuvaneswari (Bhuvana) ||
|-
| 1977 || ''Sainthadamma Sainthadu'' || ||
|-
| 1978 || ''[[Pilot Premnath]]'' || ||
|-
| 1978 || ''[[Kannan Oru Kai Kuzhandhai]]'' || Usha ||
|-
| 1978 || ''Rajavuketha Rani'' || ||
|-
| 1978 || ''[[Vanakkatukuriya Kathaliye]]'' || ||
|-
| 1978 || ''Ival Oru Seethai'' || ||
|-
| 1978 || ''[[Manidharil Ithanai Nirangala!|Manidharil Ithanai Nirangala]]'' || Devaki ||
|-
| 1979 || ''Appothey Sonneyney Keetiya'' || ||
|-
| 1979 || ''Naan Nandri Solven'' || ||
|-
| 1979 || ''Muthal Iravu'' || ||
|-
| 1979 || ''Mambazhathu Vandu'' || ||
|-
| 1980 || ''Muyalukku Moonu Kal'' || ||
|-
| 1982 || ''[[Pagadai Panirendu]]'' ||Renuka||
|-
| 1983 || ''Unmaigal'' || ||
|-
| 1989 || ''[[Pudhea Paadhai]]'' ||Annapoorniyamma ||
|-
| 1989 || ''Thennattu Vengai'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Panakkaran]]'' || Pushpa||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Paattali Magan]]'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Nalla Kaalam Porandaachu]]'' || Maria ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Anjali (1990 film)|Anjali]]'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Ethir Kaatru]]'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Madurai Veeran Enga Saami]]'' || Nachiyar ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Periya Veetu Pannakkaran]]'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Mounam Sammadham]]''|| ||
|-
| 1990 || ''Durga'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''Aerikarai Poongaatre'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Paattali Magan]]'' || ||
|-
| 1991 || ''[[Pudhu Manithan]]'' || Saradha ||
|-
| 1991 || ''En Aasai Rasathi'' || ||
|-
| 1991 || ''[[Vasanthakala Paravai]]'' || ||
|-
| 1991 || ''[[Moondrezhuthil En Moochirukkum]]'' || Rosey ||
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Rickshaw Mama]]'' || ||
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Agni Paarvai]]'' || ||
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Chinna Gounder]]'' || Sundari ||
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Roja (film)|Roja]]'' || Rishikumar's Mother ||
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Pangali]]'' || ||
|-
| 1993 || ''[[Kizhakke Varum Paattu]]'' || ||
|-
| 1993 || ''[[Karuppu Vellai]]'' || ||
|-
| 1993 || ''[[Athma (film)|Athma]]'' || Naveen's mother ||
|-
| 1993 || ''Shenbagam'' || ||
|-
| 1993 || ''[[Suriyan Chandiran]]'' || ||
|-
| 1993 || ''[[Pathini Penn]]'' || ||
|-
| 1993 || ''[[Dharma Seelan]]'' || Nun||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Rajakumaran (film)|Rajakumaran]]'' || Vaidehi's mother ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Chinna Madam]]'' || Gayathri's mother ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Seevalaperi Pandi]]'' || Grams' wife ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Aranmanai Kaavalan]]'' || ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Duet (1994 film)|Duet]]'' || ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Chinna Pulla]]'' || Valliammai's mother ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Mettupatti Mirasu]]'' || Deivanai ||
|-
| 1994 || ''Muthal Payanam'' || ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Veera Padhakkam]]'' || ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Baashha]]'' || Vijayalakshmi ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Muthukulikka Vaariyala]]'' || ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Rajavin Parvaiyile]]'' || ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Periya Kudumbam]]'' || Shanthi's Mother ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Ayudha Poojai]]'' || Krishnasamy's mother ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Karnaa]]'' ||Karnaa's adopted mother ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Gandhi Pirantha Mann]]'' || ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[En Pondatti Nallava]]'' || ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Maaman Magal (1995 film)|Maaman Magal]]'' || Muthurasu's mother ||
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Kizhakku Mugam]]'' || Poongodi's mother ||
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Namma Ooru Raasa]]'' || ||
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Krishna (1996 Tamil film)|Krishna]]'' || ||
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Namma Ooru Raasa]]'' || ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Nesam]]'' || Madhu's mother ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Suryavamsam (1997 film)|Suryavamsam]]'' || Subbulakshmi ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Roja Malare]]'' || Lakshmi ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Kondattam]]'' || Vidya's mother ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Dhinamdhorum]]'' ||Booma's mother ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Harichandra (1998 film)|Harichandran]]'' || Harichandran's mother ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Santhosham (1998 film)|Santhosham]]'' || ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Unnidathil Ennai Koduthen]]'' || Janaki, Radha's stepmother ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Desiya Geetham]]'' || Guru Amma ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Uyirodu Uyiraga]]'' || Guest Appearance ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Ponmaanai Thedi]]'' || Hamsavalli ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Pooveli]]'' || Maha's mother ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Unnai Thedi]]'' || Rajalakshmi ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Ullathai Killathe]]'' || ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Padayappa]]'' || Nilambari's mother ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Poomagal Oorvalam]]'' || Meenakshi ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Nenjinile]]'' || Karunakaran's mother ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Nee Varuvai Ena]]'' || Lakshmi ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Ooty (film)|Ooty]]'' || Charulatha's mother ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Kannupada Poguthaiya]]'' || Paarijaatham ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Sundari Neeyum Sundaran Naanum]]'' || Mangamma ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Unnaruge Naan Irundhal]]'' || Sathyavadi ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Aasaiyil Oru Kaditham]]'' || Lakshmi's mother ||
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Kandukondain Kandukondain]]'' || Manohar's mother ||
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Unakkaga Mattum]]'' || Lakshmi's mother ||
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Vetri Kodi Kattu]]''|| Valli's mother||
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Seenu (2000 film)|Seenu]]'' || Seetha, Seenu's mother ||
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Unnai Kann Theduthey]]'' || ||
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Maayi]]'' || Bhuvaneshwari's mother ||
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Friends (2001 film)|Friends]]'' || Gautham's mother ||
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Ninaikkatha Naalillai]]'' || Arun's mother ||
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Poovellam Un Vasam]]'' || ||
|-
| 2002 || ''Amaiyappan'' || ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Unnai Ninaithu]]'' || Radha's mother ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Ezhumalai]]'' || Nagalingam's sister ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Solla Marandha Kadhai]]'' || ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Punnagai Desam]]'' || Priya's Mother ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Bagavathi]]'' || Priya's mother ||
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Kadhaludan]]'' || ||
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Lesa Lesa]]'' || Chandru's grandmother ||
|-
| 2003 || ''Oru Thadava Sonna'' || ||
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Ennai Thalatta Varuvala]]'' || ||
|-
| 2003 || ''Vani Mahal'' || ||
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Jana (film)|Jana]]'' || Mahalakshmi ||
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Jore (film)|Jore]]'' || Lingam's wife ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Amudhey]]'' || Dhinakar's mother ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Iyer IPS]]'' ||Parameshwari's mother ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Englishkaran]]'' || ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Aanai]]'' || ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Varapogum Sooriyane]]'' || ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Ambuttu Imbuttu Embuttu]]'' ||Savithri||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Kalvanin Kadhali (2006 film)|Kalvanin Kadhali]]'' || Tina's Boss ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Chithiram Pesuthadi]]'' || Thiru's mother ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Ilakkanam]]'' || ||
|-
| 2006 || ''Aattam'' ||Karthik's mother ||
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Adavadi]]'' || Bharath's mother ||
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Thangam]]'' || ||
|-
| 2009 || ''[[Newtonin Moondram Vidhi]]'' || ||
|-
| 2009 || ''[[Karthik Anitha]]'' || ||
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Naane Ennul Illai]]'' || ||
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Goa (2010 film)|Goa]]''|| Samikannu's mother ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Kadhal Paathai]]'' || ||
|-
| 2012 || ''Kathalar Kathai'' || ||
|-
| 2013 || ''Sibi'' || ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Vaayai Moodi Pesavum]]'' || Thambidurai's wife ||
|-
| 2014 || ''Vazhum Dheivam'' || ||
|-
| 2021 || ''[[Ainthu Unarvugal]]'' || ||
|-
| 2021 || ''Arakkargal'' || ||Short film
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Kombu Vatcha Singamda]]'' || ||
|}

===Kannada films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#000;"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1976 || ''[[Besuge]]'' || Liz ||
|-
| 1977 || ''Paavana Ganga'' || ||
|-
| 1977 || ''Maagiya Kanasu'' || Teacher||
|-
|1977
|''Mugdha Manava''
|
|
|-
|1977
|''Veera Sindhoora Lakshmana''
|
|
|-
| 1979 || ''[[Dharmasere]]'' || Leela ||
|-
| 1983 || ''[[Avala Neralu]]'' || ||
|-
| 1983|| ''[[Gandharvagiri]] ''||Guest Appearance ||
|-
| 1989 || ''[[Premagni]]'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''Ekalavya'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''Durgashtami'' || ||
|-
| 1990 || ''[[Hosa Jeevana]]'' || ||
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Entede Bhanta]]'' || ||
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Karulina Kudi]]'' || ||
|-
| 1996 || ''Anuraga Devathe'' || ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Amrutha Varshini]]'' || Abhi's mother ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Rangena Halliyage Rangada Rangegowda]]'' || Bangaram ||
|-
| 1997 || ''Choo Baana'' || ||
|-
| 1997 || ''Balida Mane'' || Gangamma ||
|-
| 1998 || ''My Dear Tiger'' || ||
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Soorappa]]'' || Soorappa's mother ||
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Kotigobba]]'' || ||
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Balagalittu Olage Baa]]'' || ||
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Chandra Chakori]]'' || ||
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Gokarna (film)|Gokarna]]'' || ||
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Ondagona Baa]]'' || ||
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Kadamba (2004 film)|Kadamba]]'' || ||
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Prithvi (2010 film)|Prithivi]]'' || Gowri ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Bangari (2013 film)|Bangari]]'' || ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Paramashiva (film)|Paramashiva]]'' || ||
|-
|}

===Malayalam films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#000;"
! Year !! Film !! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1978 || ''[[Chakraayudham]]'' || ||
|-
| 1983 || ''Kanikonna'' || ||
|-
| 1984 || ''[[Thirakal]]'' || Sarala ||
|-
| 1994 || ''Shudhamadhalam'' || Unnimaya's mother ||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[The City (1994 film)|The City]]'' || Thangamani||
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Poochakkaru Mani Kettum]] ''||Gopika's mother ||
|-
| 1994 || ''Dadha''|| Padmakshi ||
|-
| 1995|| ''Thacholi Varghese Chekavar ''|| Rema||
|-
| 1996 || ''Pallivathukkal Thommichan'' || Thommichan's wife ||
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Dilliwala Rajakumaran]]'' ||Maharani ||
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Lalanam]]'' ||Vinod's mother ||
|-
| 1997 || ''Innalakalilathe'' || ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Vamsam]]'' ||Kochammini ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Gangothri]]'' ||Ramaiyer's wife ||
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Manthra Mothiram]]'' ||Meenakshi ||
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Anuragakottaram]]'' || Mary ||
|-
| 2009 || ''Venalmaram''||Janu ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Samsaaram Aarogyathinu Haanikaram]]'' || Adhikeshavan's wife||
|-
|}

===Telugu films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#000;"
! Year !! Film !! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1977 || ''Palle Seema'' ||
|
|-
| 1977 || ''Janma Janmala Bandham'' || Krishna's cousin
|
|-
| 1989 || ''[[Koduku Diddina Kapuram]]'' || Parvath
|
|-
| 1990 || ''Puttinti Pattu Cheera'' ||
|
|-
| 1991 || ''Palleturi Pellam'' ||
|
|-
| 1992 || ''Prema Vijeta'' || Ganga
|
|-
| 1994 || ''Angarakshakudu''||
|
|-
| 1997 || ''Evandi Pelli Chesukondi'' || Geetha's mother
|
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Suryavamsam (1998 film)|Suryavamsam]]'' || Justice Dakshana Murthy's wife
|
|-
| 1998 || ''Evandi Pelli Chesukondi'' ||
|
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Snehamante Idera]]'' || Gautham's mother
|
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Lahiri Lahiri Lahirilo]]'' || Balaramaiah Naidu's wife
|
|-
| 2002 || ' '[[Siva Rama Raju]]' ' || laya's mother
|
|-
| 2003 || ''Gudachari No. 1'' ||
|
|-
| 2003 || ''[[Oka Raju Oka Rani]]'' ||
|
|-
|}

===Hindi films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#000;"
! Year !! Film !! Role
|-
| 1974 || ''[[Balak Dhruv]]'' || Suruchi
|-
|}

===Dubbing artist===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Actress !! Film !! Language
|-
| [[Kaviyoor Ponnamma]] || ''[[Sathya (1988 film)|Sathya]]'' || rowspan="7"|[[Telugu (language)|Telugu]] (dubbed)
|-
| [[Arundhati Nag]] || ''[[Minsara Kanavu|Merupu Kalalu]]''
|-
| [[Seema (actress)|Seema]] ||''[[Parthale Paravasam|Paravasam]]''
|-
|rowspan="2"| [[Srividya]] || ''[[Kandukondain Kandukondain|Priyuralu Pilichindi]]''
|-
|''[[Mappillai (1989 film)|Alludu]]''
|-
| [[Shanthi Williams]] || ''[[Anniyan|Aparichitudu]]''
|-
| [[Sheela]] || ''[[Chandramukhi]]''
|-
| [[Rekha]] || ''[[Krrish]]'' || [[Tamil (language)|Tamil]] (dubbed)
|-
| [[Vadivukkarasi]] || ''[[Sivaji: The Boss]]'' || rowspan="2"|[[Telugu (language)|Telugu]] (dubbed)
|-
| [[Revathi Sankaran]] || ''[[Enthiran|Robot]]''
|}

==Television==
;Serials
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#000;"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Language !! Channel
|-
| ||''Pagal Kanavu''|| ||[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]||[[DD Podhigai|DD]]
|-
|1999–2000|| ''Anubandham''|| ||[[Telugu (language)|Telugu]]||[[Gemini TV]]
|-
|rowspan="2"|2000||''Punnagai''|| || rowspan="3" |[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]||[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|''Micro Thodargal-Azhukku Vetti''|| ||rowspan="2" |[[Raj TV]]
|-
|rowspan="2" |2001||''Idho Boopalam''||
|-
|''Srimathi''|| ||[[Telugu (language)|Telugu]]||[[Gemini TV]]
|-
|2003–2009||''[[Kolangal (TV series)|Kolangal]]''||Karpagam||rowspan="4" |[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]||rowspan="3"|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|2003||''Anbu Manam''||
|-
|2006–2007||''Surya''||Lakshmi
|-
|2007–2008||''Bharathi''|| ||[[Kalaignar TV]]
|-
|2007||''[[Swami Ayyappan (TV series)|Swami Ayyappan]]''||Lakshmi / Gurumatha||[[Malayalam]]||[[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|-
|2008–2009||''Namma Kudumbam''|| Bhama ||[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]||[[Kalaignar TV]]
|-
|2009–2010 ||''[[Roja Kootam (TV series)|Roja Kootam]]''|| ||[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]||[[Star Vijay]]
|-
|rowspan="2"|2009||''Aliyanmarum Penganmarum''|| ||[[Malayalam]]||[[Amrita TV]]
|-
|''Kanmaniye''||Sudhesi Mami|| rowspan="19" |[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]|| rowspan="3" |[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|2009–2012||''[[Idhayam (2009 TV series)|Idhayam]]''||Padma
|-
|2011–2014||''[[Muthaaram (TV series)|Muthaaram]]''||Saradha
|-
|2011–2012||''[[Shanthi Nilayam (TV series)|Shanthi Nilayam]]''||Sivakami||[[Jaya TV]]
|-
|2013||''Pokkisham''||Lawyer||[[Kalaignar TV]]
|-
|rowspan="2"|2013–2014||''[[Vamsam (TV series)|Vamsam]]''||Vasantha||[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|''Chithiram Pesuthadi''|| ||[[Jaya TV]]
|-
|rowspan="2"|2018–2019||''[[Avalum Naanum]]''||Bhanumathi||[[Star Vijay]]
|-
|''[[Kalyana Parisu (TV series)|Kalyana Parisu]]''||Tripura Sundari||rowspan="3"|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|rowspan="2"|2019||''[[Run (Indian TV series)|Run]]''||
|-
|''[[Mahalakshmi (TV series)|Mahalakshmi]]'' ||Vijayalakshmi
|-
|2020–2021||''[[Neethane Enthan Ponvasantham]]''||Sharadha||[[Zee Tamizh]]
|-
|2021||''Rajamannar Vagaiyara''||||[[Polimer TV]]
|-
|2022–2024||''[[Ethirneechal (TV series)|Ethirneechal]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/actress-bhagavatula-satyapriya-expresses-gratitude-to-fans-thank-you-all-for-your-unconditional-love/articleshow/110814940.cms|title=Actress Bhagavatula Satyapriya expresses gratitude to fans|website=Times of India}}</ref>||rowspan="2"|Visalatchi||rowspan="2"|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|2024–Present||''[[Ethirneechal (TV series)|Ethirneechal Thodargiradhu]]''
|-
|2026||''Annamalai Kudumbam''||Vellaiyammal||[[Zee Tamil]]
|}

;Shows
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="background:#000;"
! Year !! Title !! Language !! Role !! Channel
|-
|rowspan="3"|2022||''[[Vanakkam Tamizha]]''||rowspan="6"|[[Tamil (language)|Tamil]]||Guest||rowspan="4"|[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|-
|''Porantha Veeda Pugundha Veeda''||Herself
|-
|''Rani Magarani''||Contestant
|-
|rowspan="2"|2023||''[[Vanakkam Tamizha]]''
|-
|''Star Music Season 4''||Contestant||[[Star Vijay]]
|-
|2024||''Naanga Ready Neenga Ready Ah''||Judge||[[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
|}

==Dramas==
* Dharma Jyothi
* Radham Kopam Varatha
* Swamiyar Aava Poore
* Ezhuswarangal

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|id=3118248|name=Sathyapriya}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Indian voice actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil television]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam television]]
[[Category:1958 births]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]

Gurdwara Hemkund Sahib

2026-04-18T00:10:55Z

Creativesketchbook: new

{{Short description|Sikh temple in Uttarakhand, India}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Hemkund|Homkund}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Gurudwara Hemkund Sahib
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Gurudwara
| image_skyline = Hemkunt-003.jpg
| image_alt = A stone building is surrounded by partially frozen ponds. Pilgrims can be seen on the paths
| image_caption = Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib
| nickname =
| pushpin_map = India Uttarakhand#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttarakhand, India
| coordinates = {{coord|30|42|0.78|N|79|36|57.54|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttarakhand]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Chamoli district]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 4572
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]]<ref name="langoff">{{cite web|title=52nd REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER FOR LINGUISTIC MINORITIES IN INDIA|url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|website=nclm.nic.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]]|access-date=9 October 2019|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>
| demographics1_title2 = Regional
| demographics1_info2 = [[Garhwali language|Garhwali]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Garhwali |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gbm |website=Ethnologue |access-date=24 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 249401
| registration_plate = UK 11
| website = {{Official website |URL|shrihemkuntsahib.com}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Gurdwara Hemkund Sahib''' is a [[Sikh]] place of worship ([[gurdwara]]) and pilgrimage site in [[Chamoli district]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[India]]. It is devoted to [[Guru Gobind Singh]] (1666–1708), the tenth [[Sikh Guru]], and finds mention in ''[[Dasam Granth]]''. With its setting of a glacial lake surrounded by seven mountain peaks, each adorned by a [[Nishan Sahib]] on its cliff, it is according to the Survey of India located in the [[Garhwal Himalaya]] at an elevation of {{convert|4572|m|ft|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hemkund Sahib {{!}} Chamoli District Website {{!}} India |url=https://chamoli.gov.in/tourist-place/hemkund-sahib/ |website=Government of Uttarakhand |access-date=24 September 2023}}</ref><ref>[https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&t=h&ll=30.698745,79.618349&spn=0.021698,0.035577&z=15 Hemkunt Sahib at Google maps] ''Satellite view: lake, Gurudwara building on the west shore, zigzag pilgrim path from Ghanghariya (2 km west) to west shore. Terrain view: Hemkund Sahib at 4,160 m, Ghanghariua at 3,100 m''.</ref> It is approached from [[Govindghat]] on the [[Rishikesh]]-[[Badrinath]] highway. The main town near Gobindghat is [[Joshimath]]. The elevation of the lake at Hemkund is approximately 15,000 feet.

==Etymology==
Hemkund is a [[Sanskrit]] name derived from ''Hem'' ("Snow") and ''Kund'' ("bowl"). The [[Dasam Granth]] says that in a former life, Guru Gobind Singh meditated intensely at Hemkund on Akaal.<ref>Rinehart, Robin (2014) "The Dasam Granth". In ''Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies''. Oxford: The Oxford University Press, p. 138. {{ISBN|9780199699308}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199699308.013.017}}</ref>

[[File:Hemkund Lake.JPG|thumb|right|Hemkund Lake, September]]

==Travel==
[[File: Pilgrims crossing the Hemkund Glacier..jpg|thumb|Pilgrims going across the Hemkund Glacier to visit Gurudwara Sri Hemkund Sahib]]Hemkund is inaccessible from October through April because of snowbound paths and glaciers. Sikh pilgrims arrive in May and set to work to repair the damage to the path over the winter, which tradition is called ''kar seva'' ("selfless service"), a concept which forms an important tenet of the Sikh faith.

The take-off point for Hemkund Sahib is the town of [[Govindghat]], about {{convert|275|km}} from [[Rishikesh]]. The {{convert|13|km}} trek is along a reasonably well-maintained path to the village of [[Ghangaria]] (also called Govinddham). From This 13km trek, 4km can be covered with shared taxi and rest 9km is trek. This path can be covered either by walk or by pony and a [[Gurudwara]] here gives shelter to pilgrims. In addition, there are a few hotels and a campground with tents and mattresses. A {{convert|1100|m|ft|adj=on}}climb on a {{convert|6|km|adj=on}} of stone paved path leads to Hemkund. Overnight stay is not allowed at Hemkund Sahib, so it is necessary to leave by 2 pm to return to Govindghat by dusk.

From [[Delhi]], tourists take the train to [[Haridwar]] and then travel by bus to Govindghat via [[Rishikesh]]. It is also possible to drive from Delhi to Govindghat, a distance of about {{convert|500|km}} which takes around 18 hours to cover. Recently, an Indian airline company has started a helicopter service between Govindghat and Ghangria. The flight takes about 5 minutes.

[[File: Helicopter service.jpg|thumb|The recent helicopter service started between Govindghat and Gangaria]]

A recent study examining [[altitude sickness]] at Hemkund Sahib found that almost one-third of pilgrims who travelled to Hemkund suffered from [[Acute Mountain Sickness]] (a form of altitude sickness). Approximately 150,000 pilgrims are believed to travel to Hemkund Sahib each trekking season, and almost 50,000 people are at risk of developing Acute Mountain Sickness each year. The authors stated the difficult nature of the trek, limited water consumption, and lack of awareness regarding altitude sickness as the main contributory factors.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.4103/0019-5278.116366|pmc=3777282|title=A pilot study on the prevalence of acute mountain sickness at the sikh pilgrimage of hemkund sahib in the Indian Himalayas|year=2013|last1=Sahota|first1=Inderjeets|last2=Panwar|first2=Nidhis|journal=Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine|volume=17|issue=1|pages=12–15|pmid=24082642 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Present Gurudwara==
[[File: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib by Panjab Digital Library.jpg|thumb|During the construction of Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib. Digitized by [[Panjab Digital Library]].]]Design and construction of the present gurudwara at Hemkund was started in the mid-1960s, after [[Harkirat Singh (general)|Major General Harkirat Singh]], KCIO, Engineer-in-Chief, Indian Army visited the gurudwara. The engineering brain behind the Gurudwara project, Major General Harkirat Singh selected Architect Manmohan Singh Siali of the Military Engineering Services (MES) to head the design and construction effort. Thereafter, Architect Siali made annual trips to Hemkund Sahib and organized and supervised complex construction. M/s Sahib Singh, Harbhajan Singh & Gursharan Singh were the dedicated Gursikh contractors who worked on the construction, overcoming numerous weather, altitude, terrain, and logistic challenges. The unique design and construction are acclaimed as marvels, both of which have borne the test of sustainability over the past many decades.
<ref>[https://shrihemkuntsahib.com/design_archi.html Gurudwara Sri Hemkunt Sahib: The Design and Architecture]. shrihemkuntsahib.com</ref>

==Valley of Flowers==
{{Main|Valley of Flowers National Park}}
About {{convert|3|km}} from Gobinddham is the {{convert|5|km|adj=on}} long Valley of Flowers. The Indian Government has declared this valley a national park. It is situated in [[Nanda Devi National Park|Nanda Devi Bio Reserve]], and all activities are carefully regulated to preserve the valley in pristine condition. The best months to visit are July and August, during the [[monsoons]]. Legend has it that a flower called ''Brahma-Kamal'' blossoms here every 12 years. The trek to the valley is for advanced trekkers, especially during an extended period of rainfall. Almost every single rock on the path to the valley of Flowers is wobbly and requires a significant level of concentration to avoid an unnecessary injury. It is a popular second destination for pilgrims visiting Hemkunt Sahib and worth spending a day.

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="130" perrow="5" caption="Views of Hemkund (Hemkunt) Sahib">
File:Photograph of Gurdwara Hemkunt Sahib in 1936.jpg|Photograph of Gurdwara Hemkunt Sahib in 1936, the year the first Gurdwara was established (pictured)
File:Photograph of Gurdwara Hemkunt Sahib in 1960.jpg|Photograph of a group of Sikh pilgrims praying at Gurdwara Hemkunt Sahib in 1960
File:Hemkunt-002.jpg|Gurudwara in front of lake
File:Hemkunt-006.jpg|Gurdwara Hemkunt Sahib
File:Brahmkamal.jpg|Brahmkamal
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''Gurdwara in the Himalayas: Sri Hemkunt Sahib'', by Suparna Rajguru, M. S. Siali. Published by Hemkunt, 2001. {{ISBN|81-7010-292-8}}.
* ''Pilgrimage to Hemkunt'', by Jaswant Singh Neki. Photographs by Sondeep Shankar. New Delhi, UBSPD, 2002, {{ISBN|81-7476-375-9}}.

==External links==
{{commons category|Hemkund}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121219061559/http://www.hemkunt.in/index.html Hemkund Sahib Yatra Information]
* [http://distancebetween.info/haridwar/hemkund_sahib HemKund Sahib Road Map]
* {{Wikivoyage-inline}}
* [https://www.facebook.com/GuruDwaraShriHemkundSahib/ Facebook Page]

{{Chamoli district}}

[[Category:Sikh places]]
[[Category:Religious tourism in India]]
[[Category:Tourism in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Gurdwaras in Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Chamoli district]]

List of plays of Assamese Mobile Theatres for the season 2011–2012

2026-04-16T19:05:29Z

Creativesketchbook: adding

{{short description|None}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2022}}

This is the list of plays of various [[Assamese language|Assamese]] mobile theatre groups, popularly known as ''Bhraymaman'' theatres, for the season 2011–2012. The unique culture of [[Assam]], the mobile theatres providing entertainment in both urban and rural areas of the state and has a record turnover of Rs 10 cr annually, beating the common notion of theatre artists not being paid well.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120515223840/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-05-02/news/28483209_1_kahinoor-theatre-mobile-theatre-assam-jatin-bora The Economic Times - Assam's mobile theatre: Source of rural and urban entertainment]</ref>

Season 2019-20 Kohinoor Theatre.
Entry for first time in theatre industry by Kohinoor Theatre. A talented Assamese film and theatre Actress Sharmistha Chakraborty, who played the role "Droupadi" from drama 'Droupadir Vastraharan'. She is known Droupadi of Kohinoor. Her popularity is an inspiration theatre industry. From then, she is continue in Assamese mobile theatre industry.

==List of Plays==
{| class="wikitable" width=100%
|-
!#
! Theatre
! Play
! Playwright
! Starring
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center| 1
| rowspan="3" align=center| Aawahan
| ''Alinggan''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
| rowspan="3" align=center | Chandana Sharma, Pal Phukan, Chinmoy Kotoky etc.
|-
| ''Koinar Poduli Uduli-Muduli''
| Munin Baruah
|-
| ''Maa''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center| 2
| rowspan="3" align=center| Anuradha
| ''Atangka''
| Roma Barman
| rowspan="3" align=center |
|-
| ''Dodhisi''
| Mahendra Borthakur
|-
| ''Nabanita''
| Bhaskarjyoti Talukdaar
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|3
| rowspan="3" align=center| Ashirwad
| ''Kiya Ene Hoi''
| Sebabrat Baruah
| rowspan="3" align=center | Raag Ainitam, Arup Baishya, Robin Neog, Gayatri Bora etc.
|-
| ''Sayane Sapune Zubeen''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-
| ''Tumar Naamere Torali''
| Samarendra Barman
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|4
| rowspan="3" align=center| Bhagyadevi
| ''Malobika Mur Bandhabi''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
| rowspan="3" align=center | [[Jatin Bora]], Asha Bordoloi, Swagata Baruah etc.
|-
| ''Raktabidyut Pathak B.A.''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-
| ''Sagar Tumi Kot''
| Tilak Baishya
|-

| rowspan="4" align=center|5
| rowspan="4" align=center| Binapani
| ''Hello Hello Bhanti''
| Samarendra Barman
| rowspan="4" align=center | Biju Borkakoti, Toilukya Dutta, Uttam Dutta, Neelakshi Saikia etc.
|-
| ''Koina Sajaba Kune''
| Ananta Dutta
|-
| ''Lajja''
| Avatar Singh
|-
| ''Nastachandra''
| Jiten Sharma
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|6
| rowspan="3" align=center| Bordoisila
| ''Agnigarbha Lena''
| Prahash Kumar Bhattacharya
| rowspan="3" align=center | Mridul Chutia, Tarak Das etc.
|-
| ''Antaheen''
| Mridul Chutia
|-
| ''Rajpathat Dujoni Chuali''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|7
| rowspan="3" align=center| Brindaban
| ''Bih aru Amrit''
| Munin Baruah
| rowspan="3" align=center | Champak Sharma, Rajkumar Talukdar, Olympica etc.
|-
| ''Bodnam''
| Champak Sharma
|-
| ''Mon Toi Pagal Kiyo''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-

| rowspan="4" align=center|8
| rowspan="4" align=center| Dharitri
| ''Dhuniya Chualir Mon''
| Ananta Dutta
| rowspan="4" align=center |
|-
| ''Dom Domadom Madal Baje''
| Samarendra Barman
|-
|''Megha Aru Nai''
| Krishna Bordoloi
|-
| ''Urukha Pojat Tumi''
| Ashim Baruah
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|9
| rowspan="3" align=center| Hengool
| ''Chamak''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
| rowspan="3" align=center | Ravi Sharma, Prasenjit Borah, Kalpana, Simi etc.
|-
| ''Khiriki''
| Munin Baruah
|-
| ''Morisika''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|10
| rowspan="3" align=center| Himaloy
| ''Epahi Gulap Phool''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
| rowspan="3" align=center | Nayan Nirban Baruah, Mahendra Sharma, Nisha Kashyap, Dharmeswar Talukdar etc.
|-
| ''Kharu''
| Mahendra Sharma
|-
| ''Torai Jolabo Saki''
| Samarendra Barman
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|11
| rowspan="3" align=center| Itihash
| ''Deuta Ejon Beya Manuh''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
| rowspan="3" align=center | Aakashdeep, Bhranti Medhi, Biraj Ballav, Binoy Deka etc.
|-
| ''Raja''
| Samarendra Barman
|-
| ''Sapunar Railgari''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|12
| rowspan="3" align=center| Jagaran
| ''Dabanal''
| Sebabrat Baruah
| rowspan="3" align=center | Bhabesh Baruah, Paresh Goswami, Mohan Saikia etc.
|-
| ''Ran Hungkar''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-
| ''Zed''
| Dhrubajyoti Sharma
|-

| rowspan="4" align=center|13
| rowspan="4" align=center|[[Kohinoor Theatre|Kohinoor]]
| ''Bhal Pau Buli Nokoba''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|rowspan="4" align=center| Barsha Rani Bishaya, Dibyajyoti Das, Hiren Medhi, Dulumoni Deka etc.
|-
| ''Kopouphul''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-
| ''Path''
| Hemanta Dutta
|-
| ''Titanic''
| Hemanta Dutta
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|14
| rowspan="3" align=center| Manchajyoti
| ''Bhiksha''
| Bhaben Baruah
| rowspan="3" align=center | Toilukya Sharma, Dalimi Medhi, Tarun Rajbanshi, Tapan Barman etc.
|-
| ''Priyo Shatru''
| Samarendra Barman
|-
| ''Ramjanor Jonaak''
| Samarendra Barman
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|15
| rowspan="3" align=center| Pragjyotish
| ''Daagi''
| Dhrubajyoti Sharma
| rowspan="3" align=center | Aroop Borah, Dwipen Bhuyan, Ashwini Baruah etc.
|-
| ''Maya Memsahab''
| Samarendra Barman
|-
| ''Nisanga Nayak''
| Avatar Singh
|-

| rowspan="4" align=center|16
| rowspan="4" align=center| Prithviraaj
| ''Baaji''
| Champak Sharma
| rowspan="4" align=center |
|-
| ''Ekhoni Neela Chador''
| Nripen Mahanta
|-
|''Gouripuriya Sengri Moi''
| Bhaskarjyoti Talukdaar
|-
| ''Puwoti Nishar Azan''
| Samarendra Barman
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|17
| rowspan="3" align=center| Rajashree
| ''Baa, Bada aru Babli''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
| rowspan="3" align=center | Pranjit Das, Meenakshi Neog, Moitreyi Goswami etc.
|-
| ''Bandi''
| Sebabrat Baruah
|-
| ''Nabin Masta''
| Hemanta Dutta
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|18
| rowspan="3" align=center| Rajmahal
| ''Anuradha Tumar Babe''
| Dhrubajyoti Sharma
| rowspan="3" align=center | Panchali Gupta, Bhaskar Tamuli, Rajkumar Thakur etc.
|-
| ''Lajja''
| Samarendra Barman
|-
| ''Mon''
| Hemanta Dutta
|-

| rowspan="4" align=center|19
| rowspan="4" align=center| Rajtilak
| ''Astitwa''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
| rowspan="4" align=center | Niranjan Das, Mridul Bhuyan, Debishmita, Child Artist Apple etc.
|-
| ''Atmasandhan''
| Hemanta Dutta
|-
| ''Maya Mathu Maya''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-
| ''Teje Dhuwa Gamucha''
| Dhrubajyoti Sharma
|-

| rowspan="4" align=center|20
| rowspan="4" align=center| Roopayan
| ''Beya Manuhor Khang''
| Samarendra Barman
| rowspan="4" align=center | Jayanta Das, Rabindra Sharma, Kamal Rewati, Deepraj etc.
|-
| ''Kurukhetra''
| Avatar Singh
|-
| ''Moi Mahatma Nohou''
| Dhrubajyoti Sharma
|-
| ''Mone Mone Maram''
| Abhijeet Bhattacharya
|-

| rowspan="4" align=center|21
| rowspan="4" align=center| Saraighat
| ''Amator Maat''
| Reba Bora
| rowspan="4" align=center | Pradip Nisith, Reba Bora, Gunen Sharma, Jayanta Baruah etc.
|-
| ''Hindustan-Pakistan''
| Pradip Nisith
|-
| ''Maya Mathu Maya''
| Nirmal Das
|-
| ''Sarkar''
| Samarendra Barman
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|22
| rowspan="3" align=center| Srimanta Shankardev
| ''Lukabhaku''
| Debojeet Sharma
| rowspan="3" align=center | Debojeet Sharma, Momi Deka, Jugal Bihari Deka, Spondon etc.
|-
| ''Maram Jasibo Kune''
| Sebabrat Baruah
|-
| ''Phanki''
| Samarendra Barman
|-

| rowspan="3" align=center|23
| rowspan="3" align=center| Suruj
| ''Atripto Atmar Binoni''
| Tarini Deka
| rowspan="3" align=center |
|-
| ''Kabarar Kongkal''
| Bhaben Baruah
|-
| ''Kun Aapun Kun Por''
| Tarini Deka
|-

|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101023235245/http://www.hindustantimes.com/NSD-takes-Mobile-theatre-of-Assam-as-its-case-study/Article1-511258.aspx NSD takes 'Mobile theatre of Assam' as its case study]
*[https://tourismassam.blogspot.com/2008/02/bhraymaman-theatre-assamese-mobile.html Bhraymaman theatre --Assamese mobile theatre industry]

Kohinoor Theatre (2019–20)
Droupadir Vastraharan -Champak Sarah
Boroxa Jetiya Naame - Rajdweep
Mor Tejot tumar naam - Avijeet bhattacharya
Starring - Sharmistha Chakraborty, Arup baishya, Debojeet mazumdar

{{DEFAULTSORT:Plays of Assamese Mobile Theatres for the season 2011-2012}}
[[Category:Theatre companies in India|Assamese Mobile plays 2011]]
[[Category:Culture of Assam]]
[[Category:Assam-related lists]]

Battle of Chumb

2026-04-14T17:06:01Z

Creativesketchbook: starting a post

{{Short description|Battle of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Chumb (1971)
| width =
| partof = [[1971 Indo-Pakistani War]]
| image = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 320
| image_style = border:1;
| perrow = 1/2/1/2
| image1 = Chamb101.jpg
| alt1 =
| image3 = Dead_Indian_Soldier_after_the_Battle_of_Chamb_1971.jpg
| alt3 =
| image2 = Pakistani Soldiers in a captured Indian army jeep.jpg
| alt2 =
| image4 = Pakistani forces raise the Pakistani flag 1971.jpg
| alt4 =
| footer = '''Top to bottom, left to right:'''
#[[Computer graphics|Digitized]] map of the Chumb sector in [[Kashmir]] with the rough area captured by Pakistan hatched in yellow.
#Pakistani soldiers riding on a captured Indian army jeep that has been painted with the word [[Indira Gandhi|Indira transport]] in Urdu.
#An Indian soldier [[killed in action]].
#Pakistani flag raised over Chumb Tehsil HQ by the 28 Cavalry
}}
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| date = {{start date|1971|12|03|df=y}} to {{end date|1971|12|11|df=y}}
| place = [[Chumb]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[India]] (present−day [[Azad Kashmir|Azad Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Pakistan]])
| coordinates = {{coord|32.838|N|74.404|E|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = Kashmir
| map_relief =
| map_mark = red_pog.svg
| map_size = 250px
| map_marksize =
| map_caption = Location of the battle with present−day geopolitical borders in the [[Kashmir]] region
| map_label = Chamb
| territory = Pakistan Captured 220 km2 of territory in [[Chumb]] but retained only 158 km2 of territory as per the [[Simla agreement]] and returned the rest of the land it captured back to India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tufail |first=M. Kaiser |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fJY_yAEACAAJ |title=Against All Odds: The Pakistan Air Force in the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War |date=2020 |publisher=Helion Limited |isbn=978-1-913118-64-8 |pages=46 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nagial |first=Colonel Balwan Singh |title=Forced displacement from the Chhamb sector in 1971 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/col-nagial/forced-displacement-from-the-chhamb-sector-in-1971/ |access-date=2025-03-13 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
| result = Pakistani victory
| status =
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = {{IND}}
| combatant2 = {{PAK}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|India|army}} [[Major general|Maj. Gen.]] Jaswant Singh
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Pakistan|army}} Maj. Gen. [[Iftikhar Janjua]]{{KIA}}
| units1 = {{army|IND}}
{{Collapsible list
|framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
|title=List of Indian units
|1={{tree list}}
* [[10th Indian Infantry Division|10 Division]]
** Divisional troops
***'''C''' company [[Brigade of the Guards|12 Guards]] ([[ENTAC]] ATGMs)
*** [[Para (Special Forces)|Para commando]] group '''A'''
*** 61 Engineer battalion
*** 106 Engineer battalion
*** 10 Division signal regiment

** [[9th Horse (Deccan Horse)|9 Deccan horse]]
** [[72nd Armoured Regiment (India)|72 Armored regiment]]
** 2nd Independent Armored reconnaissance squadron

** [[28th Indian Infantry Brigade|28 Infantry brigade]]
*** [[Rajput Regiment|5 Rajput regiment]]
*** [[Jammu and Kashmir Rifles|2 JAK rifles]]
*** 8 JAK militia

** [[52nd Indian Brigade|52 Infantry brigade]]
*** [[Punjab Regiment (India)|16 Punjab]]
*** [[Garhwal Rifles|7 Garhwal]]
*** [[4th Gorkha Rifles#Battalions of the regiment|3/4 Gorkha rifles]]

** 68 Infantry brigade
*** [[Kumaon Regiment#Units|7 Kumaon]]
*** [[8th Gorkha Rifles|5/8 Gorkha rifles]]
*** 68 Infantry brigade signal company

** 191 infantry brigade
*** [[Sikh Regiment|5 Sikh]]
*** [[Assam Regiment|5 Assam]]
*** [[1st Gorkha Rifles (The Malaun Regiment)|4/1 Gorkha rifles]]
*** 10 Garhwal rifles

** 10 Artillery division
*** 12 Field regiment
*** 18 Field regiment
*** [[81 Medium Regiment (India)|81 Field regiment]]
*** 39 Medium regiment
*** 216 Medium regiment
*** [[861 Missile Regiment (India)|86 Light regiment]]
*** [[151 Air Defence Regiment (India)|151 Air defense regiment '''Echo troop''']]
*** 127th Divisional locating battery
*** 1 Battery (ex-176 Field regiment)
{{Tree list/end}}

{{air force|IND}}
#[[No. 20 Squadron IAF|No. 20 Squadron]]
#[[No. 45 Squadron IAF|No. 45 Squadron]]
#[[No. 101 Squadron IAF|No. 101 Squadron]]
}}

----
* [[File:BSF_Flag.svg|20px]] [[Border Security Force]]
** 51 BSF Battalion
** 57 BSF battalion
| units2 = {{army|PAK}}
{{Collapsible list
|framestyle=border:none; padding:0;
|title=List of Pakistani units
|1={{tree list}}
* 23 Division
** Divisional units
*** [[19th Battalion, Baloch Regiment|19 Baloch R&S regiment]]
*** [[Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers#Current units|474 Engineer battalion]]
*** 105 Engineer battalion
*** 10 Independent field engineer company
*** 58 AK field company engineer
*** '''Zakaria Company''' [[Special Service Group]]
*** [[Pakistan Army Corps of Signals#Units|41 Signal battalion]]
*** 46 Supply and transport battalion
*** [[Pakistan Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering#Some Notable Units|60 EME battalion]]
*** 5 Field ambulance

** [[Pakistan Army Armoured Corps|2 Armored Brigade]]
*** [[11th Cavalry (Frontier Force)|11 PAVO Cavalry]]
*** 26 Cavalry
*** 28 Cavalry
*** 12 Independent Armored Squadron

** 20 Brigade
*** [[31st Punjabis|14 Punjab battalion]]
*** 47 Punjab battalion
*** [[Frontier Force Regiment|17 Frontier Force]]

** 66 Brigade
*** [[82nd Punjabis|4 Punjab battalion]]
*** [[Baloch Regiment|23 Baloch]]
*** [[Frontier Force Regiment|33 Frontier Force]]

** [[111th Infantry Brigade (Pakistan)|111 Infantry brigade]]
*** [[Punjab Regiment (Pakistan)|42 Punjab battalion]]
*** [[127th Baluch Light Infantry|10 Baloch battalion]]
*** 3 Frontier Force

** 4 Azad Kashmir Brigade
*** [[Azad Kashmir Regiment|2 AK Battalion]]
*** 6 AK Battalion
*** 13 AK Battalion

** 7 AK Brigade
*** [[1st Battalion, Azad Kashmir Regiment|1 AK Battalion]]
*** 4 AK Battalion
*** 8 AK Battalion

** [[Regiment of Artillery (Pakistan)|23 Artillery Division]]
*** 11 Field Regiment
*** 39 Field Regiment
*** 51 Composite mountain Regiment
*** 71 Mountain Regiment
*** 64 Medium Regiment
*** 81 AK Battery
*** 285 Division locating battery

** 17 Artillery division
*** 50 Field regiment
*** 63 Field regiment
*** 28 Medium regiment
*** 209 Locating battery
{{Tree list/end}}

{{air force|PAK}}
# No. 18 Squadron
# [[No. 26 Squadron PAF|No. 26 Squadron]]

----[[File:State emblem of Pakistan.svg|20px]] [[Civil Armed Forces|Civil defense]]
# [[Frontier Corps]]
# [[Zhob Militia]]
# [[Mahsud Scouts]]
# [[Pakistan Rangers]]
# Chenab rangers
# Azad Kashmir rangers
}}
----
{{flagicon|Azad Kashmir}} Local volunteers
| strength1 = * 126 Artillery guns
* 104 Tanks
** 90 [[T-54/T-55|T-54 and T-55]]
** 14 others
*60 Aircraft
| strength2 = * 130 Artillery guns
* 129 Tanks
** 74 [[Type 59 tank|T-59]]
** ~ 48 M4A1E6 Shermans
** ~ 7 M36B2 Tank busters
* 40 Aircraft
| casualties1 = {{Collapsible list
|framestyle=border:none; padding:0; 
|title=Indian casualties
|1= 1353 casualties
* 440 [[Killed In Action|KIA]]
** 723 wounded
** 190 [[POW]]/[[Missing In Action|MIA]]
* 4 aircraft lost
** 2 [[Su-7]]s
** 1 [[Mig-21]]
** 1 [[Hawker Hunter]]
* 3 aircraft damaged
** 2 Su-7s
** 1 Hawker Hunter
* 2 artillery batteries captured<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gill |first=John H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2q6SgAACAAJ |title=An Atlas of the 1971 India - Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh |date=2003 |publisher=National Defense University, Near East South Asia Center for Strategic Studies |pages=47 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1 squadron of tanks captured<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Fazal Muqueem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qh4NAAAAIAAJ |title=Pakistan's Crisis in Leadership |date=1973 |publisher=National Book Foundation |isbn=978-0-88386-302-2 |pages=199|language=en}}</ref>
}} 
| casualties2 = {{Collapsible list
|framestyle=border:none; padding:0; 
|title=Pakistani casualties
|1= 2216 casualties
* 2 [[F-86 Sabre]]s lost
}}
| notes = '''Source(s):'''<ref name="Honour">{{Cite book |title=Battle Honour Chhamb 1971 |last=Ghuman |first=Israr |publisher=Vanguard Books |year=2019 |isbn=9789692341608}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Against All Odds |last=Tufail |first=Kaiser |publisher=Helion & Company |year=2020 |isbn=9781913118648 |url=https://www.helion.co.uk/military-history-books/against-all-odds-pakistan-air-force-in-the-1971-india-pakistan-war.php}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iaf/history/1971war/h-k-bajaj/ |title=Battle of Chhamb 71 : Through the 6/5 Lenses of an FAC |date=2020-12-09 |website=Bharat Rakshak}}</ref><ref name="Agha">{{Cite web |url=http://www.defencejournal.com/sept99/chamb.htm |title=The Battle of Chamb-1971 |last=Amin |first=Agha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000829175714/http://www.defencejournal.com:80/sept99/chamb.htm |archive-date=2000-08-29}}</ref>
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Indo-Pakistani War of 1971}}
}}

The '''Battle of Chumb''' (3 December – 11 December 1971) was a major battle between the forces of [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] during the [[1971 Indo-Pakistani war]]. It was one of the first major engagements in the western front of the war in which the Pakistani 23rd Division captured the strategically important city of Chumb from the Indian 10th Infantry Division.<ref name="Honour" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.samaa.tv/208735919-1971-indo-pak-war-pakistan-s-strategic-triumph-in-chhamb-sector |title=1971 Indo-Pak War: Pakistan's strategic triumph in Chhamb sector |date=2023-12-08 |access-date=2024-06-27 |website=Samaa News}}</ref><ref name="Agha">{{Cite web |url=http://www.defencejournal.com/sept99/chamb.htm |title=The Battle of Chamb-1971 |last=Amin |first=Agha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000829175714/http://www.defencejournal.com:80/sept99/chamb.htm |archive-date=2000-08-29}}</ref>

== Background ==
Prior to the outbreak of war in 1971, Chumb was under Indian control, having been handed back by Pakistan under the [[Tashkent Agreement]] after the [[Battle of Chumb (1965)]] during the [[1965 War|1965 Indo-Pakistani War]].

=== Pakistani plans and preparations ===
The offensive was designed by Pakistani military planners as a defensive maneuver to prevent the Indians from using Chumb as a base of operations to attack [[Gujrat, Pakistan|Gujrat]], [[Lalamusa]] and [[Kharian]] as the crucial north–south line of communication i.e. - the [[Grand Trunk Road]] lay between 35 and 40 miles from Chumb.<ref name="Hamid">{{Cite book |title=At the Forward Edge of Battle - A History of the Pakistan Armoured Corps 1938-2016 |last=Hamid |first=Syed |date=2016 |publisher=Helion & Company |isbn=9789692310109|url=https://a.co/d/hWG0sKT}}</ref><ref name="Agha" />

The Pakistan Army's 23 Division which was responsible for operations in the area had received orders from the [[General Headquarters (Pakistan Army)|GHQ]] to capture and protect the Chumb-Dewa sector. It had 5 infantry brigades and 26 Cavalry as its main armored force which had old [[M4 Sherman|M4A1E6 Shermans]]. Hence, [[11th Cavalry (Frontier Force)|11 Cavalry]] with T-59s and an Independent Armored Squadron with [[M36 Tank Destroyer|M36B2]]s from the [[6th Armoured Division (Pakistan)|6th Armored Division]] along with an infantry brigade and artillery resources from the [[I Corps (Pakistan)|I Corps]] were transferred a month prior to the war to support the 23 Division's force.<ref name="Agha" /><ref name="Jagjit" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Lt. Col. Muhammad Usman Hassan |chapter-url=http://pakdef.org/battle-lore-on-breakthrough-in-chamb/ |chapter=Battle Lore – On Breakthrough in Chamb |title=Soldiers Speak, Selected Articles from Pakistan Army Journal 1956–1981 |publisher=Army Education Press, GHQ, Rawalpindi |archive-date=2015-12-27 |access-date=2014-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227133213/http://pakdef.org/battle-lore-on-breakthrough-in-chamb/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Indian plans and preparations ===
Having learnt from [[Operation Grand Slam]], the Indian Army's 10th Division was responsible to prevent a Pakistani advance towards [[Akhnoor]] which served as the main line of communications between India and Indian Administered Kashmir. Though the Pakistani Army wasn't in a state to start an offensive of this scale, the division was tasked to defend the Chhamb-Jourian sector and also attack across the border. In addition to its regular brigades (28, 52 and 191); 68 Infantry Brigade, which was the XV Corps reserve brigade in the Kashmir valley was earmarked as its fourth brigade. 191 Brigade was moved to Chhamb, 68 Brigade was kept as reserve at Akhnoor, while the other infantry brigades and armoured elements were at [[Kaleeth|Kalit]]-Troti/Taroti (not to be confused with [[Tatrinote]] exactly on LAC in Poonch district). Anticipating the onset of a Pakistani attack, 52 Brigade was deployed in the area Nawan Harimpur, 28 Brigade on the Kalidhar range and 68 Brigade to the Troti heights.<ref name="Jagjit">{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Jagjit|title=Indian Gunners at War: The Western Front 1971|date=1994|publisher=Spantech & Lancer|isbn=978-1897829554|page=}}</ref><ref name="Agha" />

== Strength ==
Brigadier Amar Cheema of the [[Indian Army]], while comparing the strength of two countries during the battle, claimed that the [[Indian Armed Forces]] had superior tanks such as [[T-55]] and [[T-54]] who were equipped with 100 mm guns. They were said to be far superior to those of the Pakistani [[Type 59 tank]].<ref name="Cheema 2015 p297-8">{{cite book|title=The Crimson Chinar: The Kashmir Conflict: A Politico Military Perspective|author=Brigadier Amar Cheema|year=2015|isbn=978-81-7062-301-4|publisher=Lancer Publishers|pages=297–298|quote=The contention that this was the most serious reverse for India in the war is also correct as it was here that Pakistan could maximise their territorial gains amounting to some 400 Sq. Km.... The way it ultimately planned out, Chamb was the only sector in J&K where the Indian forces suffered setback and this was attributable to Indian operational stance and inadequate preparation for the defensive battle for which the formation had been mandated.....Loss of territory in the sector for both sides was unacceptable, yet it was India who let this happen.}}</ref>

The Indian T-55 tanks also possessed [[Armour-piercing discarding sabot|APDS]] ammunition firing capability which the Pakistani Type 59 tanks did not have. The T-55 had a far superior stabilization system.<ref name="Agha" />

Cheema also claims that there was near parity in terms of artillery but, when it came to infantry, the Pakistan army had fewer soldiers than the Indian army during the battle. He states that "it was this battle which helped in sustaining the morale of Pakistan army. The Indians, on the other hand, describe it as a most serious reverse suffered in the 1971 war".<ref name="Cheema 2015 p297-8" />

== Outcome ==
The fierce battle led to thousands of civilians evacuating the area.<ref name="NYT 1971-12-13">{{Cite news |last=Kamm |first=Henry |date=1971-12-13 |title=Pakistani Forces Take Ghost Town in Kashmir |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/12/13/archives/pakistani-forces-take-ghost-town-in-kashmir.html |access-date=2023-04-23 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |quote=The Pakistani contention that the enemy left this side of the river in a rout is sustained by what they left behind. Entire volumes of records of the Sikh and Gurkha battalions that bore the brunt of the fighting were found in the large, neat camps from which they fled without destroying anything. On the ridgeline, the defenders left communication equipment tuned to their air and ground frequencies and did not bother to destroy their codes.}}</ref>

Towards the end of the battle, the Indian Army hastily retreated from the area with little resistance, leaving behind entire volumes of sensitive documents and radios tuned to their respective codes.<ref name="NYT 1971-12-13" />

Under the [[Simla Agreement]], signed between India and Pakistan on 2 July 1972, Pakistan retained the territory it captured in the Chumb sector.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Agreement between the Government of India and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan on Bilateral Relations (Simla Agreement) |publisher=UN Peacemaker |url=https://peacemaker.un.org/indiapakistan-simlaagreement72 |access-date=2023-12-12}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Operation Grand Slam]]

==References==
<references/>

==Further reading==
* {{citation|last=VSM|first=Brig Amar Cheema|title=The Crimson Chinar: The Kashmir Conflict: A Politico Military Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qc25BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA297|date=31 March 2015|publisher=Lancer Publishers|isbn=978-81-7062-301-4|pages=297–}}

== External links ==

* {{cite web|url=https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/126113/|title=Pakistani and Indian Armies Confront Each Other near Captured Town of Chhamb in Indian Kashmir (1971)|website=British Pathe}}
* {{Cite web |url=https://reuters.screenocean.com/record/1076711 |title=Casualties Mount as Fierce Fighting Continues in Southern Kashmir |publisher=Reuters}}
* {{Cite web |url=https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/228916/ |title=West Pakistan : Pakistan Army Displays Captured Indian Troops; Pakistani Reservists Train with Rifles (1971) |website=British Pathe}}
{{Military of India}}
{{Military of Pakistan}}

{{Tank battles|style=wide}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chumb 1971}}
[[Category:Battles of the India–Pakistan war of 1971]]
[[Category:Battles of the Kashmir conflict]]
[[Category:20th century in Azad Kashmir]]
[[Category:1970s in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Tank battles involving India]]
[[Category:Tank battles involving Pakistan]]
[[Category:Bhimber District]]

Bhrigu Nath Singh

2026-04-07T09:31:27Z

Creativesketchbook: starting biography

{{short description|Professor at IIT Kharagpur}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Bhrigu Nath Singh
| image = [[File:BN Singh.jpg|alt=BN Singh at IIT Kharagpur|200px|wide]]
| caption = B.N. Singh at IIT Kharagpur
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1 July 1968}}
| birth_place = [[Ballia]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
| death_place =
| website = {{URL|https://www.iitkgp.ac.in/department/AE/faculty/ae-bnsingh| IIT Kharagpur}} {{URL|https://www.rgnau.ac.in/en/office-vice-chancellor|Office of the VC, RGNAU}}
| awards =
| known_for = [[Finite element method]], [[solid mechanics]] & [[composite material]]
| alma_mater = [[Wright State University]] [[Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur]] [[Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad|MNNIT Allahabad]]
| profession = Professor
| office1 = [[Vice-chancellor]] at [[Rajiv Gandhi National Aviation University]]
| term_start1 = 22 August 2024<ref>{{cite news |title= Taking charge of Vice Chancellor, RGNAU|url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/rgnauofficial_we-are-happy-to-announce-that-on-22-aug-2024-activity-7232369103275970560-ZLGt?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_desktop |work=RGNAU on Linkedin |date=18 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=rgnau>{{cite news |title=Office of the Vice-Chancellor, RGNAU|url=https://www.rgnau.ac.in/en/office-vice-chancellor |work=RGNAU official |date=18 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| office2 = [[Director general]] at [[Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management|IITRAM]]
| term_start2 = 22 May 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=B N Singh appointed IITRAM director general |url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/iitramahmedabad_iitram-activity-7066472917429030912-Pf1r |work=IITRAM on Linkedin |date=22 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
| term_end2 = 21 August 2024
| predecessor2 = Dr. Amit Prashant
| successor2 = M. K. Barua<ref name=newdgiitram>{{cite news |title=I/C Director General, IITRAM|url=https://iitram.ac.in/director_general |work=Official, IITRAM |date=18 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
| office3 = [[Professor]] at [[IIT Kharagpur|Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]]
| term_start3 = 2004
| term_end3 = present
}}

'''Bhrigu Nath Singh''', also known as '''B.N. Singh''', is an Indian engineering scientist, current vice-chancellor at [[Rajiv Gandhi National Aviation University]]<ref name=rgnau/> and former director general at the [[Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management|IITRAM]].<ref name= Navjeevanexpress >{{cite web |url=https://navjeevanexpress.com/prof-bn-singh-takes-over-as-director-general-of-iitram-from-officiating-dg-dr-amit-prashant/ |title=Prof BN Singh takes over as Director-General of IITRAM from Officiating DG Dr. Amit Prashant|publisher=Navjeevan Express, Voice of the common man |archivedate=16 July 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716215459/http://www.cep.iitkgp.ac.in/?pid=RIC1EL16&mpos=r |accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref>

He is a professor, former [[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited|HAL]] chair professor and the first dean of Human Resources (2016-2020) at [[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]].<ref name=iitkgp>{{cite web |url=http://www.iitkgp.ac.in/department/AE/faculty/ae-bnsingh|title=Bhrigu Nath Singh|publisher=[[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]] |archivedate=3 September 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903121025/http://www.iitkgp.ac.in/department/AE/faculty/ae-bnsingh |accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref><ref name=aerospacedepartmentiitkgp>{{cite news |url=http://www.ae.iitkgp.ernet.in/faculty.php |title=Bhrigu Nath Singh - Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Kharagpur |publisher=[[IIT Kharagpur]] |archivedate=15 July 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715144203/http://www.ae.iitkgp.ernet.in/faculty.php |accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref> He is chair of the [[ICTACEM]] and former Head of Department [[Aerospace Engineering]], IIT Kharagpur.<ref name=ictacem>{{cite web |url=http://www.ictacem2014.in/index.php/conf14/conf/ |title=6th ICTACEM 2014 |publisher=[[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]] |accessdate=5 June 2014 |archivedate=18 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718073254/http://www.ictacem2014.in/index.php/conf14/conf }}</ref><ref name=ictacem2014chair>{{cite web |url=http://www.ictacem2014.in/index.php/conf14/index/pages/view/secre |title=Chair - 6th ICTACEM 2014 |publisher=[[ICTACEM]] |archivedate=8 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808072928/http://www.ictacem2014.in/index.php/conf14/index/pages/view/secre |accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref>

He is a notable alumnus of [[Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad|MNNIT, Allahabad]], and received the distinguished alumni award in 2024.<ref>{{cite news |title=Distinguished Alumni Award (DAA), 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/distinguished-alumni-awards-2024-notable-ias-ips-officers-recognized-at-mnnit/articleshow/113969998.cms |work=Times of India|date=18 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Global Alumni Convention (GAC) at MNNIT |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/others/twoday-mnnit-alumni-association-s-global-meet-from-today-101731089532315.html|work=Hindustan Times|date=18 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref> He was one of the delegates of Aerospace Industry-Academia Conclave, [[Hindustan Aeronautics|HAL]].<ref name=HAL>{{cite web |url=http://115.112.148.193/Aerospace_Industry-AcademiaConclave.asp |title=Aerospace Industry-Academia Conclave |publisher=Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, [[Hindustan Aeronautics|HAL]] |archivedate=13 July 2015 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713113749/http://115.112.148.193/Aerospace_Industry-AcademiaConclave.asp |accessdate=3 September 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Singh earned a bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering and a Master's in Applied Mechanics from [[Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad]] India in 1990 and 1992. In 2001, he earned a Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering at [[IIT Kanpur]]. He obtained his post-doctorate fellowship from [[Wright State University]] in 2003.<ref name="post_doc">{{cite web |url=http://www.wright.edu/sites/default/files/page/attachements/2002apr.pdf |title=Bhrigu Nath Singh - Post Doctorate Fellowship |publisher=Wright State University |accessdate=14 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721084259/http://www.wright.edu/sites/default/files/page/attachements/2002apr.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==Career==
Prior to joining [[IIT Kharagpur]] as an assistant professor in 2004, Singh was a faculty member of [[Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad|MNNIT Allahabad]].<ref name=aerospacedepartmentiitkgp/> He has addressed several problems in aerospace structures with particular focus on geometric and material nonlinearity and uncertainty. Singh has over 130 research papers published and has given numerous national and international talks. He has supervised over 21 Ph.D.<ref>{{cite news |title=Total Ph.ds and M.Tech |url=https://iitram.ac.in/director_general |work=IITRAM Director General Profile |date=22 July 2023 |language=en}}</ref> and 61 MTech students. He has handled several defense projects for the Government of India. He has organized three [[ICTACEM]], an international conference which more than 250 delegates from India and abroad attend.<ref name= CEP>{{cite web |url=http://www.cep.iitkgp.ac.in/?pid=RIC1EL16&mpos=r |title=International Conferences 2007, 2010, 2014|publisher=ICTACEM, Continuing Education Programme |archivedate=16 July 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716215459/http://www.cep.iitkgp.ac.in/?pid=RIC1EL16&mpos=r |accessdate=3 September 2016}}</ref>

Singh has developed several mathematical models. He introduced a direct iterative-based probabilistic procedure for handling highly nonlinear problems, which are still challenging tasks in the research community. His ideas have been published by some highly-rated journals.<ref name=ASCE/> His is the most cited paper since 2008,{{clarify|date=February 2026}} and he is a leading researcher in the field of uncertainty quantification.<ref name=ASCE>{{cite journal|last1=Ballarini|first1=Roberto |title=Cited Journals of Engineering Mechanics |journal= Journal of Engineering Mechanics|date=December 2009 |volume=127 |issue=9 |pages=873–879 |doi=10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9399(2001)127:9(873) }}</ref>

Singh is a fellow of [[Indian Society for Technical Education]] and an elected fellow of the Institute of Engineers (India).<ref name=iitkgp/><ref name="IE_india">{{cite web|url=https://www.ieindia.org/member/consolidate_auto_amie.pdf |title=Fellows, Institute of Engineers (India) |publisher=The Institute of Engineers (India)|accessdate=16 July 2015}}</ref> He was listed among the authors of the top most cited papers in ''International Journal of Finite Elements in Analysis and Design'' in 2014.<ref name=2elsevier>{{cite journal |editor-last=Dolbow |editor-first1=John E. |date=June 2008 |volume=44 |issue=9–10 |pages=602–610 |doi=10.1016/j.finel.2008.02.001 |url=http://www.journals.elsevier.com/finite-elements-in-analysis-and-design/|title=An improved higher order zigzag theory for the static analysis of a laminated sandwich plate with softcore |journal=Finite Elements in Analysis and Design |url-access=subscription }}{{clarify|reason=doi / title mismatch|date=July 2019}}</ref> Some of his papers were listed among the most downloaded research papers in ''International Journal of Mechanical Sciences'' (2014).<ref name=2elsevier/><ref name=1elsevier>{{cite journal |last1=Sienz |first1=Johann |title=Most Cited Applied Mathematical Modelling Articles Since 2010 |journal=Applied Mathematical Modelling |date=December 2010 |volume=34 |issue=12 |pages=3991–4011 |doi=10.1016/j.apm.2010.03.034 |doi-access=free }}{{clarify|reason=doi / title mismatch|date=July 2019}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=July 2019}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Bhrigu Nath}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Indian aerospace engineers]]
[[Category:Wright State University alumni]]
[[Category:IIT Kanpur alumni]]
[[Category:University of Allahabad alumni]]
[[Category:Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Prayagraj alumni]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian Society for Technical Education]]
[[Category:Academic staff of IIT Kharagpur]]

Bahujana sukhaya bahujana hitaya cha

2026-03-26T22:12:34Z

Creativesketchbook: updated details

{{Short description|Sanskrit aphorism}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:Buddha Victoria & Albert.jpg|thumb|[[Gautama Buddha]] in the fifth century BCE suggested his disciples to work for the welfare and happiness of the masses under the dictum ''Bahujana sukhaya bahujana hitaya cha''.]]
'''''Bahujana sukhaya bahujana hitaya cha''''' ({{lit}} For the happiness of the many, for the welfare of the many){{Sfn|Coleman|1973|p=27}} is a dictum or [[aphorism]] enunciated in the [[Rigveda]] in [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]].<ref name=India>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparencyindia.org/resource/survey_study/Towards%20Improving%20Governance.pdf |title=Governance in Classic India |page=13 |access-date=19 September 2013 |publisher=Transparency India organization |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928055223/http://www.transparencyindia.org/resource/survey_study/Towards%20Improving%20Governance.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2013 }}</ref>

[[Hinduism]] defines five basic traditional philosophical concepts and the fifth concept enjoined to be followed is the concept of "welfare of the many, the happiness of the many".{{sfn|Singh|1999|pp=81-82}}

[[Gautama Buddha]] in the fifth century BCE suggested his disciples to work for the welfare and happiness of the masses under the same dictum.{{sfn|Madan|1999|p=47}} Numerous others such as the nineteenth-century Hindu monk [[Swami Vivekananda]]{{sfn| Vivekananda|1993|p=38}}{{Sfn|Ghosh|2008|p=118}} and Indian nationalist, freedom fighter, philosopher [[Sri Aurobindo]] also spoke on this aphorism.

This aphorism is the motto of the [[All India Radio]] (AIR) a National Public Service Broadcaster and its emblem depicts the motto.<ref name=All>{{cite web|url=http://allindiaradio.gov.in/default.aspx |title=All India Radio |access-date=19 September 2013 |publisher=Official government website of All India Radio |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920154639/http://allindiaradio.gov.in/default.aspx |archive-date=20 September 2013 }}</ref>

==Explanation==
===Chanakya's Arthshastra===
Vishnugupta, popularly known as [[Chanakya]] or [[Kautilya]], the architect of the [[Mauryan Empire]] in the fourth century BCE, theorized further, working on this basic dictum, and brought out a treatise called "Kautilya’s [[Arthashastra]]" meaning a treatise on [[Public Administration]] the first such document in India.
Kautilya's approach enshrined the "State as an institutional necessity for human advancement” and then prescribed in details all the actions to be taken by the ruler of the state. His elaboration of the main dictum of the [[Hindu philosophy]] "''bahujan sukhaya bahujan hitaya''", that is, "public welfare lies in the happiness of the masses" was interpreted with the following theory.<ref name=India/>

'''''[[Sanskrit]] [[Śloka|sloka]]''''': ''Praja sukhe sukham rajyaha prajanamcha hitehitam, Natma priyyam hitam rajanaha prajanam cha hitam priyam.''

'''''[[English language|English]] translation''''': “In the happiness of his public rests the king’s happiness, in their welfare
his welfare He shall not consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his public.

===In Hinduism===
Hinduism defines five basic traditional philosophical concepts and the fifth concept enjoined to be followed is the concept of "welfare of the many, the happiness of the many." This concept does not allow [[Hindu]]s to have conflicts among its various classes. The tenet's basic approach is for the good of the entire human race, and in particular of the down trodden people. Vivekananda also stressed this aspect as a message for mankind.{{sfn|Singh|1999|pp=81-82}}

=== In Buddhism ===
[[Gautama Buddha]] after he attained self-realization gave sermons to his disciples. The first sermon that he delivered to his five disciples was ''Dhamma Chakka Pavattana Sutta'' meaning "the turning of the wheel of [[Dharma]]" which was further interpreted as ''bahujana hitAya-bahujana sukhaya''. For Buddha, according to this dictum, excessive luxury and excessive work were both to be shunned in order to achieve welfare and prosperity among human beings. As these two approaches cannot be put to practice, it was essential to adopt ''mujjhima patipada'' meaning a middle course to usher welfare and progress in life. This sermon formed the core of the seed of the tree which emerged as "Buddhism with its several branches containing flowers and fruits full of enlightenment."{{sfn|Madan|1999|p=47}}

===Vivekananda's view===
Vivekananda for the purpose of providing an aesthetic vision to this aphorism said that the [[Brahman]], the enlightened, never seeks fruits or happiness for his action but works for the welfare of others. He also observed that a "socio-aesthetic worker" aims to usher a distinctive change in the society to derive the benefit of a life of beauty and order. He emphasized that a realization of "valiant aesthetic force in the society" was essential through [[Adi Parashakti|Mahashakti]] (divine force).{{sfn|Vivekananda|1993|p=38}}

===All India Radio's motto===
[[Akashavani]], meaning "celestial voice", is the All India Radio (AIR), a National Public Service Broadcaster <ref name=All/> which was established in 1930<ref name=Milestones>{{cite web|url= http://allindiaradio.gov.in/Profile/Milestones/Pages/default.aspx|title=Milestones|access-date=19 September 2013|publisher=Official website of All India indiaradio.organization}}</ref> with the motto 'Bahujan Hitaya : Bahujan Sukhaya'. Living up to this motto, AIR has been serving the nation's masses in the fields of education, information and entertainment; it is one of the largest institutions in the world. The emblem of AIR is inscribed with the word Akashvani at its base and with its motto on its flanks.<ref name=All/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book|last=Coleman|first=Bennett|title=The Illustrated Weekly of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVo6AQAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Published for the proprietors, Bennett, Coleman & Company, Limited, at The Times of India Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Ghosh|first=Raghunath|title=Humanity, Truth, and Freedom: Essays in Modern Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YMlyid2aksEC&pg=PA118|date=1 January 2008|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-233-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Madan|first=Gurmukh Ram|title=Buddhism: Its Various Manifestations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqhhR-hY7VQC&pg=PA47|year=1999|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-728-3}}
*{{cite book|last= Singh |first=Karan |title=Essays on Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E1g_q9_xBu0C&pg=PA82|access-date=19 September 2013|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Ratna Sagar|isbn=978-81-7070-173-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Vivekananda|first=Swami|title=Swami Vivekananda, a Study on Aesthetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uttjYH8-2_8C&pg=PA38|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distri|id=GGKEY:PUW9U5D9KXF}}

{{Swami Vivekananda}}

[[Category:Swami Vivekananda]]
[[Category:Gautama Buddha]]

Jamo, Uttar Pradesh

2026-03-26T15:57:09Z

Creativesketchbook: New

{{Use Indian English|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Jamo
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Jāmo, Jāmun, Jamon
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Jamo block map.png
| map_caption = Map showing Jamo (#060) in Jamo CD block
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|26.368758|N|81.664|E|display=inline,title}}<ref name="GeoNames">{{cite web |url=https://geonames.nga.mil/namesgaz/ |website=Do a radial search using these coordinates here |title=Geonames Search}}</ref>
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of India|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Ayodhya division]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Amethi district|Amethi]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011"/>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 6.088
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 6734
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011"/>
| demographics_type1 = [[Language]]
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]]<ref name="langoff">{{cite web|title=52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|website=nclm.nic.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]]|access-date=7 December 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>
| demographics1_title2 = Additional official
| demographics1_info2 = [[Urdu]]<ref name="langoff"/>
| demographics1_title3 = Spoken
| demographics1_info3 = [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Jamo''' ({{IAST|Jāmo}}), also spelled '''Jamun''' or '''Jamon''', is a village and [[community development block]] headquarters in [[Gauriganj, India|Gauriganj]] tehsil of [[Amethi district]], Uttar Pradesh, India.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Sultanpur, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |pages=147–63 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/09/0948_PART_A_DCHB_SULTANPUR.pdf |website=Census 2011 India|access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref> As of 2011, it had a population of 6,734 people, in 1,182 households.<ref name="Census 2011"/> It was historically the capital of the [[pargana]] of [[Gaura Jamun]].<ref name="Gazetteer 1903">{{cite book |last1=Nevill |first1=H.R. |title=Sultanpur: A Gazetteer, Being Volume XLVI Of The District Gazetteers Of The United Provinces Of Agra And Oudh |date=1903 |publisher=Government Press |location=Allahabad |pages=99–100, 177, 186–7 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.113213 |access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref> It is located at the intersection of four minor district roads, some of which are prone to flooding during the rainy season.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/>

==History==
Jamo was historically the capital of the [[pargana]] called [[Gaura Jamun]].<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> It was also the seat of a [[taluqdar]]i estate held by a branch of the [[Kanhpuria]].<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> The Jamo branch originated in a partition of lands among the four sons of one Balbhaddar Singh; the other three branches were [[Katari, Amethi|Katari]], [[Bhawan-Shahpur]], and [[Raisi, Amethi|Raisi]].<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> The [[Baraulia]] taluqa was later formed as a junior branch of the Jamo taluqa.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/>

At the turn of the 20th century, Jamo was described as consisting of a built-up block surrounded by a moat and 21 dependant hamlets.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> It had an aided school, maintained by the taluqdar and with only a few students.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> It had a village bank.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> The population as of 1901 was 1,967 people, and the majority of them were [[Brahmin]]s, including the leading family of some prosperous moneylenders who owned several large houses in town.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> The village was described as good for agriculture with many shallow depressions providing plenty of water for irrigation.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> At that time, the Jamo taluqdar Mahabir Bakhsh Singh held 17 villages, all in the pargana of Gaura Jamun, but he was severely in debt and the estate was in effect mortgaged to a nobleman from [[Rewah State]].<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/>

The [[1951 Census of India|1951 census]] recorded Jamo as comprising 20 hamlets, with a total population of 2,170 people (1,065 male and 1,105 female), in 468 households and 447 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1951">{{cite book |title=Census of India, 1951: District Census Handbook Uttar Pradesh (49 - Rae Bareli District) |date=1955 |location=Allahabad |pages=130–1, 199 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/843/1/52301_1951_SUL.pdf |access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref> The area of the village was given as 1,525 acres.<ref name="Census 1951"/> 70 residents were literate, all male.<ref name="Census 1951"/> The village was listed as belonging to the pargana of Gaura Jamo and the [[thana]] of [[Jagdishpur, Sultanpur|Jagdishpur]].<ref name="Census 1951"/> The village had a district board-run primary school with 124 students in attendance as of 1 January 1951.<ref name="Census 1951"/>

The [[1961 Census of India|1961 census]] recorded Jamo (as "Jamon") as comprising 20 hamlets, with a total population of 2,075 people (1,041 male and 1,034 female), in 508 households and 454 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1961">{{cite book |title=Census 1961: District Census Handbook, Uttar Pradesh (44 - Sultanpur District) |date=1965 |location=Lucknow |pages=121, 124, xviii-xix |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1035/1/22847_1961_SUL.pdf |access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref> The area of the village was given as 1,525 acres and it had a post office at that point, as well as a government-run [[dispensary]] with 2 male and 2 female beds.<ref name="Census 1961"/> The Uma Raman Higher Secondary School, established in August 1950, had a staff of 15 teachers (all male) and an attendance of 463 students (all male) that year.<ref name="Census 1961"/>

The [[1981 Census of India|1981 census]] recorded Jamo as having a population of 3,261 people, in 679 households, and having an area of 617.17 hectares.<ref name="Census 1981">{{cite book |title=Census 1981 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part XIII-A: Village & Town Directory, District Rae Bareli |date=1982 |pages=48–9 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1311/1/28684_1981_SUL.pdf |access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref> The main staple foods were listed as wheat and rice.<ref name="Census 1981"/>

The [[1991 Census of India|1991 census]] recorded Jamo as having a total population of 3,514 people (1,938 male and 1,576 female), in 731 households and 719 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1991">{{cite book |title=Census 1991 Series-25 Uttar Pradesh Part-XII B Village & Townwise Primary Census Abstract District Census Handbook District Raebareli |date=1992 |pages=xxiv-xxviii, 86–7 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1413/1/37121_1991_SUL.pdf |access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref> The area of the village was listed as 617.00 hectares.<ref name="Census 1991"/> Members of the 0-6 age group numbered 579, or 16.5% of the total; this group was 51% male (297) and 49% female (282).<ref name="Census 1991"/> Members of [[scheduled caste]]s numbered 1,062, or 30% of the village's total population, while no members of [[scheduled tribes]] were recorded.<ref name="Census 1991"/> The [[literacy rate]] of the village was 32.5% (755 men and 200 women, counting only people age 7 and up).<ref name="Census 1991"/> 1,231 people were classified as main workers (1,098 men and 133 women), while 3 people were classified as marginal workers (all women); the remaining 2,280 residents were non-workers.<ref name="Census 1991"/> The breakdown of main workers by employment category was as follows: 612 cultivators (i.e. people who owned or leased their own land); 283 agricultural labourers (i.e. people who worked someone else's land in return for payment); 4 workers in livestock, forestry, fishing, hunting, plantations, orchards, etc.; 0 in mining and quarrying; 61 household industry workers; 41 workers employed in other manufacturing, processing, service, and repair roles; 14 [[construction worker]]s; 73 employed in trade and commerce; 8 employed in transport, storage, and communications; and 135 in other services.<ref name="Census 1991"/>

==Villages==
Jamo CD block has the following 91 villages:<ref name="Census 2011"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Village name
! Total land area (hectares)
! Population (in 2011)
|-
| [[Adilpur]] || 163.8 || 1,817
|-
| [[Gautampur, Amethi|Gautampur]] || 45.3 || 1,126
|-
| [[Majhgawan, Amethi|Majhgawan]] || 102.3 || 572
|-
| [[Machharia]] || 41.8 || 401
|-
| [[Lakhnapur]] || 89.4 || 401
|-
| [[Basantpur, Jamo|Basantpur]] || 177.8 || 1,864
|-
| [[Gopalpur, Jamo|Gopalpur]] || 97.6 || 243
|-
| [[Lalupurdhabiya]] || 80.2 || 566
|-
| [[Bahadurpur, Jamo|Bahadurpur]] || 59.6 || 562
|-
| [[Dakhinwara, Amethi|Dakhinwara]] || 380.4|| 3,840
|-
| [[Chituhala]] || 151 || 1,338
|-
| [[Debra, Amethi|Debra]] || 47.9 || 759
|-
| [[Maharajpur, Jamo|Maharajpur]] || 36.4 || 296
|-
| [[Rajamau, Amethi|Rajamau]] || 255.4 || 2,521
|-
| [[Ahad, Amethi|Ahad]] || 211 || 1,207
|-
| [[Pure Dhanesh Dei]] || 33.1 || 693
|-
| [[Achal Pur]] || 138.8 || 1,279
|-
| [[Dulapur]] || 92.4 || 821
|-
| [[Digha Gopalpur]] || 158.1 || 1,071
|-
| [[Kamalpur, Jamo|Kamalpur]] || 130 || 1,204
|-
| [[Parbatpur]] || 193.4 || 821
|-
| [[Samahai]] || 449.1 || 4,342
|-
| [[Baghaiyapur]] || 64.1 || 480
|-
| [[Hargaon, Amethi|Hargaon]] || 270.3 || 2,124
|-
| [[Ghatampur, Jamo|Ghatampur]] || 441 || 4,190
|-
| [[Babupur, Jamo|Babupur]] || 243.8 || 2,513
|-
| [[Gaura, Jamo|Gaura]] || 488.7 || 4,349
|-
| [[Rampurchaudhari]] || 192.2 || 1,503
|-
| [[Purab Gaura]] || 251.5 || 2,048
|-
| [[Katari, Amethi|Katari]] || 711.5 || 6,500
|-
| [[Richhaura]] || 479.2 || 1,275
|-
| [[Munghi]] || 251.1 || 2,143
|-
| [[Sukhi Baz Garh]] || 592.6 || 5,476
|-
| [[Alipur, Jamo|Alipur]] || 134.6 || 1,192
|-
| '''Jamo''' (block headquarters) || 608.8 || 6,734
|-
| [[Lalupur Dhabiya]] || 126.5 || 1,453
|-
| [[Dalilpur]] || 165.1 || 915
|-
| [[Resi, Amethi|Resi]] || 504.6 || 4,554
|-
| [[Biripur]] || 192.8 || 1,725
|-
| [[Angrawan]] || 138.8 || 1,332
|-
| [[Balbhaddarpur]] || 1,023.6 || 6,140
|-
| [[Shahpur, Jamo|Shahpur]] || 194.7 || 1,367
|-
| [[Bhawanigarh, Amethi|Bhawanigarh]] || 150.4 || 1,227
|-
| [[Mawai, Jamo|Mawai]] || 442.7 || 3,019
|-
| [[Umaradih]] || 501.5 || 3,397
|-
| [[Ramgarhi]] || 79.3 || 663
|-
| [[Bhikhipur]] || 162.3 || 1,496
|-
| [[Bakhshgarh]] || 361.1 || 1,628
|-
| [[Janapur]] || 301.9 || 1,778
|-
| [[Kapasi]] || 240.4 || 1,945
|-
| [[Ajabgarh]] || 320.8 || 1,561
|-
| [[Suratgarh, Amethi|Suratgarh]] || 392.8 || 1,529
|-
| [[Garhilal Shah]] || 228.1 || 936
|-
| [[Goriya Bad]] || 853.2 || 5,814
|-
| [[Puredhanesh Giri]] || 25.8 || 286
|-
| [[Pure Chitai]] || 393.7 || 1,689
|-
| [[Harkampur]] || 253 || 1,960
|-
| [[Alpi Misir]] || 19.6 || 47
|-
| [[Deosi Pur]] || 111.3 || 711
|-
| [[Orra, Amethi|Orra]] || 404.3 || 2,046
|-
| [[Heruwa]] || 175 || 1,274
|-
| [[Duramau]] || 265.5 || 1,496
|-
| [[Barauliya]] || 611.2 || 3,878
|-
| [[Jodhanpur]] || 192.8 || 852
|-
| [[Hardo]] || 358.4 || 2,395
|-
| [[Bajgarhi]] || 452 || 2,215
|-
| [[Pure Ausan Singh]] || 67.4 || 272
|-
| [[Rampur Naurangabad]] || 144.6 || 741
|-
| [[Talmasiyan]] || 277 || 0
|-
| [[Lalpur, Jamo|Lalpur]] || 144.7 || 572
|-
| [[Aidhi]] || 930.1 || 7,690
|-
| [[Godipur]] || 38.8 || 573
|-
| [[Gogamau]] || 252.8 || 2,148
|-
| [[Bhoe]] || 488 || 3,396
|-
| [[Ramshahpur]] || 62.1 || 543
|-
| [[Naupur]] || 93.7 || 1,249
|-
| [[Lorikpur]] || 200.6 || 1,353
|-
| [[Dhanepur]] || 116.2 || 995
|-
| [[Sarme]] || 458.4 || 3,795
|-
| [[Parasrampur, Amethi|Paras Rampur]] || 245.8 || 1,694
|-
| [[Barehti]] || 309.4 || 1,685
|-
| [[Tikra, Jamo|Tikra]] || 166.2 || 1,244
|-
| [[Shahpur Resi]] || 150.2 || 1,044
|-
| [[Mayas, Amethi|Mayas]] || 281.5 || 2,207
|-
| [[Nadiwan]] || 486.5 || 2,549
|-
| [[Atrauli, Amethi|Atrauli]] || 190.1 || 1,220
|-
| [[Sirkhiri]] || 145.9 || 1,058
|-
| [[Nimi, Amethi|Nimi]] || 195.5 || 1,382
|-
| [[Ghosiyan]] || 291.9 || 1,564
|-class="sortbottom"
| '''Block total''' || '''23,577.1''' || '''171,303'''
|-
!Village name !! Total land area (hectares) !! Population (in 2011)
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Amethi district}}

[[Category:Villages in Amethi district]]
[[Category:Community development blocks in India]]
[[Category:Zamindari estates in Uttar Pradesh]]

Dula Bhaya Kag

2026-03-21T17:21:40Z

Creativesketchbook: small changes

{{short description|Indian poet, songwriter, artist (1903–1977)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox writer 
| name = Dula Bhaya Kag
| image = Dula Bhaya Kag 2004 stamp of India.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =
| pseudonym = Kag
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1903|11|25}}
| birth_place = Sodvadari, [[Mahuva, Gujarat]], [[India]]
| death_date = {{Death_date_and_age|df=yes|1977|02|22|1903|11|25}}
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Farmer]], [[writer]]
| period =
| genre =
| subject = [[Hinduism]], [[Spiritualism (beliefs)|Spiritualism]], [[Gandhism]]
| movement = [[Education]], [[Bhudan]]
| notableworks = Kagvani (Bhag 1-8), GuruMahima, Chandrabavni, Vinoba-Baavni, Sorath-Baavni
| spouse =
| partner =
| children = Rambhai Dulabhai Kag<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kavi Shree Dula Bhaya Kag – Kavi Kag|url=http://kavikag.com/|access-date=2020-11-01|language=en-US}}</ref>
| relatives =
| signature =
| website = {{URL|www.kagsahitya.org}}
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] Award (1962)
| native_name = Kavi Kag
| education = Till class 5th.
| language = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
}}
'''Dula Bhaya Kag''' (25 November 1903 – 22 February 1977) or '''Kag Bapu''' was an Indian [[poet]], [[songwriter]], [[writer]], and [[artist]] born in 1903 in Sodvadari village,<ref name="dg">{{Cite web |title=Dula Bhaya Kag: Author & Poet {{!}} Kag Sahitya |url=https://kagsahitya.org |access-date=2025-08-22 |website=Kag Sahitya |language=en-US}}</ref> a village in the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra region]], near [[Mahuva, Bhavnagar|Mahuva]] in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]]. He is mainly known for his work on spiritual poetry relating to [[Hinduism]]. He was facilitated with [[Padma Shri]] award in the year 1962.

==Early life==
He was born in 1903 at Sodvadari, a village of his Maternal Parents. "He was very shy in his childhood" told by his relative. Kag received a 5th-grade education before leaving to tend his family's cattle and farm. Eventually, he became involved in the nationalist movement, and later after the formation of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] State, donated 650 bigha<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=ગૌરવવંતા ગુજરાતી |url=https://www.divyabhaskar.co.in/magazine/rasrang/news/kagbapu-used-to-graze-cows-in-his-childhood-study-up-to-5-books-but-padma-shri-for-literature-kagchoth-is-still-celebrated-today-128295613.html |website=Divya Bhaskar |date=7 March 2021 }}</ref> of his land to [[Vinoba Bhave]]'s Bhoodan Movement.

==Career==
Kag is known for publishing ''Kagvani'', an eight-volume work consisting of devotional songs (episodes from the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]]), as well as songs based on [[Gandhism|Gandhian philosophy]] and the [[Bhoodan movement]]. He wrote eulogies for [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and Bhave. He also wrote many poems on Sonal Aai and Yogiji Maharaj the 4th spiritual successor of Bhagwan Swaminarayan in BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha. He was also known as Bhagat Bapu and Kag Bapu.

As a result of his literary and political contributions to India, the country awarded him the [[Padma Shri]] award in 1962.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.india.gov.in/myindia/padmashri_awards_list1.php?start=2250|title=Padma Shri Awardees|access-date=2 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716151401/http://archive.india.gov.in/myindia/padmashri_awards_list1.php?start=2250|archive-date=16 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Death and legacy==
<gallery>
File:Kagdwar- Dulabhayakag.jpg|KagDwar, Kagdham
File:KaviKag_charan_boarding_bhavnagar.jpg|Boarding created in remembrance of Kavi Kag
</gallery>
Kag died on 22 February 1977, at the age of 74.<ref name="dg" /> Despite his limited education, his poems are used from primary education to master's programs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kag|first=Dula|title=GSEB textbook class-8 Semester 2|publisher=Gujarat State Education Board|year=2012|location=Gandhinagar|pages=85}}</ref> Union Home Ministry has changed the name of Majadar village in Gujarat as Kagdham in memory of poet Kag.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-08-16 |title=Centre approves renaming of Majadar village as Kagdham as tribute to great poet Dula Bhaya Kag |url=https://www.deshgujarat.com/2014/08/16/centre-approves-renaming-of-majadar-village-as-kagdham-as-tribute-to-great-poet-dula-bhaya-kag/ |access-date=2023-01-17 |website=DeshGujarat |language=en-US}}</ref> On 25 November 2004, the Department of Posts released a commemorative stamp from [[Ahmedabad]] in denominations of {{INR|5}} to mark his 102nd anniversary.<ref name="dg" /> Every year "[[Kavi Kag Award]]" is given to five eminent scholars in the field of literature.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==

* [[Kavi Kag Award]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kag, Dula Bhaya}}
[[Category:Poets from Gujarat]]
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1977 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:Indian singer-songwriters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male singers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri]]

Thomas Cook India

2026-03-19T16:49:12Z

Creativesketchbook: starting article

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Short description|Indian travel agency}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Thomas Cook India
| type = [[Public Limited Company]]
| logo = Thomas Cook Logo 2023.jpg
| logo_size = 150px
| traded_as = {{NSE|THOMASCOOK}}<ref>[http://www.nseindia.com/live_market/dynaContent/live_watch/get_quote/GetQuote.jsp?symbol=THOMASCOOK&illiquid=0 NSE "NSE of India - Thomas Cook India"]</ref> {{BSE|500413}}<ref>[http://www.bseindia.com/stock-share-price/thomas-cook-(india)-ltd/thomas-cook/500413/ BSE "BSE of India - Thomas Cook India"]</ref>
| industry = [[Tourism]] [[Hospitality]]
| founded = {{start date and age|1881}}
| founder = [[Thomas Cook]]
| location_city = Thomas Cook (India) Limited, Thomas Cook Building, [[Dadabhai Naoroji Road|Dr D.N. Road]], [[Mumbai]]–400001
| location_country = India
| products = [[Package tour|Package Holidays]] [[Foreign exchange company|Foreign Exchange]]
| revenue = 412.58Cr (2015)
| num_employees = 2944 (December 2015)
| owner = [[Fairfax Financial]] (2013-)<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Thomas Cook (India) is not affected by Thomas Cook's collapse |url=https://www-thehindubusinessline-com.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/why-thomas-cook-india-is-not-affected-by-thomas-cook-collapse/article29487249.ece/amp/?usqp=mq331AQCKAE%3D&amp_js_v=0.1#aoh=15692605453157&csi=1&referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com&amp_tf=From%20%251%24s&ampshare=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thehindubusinessline.com%2Fcompanies%2Fwhy-thomas-cook-india-is-not-affected-by-thomas-cook-collapse%2Farticle29487249.ece |website=Hindu Business Line |accessdate=24 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref> [[Thomas Cook Group]] (2007-2013) [[Thomas Cook AG]] (2001-2007) [[Thomas Cook & Son]] (1881-2001)
| homepage = {{URL|https://www.thomascook.in/}}
}}

'''Thomas Cook (India) Ltd'''. is an [[India|Indian]] travel agency, headquartered in [[Mumbai]], [[India]], providing [[travel services]] including [[Foreign exchange company|Foreign Exchange]], International and Domestic Holidays, [[Travel visa|Visas]], Passports, Travel Insurance and [[MICE (Meetings, Incentives, Conferences, Exhibitions) tourism|MICE]]. Founded in 1881 by [[Thomas Cook]], the founder of the now defunct British brand [[Thomas Cook & Son]], who established its first office in India and eventually extended to over 233 locations, in 94 cities across [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Mauritius]].<ref>[http://vedding.in/business/transportation/thomas-cook-travel-agency-in-/5636fa0a711fa "Thomas Cook Travel Agency Locations"] ''Vedding''</ref> Thomas Cook India is a subsidiary of [[Fairfax Financial|Fairfax Financial Holdings Limited]], through its wholly owned subsidiary, Fairbridge Capital (Mauritius) Limited, and its controlled affiliates which holds 67.63% of the company.<ref>{{cite web |title=Thomas Cook India About Us |url=https://www.thomascook.in/about-us |website=Thomas Cook India |accessdate=9 September 2019}}</ref>

== History ==
Thomas Cook had many ventures including the invention of the world's package tour in 1841, the first pre-paid hotel coupon in 1868, creation of the first <nowiki> holiday brochure in 1858, and conceptualization of the first Travellers Cheques in 1874.</nowiki><ref>[http://www.pravdareport.com/society/stories/03-01-2013/123373-thomas_cook-0/ "Thomas Cook - The Founder of Mass Tourism"] ''Pravda Report''</ref>

In 1881, Thomas Cook started its India operations in [[Bombay]] (later renamed [[Mumbai]]), and in October 1978, saw it christened Thomas Cook (India) Ltd. The company made its first public issue in February 1983, and commenced operations in [[Mauritius]] in 2000. In the same year, they acquired the [[Sri Lanka]] business from Thomas Cook Overseas Ltd, UK.<ref name=":0">[http://www.business-standard.com/company/thomas-cook-i-564/information/company-history "Thomas Cook History"] ''Business Standard''</ref>

In 2006, Thomas Cook India Limited acquired LKP Forex Limited and Travel Corporation (India) Pvt. Ltd. (TCI).

In May 2012, Fairbridge Capital (Mauritius) Limited acquired Thomas Cook India, and became a part of Fairfax Group, Canada.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/thomas-cook-india-grows-through-acquisitions/article7519154.ece "Thomas Cook India Grows through Acquisitions"] ''The Hindu'', 11 August 2015</ref>

In 2013, Thomas Cook India Limited acquired [[Quess Corp]] (formerly known as Ikya Group - HR, IT Services, Facilities Management, Food Services, Skill Development),<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Thomas-Cook-India-arm-Quess-Corp-to-acquire-49-stake-in-TSQ/articleshow/47500990.cms "Thomas Cook India Arm Quess Corp to Acquire 49% Stake"] ''Times of India'', 1 June 2015</ref> and [[Sterling Holiday Resorts Limited|Sterling Holiday Resorts]].<ref>[http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/bombay-hc-approves-thomas-cook-india-sterling-holiday-merger-115071400243_1.html "Mumbai HC Approves TCIL and Sterling Holiday Resorts Merger"] ''Business Standard'', 14 July 2015</ref>

In 2015, Thomas Cook Lanka Pvt. Ltd. (a subsidiary of Thomas Cook India Limited) acquired Luxe Asia Pvt. Ltd., Sri Lanka,<ref name=":1">[http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/thomas-cook-india-acquires-sri-lanka-based-luxe-asia_2246641.html "Thomas Cook India Acquires Luxe Asia"] ''Money Control''</ref> a regional Destination Management Company handling inbound tourists from globally generating markets to its destinations. In the same year, TCIL announced the acquisition of Kuoni Travel (India) Private Limited, a travel operator in India, and Kuoni Travel (China) Limited, a travel operator in Hong Kong.<ref>[http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/thomas-cook-buys-kuoni-india-for-rs-535-crore-115080701548_1.html "Thomas Cook Acquires Kuoni India"] ''Business Standard'', 8 August 2015</ref>

In September 2017, Thomas Cook acquired [[Tata Capital]]'s forex and travel business.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/with-tata-capitals-travel-forex-biz-in-the-kitty-thomas-cook-eyes-100-m-in-extra-volumes/article9957052.ece|title=With Tata Capital's travel, forex biz in the kitty, Thomas Cook eyes $100 m in extra volumes|work=@businessline|access-date=2018-05-14|language=en}}</ref> In the aftermath of the collapse of [[Thomas Cook Group|Thomas Cook]] in the UK, the Indian namesake was considering rebranding itself to avoid the negative perception caused by the collapse of the UK travel company.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/thomas-cook-collapses-thomas-cook-india-name-change-1602509-2019-09-24|title=Thomas Cook collapse: To avoid links with UK namesake, Indian unit may change its name|newspaper=India Today|language=en|access-date=2019-09-25|agency=Ist}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Number !! Year !! Description !! Ref(s)
|-
|1
|2019
|The collapse of Thomas Cook India's former parent [[Thomas Cook Group]] causes major confusion to Indian customers, who were assumed that Thomas Cook India had also entered liquidation proceedings (by the United Kingdom Government)
|{{fact|date=January 2023}}
|-
| 2 || 2019 || Thomas Cook India Ltd Opens New Outlet In [[Punjab]]||<ref>[https://www.equitybulls.com/admin/news2006/news_det.asp?id=256152 "Thomas Cook India Ltd Opens new outlet at Ranjit Avenue in Amritsar"], "Equity Bulls"</ref>
|-
|-
| 3 || 2016 || Thomas Cook taps into India's m-commerce growth opportunity launches India's first end-to-end Holiday-App ||<ref>[https://www.valueresearchonline.com/story/h2_storyView.asp?str=6ECDED7A-8E76-49F4-85A6-C25FC0EDD746&Code=4094&src=NewsAnnounce Thomas Cook taps into India's m-commerce growth opportunity Launches India?s first end-to-end Holiday-App "End to End Holiday App"], "Value Research Online"</ref>
|-
|-
| 4 || 2016 || Thomas Cook India targets Tier III growth markets via small tech assisted outlets ||<ref>[http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/announcements/others/thomas-cook-india-targets-tier-iii-growth-markets-via-small-tech-assisted-outlets/article8106772.ece "Small Tech Assisted Outlets"], "The Hindu Business Line"</ref>
|-
|-
| 5 || 2015 || Thomas Cook India Acquired [[Sri Lanka]] Based Luxe Asia ||<ref name=":1" />
|-
| 6 || 2015 || Announced Closure of Kuoni Travel India Private Limited Company ||<ref>[http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/announcements/others/thomas-cook-india-group-announces-successful-closure-of-acquisition-of-kuoni-travel-india-private-limited/article7999316.ece "Thomas Cook India Announces Closure of Kuoni Travel India Pvt Ltd"], "The Hindu Business Line"</ref>
|-
| 7 || 2015 || Acquisition of Kuoni Group's Travel Business in India ||<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/travel/thomas-cook-india-acquires-kuoni-groups-travel-in-india-hong-kong-for-rs-535-crore/articleshow/48392760.cms Acquisition of Kuoni Group's travel business in India, Hong Kong by Thomas Cook (India) Limited "Thomas Cook Acquires Kuoni Group"], "Economic Times"</ref>
|-
| 8 || 2015 || Launched Thomas Cook One Currency Card ||<ref>[http://www.travelbizmonitor.com/Trade-News/thomas-cook-india-launches-one-currency-card-29140 "Thomas Cook India Launches One Currency Card"], "Travelbiz Monitor", 3 December 2015</ref>
|-
| 9 || 2015 || Launched Thomas Cook Forex Mobile App ||<ref>[http://www.travelbizmonitor.com/Trade-News/thomascookin-launches-forex-mobile-app-28939 "Thomas Cook India Launches Forex App"], "Travelbiz Monitor"</ref>
|-
| 10 || 2013 || Acquisition of Stake in Quess Corp ||<ref>{{cite news|title=Thomas Cook to acquire 74% stake in Ikya Human Capital Solutions for Rs 256 cr|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/thomas-cook-to-acquire-74--stake-in-ikya-human-capital-solutions-for-rs-256-cr/1070227/|agency=Press Trust of India|publisher=The Indian Express|date=6 February 2013|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
|-
| 11 || 2012 || Acquisition of 76.81% Stake by Fairbridge in Thomas Cook (India) Limited from Thomas Cook UK and TCIM and subsequent announcement of open offer ||<ref>[http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/fairbridge-to-buy-77-in-thomas-cook-india-for-rs-817-crore/article3446420.ece "Acquisition of 76.8% stake by Fairbrige"], "The Hindu Businessline"</ref>
|-
| 12 || 2012 || Incorporation of Thomas Cook Lanka (Private) Limited, a 100% Subsidiary of the Company ||<ref name=":0" />
|-
| 13 || 2012 || Launch of Borderless Prepaid Multicurrency Forex Card ||<ref>[http://newsroom.mastercard.com/press-releases/thomas-cook-india-ltd-collaborates-with-mastercard-to-launch-its-borderless-prepaid-card/ Launch of Borderless Prepaid Multicurrency Foreign Exchange Card "Launch of Borderless Prepaid Card"]</ref>
|-
| 14 || 2011 || Signed an agreement for marketing and distribution of borderless prepaid multicurrency foreign exchange card ||<ref>[http://www.moneycontrol.com/news/announcements/thomas-cook-india-partnersrbl-bank_1182240.html "Thomas Cook Signed an Agreement for Marketing & Distribution of Borderless Forex Card"], ''Money Control''</ref>
|-
| 15 || 2011 || Incorporation of TC Visa Services(India) Limited in Maharashtra, a wholly owned Subsidiary of Travel Corporation (India) Limited, which is a 100% Subsidiary of the Company ||<ref>
[http://www.indiabusinessbrief.com/index.php/news-archives/185/194659-thomas-cook-india-ltd-collaborates-with-mastercard-to-launch-its-borderless-dailyfinance "Thomas Cook India Collaborates with Mastercard"], "India Business Brief"</ref>
|-
| 16 || 2010 || Execution of a Seven Year Arrangement with New Delhi International Airport ||<ref>[http://www.hotelierindia.com/article-8847-thomas_cook_enters_into_deal_with_delhi_airport/ "Thomas Cook Enters into a Deal with Delhi Airport"], "Hotelier India"</ref>
|-
| 17 || 2010 || Launch of 9 Foreign Exchange and Travel Counters ||<ref>[http://www.franchisemart.in/franchise/thomas-cook-enters-a-7-year-deal-with-delhi-international-airport-ltd/ "Thomas Cook Enters a 7 Year Deal with Delhi International Airport"] ''Franchise Mart''</ref>
|-
| 18 || 2009 || Issue of 50,650,699 Shares through a Rights Issue by Thomas Cook (India) Limited ||<ref>[http://www.goodreturns.in/company/thomas-cook-india/notes-to-account.html "Thomas Cook Official Shares Report"]</ref>
|-
| 19 || 2008 || Acquisition of 74.9% Stake by Thomas Cook UK and TCIM in Thomas Cook (India) Limited ||<ref>[http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/fairbridge-capital-is-promoter-of-thomas-cook-india/1/187253.html "Fair Bridge Capital is Promoter of Thomas Cook India"], "Business Today"</ref>
|-
| 20 || 2007 || Thomas Cook India Limited & LKP Forex Merger ||<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140529054350/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2006-07-01/news-by-company/27442834_1_lkp-forex-tcil-currency-and-travel-insurance "Thomas Cook & LKP Forex Merger"] ''Economic Times''</ref>
|-
| 21 || 2006 || 100% acquisition of Travel Corporation (India) Limited by Thomas Cook (India) Limited ||<ref>[http://www.indiainfoline.com/Markets/Company/Background/Company-Profile/Thomas-Cook-India-Ltd/500413 "Thomas Cook India Company Profile"], "India Infoline"</ref>
|-
| 22 || 2005 || 100% Acquisition by Dubai Financial (LLC) of TCIM ||<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160303054051/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2006-01-22/news/27457671_1_reconstitutes-board-dubai-investment-group-udayan-bose ''Thomas Cook India Reconstitutes Board'']</ref>
|-
| 23 || 2000 || Commencement of Operations in Sri Lanka ||<ref>[http://www.indiainfoline.com/markets/company/background/company-profile/thomas-cook-india-ltd/564 "Commencement of Operations in Sri Lanka"]</ref>
|-
| 25 || 1983 || Listing of Thomas Cook India Limited on [[Bombay Stock Exchange|BSE]] Pursuant ||<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/thomas-cook-india-ltd/stocks/companyid-12897.cms Listing of Thomas Cook (India) Limited on BSE pursuant to an initial public offering "Thomas Cook Listed on BSE Pursuant"] ''SEBI''</ref>
|-
| 26 || 1978 || Conversion of the branch office into a private limited company ||<ref name="Thomas Cook History">[http://www.moneycontrol.com/company-facts/thomascookindia/history/TCI "Thomas Cook History"]</ref>
|-
| 27 || 1881 || Thomas Cook & Son opens its first branch office in Bombay ||<ref name="Thomas Cook History"/>
|-
|}
[[File:Thomas cook globe logo.svg|thumb|149x149px|Thomas Cook India logo, as per British logo used between 2001 – 2013]]

=== Rebrand 2022 ===
At the end of 2022, Thomas Cook India rebranded the business with a new logo, replacing the 2001 – 2013 British logo.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thomas Cook India}}
[[Category:Indian travel websites]]
[[Category:Travel and holiday companies of India]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1881]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1978]]
[[Category:Companies based in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Fairfax Financial]]

Sembiyan Mahadevi

2026-03-17T06:52:58Z

Creativesketchbook: minor edit

{{Short description|Empress of the Chola Empire, r. 949–957}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}{{Infobox royalty
| name = Sembiyan Mahadevi
| title =
| image = Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as the Goddess Parvati.jpg
| caption = Sembiyan Mahadevi as Queen with her crown
| succession = Queen Consort of the [[Thanjavur]] and Empress Consort of [[Chola Empire]]
| reign = 949 CE – 957 CE
| predecessor = KoIravi Nili Solamadeviyar
| successor = Viranarayaniyar
| succession2 = Queen dowager of [[Thanjavur]]
| reign2 = 957 CE – till death (After a queen's husband dies, she becomes the widow of the empire)
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| birth_name = Sembiyan Selvi
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| death_date =
| death_place = [[Thanjavur]], [[Chola Empire]] (modern-day [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]])
| spouse = [[Gandaraditya|Gandaraditya Chola]]
| issue = [[Uttama Chola]]
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| dynasty = [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] (by marriage)
}}
'''Sembiyan Mahadevi''' was [[Queen consort]] and empress of the [[Chola Empire]] from 949 CE – 957 CE as the wife of [[Gandaraditya|Gandaraditya Chola]]. She is the mother of [[Uttama Chola]].<ref>The Problem of Portraiture in South India, Circa 970–1000 A.D. by Padma Kaimal in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 60, No. 1 (2000), pp. 139–179</ref> She was one of the most powerful empresses of the [[Chola]] empire who over a period of sixty years constructed numerous temples and gave generous gifts to many temples in South [[India]]. She figures as early as, if not before, [[Saka era|Saka]] 901 during the reign of her son. According to an inscription dated 941, Sembiyan Mahadevi is said to have made an endowment so that a lamp may be kept permanently lit in front of the [[Shiva]] deity (perhaps not long after the crystallization of the [[Chidambaram]] [[Nataraja]] (Natarāja) cult).<ref>A History of India by [[Hermann Kulke]] and Dietmar Rothermund (1998) p.134</ref><ref>A History of India by Hermann Kulke (2004) p.145</ref><ref>Siva in the Forest of Pines: An Essay on Sorcery and Self-Knowledge by Don Handelman and David Shulman (2004) p.88</ref>

After her husband [[Gandaraditya|Gandaraditya Chola]]'s death, she immediately lost her title as ''Queen and Empress'' and was later known as the ''Queen dowager of Thanjavur'' (Queen Dowager and mother of the king). She lost all of her power as queen and empress and only wore white which was known as the grief color, setting her self into [[mourning]] for the rest of her life.<ref>Sembiyan Mahadevi losses Queen and Empress title, after death of his majesty maharaja Gandaraditya</ref>

==The mother of Madhurantaka Uttama Chola==

She was the queen of Gandaraditya Chola (Sri-Gandaraditta Devatam Pirattiyar) and is always referred to as the mother of [[Uttama (Chola dynasty)|Uttama Chola]], Uttama Chola Devarai Tiru-vayiru-vaiykka-udaiya Pirattiyar Sri Sembiyan Mādeyiar (the queen who had the fortune to bear Uttama Chola Deva), also known as the Great Queen of the Sembiyan. This distinction is made in the inscriptions to differentiate her from the other queens who held the title both before and after her. Various inscriptions indicate that she was the daughter of a Mazhavarayar chieftain. In the beginning, she consistently identifies herself as the daughter of Sri Sembiyan Mādeyiar.<ref name="Early Cholas: mathematics reconstructs the chronology, page 39">''Early Cholas: mathematics reconstructs the chronology, page 39''</ref><ref name="Lalit kalā, Issues 3-4, page 55">''Lalit kalā, Issues 3-4, page 55''</ref>

==Patron of Art and Architecture==

She was very pious and was an avid temple builder and has built numerous temples some of which are at [[Kuthalam|Kutralam]], [[Virudhachalam]], [[Maruthuvakudi|Aduthurai]], [[Thiruvakkarai|Vakkarai]], Anangur, etc.<ref name="Śrīnidhiḥ: perspectives in Indian archaeology, art, and culture : Shri K.R. Srinivasan festschrift, page 229">''Śrīnidhiḥ: perspectives in Indian archaeology, art, and culture : Shri K.R. Srinivasan festschrift, page 229''</ref> She has made some of the most lavish endowments of the [[Chola]] empire.<ref name="Early temples of Tamilnadu: their role in socio-economic life (c. A.D. 550-925), page 84">''Early temples of Tamilnadu: their role in socio-economic life (c. A.D. 550-925), page 84''</ref> Tiru-Ara-neri-Alvar temple was one of the earliest temples built by her. She bestowed several gifts of bronzes and jewellery to the [[Kalyanasundaresar Temple, Nallur|Kalyanasundaresar temple]] of [[Thirunallur, Thanjavur|Thirunallur]] or Nallur Agraharam in 967-968 CE, including the bronze idol of the goddess of Nallur temple worshipped today (known as ''[[Uma (goddess)|Uma]] Paramesvari''), whose style is typical of Sembiyan bronzes.<ref>Dehejia, Vidya. Art of the Imperial Cholas. pp8</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dehejia |first=Vidya |title=The thief who stole my heart: the material life of sacred bronzes from Chola India, 855-1280 |date=2021 |publisher=Princeton university press |isbn=978-0-691-20259-4 |series=The A.W. Mellon lectures in the fine arts |location=Princeton, New Jersey |pages=105-107 |language=en |chapter=Portrait of a Queen and Her Patronage of Dancing Shiva |oclc=1280405433 |author-link=Vidya Dehejia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=R. |first=Nagaswamy |author-link=R. Nagaswamy |date=1982 |title=Nallur Bronzes |journal=[[Lalit Kala Academy|Lalit Kala]] |issue=20 |pages=9-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Indian art & connoisseurship: essays in honour of Douglas Barrett |date=1995 |publisher=[[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]] in association with Mapin Publishing |others= |isbn=978-81-85822-14-3 |editor-last=Guy |editor-first=John |location=Middledown, NJ New Delhi |pages=114-116 |chapter=On dating South Indian bronzes |oclc=33155266 |editor-last2=Barrett |editor-first2=Douglas E. |editor-last3=}}</ref>

==Honored==

From an inscription of Parakesarivarman Uttama Chola, we know that a regular śribali ceremony has been arranged at the [[Uma Maheswarar Temple, Konerirajapuram|UmaMahesvarasvamin temple]] at [[Konerirajapuram]] every month on the day of jyeshta, the natal star of the queen:

{{Cquote|As many as 4,151 kalam of paddy and lands, whose measurements are given in great detail, were provided for, in order to maintain the regular service in the temple, such as..the śribali-ceremony held on the natal star jyeshtha of queen Sembiyan-Madeviyar, feed brahmanas,..<ref name="A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District, page 239">''A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District'', page 239</ref>}}

==Sacred==
Sembiyan Mahadevi was a consummate temple builder<ref>Early Cola Kings and "Early Cola Temples": Art and the Evolution of Kingship by Padma Kaimal in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 56, No. 1/2 (1996), pp. 33–66</ref> and a highly respected patron of the arts. During her lifetime, special celebrations marked her birthday in the [[Shiva]](Śiva) temple in the town of Sembiyan Mahadevi, named after her, and a metal portrait of the beloved queen was presented to the temple in her honor, possibly commissioned by her son. As such, it would have been recognized as Sembiyan Mahadevi by its use in processions celebrating her birthday. This highly stylized bronze image is an instance of the blurring of lines between royal and divine portraiture in ancient [[Indian art]]. The pose is reminiscent of the goddess [[Parvati]]. Indian artists often portray [[Hindu]] deities with great attention to arm/hand details to emphasize their [[omnipresence]] and [[omnipotence]]. A variety of hand gestures, known as [[mudras]], are used to express the mood and meaning of the images of the gods. For instance, when the palm is raised to face the worshiper, it is the gesture of protection (abhaya), while a lowered hand with the fingers pointing downward signifies a promise to grant the devotee's wishes (''varada''). The contrapposto pose, known in [[India]] as ''[[tribhanga]]'', or triple-bent, was a popular stance; it produced a sense of swaying movement, and most images, whether human or divine, are thus poised.

==Visual metaphor==
A [[metaphor]] in literature juxtaposes two seemingly unrelated things to highlight certain important aspects of one of them. The same is possible in visual art. With all exaggerated features, Sembiyan Mahadevi bronze is not meant to be taken literally. Sembiyan Mahadevi is a visual metaphor {{Clarify span|yet the most elusive from [[Neuron|neuronal]] and [[Aestheticism|aesthetic]] perspective|The meaning behind "neuronal" is not understandable; a source is also wished|date=October 2010}}. According to Ramachandran the exaggerated features of Sembiyan Mahadevi are meant to symbolize specific divine attributes.<ref>A Brief Tour of Human Consciousness: From Impostor Poodles to Purple Numbers by V. S. Ramachandran Pi Press (2005) p.40</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Lalit kalā, Issues 3-4, Lalit Kala Akademi
* Art & Science of Chola bronzes, Orientations
* A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States: Thanjavur District By T. V. Mahalingam
* Early Cholas: mathematics reconstructs the chronology By Sethuraman
* The Indian Antiquary - A Journal of Oriental Research Vol IV - 1925 By C. I. E. Edwardes
* Indian antiquary, Volume 54 By Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland

{{sisterlinks|Chola dynasty}}

==See also==
* [[History of Tamil Nadu]]

[[Category:Chola dynasty]]
[[Category:Chola women]]
[[Category:Chola royalty]]
[[Category:Indian empresses]]

Varun Tej

2026-03-15T08:44:06Z

Creativesketchbook: Improved wording and formatting

{{Short description|Indian actor (born 1990)}}
{{Family name hatnote|Konidela|lang=Telugu}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Varun Tej
| image = Varun Tej snapped promoting Operation-Valentine.jpg
| caption = Varun Tej in 2024
| birth_name = Konidela Sai Varun Tej
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1990|1|19}}<ref name="birth" />
| birth_place = 
| alma mater = [[St. Mary's College, Hyderabad]]
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 2014–present
| father = [[Nagendra Babu]]
| family = See [[Konidela–Allu family]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Lavanya Tripathi]]|2023}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Allu Arjun with family, Ram Charan and pregnant Upasana arrive at Varun Tej, Lavanya Tripathi's engagement|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/allu-arjun-ram-charan-arrives-with-family-at-varun-tej-and-lavanya-tripathis-engagement-2391029-2023-06-09|date=9 June 2023|work=[[India Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chiranjeevi, Ram Charan, Allu Arjun attend Varun Tej and Lavanya Tripathi's engagement ceremony|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/varun-tej-lavanya-tripathi-get-engaged-chiranjeevi-ram-charan-and-allu-arjun-attend-ceremony-8654998/|date=9 June 2023|work=[[Indian Express]]}}</ref>
| children = 1
}}

'''Konidela Sai Varun Tej''', better known as '''Varun Tej''' (born 19 January 1990) is an Indian actor who works in [[Telugu cinema]]. He made his acting debut in 2014 with ''[[Mukunda]]''. He received praise for featuring in [[Krish (director)|Krish]]'s critically acclaimed war film ''[[Kanche]]'' (2015). He established himself as a leading actor with the romantic drama ''[[Fidaa]]'' (2017), a major critical and commercial success. He has since starred in films including ''[[Tholi Prema (2018 film)|Tholi Prema]]'' (2018), ''[[Gaddalakonda Ganesh]]'' (2019), ''[[F2: Fun and Frustration|F2]]'' (2019) and ''[[F3: Fun and Frustration|F3]]'' (2022). He is married to his co-actress [[Lavanya Tripathi]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Varun Tej Konidela and Lavanya Tripathi's engagement: Star-studded guest-list, venue, designer details|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/varun-tej-konidela-and-lavanya-tripathis-engagement-star-studded-guest-list-venue-designer-details/articleshow/100878747.cms?from=mdr|date=9 June 2023|work=[[Times of india|Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Early life and family ==
Tej is the son of [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] actor and producer [[Nagendra Babu]].<ref name="birth">{{Cite web|date=29 October 2018|title=Tollywood's rising stars under 30|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/tollywoods-rising-stars-under-30/photostory/66416903.cms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011223133/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/tollywoods-rising-stars-under-30/photostory/66416903.cms|archive-date=11 October 2020|access-date=14 August 2020|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> He is a nephew of actors [[Chiranjeevi]] and [[Pawan Kalyan]]. His younger sister [[Niharika Konidela|Niharika]] is also an actress. Actors [[Ram Charan]], [[Allu Arjun]], [[Allu Sirish]], [[Sai Tej]] and [[Panja Vaisshnav Tej]] are his cousins.<ref>{{cite news |title=Four injured after Telugu actor Varun Tej's car rams into another |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/four-injured-after-telugu-actor-varun-tejs-car-rams-another-103521 |access-date=4 July 2019 |work=[[The News Minute]] |date=13 June 2019 |archive-date=4 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704141446/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/four-injured-after-telugu-actor-varun-tejs-car-rams-another-103521 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He was educated at [[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Jubilee Hills]], [[Hyderabad]], and at [[St. Mary's College, Hyderabad]].<ref>{{cite news |title=9 Lesser Known facts about Nandi Award winner TV Host Niharika Konidela |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/9-lesser-known-facts-about-nandi-award-winner-tv-host-niharika-konidela/photostory/64064974.cms |work=The Times of India |date=7 May 2018 |language=en |access-date=24 June 2020 |archive-date=17 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717121247/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/9-lesser-known-facts-about-nandi-award-winner-tv-host-niharika-konidela/photostory/64064974.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Career ==
Tej debuted as a child artist in his father [[Nagendra Babu]]'s film ''[[Hands Up (2000 film)|Hands Up]]'' when he was ten years old. He made his adult debut with ''[[Mukunda]]'', starring opposite [[Pooja Hegde]]. The film earned positive reviews. His second venture was the 2015 war film ''[[Kanche]]'', starring opposite [[Pragya Jaiswal]] and received positive reviews from critics.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/kanche-movie-review-roundup-critics-call-it-brave-attempt-by-krish-varun-tej-651877 | title='Kanche' movie review roundup: Critics call it a brave attempt by Krish, Varun Tej |access-date=6 March 2021 | work=International Business Times India | date=25 October 2015| url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510210529/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kanche-movie-review-roundup-critics-call-it-brave-attempt-by-krish-varun-tej-651877 | archive-date=10 May 2017 }}</ref> Tej's performance as Dhupati Haribabu was praised with ''[[The Times of India]]'' praising his "capability to shift gears from intense to sobriety".<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/Kanche/movie-review/49507638.cms |title=Kanche Movie Review, Trailer, & Show timings at Times of India |date=24 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024124242/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/Kanche/movie-review/49507638.cms |access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=24 October 2015|work=The Times of India}}</ref> His second release that year ''[[Loafer (2015 film)|Loafer]]'', was a box office failure, along with his 2017 outing ''[[Mister (2017)|Mister]].''

The later half of 2017 saw the release of ''[[Fidaa]]'', where he played an NRI falling in love with a village belle. The film was commercially successful grossing over {{INR}}90 crore at the [[box office]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hooli|first=Shekhar H.|date=17 December 2017|title=Tollywood in 2017: 15 highest grossing Telugu movies of the year – Baahubali 2, Khaidi No 150, JLK, DJ and others|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/tollywood-2017-15-highest-grossing-telugu-movies-year-baahubali-2-khaidi-no-150-jlk-dj-753526|access-date=6 March 2021|work=IB Times|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630044059/https://www.ibtimes.co.in/tollywood-2017-15-highest-grossing-telugu-movies-year-baahubali-2-khaidi-no-150-jlk-dj-753526|archive-date=30 June 2020}}</ref> His 2018 release ''[[Tholi Prema (2018 film)|Tholi Prema]]'' was also a box office success and Tej's performance as an impulsive young man was widely appreciated.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Hooli|first=Shekhar H.|date=10 September 2018|title=Tollywood box office report of 2018: highest grossing Telugu movies of year; List of hits and flops|url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/2018s-tollywood-movies-box-office-collection-list-highest-grossing-telugu-films-year-780150|access-date=6 March 2021|work=IB Times|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920215058/https://www.ibtimes.co.in/2018s-tollywood-movies-box-office-collection-list-highest-grossing-telugu-films-year-780150|archive-date=20 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title='Tholi Prema': Five reasons to watch Venky Atluri's directorial debut starring Tej and Raashi Khanna|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/tholi-prema-review-five-reasons-to-watch-tholi-prema-movie-review-venky-atluris-directorial-debut-starring-varun-tej-and-raashi-khanna-tholi-prema/articleshow/62860070.cms|access-date=6 March 2021|work=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> His next film that year was space thriller ''[[Antariksham 9000 KMPH]]'', directed by [[Sankalp Reddy]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/varun-tejs-space-thriller-antariksham-9000-kmph-wraps-up-its-shoot/articleshow/66029054.cms|title=Varun Tej's space-thriller Antariksham 9000 KMPH wraps up its shoot|work=The Times of India|access-date=17 October 2018|archive-date=8 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108173256/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/varun-tejs-space-thriller-antariksham-9000-kmph-wraps-up-its-shoot/articleshow/66029054.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2019, Tej's first release was ''[[F2: Fun and Frustration]]'' which is a multistarrer with [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]], [[Tamannaah]] and [[Mehreen Pirzada]] are also a part of this movie which is huge blockbuster.<ref>{{Cite news|date=21 February 2020|title=Mahesh Babu playing extended cameo in 'F3'?|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/mahesh-babu-playing-extended-cameo-f3-118674|access-date=6 March 2021|work=The News Minute|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210405154008/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/mahesh-babu-playing-extended-cameo-f3-118674|archive-date=5 April 2021}}</ref> After ''F2'', he dubbed in Telugu for Aladdin's role in the film ''[[Aladdin (2019 film)|Aladdin]].'' He later starred in ''[[Gaddalakonda Ganesh]],'' a remake of Tamil film ''[[Jigarthanda (2014 film)|Jigarthanda]]'', directed by [[Harish Shankar]] which was a failure at the box office.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Vyas|date=16 October 2019|title=Gaddalakonda Ganesh worldwide collections|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/gaddalakonda-ganesh-worldwide-collections-573124|access-date=6 March 2021|work=Hans India|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028174211/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/gaddalakonda-ganesh-worldwide-collections-573124|archive-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>

As of January 2020, Tej has two films under production, ''[[Ghani (2021 film)|Ghani]]'', and F2's sequel ''[[F3 (film)|F3]].''<ref name="Ghani">{{cite news|last1=Nyayapati|first1=Neeshita|date=4 January 2020|title=Varun Tej prepping up for #VT10 based on boxing|language=en|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/varun-tej-prepping-up-for-vt10-based-on-boxing/articleshow/73096567.cms|url-status=live|access-date=20 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105092140/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/varun-tej-prepping-up-for-vt10-based-on-boxing/articleshow/73096567.cms|archive-date=5 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="F3">{{Cite news|title=Shooting of F3 underway in Hyderabad: Venkatesh joins the proceedingsa|language=en|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/shooting-of-f3-underway-in-hyderabad-venkatesh-joins-the-proceedings/articleshow/79923877.cms|url-status=live|access-date=23 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223112638/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/shooting-of-f3-underway-in-hyderabad-venkatesh-joins-the-proceedings/articleshow/79923877.cms|archive-date=23 December 2020}}</ref> Tej next played the role of a boxer, in ''[[Ghani (2021 film)|Ghani]]'' (2022) directed by Kiran Korrapati.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NS |title=Sukhjeevan Singh Dhillon makes his presence felt on screen with his debut Telugu film Ghani {{!}} APN News |date=28 April 2022 |url=https://www.apnnews.com/sukhjeevan-singh-dhillon-makes-his-presence-felt-on-screen-with-his-debut-telugu-film-ghani/ |access-date=2022-04-29 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=News |first=Nagpur |date=2022-04-27 |title=Sukhjeevan Singh Dhillon's debut Tollywood film Ghani enters the OTT realm. |url=https://www.nagpurtoday.in/sukhjeevan-singh-dhillons-debut-tollywood-film-ghani-enters-the-ott-realm/04271002 |access-date=2022-04-29 |website=Nagpur Today : Nagpur News |language=en-US |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427043345/https://www.nagpurtoday.in/sukhjeevan-singh-dhillons-debut-tollywood-film-ghani-enters-the-ott-realm/04271002 |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the film's release, Tej acknowledged the reviews and apologised, accepting the film's [[box office bomb|failure at the box office]] through a note on social media.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.123telugu.com/mnews/varun-tej-pens-an-emotional-note-about-ghani.html|title=Varun Tej pens an emotional note about Ghani|website=123Telugu.com|date=12 April 2022|access-date=12 April 2022|archive-date=12 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412101443/https://www.123telugu.com/mnews/varun-tej-pens-an-emotional-note-about-ghani.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Tej met actress [[Lavanya Tripathi]], on the sets of their film ''[[Mister (film)|Mister]]'' (2017) and eventually started dating her.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/visualstories/entertainment/varun-tej-lavanya-tripathi-engaged-41673-10-06-2023 |date=10 June 2023 |accessdate=12 September 2023 |work=India Today |title=Lavanya Tripathi and Varun Tej are engaged}}</ref> They went onto work together in ''[[Antariksham 9000 KMPH]]'' in 2018. The couple got engaged on 8
June 2023 in [[Hyderabad]]. The couple got married on 1 November 2023 in [[Tuscany]], Italy in a traditional ceremony.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/telugu-cinema/varun-tej-lavanya-tripathi-first-pics-grand-wedding-italy-101698894207898.html |date=2 November 2023 |accessdate=10 November 2023 |work=Hindustan Times |title=Varun Tej, Lavanya Tripathi look regal in red and golden in first pics from grand wedding in Italy}}</ref> On 9 September 2025, Tripathi gave birth to their son.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chiranjeevi welcomes Varun Tej-Lavanya Tripathi's baby boy to Konidela family, shares photo |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/chiranjeevi-welcomes-varun-tej-lavanya-tripathis-baby-boy-to-konidela-family-10242090/ |website=The Indian Express |access-date=11 September 2025 |language=en-In |date=10 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Varun Tej, Lavanya Tripathi's home decorated in flowers to welcome their baby boy. Watch |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/telugu-cinema/varun-tej-lavanya-tripathis-home-decorated-in-flowers-to-welcome-their-baby-boy-home-watch-101757856206686-amp.html |website=Hindustan Times |access-date=15 September 2025 |language=en-In |date=14 September 2025}}</ref> Varun Tej and Lavanya Tripathi announced the name of their firstborn son as Vaayuv Tej Konidela on the occasion of Vijayadashami on 2 October 2025.<ref name="Varun Tej, Lavanya Tripathi introduce son Vaayuv Tej Konidela, a name with spiritual significance">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Varun Tej, Lavanya Tripathi introduce son Vaayuv Tej Konidela, a name with spiritual significance |url=https://www.livemint.com/entertainment/varun-tej-lavanya-tripathi-introduce-son-vaayuv-tej-konidela-a-name-with-spiritual-significance-11759410731298.html |access-date=2 October 2025 |publisher=Mint |date=2 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251002161601/https://www.livemint.com/entertainment/varun-tej-lavanya-tripathi-introduce-son-vaayuv-tej-konidela-a-name-with-spiritual-significance-11759410731298.html |archive-date=2 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Varun Tej-Lavanya Tripathi introduce son Vaayuv, share pics from naming ceremony">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=2 October 2025 |title=Varun Tej-Lavanya Tripathi introduce son Vaayuv, share pics from naming ceremony |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/varun-tej-lavanya-tripathi-name-son-vaayuv-naming-ceremony-2796699-2025-10-02 |archive-date= |access-date=2 October 2025 |publisher=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Media image ==
Tej stood at the 27th place on ''[[Forbes India]]'''s most influential stars on Instagram in South cinema for the year 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meet the 30 most influential social media stars of South cinema |access-date=17 December 2022 |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/south-celebrity-special-2021/meet-the-most-influential-social-media-stars-of-south-cinema/71017/1 |work=Forbes India |archive-date=10 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310062133/https://www.forbesindia.com/amp/article/south-celebrity-special-2021/meet-the-most-influential-social-media-stars-of-south-cinema/71017/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Times Of India|Hyderabad Times Most Desirable Men]] list, Tej was place 7th in 2019 and 17th in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Hyderabad Times Most Desirable Men 2019: Vijay Deverakonda |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/hyderabad-times-most-desirable-man-2019-vijay-deverakonda/articleshow/74676451.cms |access-date=25 September 2020 |website=Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Hyderabad Times 30 Most Desirable Men 2020: Hyderabad's Diggin' These Dishy Dudes |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/hyderabad-times-30-most-desirable-men-2020-hyderabads-diggin-these-dishy-dudes/articleshow/83145554.cms |access-date=27 September 2021 |website=Times of India |language=en}}</ref> In ''[[Rediff.com]]''{{'}}s "Top Telugu Actors" list, Tej was placed 5th in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 5 BEST Telugu Actors |date=13 January 2016 |author=Radhika Rajamani |work=Rediff.com |access-date=27 February 2019 |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/the-5-best-telugu-actors/20160113.htm}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{{Pending films key}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
!{{Tooltip|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
|2000
|''[[Hands Up (2000 film)|Hands Up]]''
| Varun
| Child actor
|
|-
|2014
|''[[Mukunda]]''
| Mukunda
|Debut as lead role
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2015
|''[[Kanche]]''
| Dhupati Hari Babu
|
|
|-
|''[[Loafer (2015 film)|Loafer]]''
| Raja Murali
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2017
|''[[Mister (2017)|Mister]]''
| Pichchayya Naidu "Chai"
|
|
|-
|''[[Fidaa]]''
| Varun
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2018
|''[[Tholi Prema (2018 film)|Tholi Prema]]''
| Aditya Sekhar
|
|
|-
|''[[Antariksham 9000 KMPH]]''
|Dev
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2019
|''[[F2: Fun and Frustration]]''
|Varun Yadav
|
|
|-
|''[[Aladdin (2019 film)|Aladdin]]''
|[[Aladdin]] (voice)
|Telugu dubbed version
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 April 2019|title=Venkatesh and Varun Tej dub for 'Aladdin' Telugu version|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/venkatesh-and-varun-tej-dub-for-aladdin-telugu-version/articleshow/69054162.cms|access-date=2 July 2021|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Gaddalakonda Ganesh]]''
|Gaddalakonda Ganesh "Gani"
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2022
|[[Ghani (2022 film)|''Ghani'']]
|Ghani
|
|<ref name="Ghani" />
|-
|[[F3 (film)|''F3'']]
|Varun Yadav
|
|<ref name="F3" />
|-
|2023
|''[[Gandeevadhari Arjuna]]''
|Arjun Varma
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gandeevadhari Arjuna Movie: Showtimes, Review, Songs, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-details/gandeevadhari-arjuna/movieshow/97127886.cms |access-date=2023-07-27 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2" |2024
|''[[Operation Valentine (film)|Operation Valentine]]''
|Arjun Dev alias "Rudra"
|Simultaneously shot in [[Hindi]]
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-09-19 |title=VT13: Varun Tej to play an IAF officer in his next, a Hindi-Telugu bilingual |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/vt13-varun-tej-to-play-an-iaf-officer-in-his-next-a-hindi-telugu-bilingual/article65909257.ece |access-date=2023-07-27 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Varun Tej and Manushi Chhillar to do 'Operation Valentine'!|url=https://www.telugucinema.com/news/varun-tej-and-manushi-chhillar-to-do-operation-valentine |access-date=14 August 2023|work=Telugu Cinema |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Matka (film)|Matka]]''
|"Matka" Vasu
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=VT14: Varun Tej to romance THIS Bollywood bombshell in his next film with director Karuna Kumar |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/vt14-varun-tej-to-romance-this-bollywood-bombshell-in-his-next-film-with-director-karuna-kumar-1232141 |access-date=2023-07-27 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2026
| {{Pending film|Korean Kanakaraju}}
| Kanakaraju
| Filming
| <ref>[https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/varun-tejs-indo-korean-film-vt15-titled-korean-kanakaraju-10779291/amp/1]</ref><ref>[https://kz.kursiv.media/en/2025-06-20/engk-nknk-bollywood-meets-south-korea-in-almaty/]</ref>
|}

=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Shows
!Role
!Network
!Notes
|-
|2018
|''[[Nanna Koochi]]''
|Narrator
|[[ZEE5]]
|
|-
|2019
|''[[Bigg Boss (Telugu season 3)|Bigg Boss 3]]''
|Himself
|[[Star Maa]]
|Guest appearance
|}

== Awards and nominations ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Award
!Category
!Film
!Result
!{{Tooltip|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
|2015
|[[South Indian International Movie Awards]]
|[[SIIMA Award for Best Actor – Telugu|Best Actor – Telugu]]
|''[[Kanche]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/siima-2016-nominations-out-%E2%80%93-here-list-43912|title=SIIMA 2016 nominations out – here is the list|work=The News Minute|date=27 May 2016|archive-date=3 August 2017|access-date=20 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803135047/http://www.thenewsminute.com/article/siima-2016-nominations-out-%E2%80%93-here-list-43912|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|2017
|[[Zee Telugu Golden Awards]]
|Entertainer Of The Year (Male)
|''[[Fidaa]]''
|{{Nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Zee Telugu Golden Awards 2017 nomination list: Baahubali 2 gets highest nods, will Prabhas get an award? |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/zee-telugu-golden-awards-2017-nomination-list-baahubali-2-gets-highest-nods-will-prabhas-get-753807 |website=IB Times |date=19 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
|2018
|[[Zee Cine Awards Telugu]]
|Best Film Actor
|[[Tholi Prema (2018 film)|''Tholi Prema'']]
|{{Nom}}
|<ref>{{cite episode|title=Zee Cine Awards Telugu 2018 |series=Zee Cine Awards Telugu|network=[[ZEE5]]|date=27 January 2019|url=https://www.zee5.com/tvshows/details/watch-zee-cine-awards-telugu-2018-online/0-6-1282/zee-cine-awards-telugu-2018-event-episode-2-january-27-2019-full-episode/0-1-171170}}</ref>
|-
|2019
|[[South Indian International Movie Awards]]
|[[SIIMA Award for Best Actor – Telugu|Best Actor – Telugu]]
|''[[Gaddalakonda Ganesh]]''
|{{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web |title=SIIMA Nominations: Here Is The Complete List Of Nominations For 2019 And 2020 |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/siima-nominations-here-is-the-complete-list-of-nominations-for-2019-and-2020-704128 |website=The Hans India |date=30 August 2021}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name|nm7674551}}
*{{Instagram|varunkonidela7}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:TeJ, Varun}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Konidela–Allu family|Varun Tej]]
[[Category:Male actors from Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Indian male voice actors]]
[[Category:Telugu male actors]]

Sufism in India

2026-03-09T17:31:29Z

Creativesketchbook:

{{short description|none}} 
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
[[File:Jahangir with sufi.jpg|thumb|Before passing away, [[Jahangir|Emperor Jahangir]] chooses the [[Sufis]] over all others ([[Bichitr]], c. 1660)]]

[[Sufism]] has a history in India that has been evolving for over 1,000 years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jafri|first=Saiyid I Zaheer Husain|title=The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and society in India.|year=2006|publisher=Konrad Adenauer Foundation|location=New Delhi}}</ref> The presence of Sufism has been a leading entity increasing the reaches of Islam throughout South Asia.<ref name="Schimmel, p.346">Schimmel, p.346</ref> Following the entrance of Islam in the early 8th century, Sufi mystic traditions became more visible during the 10th and 11th centuries of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and after it to the rest of India.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Anniemarie|title=Mystical Dimensions of Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi|url-access=registration|year=1975|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill|page=[https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi/page/345 345]|chapter=Sufism in Indo-Pakistan}}</ref> A conglomeration of four chronologically separate dynasties, the early Delhi Sultanate consisted of rulers from Turkic and Afghan lands.<ref>{{cite book|last=Walsh|first=Judith E.|title=A Brief History of India|year=2006|publisher=State University of New York|location=Old Westbury|page=58}}</ref> This Persian influence flooded South Asia with Islam, Sufi thought, syncretic values, literature, education, and entertainment that has created an enduring impact on the presence of Islam in India today.<ref name="Jafri 2006 4">{{cite book|last=Jafri|first=Saiyid Zaheer Husain|title=The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India|year=2006|publisher=Konrad Adenauer Foundation|location=New Delhi|page=4}}</ref> Sufi preachers, merchants and missionaries also settled in coastal [[Gujarat]] through maritime voyages and trade.

Various leaders of Sufi orders, [[Tariqa]], chartered the first organized activities to introduce localities to Islam through Sufism. Saints and mythical stories provided solace and inspiration to Hindu caste communities, often in rural villages of India.<ref name="Jafri 2006, p. 4"/> The Sufi teachings of divine spirituality, cosmic harmony, love, and humanity resonated with the common people and still do today.<ref>{{cite news|author1-link=Cyrus Ali Zargar|last=Zargar|first=Cyrus Ali|title=Introduction to Islamic Mysticism}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |volume=2 |first=Peter Malcolm |last=Holt |author2=Ann K. S. Lambton |author3=Bernard Lewis |page=2303 |location=UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-521-29135-4}}</ref> The following content will take a thematic approach to discuss various influences that helped spread Sufism and a mystical understanding of Islam, making India a contemporary epicenter for Sufi culture.

==History==

===Early history===

====Influence of Islam====
Muslims entered India in 712 AD under the Arab commander [[Muhammad bin Qasim]], by conquering the regions of [[Sindh]] and [[Multan]]. This historical achievement connected South Asia to the Muslim empire.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Anniemarie|title=Mystical Dimensions of Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi|url-access=registration|year=1975|publisher=University of North Carolina|location=Chapel Hill|page=[https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi/page/344 344]|chapter=Sufism in Indo-Pakistan}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Alvi|first=Sajida Sultana|title=Perspectives on Mughal India: Rulers, Historians, Ulama, and Sufis|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Karachi}}</ref> Simultaneously, Arab Muslims were welcomed along the Hindustani (India) sea ports for trade and business ventures. The [[Muslim culture]] of the caliphate began to permeate through India.<ref>{{cite book|last=Morgan|first=Michael Hamilton|title=Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, Artists|year=2007|publisher=National Geographic|location=Washington D.C.|page=76}}</ref> [[File:Sindh 700ad.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Muslims conquered Multan, the capital of Sindh, and thereby expanded the Islamic empire into India.]] This trade route linking India to the Mediterranean world and even Southeast Asia lasted peacefully until 900.<ref>{{cite book|last=Walsh|first=Judith E.|title=A Brief History of India|year=2006|publisher=State University of New York|location=Old Westbury}}</ref> During this period, the Abbasid Caliphate (750 – 1258) was seated in Baghdad; this city is also the birthplace of Sufism with notable figures such as [[Abdul Qadir Gilani]], [[Hasan al Basri]], and [[Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya|Rabiah]].<ref>Dr. Cyrus Ali Zargar</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Walsh|first=Judith E.|title=A Brief History of India|year=2006|publisher=State University of New York|location=Old Wesbury|page=59}}</ref>

The mystic tradition of Islam gained significant ground spreading from [[Baghdad]] into [[Persia]] and [[Afghanistan]] to [[Kashmir]] through various invasions. In 901, a Turkic military leader, [[Sabuktigin]], established an Turko-Persian Kingdom in the city of Ghaznah. His son, [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]], expanded their territories into the Indian Punjab region during 1027<ref>Walsh, p. 56</ref> The resources and riches annexed from Punjab went into the Ghazni coffers to expand further into India's northwest areas.<ref name="Alvi">Alvi</ref> During the early 11th century, the [[Ghaznavids]] brought a wealth of scholars into India's borders, establishing the first Persian-inspired Muslim culture succeeding prior Arab influences.<ref>Schimmel, p. 344</ref>

In 1151, another Central Asian group, called the [[Ghurids]], overtook the lands of the Ghaznavids – who did very little to monitor their lands in India.<ref name="Walsh">Walsh</ref> [[Mu'izz-ad-din|Mu'izz al-Din Ghuri]], a governor of Afghan origin, initiated a major invasion of India, extending the previous Ghazni territories into Delhi and Ajmer. By 1186, northern India was indistinguishable; a combination of Baghdad's cosmopolitan culture mixed with Persian-Turkic traditions of the Ghaznah court accelerated Sufi intellectualism in India.<ref>Alvi 46</ref> Scholars, poets, and mystics from Central Asia and Iran became integrated within India. By 1204, the Ghurids established rule in the following cities: Benaras (Varanasi), Kanaug, Rajasthan, and Bihar, which introduced Muslim rule into the Bengal region.<ref name="Alvi"/>

An emphasis on translation of Arabic and Persian texts (Qu'ran, Hadith corpus, Sufi literature) into vernacular languages helped the momentum of Islamization in India.<ref>Alvi 10</ref> Particularly in rural areas, Sufis helped Islam spread generously into prior polytheistic populations. Subsequently, the general consensus among scholars remains that there were never any forced mass conversions recorded during this early history time period.<ref name="Alvi 9">Alvi 9</ref> Between the late 12th century and 13th century, Sufi brotherhoods became firmly consolidated in northern India.<ref name="Schimmel 345">Schimmel, p. 345</ref>

====Delhi Sultanate====

The period of 1206 – 1526 is labeled as the Delhi Sultanate of Raftaar.<ref name="Walsh"/><ref>Morgan 78</ref> This time frame consists of five separate dynasties that ruled territorial parts of India: the [[Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk]] or slave, [[Khalji dynasty|Khaljis]], [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaq]], [[Sayyid Dynasty|Sayyid]], and [[Lodi Dynasty|Lodi dynasty]]. In history, the Delhi Sultanate is usually given marginal attention compared to the succeeding [[Mughal Dynasty]].<ref name="Aquil">Aquil</ref> At its peak, the Delhi Sultanate controlled all of North India, Afghan frontier, and Bengal. The security of their lands protected India from the [[Mongol Conquests]] terrorizing the rest of Asia between 1206 and 1294.<ref name="Zargar">Zargar</ref> When the Mongol invasion penetrated Central Asia, fleeing refugees chose India as a safe destination.<ref>morgan77</ref> Scholars, students, artisans, and common people arrived into the protection of Mamluk rulers, the first dynasty in the Delhi Sultanate. Soon the court had an immense influx of diverse cultures, religiosity, and literature from Persia and Central Asia; [[Sufism]] was the main ingredient in all mediums. During this medieval period, Sufism spread through various regions, expanding to the Deccan plateau with the succession of the Tughlaq dynasty of 1290 – 1388.<ref name="Walsh"/><ref>Aquil 9</ref> During this time, the Muslim rulers of the Sultanate dynasties were not necessarily of orthodox Islam; yet, they were still deemed powerful. Advisors of the dynastic sultans included Muslim religious scholars (ulama) and notably, Muslim mystics (mashai'kh).<ref>Aquil 11</ref> Although practicing Sufis rarely had political aspirations, the declining ethical reign of the Sayyid and Lodi dynasty (1414 – 1517) required renewed leadership.<ref>Aquil 13</ref>

===Development of education===

====Traditional culture====

During 901 - 1151, the Ghaznawids began to build numerous schools called [[madrasa]] that were attached and affiliated with masjids ([[mosque]]). This mass movement established stability in India's educational systems.<ref name="Alvi 9"/> Existing scholars promoted the study of the Qu'ran and [[hadith]], beginning in North West India.<ref>Alvi 11</ref> During the Delhi Sultanate, the [[intellectual diversity]] of India's residents increased multiple - fold due to the Mongol invasions. Various intellectuals hailing from regions such as Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia began to enrich the cultural and literary life of the Delhi capital.<ref>Alvi 12</ref> Among the religious elite existing during the Sultanate time period, two major classifications existed. The ''ulama'' were noted exclusive religious scholars who had mastered certain Islamic legal branches of study. They were [[sharia]] oriented and tended to be more orthodox about Muslim practices. The other group of religious elites were the Sufi mystics, or [[fakir]]. This was a more inclusive group that was often more tolerant of non-Muslim traditions. Although the commitment to practice [[sharia]] remains a Sufi foundation, early Sufis in India focused on proselytizing through service work and helping the poor. During the Delhi Sultanate, the rise prevailing mystical approach to Islam was not a substitute for [[madrasa]] education nor traditional scholarship.<ref name="Alvi 14">Alvi 14</ref> The teachings of [[sufism]] only built upon the foundations of a madrasa education. The spiritual orientation of Sufism only sought to refine the "consciousness of the divine, intensify piety, and inculcate a humanistic attitude."<ref name="Alvi 14"/>

====Sufi Khanqah====
One reason why Islam became more favorable in India was due to the establishment of [[khanqah]]. A khanqah is commonly defined as a hospice, lodge, community center, or dormitory ran by Sufis.<ref name="Alvi"/><ref name="Zargar"/> Khanqahs were also known as [[Jama'at Khana]], large gathering halls.<ref name="Aquil"/> Structurally, a khanqah could be one large room or have additional dwelling space.<ref name="Schimmel 345"/> Although some khanqah establishments were independent of royal funding or patronage, many received fiscal grants ([[waqf]]) and donations from benefactors for continuing services.<ref name="Alvi"/><ref>Schimmel</ref> Over time, the function of traditional Sufi khanqahs evolved as Sufism solidified in India.

Initially, the Sufi khanqah life emphasized a close and fruitful relationship between the master-teacher ([[sheikh]]) and their students.<ref name="Alvi 14"/> For example, students in khanqahs would pray, worship, study, and read works together.<ref name="Schimmel 347">Schimmel 347</ref> Sufi literature had more academic concerns besides just the jurisprudential and theological works seen in [[madrasa]].<ref name="Alvi 14"/> There were three major categories of mystical works studied in South Asia: hagiographical writing, discourses of the teacher, and letters of the master.<ref name="Alvi 14"/> Sufis also studied various other manuals describing code of conduct, [[adab (Islam)]]. In fact, the text (trans.) "Path of God's Bondsmen from Origin to Return" written by a Persian Sufi saint, Najm al-Din Razi, spread throughout India during the authors' lifetime.<ref name="Zargar"/> Sharing that Sufi thought was becoming increasingly favorable to study in India. Even today, preserved mystical literature has proved invaluable as a source of religious and social history of Sufi Muslims in India.<ref name="Alvi 14"/>

The other major function of a khanqah was that of a community shelter. Many of these facilities were built in low caste, rural, Hindu vicinities.<ref name="Aquil"/> The Chishti Order Sufis in India, especially, crystallized khanqahs with the highest form of modest hospitality and generosity.<ref>Schimmel 232</ref> Keeping a "visitors welcome" policy, khanqahs in India offered spiritual guidance, psychological support, and counseling that was free and open to all people.<ref name="Alvi"/><ref name="Schimmel 345"/> The spiritually hungry and depressed caste members were both fed with a free kitchen service and provided basic education.<ref name="Aquil"/> By creating egalitarian communities within stratified caste systems, Sufis successfully spread their teachings of love, spirituality, and harmony. It was this example of Sufi brotherhood and equity that drew people to the religion of Islam.<ref name="Aquil"/> Soon these khanqahs became social, cultural, and theological epicenters for people of all ethnic and religious backgrounds and genders.<ref name="Alvi"/><ref>Schimmel 231</ref> Through a khanqah's services, Sufis presented a form of Islam that forged a way for voluntary large scale conversions of lower class Hindustanis.<ref>Aquil 16</ref>

===Indian Sufi lodges in the Ottoman Empire===
From the 14th to the 19th century, Muslim dervishes came to the Ottoman Empire from [[Mughal Empire|Hindustan]] and established Sufi lodges in the big cities throughout the Ottoman Empire. In Ottoman Turkish these lodges were called ''Hindi Tekkeler'' or ''Hindular Tekkesi''. The oldest Hindi Tekke is the Horhor Tekke in [[Istanbul]]. Their descendants in Istanbul called Hindis (Hindiler), who speak Turkish and are fully assimilated into Turkish culture.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/44684274/Osmanl%C4%B1_Devletinde_Hind%C3%AE_Tekkeleri_Indian_Dervish_Lodges_in_Ottoman_State_ Osmanlı Devleti'nde Hindî Tekkeleri (Indian Dervish Lodges in Ottoman State)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412050445/https://www.academia.edu/44684274/Osmanl%C4%B1_Devletinde_Hind%C3%AE_Tekkeleri_Indian_Dervish_Lodges_in_Ottoman_State_|date=12 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.azernews.az/region/198807.html | title=India and Türkiye: Thread of sufism binds two great countries | date=2 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dailysabah.com/opinion/op-ed/india-turkey-bound-together-by-sufi-connection | title=India-Turkey: Bound together by Sufi connection | Opinion | website=[[Daily Sabah]] | date=16 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158302 | jstor=44158302 | title=The Hajj and the Hindi: The ascent of the Indian Sufi lodge in the Ottoman empire | last1=Choudhury | first1=Rishad | journal=Modern Asian Studies | year=2016 | volume=50 | issue=6 | pages=1888–1931 | doi=10.1017/S0026749X15000530 | s2cid=148184698 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sosyolojisi.com/horhor-hindiler-tekkesi-tarihcesi-ozellikleri-hakkinda-bilgi/40078.html|title=Horhor Hindiler Tekkesi Tarihçesi, Özellikleri, Hakkında Bilgi – Sosyolojisi.com|date=May 28, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://items.ssrc.org/from-our-fellows/hindis-in-istanbul-field-notes-on-the-making-of-an-archival-subject-2/ | title="Hindis" in Istanbul: Field Notes on the Making of an Archival Subject }}</ref>

==Sufi Tariqahs==
Sufis originated from numerous orders, lineages or chains of succession, known as [[silsila]]s and formed distinct orders – [[tariqa]]s.

Sufi masters, known as [[Sheikh|Shaikhs]] or [[murshid]]s, many of whom were later considered as saints, lived in [[khanqah]]s and [[madrasa]]s. Devotees ([[murid]]s and [[salik]]s) came to these khanqahs to seek their blessings and to receive instructions.

===Madariyya===
{{main|Madariyya}}
The Madariyya are members of a Sufi order (tariqa) popular in North India, especially in Uttar Pradesh, the Mewat region, Bihar and Bengal. They are also present in Nepal and Bangladesh. Known for its syncretic aspects, lack of emphasis on external religious practice and focus on internal dhikr, it was initiated by the Sufi saint 'Sayed Badiuddin Zinda Shah Madar' (d. 1434 CE), called "Qutb-ul-Madar", and is centered on his shrine (dargah) at [[Makanpur]], Kanpur district, Uttar Pradesh.

===Qadiriyyah===
{{main|Qadiriyyah}}
The Qadiriyyah order was founded by [[Abdul-Qadir Gilani]], who was originally from Iraq (d. 1166).<ref name="Zargar"/> It is popular among the Muslims of South Asia.<ref name=tombs48>[[Dru Gladney|Gladney, Dru]]. [http://www2.hawaii.edu/~dru/articles/tombs.pdf "Muslim Tombs and Ethnic Folklore: Charters for Hui Identity"]{{Dead link|date=June 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }} ''Journal of Asian Studies'', August 1987, Vol. 46 (3): 495-532; pp. 48-49 in the PDF file.</ref>

===Razzaqiah===
The Razzaqiah order was founded by Shaiykh Saiyed Razzaq Ali Gilani (d. 1208) who was originally from Iran. It is popular among the Muslims of North Asia.

===Shadhiliyye===
{{main|Shadhili}}
[[File:Maqbara.jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Madurai Maqbara]], the tomb of Shadhili Sufi saints in [[Madurai]], India.]]
Shadhiliyye was founded by Imam Nooruddeen Abu Al Hasan Ali Ash Sadhili Razi. The Fassiya branch of Shadhiliyya flourished under Qutbul Ujood [[Imam Fassi]] at its base of Masjid al-Haram Makkah and was brought to India by Sheikh Aboobakkar Miskeen Sahib Radiyallah of [[Kayalpatnam]] and Sheikh Mir Ahmad Ibrahim Raziyallah of [[Madurai]]. Mir Ahmad Ibrahim is the first of the three Sufi [[wali|saints]] revered at the [[Madurai Maqbara]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]. There are more than 70 branches of Shadhiliyya; of these, the Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya is the order with the most adherents.<ref name="Shazuli.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.shazuli.com |title=Fassiyathush Shazumliya | tariqathush Shazuliya | Tariqa Shazuliya | Sufi Path | Sufism | Zikrs | Avradhs | Daily Wirdh | Thareeqush shukr |Kaleefa's of the tariqa | Sheikh Fassy | Ya Fassy | Sijl | Humaisara | Muridheens | Prostitute Entering Paradise |publisher=Shazuli.com |access-date=2013-07-10}}</ref>

===Chishtiyyah===
{{main|Chishti Order}}
[[File:Nizamuddin Dargah and Jamaat Khana Masjid, Delhi.jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Nizamuddin Auliya]]'s tomb (right) and [[Jama'at Khana]] Masjid (background), at [[Nizamuddin Dargah]] complex, in [[Nizamuddin West]], [[Delhi]]]]
The Chishti order emerged from Central Asia and Persia. The first saint was [[Abu Ishaq Shami]] (d. 940–41) establishing the Chishti order in Chisht-i-Sharif within [[Afghanistan]].<ref name="Durán 204">{{cite book |title=Children of Abraham: An Introduction to Islam for Jews |first=Khalid |last=Durán |author-link=Khalid Duran |author2=Reuven Firestone |author3=Abdelwahab Hechiche |publisher=Harriet and Robert Heilbrunn Institute for International Interreligious Understanding, American Jewish Committee |page=204}}</ref> Furthermore, the Chishtiyya took root with the notable saint [[Moinuddin Chishti]] (d. 1236) who championed the order within India, making it one of the largest orders in India today.<ref name="Alvi 13">Alvi 13</ref> Scholars also mentioned that he had been a part-time disciple of Abu Najib Suhrawardi.<ref name="Schimmel 346">Schimmel 346</ref> Khwaja Moiuddin Chishti was originally from Sistan (eastern Iran, southwest Afghanistan) and grew up as a well traveled scholar to Central Asia, Middle East, and South Asia.<ref>Aquil 6</ref> He reached Delhi in 1193 during the end of Ghurid reign, then shortly settled in [[Ajmer]]-Rajasthan when the Delhi Sultanate formed.<ref name="Schimmel 345"/> Moinuddin Chishti's Sufi and social welfare activities dubbed Ajmer the "nucleus for the Islamization of central and southern India."<ref name="Schimmel 346"/> The Chishti order formed [[khanqah]] to reach the local communities, thus helping Islam spread with charity work. Islam in India grew with the efforts of dervishes, not with violent bloodshed or forced conversion.<ref name="Schimmel 345"/> This is not to suggest that the Chishti order ever took a stand against the Ulema on questions of classical Islamic orthodoxy. Chishtis were famous for establishing khanqahs and for their simple teachings of humanity, peace, and generosity. This group drew an unprecedented amount of Hindus of lower and higher castes within the vicinity.<ref name="Schimmel 346"/> Until this day, both Muslims and non-Muslims visit the famous tomb of Moinuddin Chishti; it has become even a popular tourist and pilgrimage destination. [[Akbar]] (d. 1605), the third [[Mughal Empire|Mughal emperor]], frequented Ajmer as a pilgrim, setting a tradition for his constituents.<ref>Walsh 80</ref> Successors of Khwaja Moinudden Chishti include eight additional saints; together, these names are considered the "big eight" of the medieval Chishtiyya order:{{plainlist|
* [[Moinuddin Chishti]] (d. 1233 in Ajmer, India)
* [[Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki]] (d. 1236 in [[Delhi, India]])
* [[Fariduddin Ganjshakar]] (d. 1265 in Pakpattan, Pakistan)
* [[Nizamuddin Auliya]] (d. 1335 in Delhi){{ref|Claude}}
* [[Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi]]<ref>Aquil 8</ref>
* [[Bande Nawaz]] (d. 1422 in Gulbarga, India)<ref>Askari, Syed Hasan, Tazkira-i Murshidi—Rare Malfuz of the 15th-Century Sufi Saint of Gulbarga. Proceedings of the Indian Historical Records Commission (1952)</ref>
* [[Akhi Siraj Aainae Hind]] (d. 1357 in [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauḍa]], India)<ref>'Akhbarul Akhyar' By Abdal Haqq Muhaddith Dehlwi (d. 1052H/1642 CE). A short biography of the prominent sufis of India have been mentioned in this book including that of Akhi Siraj Aainae Hind)</ref>
* [[Alaul Haq Pandavi]]<ref>'Akhbarul Akhyar' By Abdal Haqq Muhaddith Dehlwi (d. 1052H/1642 CE). A short biography of the prominent sufis of India have been mentioned in this book including that of Alaul Haq Pandavi</ref>
* Shah Abdullah Kermani (Khustigiri, Birbhum, West Bengal)(succeeded by many)
* [[Ashraf Jahangir Semnani]] (d. 1386, Kichaucha India)<ref>Ashraf, Syed Waheed, Hayate Syed Ashraf Jahangir Semnani, Published 1975, India</ref>}}
* Pir Baba Habib Khan Suleimani (d. 1444, Habibpur, [[Bengal Subah]], India) successor of Shah Abdullah Kermani.
* Pir Baba Shah Amanat Alam Haqqani (d. 1521, Chattogram, [[Bengal Subah]], Bangladesh) successor of Habib Khan Suleimani.
* [[Lalon]] also known as Lalon Shah Fakir (d. 1890, [[Kushtia]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]], Bangladesh) considered as the last prominent Sufi Saint from Bengali Sufism i.e. [[Baul]] sect.

===Suhrawardiyyah===
{{main|Suhrawardiyya}}
The founder of this order was Abdul-Wahid Abu Najib as-Suhrawardi (d. 1168).<ref name="Schimmel 245">Schimmel 245</ref> He was actually a disciple of [[Ahmad Ghazali]], who is also the younger brother of Abu Hamid Ghazali. The teachings of Ahmad Ghazali led to the formation of this order. This order was prominent in medieval Iran before Persian migrations into India during the Mongol Invasion <ref name="Zargar"/>
Consequently, it was Abu Najib as-Suhrawardi's nephew that helped bring the Suhrawardiyyah to mainstream awareness.<ref>Zargar, Schimmel</ref> Abu Hafs Umar as-Suhrawardi (d. 1243) wrote numerous treatises on Sufi theories. Most notably, the text trans. "Gift of Deep Knowledge: Awa'rif al-Mar'if" was so widely read that it became a standard book of teaching in Indian madrasas.<ref name="Schimmel 245"/> This helped spread the Sufi teachings of the Suhrawardiyya. Abu Hafs was a global ambassador of his time. From teaching in Baghdad to diplomacy between the Ayyubid rulers in Egypt and Syria, Abu Hafs was a politically involved Sufi leader. By keeping cordial relations with the Islamic empire, Abu Hafs's followers in India continued to approve of his leadership and approve political participation of Sufi orders.<ref name="Schimmel 245"/>

===Kubrawiyyah===
This order was founded by Abu'l Jannab Ahmad, nicknamed [[Najmuddin Kubra]] (d. 1221), who was from the border between Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.<ref>Schimmel 254</ref> This Sufi saint was a widely acclaimed teacher with travels to Turkey, Iran, and Kashmir. His education also fostered generations of students who became saints themselves.<ref name="Zargar"/> This order became important in Kashmir during the late 14th century.<ref>Schimmel, p. 255</ref> Kubra and his students made significant contributions to Sufi literature with mystical treatises, mystical psychology, and instructional literature such as the texts ''al-Usul al-Ashara'' and ''Mirsad ul Ibad''.<ref>Schimmel, p. 256; Zargar</ref> These popular texts regarding are still mystic favorites in India and in frequent study. The [[Kubrawiya]] remains in Kashmir - India and within Huayy populations in China.<ref name="Zargar"/>

===Naqshbandiyyah===
{{main|Naqshbandi}}
The origin of this order can be traced back to [[Yusuf Hamadani|Khwaja Ya'qub Yusuf al-Hamadani]] (d. 1390), who lived in [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Zargar"/><ref name="Lal 4203">{{cite book |title=Encyclopædia of Indian literature |volume=5 |first=Mohan |last=Lal |page=4203}}</ref> It was later organized by [[Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari|Baha'uddin Naqshband]] (b. 1318–1389), who was of Tajik and Turkic background.<ref name="Zargar"/> He is widely referred to as the founder of the Naqshbandi order. Khwaja Muhammad al-Baqi Billah Berang (d. 1603) introduced the Naqshbandiyyah to India.<ref name="Zargar"/><ref name="Alvi 13"/> This order was particularly popular in Mughal elites due to ancestral links to the founder, Khawja al-Hamadani<ref name="Oxford islamic studies">{{cite web|first=Kazuo|last=Ohtsuka| url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0759#IndianSubcontinent | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603195417/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0759#IndianSubcontinent | url-status=dead | archive-date=June 3, 2010 |access-date=2010-02-11|title=Sufism|work=OxfordIslamicStudies.com}}</ref>
[[Babur]], the founder of the Mughal dynasty in 1526, was already initiated in the Naqshbandi order prior to conquering [[Delhi Sultanate]]. This royal affiliation gave considerable impetus to the order.{{ref|Rizvi}}<ref name="Walsh"/>
This order is regarded as the most orthodox among all Sufi orders.{{by whom|date=October 2024}}

===Mujaddadiya===
This order is a branch of Qadariya Naqshbandiya Order. It is belong to Shaykh Ahmad Mujaddad Alf Sani Sirhindi, who was a great wali Allah and Mujaddid (Riviver) of 11th Hijri century and also called Riviver for 1000 year. He was born in Sirhind Punjab and his last resting place also in Sirhind Punjab.

=== Sarwari Qadri ===
{{main|Sarwari Qadiri}}
The Sarwari Qadri order was founded by [[Sultan Bahu]] which branched out of the Qadiriyyah order. Hence, it follows the same approach of the order but unlike most Sufi orders, it does not follow a specific dress code, seclusion, or other lengthy exercises. Its mainstream philosophy is related directly to the heart and contemplating on the name of Allah, i.e., the word الله (''allāh'') as written on own heart.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sult̤ān Bāhū, Jamal J. Elias|title=Death Before Dying: The Sufi Poems of Sultan Bahu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GlECx1j0B4IC|year=1998|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92046-0}}=</ref>

=== Firdausiyya ===
The Firdausi or Firdausiyya silsila is a branch of the [[Suhrawardiyya]] silsila. It was founded by [[Shaikh Badruddin Samarkandi]] but it became most known during [[Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri]]'s era.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Khan |first=Maksud Ahmad |title=Firdausi Silsilah During Sultanate Period |degree=PhD |publisher=Aligarh Muslim University |url=https://archive.org/details/FirdausiSilsilaDuringSultanatePeriod/mode/1up}}</ref> It flourished mainly in the areas of Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal.

=== Barkaatiyya ===
The Barkaatiyya order is a branch of the Qadiriyya order, it is often written as Qadri–Barkaati. It was started by [[Shah Barkatullah Marehrawi]] of Marehra, Uttar Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lanzillo |first=Amanda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88bYEAAAQBAJ |title=Pious Labor: Islam, Artisanship, and Technology in Colonial India |date=2024-01-23 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-39857-3 |pages=107 |language=en}}</ref>

==Sufi culture==

===Syncretic mysticism===
Islam was not the only religion in India contributing the mystical aspects of Sufism. The Bhakti movement also gained respect due to popularity of mysticism spreading through India. The Bhakti movement was a regional revival of Hinduism linking language, geography, and cultural identities through devotional deity worship.<ref name="Walsh 64">Walsh 64</ref> This concept of "[[Bhakti]]" appeared in the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the first sects emerged from south India between the 7th and 10th century.<ref name="Walsh 64"/> The practices and theological standpoints were very similar to Sufism, often blurring the distinction between Hindus and Muslims. Bhakti devotees linked [[puja (Hinduism)]] to songs about saints and theories of life; they would meet often to sing and worship. The Brahman Bhaktis developed mystical philosophies similar to those advocated by Sufi saints. For example, the Bhaktis believed that there is a special reality beneath the illusion of life; this reality needs to be recognized to escape the cycle of reincarnation. Moreover, [[moksha]], liberation from Earth is the ultimate goal in Hinduism.<ref>Walsh 66</ref> These teachings run nearly parallel to Sufi concepts of [[dunya]], [[tariqa]], and [[akhirah]].

Sufism helped the assimilation of the Afghani Delhi Sultanate rulers within mainstream society. By building a syncretic medieval culture tolerant and appreciative of non-Muslims, Sufi saints contributed to a growth of stability, vernacular literature, and devotional music in India.<ref name="Aquil 34">Aquil 34</ref> During the seventeenth century a Sufi mystic, Saiyid Muhammad Ghaus Gwaliori popularized yogic practices among Sufi circles.<ref>Aquil 35</ref> Literature related to monotheism and the Bhakti movement also formed syncretic influences in history during the Sultanate period.<ref>Aquil 10</ref> Despite the camaraderie between Sufi saints, yogis, and Bhakti Brahmans, medieval religious traditions existed and continue to splinter peaceful living in parts of India today.<ref name="Aquil 34"/>

===Rituals===
One of the most popular rituals in Sufism is the visiting of grave-tombs of Sufi saints. These have evolved into Sufi shrines and are seen among cultural and religious landscape of India. The ritual of visiting any place of significance is called [[ziyarat]]; the most common example is a visit to Prophet [[Muhammad]]'s Masjid Nabawi and grave in Medina, Saudi Arabia.<ref>Schlemiel 238</ref> A saint's tomb is a site of great veneration where blessings or [[barakah|baraka]] continue to reach the deceased holy person and are deemed (by some) to benefit visiting devotees and pilgrims. In order to show reverence to Sufi saints, kings and nobles provided large donations or [[waqf]] to preserve the tombs and renovate them architecturally.<ref>The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India (2006)</ref> Over time, these donation, rituals, annual commemorations formed into an elaborate system of accepted norms. These forms of Sufi practise created an aura of spiritual and religious traditions around prescribed dates.<ref name="The Islamic Path 2006">The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India. (2006)</ref> Many orthodox or Islamic purists denounce these visiting grave rituals, especially the expectation of receiving blessings from the venerated saints. Nevertheless, these rituals have survived generations and seem adamant to remain.<ref name="The Islamic Path 2006"/>

===Musical influence===
Music has always been present as a rich tradition among all Indian religions.<ref name="The Islamic Path p.15">The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India p.15 (2006)</ref> As an influential medium to disperse ideas, music has appealed to people for generations. The audience in India was already familiar with hymns in local languages. Thus Sufi devotional singing was instantly successful among the populations. Music transmitted Sufi ideals seamlessly. In Sufism, the term music is called "sa'ma" or literary audition. This is where poetry would be sung to instrumental music; this ritual would often put Sufis into spiritual ecstasy. The common depiction of whirling dervishes dressed in white cloaks come to picture when paired with "sa'ma."<ref name="The Islamic Path p.15"/> Many Sufi traditions encouraged poetry and music as part of education. Sufism spread widely with their teachings packaged in popular songs accessing mass demographics. Women were especially affected; often used to sing Sufi songs during the day and in female gatherings.<ref name="Schimmel 347"/> Sufi gatherings today are known as [[qawwali]]. One of the biggest contributors to the musical Sufi tradition was Amir Khusro (d. 1325). Known as a disciple of Nizamuddin Chishti, Amir was known as the most talented musical poet in the early Muslim period of India. He is considered the founder of Indo-Muslim devotional music traditions. Nicknamed "Parrot of India," Amir Khusro furthered the Chishti affiliation through this rising Sufi pop culture within India.<ref name="The Islamic Path p.15"/> [[Baul]] Sect of Sufism, is prevalent in Eastern India & Bangladesh, promoted & spread famously by [[Lalon]].

==Impact==
[[File:Guler painting showing an imaginary meeting of Sufi saints (Baba Farid, Khawaja Qutub-ud-din, Hazrat Muin-ud-Din, Hazrat Dastgir, Abn Ali Kalandar, and Khawaja Nizamuddin Aulia).jpg|thumb|[[Guler State|Guler]] painting showing an imaginary meeting of Sufi saints (Order from bottom left clock-wise: [[Fariduddin Ganjshakar|Baba Farid]], [[Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki|Khawaja Qutub-ud-din]], [[Mu'in al-Din Chishti|Hazrat Muin-ud-Din]], [[Hashim Peer Dastagir|Hazrat Dastgir]], [[Bu Ali Shah Qalandar|Abn Ali Kalandar]], and [[Nizamuddin Auliya|Khawaja Nizamuddin Aulia]])]]
The massive geographic presence of Islam in India can be explained by the tireless activity of Sufi preachers.<ref name="Schimmel 240">Schimmel 240</ref> Sufism had left a prevailing impact on religious, cultural, and social life in South Asia. The mystical form of Islam was introduced by Sufi saints.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tarling |first=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOw8AAAAIAAJ&dq=Sufism+and+Its+Impact+on+Muslim+Society+in+South+Asia&pg=PA29 |title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From early times to c. 1800 |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-35505-6 |language=en}}</ref> Sufi scholars traveling from all over continental Asia were instrumental and influential in the social, economic, and philosophic development of India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nation.com.pk/11-Jul-2008/saints-played-vital-role-in-spreading-islam|title=Role of Sufis in Spreading Islam|date=11 July 2008 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India (2006) p. xi</ref> Besides preaching in major cities and centers of intellectual thought, Sufis reached out to poor and marginalized rural communities and preached in local dialects such as Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi versus Persian, Turkish, and Arabic.<ref name="Schimmel 240" /> Sufism emerged as a "moral and comprehensive socio-religious force" that was influenced from other religious traditions such as Hinduism.<ref name="Medieval Islamic Civilization">Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index By Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach|url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&dq=Sufism+and+Its+Impact+on+Muslim+Society+in+South+Asia&pg=PA773]|pg=773</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cour|first1=Ajeet|last2=Zaheer|first2=Noor|last3=Khan|first3=Refaqat Ali|title=SUFISM A CELEBRATION OF LOVE|date=2012|publisher=FOSWAL|location=INDIA|isbn=978-81-88703-28-9|url=http://jaj.co.in/foundationsaarcwriters.com/images/News_Section_New/Sufism_A_Celebration_of_Love.pdf#page=216}}</ref> Their traditions of devotional practices and modest living attracted all people. Their teachings of humanity, love for God and Prophet continue to be surrounded by mystical tales and folk songs today.<ref name="Schimmel 240" /> Sufis were firm in abstaining from religious and communal conflict and strived to be peaceful elements of civil society.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Furthermore, it is the attitude of accommodation, adaptation, piety, and charisma that continues to help Sufism remain as a pillar of mystical Islam in India.

== List of Sufi shrines ==
{{Incomplete list|date=April 2025}}

'''Rajasthan'''
* [[Shrine of Mu'in al-Din Chishti|Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti]]
* Dargah khwaza Fakhruddin Chishti, Sarwar
* Dargah Hisamuddin Chishti, Sambhar lake
* Dargah Fakhruddin shareef, Galiyakot
* Dargah Hazrat Diwan e Shah, Kapasan
* Dargah Mastaan Shah Baba
* Dargah Sheikh Mohammad Durvaish, Motidungri
* Dargah Gaiban Shah Pir, Jalore
* Dargah Abansa Dada sanchore (Jalore)
* Dargah dawalshah pir Surana (Jalore)
* Dargah Dantala Vali sivana, Badmer
* Dargah Amruddin Dada Gudamalani, Badmer
* Dargah MalikshH Pir, Jalore
* Dargah Malik Shah Datar Chitlwana, Jalore
* Dargah Mitu Panju Bhatala, Badmer
* Dargah Asaba Pir Sindhary, Badmer
* Dargah Haji Kadir Baba Saynji Ki Beri, Jalore
* Dargah Hazrat Ismail Macci Sahb, *Malarna (SWM)
* Dargah Qattal Shah Pir (Bonli)
* Dargah Haqqani Baba Pir (Chan) SWM

'''Odisha'''
* [[Tarbha Wale Baba]]
* [[Bhujakhia Pir]]

'''West Bengal'''
* [[Khustigiri]] Syed Shah Abdullah Kermani [[Dargah Sharif]],
* Achin Pankhi [[Dargah Sharif]] Ashram of Lalon Shah Fakir [[Lalon]] in [[Murshidabad]],

'''Bangladesh'''
* [[Mausoleum of Lalon Shah]], [[Kumarkhali]], [[Kushtia District]], [[Khulna]], [[Bangladesh]]

==See also==
* [[Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order]]
* [[Karwan-I-Islami]]
* [[Hindu–Islamic relations]]
* [[List of Sufi Saints of South Asia]]
* [[Islam in Pakistan]]
* [[Islam in Bangladesh]]
* [[Islam in India]]
* [[Moinuddin Chishti]]
* [[Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani]]
* [[Ashraf Jahangir Semnani]]
* [[List of ziyarat locations]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |title=Sufism and Bhakti |first=Sirajul |last=Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glfYPh0yVdAC |location=USA |year=2004 |isbn=1-56518-198-0}}
* {{cite book |title=Mystical dimensions of Islam |first=Annemarie |last=Schimmel |author-link=Annemarie Schimmel |year=1978 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=USA |isbn=0-8078-1271-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi }}
* {{cite book|last=Alvi|first=Sajida Sultana|title=Perspectives on Mughal India: Rulers, Historians, Ulama, and Sufis|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Karachi}}
* {{cite book|last=Aquil|first=Raziuddin|title=Sufism, Culture, and Politics: Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New Delhi}}
* {{cite book|last=Morgan|first=Michael Hamilton|title=Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, Artists|url=https://archive.org/details/losthistoryendur00morg|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=National Geographic|location=Washington D.C.|isbn=9781426202803}}
* {{cite book|last=Walsh|first=Judith E.|title=A Brief History of India|year=2006|publisher=State University of New York|location=Old Westbury}}
* {{cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Anniemarie|title=Mystical Dimensions of Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi|url-access=registration|year=1975|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill|chapter=Sufism in Indo-Pakistan}}
* {{cite book|last=Schimmel|first=Anniemarie|title=Mystical Dimensions of Islam|url=https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi|url-access=registration|year=1975|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill|chapter=Sufi Orders and Fraternities}}
* {{cite book|title=The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India|year=2006|publisher=Konrad Adenauer Foundation|location=New Delhi|editor=Saiyid Zaheer Husain Jafri and Helmut Reifeld}}
* {{cite news|last=Zargar|first=Cyrus Ali|title=RELG 379: Islamic Mysticism|year=2013|newspaper=Augustana College}}
* {{cite book|last=Sells|first=Michael A.|title=Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological Writings|year=1996|publisher=Paulist Press|location=New Jersey}}
* {{cite book|last=Abidi|first=S.A.H.|title=Sufism in India|year=1992|publisher=Wishwa Prakashan|location=New Delhi}}
* {{cite book|last=Abbas|first=Shemeem Burney|title=The Female Voice in Sufi Ritual: Devotional Practices in Pakistan and India|year=2002|publisher=University of Texas Press|location=Austin}}
* {{cite book|last=Anjum|first=Tanvir|title=Chishti Sufis in the Sultanate of Delhi 1190-1400: From Restrained Indifference to Calculated Defiance|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Pakistan}}
* Chopra, R. M., "The Rise, Growth And Decline of Indo-Persian Literature", 2012, Iran Culture House, New Delhi and Iran Society, Kolkata. 2nd Ed.2013.
* Chopra, R. M., "Great Sufi Poets of the Punjab"' (1999), Iran Society, Calcutta.
* Chopra, R.M., "SUFISM" (Origin, Growth, Eclipse, Resurgence), 2016, Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi, {{ISBN|978-93-85083-52-5}}

{{Sufi}}
{{Sufism by country}}
{{Religion in India topics}}

{{Wikiquote}}

[[Category:Sufism in India| ]]
[[Category:Islam in India]]

Mr. & Mrs. Mahi

2026-03-08T00:09:18Z

Creativesketchbook: page.

{{Short description|2024 Indian film by Sharan Sharma}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mr. & Mrs. Mahi
| image = Mr. & Mrs. Mahi poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| native_name =
| director = Sharan Sharma
| producer = {{ubl|[[Karan Johar]]|[[Zee Studios]]|Hiroo Yash Johar|Apoorva Mehta}}
| writer = Nikhil Mehrotra Sharan Sharma
| starring = {{ubl|[[Rajkumar Rao]]|[[Janhvi Kapoor]]}}
| narrator =
| music = '''Songs:''' [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]] [[Tanishk Bagchi]] [[Jaani (songwriter)|Jaani]] [[Aadesh Shrivastava]] Achint–Yuva Hunny–Bunny Dhruv Dhalla '''Score:''' John Stewart Eduri
| cinematography = [[Anay Goswamy]]
| editing = Nitin Baid
| studio = [[Dharma Productions]] [[Zee Studios]]
| distributor = Zee Studios
| released = {{Film date|2024|05|31|ref1=<ref>{{cite web |title=Mr. & Mrs. Mahi Movie (2024) {{!}} Release Date, Review, Cast, Trailer |url=https://www.gadgets360.com/entertainment/mr-mrs-mahi-movie-104964 |website=[[NDTV|Gadgets 360]] |access-date=6 April 2024 |language=en |archive-date=6 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406095620/https://www.gadgets360.com/entertainment/mr-mrs-mahi-movie-104964 |url-status=live}}</ref>|df=y}}
| runtime = 139 minutes<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/mr-mrs-mahi-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0xmdixmza3 |title=''Mr. & Mrs. Mahi'' (PG) |website=[[British Board of Film Classification]] |date=23 May 2024 |access-date=23 May 2024 |archive-date=23 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523072945/https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/mr-mrs-mahi-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0xmdixmza3 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}}40 crore<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.business-standard.com/entertainment/mr-and-mrs-mahi-released-today-movie-beats-fighter-in-advance-bookings-124053101319_1.html |title=Mr and Mrs Mahi released today; movie beats Fighter in advance bookings |newspaper=[[Business Standard]] |date=24 May 2024 |access-date=1 June 2024 |archive-date=1 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240601004058/https://www.business-standard.com/entertainment/mr-and-mrs-mahi-released-today-movie-beats-fighter-in-advance-bookings-124053101319_1.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
| gross = {{estimation}} {{INR|51.96}} crore<ref>{{cite news |title=Mr. & Mrs. Mahi Box Office |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mr-mrs-mahi/box-office/#bh-movie-box-office |access-date=1 June 2024 |work=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=31 May 2024 |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606105228/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mr-mrs-mahi/box-office/#bh-movie-box-office |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=31 May 2024 |title=Mr and Mrs Mahi box office collection Day 1 early report: Rajkummar Rao, Janhvi Kapoor film off to a decent start |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-box-office-collection-day-1-early-report-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-9363956/ |access-date=31 May 2024 |website=[[The Indian Express]] |archive-date=31 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531190055/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-box-office-collection-day-1-early-report-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-9363956/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

'''''Mr. & Mrs. Mahi''''' is a 2024 [[Hindi]]-language [[Romance film|romantic]] [[sports drama film]] directed by Sharan Sharma and produced by [[Zee Studios]] and [[Dharma Productions]]. It stars [[Rajkummar Rao]] and [[Janhvi Kapoor]]. The film is centered around [[cricket]] and both lead actors share the same [[nickname]] as the famous Indian cricketer, [[MS Dhoni|Mahendra Singh Dhoni]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hungama |first1=Bollywood |title=Mr. And Mrs. Mahi Cast List {{!}} Mr. And Mrs. Mahi Movie Star Cast {{!}} Release Date {{!}} Movie Trailer {{!}} Review- Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mr-mrs-mahi/cast/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=6 April 2024 |language=en |date=1 December 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406133809/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mr-mrs-mahi/cast/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mr. & Mrs. Mahi{{!}} Rotten Tomatoes |url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/mr_and_mrs_mahi |website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]] |access-date=6 April 2024 |language=en |date=31 May 2024 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515000530/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/mr_and_mrs_mahi |url-status=live}}</ref> The film was released on 31 May 2024 to mixed reviews from critics, who praised the performances and chemistry of the leads and the film's novel concept but criticised the screenplay and plot. The film turned out to be profitable venture.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Mr. & Mrs. Mahi |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-details/mr-mrs-mahi/movieshow/87983031.cms |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=29 November 2021 |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614171303/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-details/mr-mrs-mahi/movieshow/87983031.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Plot==
The virtue of an arranged marriage brings together Mahendra, a failed cricketer, and Mahima, a doctor living in [[Jaipur]]. Having the same nickname, Mahi, they together become Mr. and Mrs. Mahi, akin to the nickname of [[Mahendra Singh Dhoni|Dhoni]]. They soon discover their common love and passion for cricket. Mahendra, a failed cricketer who couldn't make it; spots cricketing talent in his wife when he sees her smashing tennis ball sixes and encourages her to chase her dream of becoming a cricketer. During this journey, Mahendra feels let down as his goal to showcase himself as coach rather than his wife as a cricketer, fails. These internal conflict lead to tension between the couple. His mother(Geetha) neutralizes it by sharing her life's experiences. She prods him by saying it's the happiness within yourself and for others that will make you feel successful. This makes Mahi to realize his mistake and make fresh efforts to help his wife. Buoyed by the encouragement she receives from her husband Mahi; a practicing doctor eventually gives up her career as a doctor and takes a strike on her cricketing journey,<ref>{{cite news |last=Pranav Bhavsar |first=Karishma |title='Mr & Mrs Mahi': New poster launched for Bollywood cricket love story starring Rajkummar Rao, Janhvi Kapoor |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/mr-mrs-mahi-new-poster-launched-for-bollywood-cricket-love-story-starring-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-11715151590967.html |access-date=17 June 2024 |work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |date=8 May 2024 |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075423/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/mr-mrs-mahi-new-poster-launched-for-bollywood-cricket-love-story-starring-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-11715151590967.html |url-status=live}}</ref> which is reflected in the [[tagline]] ''An Imperfectly Perfect Partnership''.

== Cast ==
{{Castlist|
* [[Rajkummar Rao]] as Mahendra "Mahi" Aggarwal
* [[Janhvi Kapoor]] as Mahima "Mahi" Aggarwal (née Sharma)
* [[Rajesh Sharma (actor)|Rajesh Sharma]] as Benny Dayal Shukla
* [[Kumud Mishra]] as Hardayal Aggarwal, Mahendra's father
* Purnendu Bhattacharya as Trilok Gupta
* [[Zarina Wahab]] as Geeta Aggarwal, Mahendra's mother
* [[Arjit Taneja]] as Sikander Aggarwal, Mahendra's brother
* [[Yamini Das]] as Kalpana Gupta
* Sandesh Kulkarni as Coach Mangesh
* Dheerendra Kumar Gautam as Guddan
* Shashie Verma as Dr. Patwal
* Dev Chauhan as Vimal
* Deepak Darayani as Dr. Rastogi
* Girish Thapar as Damodar
* Naman Arora as Gyanesh
* Himanshu Jaykar
}}

== Production ==

===Development===
The film was announced on 22 November 2021 by [[Karan Johar]], starring [[Rajkummar Rao]] and [[Janhvi Kapoor]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Karan Johar announces 'Mr and Mrs Mahi' featuring Rajkummar Rao and Janhvi Kapoor |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/karan-johar-announces-mr-and-mrs-mahi-featuring-rajkummar-rao-and-janhvi-kapoor/articleshow/87853662.cms |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=22 November 2021 |archive-date=7 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007031043/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/karan-johar-announces-mr-and-mrs-mahi-featuring-rajkummar-rao-and-janhvi-kapoor/articleshow/87853662.cms |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=FC |first=Team |title=Karan Johar announces the release date of his next, Mr And Mrs Mahi |url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/news/karan-johar-announces-the-release-date-of-his-next-mr-and-mrs-mahi |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=Film Companion |date=9 November 2023 |language=en |archive-date=6 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406145338/https://www.filmcompanion.in/news/karan-johar-announces-the-release-date-of-his-next-mr-and-mrs-mahi |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mr and Mrs Mahi: Janhvi Kapoor-Rajkummar Rao reunite for cricket theme film; Fan asks 'Is it another movie on MS Dhoni?' |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-rao-reunite-for-cricket-theme-film-fan-asks-is-it-another-movie-on-ms-dhoni-101637595814615.htmlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-rao-reunite-for-cricket-theme-film-fan-asks-is-it-another-movie-on-ms-dhoni-101637595814615.html |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=22 November 2021}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Filming===
[[Principal photography]] was commenced on 9 May 2022 and film was shot at various locations in Jaipur.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jahnvi Kapoor Gets Nostalgic as She Returns to This Shoot Location after 5 Years |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/jahnvi-kapoor-gets-nostalgic-as-she-returns-to-this-shoot-location-after-5-years-6077389.html |website=News18 |date=1 October 2022 |access-date=6 August 2024 |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075423/https://www.news18.com/amp/news/movies/jahnvi-kapoor-gets-nostalgic-as-she-returns-to-this-shoot-location-after-5-years-6077389.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Janhvi Kapoor and Rajkummar Rao's Mr And Mrs Mahi goes on floors |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/janhvi-kapoor-and-rajkummar-rao-s-mr-and-mrs-mahi-goes-on-floors-1947135-2022-05-09 |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[India Today]] |date=9 May 2022 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075423/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/janhvi-kapoor-and-rajkummar-rao-s-mr-and-mrs-mahi-goes-on-floors-1947135-2022-05-09 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Shooting on 'Mr and Mrs Mahi' begins |url=https://theprint.in/feature/shooting-on-mr-and-mrs-mahi-begins/948497/ |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[ThePrint]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]] |date=9 May 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075424/https://theprint.in/feature/shooting-on-mr-and-mrs-mahi-begins/948497/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Filming wrapped on 1 May 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title=Janhvi Kapoor Wraps Shoot For Mr And Mrs Mahi, Feels Like She's "Been To War And Back" |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/janhvi-kapoor-is-feeling-like-a-blank-canvas-after-mr-and-mrs-mahi-wrap-3995252 |access-date=6 April 2024 |publisher=[[NDTV]] |date=1 May 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406140634/https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/janhvi-kapoor-is-feeling-like-a-blank-canvas-after-mr-and-mrs-mahi-wrap-3995252 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Mazumdar |first=Shreyanka |title=Janhvi Kapoor Wraps Up Mr And Mrs Mahi; Says 'Waking Up This Morning Felt Like A Rebirth...' |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/janhvi-kapoor-wraps-up-mr-and-mrs-mahi-says-waking-up-this-morning-felt-like-a-rebirth-7684345.html |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[CNN-News18|News18]] |date=1 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref> During filming, Kapoor dislocated her shoulder twice.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jha |first=Subhash K. |author-link=Subhash K. Jha |title=Janhvi dislocates her shoulder twice for Mr. & Mrs. Mahi : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/janhvi-dislocates-shoulder-twice-mr-mrs-mahi/ |access-date=9 April 2024 |work=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=10 November 2022 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075533/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/janhvi-dislocates-shoulder-twice-mr-mrs-mahi/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Janhvi Kapoor Reveals She Dislocated Shoulders Twice While Shooting For Mr And Mrs Mahi |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/janhvi-kapoor-reveals-she-dislocated-shoulders-twice-while-shooting-for-mr-and-mrs-mahi-6354415.html |access-date=9 April 2024 |work=[[CNN-News18|News18]] |date=10 November 2022 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075424/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/janhvi-kapoor-reveals-she-dislocated-shoulders-twice-while-shooting-for-mr-and-mrs-mahi-6354415.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Mr. & Mrs. Mahi
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Tanishk Bagchi]], [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]], [[Jaani (songwriter)|Jaani]], Hunny-Bunny, [[Aadesh Shrivastava]], Achint-Yuva and Dhruv Dhalla
| released = 24 May 2024<ref name="jiosaavn">{{Cite web |date=24 May 2024 |title=Mr. & Mrs. Mahi – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/mr.-and-mrs.-mahi/SKOKJcc8daE_ |website=[[JioSaavn]] |access-date=24 May 2024 |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075425/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/mr.-and-mrs.-mahi/SKOKJcc8daE_ |url-status=live}}</ref>
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| recorded = 2022–23
| length = 29:26
| language = Hindi
| label = [[Sony Music India ]]
| producer =
| misc = {{external music video| header = Official audio|{{YouTube|OPEOU3Q2RmY|Mr. & Mrs. Mahi - Full Album}}
}}
}}
The music for the film is composed by [[Tanishk Bagchi]], [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]], [[Jaani (songwriter)|Jaani]], Hunny-Bunny, [[Achint Thakkar|Achint]]-Yuva and Dhruv Dhalla. Lyrics are written by [[Jaani (songwriter)|Jaani]], [[Kausar Munir]], [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]], Azeem Dayani, Sagar, Arushi Kaushal and Devendra Kafir.<ref name="jiosaavn" />

The song "Dekhha Tenu" is a remake of some part the song "''Say Shava Shava''" from the 2001 film ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham]]'' sung by [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Sunidhi Chauhan]], [[Udit Narayan]], [[Sudesh Bhonsle]], [[Aadesh Shrivastava]], [[Amitabh Bachchan]], composed by Aadesh Shrivastava and written by [[Sameer Anjaan]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Mr and Mrs Mahi song Dekha Tenu: Janhvi Kapoor and Rajkummar Rao's first single is all about love |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-song-dekha-tenu-janhvi-kapoor-and-rajkummar-raos-first-single-is-all-about-love-watch-101715759131244.html |date=15 May 2024 |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Udit Narayan made the makers of 'Mr. & Mrs. Mahi' wait for 'Dekha Tenu' for four months due to miscommunication: 'I made a mistake' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/news/udit-narayan-made-the-makers-of-mr-mrs-mahi-wait-for-dekha-tenu-for-four-months-due-to-miscommunication-i-made-a-mistake/articleshow/110476426.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=5 June 2024 |date=28 May 2024 |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075424/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/news/udit-narayan-made-the-makers-of-mr-mrs-mahi-wait-for-dekha-tenu-for-four-months-due-to-miscommunication-i-made-a-mistake/articleshow/110476426.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{Tracklist
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 29:26
| headline = Track listing
| title1 = Dekhha Tenu
| extra1 = Mohammad Faiz
| lyrics1 = [[Jaani (songwriter)|Jaani]], [[Sameer Anjaan]]
| music1 = Jaani, [[Aadesh Shrivastava]]
| length1 = 4:42
| title2 = Agar Ho Tum
| extra2 = [[Jubin Nautiyal]]
| lyrics2 = [[Kausar Munir]]
| music2 = [[Tanishk Bagchi]]
| length2 = 4:13
| title3 = Roya Jab Tu
| extra3 = Vishal Mishra
| lyrics3 = [[Vishal Mishra (composer)|Vishal Mishra]], Azeem Dayani
| music3 = Vishal Mishra
| length3 = 5:00
| title4 = Tu Hain Toh
| extra4 = Hunny-Bunny, Sagar
| lyrics4 = Sagar
| music4 = Hunny-Bunny
| length4 = 4:44
| title5 = Junoon Hain
| extra5 = Achint
| lyrics5 = Arushi Kaushal
| music5 = Achint-Yuva
| length5 = 3:27
| title6 = Ranjhana
| extra6 = [[Kavita Seth]], Laqshay Kapoor
| lyrics6 = Devendra Kafir
| music6 = Dhrruv Dhalla
| length6 = 3:51
| title7 = Tu Hain Toh
| note7 = Female Version
| extra7 = [[Neeti Mohan]]
| lyrics7 = Sagar
| music7 = Hunny-Bunny
| length7 = 3:29
}}

== Promotion and release ==

===Promotion===

Janhvi Kapoor took the lead in the promotion of 'Mr and Mrs Mahi' and visited 'pink city' [[Jaipur]] to promote her film. She even visited the local market to taste the city's famous [[lassi]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Janhvi Kapoor relishes Jaipur ki lassi as she reaches PinkCity to promote her movie |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/jaipur/janhvi-kapoor-relishes-jaipur-ki-lassi-as-she-reaches-pinkcity-to-promote-her-movie/articleshow/110426731.cms |access-date=25 May 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]] |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924080120/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/events/jaipur/janhvi-kapoor-relishes-jaipur-ki-lassi-as-she-reaches-pinkcity-to-promote-her-movie/articleshow/110426731.cms |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Janhvi Kapoor reached Jaipur for the promotion of 'Mr and Mrs Mahi' |url=https://voiceofjaipur.com/2024/05/23/janhvi-kapoor-reached-jaipur-for-the-promotion-of-mr-and-mrs-mahi/ |access-date=23 May 2024 |work=Voice of Jaipur |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=फिल्म प्रोमशन के लिए 'मिसेज माही' जाह्नवी पहुंचीं जयपुर, बोलीं- यहां की गलियों में रोमांस है - Mr and Mrs Mahi Movie |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hi/!entertainment/actress-janhvi-kapoor-reached-jaipur-for-mr-and-mrs-mahi-movie-promotion-rjn24052307192 |access-date=23 May 2024 |work=ETV Bharat |language=hindi}}</ref>

=== Theatrical ===
The film was initially announced to release on 7 October 2022 but the production was deferred.<ref>{{cite news |last=Roy Chowdhury |first=Rishita |title=Rajkummar Rao, Janhvi Kapoor roped in for Mr And Mrs Mahi. Film to release on Oct 7, 2022 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-roped-in-for-mr-and-mrs-mahi-film-to-release-on-oct-7-2022-1879661-2021-11-22 |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[India Today]] |date=23 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075526/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-roped-in-for-mr-and-mrs-mahi-film-to-release-on-oct-7-2022-1879661-2021-11-22 |url-status=live}}</ref> Later it was planned to release on 15 March 2024 and then 19 April 2024, but was again postponed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Janhvi Kapoor, Rajkummar Rao's Mr And Mrs Mahi To Be Released On This Date. See KJo's New Poster |url=https://timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/bollywood/janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-raos-mr-and-mrs-mahi-to-be-released-on-this-date-see-kjos-new-poster-article-105096315 |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[Times Now]] |agency=[[Asian News International|ANI]] |date=9 November 2023 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924080044/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/bollywood/janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-raos-mr-and-mrs-mahi-to-be-released-on-this-date-see-kjos-new-poster-article-105096315 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rajkummar Rao & Janhvi Kapoor-starrer 'Mr And Mrs Mahi' to hit the theatres in March 2024 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-starrer-mr-and-mrs-mahi-to-hit-the-theatres-in-march-2024/articleshow/101486818.cms |access-date=6 April 2024 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |date=4 July 2023}}</ref>
The film was eventually released theatrically on 31 May 2024.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mr. and Mrs. Mahi makers unveil release date; Janhvi Kapoor, Rajkummar Rao starrer to release in May |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/mr-mrs-mahi-makers-unveil-release-date-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-starrer-release-may/ |date=18 April 2024 |work=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=18 April 2024 |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075931/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/mr-mrs-mahi-makers-unveil-release-date-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-starrer-release-may/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Janhvi Kapoor, Rajkummar Rao's 'Mr And Mrs Mahi' gets a new release date |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-rao-mr-and-mrs-mahi-new-release-date-karan-johar-2527095-2024-04-14 |access-date=18 April 2024 |work=[[India Today]] |date=14 April 2024 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075930/https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/movies/bollywood/story/janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-rao-mr-and-mrs-mahi-new-release-date-karan-johar-2527095-2024-04-14 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Home media ===
The film was premiered on [[Netflix]] from 26 July 2024.<ref>{{cite news |access-date=25 July 2024 |title='Mr & Mrs Mahi' to arrive on OTT soon: Here's where you can watch Janhvi Kapoor-Rajkumar Rao's romantic drama |url=https://m.economictimes.com/magazines/panache/mr-mrs-mahi-to-arrive-on-ott-soon-heres-where-you-can-watch-janhvi-kapoor-rajkumar-raos-romantic-drama/articleshow/112022299.cms |website=The Economic Times |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075931/https://m.economictimes.com/magazines/panache/mr-mrs-mahi-to-arrive-on-ott-soon-heres-where-you-can-watch-janhvi-kapoor-rajkumar-raos-romantic-drama/amp_articleshow/112022299.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Reception==
=== Box office ===
''Mr. & Mrs. Mahi'' surpassed ''[[Fighter (2024 film)|Fighter]]'' to achieve the highest record for advance ticket sales for a Hindi film in 2024 at {{INR}} 2.5 lakh as the film benefitted from the subsidised prices on Cinema Lovers Day.<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 May 2024 |title=Mr and Mrs Mahi advance booking: Rajkummar Rao-Janhvi Kapoor's film beats Fighter, records biggest ticket sales of 2024 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-advance-booking-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoors-film-beats-fighter-records-biggest-ticket-sales-of-2024-101717137891358-amp.html |access-date=1 June 2024 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924080437/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-advance-booking-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoors-film-beats-fighter-records-biggest-ticket-sales-of-2024-101717137891358-amp.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The film grossed {{INR|6.85 crore}} on its opening day, the seventh-highest for a Hindi film in 2024. As of July 2024 the film has grossed {{INR|43.19 crore}} in India and {{INR|8.77 crore}} internationally, for a total worldwide gross of {{INR|51.96 crore}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2024 |title=Top Rajkummar Rao Film Openers: Mr And Mrs Mahi takes biggest start for actor at the box office |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/box-office/top-rajkummar-rao-film-openers-mr-and-mrs-mahi-takes-biggest-start-for-actor-at-the-box-office-1312102 |access-date=1 June 2024 |website=[[Pinkvilla]] |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924080437/https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/box-office/top-rajkummar-rao-film-openers-mr-and-mrs-mahi-takes-biggest-start-for-actor-at-the-box-office-1312102 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2024 |title=Box Office Collection {{!}} Bollywood Box Office Collection India 2024 {{!}} Box Office India - Bollywood Hungama |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mr-mrs-mahi/box-office/#bh-movie-box-office |access-date=1 June 2024 |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240606105228/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mr-mrs-mahi/box-office/#bh-movie-box-office |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Review ===
{{Rotten Tomatoes prose|score=64|count=11|average=5.4|consensus=|ref=yes |access-date=10 June 2024}} ''Mr. & Mrs. Mahi'' received mixed reviews from critics who praised the performances and chemistry of the leads and the film's novel concept but criticised the screenplay and plot.<ref name=":0" />

A critic for ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' rated the film 3.5 stars out of 5 and wrote "''Mr & Mrs Mahi'' is a decent flick with the performances, plot and a clap-worthy interval point as its USP".<ref>{{cite news |first=Bollywood |last=Hungama |title=Mr. & Mrs. Mahi Movie Review: MR & MRS MAHI is a decent flick with fine performances. |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mr-mrs-mahi/critic-review/mr-mrs-mahi-movie-review/mr-mrs-mahi-is-a-decent-flick-with-fine-performances/ |magazine=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=31 May 2024 |access-date=31 May 2024 |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075708/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/mr-mrs-mahi/critic-review/mr-mrs-mahi-movie-review/mr-mrs-mahi-is-a-decent-flick-with-fine-performances/ |url-status=live}}{{rating|3.5|5}}</ref>

Shilajit Mitra of ''[[The Hindu]]'' opined "It is difficult to concentrate on ''Mr. and Mrs Mahi'' without being constantly reminded of other films. There’s nary an idea, visual or soundtrack choice that feels particularly fresh".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mitra |first1=Shilajit |title=Mr & Mrs Mahi movie review: This Janhvi Kapoor, Rajkummar Rao partnership doesn't quite land |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mr-mrs-mahi-movie-review-this-janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-rao-partnership-doesnt-quite-land/article68235440.ece |url-access=subscription |access-date=1 June 2024 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=31 May 2024 |language=en-IN |archive-date=1 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240601015434/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/mr-mrs-mahi-movie-review-this-janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-rao-partnership-doesnt-quite-land/article68235440.ece |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Sukanya Verma]] of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' rated 3/5 stars and notes "I liked how the film finds excitement in Mahendra and Mahima's dull lives and transforms their humdrum existence into an ode to second chances".<ref>{{cite news |last=Verma |first=Sukanya |author-link=Sukanya Verma |date=31 May 2024 |title=Mr & Mrs Mahi Review: Match Made In Heaven |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/mr--mrs-mahi-review/20240531.htm |access-date=31 May 2024 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924080047/https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/mr--mrs-mahi-review/20240531.htm |url-status=live}}{{rating|3|5}}</ref>

[[Shubhra Gupta]] of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' rated 2.5/5 and wrote "The film is giving us a rom com nestled in India’s favourite sports, which in turn is nestled in the tropes of the family-entertainer movie".<ref>{{cite news |last=Gupta |first=Shubhra |author-link=Shubhra Gupta |date=31 May 2024 |title=Mr and Mrs Mahi movie review: Janhvi Kapoor-Rajkummar Rao film struggles as it tries to please everyone |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/mr-and-mrs-mahi-movie-review-janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-rao-film-struggles-tries-to-please-everyone-9363212/ |access-date=31 May 2024 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075934/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/movie-review/mr-and-mrs-mahi-movie-review-janhvi-kapoor-rajkummar-rao-film-struggles-tries-to-please-everyone-9363212/ |url-status=live}}{{rating|2.5|5}}</ref>

[[Saibal Chatterjee]] of ''[[NDTV]]'' rated 2/5 stars to the movie and stated "The conflicting and convoluted messaging is a mishit that lands nowhere".<ref>{{cite news |last=Chatterjee |first=Saibal |author-link=Saibal Chatterjee |title=Mr & Mrs Mahi Review: Moderately Engaging Film That Struggles With Inconsistent Pace |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/mr-mrs-mahi-review-moderately-engaging-film-that-struggles-with-inconsistent-pace-2-stars-5784464 |access-date=31 May 2024 |publisher=[[NDTV]] |date=31 May 2024}}{{rating|2|5}}</ref>

Monika Rawal Kukreja reviewing for ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' wrote "It's an ambitious sports film that tries to make a point, but sadly misses the shot".<ref>{{cite news |last=Rawal Kukreja |first=Monika |title=Mr and Mrs Mahi review: Rajkummar Rao, Janhvi Kapoor throw a no ball despite a perfect partnership |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-review-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-throw-a-no-ball-despite-a-perfect-partnership-101717149261709.html |access-date=1 June 2024 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=31 May 2024 |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924075935/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/mr-and-mrs-mahi-review-rajkummar-rao-janhvi-kapoor-throw-a-no-ball-despite-a-perfect-partnership-101717149261709.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Manjusha Radhakrishnan for ''[[Gulf News]]'' rated 2.5/5 and wrote, "For a one-time watch, this movie is serviceable. It may not be as exciting as an IPL final match, but it has its good moments that make it worth our time."<ref>{{cite news |last=Radhakrishnan |first=Manjusha |title=Film Review: 'Mr & Mrs Mahi' starring Janhvi Kapoor and Rajkummar Rao is a serviceable tale of ambition and redemption |url=https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/film-review-mr--mrs-mahi-starring-janhvi-kapoor-and-rajkummar-rao-is-a-serviceable-tale-of-ambition-and-redemption-1.1717165468889 |access-date=1 June 2024 |work=[[Gulf News]] |date=31 May 2024 |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924080436/https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/film-review-mr--mrs-mahi-starring-janhvi-kapoor-and-rajkummar-rao-is-a-serviceable-tale-of-ambition-and-redemption-1.1717165468889 |url-status=live}}{{rating|2.5|5}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|16227342}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes | mr_and_mrs_mahi }}
* {{Bollywood Hungama movie|mr-mrs-mahi}}

{{Karan Johar}}{{Dharma Productions}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mister and Mrs. Mahi}}
[[Category:2024 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language biographical films]]
[[Category:2024 films]]
[[Category:2024 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films about cricket in India]]
[[Category:Films about marriage]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of cricketers]]
[[Category:Indian sports drama films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Jaipur]]
[[Category:Films shot in Jaipur]]

Mahapurush

2026-03-07T06:42:11Z

Creativesketchbook: enhance references for consistency based on references

{{short description|1965 film by Satyajit Ray}}
{{about||the Nepali film|Mahapurush (2022 film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mahapurush
| image = Mahapurush poster.jpg
| alt = Poster for Mahapurush
| caption = Poster for ''Mahapurush''
| director = [[Satyajit Ray]]
| producer = RDB & Co
| screenplay = Satyajit Ray
| based_on = {{based on|''Birinchibaba''|Rajshekhar Basu}}
| starring = Charuprakash Ghosh Satindra Bhattacharya [[Rabi Ghosh]] [[Santosh Dutta]]
| music = [[Satyajit Ray]]
| cinematography = [[Soumendu Roy]]
| editing = [[Dulal Dutta]]
| released = {{film date|df=y|1965|5|7}}
| runtime = 65 minutes
| country = India
| language = Bengali
}}
'''''Mahapurush''''' ({{Translation|The Holy Man}}) is a 1965 Indian film directed by [[Satyajit Ray]], based on a short story ''Birinchibaba'' by [[Rajshekhar Basu]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LQ8EAAAQBAJ&dq=Mahapurush+books+ray&pg=PT101 |title=Satyajit Ray: The Inner Eye: The Biography of a Master Film-Maker |date=2021-09-23 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-25851-8 }}</ref>

== Plot ==
After the death of his wife, Gurupada Mitra (Prasad Mukherjee), an advocate, has not been at peace. He and his daughter Buchki (Gitali Roy), meet Birinchi (Charuprakash Ghosh). Birinchi Baba claims to be ageless. He tells stories from the past; about his arguments with [[Plato]] about time, how he taught [[Mass–energy equivalence|E=mc2]] to [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]], and was on first-name terms with [[Jesus|Jesu]] (Christ) and [[Gautama Buddha|Gautam]] (Buddha). Birinchi Baba has a growing band of rich devotees.

Gurupada decides to patronize the holy man and become his disciple. Daughter Buchki is disappointed with her lover Satya. To teach him a lesson, she tells Satya that she is going to leave him and become a disciple of Birinchi Baba.

Satya turns to his friend Nibaran for his help. It does not take Nibaran long to realize that Birinchi Baba is a fraud. Nibaran and friends expose Birinchi Baba. The devotees feel foolish and perhaps have learnt a lesson.

==Cast==
* [[Charuprakash Ghosh]] as Birinchi Baba, the self-proclaimed Godman and the con-artist
* [[Rabi Ghosh]] as Birinchi Baba's assistant, his disciple/(originally) his nephew Kyabla
* [[Somen Bose]] as Nibaran da
* [[Satya Bandopadhyay]] as Nitai da
* [[Haridhan Mukherjee]] as Ganesh Mama
* Satindra Bhattacharya as Satya
* [[Santosh Dutta]] as Professor Nani
* [[Geetali Roy]] as Buchki/Neelima, Gurupada's younger daughter
* Prasad Mukherjee as Gurupada Mittir
* Renuka Roy as Nani's wife/Gurupada's elder daughter

==Preservation==
The [[Academy Film Archive]] preserved ''Mahapurush'' in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=Preserved Projects|url=http://www.oscars.org/academy-film-archive/preserved-projects?title=&filmmaker=satyajit+ray&category=All&collection=All|website=Academy Film Archive}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140930030259/http://www.satyajitray.org/films/kapurus.htm Mahapurush (SatyajitRay.org)]
* {{IMDb title|0059417|Mahapurush}}
* {{TCMDb title|id=558503}}

{{Satyajit Ray}}

[[Category:1965 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Satyajit Ray]]
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Films about religion]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Satyajit Ray]]
[[Category:1965 Bengali-language films]]
[[Category:Films based on short fiction]]
[[Category:Films about con artists]]

{{1960s-Bengali-film-stub}}

Poovinu Puthiya Poonthennal

2026-03-03T21:09:34Z

Creativesketchbook: Expanded content with additional details

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Poovinnu Puthiya Poonthennal
| image = Poovinu Puthiya Poonthennal (1986).jpg
| caption = Promotional Poster
| director = [[Fazil (director)|Fazil]]
| writer = Fazil
| producer = [[Swargachitra Appachan]]
| starring = [[Mammootty]] [[Suresh Gopi]] [[Sujitha]] [[Nadiya Moidu]]
| cinematography = [[Anandakuttan]]
| editing = T. R. Sekhar
| studio = [[Swargachitra Appachan|Swargachitra]]
| distributor = Central Pictures
| released = {{Film date|1986|9|12|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| music = [[Kannur Rajan]]
| gross =
}}
'''''Poovinnu Puthiya Poonthennal''''' ({{Translation|''A Fresh Gentle Breeze for the Flower''}}) is a 1986 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[Action film|action thriller]] film written and directed by [[Fazil (director)|Fazil]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2005/12/23/stories/2005122301990100.htm|title=His experiments with cinema|author=Prema Manmadhan|date=23 December 2005|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=20 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203235735/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2005/12/23/stories/2005122301990100.htm|archive-date=3 December 2008|url-status=usurped}}</ref> It stars [[Mammootty]] and [[Suresh Gopi]] in the lead while [[Sujitha]], [[Nadiya Moidu]], [[Babu Antony]], [[Thilakan]], [[Lalu Alex]], [[Maniyanpilla Raju]], [[Sukumari]] and [[Siddique (actor)|Siddique]] appear in supporting roles. The film was produced by [[Swargachitra Appachan]] under his banner Swargachitra. It revolves around a drunkard widower who helps a deaf and mute boy find the killers of his parents. The film features original songs composed by [[Kannur Rajan]] and cinematography by [[Anandakuttan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?1820|title=Poovinu Puthiya Poonthennal|accessdate=2014-10-23|publisher=malayalasangeetham.info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=1872|title=Poovinu Puthiya Poonthennal|accessdate=2014-10-23|publisher=MalayalaChalachithram}}</ref>

The film was released on 12 September 1986 on [[Onam]] to critical acclaim.<ref name=":0"/> It was later remade into six other languages — in Tamil as ''[[Poovizhi Vasalile]]'', in Telugu as ''[[Pasivadi Pranam]]'', in Kannada as ''Aapadbandhava'', in Hindi as ''[[Hatya]]'', in Bangladeshi as ''Khotipuron'' and in Sinhalese as ''Veda Barinam Vedak Nehe'' - becoming the first Malayalam film to be remade into six different languages and only the second Indian film to do so after ''[[Anuraga Aralithu]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kollywood's craze for Malayalam screenplays |url=https://www.sify.com/movies/kollywoods-craze-for-malayalam-screenplays-imagegallery-kollywood-qcqlVVcfihhcd.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160217061625/http://www.sify.com/movies/kollywoods-craze-for-malayalam-screenplays-imagegallery-kollywood-qcqlVVcfihhcd.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 February 2016 |access-date=2022-05-17 |website=[[Sify]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=MP |first=Abin |date=2021-03-01 |title=ആദ്യ ചിത്രം മമ്മൂട്ടിയെ നായകനാക്കി, മുടക്കിയ പണം പോലും കിട്ടിയില്ല; പരാജയത്തിന്റെ കാരണം പറഞ്ഞ് നിര്‍മ്മാതാവ് |url=https://malayalam.filmibeat.com/news/swargachitra-appachan-opens-up-about-poovinu-puthiya-poonthennal-starring-mammootty-being-a-failure-069721.html |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=malayalam.filmibeat.com |language=ml}}</ref>

==Plot==

A deaf and mute boy witnesses his widowed mother being murdered by two men. Later, he escapes from them. Kiran is an [[alcoholic]] who is not able to recover from the tragic death of his family. Kiran finds the boy when he finds the boy sleeping in the trash and adopts him, naming him Kittu, after his son. Soon he meets Neetha and become close friends without knowing that she is Kittu's aunt. Kittu recognizes his mother's murderer in a bar along with their boss. The police discovers the body of his mother and Neetha realizes it is her sister's son. Kiran kills the murderers and finally he also faces death.

==Cast==
*[[Mammootty]] as Kiran
*[[Suresh Gopi]] as Suresh
*[[Sujitha]] as Benny / Kittu
*[[Nadiya Moidu]] as Neetha
*[[Thilakan]] as Chandrasekhara Menon, Neetha and Sathi's father
*[[Lalu Alex]] as Inspector Simon
*[[Babu Antony]] as Renji
*[[Maniyanpilla Raju]] as Alex
*[[Sukumari]] as Doctor (cameo)
*[[Jayalalita]] as Sathi/Annie, Benny's mother
*[[N. F. Varghese]] as Hamsa, a man disguised as Benny's father
*Mini Arun as Neha, lady disguised as Benny's mother
*Mini Jairaj as the singer young woman in the bar
*[[Siddique (director)|Siddique]] as Vipin, Man at Priest's place
*[[Ajith Kollam]] as Gunda
*John Varghese as priest

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[Kannur Rajan]] with lyrics by [[Bichu Thirumala]].
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! No. !! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length (m:ss)
|-
| 1 || "Aaro Aaro Aararo" || [[K. J. Yesudas]] || [[Bichu Thirumala]] ||
|-
| 2 || "Aaro Aaro Aararo" || [[K. S. Chithra]] || Bichu Thirumala ||
|-
| 3 || "Mounangalil Ninte Janmam" || K. J. Yesudas || Bichu Thirumala ||
|-
| 4 || "Nenjinullil" || K. J. Yesudas, K. S. Chithra || Bichu Thirumala ||
|-
| 5 || "Peeliyezhum Veeshi Vaa" || K. J. Yesudas, K. S. Chithra, Chorus || Bichu Thirumala ||
|-
| 6 || "Peeliyezhum Veeshi Vaa" (F) || K. S. Chithra || Bichu Thirumala ||
|-
| 7 || "Poove Ponpoove" || K. J. Yesudas || Bichu Thirumala ||
|}

==Reception==
Upon release, the film flopped at the box office.<ref name=":0" /> According to producer [[Swargachitra Appachan]], the film was not even able to make the money he had invested in it. Appachan felt that even with positive critical response, the film could not do well due to the fact that, there were six films releasing in the same week, out of which only ''[[Aavanazhi]]'' and ''[[Nandi Veendum Varika]]'' could achieve success and the film could not get the exposure due to the sheer amount of films released in the [[Onam]] week. Another reason for the failure of the film is believed to be because of the climax of the film in which Mammootty finally dies, which was not accepted by the audience. The producer says that in the Tamil version - ''[[Poovizhi Vasalile]]'' the protagonist doesn't die and hence, was a commercial success.<ref name=":0" />

==Awards==
Fazil won the Kerala State Film Award for Best Director for ''[[Ennennum Kannettante]]'' and ''Poovinu Puthiya Poonthennal''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-03 |title=+++++++++++++ official website of INFORMATION AND PUBLIC RELATION DEPARTMENT OF KERALA +++++++++++++ |url=http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards2.htm |access-date=2022-05-16 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234213/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards2.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Award
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Category
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Nominee(s)
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Result
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="1" | [[Kerala State Film Awards]]
| [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Director]]
| [[Fazil (director)|Fazil]]
| {{won}}
|-
|}

==Remakes==
The movie was remade in six languages, all the climaxes of the films were different. Baby Sujitha and Babu Antony reprised their roles in four of the films. Interestingly, while the original did not performed well commercially, the remakes including Tamil, Telugu and Hindi were box office successes with the Telugu version even becoming the [[List of highest-grossing Telugu films|highest-grossing Telugu film]] of all time.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2014 |title=The Top 10 Tamil Films On Children |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/report/slide-show-1-the-top-10-tamil-films-on-children/20140627.htm?print=true |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125184316/http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/slide-show-1-the-top-10-tamil-films-on-children/20140627.htm#8 |archive-date=25 November 2016 |access-date=7 August 2021 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bobbytalkscinema.com/bobbytalk/adminpanel/imagetemp/FI-1988-Classifications.jpg|title=FI Classification (1988)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-07-22 |title=Baahubali doesn't belong to any one industry: Vijayendra Prasad |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/baahubali-doesn-t-belong-to-any-one-industry-vijayendra-prasad/story-03quNkCM9gzkfaAnlpctDK.html |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref name="timesofindia">{{Cite web |title=Pasivadi Pranam – A Kodandarami Reddy-Chiranjeevi: 6 Blockbuster hit films of the ace director-actor duo |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/photo-features/a-kodandarami-reddy-chiranjeevi-6-blockbuster-hit-films-of-the-ace-director-actor-duo/Pasivadi-Pranam/photostory/64825613.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826054104/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/photo-features/a-kodandarami-reddy-chiranjeevi-6-blockbuster-hit-films-of-the-ace-director-actor-duo/Pasivadi-Pranam/photostory/64825613.cms |archive-date=26 August 2021 |access-date=10 August 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:95%;"
!Year
!Film
!Language
!{{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
| 1987
|''[[Poovizhi Vasalile]]''
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 June 2020 |title=What if there were a Hitler in Chaplin, asks 'Penguin' director Eashvar Karthic |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2020/jun/18/what-if-there-were-a-hitler-in-chaplin-asks-penguin-director-eashvar-karthic-2157902.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231014093816/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2020/jun/18/what-if-there-were-a-hitler-in-chaplin-asks-penguin-director-eashvar-karthic-2157902.html |archive-date=14 October 2023 |access-date=28 June 2024 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>
|-
| 1987
|''[[Pasivadi Pranam]]''
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title='Pasivadi Pranam' Industry Hit Story |url=https://www.cinejosh.com/news/3/35670/pasivadi-pranam-industry-hit-story.html |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=Cine Josh |date=23 July 2014 |language=english}}</ref>
|-
| 1987
|''Aapadbandhava''
|[[Kannada]]
|
|-
|1988
|''[[Hatya]]''
|[[Hindi]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Babu Antony to star in Akshay Kumar's 'Laxmmi Bomb' |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2019/aug/05/babu-antony-to-star-in-akshay-kumars-laxmmi-bomb-2014150.html |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=The New Indian Express|date=5 August 2019 }}</ref>
|-
| 1989
|''Khotipuron''
|[[Bengali language|Bangladeshi/Bengali]]
|
|-
| 1991
|''Veda Barinam Vedak Nehe''
|[[Sinhala language|Sinhalese]]
|
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|0215067}}

{{Fazil (director)}}

[[Category:1986 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:1986 crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Malayalam films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:1986 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Fazil]]
[[Category:Indian crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Alappuzha]]

Kaaval (2015 film)

2026-03-03T03:33:31Z

Creativesketchbook: Info

{{Short description|2015 Indian film by Nagendran R.}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2013}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kaaval
| image = Kaaval poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = Nagendran R.
| producer = [[Punnagai Poo Gheetha]] [[Philip Sheetal]]
| writer = Nagendran R.
| starring =[[Samuthirakani]] [[Vimal (actor)|Vimal]] [[Punnagai Poo Gheetha]]
| music = [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]] [[Dharan Kumar]]
| cinematography = [[N. K. Ekambaram]]
| editing = [[Praveen K. L.]]
| studio = SG Films
| released = {{Film date|2015|06|26|df=yes}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Kaaval''''' ({{translation|Police}}) is a 2015 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action film]] written and directed by Nagendran R., based on a true story and produced by Punnagai Poo Gheetha and Philip Sheetal. It stars [[Vimal (actor)|Vimal]], [[Samuthirakani]] and [[Punnagai Poo Gheetha]]. The film, which was initially titled ''Nee Yellam Nalla Varuvada'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vimal's next is not Neeyellam Nalla Varuvada |url=http://www.iflickz.com/2015/03/vimals-next-is-not-neeyellam-nalla-varuvada.html |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=iflickz.com |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033342/http://www.iflickz.com/2015/03/vimals-next-is-not-neeyellam-nalla-varuvada.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> began production in 2013 and released on 26 June 2015

==Plot==
Chandrasekar ([[Samuthirakani]]) is an honest police officer who is given an opportunity to encounter the deadliest don who is responsible for all the murders that are happening in [[Tamil Nadu]]. But during the mission, he loses Alwin Sudan, one of his most intelligent encounter specialists. Later, he realizes that their carefully planned operation was leaked to the rivals by Anbarasu ([[Vimal (actor)|Vimal]]), the son of a corrupt constable Kulasekaran ([[M. S. Bhaskar]]). Chandrasekar sketches a plan to encounter the don through Anbarasu.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Samuthirakani]] as Inspector Chandrasekhar
* [[Vimal (actor)|Vimal]] as Anbarasu
* [[Punnagai Poo Gheetha]] as Amrutha
* [[M. S. Bhaskar]] as Kulasekaran
* [[Namo Narayana]] as Narayana
* [[Imman Annachi]] as Irudhayaraj
* [[Ashwin Raja]] as Anbarasu's friend
* [[Stunt Silva]]
* [[Singamuthu]] as Singaraj
* [[Naadodigal Gopal]] as Gopalaswamy
* TSK
* [[Senthi Kumari]] as Anbarasu's mother
* [[Venkat Subha]]
* [[Devendiran alias Deva]] as the Don
* [[Sneha (actress)|Sneha]] in a [[cameo appearance]]
* [[Mannara Chopra]] in an [[item number]]
{{colend}}

==Production==
Nagendran, a former assistant of Seeman and Susi Ganesan announced in September 2013 that he would make his directorial debut with the project titled as ''Nee Yellam Nalla Varuvada'' named after the dialogue spoken by [[N. Santhanam|Santhanam]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nee Ellam Nalla Varuva Daa to be directed by Nagendran with Vimal and Samuthirakani is set to commen |url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-10/nee-ellam-nalla-varuva-daa-to-be-directed-by-nagendran-with-vimal-and-smauthirakani-is-set-to-commence.html |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=behindwoods.com}}</ref> Vimal, Samuthirakani recruited to play prominent characters along with Punnagai Poo Geetha, producer of this film playing the lead actress, M. S. Bhaskar, Singamuthu, Imman Annachi and Kumki Ashwin playing supporting roles.<ref name="ig">{{Cite web |date=10 September 2013 |title=Vimal and Samuthirakani Comes Together |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/vimal-and-samuthirakani-comes-together-tamil-news-97370.html |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=indiaglitz.com}}</ref> [[Mannara Chopra]] was selected to perform an item number.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Priyanka Chopra's cousin to dance with Vemal |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/priyanka-chopras-cousin-to-dance-with-vemal.html |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=behindwoods.com}}</ref>

G. V. Prakash Kumar was signed to produce the music, N. K. Ekambaram to handle the cinematography and Praveen-Srikanth were signed as the editors. Silva, Na. Muthukumar and Videsh were chosenas the stunt coordinator, lyricist and art director, respectively.<ref name = ig/> The film which was reported to be based on a real-life incident started its filming in Pondicherry, which was held in Tamil Nadu and Kerala for 60 days.<ref name="behind">{{Cite web |title=The movie Kaaval (aka) Kaval directed by V.R.Nagendran has great appreciation from all |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-15/the-movie-kaaval-aka-kaval-directed-by-vrnagendran-has-great-appreciation-from-all.html |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=behindwoods.com}}</ref> Nagendran revealed that the film was based on M. Phil study which revolves 34,712 murders took place from 1995 to 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 April 2015 |title=Vimal and 34,712 murders |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/vimal-and-34-712-murders-tamilfont-news-131189.html |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=indiaglitz.com}}</ref> In April 2015, the film's title was changed into ''Kaaval'' as many people who saw the film, including promising directors, top industry personnel and police officials felt that the film deserved a more serious and purposeful title.<ref name = behind/>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Kaaval
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
| cover =
| border = yes
| alt =
| caption =
| released = 2015
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 22:42
| language = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| label =
| producer = [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
| prev_title = [[Idhu Enna Maayam]]
| prev_year = 2015
| next_title = [[Kaaka Muttai]]
| next_year = 2015
| misc = {{Extra chronology
| artist = [[Dharan Kumar]]
| type = Soundtrack
| prev_title = [[Naaigal Jaakirathai]]
| prev_year = 2014
| title = Kaaval
| year = 2015
| next_title = [[Manal Kayiru 2]]
| next_year = 2016
}}
}}
The soundtrack was composed by [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]] and [[Dharan Kumar]] with background score composed by Dharan Kumar.
{{Track listing
| headline = Tracklist
| total_length = 22:42
| extra_column = Singers
| title1 = Sakka Podu
| music1 = [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
| extra1 = [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]], Santosh Hariharan
| lyrics1 = [[Na. Muthukumar]]
| length1 = 3:39
| title2 = Aadu Annatha
| music2 = G. V. Prakash Kumar
| extra2 = [[Velmurugan]], Maalavika Sundar, Santosh Hariharan
| lyrics2 = Lalith Anandh
| length2 = 3:54
| title3 = Un Kannukullara
| music3 = G. V. Prakash Kumar
| extra3 = [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]], [[Priya Himesh]]
| lyrics3 = [[Snehan]]
| length3 = 5:02
| title4 = Natta Nadu Iravula
| music4 = [[Dharan Kumar]]
| extra4 = Sanjana Divaker Kalmanje
| lyrics4 = Purachikanal
| length4 = 4:38
| title5 = Aavaaram Poovukkum
| music5 = G. V. Prakash Kumar
| extra5 = [[Megha (singer)|Megha]]
| lyrics5 = Na. Muthukumar
| length5 = 4:39
| title6 = Kaaval Theme
| music6 = G. V. Prakash Kumar
| extra6 = [[Yazin Nizar]], Santosh Hariharan, Gowtham
| length6 = 0:50
}}

==Release==
The film was given a "U/A" certificate by Central Board of Film Certification.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Censor board officials impressed with Kaaval! |url=http://www.iluvcinema.in/tamil/censor-board-officials-impressed-with-kaaval/ |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=iluvcinema.in}}</ref> The film was initially slated to release on 19 June but eventually released on 26 June.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Avinash Pandian |date=28 May 2015 |title=Vemal's Kaaval release postponed from June 19 to June 26 |url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-15/vemals-kaaval-postponed.html |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref>

===Critical reception===
The film received mixed reviews from critics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 June 2015 |title='Kaaval' Movie Review Round-up: Vimal-Samuthirakani Starrer Fails to Impress |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/kaaval-movie-review-round-vimal-samuthirakani-starrer-fails-impress-637218 |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=International Business Times, India Edition}}</ref> ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film 2 out of 5 and stated that "The problem with ''Kaaval'' is that it offers nothing new in terms of story and presentation. Almost every development feels been there done that".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kaaval Movie Review |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/Kaaval/movie-review/47825997.cms |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=The Times of India}}</ref> Gauthaman Baskaran of ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' rated it 1.5 out of 5 and wrote "In the end, the work turns out to be yet another addition to the list of very average movies".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kaaval review: We have seen this tale of corrupt cops before |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/kaaval-review-we-have--seen-this-tale-of-corrupt-cops-before/article1-1362989.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626094205/http://www.hindustantimes.com/movie-reviews/kaaval-review-we-have--seen-this-tale-of-corrupt-cops-before/article1-1362989.aspx |archive-date=26 June 2015 |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=hindustantimes.com/}}</ref> ''Behindwoods'' wrote "To sum up ''Kaaval'', the cops vs contract killers theme is interesting and it has some good moments when Samuthirakani is in charge. But overall, the film doesn't create the desired impact".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Behindwoods Review Board |date=26 June 2015 |title=Kaaval (aka) Kaval review |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/kaaval/kaaval-review.html |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref>

''[[Sify]]'' wrote, "''Kaaval'' is a pucca mass masala entertainer with action, comedy, romance, sentiments and other elements associated with big-hero films. But it manages to entertain only at few places and most of the time; the clichéd execution dilutes the intensity".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Review : Kaaval: A mass masala entertainer! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/kaaval-a-mass-masala-entertainer-review--pg0jPbhbhjhdb.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630010251/http://www.sify.com/movies/kaaval-a-mass-masala-entertainer-review--pg0jPbhbhjhdb.html |archive-date=30 June 2015 |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=Sify}}</ref> ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote, "Fairly engaging in its story telling style, ''Kaaval'' seems to be a debutant director's tribute to the police force", calling it a "gripping tale about crime and retribution" and further wrote, .<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Gripping Tale About Crime and Retribution |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/A-Gripping-Tale-About-Crime-and-Retribution/2015/06/27/article2887905.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703121025/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/A-Gripping-Tale-About-Crime-and-Retribution/2015/06/27/article2887905.ece |archive-date=3 July 2015 |access-date=12 September 2015 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|3885742}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian action films]]
[[Category:2015 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2015 Indian films]]
[[Category:2015 action films]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Tamil Nadu Police]]
[[Category:2015 films]]
[[Category:Films scored by G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Poojai

2026-03-03T03:32:12Z

Creativesketchbook: starting entry

{{Short description|2014 Indian film by Hari}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Poojai
| image = Poojai poster.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Hari (director)|Hari]]
| producer = [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]]
| writer = Hari
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]]
* [[Shruthi Haasan]]
* [[Sathyaraj]]
* [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]]
* [[Mukesh Tiwari]]
* [[Soori (actor)|Soori]]
}}
| music = [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
| cinematography = [[Priyan]]
| editing = {{plainlist|
* [[V. T. Vijayan]]
* T. S. Jay
}}
| studio = [[Vishal Film Factory]]
| distributor = [[Vendhar Movies]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2014 |title='Poojai' sold to Vendhar movies for a big sum |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/Poojai-sold-to-vendhar-movies-for-a-big-sum-tamil-news-111427 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806234854/http://www.indiaglitz.com/Poojai-sold-to-vendhar-movies-for-a-big-sum-tamil-news-111427 |archive-date=6 August 2014 |access-date=5 August 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|2014|10|22|df=yes}}
| runtime = 158 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Poojai''''' ({{translation|[[Puja (Hinduism)|Prayer]]}}) is a 2014 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[action comedy film|action drama film]] directed by [[Hari (director)|Hari]] and produced by [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]]. The film stars Vishal, alongside [[Shruti Haasan]], [[Sathyaraj]], [[Radhika Sarathkumar]], [[Mukesh Tiwari]], Awadesh Mishra and [[Soori (actor)|Soori]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 February 2014 |title=Vishal & Hari are together again |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/vishal-hari-are-together-again-news-tamil-ocjr24gfhji.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309062326/http://www.sify.com/movies/vishal-hari-are-together-again-news-tamil-ocjr24gfhji.html |archive-date=9 March 2014 |access-date=21 May 2014 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]] composed the music, while cinematography and editing were handled by [[Priyan]] and [[V. T. Vijayan]].<ref name="PV1">{{Cite web |date=1 May 2014 |title=Vishal will continue at Jilla's spot |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/post-injuries-vishal-plans-to-resume-poojai-at-jillas-spot.html |access-date=12 August 2014 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref>

[[Principal photography]] began on 18 April 2014.

''Poojai'' was released on 22 October 2014, on the occasion of [[Diwali]], to mixed reviews from critics. The film was remade in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Anjani Putra]]'' (2017).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Seshagiri, Sangeetha |date=28 July 2014 |title=Vikram vs Vijay vs Vishal: 'Ai' to Clash with 'Kaththi' and 'Poojai' during Diwali? |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/vikram-vs-vijay-vs-vishal-ai-clash-kaththi-poojai-during-diwali-605457 |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[International Business Times]]}}</ref>

==Plot==
Vasudevan "Vasu" is the heir of ''Kovai Group'', a cloth manufacturing company in [[Coimbatore]]. Due to a misunderstanding, Vasu gets disowned by his mother and matriarch of his joint family Rajalakshmi. Years later, Vasu is now working as a moneylender and lives a normal life with his friends Kutti Puli and Pandi, where he also falls in love with a rich girl named Divya. At a theatre, Vasu saves a newly transferred [[Additional superintendent of police|ASP]] Sivakkozhundhu and his wife from a group of North Indian killers who work for Anna Thandavam, a [[Pollachi]]-based businessman and hitman as Sivakkozhundhu was transferred to investigate Anna Thandavam's client case.

Anna Thandavam also plans to illegally grab land a village temple, which was planned to be gifted by Vasu's late father Rathnaswamy. These two incidents cause enmity between Vasu and Anna Thandavam. When the land is formally gifted to the temple, an irate Anna Thandavam orders his henchman to assault Vasu's uncle Ramaswamy. Rajalakshmi realizes her mistake of misunderstanding Vasu and reunites with him. Vasu learns about the incident and thrashes Anna Thandavam's henchmen and breaks his hand. Anna Thandavam tries to attack Vasu, but Vasu brutally thrashes him in full view of public, which goes viral online.

Assisted by Sivakkozhundhu and Divya, Vasu subdues Anna Thandavam's attempts to destroy his family by capturing the North Indian killers, leading to arrest warrant on Anna Thandavam. During the temple festival, Anna Thandavam's second wife kills Rajalakshmi with a venomous knife, while Anna Thandavam rushes to [[Patna]]. Learning of Rajalakshmi's death, Vasu rushes to Patna and tracks down Anna Thandavam and his hitman friend Rai Bahadur, where he brutally finishes them, thus avenging Rajalakshmi's death. Vasu returns home to mourn Rajalakshmi's death with Divya and his family.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]] as Vasudevan "Vasu"
* [[Shruti Haasan]] as Divya "D", Vasu's love interest
* [[Sathyaraj]] as [[Additional_superintendent_of_police|ADSP]] Sivakkozhundhu
* [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]] as Rajalakshmi, Vasu's mother
* [[Soori (actor)|Soori]] as Kutti Puli
* [[Mukesh Tiwari]] as Anna Thandavam
* [[Jayaprakash (actor)|Jayaprakash]] as Ramaswamy, Vasudevan's first younger paternal uncle
* [[Prathap Pothen]] as Divya's father
* [[Janaki Sabesh]] as Divya's mother
* [[Thalaivasal Vijay]] as Kumaraswamy, Vasudevan's second younger paternal uncle
* [[Awadhesh Mishra]] as Rai Bahadur
* [[Madhumila]] as Selvi
* [[Abhinaya (actress)|Abhinaya]] as Durga
* [[Aishwariyaa Bhaskaran|Aishwarya]] as Lakshmi, Sivakkozhundu's wife
* [[Sithara (actress)|Sithara]] as Ramaswamy's wife
* [[Kausalya (actress)|Kausalya]] as Susheela, Kumaraswamy's wife
* [[Renuka (actress)|Renuka]] as Manimegalai, Durga's mother
* [[Soundararaja]] as Soundar
* [[Manobala]] as Kovai Group's Manager
* [[Pandi (actor)|Pandi]] as Pandi
* [[Imman Annachi]] as Guru
* [[R. Sundarrajan]] as a temple trustee/festival organizer
* [[Santhana Bharathi]] as Anna Thandavam's lawyer
* [[O. A. K. Sundar]] as Durga's father
* [[Karate Raja]] as Selvaraj, Anna Thandavam's henchman
* [[Pondy Ravi]] as Sundaram, Anna Thandavam's henchman
* [[Narsing Yadav]] as Rai Bahadur's henchman
* Barath Raj as Naresh Yadhav
* Nisha as Keerthi, Divya's friend
* [[Sabarna Anand]] as Chithra
* Vinay Bihari as Kerala Minister Madhavan Nair
* [[Aara (actress)|Aara]] as Aarthi, Vasu's sister
* [[Andrea Jeremiah]] in the song "Soda Bottle"
}}

==Production==
===Development===
In December 2013, Vishal told that he would produce and feature in a film which would be directed by [[Hari (director)|Hari]] and that the pair would collaborate again after the success of their previous venture, ''[[Thaamirabharani]]'' (2007). Hari had described the film as a "triangular action story" which starts in [[Coimbatore]] and ends in [[Patna]], while revealing [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]] had already completed composing the film's songs before production commenced.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 December 2013 |title=Vishal joins up with Hari |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/vishal-joins-up-with-hari-news-tamil-nm2l4Sgdebh.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229040623/http://www.sify.com/movies/vishal-joins-up-with-hari-news-tamil-nm2l4Sgdebh.html |archive-date=29 December 2013 |access-date=21 May 2014 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 March 2014 |title=Shruti Haasan in Vishal's Hari film? |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/shruti-haasan-in-vishal-s-hari-film-news-tamil-odykixeaaij.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325050507/http://www.sify.com/movies/shruti-haasan-in-vishal-s-hari-film-news-tamil-odykixeaaij.html |archive-date=25 March 2014 |access-date=21 May 2014 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> The film was officially launched on 28 March 2014, with a press release naming the film's cast and crew. [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]] was selected to compose the music for the film, while [[Priyan]] and [[V. T. Vijayan]] were confirmed to be the cinematographer and the editor of the film respectively. [[Shruti Hassan]] was also selected to do costume designing.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 March 2014 |title=Pooja of Vishal-Hari film, 'Poojai' on Friday! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/pooja-of-vishal-hari-film-poojai-on-friday-news-tamil-od1tNnjjeid.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329093734/http://www.sify.com/movies/pooja-of-vishal-hari-film-poojai-on-friday-news-tamil-od1tNnjjeid.html |archive-date=29 March 2014 |access-date=21 May 2014 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

===Casting===
Early reports in December had suggested that [[Shruti Haasan]] would be signed on to play the film's heroine, though she only confirmed her participation in March 2014. [[Sathyaraj]] and [[Soori (actor)|Soori]] were added to the cast to play supporting roles, while actress [[Kausalya (actress)|Kausalya]] was announced to be making a comeback with the film starring alongside other supporting actresses.<ref name="P1">{{Cite web |date=12 April 2014 |title=Vishal announces 'Poojai' release date |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/vishal-announces-poojai-release-date-tamil-news-106145 |access-date=21 May 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 March 2014 |title=Kausalya all set to make a comeback in Vishal-Hari flick |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/kausalya-all-set-to-make-a-comeback-in-vishalhari-flick-tamil-news-105248 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030102352/http://www.indiaglitz.com/kausalya-all-set-to-make-a-comeback-in-vishalhari-flick-tamil-news-105248 |archive-date=30 October 2014 |access-date=21 May 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> The team approached [[Rekha]] to play Vishal's mother in the film, but her unavailability meant that the team later cast [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] instead. [[Prathap Pothen]] and [[Janaki Sabesh]] were also selected to play Shruti Haasan's parents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 May 2014 |title=Director Hari Gopalakrishnan: Rekha Couldn't Accommodate Dates for 'Poojai' |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/director-hari-gopalakrishnan-rekha-couldn-t-accommodate-dates-for-poojai-533752 |access-date=29 July 2014 |website=[[NDTV|NDTV Movies]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=C. Pillai, Radhika |title=Pratap Pothen to play Shruthi Hassan's father! |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news-and-interviews/Pratap-Pothen-to-play-Shruthi-Hassans-father/articleshow/35373516.cms |access-date=21 May 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> [[Andrea Jeremiah]] was selected to make a cameo appearance in a folk song. Sathyaraj sported a bald look for this film thanks to his simultaneous shoot for [[S. S. Rajamouli]]'s ''[[Baahubali: The Beginning|Baahubali]]'' (2015) and his role was said to be "very powerful" and also the "suspense element of the film".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramchander |date=7 May 2014 |title=Andrea Spices Up Vishal's 'Poojai' |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2014/andrea-spices-up-vishal-poojai-138638.html |access-date=29 July 2014 |publisher=[[Oneindia.in|Oneindia Entertainment]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 July 2014 |title=Sathyaraj's suspense cop act for Vishal-hari film |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Sathyarajs-suspense-cop-act-for-Vishal-hari-film/articleshow/37776440.cms |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=J. Rao, Subha |date=6 July 2014 |title=Khakhi calling |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/khakhi-calling/article6180630.ece |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Bhojpuri actor Awadhesh Mishra was selected to play a gangster in the film which marks his debut in [[Tamil cinema]]. [[Vaibhav (actor)|Vaibhav Reddy]] was selected for an important role in the film, but his role was not a part of the film.<ref>{{Cite news |last=V. Lakshmi |date=29 July 2014 |title=Bhojpuri actor in Vishal's 'Poojai' |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Bhojpuri-actor-in-Vishals-Poojai/articleshow/38082902.cms |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=31 July 2014 |title=Vaibhav and Sathish as Vishal's Allies |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/vaibhav-and-sathish-as-vishals-allies-tamil-news-111171 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804010757/http://www.indiaglitz.com/vaibhav-and-sathish-as-vishals-allies-tamil-news-111171 |archive-date=4 August 2014 |access-date=5 August 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> Vinay Bihari, who is the Youth, Arts and Culture Minister of Bihar, was selected to play the role of a [[district collector]] in the film's climatic portions when he expressed his interest in acting to Hari when he was in Bihar for location scouting. Barath Raj, who has won ''[[Mister India World|Mr. India]]'' and the second runner up 2014 title, played a crucial role of collector's son from Bihar. [[Abhinaya (actress)|Abhinaya]] was selected to play a supporting role, while [[Mukesh Tiwari]] was selected to play the main antagonist.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Naig, Udhav |date=6 August 2014 |title=Bihar politician lands role in Tamil film |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/bihar-politician-lands-role-in-tamil-film/article6284878.ece |access-date=6 August 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Subramanian, Anupama |date=2 September 2014 |title=Abhinaya's big Bollywood debut |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140902/entertainment-bollywood/article/abhinaya%E2%80%99s-big-bollywood-debut |access-date=2 September 2014 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref>

===Filming===
[[Principal photography]] commenced on 18 April 2014 at [[Chennai]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar, Hemanth |date=18 April 2014 |title=Vishal, Shruti Haasan's film goes on floors |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news-interviews/Vishal-Shruti-Haasans-film-goes-on-floors/articleshow/33901695.cms |access-date=21 May 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> During the shoot of an action sequence in a one crore worth set at Saligramam, Vishal injured his middle finger in his right hand for which 14 stitches were administered. Thus the shoot was temporarily halted.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2014 |title=Vishal gets injured |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/vishal-gets-injured-tamil-news-106767 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503052135/http://www.indiaglitz.com/vishal-gets-injured-tamil-news-106767 |archive-date=3 May 2014 |access-date=29 July 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> The [[item number]] featuring Vishal and Andrea Jeremiah was shot by early May in the backdrop of the [[Koyambedu Wholesale Market Complex|Koyambedu Market]] in Chennai.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Karthik, Janani |date=7 May 2014 |title=Andrea to shake a leg with Vishal in 'Poojai' |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news-interviews/Andrea-to-shake-a-leg-with-Vishal-in-Poojai/articleshow/34735491.cms |access-date=21 May 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Later, the unit proceeded to [[Coimbatore]] for filming major portions of the film.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 May 2014 |title=Shruti is busy with 'Poojai' |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Shruti-is-busy-with-Poojai/articleshow/35153737.cms |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 May 2014 |title=Coimbatore Beckons Vishal and Shruti |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Coimbatore-Beckons-Vishal-and-Shruti/2014/05/19/article2232215.ece1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814142633/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Coimbatore-Beckons-Vishal-and-Shruti/2014/05/19/article2232215.ece1 |archive-date=14 August 2014 |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> At that time, it was known that Hari planned to wrap the film's shoot in 40 working days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=19 May 2014 |title=Just 40 days for 'Poojai' |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/just-40-days-for-poojai-tamil-news-107668 |access-date=29 July 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> A fight sequence was shot in a popular mall multiplex there and scenes involving Vishal and Shruti Hassan were also shot in the mall in Coimbatore.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2014 |title='Poojai' shooting makes brisk progress in Coimbatore |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/poojai-shooting-makes-brisk-progress-in-coimbatore-news-tamil-of0md9eeifisi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140730012058/http://www.sify.com/movies/poojai-shooting-makes-brisk-progress-in-coimbatore-news-tamil-of0md9eeifisi.html |archive-date=30 July 2014 |access-date=29 July 2014 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> The filming continued at [[Karaikudi]] in early July where scenes featuring the principal cast were shot.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 July 2014 |title=A mini Kodambakkam stationed in Karaikudi for 'Poojai' |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/109801.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719042247/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/109801.html |archive-date=19 July 2014 |access-date=29 July 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=V. Lakshmi |date=2 July 2014 |title=Entire Kodambakkam stationed in Karaikudi: Hari |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Entire-Kodambakkam-stationed-in-Karaikudi-Hari/articleshow/37619472.cms |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The shooting continued in hot weather making things difficult while Vishal suffered injuries for the second time in the film's shoot. He suffered a fracture during the shoot of an action sequence after trying to avoid falling on his face while he slipped from an asbestos sheet.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 July 2014 |title=Vishal fractures hand on 'Poojai' sets |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Vishal-fractures-hand-on-Poojai-sets/articleshow/38207452.cms |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=18 July 2014 |title=Shruti Haasan faces the killer! |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/Shruti-Haasan-faces-the-killer/photostory/38603239.cms |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Naig, Udhav |date=26 July 2014 |title=Big Bang Theory |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/top-kollywood-film-stars-like-ajith-suriya-vishal-and-dhanush-want-to-do-their-own-stunts-despite-suffering-injuries/article6252481.ece |access-date=29 July 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

In the first week of August 2014, the film's climax was shot in [[Patna]] in a 10-day schedule and by then, 95% of the film's shoot was complete.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 August 2014 |title=Vishal's fight in Bihar |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Vishals-fight-in-Bihar/articleshow/39736598.cms |access-date=6 August 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The climax was said to have few risky stunts which were shot first in the final schedule. Both Vishal and Shruti Hassan carried out the risky stunts and fights by themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 August 2014 |title='Poojai' is ready for Action |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/Poojai-is-ready-for-action-tamil-news-111502 |access-date=6 August 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> Some scenes for the climax were also shot in [[Golconda Fort]] in [[Hyderabad]] in special and enormous sets erected for the climax and a song was also shot there.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 August 2014 |title='Poojai' hurries to a finish |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/Poojai-hurries-to-a-finish-tamil-news-112371 |access-date=20 August 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> On its completion, one romantic song was shot at [[Switzerland]] and the remaining fast-paced song was shot in [[Chennai]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Karthik, Janani |date=6 August 2014 |title=Vishal, Shruti head to Switzerland |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Entertainment/Tamil/Movies/News/Vishal-Shruti-head-to-Switzerland/articleshow/39684330.cms |access-date=6 August 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 August 2014 |title=Vishal and Shruti on a Travel Spree |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Vishal-and-Shruti-on-a-Travel-Spree/2014/08/07/article2367471.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814175233/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Vishal-and-Shruti-on-a-Travel-Spree/2014/08/07/article2367471.ece |archive-date=14 August 2014 |access-date=8 August 2014 |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> Vishal and Shruti Haasan completed a hard folk song sequence, which was shot in [[AVM Productions|AVM facilities]] and choreographed by Baba Baskar. One more song sequence was also shot in [[Poland]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 September 2014 |title=Shruti Haasan's horror comes to an end |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/shruti-haasan-and-vishals-hardships-end.html |access-date=4 September 2014 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref> On 29 September 2014, Shruti confirmed that the shooting of the film was completed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 September 2014 |title=Vishal's Poojai completed ! |url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/poojai-is-all-done.html |access-date=29 September 2014 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref>

==Music==
{{Infobox album
| name = Poojai
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
| cover =
| border = yes
| alt =
| caption = Soundtrack Album Art
| released = 1 October 2014
| recorded = 2014
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 23:56
| language = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| label = [[Vishal Film Factory|V Music]] [[Divo (record label)|Divo]]
| producer = [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
| prev_title = [[Govindudu Andarivadele (soundtrack)|Govindudu Andarivadele]]
| prev_year = 2014
| next_title = [[Vai Raja Vai]]
| next_year = 2014
}}

The soundtrack was composed by [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]. The album consists of six tracks and [[Na. Muthukumar]] had penned the lyrics for all songs. The track list was released on 29 September 2014,<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 September 2014 |title='Poojai' track list is here |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Entertainment/Tamil/Music/Poojai-track-list-is-here/articleshow/43792263.cms |access-date=1 October 2014 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> while the audio launch took place on 1 October 2014 at the [[Loyola-ICAM College of Engineering and Technology]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141004033245/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/events/54442.html "Events – 'Poojai' Audio Launch @ Loyola Engineering College – IndiaGlitz.com"]. ''IndiaGlitz''.</ref> [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]] released the album through his newly launched music label - [[Vishal Film Factory|V Music]], a subsidiary of the production house alongside [[Divo (record label)|Divo]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140828204209/http://www.sify.com/movies/vishal-to-start-audio-company-news-tamil-oi2lBvaeeecca.html "Vishal to start audio company"]. ''[[Sify]]''. 28 August 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2014.</ref>

The album received mixed reviews from critics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 October 2014 |title='Poojai' Music Review Roundup: Songs of Vishal Starrer Receive Mixed Response |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/poojai-music-review-roundup-songs-vishal-starrer-receive-mixed-response-610411 |access-date=1 October 2014 |website=[[International Business Times]]}}</ref> ''Behindwoods'' gave 2.5 out of 5 stars and concluded that "Yuvan delivers what is needed for a commercial entertainer".<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 October 2014 |title=POOJAI SONGS REVIEW |url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/poojai/poojai-songs-review.html |access-date=1 October 2014 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref> ''Indiaglitz'' gave 2.75 out of 5 and wrote that the album was "a commercial cocktail which could have been better", and chose "Devathai", "Soda Bottle" and "Veraarum" as the album's picks.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 October 2014 |title=Poojai – More of Hari, less Yuvan |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/musicreview/18619.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427031721/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/musicreview/18619.html |archive-date=27 April 2014 |access-date=1 October 2014 |website=Indiaglitz}}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_lyrics = [[Na. Muthukumar]]
| total_length = 23:56
| title1 = Devathai
| extra1 = Nivas
| length1 = 4:04
| title2 = Ippadiye
| extra2 = [[Rahul Nambiar]], [[Mili Nair]]
| length2 = 4:34
| title3 = Odi Odi
| extra3 = [[Palakkad Sreeram]]
| length3 = 4:32
| title5 = Uyire Uyire
| extra5 = [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
| length5 = 2:26
| title4 = Soda Bottle
| extra4 = [[Yazin Nizar]], [[Anthony Daasan|Anthony Dasan]], [[Sathyan (singer)|Sathyan]]
| length4 = 4:34
| title6 = Verarum Kandhirathe
| extra6 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], Pooja A. V.
| length6 = 3:46
}}

==Release==
During the film's launch, Hari stated that the film would release in October 2014 as a [[Deepavali]] release.<ref name="P1" /> The same was stated again in the end of July 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 July 2014 |title=Vishal's 'Poojai' to clash against Vijay's 'Kaththi' |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/vishals-poojai-to-clash-against-vijays-kaththi-tamil-news-110923 |access-date=5 August 2014 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Seshagiri, Sangeetha |date=25 August 2014 |title=Vikram's 'Ai' Joins Diwali Race with Vijay's 'Kaththi', Vishal's 'Poojai' |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/vikrams-ai-joins-diwali-race-vijays-kaththi-vishals-poojai-607595 |access-date=25 August 2014 |website=[[International Business Times]]}}</ref>

The Tamil Nadu theatrical distribution rights were acquired by Vendhar Movies.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 August 2014 |title=Vendhar Movies Bags 'Poojai' |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Vendhar-Movies-Bags-Poojai/2014/08/05/article2364551.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814175141/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Vendhar-Movies-Bags-Poojai/2014/08/05/article2364551.ece |archive-date=14 August 2014 |access-date=5 August 2014 |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2014 |title='Poojai' goes for a whopping price |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Poojai-goes-for-a-whopping-price/articleshow/39678455.cms |access-date=23 August 2014 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The stills featuring Vishal and Shruti Hassan were released on 18 April 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 April 2014 |title=Shruti Haasan's glam avtaar for 'Poojai' |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/shruti-haasan-s-glam-avtaar-for-poojai-imagegallery-kollywood-ofssWgfebjbsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813144334/http://www.sify.com/movies/shruti-haasan-s-glam-avtaar-for-poojai-imagegallery-kollywood-ofssWgfebjbsi.html |archive-date=13 August 2014 |access-date=12 August 2014 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 April 2014 |title='Poojai' first look |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/poojai-first-look-imagegallery-0-kollywood-oerkOSjhecjsi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813131246/http://www.sify.com/movies/poojai-first-look-imagegallery-0-kollywood-oerkOSjhecjsi.html |archive-date=13 August 2014 |access-date=12 August 2014 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> The official motion poster teaser of the film was released on 1 September 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seshagiri, Sangeetha |date=3 September 2014 |title=From Vijay's 'Kaththi' to Vishal's 'Poojai': Motion Posters Latest Trend in Kollywood? [VIDEOS] |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/vijays-kaththi-vishals-poojai-motion-posters-latest-trend-kollywood-videos-608224 |access-date=12 September 2014 |website=[[International Business Times]]}}</ref> The official teaser of the film released on 11 September 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2014 |title='Poojai' Teaser |url=http://www.moviecrow.com/News/5669/poojai-teaser |access-date=12 September 2014 |website=Moviecrow}}</ref> The satellite rights of the film were sold to [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 October 2014 |title=Vishal's 'Poojai' goes to Sun TV |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/tv/Vishals-Poojai-goes-to-Sun-TV/articleshow/44821229.cms |access-date=18 October 2014 |work=The Times of India}}</ref> The film released in over 1100 screens worldwide.<ref>[http://behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-14/vishal-haris-poojai-screen-count-break-up.html "Vishal's Poojai – Worldwide Screen Count"].''Behindwoods''. 20 October 2014. Retrieved 20 October 2014.</ref>

== Reception ==
===Critical reception===
M. Suganth of ''[[The Times of India]]'' gave 3/5 stars and wrote "Poojai is closer to ''[[Vel (film)|Vel]]'' in Hari’s filmography — not as powerful as ''[[Saamy]]'' but at the same time, not tedious like ''[[Seval]]''."<ref>{{Cite news |title=Poojai Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-reviews/poojai/movie-review/44914775.cms |work=The Times of India}}</ref> ''[[Sify]]'' gave 3/5 stars and called it "a typical Hari mass entertainer, though this time he has not got the mix in the right proposition".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141022215719/http://www.sify.com/movies/poojai-review-tamil-15058483.html "Movie Review : Poojai"]. ''Sify''.</ref>

Prakash Upadhyaya of ''[[International Business Times|IBTimes]]'' gave 2.5/5 stars and wrote "''Poojai'' is a pure commercial movie and watched by all section of audience."<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 October 2014 |title=Poojai Movie Review |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/poojai-movie-review-611973 |website=IBTimes}}</ref> S. Saraswathi of ''[[Rediff.com|Rediff]]'' gave 2.5/5 stars and wrote "Poojai is your standard Hari fare; there is loads of everything that we expect from him. The screenplay may not be as exciting as some of his earlier hits, but it keeps you entertained just the same."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Review: Poojai is a mass entertainer |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-poojai-is-a-mass-entertainer/20141024.htm |website=Rediff}}</ref>

''Indiaglitz'' gave 2.5/5 stars and wrote "Poojai is a mix of a lot of genres, but they seem disproportionate for the times and taste of this day. However, it is an entertaining three hours of festivity, to chill out on. Most importantly, thanks to Hari for a thoroughbred masala movie after a long time in Kollywood."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poojai Review |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/Poojai-tamil-movie-review-18619 |website=Indiaglitz}}</ref> ''Behindwoods'' gave 2.25/5 stars and wrote "Poojai is still a watchable entertainer to spend time on, with your family on a festive day."<ref>{{Cite web |title=POOJAI MOVIE REVIEW |url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/poojai/poojai-review.html |website=Behindwoods}}</ref>

==Remake==
The film was initially planned to be remade in Kannada as ''Ayush'' with [[Darshan (Kannada actor)|Darshan]], but was officially remade in Kannada as ''[[Anjani Putra]]'' (2017) by [[Harsha (director)|A.Harsha]].<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/A-new-film-for-box-office-Sultan-Darshan/articleshow/50424449.cms A new film for box office Sultan, Darshan]. Timesofindia.indiatimes.com (3 January 2016). Retrieved on 2016-05-25.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Puneeth's next is more than a remake |url=http://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/Puneeths-next-is-more-than-a-remake/articleshow/55549243.cms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 November 2016 |title=Puneeth Rajkumar to Star in the Remake of Tamil Movie Poojai |url=http://www.filmibeat.com/kannada/news/2016/puneeth-rajkumar-to-star-in-the-remake-of-tamil-movie-poojai-247849.html}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|4047140}}

{{Hari (director)}}

[[Category:2014 films]]
[[Category:2014 action films]]
[[Category:2010s masala films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Yuvan Shankar Raja]]
[[Category:Films directed by Hari (director)]]
[[Category:2014 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Indian romantic action films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Poland]]
[[Category:Films shot in Bihar]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films shot in Coimbatore]]
[[Category:Films shot in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Films shot in Pollachi]]
[[Category:Films set in Coimbatore]]
[[Category:Films set in Tiruppur]]

Mangammal

2026-02-22T22:58:16Z

Creativesketchbook: done.

{{Short description|Queen Regent of Madurai from 1689 to 1704}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Cleanup rewrite|date=November 2023}}
{{Lead too short|date=November 2023}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Rani Mangammal
| title = [[Queen Regent]] of [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai Nayak Kingdom]]
| image = Rani Mangammal.jpg
| caption = Rani Mangammal with her grandson Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha c.17th–18th century
| succession = Nayak ([[Rani]]) of [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai]]
| reign = 1689–1704
| coronation =
| full name =
| predecessor = [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty#Rangakrishna Muthu Virappa281659.E2.80.941662.29|Rangakrishna Muthu Virappa Nayak]]
| successor = [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty#Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha281659.E2.80.941662.29|Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha Nayak]]
| spouse = {{Marriage|[[Chokkanatha Nayak]]|1659|1682|end= d.}}
| issue = Rangakrishna Muthu Virappa Nayak
| royal house = [[Madurai Nayaks]]
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Madurai]]
| death_date = 1705
| death_place = [[Madurai]], present day[[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| father = Tupakula Lingama Nayaka
| mother =
}}
{{Madurai Nayak Dynasty}}

'''Rani Mangammal''' (''Mangamma;'' died 1705) was a queen regent of the [[Madurai Nayak]] kingdom (in present-day [[Madurai]], [[India]]) during the minority of her grandson Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha in 1689—1704.<ref>N. Subrahmanian: History of Tamilnad, Koodal Publishers, 1972</ref> She was a popular administrator and is still widely remembered as a maker of roads and avenues, and a builder of temples, tanks and choultries with many of her public works still in use. She is also known for her diplomatic and political skills and successful military campaigns. The capital of [[Madurai]] Kingdom during her times was [[Tiruchy]].

==Life==

Mangammal was the daughter of Tupakula Lingama Nayaka, and was the wife of a general of Madurai ruler [[Chokkanatha Nayak]] (1659–1682). She married Chokkanatha Nayak and became the mother of Rangakrishna Muthu Virappa Nayak (1682—1689).<ref name="Madhavananda">{{Cite book|editor-last1=Madhavananda |editor-first1=Swami |editor-last2=Majumdar |editor-first2=Ramesh Chandra |year=1953 |title=Great Women of India |location=Mayavati, Almora, Himalayas, Uttarakhand |publisher=[[Advaita Ashrama]] |pages=341–342 |oclc=602056 |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/602056.html }}</ref>

When her husband died in 1682, he was succeeded by her son Rangakrishna Muthu Virappa Nayak. Upon the death of her son in 1689, her son's widow was pregnant. Her son was succeeded by her grandson in 1689. Her daughter-in-law committed [[Sati (practice)|sati]], and Mangammal became regent during the minority of her grandson Vijaya Ranga Chokkanatha.<ref name="Madhavananda" /><ref name="EHB">{{Cite journal|author=E.H.B. |year=1899 |title=Mangamma's Folly |journal=Calcutta Review |volume=109 |issue=218 (October 1899) |pages=350–352 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fmsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA2-PA350 }}</ref>

===Regency===
During Mangammal's regency, many irrigation channels were repaired, new roads were constructed, avenue trees were planted, and several municipal buildings were completed, including temples and her "Spring Palace" at TumKum.<ref name="Palaniyappan">{{Cite book|last=Pal̲aniyappan̲ |first=Ki |year=1963 |title=The Great Temple of Madurai: English version of the book Koilmanagar |location=Madurai |publisher=Sri Meenakshisundareswarar Temple Renovation Committee |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wJoTAAAAMAAJ |oclc=1031652394}} (no preview)</ref> The "Spring Palace" now houses the [[Gandhi Memorial Museum, Madurai|Gandhi Memorial Museum]] in Madurai.<ref name="Palaniyappan" /> The highway from Cape Comorin was originally built during the time of Mangammal and it was known as Rani Mangammal Salai.<ref name="EHB" /><ref>{{Cite news|title=Plan to improve Rani Mangammal Salai |date=17 February 2006 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://hindu.com/2006/02/17/stories/2006021703940500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810122918/http://hindu.com/2006/02/17/stories/2006021703940500.htm |archive-date=10 August 2007 }}</ref>

She played a key role in assisting the [[Mughal Army]] during the [[Siege of Jinji]] (Gingee). Queen Mangammal had realized that the renegade [[Rajaram I|Rajaram]] had entrenched himself within Jinji and had been bent upon attacking [[Thanjavur]] and [[Madurai]] if the Mughal Army were to withdraw. Mangammal soon recognized [[Aurangzeb]] as her suzerain and began to assist [[Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung|Zulfiqar Khan]] in attacking the Jinji fort. When the fort was captured by both Zulfiqar Khan and Mangammal after 8 years, she and her family had control over the fort under the leadership of the Mughals.

When her grandson, Vijayaranga Chokkanatha Nayaka, came of age in 1704, she and her prime minister, Achayya, refused to relinquish power. They were seized by the army commander and executed.<ref name="EHB" /><ref name="Balendu">{{Cite book|last=Balendu Sekaram |first=Kandavalli |year=1975 |title=The Nayaks of Madura |location=Hyderabad |publisher=Andhra Pradesh Sahithya Akademi |language=English |page=24 |oclc=3929107 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fR5BAAAAMAAJ }} (no preview)</ref>

Rani Mangammal first celebrated the Unjal festival in Meenakshi temple during the Tamil month of Ani. During the festivities, all the royal families visit the temple and pay tribute to Meenakshi Amman. Even today, we can see her contemporary portrait in the Unjal Mandapam.

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="220" heights="180">
File:Mangammal.jpg|Marriage function is witnessed by the [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]] and Rani Mangammal and [[Chokkanatha Nayak|Muthu Vijayaranga Chokkanatha Nayak]].
File:Queen Mangammal Palace Madurai.jpg|Queen's Summer Palace
File:Queen Mangammal Palace Inside View.jpg|Queen's Summer Palace
File:Queen Mangammal.jpg|sculpture of Mangammal
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2000/05/07/stories/1307049c.htm |title=The Hindu : A town by the Vaigai |work=The Hindu |accessdate=2008-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817053402/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2000/05/07/stories/1307049c.htm |archive-date=17 August 2008 |url-status=usurped }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060902121835/http://www.aravind.org/usi2006/madurai.htm Madurai]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060616023009/http://www.maduraitourism.com/hotels/madurai_meenakshi_temple.asp Meenakshi Temple]
* [http://www.madurai.com/rani.html Madurai.com - Rani Mangammal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727182547/http://www.madurai.com/rani.html |date=27 July 2019 }}
* {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080817053941/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2007/10/19/stories/2007101951290400.htm The Hindu: Rani Mangammal Durbar Hall Palace at Trichy]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081201084651/http://www.gandhimmm.org/mid.htm Tamukkam Palace at Madurai, Now Gandhi Memorial Museum]

{{authority control}}

[[Category:17th-century women regents]]
[[Category:17th-century regents]]
[[Category:Indian queens consort]]
[[Category:1706 deaths]]
[[Category:Telugu people]]
[[Category:Regents in India]]
[[Category:Madurai nayaks]]
[[Category:People from Madurai]]
[[Category:17th-century births]]
[[Category:18th-century women regents]]
[[Category:18th-century regents]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian people]]

Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary

2026-02-22T22:09:12Z

Creativesketchbook: New

{{Short description|Protected area in Rajasthan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}{{Infobox protected area
| name = Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary
| iucn_category = IV
| image = Ramgarh lake2014.jpg
| image_caption =
| map = India#Rajasthan
| map_caption = Location in Rajasthan, India
| relief = 1
| mapframe = Yes
| location = Jaipur district, Rajasthan, India
| nearest_city = Jaipur
| coordinates = {{coord|27|02|52|N|76|03|20|E|region:IN-RJ_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| area_km2 = 300
| established = 1982
| governing_body = Rajasthan Forest Department
}}

'''Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary''' is a protected area situated about 35 km northeast of [[Jaipur]] in the [[Jaipur district]] of [[Rajasthan]], [[India]]. Established in 1982, the sanctuary covers approximately 300 km² in the [[Aravalli Range]] and encompasses the now-dry [[Ramgarh Lake]] basin and surrounding forests.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://forest.rajasthan.gov.in/content/dam/raj/forest/rajasthan-wild-life/pdf/activities/National%20Parks%2C%20Wildlife%20Sanctuaries%2C%20Conservation%20Reserves%20and%20Community%20Reserves/Sanctuaries/JAMVA%20RAMGARH.docx |website=Rajasthan Forest Department |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-08-28 |title=Sariska tiger ST-24 strays into Jamwa Ramgarh near Jaipur |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/sariska-tiger-st-24-strays-into-jamwa-ramgarh-near-jaipur/articleshow/93828311.cms |access-date=2025-05-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Geography==
The sanctuary’s terrain is a mosaic of [[Dry deciduous forest|dry deciduous forests]], rocky hills and grasslands. It surrounds Ramgarh Lake—once a 15.5 km² reservoir supplying Jaipur, now largely dried up since 2000. The [[Banganga River (Rajasthan)|Banganga River]], rising in the Bairath hills, cuts across the sanctuary, sustaining patches of riparian vegetation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary – Learn UPSC |url=https://www.learnupsc.com/2023/08/jamwa-ramgarh-wildlife-sanctuary.html |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref>

==History==
Originally a hunting preserve of the Jaipur Maharajas, the area was notified as the reserve forest in 1961, before its upgrade to full sanctuary status in June 1982, with additional areas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://www.indianpanorama.in/experiences/nature-wildlife/wildlife/jamwa-ramgarh-wildlife-sanctuary.php |website=Indian Panorama |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref> During the 1982 Asian Games, held in New Delhi, Ramgarh Lake hosted the rowing events.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-10-27 |title=Tiger leaves reserve, seen near Jaipur-Delhi highway |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/tiger-leaves-reserve-seen-near-jaipur-delhi-highway/articleshow/95111302.cms |access-date=2025-05-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Flora==
The sanctuary’s vegetation is typical of the dry tropical forests of the Aravallis. Prominent species include:
* Dhok (''[[Terminalia pendula|Anogeissus pendula]]'')
* Imli (''[[Tamarind|Tamarindus indica]]'')
* Aam (''[[Mangifera indica]]'')
* Jamun (''[[Syzygium cumini]]'')
* Tendu (''[[Diospyros melanoxylon]]'')
* Bahera (''[[Terminalia bellirica]]'')
* Arjun (''[[Terminalia arjuna]]'')
* Siris (''[[Albizia lebbeck]]'')
* Churel (''[[Holoptelea integrifolia]]'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Jamwa Ramgarh Sanctuary – Learn UPSC |url=https://www.learnupsc.com/2023/08/jamwa-ramgarh-wildlife-sanctuary.html |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref>

==Fauna==
Mammals recorded include [[leopard]] (''Panthera pardus''), [[striped hyena]] (''Hyaena hyaena''), [[Indian jackal]] (''Canis aureus''), [[jungle cat]] (''Felis chaus''), [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa''), [[chital]] (''Axis axis''), [[Sambar deer|sambar]] (''Rusa unicolor''), [[nilgai]] (''Boselaphus tragocamelus'') and [[chinkara]] (''Gazella bennettii'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://www.indianpanorama.in/experiences/nature-wildlife/wildlife/jamwa-ramgarh-wildlife-sanctuary.php |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref> Avifauna exceeds 200 species, including [[Indian peafowl]] (''Pavo cristatus''), crested finch-lark (''Spizocorys lark''), [[plum-headed parakeet]] (''Psittacula cyanocephala''), and [[white-bellied drongo]] (''Dicrurus caerulescens'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Birds of Jamwa Ramgarh |date=19 November 2019 |url=https://rajras.in/jamwa-ramgarh-wildlife-sanctuary/ |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref> Several migratory and threatened birds are also reported.<ref>{{cite web |title=Annexure I – Faunal List |url=https://forestsclearance.nic.in/writereaddata/Addinfo/0_0_11112912912221ANNEXURE1.pdf |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref> Tigers also have been sighted in the sanctuary<ref>{{Cite web |last=Writer |first=Staff |date=2017-12-03 |title=Jaipur: Tiger sighting at Jamwa Ramgarh after 17 years cheers Rajasthan forest department |url=https://www.pinkcitypost.com/jaipur-tiger-sighting-jamwa-ramgarh-17-years-cheers-rajasthan-forest-department/ |access-date=2025-05-10 |website=The PinkCity Post |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Conservation challenges==
Illegal mining for marble and soapstone within and around the sanctuary has degraded nearly 32 km² of habitat, threatening both wildlife and local communities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mining companies devastating Jamwa Ramgarh Sanctuary |url=https://www.wti.org.in/news/mining-companies-devastating-jamwa-ramgarh-sanctuary/ |website=Wildlife Trust of India |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref>

==Tourism and accessibility==
Popular with birdwatchers and trekkers, the sanctuary offers jeep safaris and nature trails. The nearest railhead is [[Jaipur Junction railway station|Jaipur Junction]], about 40 km away; [[Jaipur International Airport]] lies roughly 50 km to the southwest.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jamwa Ramgarh Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://www.learnupsc.com/2023/08/jamwa-ramgarh-wildlife-sanctuary.html |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of wildlife sanctuaries of India]]
* [[Ramgarh Lake]]
* [[Sariska Tiger Reserve]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Protected areas established in 1982]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Jaipur district]]
[[Category:Wildlife sanctuaries in Rajasthan]]

Sahapur Harendranath Vidyapith

2026-02-21T09:26:01Z

Creativesketchbook: small corrected structure for clarity also and added references

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Sahapur Harendranath Vidyapith
| native_name =
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| motto =
| motto_translation =
| address = 44, Joykrishna Paul Rd, Sahapur, New Alipore
| city = Kolkata
| district =
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| postal_code = 700038
| country = India
| coordinates = {{Coord|22.5106264|N|88.325919|E|region:IN-WB_type:edu|display=inline,title}}
| other_name = 
| former_name = 
| type =
| religious_affiliation =
| established = 1949
| founder =
| closed =
| school_board =
| oversight =
| principal =
| staff =
| faculty =
| grades =
| gender =
| age_range =
| enrolment =
| language =
| campus_size =
| campus_type = Urban
| colours =
| teams = 
| accreditation = 
| publication =
| newspaper =
| yearbook =
| affiliation = 
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Sahapur Harendranath Vidyapith School''' is a school located at [[Sahapur]], [[New Alipore]], [[Kolkata]], India.

==About School==
This is a boys' school and is affiliated to the [[West Bengal Board of Secondary Education]] for [[Madhyamik]] Pariksha (10th Board exams), and to the [[West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education]] for [[Higher Secondary Examination]] (12th Board exams).<ref name=iCBSE>{{cite web|title=Sahapur Harendranath Vidyapith School, Ward-118, Kolkata - West Bengal|url=http://www.icbse.com/schools/sahapur-harendranath-vidyapith/19170112106|publisher=iCBSE|accessdate=9 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Siksha o sahitya: Teachers' journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jIVBAQAAIAAJ|year=1972|publisher=All-Bengal Teachers' Association.|page=39}}</ref><ref name=Sulekha>{{cite web|title=Sahapur Harendranath Vidyapith - Sahapur Harendranath Vidyapith, Kolkata (Calcutta)|url=http://edu.sulekha.com/schools/in/wb/kolkata-calcutta/sahapur-harendranath-vidyapith/default.htm|publisher=Sulekha|accessdate=9 January 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Education in India]]
*[[List of schools in India]]
*[[Education in West Bengal]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{Portal bar|School|Education}}

[[Category:Boys' schools in India]]
[[Category:High schools and secondary schools in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Schools in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1949]]
[[Category:1949 establishments in West Bengal]]

{{WestBengal-school-stub}}

Shivani Tomar

2026-02-11T07:26:01Z

Creativesketchbook: starting stub

{{short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Shivani Tomar
| image = Shivani Tomar.png
| caption = Tomar in 2021
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1992|02|9|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[New Delhi]], [[India]]
| occupation = Actress
| education =
| years_active = 2012–present
| relatives =
| known for = ''[[Friends: Conditions Apply]]'' ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon 3]]'' ''[[Mitegi Laxman Rekha]]'' ''Agni Vayu''
}}

'''Shivani Tomar''' is an Indian actress who mainly works in [[Television in India|Hindi]] television. She made her acting debut in 2012 with ''[[Gumrah: End of Innocence]]''. She is best known for her portrayal of Shakti Rai in ''[[Friends: Conditions Apply]]'', Chandni Narayan in ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon 3]]'', Kanchan in ''[[Mitegi Laxman Rekha]]'' and Dr. Agni Awasthi in ''Agni Vayu''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/iss-pyaar-ko-kya-naam-doon-teaser-barun-sobti-and-shivani-tomar-are-igniting-the-flames-of-love-and-hatred-watch-video-4702010/|title=Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon teaser: Barun Sobti and Shivani Tomar are igniting the flames of love and hate, watch video|date=2017-06-13|website=The Indian Express|language=en-IN|access-date=2019-08-21}}</ref>

==Early life==
Tomar was born and brought up in [[New Delhi]]. She did a commercial art course from an institute in [[Lajpat Nagar]], [[Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Exclusive! Shivani Tomar Talks About Her Hometown Delhi: The Metro, Ladies Special Bus And Her Favourite Places|work=Times Of India|date=20 July 2017 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/shivani-tomar-i-thought-ladies-special-buses-in-delhi-were-more-convenient-than-the-metro-which-is-too-crowded/articleshow/59668103.cms|access-date=21 July 2017}}</ref>

==Career==
[[File:Shivani Tomar.jpg|thumb|Tomar at Agni Vayu launch]]
Tomar made her acting debut in 2012 with an episode of ''[[Gumrah: End of Innocence]]''. In 2013, she portrayed Ruchita Karanjkar in ''[[Pavitra Rishta]]''<ref>{{Cite news|title=As Pavitra Rishta clocks 10 years, Ekta Kapoor, says the show revived her career|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/as-pavitra-rishta-clocks-10-years-ekta-kapoor-gets-nostalgic-says-the-show-revived-her-career/articleshow/69612598.cms|website=The Times of India|date=June 2019 }}</ref> and Meenal Kashyap in ''[[Crazy Stupid Ishq]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/tv/news-interviews/Channel-V-launches-Crazy-Stupid-Ishq/articleshow/20276068.cms|title=WATCH! Channel V launches new show 'Crazy Stupid Ishq'|access-date=10 May 2014|work=Times Of India|date=26 May 2013 }}</ref> She then portrayed Swati from in ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sphereorigins.com/show-inside/iss-pyaar-ko-kya-naam-doon-ek-baar-phir|title=Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir to air on StarPlus|website=Sphere Origins|access-date=17 February 2021|archive-date=30 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630023654/https://www.sphereorigins.com/show-inside/iss-pyaar-ko-kya-naam-doon-ek-baar-phir|url-status=dead}}</ref>

From 2014 to 2015, she portrayed Shakti Rai in ''[[Friends: Conditions Apply]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/kabir-sadanand-brings-friends-conditions-apply/|title = Kabir Sadanand brings Friends Conditions Apply with Shivani Tomar as the lead|date = 26 December 2014|work=Indian Express}}</ref> She portrayed Shakti Gupta in ''Hum Aapke Ghar Mein Rehte Hain''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2015-tv-shows-to-look-forward-this-year/photostory/45704121.cms|title=SAB TV launches 'Hum Aapke Ghar Mein Rehte Hain'|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=8 August 2015|access-date=9 September 2015}}</ref> in 2015 and Tanuja Sikand in ''[[Kasam Tere Pyaar Ki]]'' in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Shivani Tomar is the new Tanu in 'Kasam Tere Pyaar Ki'|access-date=8 July 2016|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/shivani-tomar-is-the-new-tanu-in-kasam/articleshow/53098055.cms|work=Times Of India|date=7 July 2016 }}</ref>

Tomar's portrayal of Chandni Narayan Vashishth in ''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon 3]]'' in 2017, marked a turning point in her career.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/barun-sobti-is-small-screen-s-shah-rukh-khan-shivani-tomar/story-iFpTy3Q8HjQSIsJSQeItEI.html|title=Barun Sobti is small screen's Shah Rukh Khan: Shivani Tomar|date=2017-07-31|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2019-08-21}}</ref> She then appeared in ''Vani Rani''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/gul-khan-confirms-iss-pyaar-ko-kya-naam-doon-3-to-go-off-air/articleshow/60768003.cms|title=Gul Khan confirms Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon 3 to go off air|date=2017-09-20|website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref>

In 2018, she portrayed Kanchan in ''[[Mitegi Laxman Rekha]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abplive.in/television/tv-show-mitegi-laxman-rekha-goes-off-air-after-2-months-of-launch-789275|title=TV show 'Mitegi Laxman Rekha' goes OFF-AIR after 2 months of launch|last=Fm|first=Team|date=2018-08-10|website=www.abplive.in|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-21}}</ref> and in 2021, she portrayed Dr. Agni Awasthi in ''Agni Vayu''.<ref>{{Cite web|title="Agni Vayu" show announced on much anticipated Channel Ishara TV - The Live Nagpur|date=15 February 2021|url=https://thelivenagpur.com/2021/02/15/agni-vayu-show-announced-on-much-anticipated-channel-ishara-tv/|access-date=2021-02-15|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2022, she made her web debut with ''Mr Aur Mrs LLB'' portraying [[Advocate]] Payal Agarwal.<ref>{{Cite web|title=MR and MRS LLB, a situational comedy set in the fictitious town of Machandpur, is all set to tickle your funny bone|access-date=21 June 2022|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/entertainment/mr-and-mrs-llb-a-situational-comedy-set-in-the-fictitious-town-of-machandpur-is-all-set-to-tickle-your-funny-bone-405431|work=Tribune India}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Language
! Channel
! Ref.
|-
| 2012
|''[[Gumrah: End of Innocence]]''
|{{unknown}}
| rowspan="11" |Hindi
|[[Channel V India]]
|
|-
| rowspan="2"|2013
|''[[Pavitra Rishta]]''
|Ruchita Karanjkar
|[[Zee TV]]
|
|-
|''[[Crazy Stupid Ishq]]''
|Meenal Kashyap
|[[Channel V India]]
|
|-
| 2013–2014
|''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? Ek Baar Phir]]''
|Swati
|[[StarPlus|Star Plus]]
|
|-
| 2014–2015
|''[[Friends: Conditions Apply]]''
|Shakti Rai
|[[Channel V India]]
|
|-
| 2015
| ''Hum Aapke Ghar Mein Rehte Hain''
| Shakti Gupta
| [[Sony SAB]]
| <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2015/state-editions/hum-aapke-ghar-mein-rehte-hain-all-set-to-woo-soap-lovers.html|title='Hum Aapke Ghar Mein Rehte Hain' all set to woo soap lovers|date=6 August 201|work=The Pioneer|language=en|access-date=21 August 2019}}</ref>
|-
| 2016
|''[[Kasam Tere Pyaar Ki]]''
|Tanuja Sikand
|[[Colors TV]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Shivani Tomar aka Tanu of Kasam gets a grand farewell from the cast |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Shivani-Tomar-aka-Tanu-of-Kasam-gets-a-grand-farewell-from-the-cast/articleshow/54299044.cms |access-date=15 January 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=12 September 2016 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2017
|''[[Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon 3]]''
|Chandni Narayan Vashishth
|[[StarPlus|Star Plus]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Here's how Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon actress Shivani Tomar spends her day|access-date=23 July 2018|work=India Today|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/television/video/here-s-how-iss-pyaar-ko-kya-naam-doon-actress-shivani-tomar-spends-her-day-1293606-2018-07-23}}</ref>
|-
|2017–2018
|''Vani Rani''
|{{unknown}}
|[[And TV|&TV]]
|
|-
|2018
|''[[Mitegi Laxman Rekha]]''
|Kanchan
|[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises]]
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/tv/hindi/shivani-tomar-and-rahul-sharma-talk-about-their-new-show-mitegi-laxman-rekha/videoshow/64322515.cms|title=Shivani Tomar and Rahul Sharma talk about their new show 'Mitegi Laxman Rekha'|work=The Times of India|access-date=21 August 2019|date=25 May 2018}}</ref>
|-
|2021
|''Agni Vayu''
|Dr. Agni Awasthi
|[[Ishara TV]]
|<ref>{{cite news |title=अग्नि वायु प्रेम कहानी खूबसूरत गहरी और रोमांचक |url=https://www.bhaskarhindi.com/state/news/agni-vayu-love-story-beautiful-deep-and-exciting-217001 |access-date=19 February 2021 |work=Dainik Bhaskar |date=17 February 2021 |language=hindi}}</ref>
|-
| 2022–2023
| ''[[Nethra (TV series)|Nethra]]''
| Nethra
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| [[Gemini TV]]
|
|-
|}

=== Web series ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
! Ref.
|-
|2022
|''Mr Aur Mrs LLB''
|Payal Agarwal
|
|<ref>{{cite news |title=Shivani Tomar takes self-defence classes for her next |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/shivani-tomar-takes-self-defence-classes-for-her-next/articleshow/64303894.cms |access-date=15 January 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=25 May 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

=== Music video appearances ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Title
! Singer(s)
! Ref.
|-
|2018
|"More Saiyaan"
|Sanjay Upadhyay, Vaibhav Saxena, Gunjan Jha
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=More Saiyaan - Official Music Video {{!}} Sanjay Upadhyay, Vaibhav Saxena & Gunjan Jha|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IomO6XIwqss|language=en|access-date=12 April 2020 |website=YouTube |publisher=Zee Music Company}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name|id=9101165}}
*{{Instagram|shivanitomar9}}

{{Portal bar|India|Television}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tomar, Shivani}}
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:1992 births]]

Ibrahim Ali Patel

2026-02-09T05:23:39Z

Creativesketchbook: New

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2022}}

'''Ibrahim Ali Patel''' was an Indian politician belonging to the [[Indian National Congress]]. He was the [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] representing [[Vagra (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Vagra]] constituency in Bombay.<ref name="1955ReorgStates">{{cite web |date=15 October 1955 |title=Reorganisation of States, 1955 |url=http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1955_7/42/reorganisation_of_statesthe_approach_and_arrangements.pdf |work=The Economic Weekly |accessdate=25 July 2015}}</ref> Currently in Gujarat, having won in [[1952 Bombay Legislative Assembly election|1952 Bombay Legislative Assembly]] general election.{{clarify|date=February 2026}}<ref name="BombayECI1951">{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/4107-bombay-1951/ |access-date=2014-10-14 |publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref>

== Family ==

He is part of the Patel family of [[Ikhar]], the political and royal family of [[Bharuch]]. His father Ali Raje Patel and grandfather Kika Patel was Police Patel and Sarpanch of [[Ikhar]].{{clarify|date=February 2026}}

== Politicians of the Patel family of Ikhar ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:50%;"
!Name
! Designation
|-
|Kika Patel
|Police Patel
|-
|Raje Patel
|Police Patel
|-
|Mohmed Patel
|Police Patel
|-
|Ali Patel
|Police Patel
|-
|Mohmed Ali Patel well-known as JadaPatel
|Police Patel and [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] leader
|-
|Ibrahim Ali Patel
|[[Member Of Legislative Assembly|MLA]] and Congress leader
|-
|Adam Ali Patel
|Sarpanch

|-
|Mohmed Ahmed Patel
|Police Patel
|-
|Ibrahim Mohmed Patel
|Police Patel
|-
|Vali Patel well-known as SaduPatel
|Caretaker of various shrines and Congress leader
|-
|Umarji Patel
|[[Sarpanch]] and Congress leader
|-
|Abdul Adam Patel
|Taluka Panchayat Member and Congress leader
|-
|Juned Mohmed Patel
|Congress leader
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patel, Ibrahim Ali}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Place of death missing]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Bombay State MLAs 1952–1957]]

{{Gujarat-INC-politician-stub}}

Medak

2026-01-15T20:27:53Z

Creativesketchbook: basic corrected article for accuracy and cleaned formatting

{{short description|Town in Telangana, India}}
{{Other uses}}
{{use Indian English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Medak
| native_name = Siddapuram
| other_name = Methukudurgam, Methuku Seema
| settlement_type = [[Town]]
| image_skyline = {{photomontage
| photo2a = Edupayala.jpg
}}
| image_alt =
| image_caption = The Edupayala Temple in Medak
| nickname =
| image_map =
| map_alt =
| leader_title = [[Superintendent of Police|SP]]
| leader_name = Sri B. Bala Swamy, IPS <ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/040124/state-govt-transfers-23-ips-officers.html | title=State Govt Transfers 23 IPS Officers | date=4 January 2024 }}</ref>
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Telangana#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Telangana, India
| coordinates = {{coord|18.046|N|78.263|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Telangana]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Medak district]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = Municipality
| governing_body = Council of Medak
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 22
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 442
| population_total = 44255
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Medakakar
| population_footnotes = <ref name=population>{{cite web|title=Census 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=611525|publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|access-date=25 July 2014}}</ref>
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Urdu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 502110
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 08452
| registration_plate = '''TG-35'''/'''AP-23'''(Old)
| website = {{URL|http://cdma.telangana.gov.in/Medak/|Medak municipality}}
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-TG]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Medak''', formerly known as '''Siddapuram''', is a town in [[Medak district]] of the [[India]]n state of [[Telangana]]. It is a [[municipality]] and the headquarters of [[Medak mandal]] in Medak revenue division.<ref name=census>{{cite web|title=District Census Handbook - Medak|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2804_PART_B_DCHB_MEDAK.pdf|website=Census of India|access-date=24 December 2015|pages=12–13}}</ref>

== Etymology and History ==
Medak was originally named ''Methukudurgam'' (మెతుకుదుర్గం) or ''Methuku Seema'' (translated to grain in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]) due to the growth of rice here.<ref>{{Cite web|title=BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DISTRICT|url=https://medak.telangana.gov.in/history/|website=Medak}}</ref>

==Geography==
Medak is located at {{Coord|18.03|N|78.27|E|}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/02/Medak.html|title=Falling Rain Genomics, Inc – Medak|publisher=Fallingrain.com |access-date=2 January 2014}}</ref> It has an average elevation of 442 meters (1450 feet).

===Climate===
{{Weather box
| location = Medak (1991–2020, extremes 1979–2020)
| metric first = Y
| single line = Y
| width = auto
| Jan record high C = 36.0
| Feb record high C = 39.7
| Mar record high C = 41.9
| Apr record high C = 44.5
| May record high C = 46.3
| Jun record high C = 44.6
| Jul record high C = 37.4
| Aug record high C = 35.6
| Sep record high C = 36.0
| Oct record high C = 37.3
| Nov record high C = 36.6
| Dec record high C = 36.0
| year record high C =
| Jan high C = 30.7
| Feb high C = 33.4
| Mar high C = 36.9
| Apr high C = 39.8
| May high C = 41.3
| Jun high C = 35.4
| Jul high C = 31.0
| Aug high C = 29.7
| Sep high C = 30.7
| Oct high C = 31.5
| Nov high C = 30.8
| Dec high C = 30.1
| year high C = 33.5

| Jan low C = 14.3
| Feb low C = 16.8
| Mar low C = 20.3
| Apr low C = 23.5
| May low C = 25.7
| Jun low C = 24.5
| Jul low C = 23.0
| Aug low C = 22.6
| Sep low C = 22.4
| Oct low C = 20.4
| Nov low C = 16.4
| Dec low C = 13.4

| Jan record low C = 2.7
| Feb record low C = 8.0
| Mar record low C = 11.2
| Apr record low C = 16.5
| May record low C = 19.4
| Jun record low C = 13.9
| Jul record low C = 18.1
| Aug record low C = 17.0
| Sep record low C = 16.5
| Oct record low C = 10.8
| Nov record low C = 7.5
| Dec record low C = 5.0
| year record low C =
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 15.4
| Feb rain mm = 8.4
| Mar rain mm = 17.3
| Apr rain mm = 16.4
| May rain mm = 29.3
| Jun rain mm = 129.2
| Jul rain mm = 238.1
| Aug rain mm = 261.6
| Sep rain mm = 169.0
| Oct rain mm = 102.7
| Nov rain mm = 13.8
| Dec rain mm = 5.0
| year rain mm = 1006.1
| Jan rain days = 0.6
| Feb rain days = 0.5
| Mar rain days = 0.8
| Apr rain days = 1.4
| May rain days = 2.0
| Jun rain days = 8.1
| Jul rain days = 12.8
| Aug rain days = 13.1
| Sep rain days = 8.3
| Oct rain days = 5.0
| Nov rain days = 1.0
| Dec rain days = 0.4
| year rain days = 54.1
|time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 45
| Feb humidity = 36
| Mar humidity = 31
| Apr humidity = 30
| May humidity = 29
| Jun humidity = 52
| Jul humidity = 68
| Aug humidity = 75
| Sep humidity = 73
| Oct humidity = 66
| Nov humidity = 57
| Dec humidity = 47
|year humidity = 51
|source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/Climatological%20Tables%201991-2020.pdf
| title = Climatological Tables of Observatories in India 1991-2020
| publisher = [[India Meteorological Department]]
| access-date = April 8, 2024
}}</ref><ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf
| title = Station: Medak Climatological Table 1981–2010
| work = Climatological Normals 1981–2010
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = January 2015
| pages = 485–486
| access-date = 19 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| archive-date = 5 February 2020
| url = http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf
| title = Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| date = December 2016
| page = M13
| access-date = 19 February 2020}}</ref>
}}

==Demographics==

{{As of|2011}} [[census of India]], the town had a population of 44,255 with 9011 households. The total population constitute, 21,336 males and 22,919 females —a sex ratio of 1074 females per 1000 males. 4,815 children are in the age group of 0–6 years, of which 2,418 are boys and 2,397 are girls —a ratio of 991 per 1000. The average literacy rate stands at 78.56% with 30,984 literates, significantly higher than the state average of 66.46%.<ref name=census /><ref>{{cite web|title=Telangana State Portal|url=http://www.telangana.gov.in/About/State-Profile|website=www.telangana.gov.in|access-date=24 December 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Medak Fort Entrance.JPG|alt=Medak Fort|thumb|Medak Fort]]

==Governance==
Medak municipality was formed in the year 1953. It is spread over an area of {{Convert|22.00|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Information of Municipality|url=http://cdma.telangana.gov.in/Medak/Basic_information_Municipality.html|website=Municipal Administration & Urban Development Department|publisher=Government of Telangana|access-date=24 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522013401/http://cdma.telangana.gov.in/Medak/Basic_information_Municipality.html|archive-date=22 May 2015}}</ref> Medak urban agglomeration consists of Medak municipality and the [[out growth]] of Ausulapalle village.<ref name=census />

==Economy==
The largest employer in Medak is agriculture. After agriculture most people are employed in the unorganised sector.

== Tourism ==
[[Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary]] is a forest and wildlife sanctuary named for the nearby Pocharam Lake. [[Medak Cathedral]] sees over the Diocese of Medak, the single largest diocese in Asia. [[Medak Fort]] is a popular tourist attraction. The fort was originally constructed by the Kakatiya kings and later developed by the Qutb Shahi kings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csimedakdiocese.in/medak-cathedral/|title=Medak Cathedral|author=Church of South India - Diocese of Medak|access-date=16 May 2014}}</ref> Ancient temple of Kuchadri Venkateshwara Swamy at [[Kuchanpally]] is a nearby [[Hindu]] worship centre.<ref>{{cite web|title=Monuments of Medak|url=http://www.telanganamuseums.com/monuments-in-medak.html|website=www.telanganamuseums.com/|publisher=Department of Archaeology and Museums}}</ref>
[[File:Crocs at Manjeera sanctuary 1.jpg|alt=Manjeera Sanctuary|thumb|Manjeera Sanctuary]]
[[File:Waterfowl at Manjeera Sanctuary.jpg|alt=Manjeera River|thumb|Manjeera River]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://cdma.telangana.gov.in/Medak/ Medak municipality]
* [http://www.parishkaram.org.in/Govmedak/medakindicators.aspx Medak local government page]

{{Medak district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Towns in Medak district]]
[[Category:District headquarters of Telangana]]

Najeeb Muhammad

2026-01-05T16:00:11Z

Creativesketchbook: stub

{{Short description|Indian public figure}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Najeeb Muhammad
| native_name = നജീബ് മുഹമ്മദ്
| image = Najeeb Muhammad.png
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1970}}
| birth_place = [[Arattupuzha]], [[Alappuzha district]], [[Kerala]], India
| citizenship = Indian
| occupation = [[Fisherman]], civil icon, former migrant labourer.
| known_for = Real-life subject of ''[[Aadujeevitham]]'', ''[[The Goat Life]]''
| spouse = Sabiyath
| children = 2 (Safeer and Safeena)
| awards = ECI SVEEP Icon (2024)
}}

'''Najeeb Muhammad''' (born c. 1970) is an Indian public figure from Kerala. He gained international recognition as the real-life subject of Malayalam novel ''[[Aadujeevitham]]'' (2008) and its 2024 film adaptation ''[[The Goat Life]]''. His ordeal as an enslaved laborer in the [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]] desert has become a prominent narrative in the discourse on migrant labor rights and the [[Kafala system]] in the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] region. In 2024, he was designated as a district-level icon by the Election Commission of India for the Systematic Voter Education and Electoral Participation (SVEEP) program in [[Alappuzha district]].<ref name="toi2024">{{cite news |title=Witness the real-life Najeeb's journey from tragedy to triumph |newspaper=The Times of India |date=28 March 2024 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/witness-the-real-life-najeebs-journey-from-tragedy-to-triumph/articleshow/108843268.cms}}</ref><ref name="nie2024">{{cite news |title=Aadujeevitham real-life hero Najeeb named SVEEP icon in Alappuzha |newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=26 March 2024 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2024/Mar/29/real-life-hero-of-aadujeevithamis-now-an-election-icon-in-kerala}}</ref>

== Early life and migration ==
Najeeb Muhammad was born in [[Arattupuzha]], a coastal village in the [[Alappuzha district]] of [[Kerala]]. Before migrating, he worked as a sand miner in the Arattupuzha river.<ref name="express2024">{{cite news |last=Express News Service |date=26 March 2024 |title=Who is Najeeb Muhammad, the man on whom Blessy, Prithviraj's Aadujeevitham – The Goat Life is based? |newspaper=The Indian Express |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/who-is-najeeb-muhammad-the-man-on-whom-blessy-prithviraj-aadujeevitham-the-goat-life-is-based-9234169/}}</ref> In 1992, seeking a better livelihood to support his family and his then-pregnant wife Sabiyath, he sought employment in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="express2024" /><ref name="tnm2018">{{cite news |title=From Saudi slave to inspiration: Meet Najeeb, the real life hero of 'Aadujeevitham' |newspaper=The News Minute |date=2018 |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/features/saudi-slave-inspiration-meet-najeeb-real-life-hero-aadujeevitham-74701}}</ref>

== Enslavement and escape (1992–1995) ==
Upon his arrival at [[King Khalid International Airport]] in Riyadh in April 1992, Muhammad was intercepted by an individual posing as his employer (''kafeel''). He was transported to a remote location in the desert and forced into enslaved labor as a [[goatherd]].<ref name="express2024" />

For the next three and a half years, Muhammad was subjected to extreme isolation and physical abuse. He was forced to tend to hundreds of [[Goat|goats]] with minimal food primarily stale [[khubz]] softened with goat's milk—and was denied access to [[Hygiene|basic hygiene]], including water for bathing.<ref name="toi2024" /> His experiences under the [[Kafala system]] have since been cited in academic studies analyzing the sociological and psychological impacts of the sponsorship system on [[South Asia|South Asian]] migrants.<ref name="shihada2016">{{cite journal |last=Shihada |first=Isam |year=2016 |title=Kafala System and its impact on Migrant Laborers in Benyamin Daniel's Goat Days |journal=An-Najah University Journal for Research - B (Humanities) |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=2087–2106 |doi=10.35552/0247-030-010-007}}</ref>

In 1995, Muhammad managed to escape the farm during the temporary absence of his captor. After wandering through the desert for over a day, he reached a highway and was eventually assisted by a traveler who drove him to [[Riyadh]]. Following a period of incarceration at Sumesi [[Prison]] (Inmate No. 13858), he was [[Deportation|deported]] to [[India]] on August 13, 1995.<ref name="express2024" />

== Later life and civil role ==
After returning to [[Kerala]], Muhammad initially resumed manual labor. In 1997, he migrated again, this time to Bahrain, where he was given a free visa by his brother-in-law and worked in a scrap material company for over two decades.<ref name="express2024" /><ref name="nie2023">{{cite news |last=Paul |first=Biju E |date=1 December 2023 |title=Aadujeevitham to hit screens on April 10; real-life hero elated |newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2023/Dec/01/aadujeevitham-to-hit-screens-on-april-10-real-life-hero-elated-2637641.html}}</ref> He left the job in 2021 during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and returned to his native village, [[Arattupuzha]], where he started employment as a fisherman.<ref name="nie2023" /> In 2024, following the release of the film adaptation of his story, actor [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] met with Muhammad, engaging in a conversation about his experiences.<ref name="express2024b">{{cite news |title=Aadujeevitham actor Prithviraj finally meets 'god's chosen one' Najeeb; asks him, 'Will you ever revisit that place?' |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |date=29 March 2024 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/aadujeevitham-actor-prithviraj-finally-meets-gods-chosen-one-najeeb-9246820/}}</ref><ref name="express2024" />

== Representation in media ==
Muhammad's life story is the primary inspiration for:
* ''[[Aadujeevitham]]'' (2008): A bestselling Malayalam novel by [[Benyamin (writer)|Benyamin]]. The novel won the [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Novel]] and has been translated into over 30 languages, including the [[English language|English]] version titled ''Goat Days'' (2012). It is widely studied in Indian and international universities as a seminal work of migrant literature.<ref name="shihada2016" /><ref name="express2024" />
* ''[[The Goat Life]]'' (2024): A survival drama film directed by [[Blessy]], featuring [[Prithviraj Sukumaran]] as Najeeb Muhammad. The film's release triggered global interest in Muhammad's story, with international publications like ''[[Newlines Magazine]]'' analyzing his experience within the broader context of Gulf labor systems.<ref name="newlines2024">{{cite news |title=A Film About a Goatherding Indian Migrant Sparks a Gulf Controversy |magazine=[[Newlines Magazine]] |date=10 April 2024 |url=https://newlinesmag.com/spotlight/a-film-about-a-goatherding-indian-migrant-sparks-a-gulf-controversy/}}</ref><ref name="hrw2024">{{cite news |title=Movie Based on Migrant Worker's Life Faces Backlash in Saudi Arabia |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=3 September 2024 |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/09/03/movie-based-migrant-workers-life-faces-backlash-saudi-arabia}}</ref>

Muhammad's narrative has been cited by rights groups highlighting the conditions of migrant workers in the region.<ref name="toi2024" /><ref name="nie2024" />

== See also ==

* [[Kafala system]]

* [[Migrant workers in the Gulf Cooperation Council region]]

* [[Human rights in Saudi Arabia]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.eci.gov.in/ Election Commission of India]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muhammad, Najeeb}}

[[Category:1970 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian expatriates in Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Indian expatriates in Bahrain]]
[[Category:People from Alappuzha district]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Muhammad, Najeeb}}

Sheikh Ibrahim Ali

2026-01-02T20:29:01Z

Creativesketchbook: starting bio

{{Short description|West Bengal politician}}
{{Other uses|Ibrahim Ali (disambiguation){{!}}Ibrahim Ali}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sheikh Ibrahim Ali
| native_name =
| office = Member of [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2016
| term_end = 2021
| predecessor = Biplab Roy Chowdhury
| successor = [[Biplab Roy Chowdhury]]
| constituency = [[Panskura Purba Assembly constituency|Panskura Purba]]
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1989}}
| birth_place = [[Midnapore district]], [[West Bengal]]
| death_place =
| death_date =
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| alma_mater = [[Panskura Banamali College]]
| relatives =
| children =
}}
'''Sheikh Ibrahim Ali''' is an Indian politician belonging to the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]. He was the MLA of [[Panskura Purba Assembly constituency]] in the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]].

==Early life and family==
Ali was born in 1989 to a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] family of [[Muslim]] [[Sheikhs of Bengal|Sheikhs]] in [[Midnapore district]], [[West Bengal]]. He is the son of Sheikh Idris Ali. He graduated with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] in [[Bengali language]] from [[Panskura Banamali College]], [[Vidyasagar University]] in 2008.<ref name=my>{{cite web|url=https://www.myneta.info/WestBengal2021/candidate.php?candidate_id=307|title=Ibrahim Ali Sk.|website=MyNeta|access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref>

==Career==
Ali contested the [[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] where he ran as a [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] candidate for [[Panskura Purba Assembly constituency]], defeating Trinamool politician [[Biplab Roy Chowdhury]].<ref name=election2016>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3469-west-bangal-general-legislative-election-2016/ |title=West Bengal Legislative Assembly Election, 2016 |date=16 August 2018 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=15 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latestly.com/elections/assembly-elections/west-bengal/2016/panskura-purba/|title=Panskura Purba, 2016|website=Latestly|access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> He lost to Chowdhury in the next election in 2021.<ref name=election2021>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14106-west-bengal-general-legislative-election-2021-including-ac-56-58/ |title=West Bengal Legislative Assembly Election, 2021 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=15 April 2022}}</ref><ref name=my/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ali, Sheikh Ibrahim}}
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2016–2021]]
[[Category:People from Purba Medinipur district]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:21st-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Bengali Muslims]]
[[Category:Indian Sunni Muslims]]
[[Category:Vidyasagar University alumni]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politician stubs]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{WestBengal-CPIndiaMarxist-politician-stub}}

Balwantrai Mehta

2025-12-27T11:25:23Z

Creativesketchbook:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}

{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Balwantrai Mehta
|image =Balwantrai Mehta 2000 stamp of India (cropped).jpg
|birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1899|2|19}}
|birth_place = [[Bhavnagar]], [[Bhavnagar State]], [[British India]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1965|9|19|1900|2|19}}
|death_place = [[Suthari]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
|death_cause = [[Gujarat Beechcraft incident|Assassination]]
|constituency =
|term_start = 25 February 1963
|term_end = 19 September 1965
|order = 2nd
|office = Chief Minister of Gujarat
|predecessor = [[Jivraj Narayan Mehta]]
|successor = [[Hitendra Kanaiyalal Desai]]
|office1 = [[Member of parliament, Lok Sabha]]
|term_start1 = 17 April 1952
|term_end1 = 31 March 1962
|predecessor1 = ''Constituency established''
|successor1 = [[Jashvant Mehta]]
|primeminister1 = [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]
|constituency1 = [[Bhavnagar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Gohilwad, Gujarat]]
|party = [[Indian National Congress]]
|spouse = Sarojben
|children =
|footnotes =
|date=
|| year =
|source =
}}

'''Balwantrai Gopalji Mehta''' ({{Birth date|df=yes|1900|2|19}} – {{Death date|df=yes|1965|9|19}}) was an Indian politician who served as the second [[Chief Minister]] of [[Gujarat]], [[India]]. Balwantrai Mehta was the only sitting Chief Minister of an Indian state to have been killed by a different country during war. He participated in the [[Indian independence movement]]. After the independence of India, he was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]] from [[Bhavnagar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Gohilwad]], [[Gujarat]] as a member of the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref name="Singhvi2002">{{cite book|author=Laxmi Mall Singhvi|title=Democracy and Rule of Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qONAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=3 November 2020|year=2002|publisher=Ocean Books|isbn=978-81-88322-02-2|page=103}}</ref><ref name="Sharma1994">{{cite book|author=Dr. Shakuntla Sharma|title=Grass Root Politics and Panchayati Raj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wOotj52KG9QC&pg=PA131|accessdate=3 November 2020|year=1994|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|pages=131–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://loksabhaph.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/846.htm | title=Lok Sabha Profile | publisher=[[Lok Sabha]] | accessdate=3 November 2020}}</ref>
He is considered as the 'Architect of ''[[Panchayati Raj]]'' ' due to his contributions towards democratic decentralisation.

He was assassinated by Pakistan during 1965 war.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Upendra |date=2022-11-28 |title=Podcast: How Pakistan Assassinated Balwantrai Mehta, a Sitting CM{{!}}Siyasat |url=https://www.thequint.com/podcast/balwantrai-mehta-assassination-pakistan-gujarat-chie-minister-podcast |access-date=2025-12-27 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Balwantrai Gopalji Mehta was born on 19 February 1900 in [[Bhavnagar State]] in a middle-class family.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} He studied up to B.A class, but refused to take the degree from the foreign government.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

== Political career ==
He joined the national movement of non-co-operation in 1920. He founded Bhavanagar [[Praja Mandal]] in 1921 for carrying on the freedom movement in that state. He participated in the Civil Disobedience movement from 1930 to 1932. He also participated in [[Bardoli Satyagraha]]. He was sentenced for three years imprisonment in [[Quit India Movement]] of 1942. He spent total seven years in prison during British colony. On [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s suggestion, he accepted membership of the Congress Working Committee. When [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] became president of All India Congress Committee, he was elected its general secretary. He was twice elected, in [[1951–52 Indian general election|1952 Indian general Election]] {{citation needed|date=January 2014}} and was again elected in [[1957 Indian general election]] to the [[2nd Lok Sabha]] from [[Bhavnagar (Lok Sabha constituency)|Gohilwad (Bhavnagar) Constituency]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Elections, 1957 to the Second Lok Sabha, (Vol. I)| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1957/Vol_I_57_LS.pdf |publisher=Election Commission of India|page=65| access-date = 27 May 2014 }}</ref>

He was the Chairman of Estimate committee of Parliament. He chaired the [[Balwant Rai Mehta Committee|committee]] set up by [[Government of India]] in January 1957 to examine the working of the Community Development Programme and the National Extension Service and to suggest measures for their better working. The committee submitted its report in November 1957 and recommended the establishment of the scheme of 'democratic decentralisation' which finally came to be known as ''Panchayati Raj''.<ref name="Mathew1995">{{cite book|last=Mathew|first=George|title=Status of Panchayati Raj in the States of India, 1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H6DQEoh0EJ8C&pg=PA5|year=1995|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-553-9|pages=5–}}</ref><ref name="MisraDhaka2004">{{cite book|last1=Misra|first1=Suresh|last2=Dhaka|first2=Rajvir S.|title=Grassroots Democracy in Action: A Study of Working of PRIs in Haryana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MbwdXsDLT8C&pg=PA11|date=1 January 2004|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-107-2|pages=11–}}</ref>

He also remained President of [[Servants of the People Society]] (Lok Sevak Mandal), a social service organisation founded by [[Lala Lajpat Rai]], in 1921.<ref name="Grover1993">{{cite book|last=Grover|first=Verinder|title=Political Thinkers of Modern India: Lala Lajpat Rai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pls8YeINi1sC&pg=PA547|year=1993|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-7100-426-3|pages=547–}}</ref>

He succeeded [[Jivraj Narayan Mehta]] as the [[Chief Ministers of Gujarat|Chief Minister of Gujarat]] on 25 February 1963.

==Death==
{{Main|Gujarat Beechcraft incident}}
During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]], on 19 September 1965, then serving chief minister Mehta flew in a [[Beechcraft]] commuter aircraft from Tata Chemicals, Mithapur to the Kutch border between India and Pakistan. The plane was piloted by Jahangir Engineer, a former [[Indian Air Force]] pilot. It was shot down by [[Pakistan Air Force]] pilot Qais Hussain, who assumed it to be a reconnaissance mission. Mehta died in the crash along with his wife, three members of his staff, a journalist and two crew members.<ref name="OI20110810">{{cite web|url=http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?730835 |title=Pak Pilot's Remorse for 1965 Shooting of Indian Plane |last=Laskar |first=Rezaul |date=10 August 2011 |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |access-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812231400/http://news.outlookindia.com/item.aspx?730835 |archive-date=12 August 2011 }}</ref><ref name="BBC20110810">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14481483|title=Pakistan pilot's 'remorse' for 1965 shooting down|date=10 August 2011|work=BBC|access-date=11 August 2011}}</ref>

==Commemoration==
The Department of Post, Government of India has issued a special postage stamp of face value [[Indian rupee|INR]] 3.00 to commemorate his 100th birth anniversary on 17 February 2000.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jain, Manik|year=2008| title= Phila India Guide Book| publisher= Philatelia| pages=166}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Postage Stamps:: Postage Stamps,Stamp issue calendar 2014, Paper postage, Commemorative and definitive stamps, Service Postage Stamps, Philately Offices, Philatelic Bureaux and counters, Mint stamps (unused stamps)|url=https://postagestamps.gov.in/Stamps_List.aspx|last=|first=|date=|website=postagestamps.gov.in|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505123635/http://postagestamps.gov.in/Stamps_List.aspx|archive-date=5 May 2020|access-date=2020-05-18}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of assassinated Indian politicians]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://loksabhaph.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/846.htm Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]

{{Chief Ministers of Gujarat}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehta, Balwantrai}}
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:1965 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Bhavnagar]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Chief ministers of Gujarat]]
[[Category:People of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]
[[Category:People murdered in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Victims of aircraft shootdowns]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in India]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1965]]
[[Category:Members of the Constituent Assembly of India]]
[[Category:India MPs 1957–1962]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Chief ministers from Indian National Congress]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Politicians assassinated in 1965]]
[[Category:Indian politicians assassinated in the 20th century]]
[[Category:Assassinated subnational legislators]]

1965 IFA Shield final

2025-12-23T21:20:09Z

Creativesketchbook:

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox football match
| title = 1965 IFA Shield final
| image =
| caption =
| event = [[IFA Shield|1965 IFA Shield]]
| team1 = [[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]]
| team2 = [[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]
| details = East Bengal won the final after a [[Replay (sports)#Association football|replay]]
| firstleg = Final
| team1score1 = 0
| team2score1 = 0
| date1 = 22 September 1965
| stadium1 = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
| city1 = [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]]
| referee1 = Sailen Bhattacharya
| attendance1 = 30,000 (estd.)
| secondleg = Replay
| team1score2 = 0
| team2score2 = 1
| date2 = 16 October 1965
| stadium2 = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
| city2 = [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]]
| referee2 = Sailen Bhattacharya
| attendance2 = 30,000 (estd.)
| weather =
| previous = 1964
| next = 1966
}}

The '''1965 IFA Shield final''' was the 64th final of the [[IFA Shield]], the second oldest football competition in [[India]], and was contested between Kolkata giants [[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]] and [[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]] on 22 September 1965 first which ended in a draw and then a replay on 16 October 1965 at the [[Mohun Bagan Ground]] in Kolkata.

East Bengal won the replayed final 1–0 to claim their 8th IFA Shield title. Ashim Moulik scored the only goal in the replay final as East Bengal lifted their eighth IFA Shield title.<ref name=rsssf>{{cite web|first=Arunava|last=Chaudhuri|date=10 October 2022|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/india-ifahist.html|title=India - List of IFA Shield Finals|work=Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation|accessdate=18 November 2022}}</ref>

==Route to the final==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!colspan="2"| [[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]]
!Round
!colspan="2"| [[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]
|- style="background:#C1E0FF"
|Opponent
|colspan="1"|Result
|Round
|Opponent
|colspan="1"|Result
|-
|style="text-align:left"|[[Wari AC|Wari]]
|colspan="1"|1–0
|style="background:#C1E0FF"|Third Round
|style="text-align:left"|Burdwan District XI
|colspan="1"|6–0
|-
|style="text-align:left"|[[Eastern Railway FC|Eastern Railway]]
|colspan="1"|0–0; w/o
|style="background:#C1E0FF"|Quarter–Final
|style="text-align:left"|Hyderabad XI
|colspan="1"|2–1
|-
|style="text-align:left"|Bangalore XI
|colspan="1"|5–0
|style="background:#C1E0FF"|Semi–Final
|style="text-align:left"|[[Bengal Nagpur Railway FC|Bengal Nagpur Railway]]
|colspan="1"|2–0
|-
|}

==Match==
===Summary===
The IFA Shield final began at the [[Mohun Bagan Ground]] in Kolkata on 22 September 1965 in front of a packed crowd as Kolkata giants [[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]] and [[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]] faced each other in a [[Kolkata Derby]]. Mohun Bagan made their seventeenth appearance in the final after they defeated Bangalore XI 5–0 in the semi-final, having won it nine times previously in 1911, 1947, 1948, 1952, 1954, 1956, 1960, 1961, and 1962. East Bengal reached their thirteenth final after defeating [[Bengal Nagpur Railway FC|Bengal Nagpur Railway]] 2–0 in the semi-final, having won the title seven times previously in 1943, 1945, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1958, and 1961.<ref name=rsssf/>

Both Mohun Bagan and East Bengal tried to dominate the game from the first minute but cancelled each other out. The goalkeepers [[Pradyut Barman]] and [[Peter Thangaraj]] were the stars of the game as both of them made some terrific saves as the game ended in a goalless draw. The committee decided to host the final in a later date.<ref name=final>{{cite news |date=23 September 1965 |title= আই এফ এ শিল্ড ফাইনাল গোলশূন্য |trans-title=IFA Shield Final remains goalless |language=bn |work=Jugantor }}</ref>

===Details===
{{footballbox
|date=22 September 1965
|time=15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]]
|report=
|team2=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]
|score= 0–0
|goals1=
|goals2=
|stadium=[[Mohun Bagan Ground]], [[Kolkata]]
|attendance=30,000 (est.)
|referee=Sailen Bhattacharya}}

{| width=92%
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{| width="100%"
|valign="top" width="40%"|
{| style="font-size: 90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|colspan="4"|
|-
!width="25"| !!width="25"|
|-
|GK || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Pradyut Barman]]
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Bikramjit Debnath
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Jarnail Singh (footballer)|Jarnail SIngh]]
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[T. Abdul Rahman]]
|-
|MF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Bidyut Mazumdar
|-
|MF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Bimal Chakraborty
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kajal Mukherjee]]
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Amal Chakraborty
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashok Chatterjee]]
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Chuni Goswami]] ([[Captain (association football)|c]])
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Arumainayagam]]
|-
|colspan=4|'''Substitutes:'''
|-
| {{sort dash}}
|-
|}
|valign="top"|
|valign="top" width="50%"|
{| style="font-size: 90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align=center
|colspan="4"|
|-
!width="25"| !!width="25"|
|-
|GK || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Peter Thangaraj]]
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Shanto Mitra
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Chandreshwar Prasad
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Sushil Sinha
|-
|MF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Srikanta Banerjee
|-
|MF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Prasanta Sinha]]
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sukumar Samajpati]] ([[Captain (association football)|c]])
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Parimal Dey]]
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Ashim Moulik
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Satish Das || {{suboff|}}
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Sambhu Das Chowdhury
|-
|colspan=4|'''Substitutes:'''
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Sujato || || {{subon|}}
|}
|}

{| width=100% style="font-size: 90%"

|style="width:60%; vertical-align:top;"|
'''Match rules'''
*70 minutes.
*Replay if scores still level.
|}

==Replay==
===Summary===
The replay final began at the [[Mohun Bagan Ground]] in Kolkata on 16 October 1965 after the first game ended in a 0–0 stalemate.

East Bengal and Mohun Bagan both tried to dominate the game once again from the first minute with both the teams creating multiple chances but failed to break the deadlock. [[Kajal Mukherjee]] got the best chance for Mohun Bagan in the first half but he missed an open net as the game remained goalless at halftime. The match slowed down in the second half and was almost going to end in another goalless tie, when Ashim Moulik received the ball from Parimal Dey in the very last minute of the game and scored with a powerful long range effort to make it 1–0 for East Bengal as they lifted their eighth IFA Shield title.<ref name=rsssf/><ref name=finalreplay>{{cite news |date=17 October 1965 |title= শিল্ডের পুনরনুশ্তহানে ইস্টবেঙ্গলের জয় |trans-title=East Bengal wins the replay final |language=bn |work=Jugantor }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=PTI |date=17 October 1965 |title=Moulik wins IFA Shield for E. Bengal |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19651017&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |work=The Indian Express |access-date=30 November 2022 }}</ref>

===Details===
{{footballbox
|date=16 October 1965
|time=15:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=[[Mohun Bagan FC|Mohun Bagan]]
|report=
|team2=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]
|score= 0–1
|goals1=
|goals2=* [[Ashim Moulik|Moulik]] {{goal|69}}
|stadium=[[Mohun Bagan Ground]], [[Kolkata]]
|attendance=30,000 (est.)
|referee=Sailen Bhattacharya}}

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| title = Mohun Bagan
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|{{Football kit
|pattern_b = _EastBengal_12_13_Home
|pattern_la =
|pattern_ra =
|pattern_sh =
|pattern_so = _2 gold stripes
|leftarm = FFDF00
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|rightarm = FF0000
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|socks = FF0000
|title = East Bengal
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|}

{| width="100%"
|valign="top" width="40%"|
{| style="font-size: 90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|colspan="4"|
|-
!width="25"| !!width="25"|
|-
|GK || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Pradyut Barman]]
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Bikramjit Debnath
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Jarnail Singh (footballer)|Jarnail SIngh]]
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[T. Abdul Rahman]]
|-
|MF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Bidyut Mazumdar
|-
|MF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Bimal Chakraborty
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kajal Mukherjee]] || {{suboff|}}
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Amal Chakraborty
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashok Chatterjee]]
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Chuni Goswami]] ([[Captain (association football)|c]])
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Arumainayagam]]
|-
|colspan=4|'''Substitutes:'''
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Dulal Mondal || {{subon|}}
|-
|}
|valign="top"|
|valign="top" width="50%"|
{| style="font-size: 90%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" align=center
|colspan="4"|
|-
!width="25"| !!width="25"|
|-
|GK || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Peter Thangaraj]]
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Shanto Mitra
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Chandreshwar Prasad
|-
|DF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Sushil Sinha || {{suboff|}}
|-
|MF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ram Bahadur Chettri]]
|-
|MF || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Prasanta Sinha]]
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sukumar Samajpati]] ([[Captain (association football)|c]])
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Sujato
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Ashim Moulik
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} [[Parimal Dey]]
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} Sambhu Das Chowdhury
|-
|colspan=4|'''Substitutes:'''
|-
|FW || ||{{flagicon|IND}} S. Thomas || {{subon|}}
|}
|}

{| width=100% style="font-size: 90%"

|style="width:60%; vertical-align:top;"|
'''Match rules'''
*70 minutes.
*15 minutes of extra time if game ends in a draw.
*Joint winners if game ends in a draw after extra time.
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/india-ifahist.html IFA Shield Finals]

{{IFA Shield}}
{{East Bengal Club}}
{{Mohun Bagan Super Giant}}

[[Category:IFA Shield finals]]
[[Category:1965–66 in Indian football]]
[[Category:East Bengal Club matches]]
[[Category:Mohun Bagan Super Giant matches]]
[[Category:Football competitions in Kolkata]]

Abhishiktananda

2025-12-17T13:41:19Z

Creativesketchbook: Improved article clarity and structure

{{Short description|French-Indian monk}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| name = Swami Abhishiktananda
| image = Swami Abhishiktananda.jpg
| caption =
| alt =
| religion = [[Roman Catholicism]] [[Hinduism]]
| birth_date = 30 August 1910
| birth_place = Saint Briac, Brittany, France
| birth_name = Henri Le Saux
| death_date = 7 December 1973 (aged 63)
| death_place = Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India
| nationality = {{ubl|French {{small|(1910–1960)}}|Indian {{small|(1960–1973)}}}}
| guru = Sri Gnânânanda Giri
| disciples = Swami Ajatananda Saraswati
| title = Monk, sannyasi
| founder =
| literary_works =
| influenced =
| signature =
| footnotes =
}}

{{quote box|width=22em|title=Quotation|quote=If at all I had to give a message, it would be the message of "Wake up, arise, remain aware" of the Katha Upanishad. The coloration might vary according to the audience, but the essential goes beyond. The discovery of Christ's I AM is the ruin of any Christian theology, for all notions are burnt within the fire of experience.}}

'''Abhishiktananda''' ({{langx|sa|अभिषिक्तानन्द|Abhiṣiktānanda}}; 30 August 1910, in [[Saint Briac]], [[Brittany]]–7 December 1973, in [[Indore]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]), born '''Henri Le Saux''', was a French-born Indian monk. He moved to India in 1948 in search of a more radical form of spiritual life, adopted ''[[sannyasa]]'' in accordance with Indian tradition, and became one of the pioneers of Hindu-Christian dialogue. Multiple contacts with prominent saints such as [[Sri Ramana Maharshi]], [[Sri Gnanananda Giri]], and [[Sri H.W.L. Poonja]] led him to profound advaitic experience as well as to final recognition of the truth of ''[[advaita]]'' during the last years of his life.<ref>Swami Abhishiktananda at Monastic Interreligious Dialogue http://monasticinterreligiousdialogue.com/index.php/bulletins</ref>

==Biography==

===Early years and Benedictine monastic life (1910–1948)===
Le Saux was born on 30 August 1910 in St Briac, a small town on the north coast of Brittany. He was the first child of Alfred Le Saux and Louise Sonnerfaud, who gave him the names Henri Briac Marie. In 1921 his parents sent him to the minor seminary at Châteaugiron, from which in 1925 he went to the major seminary at Rennes. From his boyhood he had felt a monastic vocation: "What has drawn me from the beginning and what still leads me on is the hope of finding there the presence of God more immediately than anywhere else{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Letter of December 4, 1982, in Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', Delhi (ISPCK), 2000, p. 29.</ref> At the age of 19 he was admitted as a postulant to the Benedictine monastery at Sainte-Anne de Kergonan where he spent another nineteen years (with a short break between the years 1939 and 1941 when he was required to participate in [[World War II]] as a sergeant of the French Army).

The call to India was heard by Le Saux at Kergonan, as early as 1934, within five years of entering the monastery. It was closely related to his vocation to a more radical contemplative life that he lacked within the existing framework of western monasticism. He expressed this feeling in his characteristic phrase that became his motto: "''Beyond, always beyond.''"<ref>Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.11.</ref> In May 1947 he wrote to the Bishop of [[Tiruchirappalli]], asking his help in "settling somewhere in the neighborhood of Tiruchi so that, living in some hermitage, he might there lead the contemplative life ... in the closest possible conformity with the traditions of Indian sannyasa."<ref>Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.12.</ref> The letter was eventually replied to by a French priest, [[Jules Monchanin]], who had left for India in 1939 at the age of 44. The latter did his best to help Le Saux in arranging his arrival in India. In his correspondence of 7 August 1947, Monchanin advised his future partner: "Learn as much English as you can. You will have no objection to a purely vegetarian diet (essential for the life of a sannyasi). You will need unshakable courage, complete detachment from the things of the West, and a profound love for India{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.14.</ref>

===Sannyasa life (1948–1968)===
Le Saux arrived in [[Colombo]] on 15 August 1948, and a few days later joined Jules Monchanin in [[Kulittalai]] ([[Tamil Nadu]]). In January 1949 the two seekers visited the [[ashram]] of one of the greatest sages of modern India, [[Sri Ramana Maharshi]] (1879 – 1950), at the foot of [[Arunachala]] mountain in [[Tiruvannamalai]] (Tamil Nadu). Le Saux's meeting with the sage had a profound effect on his life as he recounted it in his diary: "I consider this stay at Tiruvannamalai as a real retreat and at the same time as an initiation into Hindu monastic life. I want to ... enter into the great silence and peace which, as I have read and also been told, is to be found at the ashram{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Diary, 24 January 1949, in Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', Delhi (ISPCK), 2000, p. 29.</ref> The ''darshana'' of Sri Ramana Maharshi became for him the first introduction into the wisdom of ''advaita'': "In the contemporary Sage of [[Arunachala]] it was the unique Sage of eternal India that appeared to me... it was a call that pierced through everything, rent it in pieces, and opened a mighty abyss."<ref>Abhishiktananda, Swami, ''The Secret of Arunachala'', Delhi (ISPCK), 1979, p. 8-9.</ref>

In 1950 Le Saux and Monchanin following their monastic vocation and emerging spiritual ideal, established the [[Saccidananda Ashram]] (Shantivanam) on the banks of the [[holy river]] [[Kaveri]] (Cauvery), with the aim of allowing monks of different traditions to live together in contemplation, sharing the "''silent communion in the quest of the Unique''".<ref>Letter to Joseph Lemarié (March 18, 1952) in Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', Delhi (ISPCK), 2000, p. 54.</ref> In accordance with Indian tradition they adopted new names for themselves: Le Saux became Abhishikteshvarananda ("Bliss of the Anointed Lord"), later shortened to Abhishiktananda, and Monchanin as Parama Arubi Ananda ("Bliss of the Supreme Formless One"). The daily routine in the ''ashram'' was based on the three ''[[sandhyavandanam]]-s'' (prayers at the meeting points of day and night and at midday), enriched with [[Sanskrit]] and Tamil texts and hymns. Much time was given to spiritual and indological study, although the two monks remained in silence for the greater part of the day.<ref>Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.39-40.</ref>

From 1952, to 1955, Abhishiktananda made several visits to the sacred mountain of Arunachala, of which this account can be found in his book ''The Secret of Arunachala'' (published posthumously in 1975).<ref>See ref. 4.</ref> During these visits he experienced lengthy stays in the mountain's caves, dedicating most of his time to contemplation. In 1953 he met a well known teacher of ''advaita'', [[Sri H.W.L. Poonja]] (also known later as "Papaji"), who had a deep impact on his spiritual quest. In 1955 in Tirukoilur, his first meeting with the contemporary sage Swami [[Sri Gnanananda Giri]] took place: "I could not resist making the great prostration of our Hindu tradition, and to whom I believe I might give myself over completely ... I now know what India means by the term [[guru]]{{nbsp}}...".<ref>Letter to Joseph Lemarié (December 24, 1955), in Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', Delhi (ISPCK), 2000, p. 87.</ref> Further on Sri Gnanananda became Swamiji's ''guru'' and his teachings are eloquently described in Swami Abhishiktananda's publication ''Guru and Disciple'' (1970).<ref>Abhishiktananda, Swami, ''Gnânânanda. Un maître spirituel du pays tamoul'', Chambéry (Présence), 1970 (in French); Abhishiktananda, Swami, ''Guru and Disciple: an Encounter with Sri Gnanananda, a Contemporary Spiritual Master'', new and enlarged edit.by Swami Atmananda Udasin, pref. by Swami Nityananda Giri, Chennai (Samata Books), 2012 (in English).</ref> Sri Gnanananda's message was focused on the practice of ''[[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]]'' (meditation):

{{poemquote|
Return within,
to the place where there is nothing,
and take care that nothing comes in.
Penetrate to the depths of yourself,
to the place where thought no longer exists,
and take care that no thought arises there!

There where nothing exists,
Fullness!
There where nothing is seen,
the Vision of Being!
There where nothing appears any longer,
the sudden appearing of the Self!

''Dhyana'' is this!.<ref>Abhishiktananda Swami, ''Guru and Disciple: an Encounter with Sri Gnanananda, a Contemporary Spiritual Master'', p.75.</ref>}}

Abhishiktananda's deep devotion to the ''guru'' is clearly seen in his letters of that period: "Here for a fortnight with my Guru. I have been totally "caught" ... If that man were to ask me tomorrow to set out on the roads naked and silent like [[Sadasiva Brahmendra]], I would be unable to refuse ... In him I have felt the truth of advaita{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Letter to Joseph Lemarié (March 14, 1956), in Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', Delhi (ISPCK), 2000, p. 89-90.</ref>

Later in the 1960s, Abhishiktananda commenced regular pilgrimages to Northern India and in 1968 he left Shantivanam forever having passed it to [[Bede Griffiths]] OSB Cam (1906–1993) for the ongoing development of the ''ashram''.

In 1950 Henri Le Saux visited Srirangam temple. Despite the temple barring non-Hindus from entry, he ventured into it. James Stuart, who accompanied him at the time noted that he diverted his eyes from the sign stating such, and continued into the temple premises. Once inside the temple he refused to take part in Hindu rituals, as he stated in a letter:

{{blockquote |text=the priest took up a tray containing camphor(...), set it alight, recounted the glories of Sri Rangam Nathar [i.e., Vishnu], and began to offer a puja in my honour...I have never had such good treatment but, all the same it was nothing doing, for I should have had to make the anjali, prostrate spread my hands over the flame and bring them to my eyes, put the ashes on my forehead etc. ... I protested - horror indignation! |author=Henri Le Saux}}

===Final years and awakening (1968–1973)===

In October 1968, Abhishiktananda settled in a small ''kutiya'' at Gyansu (a kilometre away from Uttarkashi), where he would spend six to eight months in solitude during the years 1969 to 1971. His main purpose was to lead a contemplative life, of which he wrote to a close friend, Odette Baumer-Despeigne: "...{{nbsp}}To be living here as a rule is going to be a new experience. I can scarcely hope to be that acosmic being of whom I wrote in [[Gangotri]], but at least I might be able to be something of that sort{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.205.</ref> During this period he was also participating in a series of interreligious meetings, conferences and study sessions, including participation in the All-India Seminar in [[Bangalore]] (15 May–20 June 1969), etc.

However, one of the main events of his final years was the meeting with a young Frenchman who later became his one true and prominent disciple, Marc Chaduc. Their correspondence commenced in the late 1960s. In one of his first letters Abhishiktananda, replying to Marc's questions regarding the possibility of a permanent stay in India, states: "...{{nbsp}}The essential thing is to penetrate the interior mystery to which India bears witness so intensely.... Without a contemplative sense, to come to India is absolutely useless{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.219.</ref> Chaduc arrived in India on 29 September 1971 at the age of twenty-seven and met Abhishiktananda a few weeks later in Delhi on 21 October. The first ten days spent together in Delhi led to an unparalleled ''guru''-disciple relationship between the two which brought about a revolutionary change in Abhishiktananda's life: "I have found in him (Chaduc) a truly total disciple. With him and two young Hindus I experience from the other end what the guru is. It is really the chela (disciple) who makes the guru, and you have to have lived it, in order to grasp this relationship "beyond words{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Letter to Odette Baumer-Despeigne (January 7, 1972), Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.258.</ref> Abhishiktananda subsequently sent Chaduc on a pilgrimage, including to Sri Ramana's Ashram and Arunachala, where Abhishiktananda had previously encountered a profound spiritual experience: "There is no question that Arunachala is a powerful magnet. How I should like to lead you round from cave to cave{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Letter to Marc Chaduc (January 14, 1972), Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.261.</ref> During the last twenty months of his life Abhishiktananda's ''advaitic'' experience deepened and he realizes the truth of the [[Upanishads]] with utter clarity: "The mantra Om Tat Sat sings all day long ... That madhu (honey) which everything is to everything else, that constant take-off into the Beyond, the golden Purusha full of glory – you know it so well{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Letters to Marc Chaduc (January 1973), Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.283.</ref>

On 30 June 1973, Abhishiktananda, along with the then President of the [[Divine Life Society]], [[Swami Chidananda Saraswati]], arranged on the banks of the [[Ganga]] in [[Rishikesh]], a very simple rite of ''sannyasa-diksha'' (initiation into ''sannyasa'') for Chaduc, after which he became known as Swami Ajatananda Saraswati. Abhishiktananda was deeply moved by this experience which he considered to be the very culmination of his own life. He had a clearer vision of the fact that the truth is not conditioned by any concepts, myths or symbols and lies beyond them all: "We have to descend into the ultimate depths to recognize that there is no common denominator at the level of ''namarupa'' (name and form). So we should accept ''namarupa'' of the most varied kinds ... We should penetrate the depth of each other's mystery ... Take off from each of them as from a springboard, towards the bottomless ocean{{nbsp}}..."<ref>Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', p.284.</ref>

His posthumous book, ''The Further Shore'', which he wrote several months before his ''mahasamadhi'', reflects his last experiences and his disciple Swami Ajatananda draws attention in the book's foreword to the fact that "...{{nbsp}}nothing that Swamiji wrote had not been lived by him, realized in himself. This is the beauty of his written work, which was the fruit of his silence."<ref>Abhishiktananda, Swami, ''The Further Shore'', Delhi (ISPCK), 1975, p.xii.</ref>

On 14 July 1973, Abhishiktananda was struck by a heart attack that he himself described as a "spiritual awakening". The remaining several months of his life were spent in a state of bliss and realization, expressed by himself in his writings: "O I have found the Grail ... The quest for the Grail is basically nothing else than the quest for the Self ... It is yourself that you are seeking through everything. And in this quest you are running about everywhere, whereas the Grail is here, close at hand, you only have to open your eyes ... There is only the Awakening."<ref>Abhishiktananda, Swami, ''Ascent to the Depth of the Heart: The Spiritual Diary'' (1948-1973) of Swami Abhishiktananda, Delhi (ISPCK), 1998.</ref>

In the evening of 7 December 1973 in [[Indore]], Abhishiktananda underwent another brief heart attack and at about 11 pm he died. His last words were "God's will be done."<ref>''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', Delhi (ISPCK), 2000, p. 322.</ref>

==Legacy==

In order to foster the message and the writings of Abhishiktananda through the publication of his books and unpublished manuscripts, [[Raimon Panikkar]], Patrick D'Souza, [[Jacques Dupuis (Jesuit)|Jacques Dupuis]], [[Sita Ram Goel]], [[Ram Swarup]], N. Shanta and James Stuart, founded the Abhishiktananda Society (Delhi) in 1978. The society was dissolved in 2008 after thirty years of contribution to Hindu-Christian dialogue<ref>Swami Atmananda Udasin, ''The Abhishiktananda Society Comes to a Successful Conclusion after Thirty Years of Contribution in Hindu-Christian Dialogue'' (1978-2008). A Letter from the President, MID Bulletin 80, January 2008. http://abhishiktananda.org.in/html/The_Abhishiktananda_Society.pdf</ref> and the publishing rights for his books in English and various Indian languages, were transferred to the [[Delhi Brotherhood Society]] (DBS). As a result, a new section named the Abhishiktananda Centre for Interreligious Dialogue, was formed to carry on the task of promoting Abhishiktananda's writings in India and abroad in English. This work is also being continued in the West by the Monastic Interreligious Dialogue ([[DIMMID]]), which holds the world rights in all languages with the exception of the English and Indian languages. This centre also stores the Abhishiktananda Archives, where handwritten or typed manuscripts written by Abhishiktananda date between approximately forty to sixty-three years of age. It is planned to digitally scan the archives and make them available under specific conditions for scholars and researchers in India and abroad.

== Selected bibliography ==

===Primary===

====In English====
*''Ascent to the Depth of the Heart. The Spiritual Diary (1948-1973) of Swami Abhishiktananda'', Delhi (ISPCK), 1998.
*''The Further Shore'', Delhi (ISPCK), 1975; reprinted with addition of "The Upanishads and Advaitic Experience" and poems, 1984.
*''Guru and Disciple: an Encounter with Sri Gnanananda, a Contemporary Spiritual Master'', London (SPCK), 1974; revised edition, Delhi (ISPCK), 1990; reprinted in 2000; new and enlarged edit.by Swami Atmananda Udasin, pref. by Swami [[Nityananda]] Giri, Chennai (Samata Books), 2012.
*''Prayer'', Delhi (ISPCK), 1967; new and enlarged edition, 1989; reprinted, Philadelphia (Westminster Press), 1973; reprinted, London (Canterbury Press Norwich), 2006; Revised and enlarged edition: ''Prayer: Exploring Contemplative Prayer through Eastern and Western Spirituality'', edit.by Swami Atmananda Udasin, foreword by Rev. Dr. James D.M. Stuart, Delhi (ISPCK), 2015.
"Saccidananda: A Christian Approach to Advaitic Experience", Delhi, ISPCK, 1974.
*''The Secret of Arunachala'', Delhi (ISPCK), 1979; reprinted 1988; revised edition, 1997.

====In French====
*''Eveil à soi – éveil à Dieu. Essai sur la prière'', Paris (Centurion), 1971, Paris (OEIL), 1986.
*''Gnânânanda. Un maître spirituel du pays tamoul'', Chambéry (Présence), 1970.
*''Initiation à la spiritualité des Upanishads. "Vers l'autre rive"'', Sisteron (Présence), 1979.
*''Intériorité et révélation. Essais théologiques'', Sisteron (Présence), 1982.
*''La montée au fond du cœur. Le journal intime du moine chrétien – sannyasi hindou'', introduction et notes de R. Panikkar, Paris (OEIL), 1986.

====In Italian====
*''Risveglio a sé, risveglio a Dio'' (Quaderni di Ricerca, 51), Troina (Servitium), 2011.
*''Gnanananda. Un maestro spirituale della terra Tamil. Raconti di Vanya'', ed. Stefano Rossi, Troina (Servitium), 2009.
*''Alle sorgenti del Gange. Pellegrinaggio spirituale'' (Quaderni di Ricerca, 46), new edition by Milena Carrara and Espedito D'Agostini, Troina (Servitium), 2005.
*''Ricordi d'Arunachala. Racconto di un eremita cristiano in terra hindu'', ed. Stefano Rossi, Padova (Ed. Messaggero), 2004.
*''Diario spirituale di un monaco cristiano-samnyasin hindu (1948-1973)'', ed. Milena Carrara, Milano (Mondadori), 2002.

====In German====
*''Das Feuer der Weisheit'', Bern/München/Wien (O.W. Barth Verlag), 1979; new edition, Grafing (Aquamarin Verlag), 2009.
*''Innere Erfahrung und Offenbarung. Theologische Ausätze zur Begegnung von Hinduismus und Christentum.'' (Salzburger Theologische Studien, 23), ed. Bettina Bäumer, Christian Hackbarth-Johnson and Ulrich Winkler, Innsbruck/Vienna (Tyrolia-Verlag), 2005.
*''Wege der Glückseligkeit: Begegnung indischer und christlicher Mystik'', Kösel Verlag, München 1995
*''Das Geheimnis des heiligen Berges. Als christlicher Mönch unter den Weisen Indiens'', Freiburg/Basel/Wien (Herder), 1989.
*''Der Weg zum anderen Ufer'', Köln (E.Diederichs), 1980.
*''Die Gegenwart Gottes erfahren'', Mainz (Matthias-Grünewald-Verlag), 1980.

==== In Spanish ====

* ''Gurú y discípulo. Un encuentro con Sri Gnanananda Giri, maestro espiritual contemporáneo''. Pequeña Tierra 2017
* ''Oración. Una mirada a la oración contemplativa en la espiritualidad oriental y occidental.'' Pequeña Tierra 2020

====In Russian====
*''Гуру и ученик'', перевод Максима Демченко, введение Свами Атмананды Удасина, предисловие Свами Нитьянанды Гири, Москва (Ганга), 2013.

===Secondary===

====In English====
* Du Boulay, Shirley, ''The Cave of the Heart: The Life of Swami Abhishiktananda'', Maryknoll ([[Orbis Books]]), 2005.
* Kalliath, Antony, ''The Word in the Cave: The Experiential Journey of Swami Abhishiktananda to the Point of Hindu-Christian Meeting'', New Delhi (Intercultural Publications), 1996.
* [[Harry Oldmeadow|Oldmeadow, Harry]], ''A Christian Pilgrim in India: The Spiritual Journey of Swami Abhishiktananda (Henri Le Saux)'', Bloomington (World Wisdom), 2008.
* Skudlarek, William (ed.), ''God's Harp String: The Life and Legacy of the Benedictine Monk Swami Abhishiktananda'', Brooklyn (Lantern Books), 2010.
* Skudlarek, William and Bäumer, Bettina (ed.), ''Witness to the Fullness of Light: The Vision and Relevance of the Benedictine Monk Swami Abhishiktananda'', Brooklyn (Lantern Books), 2011.
* Stuart, James, ''Swami Abhishiktananda: His Life Told through his Letters'', Delhi (ISPCK), 2000.
* Vandana Mataji (ed.), ''Swami Abhishiktananda: The Man and His Message'', Delhi (ISPCK), 1993.

====In French====
*Davy, M-M., ''Henri Le Saux – Swami Abhishiktananda. Le passeur entre deux rives'', Paris (Le Cerf), 1981.
*Davy, M-M., ''Henri Le Saux – Swami Abhishiktananda. Ecrits choisis et présentés par Marie-Madeleine Davy'', Paris (Albin Michel), 1991.
*Du Boulay, Shirley, ''La grotte du cœur. La vie de Swami Abhishiktananda, Henri Le Saux'', préf. par Raimon Panikkar, Paris (Le Cerf), 2007.
*Mandala, Patrick, ''Plénitude de l'Etre. Vie et enseignement de Sri Gnanananda. Témoignage d'Henri le Saux'', préf. par Swami Atmananda Udasin, Paris (Accarias l'Originel), 2015.
*Stuart, James, ''Le bénédictin et le grand éveil'', Paris (Jean Maisonneuve), 1999.

====In Italian====
*Conio, Caterina, ''Abhishiktananda sulle frontiere dell'incontro cristiano-hindu'', Assisi (Citadella), 1994.

====In Russian====
*Демченко, Максим, ''Путь Сатчитананды'', Москва (Ганга), 2008.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.abhishiktananda.org.in Abhishiktananda Centre for Interreligious Dialogue]
* [http://www.dimmid.org Official Website of Dialogue Interreligieux Monastique/Monastic Interreligious Dialogue]
* {{YouTube|SOMcDuHh31g|Swami Abhishiktananda: An Interview with Raimon Panikkar}}
* [https://ajatananda.org/sri-swami-abhishiktananda/ Ajatananda Ashram, Rishikesh]
* [https://comment.org/the-tree-of-india/ The Tree of India]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abhishiktananda}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Saint-Malo]]
[[Category:French Christian monks]]
[[Category:French religious leaders]]
[[Category:French emigrants to India]]
[[Category:Naturalised citizens of India]]
[[Category:Indian people of French descent]]
[[Category:People who lost French citizenship]]
[[Category:Indian religious leaders]]
[[Category:Indian Hindu monks]]
[[Category:Christian and Hindu interfaith dialogue]]
[[Category:Advaitin philosophers]]
[[Category:People in interfaith dialogue]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian monks]]
[[Category:Christian ashram movement]]

Manaku of Guler

2025-12-15T20:16:37Z

Creativesketchbook: further added page for consistency also and cleaned formatting per sources

{{Short description|Indian painter}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Manaku
| image = Manaku of guler.jpg
| alt = A head and shoulders portrait of a man with a beard, facing to the right
| caption = Portrait of Manaku by his brother [[Nainsukh]]
| birth_name = Manaku
| birth_date = 1700
| birth_place = [[Guler State|Guler]]
| death_date = 1760
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| movement = [[Pahari painting]]
| training =
| field = Painting
| works =
| family = [[Nainsukh]] (brother)
}}

'''Manaku of Guler''' or '''Manaku''' (c. 1700–1760) was an Indian painter from the [[Guler State]], in modern-day [[Himachal Pradesh]].<ref>{{harvnb|Goswamy|Fischer|1997|p=240}}</ref> After his death he was mostly forgotten and overshadowed by his much-celebrated younger brother [[Nainsukh]].<ref>{{harvnb|Goswamy|2017|p=18}}</ref> But today he is recognised as an exponent of [[Pahari painting|Pahari style]] of painting, much like his brother.<ref>{{harvnb|Goswamy|2017|p=26}}</ref> The rediscovery of Manaku has been a result of research efforts by art historians like [[B. N. Goswamy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/historian-b-n-goswamy-brings-alive-18th-century-artist-manaku-117091400827_1.html|title=Historian B.N Goswamy brings alive 18th century artist Manaku|date=September 14, 2017|via=Business Standard}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/an-uphill-task-bn-goswamy-art-historian-manaku-painter-4859527/|title=An Uphill Task|date=September 25, 2017}}</ref>
Like Nainsukh, Manaku almost never signed his works, and only four extant works carry his signature.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/review-book-review-manaku-of-guler-the-life-and-work-of-another-great-indian-painter-from-a-small-hill-state-2552845|title=Book Review: Manaku of Guler – The Life and Work of Another Great Indian Painter from a Small Hill State|first=Gargi|last=Gupta|date=October 15, 2017|website=DNA India}}</ref> He was a member of the [[Seu-Manaku-Nainsukh family]].

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Ravana shows Sita the Counterfeit Head of Rama.jpg|''[[Ravana]] shows [[Sita]] the counterfeit head of [[Rama]]'', c. 1725, Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]
File:Jayadeva bow to Radha-krishna.jpg|''Poet Jayadeva worshipping Radha and Krishna'' based on [[Jayadeva]]'s ''[[Gita Govinda]]'', c. 1730, Watercolour on paper, [[National Museum, New Delhi]]
File:Golden cosmic egg Hiranyagarbha by Manaku.jpg|''Hiranyagarbha (Golden Cosmic Egg)'', c. 1740, Opaque watercolour and gold on paper, [[Bharat Kala Bhavan]], Varanasi
File:Hiranyaksha use maya on varaha by manaku from Bhagavata purana series.jpg|''Vishnu as Varaha challenges the demon Hiranyaksha'' from [[Bhagavata Purana]] series, c. 1740, Opaque watercolour and gold on paper, [[Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh]]
</gallery>

==References==
{{commons category|Manaku}}
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last1=Goswamy |first1=B. N. |last2=Fischer |first2=Eberhard |date=1997 |title=Pahari Masters: Court Painters of Northern India |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780195640144}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smart |first=Ellen S. |date=May 22, 1998 |title=Pahari Masters: Court Painters of North India. By B. N. Goswamy and Eberhard Fischer. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997. 391 pp. $95.00 (paper). |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/pahari-masters-court-painters-of-north-india-by-goswamy-b-n-and-fischer-eberhard-delhi-oxford-university-press-1997-391-pp-9500-paper/CB29CAE21FD1710C67C88C7F00B8E8BD |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=565–566 |doi=10.2307/2658899 |jstor=2658899 |s2cid=165258122 |via=Cambridge Core|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
*{{cite book |last=Goswamy |first=B. N. |date=2014 |title=The Spirit of Indian Painting: Close Encounters with 100 Great Works 1100–1900 |publisher=[[Penguin UK]] |isbn=9789351188629}}
*{{cite book |last=Goswamy |first=B. N. |date=2017 |title=Manaku of Guler: The Life and Work of Another Great Indian Painter from a Small Hill State |location=New Delhi |publisher=Niyogi Books |isbn=978-9385285820}}

==External links==
*[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search#!?q=Manaku Metropolitan Museum of Art - Manaku collection]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian male painters]]
[[Category:1700s births]]
[[Category:1760 deaths]]
[[Category:Court painters]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:People from Kangra district]]
[[Category:Painters from Himachal Pradesh]]

Shitleshwar Mahadev Temple

2025-12-01T17:34:14Z

Creativesketchbook: Created redirect page

#REDIRECT [[Sitaleshwar Temple]]

Gurur

2025-11-30T06:36:49Z

Creativesketchbook: Stub

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Gurur, Mysore
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|12.26075|76.64715|display=inline}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flagicon|India}} India
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon|Karnataka}} [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = [[Mysore District|Mysore]]

| population_total = 2,292
| population_as_of=2011
}}
[[File:School at Gurur.jpg|thumb|School at Gurur]]
{{coord|12.25111|N|76.62921|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}[[File:Rama Bhai Village. J.P.Nagar.jpg|thumb|Rama Bhai Nagar, Gurur Road]]

'''Gurur''' is a small village in [[Mysore district]], Karnataka, India.

==Location==
Gurur is located on the south of Mysore city. It is at a distance of 7.9 km from Mysore city.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.co.in/maps/dir/Mysuru,+Karnataka+570001/Gurur,+Karnataka/@12.2662602,76.6044562,13z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m13!4m12!1m5!1m1!1s0x3baf70381d572ef9:0x2b89ece8c0f8396d!2m2!1d76.6393805!2d12.2958104!1m5!1m1!1s0x3baf659961ee8d5d:0xcb6e1d06acfd9662!2m2!1d76.6268306!2d12.2367336|title=Mysuru to Gurur}}</ref>

==Transportation==
Bus No. 11-A goes to Gurur from the city bus station, passing through [[Jayaprakash Nagar, Mysore|Jayaprakash Nagar]] and [[Vidyaranyapura]]. The nearest railway station is in Ashokapuram, Mysore. Gurur has a post office and its pincode is 570008.

==Nearby villages==
* Ramabhai Nagar
* Sidhappa complex
* Mahadevapura
* D.Block
* Gobli Mara
* Kalalavadi
* [[Udburu]]

==Demographics==
At the 2011 census, Gurur had a population of 2,292 people, of which 1,171 are males and the rest are females. Children below six years made up 11 per cent of the total population.
The literacy rate is 68 per cent.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/618738-gurur-karnataka.html|title = Gurur Village Population – Mysore – Mysore, Karnataka}}</ref>

==Administration==
Gorur is administered by a village head called ''Sarpanch'' who is elected by the people every five years.

==Major Landmarks==
* S.S.E.T. National Public school, Gurur
* World Peace Centre
* Institute for Indian Art and Culture
* Kalalavadi

==See also==
* [[Jayaprakash Nagar Mysore|Jayaprakash Nagar]]
* [[Vidyaranyapuram]]
* [[Gorur, Hassan]]

==Image Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Gorur Road, J.P (4).jpg|Railway gate on Gurur road
File:Gorur Road, J.P (3).jpg|Temple at Mahadevpura
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Mysore South]]
[[Category:Suburbs of Mysore]]

Chyavanprash

2025-11-25T19:02:47Z

Creativesketchbook:

{{Short description|Ayurvedic dietary supplement}}
[[File:Chyawanprash spoonful.JPG|thumb|200x200px|alt=Thick, dark liquid on a spoon|Chyavanprash is a herbal [[dietary supplement]].]]
'''Chyavanprash''' ({{Langx|sa|च्यवनप्राश|translit=Cyavanaprāśa}}),<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2020-04-06 |title=Cyavanaprasha, Cyavanaprāśa, Cyavana-prasha: 5 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/cyavanaprasha |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en |archive-date=2022-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031080017/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/cyavanaprasha |url-status=live }}</ref> originally '''Chayavanaprasham''',<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2021-08-06 |title=Section 35 [Ashtanga-hridaya-samhita, Sanskrit text] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/ashtanga-hridaya-samhita-sanskrit/d/doc727582.html |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en |archive-date=2022-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031080544/https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/ashtanga-hridaya-samhita-sanskrit/d/doc727582.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sivarajan |first1=V. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCMNAQAAMAAJ&q=Cyavanapr%C4%81%C5%9Bam |title=Ayurvedic Drugs and Their Plant Sources |last2=Balachandran |first2=Indira |author-link2=Indira Balachandran |date=1994 |publisher=International Science Publisher |isbn=978-1-881570-21-9 |pages=28 |language=en |access-date=2023-01-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216070747/https://books.google.com/books?id=jCMNAQAAMAAJ&q=Cyavanapr%C4%81%C5%9Bam |archive-date=2023-02-16 |url-status=live}}</ref> is a cooked mixture of [[sugar]], [[honey]], [[ghee]], Indian gooseberry ([[Phyllanthus emblica|amla]]) [[jam]], [[sesame oil]], [[berries]] and various [[herbs]] and [[spices]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=Vora MS | title=Rasayana: The Fountain of Life | publisher=Partridge Publishing India | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-4828-4315-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xqIVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT217 | access-date=November 2, 2017 | page=217 | archive-date=November 4, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104063219/https://books.google.com/books?id=xqIVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT217#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref> It is prepared as per the instructions suggested in [[Ayurvedic]] texts. Chyavanprash is widely sold and consumed in [[India]] as a [[dietary supplement]].

==Origin==
Chyavanprash is an [[ancient history|ancient]] formulation and product.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors=Gupta SK | title=Pharmacology and Therapeutics in the New Millennium | publisher=Springer Netherlands | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-7923-7059-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yrJ3M1KMv-AC&pg=PA332 | access-date=November 2, 2017 | page=332 | archive-date=November 4, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104063219/https://books.google.com/books?id=yrJ3M1KMv-AC&pg=PA332#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref> Various ancient Indian texts like [[Mahabharata]], [[Purana]]s etc., relate that [[Ashvins|Ashvin]] twins, who are [[Vedic]] gods of medicine, first prepared this formulation for [[Chyavana]] [[Rishi]], hence the name ''Chyavanprash''.<ref>Panda, H; ''Handbook On Ayurvedic Medicines With Formulae, Processes And Their Uses'', 2004, p10 {{ISBN|978-81-86623-63-3}}</ref> The first historically documented formula for chyavanprash appears in the ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'', the ancient Ayurvedic treatise<ref>Bates, D, ''Knowledge and the Scholarly Medical Traditions'' Cambridge University Press 1995, p325 {{ISBN|978-0-521-49975-0}}</ref> from the early first millennium BCE.

==Consumption and Taste==
Chyavanaprash is usually consumed directly. It can also be consumed along with warm water.

Chyavanaprash tastes sweet and sour at the same time. The taste is dominated by the flavors of honey, [[ghee]] (clarified butter) and amla, and the smell by ghee and other spices including sandalwood, cinnamon and cardamom.

==Composition==
The recipe of chyavanprash is mentioned in manuscripts written for ayurvedic method of treatment viz. [[Ashtanga Hridayam|Ashtangahridayam]], Charakasamhita, Sangandharasamhita. The number of herbs used may vary from 25 to 80 but the main ingredient of all chyavanprash is [[Phyllanthus emblica|amla]].<ref name="Johnston 2004 p. 226 ">{{cite book| vauthors = Johnston R |title=The politics of healing : histories of alternative medicine in twentieth-century North America|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|year=2004|isbn=0-415-93338-2|page=226}}</ref> Other chief ingredients are:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Ashwagandha]] (''Withania somnifera'' or Winter cherry)
* [[Asparagus racemosa|Shatavari]] (''Asparagus racemosa'')
* [[Phyllanthus emblica|Amla]]
* [[tabasheer|Bamboo manna]]
* [[Blue Egyptian water lily]] (Makhana)
* [[Cardamom]]
* [[Chebulic myrobalan]]
* [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|Chinese cinnamon]]
* [[Cinnamon bark]]
* [[Clove]]
* [[Indian rose chestnut]]
* [[Country mallow]]
* Feather foil plant (''[[Phyllanthus niruri]]'' or Bhumiamalaki)
* [[Gall]]s
* [[Ghee]]
* [[Giant potato]] (''Ipomoea mauritiana'' or Kiribadu Ala)
* Giloy (Guduchi) (''[[Tinospora cordifolia]]'')
* [[Honey]]
* [[Pueraria tuberosa|Indian kudzu]]
* Irish root
* [[Liquorice]]
* Long pepper (''[[Piper longum]]'')
* [[Justicia adhatoda|Malabar nut]] (Seed of ''Adhatoda vasica'')
* [[Cyperus|Nut grass]]
* [[Potassium sorbate]]
* [[Raisins]]
* Round [[zedoary]]
* [[Sandalwood]]
* [[Sesame oil]]
* Spreading hogweed (''[[Boerhavia diffusa]]'')
* [[Sugar]]
* [[Tiger's claw]] or Ice plant (''[[Erythrina variegata]]'')
* Wild [[black gram]]
* Wild [[green gram]]
{{div col end}}All of the major brands of chyavanprash were determined to be safe with respect to heavy metal content as of 2011 by Consumer Voice.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma R, Martins N, Kuca K, Chaudhary A, Kabra A, Rao MM, Prajapati PK | title = Chyawanprash: A Traditional Indian Bioactive Health Supplement | journal = Biomolecules | volume = 9 | issue = 5 | pages = 161 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 31035513 | pmc = 6571565 | doi = 10.3390/biom9050161 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Dabur Group}}

[[Category:Dietary supplements]]
[[Category:Dabur Group]]

Rana Jashraj

2025-11-06T03:56:46Z

Creativesketchbook: minor edit

{{Short description|Hindu deity}}
'''Rana Jashraj''' was elevated to the name '''Veer Dada Jashraj''' and he was worshiped as [[kuladevata]] by the [[Lohana]] caste.<ref name="Upendra Thakur">{{cite book|last=Thakur|first=Upendra|title=Sindhi Culture|year=1959|publisher=University of Bombay|pages=175|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FuItAAAAMAAJ&q=jasraj,thakur}}</ref><ref name="Pierre Lachaier">{{cite book|last=Lachaier|first=Pierre|title=Firmes et entreprises en Inde: Ia firme lignagere dans ses reseaux|year=1999|publisher=KARTHALA Edition|isbn=978-2-86537-927-9|pages=70|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-xSUpZrzgMC&dq=jashraj%2Cbride&pg=PA70}}</ref> In memory of Jashraj, ''[[Vasant Panchami]]'' (the fifth day of the spring season as per the [[Hindu calendar]]) is celebrated as a ''balidaani diwas'' (martyr day) of Veer Dada Jashraj.

Veer Dada Jashraj is a deity worshiped by Lohana, [[Bhanushali]], [[Khatri]], and [[Saraswat Brahmin]] community of [[Punjab region|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[Gujarat]] of the Indian subcontinent.

As per their folk tales, Jashraj, who lived around between 1205 and 1231, was at his wedding mandap when he learned that enemies were stealing cattle, the holy animal worshipped by Hindus. He left his fears and confronted his enemies to save the cattle. He was assisted in war by his sister Harkor. Although, the enemy from Kabul was eventually defeated, and Jashraj became victorious, he was killed as a result of an enemy stratagem. He has ever since been worshiped by Lohanas and Bhanushalis as Veer Dada Jashraj and his sister [[Harkor]] is worshiped as kuladevi by the Lohana clan.

However, Lohanas today consider Dada Jasraj as their folk deity or kuladevata and there is a custom of giving offerings such as dates and jaggery to the idol of Dada Jasraj, who is shown riding a horse. Newlywed brides offer these to Dada Jasraj wearing colorful clothes. Previously it was prescribed to wear only white clothes, while offering puja, but this custom is now almost forgotten by the Lohanas.<ref name="Pierre Lachaier"/>

==See also==
*[[Rana Vachhraj]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*Lohanas in Diaspora, Rohit Barot, Department of Sociology, Centre for the Study of Minorities and Social Change, University of Bristol [http://issuu.com/cosmicrohit/docs/historical_self-identification_of_the_uk_lohanas__?mode=window&pageNumber=1] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Veer_Jasraj_Dada.jpg

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jashraj, Rana}}
[[Category:Hindu folk deities]]
[[Category:Regional Hindu gods]]

Pateshwar

2025-11-04T19:06:27Z

Creativesketchbook: updated page

{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2024}}

[[File:Pateshwar temple.jpg|thumb|Pateshwar temple]]
'''Pateshwar''' is a village in [[Satara district]] of [[Maharashtra]], known for rock-cut caves with shrines of [[Shiva]].

Pateshwar is located about 11.26 km South East of [[Satara (city)|Satara]] on the Satara-[[Kolhapur]] state highway in Maharashtra. While there are two ways of approaching Pateshwar, the most popular route is through Degaon village by State Transport buses, autorickshaws apart from private cars. The other route is from the South through a village called Borgaon. This road is preferred by the locals, however tourists prefer the Degaon route.

Pateshwar has 8 ancient caves and many ancient stone carved deities of [[Shiva]] and other deities.<ref>Karkaria, R.P. "Satara", ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gKmgAAAAMAAJ&dq=Pateshwar&pg=PA378 Calcutta Review, Volumes 108-109]'', Volumes 108–9. University of Calcutta, 1899. 378.</ref> The place is known for having more than 1000 Shiva-lings (Also known as Pinds). Most important amongst these is the Maha Shiva Lingam which has intricate carvings. Many of the deities find references in the ancient Hindu [[Vedas]] and [[Puranas]]. Some of the identified deities are as below

==Shivalings==
* Ekmukhdhari Pind
* Chaturmukhdhari Pind
* Ashtadikpal Pind
* Harihar Pind
* Margalmhaisa Pind
* Yantra Pind
* Kumbheshwara
* Sahastralinga

==Other Deities==
* Ekmukhi Bramhadev
* Chaturmukh Shiv
* Saraswati
* Agni
* Sheshashayee Vishnu
* Vainayaki
* Tripura
* Ashtadashbhuja Mahishasur Mardini Chamunda
* Ashtamatruka
* Navgraha
* Dvadashavtar
* Balibhadra

Many of the deities are unique and have not been completely identified yet.

There is a mutth called 'Sadguru Govindanandswami Maharaj Mutt' which has few Sadhus who are known to take care of the place. However the temples are not in the best of condition and most of them have overgrown vegetation.

The hill has approximately 52 types of plants which have medicinal value and semi-deciduous trees like Teak, Banyan, Jamun, Karvee. Flowers like the Malabar Delphinium and Sonki which are found on the Kaas plateau in abundance are also found on this hill. The animals mostly found are monkeys, rat snakes, wild pigs and one can also sight Peacocks in the valley down below.

There is a book written by Shri Shankar Namdeo Barge in Satara on Pateshwar which is titled 'Shree Kshetra Pateshwar Darshan'

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* https://web.archive.org/web/20140306171933/http://satara.olx.in/book-on-patheshwar-its-a-place-near-world-famous-kaas-plateau-11-km-from-satara-iid-552294209
* https://sadanandsafar.blogspot.in/2011/09/pateshwar-offbeat-shiva-temple-complex.html
* https://nitinbarge.blogspot.in/2010/12/book-shri-pateshwar-darshan-review.html
* [https://wikimapia.org/14201460/pateshwar-nagar-satara Pateshwar] [[wikimapia]]

{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Villages in Satara district]]
[[Category:Shiva temples in Maharashtra]]

Nimbavali

2025-09-20T08:20:32Z

Creativesketchbook: starting a bio

{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Nimbavali
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| settlement_type = village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| etymology =
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India
| coordinates = {{coord|19.5086385|N|73.0132236|E|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Palghar
| subdivision_type3 = [[Taluka]]
| subdivision_name3 = Wada
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| seat_type = Nimbavali
| seat =
| leader_party =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_m = 16
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 970
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| area_code_type = 
| area_code =
| blank_name_sec1 = [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]] code
| blank_info_sec1 = 552641
| footnotes =
}}
'''Nimbavali''' is a village in the [[Thane district|Palghar district]] of [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]. It is located in the [[taluka|wada taluka]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/mpr/revenuevillagedirectorypdf/Maharashtra.pdf |title=Maharashtra villages |publisher=Land Records Information Systems Division, NIC |accessdate=2015-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095320/http://dolr.nic.in/dolr/mpr/revenuevillagedirectorypdf/Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It lies on the bank of [[Tanasa River]].

The name of village Nimbavali may be due to a big Tree of Neem standing at entrance of the village.

A famous destination for hot springs and a Nityanand swami mandir in the village Ganeshpuri is 1 km away from Nimbavali. These two villages are separated by the river Tansa and connected by a bridge.

There are two or three hot springs named Anasuya kund on land, while two or three springs are inside the river. There are two old temples of Shiva and Bajarangbali.

The village is made up mostly of Adivasi people.

== Demographics ==

According to the [[2011 census of India]], Nimbavali has 168 households. The effective literacy rate (i.e. excluding children aged 6 and below) is 87.07%.<ref name="census_2011"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Demographics (2011 Census)<ref name="census_2011">{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-2721-F-Census.xlsx |title=District census data |work=[[2011 Census of India]] |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations |accessdate=2015-08-17 |archive-date=2 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002001310/http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-2721-F-Census.xlsx |url-status=dead }}</ref>
! !! Total !! Male !! Female
|-
| Population || 970 || 513 || 457
|-
| Children aged below 6 years || 88 || 49 || 39
|-
| [[Scheduled caste]] || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| [[Scheduled tribe]] || 0 || 0 || 0
|-
| Literates || 768 || 428 || 340
|-
| Workers (all) || 355 || 268 || 87
|-
| Main workers (total) || 273 || 242 || 31
|-
| Main workers: Cultivators || 116 || 98 || 18
|-
| Main workers: Agricultural labourers || 11 || 8 || 3
|-
| Main workers: Household industry workers || 18 || 18 || 0
|-
| Main workers: Other || 128 || 118 || 10
|-
| Marginal workers (total) || 82 || 26 || 56
|-
| Marginal workers: Cultivators || 46 || 5 || 41
|-
| Marginal workers: Agricultural labourers || 2 || 1 || 1
|-
| Marginal workers: Household industry workers || 2 || 0 || 2
|-
| Marginal workers: Others || 32 || 20 || 12
|-
| Non-workers || 615 || 245 || 370
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Bhiwandi taluka}}

[[Category:Villages in Bhiwandi taluka]]

Islampur–Hatia Express

2025-07-23T15:24:23Z

Creativesketchbook: Made

{{Short description|Train in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox rail service
| name = Islampur–Hatia Express
| image = Ministry of Railways India.svg
| image_width =
| caption =
| type = [[Express trains in India|Express]]
| locale = [[Bihar]] & [[Jharkhand]]
| first =
| last =
| operator = [[South Eastern Railway zone|South Eastern Railway]]
| ridership =
| start = {{stnlnk|Islampur}} (IPR)
| stops = 25
| end = {{stnlnk|Hatia}} (HTE)
| distance = {{convert|476|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 13 hrs 55 mins
| frequency = Daily
| class = AC First Class, AC 2 Tier, AC 3 Tier, Sleeper Class, General Unreserved
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack =
| catering = On-board catering, E-catering
| observation = Large windows
| entertainment =
| baggage = No
| otherfacilities = Below the seats
| stock = [[LHB coach]]
| gauge = {{track gauge|1676mm|al=on|allk=on}}
| electrification =
| trainnumber = 18623 / 18624
| speed = {{convert|38|km/h|0|abbr=on}}, including halts
| map =
| map_state =
}}

The 18623 / 18624 '''Islampur–Hatia Express''' is an [[Express trains in India|express]] train belonging to [[South Eastern Railway zone]] that runs between {{stnlnk|Islampur}} and {{stnlnk|Hatia}} in India. It is currently being operated with 18623/18624 train numbers on a daily basis.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indiarailinfo.com/train/1358 | title=18624/Hatia - Islampur Express (PT) - Hatia to Islampur SER/South Eastern Zone - Railway Enquiry }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Rail Info| url=https://indiarailinfo.com/train/1358}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ser.indianrailways.gov.in/view_detail.jsp?lang=0&id=0,4,423&dcd=1701&did=1497351692094BD5D3F58DC5250A1E686976419DD88B0.web91 Ministry of Railways Closes Traffic on Dhanbad-Chandrapura Section]</ref>

== Service==

The 18623/Islampur–Hatia Express has an average speed of {{cvt|36|km/h}} and covers {{cvt|476|km}} in 12hr 55min. The 18624/Hatia–Islampur Express has an average speed of {{cvt|34|km/h}} and covers {{cvt|476|km}} in 13hr 55min.

== Route & Halts ==

The All halts of the train are:-
*'''{{stnlnk|Islampur}}'''
* {{stnlnk|Ekangarsarai}}
* {{stnlnk|Hilsa}}
* {{stnlnk|Daniyawan Bzr H}}
* {{stnlnk|Fatuha}}
* {{stnlnk|Patna Saheb}}
* {{stnlnk|RajendraNagar Terminal}}
* {{stnlnk|Patna Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Nadwan}}
* {{stnlnk|Taregna}}
* {{stnlnk|Nadaul}}
* {{stnlnk|Jehanabad}}
* {{stnlnk|Makhdumpur Gaya}}
* {{stnlnk|Gaya Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Paharpur}}
* {{stnlnk|Gujhandi}}
* {{stnlnk|Koderma Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Hazaribagh Road}}
* {{stnlnk|Parashnath}}
* {{stnlnk|Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Gomoh}}
* {{stnlnk|Chandrapura Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Bokaro Steel City}}
* {{stnlnk|Muri Junction}}
* {{stnlnk|Tatisilwai}}
* {{stnlnk|Namkom}}
* {{stnlnk|Ranchi Junction}}
* '''{{stnlnk|Hatia}}'''

==Coach composition==

The train has standard LHB rakes with a max speed of {{cvt|130|km/h}}. The train consists of 22 coaches :

* 1 First AC
* 2 AC II Tier
* 7 AC III Tier
* 1 AC lll Economy
* 7 Sleeper Coaches
* 2 General Unreserved
* 1 Seating cum Luggage Rake
* 1 EOG (End of Generator)

==Traction==

Both trains are hauled by a [[Diesel Loco Shed, Samastipur|Samastipur Loco Shed ]] or [[Electric Loco Shed, Gomoh|Gomoh Loco Shed]]-based [[WAP-7]] electric locomotive from Hatia to Islampur.

==Rake sharing==

The train shares its rake with 20801/20802 [[Magadh Express]].

==Direction reversal==

The train reverses its direction 1 times:

* {{stnlnk|Gaya Junction}}

== See also ==

* [[Patna Junction railway station]]
* [[Hatia railway station]]
* [[Patna–Haita Patliputra Express]]
* [[Patna–Hatia Super Express]]
* [[Islampur–Patna Express]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/615 18623/Islampur–Hatia Express]
* [https://indiarailinfo.com/train/1358 18624/Hatia–Islampur Express]

{{Railways in Eastern India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patna-Haita Express}}
[[Category:Transport in Ranchi]]
[[Category:Transport in Patna]]
[[Category:Express trains in India]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Bihar]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Rail transport in West Bengal]]

{{India-express-train-stub}}

List of avatars in the Mahabharata

2025-07-22T17:49:53Z

Creativesketchbook: adding.

{{Short description|List of beings in the Mahabharata and their avataras}}
{{italic title|string=Mahabharata}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
The section '''''Amshavatara Parva''''' (1.7.a) of the ''[[Adi Parva]]'' in the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (Critical Edition). provides a detailed account of the incarnations of [[Danava (Hinduism)|Danavas]], [[Asura|Asuras]], gods, and other celestial beings into human forms, as narrated by [[Vaisampayana]] to [[Janamejaya]], revealing the divine origins of prominent figures in the epic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buitenen |first=Johannes Adrianus Bernardus |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81rata/i8oe5fY5_3UC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=book+of+beginnings+mahabharata&printsec=frontcover |title=The Mahābhārata |last2=Fitzgerald |first2=James L. |date=1973 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-84663-7 |pages=151 - 154 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="1a">{{Cite book |last=Brodbeck |first=Simon |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Gender_and_Narrative_in_the_Mahabharata/56fr2p5f7l0C?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=gender+and+narrative+in+the+mahabharata&printsec=frontcover |title=Gender and Narrative in the Mahabharata |last2=Black |first2=Brian |date=2007-08-09 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-11995-0 |language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Asuras
!'''Human Incarnation'''

|-
|[[Viprachitti]] (Danava)
|[[Jarasandha]]

|-
|[[Hiranyakashipu]] (son of Diti)
|[[Shishupala]]
|-
|Samhrada (younger brother of Prahlada)
|[[Shalya]] (king of the Bahlika)
|-
|Anuhrada (youngest of the brothers)
|[[Dhrishtaketu]] (king)
|-
|Sibi (son of Diti)
|Druma (king)
|-
|Baskala (Asura)
|[[Bhagadatta]] (king)
|-
|Ayashiras, Ashvashiras, Ayashanku, Gaganamurdhan, Vegavat
|5 kings of the [[Kekaya]]s
|-
|Ketumat (Asura)
|Amitaujas (king)
|-
|[[Svarbhanu]] (Asura)
|[[Ugrasena]] (king)
|-
|Ashva (Asura)
|Ashoka (king)
|-
|Ashvapati (brother of Ashva)
|Hardikya (king)
|-
|Vrishaparvan (Asura)
|Dirghaprajna (king)
|-
|Ajaka (brother of Vrishaparvan)
|Malla (king)
|-
|Ashvagriva (Asura)
|Rocamana (king)
|-
|Sukshma (Asura)
|Brihanta (king)
|-
|Tuhunda (Asura)
|Senabindu (king)
|-
|Ishtva (Asura)
|Papajit (king)
|-
|Ekacakra (Asura)
|Prativindhya (king)
|-
|[[Virupaksha]] (Asura)
|Citravarman (king)
|-
|Hara (Danava)
|Suvastu (king)
|-
|Ahara (Asura)
|[[Bahlika (Mahabharata)|Bahlika]] (king)
|-
|Nicandra (Asura)
|Munjakesha (king)
|-
|Nikumbha (Asura)
|Devadhipa (king)
|-
|Surabha (son of Diti)
|Paurava (king)
|-
|Shalabha (Asura)
|Prahlada (Bahlika king)
|-
|Candra (son of Diti)
|Rishika (royal seer)
|-
|Mritapa (Asura)
|Pashcimanupaka (king)
|-
|Gavishtha (Asura)
|Drumasena (king)
|-
|Mayura (Asura)
|King of the land Vishva
|-
|Suparna (brother of Mayura)
|Kalakirti (king)
|-
|Candrahantri (Asura)
|Sunaka (royal seer)
|-
|Candravinashana (Asura)
|Janaki (royal seer)
|-
|Dirghajihva (Danava)
|Kashiraja (king)
|-
|Kratha (son of Sirphi)
|Parvateya (king)
|-
|Vasumitra (son of Anayus)
|Vikshara (king)
|-
|Second brother of Vasumitra (Asura)
|King of the Pamsu realm
|-
|Balavira (Asura)
|Paundramatsyaka (king)
|-
|[[Vritra]] (Asura)
|Manimat (king-seer)
|-
|Krodhahantri (Asura)
|Danda (king)
|-
|Krodhavardhana (Asura)
|Dandadhara (king)
|-
|Kaleyas (Eight Sons of Kalaka)
|[[Jayatsena]] (king of the [[Magadha]]s), Aparajita (king), King of the Nishadas, Shrenimat (royal seer), Mahaujas (king), Abhiru (royal seer), Samudrasena (king), Brihat (king)
|-
|Krodhavasa group
|Kings: Nandika, Karnaveshta, Siddhartha, Kitika, Suvira, Subahu, Mahavira
|-
!'''Divine Beings'''
!Human incarnation
|-
|Devaka
|Chief lord of the [[Gandharva]]s
|-
|[[Brihaspati]] (seer of the Gods)
|[[Drona]] (son of Bharadvaja)
|-
|United portions of [[Shiva|Mahadeva]], [[Yama]], [[Kama]], Krodha
|[[Ashwatthaman]]
|-
|Eight [[Vasus]]
|Sons of [[Shantanu]] by [[Ganga]] (youngest: [[Bhishma]])
|-
|[[Rudras]]
|[[Kripa]]
|-
|[[Dvapara Yuga|Dvapara]]
|[[Shakuni]]
|-
|[[Maruts]]
|[[Satyaki]], [[Drupada]], [[Kritavarma]], [[Virata]]
|-
|Gandharva king
|Hamsa (son of Arishta)
|-
|[[Kali (demon)|Kali]] (malicious diety of Strife)
|[[Duryodhana]]
|-
|Various [[Rakshasa]]s
|Duryodhana’s brothers ([[Kaurava|Kauravas]], from [[Dushasana]] onward: Durmukha, Duhshaha, etc.)
|-
|[[Yama|Dharma]] (god of Justice){{Refn|group=note|1=The Northern Recension (NR) also includes [[Vidura]] as an incarnation of Dharma in the list.}}
|[[Yudhishthira]]
|-
|[[Vayu]] (god of Wind)
|[[Bhimasena]]
|-
|[[Indra]] (King of gods)
|[[Arjuna]]
|-
|[[Ashvins]] (twin-gods)
|[[Nakula]] and [[Sahadeva]] (twins)
|-
|[[Varchas]]
|[[Abhimanyu]]
|-
|[[Agni]] (god of Fire)
|[[Dhrishtadyumna]]
|-
|A [[Rakshasa]]
|[[Shikhandi]]
|-
|[[Visvedevas|Vishvadevas]]
|[[Upapandavas|Draupadeyas]] (Draupadi’s five sons)
|-
|[[Surya]] (god of Sun)
|[[Karna]]
|-
|[[Narayana]] ([[Vishnu]])
|[[Krishna]]
|-
|[[Shesha]]
|[[Balarama]]
|-
|[[Sanatkumara]]
|[[Pradyumna]]
|-
|[[Apsara]]s
|Sixteen thousand [[junior wives of Krishna]]
|-
|[[Lakshmi|Shri]] (goddess of Prosperity){{Refn|group=note|1=The Northern Recension (NR), however, assigns Shri to [[Rukmini]] and reinterprets Draupadi as [[Shachi]], likely due to her marriage to Arjuna. Scholars view this shift (Adi Parva, Section LXVII, NR) as a later interpolation, rejecting Shri's association with Rukmini in the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hiltebeitel |first=Alf |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Ritual_of_Battle/9BvsDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=krishna+in+the+mahabharata&printsec=frontcover |title=The Ritual of Battle: Krsna in the Mahabharata |date=2017-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-4034-8 |pages=62 |language=en}}</ref><ref name = 1a />}}
|[[Draupadi]]
|-
|[[Siddhi]] (goddess of Success)
|[[Kunti]]
|-
|[[Dhriti]] (goddess of Endurance)
|[[Madri]]
|-
|Mati (goddess of Wisdom)
|[[Gandhari (Mahabharata)|Gandhari]]
|}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Mahabharata}}

[[Category:Mahabharata]]
[[Category:Avatars| Mahabharata]]

HDB Financial Services

2025-06-21T17:25:04Z

Creativesketchbook: Redirect page

#REDIRECT [[HDFC Bank]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

[[Category:HDFC Group]]

Trithuria konkanensis

2025-06-08T16:16:44Z

Creativesketchbook:

{{Short description|Species of aquatic plant}}
{{Speciesbox
|image =
|image_caption =
|genus = Trithuria
|parent = Trithuria sect. Hamannia
|display_parents = 3
|species = konkanensis
|authority = [[Shrirang Ramchandra Yadav|S.R.Yadav]] & [[Malapati Kuppuswamy Janarthanam|Janarth.]]<ref name = "POWO" />
|synonyms =
|synonyms_ref =
|range_map = Konkan Division.png
|range_map_caption = ''Trithuria konkanensis'' is endemic to Konkan<ref name = "POWO" />
}}

'''''Trithuria konkanensis''''' is a species of aquatic plant in the family [[Hydatellaceae]] endemic to India.<ref name = "POWO">{{cite POWO |id=979103-1 |title=''Trithuria konkanensis'' S.R.Yadav & Janarth. |accessdate=7 November 2024}}</ref><ref name = "IFO" />

==Description==
===Vegetative characteristics===
It is an annual, green to red, aquatic, 1.3 cm tall herb with numerous linear, erect or spread out, 12 mm long, and 0.8 mm wide leaves produced on reduced stems. The roots are fibrous and unbranched.<ref name = "Yadav & Janarthanam, 1995">Yadav, S. R., & Janarthanam, M. K. (1995). [http://irgu.unigoa.ac.in/drs/bitstream/handle/unigoa/4132/Aqua-Planta_3(95)_1995_91-97.pdf?sequence=1 ''Trithuria konkanensis'' (Hydatellaceae), eine neue Art aus Indien.]</ref><ref name = "Yadav & Janarthanam, 1994" />
===Generative characteristics===
It is a monoecious species with numerous, bisexual reproductive units. The reproductive units consist of up to 2 mm long peduncles, two linear, 5 mm long, and 0.6 mm wide bracts, as well as 15-20 carpels, which surround the single, red, central stamen.<ref name = "Yadav & Janarthanam, 1994">Yadav, S. R., & Janarthanam, M. K. (1994). [http://irgu.unigoa.ac.in/drs/bitstream/handle/unigoa/650/Rheedea_4_17.pdf?sequence=1 Hydatellaceae: a new family to Indian flora with a new species.]</ref> The pollen grains are 16.1–21.1 μm long, and 14.6–18.1 μm wide.<ref name = "Remizowa et al., 2008" /> It can self-pollinate,<ref name = "Remizowa et al., 2008" /><ref name = "Iles et al., 2012">Iles, W. J., Rudall, P. J., Sokoloff, D. D., Remizowa, M. V., Macfarlane, T. D., Logacheva, M. D., & Graham, S. W. (2012). [https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.3732/ajb.1100524 Molecular phylogenetics of Hydatellaceae (Nymphaeales): Sexual-system homoplasy and a new sectional classification.] American Journal of Botany, 99(4), 663-676.</ref> but cross-pollination could possibly also occur.<ref name = "Remizowa et al., 2008" /> Flowering and fruiting occurs from August to September.<ref name = "IFO">Sankara Rao, K., Deepak Kumar (2024). India Flora Online. https://indiaflora-ces.iisc.ac.in/plants.php?name=Trithuria%20konkanensis Downloaded on 8 November 2024.</ref>

==Cytology==
It is a tetraploid species with a chromosome count of 2n = 40.<ref name = "Remizowa et al., 2008">Remizowa, M. V., Sokoloff, D. D., Macfarlane, T. D., Yadav, S. R., Prychid, C. J., & Rudall, P. J. (2008). [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00173130802184214 Comparative pollen morphology in the early-divergent angiosperm family Hydatellaceae reveals variation at the infraspecific level.] Grana, 47(2), 81-100.</ref>

==Distribution==
It is endemic to India.<ref name = "POWO" /> This is unusual for its genus, as it is the only species occurring outside of Australia and New Zealand.<ref name = "Sokoloff et al., 2010">Sokoloff, D. D., Remizowa, M. V., Yadav, S. R., & Rudall, P. J. (2010). [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paula-Rudall/publication/261758119_Sokoloff_etal_2010_AustSystBot_Tkonkanensis/links/00b7d5356867a23ed2000000/Sokoloff-etal-2010-AustSystBot-Tkonkanensis.pdf Development of reproductive structures in the sole Indian species of Hydatellaceae, ''Trithuria konkanensis'', and its morphological differences from Australian taxa.] Australian Systematic Botany, 23(4), 217-228.</ref>

==Taxonomy==
It was described by [[Shrirang Ramchandra Yadav]] and [[Malapati Kuppuswamy Janarthanam]] in 1994.<ref name = "Yadav & Janarthanam, 1994" /><ref name = "POWO" /> The type specimen was collected by S. R. Yadav and M. K. Janarthanam in Maharashtra, India on the 20th of September 1993.<ref name = "Yadav & Janarthanam, 1994" /> It is placed in [[Trithuria sect. Hamannia|''Trithuria'' sect. ''Hamannia'']].<ref name = "Iles et al., 2012" /><ref name = "Sokoloff et al., 2013">Sokoloff, D. D., Remizowa, M. V., Beer, A. S., Yadav, S. R., Macfarlane, T. D., Ramsay, M. M., & Rudall, P. J. (2013). Impact of spatial constraints during seed germination on the evolution of angiosperm cotyledons: A case study from tropical hydatellaceae (Nymphaeales). American Journal of Botany, 100(5), 824–843. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23434582</ref>

==Etymology==
The specific epithet ''konkanensis'' references the [[Konkan]] region, from which the type specimen was collected.<ref name = "Yadav & Janarthanam, 1994" />

==Ecology==
Its habitat consists of ephemeral bodies of water. The substrate is sand and gravel. It occurs sympatrically with ''[[Utricularia]]'', ''[[Cyperus]]'', ''[[Dimeria]]'', and ''[[Eriocaulon]]''.<ref name = "Yadav & Janarthanam, 1994" /> The temperature in its habitat ranges from 18 to 35 °C.<ref name = "Yadav & Janarthanam, 1995" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from1=Q17253585}}

[[Category:Trithuria|konkanensis]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1994]]
[[Category:Freshwater plants]]
[[Category:Flora of India]]

Asif Mehbub

2025-05-06T14:51:27Z

Creativesketchbook: starting page

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}

'''Asif Mehbub''' (born 1982)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=Asif Mehbub(Indian National Congress (INC)): Constituency - Chanchal (Malda) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/WestBengal2021/candidate.php?candidate_id=1704 |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[West Bengal]]. He is a former member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] from [[Chanchal Assembly constituency]] in [[Malda district]]. He won the [[2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=West Bengal Assembly Election Results in 2016 |url=https://www.elections.in/west-bengal/assembly-constituencies/2016-election-results.html |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=www.elections.in}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Mehbub is from [[Chanchal]], Malda district, West Bengal. He is the son of late Mahabubul Haque. He is into cultivation. He completed his Master of Fine Arts at Kala Bhavan, [[Visva-Bharati University]], in 2007.<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Mehbub was elected from Chanchal Assembly constituency representing the Indian National Congress in the 2016 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chanchal Assembly Constituency Election Result - Legislative Assembly Constituency |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/chanchal-west-bengal-assembly-constituency |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=resultuniversity.com}}</ref> He polled 92,590 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Soumitra Ray of the [[All India Trinamool Congress]], by a margin of 52,368 votes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Chanchal Election Result 2021 Live Updates: Nihar Ranjan Ghosh of TMC Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/chanchal-election-result-2021-live-updates-chanchal-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-3696983.html |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> He was first elected as an MLA in the [[2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2011 West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] election where he polled 68,586 votes and defeated his closest opponent, Anjuman Ara Begam of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]], by a margin of 14,187 votes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Chanchal Election Results 2021 LIVE, Vote Counting, Leading, Trailing , Winners West bengal Chanchal Constituency Election News LIVE |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/west-bengal-election-results-2021/wb-chanchal-constituency-45.html |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-02 |title=Chanchal Election Result 2021 LIVE: How to check Chanchal assembly (Vidhan Sabha) election winners, losers, vote margin, news updates - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/chanchal-election-result-2021-live-how-to-check-chanchal-assembly-vidhan-sabha-election-winners-losers-vote-margin-news-updates-9146791.htm |access-date=2025-05-05 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref> He lost the 2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election won by Nihar Ranjan Ghosh of the Trinamool Congress and could finish only third, behind second placed Dipankar Ram (Bankat) of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 May 2021 |title=West Bengal Election: Chanchal Assembly Constituency 2021 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly-election/chanchal-390672401 |access-date=5 May 2025 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehbub, Asif}}
[[Category:1982 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:People from Malda district]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2011–2016]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2016–2021]]
[[Category:Visva-Bharati University alumni]]

Bargur cattle

2025-04-20T19:05:28Z

Creativesketchbook:

{{Short description|Breed of cattle}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
[[File: Baragur 01.JPG|thumb|Bargur cow]]
[[File: Baragur 02.JPG|thumb|Bargur bull]]
'''Bargur''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]]: '''பர்கூர்''' / [[Kannada]]: '''ಬರಗೂರು'''/[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]:'''ബർഗൂർ പശു''') is a breed of cattle native to the [[Bargur forest hills]] in [[ Anthiyur]] Taluk of [[Erode District]] in Western [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236245332 | title=Bargur cattle: status, characteristics and performance | journal=The Indian Journal of Animal Sciences | volume=79 | issue=7 | pages=681–685 | date=July 2009 | access-date=2 July 2020}}</ref> The cattle are usually moderate and compact in build and have brown skin with white patches, though full white and brown complexions are sometimes found.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nivsarkar |first1=A.E. |last2=Vij |first2=P.K. |last3=Tantia |first3=M.S. |date=2000 |title=Animal Genetic Resources of India: Cattle and Buffalo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOSboAEACAAJ |location=New Delhi |publisher=Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research |page=44 |isbn=8171641253 }}</ref> They are known to be very aggressive and of fiery disposition, and hence difficult to train. Accustomed to forest hills of the rugged and inhospitable forests of the [[Western Ghats]], they are best known for their endurance, speed and trotting ability. Their milk is thought to be of medicinal value.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} They have been usually reared in herds exclusively by the [[Kannada]]-speaking gowdas of the Bargur region.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/grazing-rights-necessary-for-propagation-of-bargur-breed-cattle/article7072170.ece ‘Grazing rights necessary for propagation of Bargur breed cattle’ - The Hindu, 6 April 2015, Erode.]</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/decks-cleared-for-bargur-cattle-research-station/article6800651.ece - Decks cleared for Bargur cattle research station - The Hindu, 19 January 2015, Erode.]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Ganapathi |first1= P. |last2= Rajendran |first2= R. |last3= Subramanian |first3= A. |last4= Meenakshisundaram |first4= S. |date= November 2013 |title= Bargur Cattle : Characterization and Management Practices |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277016643 |journal= The Indian Veterinary Journal |volume= 90 |issue= 11 |pages= 9–10 |access-date=29 September 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of cattle breeds]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Cattle breeds of India}}
[[Category:Cattle breeds]]
[[Category:Cattle breeds originating in India]]
[[Category:Animal husbandry in Tamil Nadu]]