Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Midhilesh Sunder

2023-07-20T05:15:12Z

Chitrasen pradhan: Crafted original article content.

{{Short description|Indian badminton player}}
'''Midhilesh Sunder''' is an International [[Badminton]] Player from [[Calicut]], [[kerala]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Midhilesh, Sruthi win titles |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/ |access-date=2023-07-16 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> He represented [[India]] in the Singapore International Series in Men Doubles. He is the All India Inter University Champion in the year 2009 and All India inter University Runner up and South Zone Inter University Champion in the year 2010. He played several national level tournaments representing [[Kerala]] state. Currently he is an officer in Defence Accounts Department.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dc |title=Balancing sports and academics with ease |url=http://archive.asianage.com/other-sports/balancing-sports-and-academics-ease-275 |access-date=2023-07-16 |website=The Asian Age |language=en}}</ref>

{{Infobox badminton player
| name = Midhilesh Sunder V
| image =
| caption = Midhilesh Sunder on action
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1988|9|27}}
| birth_place = [[Kozhikode]], [[Kerala]], [[India]]
| height = {{height|ft=6}}
| weight = {{convert|160|lb|kg}}
| country = India
| handedness = Right

| bwf_id = https://bwfbadminton.com/player/91902/midhilesh-sunder
}}

== Badminton career ==
He started his professional badminton career at the age of 9. He won various state level tournaments in his early carrier. He represented various tournaments representing [[Kerala]] state team. He is the All India Inter University Champion in the year 2009 and All India inter University Runner up and South Zone Inter University Champion in the year 2010. He represented [[India]] men doubles in the Singapore International Series in the year 2015. He was is a member of Kerala State Junior team in singles. He won the Kozhikode District championships several times in Singles, Doubles and Mixed doubles categories. He is also a [[Badminton World Federation]] certified coach.

== References ==
http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-sports/midhilesh-sruthi-win-titles/article3112955.ece
http://archive.asianage.com/other-sports/balancing-sports-and-academics-ease-275

http://bwfbadminton.com/player/91902/midhilesh-sunder
https://www.deccanchronicle.com/amp/content/tags/midhilesh-sunder-v

== External links ==
http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-sports/midhilesh-sruthi-win-titles/article3112955.ece</ref>
http://archive.asianage.com/other-sports/balancing-sports-and-academics-ease-275</ref>
http://bwfbadminton.com/player/91902/midhilesh-sunder</ref>
https://www.deccanchronicle.com/amp/content/tags/midhilesh-sunder-v</ref>

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://bwfbadminton.com/player/91902/midhilesh-sunder Midhilesh Sunder]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sunder, Midhilesh}}
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Racket sportspeople from Kozhikode]]
[[Category:Indian male badminton players]]

Edappally flyover

2023-07-11T16:44:22Z

Chitrasen pradhan:

{{Short description|Flyover in Kerala}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{infobox bridge
| name = Edappally flyover
| native_name= ഇടപ്പള്ളി മേൽപ്പാലം
| native_name_lang=ml
| maint =
| map =
| map_alt =
| map_notes =
| length = {{cvt|433|m|ft}}
| open = {{start date|2016|09|12|df=y}}
| carries = {{jct|country=IND|NH|66}}
| location = [[Edappally]], [[Kerala]], India
}}

'''Edappally flyover''' is a [[overpass|flyover]] in the city of [[Kochi]] in [[Kerala]], India. It starts from [[National Highway 66 (India)|NH 66]] at [[Lulu International Shopping Mall, Kochi|Lulu Mall]] and ends at Edappally church on the [[Edappally]]- [[Palarivattom]] road. It was constructed as a part of the [[Kochi Metro]] works to decongest the Edappally junction where the two [[National highways of India|national highways]] meets. The flyover was opened to public in September 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Edappally to have two more flyovers |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/edappally-to-have-two-more-flyovers/article38304535.ece |access-date=2023-07-11 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Overview==
Edappally is a major commercial centre as well as a prominent residential region in [[Kochi]]. It is also one of the busiest junctions in Kerala where [[National Highway 66 (India)|NH 66]] and [[National Highway 544 (India)|NH 544]] intesects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edappally flyover not sufficient to reduce traffic congestion: Kerala HC |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2022/dec/28/edappally-flyover-not-sufficient-to-reduce-traffic-congestion-kerala-hc-2532373.html |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> Before the construction of the flyover, the junction was infamous for traffic congestion and accidents. In June 2013, the foundation stone was laid for the construction of a flyover across Edappally. It was supposed to completed in 20 months. But due to adverse weather and other factors including quarry strike, the project was delayed for more than a year, also missing a couple of deadlines. The flyover was constructed as part of the [[Kochi Metro]] works by [[Delhi Metro Rail Corporation]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Edappally flyover to be opened on Sunday |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Kochi/Edappally-flyover-to-be-opened-on-Sunday/article14628293.ece |access-date=2023-07-11 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The project with a total expenditure of the ₹78 crores, including the ₹30 crores spent for properly rehabilitating was opened to public on 12 September 2016. The total length of the flyover is 433 meters. It consists of two independent carriageways on each side of the Metro Rail viaduct. The Edappally junction was also converted into pedestrian-friendly by constructing footpaths on both sides of the roads.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edappally flyover opened to public - The New Indian Express |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2016/sep/12/Edappally-flyover-opened-to-public-1518346.amp |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=www.newindianexpress.com}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Ernakulam district}}

[[Category:NH bypasses in Kerala]]
[[Category:National Highways in Kerala|66]]
[[Category:Roads in Ernakulam district]]
[[Category:2016 establishments in Kerala]]
[[Category:History of Kerala (1947–present)]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 2016]]
[[Category:Bridges and flyovers in Kochi]]
[[Category:Roads in Kochi]]

Basawon Singh (Sinha)

2023-05-27T15:34:59Z

Chitrasen pradhan: Crafted a new page.

#REDIRECT [[Basawon Singh]]

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{{R from move}}
}}

Meteorology

2023-03-26T23:08:38Z

Chitrasen pradhan: Published a captivating piece.

{{short description|Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting}}
{{About|the study of weather|the treatise by Aristotle|Meteorology (Aristotle)|the science of measurement|Metrology|the study of meteors|Meteoritics}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Weather}}
{{Atmospheric sciences}}

'''Meteorology''' is a branch of the [[atmospheric science]]s (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on [[weather forecasting]]. The study of meteorology dates back [[Millennium|millennia]], though significant progress in meteorology did not begin until the 18th century. The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at [[Weather prediction|prediction of weather]] depended on historical data. It was not until after the elucidation of the laws of physics, and more particularly in the latter half of the 20th century the development of the computer (allowing for the automated solution of a great many modelling equations) that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved. An important branch of weather forecasting is [[marine weather forecasting]] as it relates to maritime and coastal safety, in which weather effects also include atmospheric interactions with large bodies of water.

[[List of meteorological phenomena|Meteorological phenomena]] are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth's atmosphere: temperature, air pressure, [[Water vapor|water vapour]], [[Mass flow (life sciences)|mass flow]], and the variations and interactions of these variables, and how they change over time. Different [[Scale (spatial)|spatial scales]] are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, and global levels.

Meteorology, [[climatology]], [[atmospheric physics]], and [[atmospheric chemistry]] are sub-disciplines of the [[atmospheric sciences]]. Meteorology and [[hydrology]] compose the interdisciplinary field of [[hydrometeorology]]. The interactions between Earth's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture, and construction.

The word ''[[wikt:meteorology|meteorology]]'' is from the Ancient Greek [[wikt:μετέωρος|μετέωρος]] ''metéōros'' (''meteor'') and [[wikt:-λογία|-λογία]] ''-logia'' (''[[wikt:-logy|-(o)logy]]''), meaning "the study of things high in the air."

==History==
{{Main|Timeline of meteorology}}

===Ancient meteorology up to the time of Aristotle===
[[File:AlpineRainbow.jpg|thumb|[[Parhelion|Parhelion (sundog)]] in [[Savoie]]]]

Early attempts at predicting weather were often related to prophecy and [[divining]], and were sometimes based on astrological ideas. [[History of religion#Origin|Ancient religions]] believed meteorological phenomena to be under the control of the gods.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=1}}</ref> The ability to predict [[rain]]s and [[flood]]s based on annual cycles was evidently used by humans at least from the time of agricultural settlement if not earlier. Early approaches to predicting weather were based on [[astrology]] and were practiced by priests. The [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] had [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rain-making rituals]] as early as 3500 BC.<ref name=":1" />

Ancient Indian [[Upanishads]] contain mentions of clouds and [[season]]s.<ref name="imd">{{cite web|author=NS, nsimd@ymail.com |url=http://www.imd.gov.in/doc/history/history.htm |title=History of Meteorology in India |publisher=Imd.gov.in |access-date=25 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330125208/http://www.imd.gov.in/doc/history/history.htm |archive-date=30 March 2012 }}</ref> The Samaveda mentions sacrifices to be performed when certain phenomena were noticed.<ref name=":0" /> [[Varāhamihira]]'s classical work ''Brihatsamhita'', written about 500 AD,<ref name="imd" /> provides evidence of weather observation.

[[Cuneiform]] inscriptions on [[Babylon]]ian tablets included associations between thunder and rain. The [[Babylon|Chaldean]]s differentiated the [[22° halo|22°]] and [[46° halo]]s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Hellmann|first=G.|title=The dawn of meteorology|journal=Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society|language=en|volume=34|issue=148|pages=221–232|doi=10.1002/qj.49703414802|issn=1477-870X|bibcode=1908QJRMS..34..221H}}</ref>

The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] were the first to make theories about the weather. Many [[Natural philosophy|natural philosophers]] studied the weather. However, as [[Meteorological instrumentation|meteorological instruments]] did not exist, the inquiry was largely qualitative, and could only be judged by more general theoretical speculations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=8}}</ref> [[Herodotus]] states that [[Thales of Miletus|Thales]] predicted the [[solar eclipse]] of 585 BC. He studied Babylonian equinox tables. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=11}}</ref> According to Seneca, he gave the explanation that the cause of the [[Nile]]'s annual floods was due to northerly winds hindering its descent by the sea.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=4}}</ref> [[Anaximander]] and [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]] thought that thunder and lightning was caused by air smashing against the cloud, thus kindling the flame. Early meteorological theories generally considered that there was a fire-like substance in the atmosphere. Anaximander defined wind as a flowing of air, but this was not generally accepted for centuries. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=5}}</ref> A theory to explain summer hail was first proposed by [[Anaxagoras]]. He observed that air temperature decreased with increasing height and that clouds contain moisture. He also noted that heat caused objects to rise, and therefore the heat on a summer day would drive clouds to an altitude where the moisture would freeze.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=6}}</ref> [[Empedocles|Empledocles]] theorized on the change of the seasons. He believed that fire and water opposed each other in the atmosphere, and when fire gained the upper hand, the result was summer, and when water did, it was winter. [[Democritus]] also wrote about the flooding of the Nile. He said that during the summer solstice, snow in northern parts of the world melted. This would cause vapors to form clouds, which would cause storms when driven to the Nile by northerly winds, thus filling the lakes and the Nile.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=8}}</ref> [[Hippocrates]] inquired into the effect of weather on health. [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] claimed that bad weather followed four-year periods, according to Pliny.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=9–10}}</ref>

=== Aristotelian meteorology ===
These early observations would form the basis for [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'', written in 350 BC.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/weather/A0859595.html|title=Meteorology: Introduction|website = Infoplease}}</ref> Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/5/94.05.01.x.html|title=94.05.01: Meteorology|access-date=16 June 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160721205842/http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1994/5/94.05.01.x.html |archive-date=21 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> One of the most impressive achievements described in the ''Meteorology'' is the description of what is now known as the [[Water Cycle|hydrologic cycle]]. His work would remain an authority on meteorology for nearly 2,000 years.<ref name="Aristotle">{{Cite book|last=Aristotle | authorlink= Aristotle | title=Meteorology |url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/meteorology/ |year=2004 |location=The University of Adelaide Library, University of Adelaide, South Australia 5005 |quote=Translated by E.W. Webster |orig-year=350 BCE |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217110549/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/meteorology/ |archive-date=17 February 2007 }}</ref>

The book [[De Mundo]] (composed before 250 BC or between 350 and 200 BC) noted:<ref name="1908DeMundo">{{cite book |author=Aristotle; Forster, E. S. (Edward Seymour), 1879–1950; Dobson, J. F. (John Frederic), 1875–1947 |url=https://archive.org/details/demundoarisrich |title=De Mundo |publisher=Oxford : The Clarendon Press |year=1914 |page=Chapter 4}}</ref>
:If the flashing body is set on fire and rushes violently to the Earth it is called a thunderbolt; if it is only half of fire, but violent also and massive, it is called a ''meteor''; if it is entirely free from fire, it is called a smoking bolt. They are all called 'swooping bolts' because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky and is then called 'smoldering lightning"; sometimes it darts quickly along and is then said to be ''vivid''. At other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called ''forked lightning''. When it swoops down upon some object it is called 'swooping lightning'

After Aristotle, progress in meteorology stalled for a long time. [[Theophrastus]] compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the ''Book of Signs'', as well as ''On Winds''. He gave hundreds of signs for weather phenomena for a period up to a year.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=25}}</ref> His system was based on dividing the year by the setting and the rising of the Pleiad, halves into solstices and equinoxes, and the continuity of the weather for those periods. He also divided months into the new moon, fourth day, eighth day and full moon, in likelihood of a change in the weather occurring. The day was divided into sunrise, mid-morning, noon, mid-afternoon and sunset, with corresponding divisions of the night, with change being likely at one of these divisions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=25–26}}</ref> Applying the divisions and a principle of balance in the yearly weather, he came up with forecasts like that if a lot of rain falls in the winter, the spring is usually dry. Rules based on actions of animals are also present in his work, like that if a dog rolls on the ground, it is a sign of a storm. Shooting stars and the Moon were also considered significant. However, he made no attempt to explain these phenomena, referring only to the Aristotelian method.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=26}}</ref> The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in weather forecasting for nearly 2,000 years.<ref>{{cite web |title=Weather: Forecasting from the Beginning |url=http://www.infoplease.com/cig/weather/forecasting-from-beginning.html |website=Infoplease}}</ref>

=== Meteorology after Aristotle ===
Meteorology continued to be studied and developed over the centuries, but it was not until the Renaissance in the 14th to 17th centuries that significant advancements were made in the field. Scientists such as Galileo and Descartes introduced new methods and ideas, leading to the scientific revolution in meteorology.

Speculation on the cause of the flooding of the Nile ended when [[Eratosthenes|Erastothenes]], according to [[Proclus]], stated that it was known that man had gone to the sources of the Nile and observed the rains, although interest in its implications continued.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=26}}</ref>

During the era of [[Greece in the Roman era|Roman Greece]] and Europe, scientific interest in meteorology waned. In the 1st century BC, most natural philosophers claimed that the clouds and winds extended up to 111 miles, but [[Posidonius]] thought that they reached up to five miles, after which the air is clear, liquid and luminous. He closely followed Aristotle's theories. By the end of the second century BC, the center of science shifted from Athens to [[History of Alexandria#Roman era|Alexandria]], home to the ancient [[Library of Alexandria]]. In the 2nd century AD, [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Almagest]] dealt with meteorology, because it was considered a subset of astronomy. He gave several astrological weather predictions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=27}}</ref> He constructed a map of the world divided into climatic zones by their illumination, in which the length of the Summer solstice increased by half an hour per zone between the equator and the Arctic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=28}}</ref> Ptolemy wrote on the [[atmospheric refraction]] of light in the context of astronomical observations.<ref>Smith AM, 1996. "Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics", pp. 46. ''Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'' vol. 86, part 2.</ref>

In 25 AD, [[Pomponius Mela]], a Roman geographer, formalized the climatic zone system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paleorama.com/timelines/geography.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120906121823/http://www.paleorama.com/timelines/geography.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 September 2012 |title=Timeline of geography, paleontology |publisher=Paleorama.com |quote=Following the path of Discovery }}</ref> In 63–64 AD, [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] wrote ''[[Naturales quaestiones]]''. It was a compilation and synthesis of ancient Greek theories. However, theology was of foremost importance to Seneca, and he believed that phenomena such as lightning were tied to fate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=29–30}}</ref> The second book(chapter) of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s [[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]] covers meteorology. He states that more than twenty ancient Greek authors studied meteorology. He did not make any personal contributions, and the value of his work is in preserving earlier speculation, much like Seneca's work.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=30}}</ref>

[[File:Golden Gate Bridge as seen at twilight from Baker Beach.jpg|Twilight at [[Baker Beach]]|thumb]]

From 400 to 1100, scientific learning in Europe was preserved by the clergy. [[Isidore of Seville]] devoted a considerable attention to meteorology in ''[[Etymologiae]]'', ''De ordine creaturum'' and ''De natura rerum''. [[Bede|Bede the Venerable]] was the first Englishman to write about the weather in ''[[De natura rerum (Bede)|De Natura Rerum]]'' in 703. The work was a summary of then extant classical sources. However, Aristotle's works were largely lost until the twelfth century, including ''Meteorologica''. Isidore and Bede were scientifically minded, but [[Relationship between religion and science#Middle Ages and Renaissance|they adhered to the letter of Scripture]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=30–31}}</ref>

[[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] translated many ancient works into Arabic which were [[Transmission of the Greek Classics|transmitted]] and translated in western Europe to Latin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=31}}</ref>

In the 9th century, [[Al-Dinawari]] wrote the ''Kitab al-Nabat'' (Book of Plants), in which he deals with the application of meteorology to [[agriculture]] during the [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]]. He describes the meteorological character of the sky, the [[planet]]s and [[constellation]]s, the [[sun]] and [[moon]], the [[lunar phase]]s indicating [[season]]s and rain, the ''anwa'' ([[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such as winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes.<ref name="Fahd-815">{{cite |last=Fahd |first=Toufic |title=Botany and agriculture |page=815}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Morelon |first1=Régis |title=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |title-link=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |last2=Rashed |first2=Roshdi |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-12410-2 |volume=3 |pages=815–816}}</ref>

In 1021, [[Alhazen]] showed that atmospheric refraction is also responsible for [[twilight]] in ''[[Book of Optics|Opticae thesaurus]]''; he estimated that twilight begins when the sun is 19 degrees below the [[horizon]], and also used a geometric determination based on this to estimate the maximum possible height of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] as 52,000 ''passim'' (about 49 miles, or 79 km).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frisinger |first1=H. Howard |year=1973 |title=Aristotle's Legacy in Meteorology |journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society |volume=54 |issue=3 |page=198 |bibcode=1973BAMS...54..198F |doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1973)054<0198:ALIM>2.0.CO;2 |issn=1520-0477 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Adelard of Bath]] was one of the early translators of the classics. He also discussed meteorological topics in his ''Quaestiones naturales''. He thought dense air produced propulsion in the form of wind. He explained thunder by saying that it was due to ice colliding in clouds, and in Summer it melted. In the thirteenth century, Aristotelian theories reestablished dominance in meteorology. For the next four centuries, meteorological work by and large was mostly [[Commentaries on Aristotle|commentary]]. It has been estimated over 156 commentaries on the ''Meteorologica'' were written before 1650.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=32}}</ref>

Experimental evidence was less important than appeal to the classics and authority in medieval thought. In the thirteenth century, [[Roger Bacon]] advocated experimentation and the mathematical approach. In his ''[[Opus Majus|Opus majus]]'', he followed Aristotle's theory on the atmosphere being composed of water, air, and fire, supplemented by optics and geometric proofs. He noted that Ptolemy's climatic zones had to be adjusted for [[topography]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=33}}</ref>

[[St. Albert the Great]] was the first to propose that each drop of falling rain had the form of a small sphere, and that this form meant that the rainbow was produced by light interacting with each raindrop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rammb.cira.colostate.edu/dev/hillger/ancient.htm#magnus|title=Ancient and pre-Renaissance Contributors to Meteorology|access-date=16 June 2015}}</ref> [[Roger Bacon]] was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit cannot appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Raymond L. Lee|author2=Alistair B. Fraser|title=The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA155|year=2001|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-01977-2|page=155}}</ref>

In the late 13th century and early 14th century, [[Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī]] and [[Theodoric of Freiberg]] were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary [[rainbow]] phenomenon. [[Theodoric of Freiberg|Theoderic]] went further and also explained the secondary rainbow.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Theodoric of Freiberg and Kamal al-Din al-Farisi Independently Formulate the Correct Qualitative Description of the Rainbow {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/theodoric-freiberg-and-kamal-al-din-al-farisi-independently-formulate-correct-qualitative|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=16 May 2020}}</ref>

By the middle of the sixteenth century, meteorology had developed along two lines: theoretical science based on ''Meteorologica'', and astrological weather forecasting. The pseudoscientific prediction by natural signs became popular and enjoyed protection of the church and princes. This was supported by scientists like [[Regiomontanus|Johannes Muller]], [[Leonard Digges (scientist)|Leonard Digges]], and [[Johannes Kepler]]. However, there were skeptics. In the 14th century, [[Nicole Oresme]] believed that weather forecasting was possible, but that the rules for it were unknown at the time. Astrological influence in meteorology persisted until the eighteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=33,36}}</ref>

[[Gerolamo Cardano]]'s ''De Subilitate'' (1550) was the first work to challenge fundamental aspects of Aristotelian theory. Cardano maintained that there were only three basic elements- earth, air, and water. He discounted fire because it needed material to spread and produced nothing. Cardano thought there were two kinds of air: free air and enclosed air. The former destroyed inanimate things and preserved animate things, while the latter had the opposite effect.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=36–37}}</ref>

[[René Descartes|Rene Descartes]]'s [[Discourse on the Method]] (1637) typifies the beginning of the [[Scientific Revolution|scientific revolution]] in meteorology. His scientific method had four principles: to never accept anything unless one clearly knew it to be true; to divide every difficult problem into small problems to tackle; to proceed from the simple to the complex, always seeking relationships; to be as complete and thorough as possible with no prejudice.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=37}}</ref>

In the appendix ''Les Meteores'', he applied these principles to meteorology. He discussed terrestrial bodies and vapors which arise from them, proceeding to explain the formation of clouds from drops of water, and winds, clouds then dissolving into rain, hail and snow. He also discussed the effects of light on the rainbow. Descartes hypothesized that all bodies were composed of [[Atomism#Atomist renaissance|small particles]] of different shapes and interwovenness. All of his theories were based on this hypothesis. He explained the rain as caused by clouds becoming too large for the air to hold, and that clouds became snow if the air was not warm enough to melt them, or hail if they met colder wind. Like his predecessors, Descartes's method was deductive, as [[Meteorological instrumentation|meteorological instruments]] were not developed and extensively used yet. He introduced the [[Cartesian coordinate system]] to meteorology and stressed the importance of mathematics in natural science. His work established meteorology as a legitimate branch of physics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frisinge |first=H. Howard |title=The History of Meteorology: to 1800 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-940033-91-4 |pages=37–40}}</ref>

In the 18th century, the invention of the thermometer and barometer allowed for more accurate measurements of temperature and pressure, leading to a better understanding of atmospheric processes. This century also saw the birth of the first meteorological society, The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (later Royal Society of Arts) in London in 1754, which helped popularized the science of meteorology.{{Citation needed}}

In the 19th century, advances in technology such as the telegraph and photography led to the creation of weather observing networks and the ability to track storms. Additionally, scientists began to use mathematical models to make predictions about the weather. The 20th century saw the development of radar and satellite technology, which greatly improved the ability to observe and track weather systems. In addition, meteorologists and atmospheric scientists started to create the first weather forecasts and temperature predictions.{{Citation needed}}

In the 20th and 21st centuries, with the advent of computer models and big data, meteorology has become increasingly dependent on numerical methods and computer simulations. This has greatly improved weather forecasting and climate predictions. Additionally, meteorology has expanded to include other areas such as air quality, atmospheric chemistry, and climatology. The advancement in observational, theoretical and computational technologies has enabled ever more accurate weather predictions and understanding of weather pattern and air pollution. In current time, with the advancement in weather forecasting and satellite technology, meteorology has become an integral part of everyday life, and is used for many purposes such as aviation, agriculture, and disaster management.{{Citation needed}}

=== Instruments and classification scales ===
{{See also|Beaufort scale|Celsius|Fahrenheit}}
[[File:Wea00920.jpg|thumb|upright|A hemispherical cup anemometer]]

In 1441, [[Sejong the Great of Joseon|King Sejong]]'s son, Prince Munjong of Korea, invented the first standardized [[rain gauge]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4taaVmhmd8sC&pg=PA151|title=Earth Science' 2005 Ed.|publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc.|isbn=978-971-23-3938-7|page=151}}</ref> These were sent throughout the [[Joseon dynasty]] of [[Korea]] as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmer's potential harvest. In 1450, [[Leone Battista Alberti]] developed a swinging-plate [[anemometer]], and was known as the first ''anemometer''.<ref name="Jacobson">{{Cite book |last=Jacobson |first=Mark Z. |title=Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling |type=paperback |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-54865-6 |page=828}}</ref> In 1607, [[Galileo Galilei]] constructed a [[Galileo thermometer|thermoscope]]. In 1611, [[Johannes Kepler]] wrote the first scientific treatise on snow crystals: "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow)."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/earlyobs/earlyobs.htm|title=Early Snow Crystal Observations|access-date=16 June 2015}}</ref> In 1643, [[Evangelista Torricelli]] invented the mercury [[barometer]].<ref name="Jacobson"/> In 1662, Sir [[Christopher Wren]] invented the mechanical, self-emptying, tipping bucket rain gauge. In 1714, [[Gabriel Fahrenheit]] created a reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type [[thermometer]].<ref>Grigull, U., Fahrenheit, a Pioneer of Exact Thermometry. Heat Transfer, 1966, The Proceedings of the 8th International Heat Transfer Conference, San Francisco, 1966, Vol. 1.</ref> In 1742, [[Anders Celsius]], a Swedish astronomer, proposed the "centigrade" temperature scale, the predecessor of the current [[Celsius]] scale.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.astro.uu.se/history/Celsius_scale.html |title=History of the Celsius temperature scale |last=Beckman |first=Olof |work=[[Uppsala Astronomical Observatory]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722030732/https://www.astro.uu.se/history/Celsius_scale.html |archive-date=22 July 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1783, the first hair [[hygrometer]] was demonstrated by [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]]. In 1802–1803, [[Luke Howard]] wrote ''On the Modification of Clouds'', in which he assigns [[List of cloud types|cloud types]] Latin names.<ref>Thornes, John. E. (1999). ''John Constable's Skies.'' The University of Birmingham Press, pp. 189. {{ISBN|1-902459-02-4}}.</ref> In 1806, [[Francis Beaufort]] introduced his [[Beaufort scale|system for classifying wind speeds]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/beaufort_scale.shtml |title=Beaufort Scale |last=Giles |first=Bill |work=BBC Weather |access-date=12 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101015004110/https://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/beaufort_scale.shtml |archive-date=15 October 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Near the end of the 19th century the first [[cloud atlas]]es were published, including the ''[[International Cloud Atlas]]'', which has remained in print ever since. The April 1960 launch of the first successful [[weather satellite]], [[TIROS-1]], marked the beginning of the age where weather information became available globally.

===Atmospheric composition research===
In 1648, [[Blaise Pascal]] rediscovered that [[atmospheric pressure]] decreases with height, and deduced that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere.<ref>Florin to Pascal, September 1647, ''Œuves completes de Pascal'', 2:682.</ref> In 1738, [[Daniel Bernoulli]] published ''Hydrodynamics'', initiating the [[Kinetic theory of gases]] and established the basic laws for the theory of gases.<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Bernoulli_Daniel}}</ref> In 1761, [[Joseph Black]] discovered that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student [[Daniel Rutherford]] discovered [[nitrogen]], which he called ''phlogisticated air'', and together they developed the [[phlogiston theory]].<ref>[http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/genesis/search/$-search-results.cfm?CCODE=2476 Biographical note at "Lectures and Papers of Professor Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819), and Diary of Mrs Harriet Rutherford"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207075410/http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/genesis/search/$-search-results.cfm?CCODE=2476 }}.</ref> In 1777, [[Antoine Lavoisier]] discovered [[oxygen]] and developed an explanation for combustion.<ref>"Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general", 1777) and "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids", 1778).</ref> In 1783, in Lavoisier's essay "Reflexions sur le phlogistique,"<ref>Nicholas W. Best, "[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9220-5 Lavoisier's 'Reflections on Phlogiston' I: Against Phlogiston Theory"], ''[[Foundations of Chemistry]]'', 2015, '''17''', 137–151.</ref> he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a [[caloric theory]].<ref>Nicholas W. Best, [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10698-015-9236-x Lavoisier's 'Reflections on Phlogiston' II: On the Nature of Heat], ''[[Foundations of Chemistry]]'', 2015, '''17'''. In this early work, Lavoisier calls it "igneous fluid".</ref><ref>The 1880 edition of [[A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar]], a 19th-century educational science book, explained heat transfer in terms of the flow of caloric.</ref> In 1804, [[John Leslie (physicist)|John Leslie]] observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of [[black-body radiation]]. In 1808, [[John Dalton]] defended caloric theory in ''A New System of Chemistry'' and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the [[heat capacity]] of gases varies inversely with [[atomic weight]]. In 1824, [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] analyzed the efficiency of [[steam engine]]s using caloric theory; he developed the notion of a [[reversible process (thermodynamics)|reversible process]] and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the [[second law of thermodynamics]]. In 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that [[aurora]]e are caused by "magnetic effluvia" moving along the [[Earth's magnetic field]] lines.

===Research into cyclones and air flow===
[[File:Earth Global Circulation - en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|General circulation of the Earth's atmosphere: The westerlies and trade winds are part of the Earth's atmospheric circulation.]]
{{Main|Coriolis effect|Prevailing winds}}

In 1494, [[Christopher Columbus]] experienced a tropical cyclone, which led to the first written European account of a hurricane.<ref>Morison, Samuel Eliot, ''Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Cristopher Columbus'', Boston, 1942, page 617.</ref> In 1686, [[Edmund Halley]] presented a systematic study of the [[trade winds]] and [[monsoon]]s and identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions.<ref>Cook, Alan H., ''Edmond Halley: Charting the Heavens and the Seas'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998)</ref> In 1735, an ''ideal'' explanation of [[Atmospheric circulation|global circulation]] through study of the [[trade winds]] was written by [[George Hadley]].<ref>George Hadley, "Concerning the cause of the general trade winds", ''Philosophical Transactions'', vol. 39 (1735).</ref> In 1743, when [[Benjamin Franklin]] was prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a [[tropical cyclone|hurricane]], he decided that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery.<ref name="Dorst">{{cite web|last=Dorst |first=Neal |title=FAQ: Hurricane Timeline |url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/J6.html |website=aoml.noaa.gov |publisher=[[Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory|AOML]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605093128/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/J6.html |archive-date=5 June 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels.<ref name=corps>{{Cite journal |author=G-G Coriolis |title=Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps |journal=Journal de l'École Royale Polytechnique |volume=15 |pages=144–154 |year=1835}}</ref> In 1856, [[William Ferrel]] proposed the existence of a [[Ferrel cell|circulation cell]] in the mid-latitudes, and the air within deflected by the Coriolis force resulting in the prevailing westerly winds.<ref>{{cite web|first=William |last=Ferrel |author-link=William Ferrel |url=http://www.aos.princeton.edu/WWWPUBLIC/gkv/history/ferrel-nashville56.pdf |title=An Essay on the Winds and the Currents of the Ocean |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011124201/http://www.aos.princeton.edu/WWWPUBLIC/gkv/history/ferrel-nashville56.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=1 January 2009}}</ref> Late in the 19th century, the motion of air masses along [[isobar (meteorology)|isobar]]s was understood to be the result of the large-scale interaction of the [[pressure gradient force]] and the deflecting force. By 1912, this deflecting force was named the Coriolis effect.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid, Elastic, and Fluid Bodies |author=Arthur Gordon Webster |publisher=B.G. Teubner |year=1912 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dynamicsparticl04websgoog/page/n336 320] |url=https://archive.org/details/dynamicsparticl04websgoog|quote=coriolis centrifugal force 0-1920. }}</ref> Just after World War I, a group of meteorologists in Norway led by [[Vilhelm Bjerknes]] developed the [[Norwegian cyclone model]] that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of [[extratropical cyclone|mid-latitude cyclones]], and introduced the idea of [[front (meteorology)|fronts]], that is, sharply defined boundaries between [[air mass]]es.<ref name="NorCycMod">{{cite web|first=Shaye |last=Johnson |url=http://weather.ou.edu/~metr4424/Files/Norwegian_Cyclone_Model.pdf |title=The Norwegian Cyclone Model |website=weather.ou.edu |publisher=The University of Oklahoma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901163934/http://weather.ou.edu/~metr4424/Files/Norwegian_Cyclone_Model.pdf |archive-date=1 September 2006 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 October 2006}}</ref> The group included [[Carl-Gustaf Rossby]] (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of [[fluid dynamics]]), [[Tor Bergeron]] (who first determined how rain forms) and [[Jacob Bjerknes]].

===Observation networks and weather forecasting===
[[File:Wolkenstockwerke.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Cloud classification by altitude of occurrence]]
[[File:Hyetographic_or_Rain_Map_of_the_World_1848_Alexander_Keith_Johnston.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|This "Hyetographic or Rain Map of the World" was first published 1848 by [[Alexander Keith Johnston (1804–1871)|Alexander Keith Johnston]].]]
[[File:Hyetographic_or_Rain_Map_of_Europe_1848_Alexander_Keith_Johnston.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|This "Hyetographic or Rain Map of Europe" was also published in 1848 as part of "The Physical Atlas".]]
{{See also|History of surface weather analysis}}

In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century a range of meteorological instruments were invented – the [[thermometer]], [[barometer]], [[hydrometer]], as well as wind and rain gauges. In the 1650s natural philosophers started using these instruments to systematically record weather observations. Scientific academies established weather diaries and organised observational networks.<ref name="ModScience">{{Cite book|title = The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science|publisher=Oxford University Press|author=John L. Heilbron|isbn=9780199743766|pages=518}}</ref> In 1654, [[Ferdinando II de Medici]] established the first ''weather observing'' network, that consisted of meteorological stations in [[Florence]], [[Cutigliano]], [[Vallombrosa]], [[Bologna]], [[Parma]], [[Milan]], [[Innsbruck]], [[Osnabrück]], Paris and [[Warsaw]]. The collected data were sent to Florence at regular time intervals.<ref>Raymond S. Bradley, Philip D. Jones, ''Climate Since A.D. 1500'', Routledge, 1992, {{ISBN|0-415-07593-9}}, p.144</ref> In the 1660s [[Robert Hooke]] of the [[Royal Society of London]] sponsored networks of weather observers. [[Hippocrates]]' treatise ''Airs, Waters, and Places'' had linked weather to disease. Thus early meteorologists attempted to correlate weather patterns with epidemic outbreaks, and the climate with public health.<ref name="ModScience" />

During the [[Age of Enlightenment]] meteorology tried to rationalise traditional weather lore, including astrological meteorology. But there were also attempts to establish a theoretical understanding of weather phenomena. [[Edmond Halley]] and [[George Hadley]] tried to explain [[trade winds]]. They reasoned that the rising mass of heated equator air is replaced by an inflow of cooler air from high latitudes. A flow of warm air at high altitude from equator to poles in turn established an early picture of circulation. Frustration with the lack of discipline among weather observers, and the poor quality of the instruments, led the early modern [[nation states]] to organise large observation networks. Thus, by the end of the 18th century, meteorologists had access to large quantities of reliable weather data.<ref name="ModScience" /> In 1832, an electromagnetic telegraph was created by [[Baron Schilling]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Rebecca |last=Martin |url=http://www.abc.net.au/cgi-bin/common/printfriendly.pl?%2Fcatapult%2Findepth%2Ftelegraph.htm |title=News on the wire |website=[[ABC Online]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171042/https://www.abc.net.au/cgi-bin/common/printfriendly.pl?%2Fcatapult%2Findepth%2Ftelegraph.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 May 2009}}</ref> The arrival of the [[electrical telegraph]] in 1837 afforded, for the first time, a practical method for quickly gathering [[surface weather observation]]s from a wide area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/sfbmhtml/sfbmtelessay.html |title=The Invention of the Telegraph |last=Bruno |first=Leonard C. |access-date=1 January 2009 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |website=memory.loc.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111022122/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/sfbmhtml/sfbmtelessay.html |archive-date=11 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time. To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the [[Smithsonian Institution]] began to establish an observation network across the United States under the leadership of [[Joseph Henry]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm |title=Smithsonian Institution Archives |access-date=16 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020020548/http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm |archive-date=20 October 2006 }}</ref> Similar observation networks were established in Europe at this time. The Reverend [[William Clement Ley]] was key in understanding of cirrus clouds and early understandings of [[Jet Stream]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rmets.org/event/66b0c4c8-1f3a-e511-80d0-005056b14b19/abstract/fa253828-213a-e511-80d0-005056b14b19|title=Prophet without Honour: The Reverend William Clement Ley and the hunt for the jet stream|work=rmets.org|access-date=13 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828052608/https://www.rmets.org/event/66b0c4c8-1f3a-e511-80d0-005056b14b19/abstract/fa253828-213a-e511-80d0-005056b14b19|archive-date=28 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas]], known as 'CKM' Douglas read Ley's papers after his death and carried on the early study of weather systems.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Meteorologist's profile — Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas, OBE, AFC, MA|journal = Weather|first=M.|last=Field|volume=54|issue=10|pages=321–327|doi=10.1002/j.1477-8696.1999.tb03992.x|bibcode=1999Wthr...54..321F| s2cid=120325369 }}</ref>
Nineteenth century researchers in meteorology were drawn from military or medical backgrounds, rather than trained as dedicated scientists.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Williamson|first=Fiona|title=Weathering the empire: meteorological research in the early British straits settlements|journal=The British Journal for the History of Science|volume=48|issue=3|pages=475–492|doi=10.1017/S000708741500028X|pmid=26234178|issn=1474-001X|url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soss_research/2662}}</ref> In 1854, the United Kingdom government appointed [[Robert FitzRoy]] to the new office of ''Meteorological Statist to the Board of Trade'' with the task of gathering weather observations at sea. FitzRoy's office became the [[Met Office|United Kingdom Meteorological Office]] in 1854, the second oldest national meteorological service in the world (the [[Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics]] (ZAMG) in Austria was founded in 1851 and is the oldest weather service in the world). The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's Office were published in ''[[The Times]]'' newspaper in 1860. The following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when a gale was expected.

FitzRoy coined the term "weather forecast" and tried to separate scientific approaches from prophetic ones.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anderson, Katharine |year=1999 |title=The weather prophets: science and reputation in Victorian meteorology |journal=History of Science |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=179–215 |bibcode=1999HisSc..37..179A |doi=10.1177/007327539903700203 |s2cid=142652078}}</ref>

Over the next 50 years, many countries established national meteorological services. The [[India Meteorological Department]] (1875) was established to follow tropical cyclone and [[monsoon]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |url=http://www.imd.gov.in/doc/history/eastablishment-of-imd.htm |title=Establishment of IMD |website=imd.gov.in |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120224108/http://www.imd.gov.in/doc/history/eastablishment-of-imd.htm |archive-date=20 November 2015 |url-status=dead |access-date=1 January 2009}}</ref> The Finnish Meteorological Central Office (1881) was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of [[Helsinki University]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Finnish Meteorological Institute]] |url=http://www.fmi.fi/organization/history.html |title=History of Finnish Meteorological Institute |website=fmi.fi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725213620/http://www.fmi.fi/organization/history.html |archive-date=25 July 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=1 January 2009}}</ref> Japan's Tokyo Meteorological Observatory, the forerunner of the [[Japan Meteorological Agency]], began constructing surface weather maps in 1883.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Japan Meteorological Agency]] |url=http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/History/indexe_his.htm |title=History |website=jma.go.jp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225034901/http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/History/indexe_his.htm |archive-date=25 December 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=22 October 2006}}</ref> The [[United States Weather Bureau]] (1890) was established under the [[United States Department of Agriculture]]. The [[Bureau of Meteorology|Australian Bureau of Meteorology]] (1906) was established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services.<ref name="ABC">{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/01/01/2129737.htm |title=BOM celebrates 100 years |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Collections in Perth: 20. Meteorology |publisher=National Archives of Australia |url=http://www.naa.gov.au/naaresources/Publications/research_guides/guides/perth/chapter20.htm |access-date=24 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212210812/http://www.naa.gov.au/naaresources/Publications/research_guides/guides/perth/chapter20.htm |archive-date=12 February 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Numerical weather prediction===
{{Main|Numerical weather prediction}}
[[File:IBM 7090 console used by a meteorologist, 1965.jpg|thumb|left|A meteorologist at the console of the IBM 7090 in the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit. c. 1965]]

In 1904, Norwegian scientist [[Vilhelm Bjerknes]] first argued in his paper ''Weather Forecasting as a Problem in Mechanics and Physics'' that it should be possible to forecast weather from calculations based upon [[physical law|natural laws]].<ref>Berknes, V. (1904) "Das Problem der Wettervorhersage, betrachtet vom Standpunkte der Mechanik und der Physik" (The problem of weather prediction, considered from the viewpoints of mechanics and physics), ''Meteorologische Zeitschrift'', '''21''' : 1–7. Available in English on-line at: [http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_free/74383.pdf Schweizerbart science publishers].</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/Bibliographies/Bjerknes/Bjerknes_July_2004.pdf |title=Pioneers in Modern Meteorology and Climatology: Vilhelm and Jacob Bjerknes |access-date=13 October 2008}}</ref>

It was not until later in the 20th century that advances in the understanding of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of modern [[numerical weather prediction]]. In 1922, [[Lewis Fry Richardson]] published "Weather Prediction By Numerical Process,"<ref>Richardson, Lewis Fry, ''Weather Prediction by Numerical Process'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1922). Available on-line at: [https://archive.org/stream/weatherpredictio00richrich#page/n7/mode/2up Internet Archive.org].</ref> after finding notes and derivations he worked on as an ambulance driver in World War I. He described how small terms in the prognostic fluid dynamics equations that govern atmospheric flow could be neglected, and a numerical calculation scheme that could be devised to allow predictions. Richardson envisioned a large auditorium of thousands of people performing the calculations. However, the sheer number of calculations required was too large to complete without electronic computers, and the size of the grid and time steps used in the calculations led to unrealistic results. Though numerical analysis later found that this was due to [[numerical instability]].

Starting in the 1950s, [[number|numerical]] forecasts with computers became feasible.<ref>{{cite web|last=Edwards |first=Paul N. |publisher=[[American Institute of Physics]] |website=aip.org |url=http://www.aip.org/history/sloan/gcm/ |title=Atmospheric General Circulation Modeling |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325084036/http://www.aip.org/history/sloan/gcm/ |archive-date=25 March 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=13 January 2008}}</ref> The first [[weather forecast]]s derived this way used [[barotropic]] (single-vertical-level) models, and could successfully predict the large-scale movement of midlatitude [[Rossby wave]]s, that is, the pattern of [[low-pressure area|atmospheric lows]] and [[High-pressure area|highs]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Storm Watchers |page=[https://archive.org/details/stormwatcherstur00cox_df1/page/208 208] |year=2002 |author=Cox, John D. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-0-471-38108-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/stormwatcherstur00cox_df1/page/208 }}</ref> In 1959, the UK Meteorological Office received its first computer, a [[Ferranti Mercury]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/modelling-systems/history-of-numerical-weather-prediction|title=The history of Numerical Weather Prediction at the Met Office|website=Met Office|access-date=15 January 2018|archive-date=15 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115185643/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/modelling-systems/history-of-numerical-weather-prediction|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the 1960s, the [[Chaos theory|chaotic]] nature of the atmosphere was first observed and mathematically described by [[Edward Lorenz]], founding the field of [[chaos theory]].<ref>Edward N. Lorenz, "Deterministic non-periodic flow", ''Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences'', vol. 20, pages 130–141 (1963).</ref> These advances have led to the current use of [[ensemble forecasting]] in most major forecasting centers, to take into account uncertainty arising from the chaotic nature of the atmosphere.<ref name="HPCens">{{cite web |url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ensembletraining |author=Manousos, Peter |publisher=[[Hydrometeorological Prediction Center]] |access-date=31 December 2010 |title=Ensemble Prediction Systems}}</ref> Mathematical models used to predict the long term weather of the Earth ([[climate model]]s), have been developed that have a resolution today that are as coarse as the older weather prediction models. These climate models are used to investigate long-term [[climate]] shifts, such as what effects might be caused by human emission of [[greenhouse gas]]es.

==Meteorologists==
{{further|Meteorologist}}

'''Meteorologists''' are scientists who study and work in the field of meteorology.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Todd S.|last1=Glickman|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|url=http://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Meteorologist |title=Meteorology Glossary|format=electronic|edition=2nd|publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]]|access-date=10 March 2014}}</ref> The American Meteorological Society publishes and continually updates an authoritative electronic ''Meteorology Glossary''.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Todd S.|last1=Glickman|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|url=http://glossary.ametsoc.org/?p=1&query=doldrums|title=Meteorology Glossary|format=electronic|edition=2nd|publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]]|access-date=10 March 2014}}</ref> Meteorologists work in [[Government agency|government agencies]], private consulting and [[research]] services, industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and [[television stations]], and in [[education]]. In the United States, meteorologists held about 10,000 jobs in 2018.<ref name="BLS">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/atmospheric-scientists-including-meteorologists.htm|title=Atmospheric Scientists, Including Meteorologists : Occupational Outlook Handbook: : U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|website=www.bls.gov|language=en-us|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref>

Although weather forecasts and warnings are the best known products of meteorologists for the public, [[weather presenter]]s on radio and television are not necessarily professional meteorologists. They are most often [[reporters]] with little formal meteorological training, using unregulated titles such as ''weather specialist'' or ''weatherman''. The [[American Meteorological Society]] and [[National Weather Association]] issue "Seals of Approval" to weather broadcasters who meet certain requirements but this is not mandatory to be hired by the media.

==Equipment==
{{Main|Meteorological instrumentation}}
[[File:Huracán Hugo.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of [[Hurricane Hugo]] with a [[polar low]] visible at the top of the image]]
Each science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment. In the atmosphere, there are many things or qualities of the atmosphere that can be measured. Rain, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first atmospheric qualities measured historically. Also, two other accurately measured qualities are wind and humidity. Neither of these can be seen but can be felt. The devices to measure these three sprang up in the mid-15th century and were respectively the [[rain gauge]], the anemometer, and the hygrometer. Many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct adequate equipment to measure the many atmospheric variables. Many were faulty in some way or were simply not reliable. Even [[Aristotle]] noted this in some of his work as the difficulty to measure the air.

Sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists. They give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a [[weather station]], a ship or a [[weather buoy]]. The measurements taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric observables. Usually, temperature, [[atmospheric pressure|pressure]], wind measurements, and [[humidity]] are the variables that are measured by a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Office of the Federal Coordinator of Meteorology |website=ofcm.gov |url=http://www.ofcm.gov/fmh-1/fmh1.htm |title=Surface Weather Observations and Reports, Federal Meteorological Handbook No. 1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990420051036/http://www.ofcm.gov/fmh-1/fmh1.htm |archive-date=20 April 1999 |url-status=dead |access-date=2 January 2009}}</ref> Professional stations may also include air quality sensors ([[carbon monoxide]], [[carbon dioxide]], [[methane]], [[ozone]], [[dust]], and [[smoke]]), [[ceilometer]] (cloud ceiling), falling precipitation sensor, [[level sensor|flood sensor]], [[lightning|lightning sensor]], [[microphone]] ([[explosion]]s, [[sonic boom]]s, [[thunder]]), [[pyranometer]]/[[pyrheliometer]]/[[spectroradiometer]] (IR/Vis/UV [[photodiodes]]), [[rain gauge]]/[[snow gauge]], [[scintillation counter]] ([[background radiation]], [[fallout]], [[radon]]), [[seismometer]] ([[earthquake]]s and tremors), [[transmissometer]] (visibility), and a [[GPS clock]] for [[data logging]]. Upper air data are of crucial importance for weather forecasting. The most widely used technique is launches of [[radiosonde]]s. Supplementing the radiosondes a [[Aircraft Meteorological Data Relay|network of aircraft collection]] is organized by the [[World Meteorological Organization]].

[[Remote sensing]], as used in meteorology, is the concept of collecting data from remote weather events and subsequently producing weather information. The common types of remote sensing are [[Radar]], [[Lidar]], and [[satellite]]s (or [[photogrammetry]]). Each collects data about the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores the data where the instrument is located. Radar and Lidar are not passive because both use [[EM radiation]] to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere.<ref>Peebles, Peyton, [1998], ''Radar Principles'', John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, {{ISBN|0-471-25205-0}}.</ref> Weather satellites along with more general-purpose Earth-observing satellites circling the earth at various altitudes have become an indispensable tool for studying a wide range of phenomena from forest fires to [[El Niño]].

==Spatial scales==
The study of the atmosphere can be divided into distinct areas that depend on both time and spatial scales. At one extreme of this scale is climatology. In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, meso-, and synoptic scale meteorology. Respectively, the [[geospatial]] size of each of these three scales relates directly with the appropriate timescale.

Other subclassifications are used to describe the unique, local, or broad effects within those subclasses.
{| class="wikitable" style="border-spacing: 5px; margin:auto;"
|+ '''Typical Scales of Atmospheric Motion Systems'''<ref>{{cite web|last1=Holton|first1=James|title=An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology|url=http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~delde102/Holton_2004.pdf|publisher=Elsevier Academic Press|access-date=5 March 2016|page=5}}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" style="width:150px;"| Type of motion
! scope="col" style="width:100px;"| Horizontal scale (meter)
|-
|-
| Molecular mean free path || 10−7
|-
| Minute turbulent eddies || 10−2 – 10−1
|-
| Small eddies || 10−1 – 1
|-
| Dust devils || 1–10
|-
| Gusts || 10 – 102
|-
| Tornadoes || 102
|-
| Thunderclouds || 103
|-
| Fronts, squall lines || 104 – 105
|-
| Hurricanes || 105
|-
| Synoptic Cyclones || 106
|-
| Planetary waves || 107
|-
| Atmospheric tides || 107
|-
| Mean zonal wind || 107
|-
|}

===Microscale===
{{Main|Microscale meteorology}}

Microscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena on a scale of about {{convert|1|km|mi}} or less. Individual thunderstorms, clouds, and local turbulence caused by buildings and other obstacles (such as individual hills) are modeled on this scale.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?query=micrometeorology |title=AMS Glossary of Meteorology |access-date=12 April 2008 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606101802/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?query=micrometeorology |archive-date=6 June 2011 }}</ref>

===Mesoscale===
{{Main|Mesoscale meteorology}}

Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to 1000 km and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere, [[tropopause]], and the lower section of the [[stratosphere]]. Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to multiple weeks. The events typically of interest are [[thunderstorm]]s, [[squall line]]s, [[weather front|fronts]], [[rainbands|precipitation bands]] in [[tropical cyclone|tropical]] and [[extratropical cyclone]]s, and topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves and [[sea breeze|sea and land breezes]].<ref>''[http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary Online Glossary of Meteorology]'', [[American Meteorological Society]] [http://www.ametsoc.org/], 2nd Ed., 2000, [http://www.allenpress.com Allen Press].</ref>

===Synoptic scale===
{{Main|Synoptic scale meteorology}}
[[File:Surface analysis.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|[[NOAA]]: Synoptic scale weather analysis]]

Synoptic scale meteorology predicts atmospheric changes at scales up to 1000 km and 105 sec (28 days), in time and space. At the synoptic scale, the [[Coriolis acceleration]] acting on moving air masses (outside of the tropics) plays a dominant role in predictions. The phenomena typically described by [[synoptic meteorology]] include events such as extratropical cyclones, baroclinic troughs and ridges, [[weather front|frontal zones]], and to some extent [[jet stream]]s. All of these are typically given on [[weather map]]s for a specific time. The minimum horizontal scale of synoptic phenomena is limited to the spacing between [[weather station|surface observation stations]].<ref>Bluestein, H., ''Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1'', Oxford University Press, 1992; {{ISBN|0-19-506267-1}}</ref>

===Global scale===
[[File:WOA09 sea-surf TMP AYool.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Annual mean sea surface temperatures]]

Global scale meteorology is the study of weather patterns related to the transport of heat from the [[tropics]] to the [[Geographical pole|poles]]. Very large scale oscillations are of importance at this scale. These oscillations have time periods typically on the order of months, such as the [[Madden–Julian oscillation]], or years, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]] and the [[Pacific decadal oscillation]]. Global scale meteorology pushes into the range of climatology. The traditional definition of climate is pushed into larger timescales and with the understanding of the longer time scale global oscillations, their effect on climate and weather disturbances can be included in the synoptic and mesoscale timescales predictions.

Numerical Weather Prediction is a main focus in understanding air–sea interaction, tropical meteorology, atmospheric predictability, and tropospheric/stratospheric processes.<ref>[http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/sec7532.htm Global Modelling] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821003218/https://www1.nrlmry.navy.mil/sec7532.htm }}, US Naval Research Laboratory, Monterey, Ca.</ref> The [[Naval Research Laboratory]] in Monterey, California, developed a global atmospheric model called [[Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System]] (NOGAPS). NOGAPS is run operationally at [[Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center]] for the United States Military. Many other global atmospheric models are run by national meteorological agencies.

==Some meteorological principles==

===Boundary layer meteorology===
[[Boundary layer]] meteorology is the study of processes in the air layer directly above Earth's surface, known as the [[Planetary boundary layer|atmospheric boundary layer]] (ABL). The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and [[friction]] – cause [[turbulence|turbulent mixing]] within the air layer. Significant movement of [[sensible heat|heat]], [[matter]], or [[momentum]] on time scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent motions.<ref>Garratt, J.R., ''The atmospheric boundary layer'', Cambridge University Press, 1992; {{ISBN|0-521-38052-9}}.</ref> Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface–atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology.

===Dynamic meteorology===
Dynamic meteorology generally focuses on the [[fluid dynamics]] of the atmosphere. The idea of [[air parcel]] is used to define the smallest element of the atmosphere, while ignoring the discrete molecular and chemical nature of the atmosphere. An air parcel is defined as a point in the fluid continuum of the atmosphere. The fundamental laws of fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, and motion are used to study the atmosphere. The physical quantities that characterize the state of the atmosphere are temperature, density, pressure, etc. These variables have unique values in the continuum.<ref>Holton, J.R. [2004]. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, 4th Ed., Burlington, Md: Elsevier Inc.. {{ISBN|0-12-354015-1}}.</ref>

==Applications==

===Weather forecasting===
{{Main|Weather forecasting}}
[[File:Day5pressureforecast.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Forecast of surface pressures five days into the future for the north Pacific, North America, and north Atlantic Ocean]]

Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] at a future time and given location. Humans have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since at least the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|website=Mistic House |url=http://www.mistichouse.com/astrology-lessons.htm |title=Astrology Lessons |access-date=12 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608133837/http://www.mistichouse.com/astrology-lessons.htm |archive-date=8 June 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Eric D. |last=Craft |url=http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/craft.weather.forcasting.history|title=An Economic History of Weather Forecasting |website=EH.net |publisher=[[Economic History Association]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503193324/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/craft.weather.forcasting.history |archive-date=3 May 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 April 2007}}</ref> Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative [[data]] about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/WxForecasting/wx2.html |title=Weather Forecasting Through the Ages |work=NASA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050910210732/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/WxForecasting/wx2.html |archive-date=10 September 2005 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref>

Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in [[Atmospheric pressure|barometric pressure]], current weather conditions, and sky condition,<ref>{{cite web|website=The Weather Doctor |url=http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/eyes/barometer3.htm |title=Applying The Barometer To Weather Watching |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509105153/http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/eyes/barometer3.htm |archive-date=9 May 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Mark |last=Moore |url=http://www.nwac.us/education_resources/Field_forecasting.pdf |title=Field Forecasting—a short summary |work=[[Northwest Weather and Avalanche Center|NWAC]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325034756/http://www.nwac.us/education_resources/Field_forecasting.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref> [[numerical weather prediction|forecast models]] are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, [[teleconnection]]s, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The [[chaos theory|chaotic]] nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the ''range'' of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome.<ref name="Klaus">{{cite web|first1=Klaus |last1=Weickmann |first2=Jeff |last2=Whitaker |first3=Andres |last3=Roubicek |first4=Catherine |last4=Smith |url=http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/spotlight/12012001/ |title=The Use of Ensemble Forecasts to Produce Improved Medium Range (3–15 days) Weather Forecasts |publisher=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |website=cdc.noaa.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215055130/http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/spotlight/12012001/ |archive-date=15 December 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=16 February 2007}}</ref><ref name="TBK">{{cite web|first=Todd |last=Kimberlain |url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/TropicalTalk.ppt |title=TC Genesis, Track, and Intensity Forecating [sic] |website=wpc.ncep.noaa.gov |access-date=21 July 2007}}</ref><ref>Richard J. Pasch, Mike Fiorino, and [[Chris Landsea]]. [http://www.emc.ncep.noaa.gov/research/NCEP-EMCModelReview2006/TPC-NCEP2006.ppt TPC/NHC’S REVIEW OF THE NCEP PRODUCTION SUITE FOR 2006.]{{dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Retrieved on 5 May 2008.</ref>

There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weather.gov/mission.shtml |title=National Weather Service Mission Statement |website=weather.gov |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612134118/http://www.weather.gov/mission.shtml |archive-date=12 June 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008 }}</ref> Forecasts based on temperature and [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] are important to agriculture,<ref>{{cite web|first=Blair |last=Fannin |url=http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/061406-Texas-weather/ |title=Dry weather conditions continue for Texas |work=Southwest Farm Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703095038/http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/061406-Texas-weather/ |archive-date=3 July 2009 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Terry |last=Mader |url=http://beef.unl.edu/stories/200004030.shtml |title=Drought Corn Silage |publisher=[[University of Nebraska–Lincoln]] |website=beef.unl.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005203246/http://beef.unl.edu/stories/200004030.shtml |archive-date=5 October 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Kathryn C. |last=Taylor |url=http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/C877.htm |title=Peach Orchard Establishment and Young Tree Care |publisher=[[University of Georgia]] |website=pubs.caes.uga.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224112403/http://pubs.caes.uga.edu/caespubs/pubcd/C877.htm |archive-date=24 December 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=26 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/14/us/after-freeze-counting-losses-to-orange-crop.html |title=After Freeze, Counting Losses to Orange Crop |work=The New York Times |agency=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=26 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615190918/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/14/us/after-freeze-counting-losses-to-orange-crop.html |archive-date=15 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days.<ref>{{cite web|work=The New York Times |agency=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/26/business/futures-options-cold-weather-brings-surge-in-prices-of-heating-fuels.html |title=FUTURES/OPTIONS; Cold Weather Brings Surge In Prices of Heating Fuels |access-date=25 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615135320/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/02/26/business/futures-options-cold-weather-brings-surge-in-prices-of-heating-fuels.html |archive-date=15 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5212724.stm |title=Heatwave causes electricity surge |work=BBC News |access-date=25 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520060913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5212724.stm |archive-date=20 May 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill/EDSP_KeyMessages_FINAL.pdf |title=The seven key messages of the Energy Drill program |website=tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill |publisher=[[Toronto Catholic District School Board]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217042744/http://www.tcdsb.org/environment/energydrill/EDSP_KeyMessages_FINAL.pdf |archive-date=17 February 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=25 May 2008}}</ref> On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow, and [[wind chill]], forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them.

===Aviation meteorology===
Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on [[air traffic control|air traffic management]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Aviation |first=David W. |last=Wragg |isbn=9780850451634 |edition=first |publisher=Osprey |year=1973 |page=190}}</ref> It is important for air crews to understand the implications of weather on their flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the ''[[Aeronautical Information Manual]]'':<ref>An international version called the [[Aeronautical Information Publication]] contains parallel information, as well as specific information on the international airports for use by the international community.</ref>
<blockquote>The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative—thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap7_section_1.html |publisher=[[Federal Aviation Administration]], Dept. of Transportation |title=Aeronautical Information Manual, Section 1. Meteorology: 7-1-21. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing |access-date=2020-08-17 |website=AIM Online}}</ref></blockquote>

===Agricultural meteorology===
Meteorologists, [[soil science|soil scientists]], agricultural hydrologists, and [[agronomy|agronomists]] are people concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on plant distribution, [[crop yield]], water-use efficiency, [[phenology]] of plant and animal development, and the energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. Conversely, they are interested in the role of vegetation on climate and weather.<ref>[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/503295/description?navopenmenu=-2 Agricultural and Forest Meteorology], Elsevier, {{ISSN|0168-1923}}.</ref>

===Hydrometeorology===
[[Hydrometeorology]] is the branch of meteorology that deals with the [[hydrologic cycle]], the water budget, and the rainfall statistics of [[storm]]s.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041744/hydrometeorology Encyclopædia Britannica], 2007.</ref> A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating (quantitative) precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snow, and highlights areas with the potential for flash flooding. Typically the range of knowledge that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences.<ref>[http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/html/about2.shtml About the HPC], NOAA/ National Weather Service, National Centers for Environmental Prediction, [http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ Hydrometeorological Prediction Center], Camp Springs, Maryland, 2007.</ref>

The multidisciplinary nature of the branch can result in technical challenges, since tools and solutions from each of the individual disciplines involved may behave slightly differently, be optimized for different hard- and software platforms and use different data formats. There are some initiatives – such as the DRIHM project<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drihm.eu/|title=Home|access-date=16 June 2015}}</ref> – that are trying to address this issue.<ref>[http://www.drihm.eu/images/newsletter/newsletter%20drihm%2001.pdf DRIHM News, number 1, March 2012, p2] "An ideal environment for hydro-meteorology research at the European level"</ref>

===Nuclear meteorology===
Nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of [[radioactive]] [[aerosol]]s and [[gas]]es in the atmosphere.<ref>{{cite journal
|title=Modern research in nuclear meteorology
|journal=Atomic Energy
|volume=36
|issue=2
|pages=197–198
|doi=10.1007/BF01117823|last1=Tsitskishvili
|first1=M. S.
|last2=Trusov
|first2=A. G.
|s2cid=96128061
}}</ref>

===Maritime meteorology===
Maritime meteorology deals with air and wave forecasts for ships operating at sea. Organizations such as the [[Ocean Prediction Center]], Honolulu [[National Weather Service]] forecast office, United Kingdom [[Met Office]], [[Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute|KNMI]] and [[Japan Meteorological Agency|JMA]] prepare high seas forecasts for the world's oceans.

===Military meteorology===
{{Main|Military meteorology}}

Military meteorology is the research and application of meteorology for [[military]] purposes. In the United States, the [[United States Navy]]'s [[Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command]] oversees meteorological efforts for the Navy and [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] while the [[United States Air Force]]'s [[Air Force Weather Agency]] is responsible for the Air Force and [[United States Army|Army]].

===Environmental meteorology===
Environmental meteorology mainly analyzes industrial pollution dispersion physically and chemically based on meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind, and various weather conditions.

===Renewable energy===
Meteorology applications in renewable energy includes basic research, "exploration," and potential mapping of wind power and solar radiation for wind and solar energy.

==See also==
{{Main|Outline of meteorology|Glossary of meteorology}}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*[[Aerography (meteorology)|Aerography]]
*[[American Practical Navigator]]
*[[Atmospheric circulation]]
*[[Atmospheric layers]]
*[[Atmospheric models]]
* [[Atmospheric pressure]]
*[[Atmospheric thermodynamics]]
*[[Automated airport weather station]]
*[[Cloud]]
*[[Eddy covariance]] flux (eddy correlation, eddy flux)
*[[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]]
*[[Index of meteorology articles]]
*[[Indigenous Australian seasons]]
*[[List of cloud types]]
*[[List of meteorology institutions]]
*[[List of Russian meteorologists]]
*[[List of weather instruments]]
*[[Madden–Julian oscillation]]
*[[Meteorological winter]]
*[[National Weatherperson's Day]]
*[[Precipitation]]
*[[ROFOR]]
*[[Space weather]]
*[[Walker circulation]]
*[[Weather station]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==

*Byers, Horace. General Meteorology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
*{{Cite book
|last=Garret
|first=J.R.
|title=The atmospheric boundary layer
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-38052-2
|year=1992
|orig-year=1992
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/atmosphericbound0000garr
}}
*{{Cite book
|others=American Meteorological Society
|title=Glossary of Meteorology
|url=http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary
|edition=2nd
|publisher=Allen Press
|year=2000}}
*{{Cite book
|last=Bluestein
|first=H
|title=Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1
|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-19-506267-0
|year=1992
|orig-year=1992}}
*{{Cite book
|last=Bluestein
|first=H
|title=Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Volume II: Observations and Theory of Weather Systems
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-506268-7
|year=1993
|orig-year=1993}}
*{{Cite book
|last=Reynolds
|first=R
|title=Guide to Weather
|publisher=Firefly Books Inc
|location=Buffalo, New York
|isbn=978-1-55407-110-4
|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781554071104/page/208 208]
|year=2005
|orig-year=2005
|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781554071104/page/208
}}
*{{Cite book
|last = Holton
|first = J.R.
|title = An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology
|url = http://elsevier.com.uk
|edition = 4th
|publisher = Elsevier Inc.
|location = Burlington, Md
|isbn = 978-0-12-354015-7
|year = 2004
|orig-year = 2004
|access-date = 21 May 2017
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130719153537/http://elsevier.com.uk/
|archive-date = 19 July 2013
|url-status = dead
}}
* {{cite book |author1=Roulstone, Ian |author2=Norbury, John |name-list-style=amp |title=Invisible in the Storm: the role of mathematics in understanding weather |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qnMrFEHMrWwC|year=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691152721 }}

===Dictionaries and encyclopedias===
* {{cite book|first1=Todd S.|last1=Glickman|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|url=http://glossary.ametsoc.org/?p=1&query=doldrums |title=Meteorology Glossary|format=electronic|edition=2nd|publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]]}}
* {{cite book |first1=Roberto |last1=Gustavo Herrera |first2=Ricardo |last2=García-Herrera |first3=Luis |last3=Prieto |first4=David |last4=Gallego |first5=Emiliano |last5=Hernández |first6=Luis |last6=Gimeno |first7=Gunther |last7=Können |first8=Frits |last8=Koek |first9=Dennis |last9=Wheeler |first10=Clive |last10=Wilkinson |first11=Maria |last11=Del Rosario Prieto |first12=Carlos |last12=Báez |first13=Scott |last13=Woodruff |url=http://pendientedemigracion.ucm.es/info/cliwoc/Dictionary_text.pdf |title=A Dictionary of Nautical Meteorological Terms: CLIWOC Multilingual Dictionary of Meteorological Terms; An English/Spanish/French/Dutch Dictionary of Windforce Terms Used by Mariners from 1750 to 1850 |publisher=[[CLIWOC]] |access-date=13 April 2014 |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421055113/http://webs.ucm.es/info/cliwoc/Dictionary_text.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.cwb.gov.tw/V7e/knowledge/encyclopedia/me000.htm |title=Meteorology Encyclopedia |publisher=Central Weather Bureau |access-date=14 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921144259/http://www.cwb.gov.tw/V7e/knowledge/encyclopedia/me000.htm |archive-date=21 September 2014 |url-status=dead }}

===History===
* {{cite book|last1=Lawrence-Mathers|first1=Anne|title=Medieval Meteorology: Forecasting the Weather from Aristotle to the Almanac|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-40600-0|doi=10.1017/9781108289948|bibcode=2020mmfw.book.....M |s2cid=211658964 }}

==External links==
{{Wikisource portal|Meteorology}}

''Please see [[weather forecasting]] for weather forecast sites.''
*[http://www.shodor.org/metweb/ Air Quality Meteorology] – Online course that introduces the basic concepts of meteorology and air quality necessary to understand meteorological computer models. Written at a bachelor's degree level.
*[https://www.globe.gov/home The GLOBE Program] – (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) An international environmental science and education program that links students, teachers, and the scientific research community in an effort to learn more about the environment through student data collection and observation.
*[https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Welcome Glossary of Meteorology] – From the American Meteorological Society, an excellent reference of nomenclature, equations, and concepts for the more advanced reader.
*[https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/ JetStream – An Online School for Weather] – National Weather Service
*[http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/ Learn About Meteorology] – Australian Bureau of Meteorology
*[http://weather.about.com The Weather Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224000722/http://weather.about.com/ }} – Weather Tutorials and News at About.com
*[https://www.meted.ucar.edu/index.php Meteorology Education and Training (MetEd)] – The COMET Program
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060712090225/http://www.lib.noaa.gov/ NOAA Central Library] – National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
*[http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu The World Weather 2010 Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819203902/http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/ }} The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
*[http://www.ogimet.com/index.phtml.en Ogimet – online data from meteorological stations of the world, obtained through NOAA free services]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180619181214/https://www.archives.ucar.edu/ National Center for Atmospheric Research Archives, documents the history of meteorology]
*[http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/learning/science Weather forecasting and Climate science] – United Kingdom Meteorological Office
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548v8 Meteorology], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Vladimir Janković, Richard Hambyn and Iba Taub (''In Our Time'', 6 March 2003)
* [https://bibnum.obspm.fr/exhibits/show/temps/temps_introduction Virtual exhibition about meteorology] on the digital library of [[Paris Observatory]]

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Indo-Parthian Kingdom

2022-07-12T06:19:35Z

Chitrasen pradhan: Finished writing a new contribution.

{{Short description|19–226 AD Parthian kingdom in northwestern South Asia}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name =
| conventional_long_name = Indo-Parthian Kingdom
| common_name = Indo-Parthian Kingdom
| era = [[ancient history|Antiquity]]
| status =
| event_start = [[Gondophares|Gondophares I]]
| year_start = 19 CE
| date_start =
| event1 =
| date_event1 =
| event_end =
| year_end = 226 CE
| date_end =
| p1 = Parthian Empire
| flag_p1 = Parthian Empire at its greatest extent.png
| p3 = Indo-Scythians
| flag_p3 = IndoScythianKingdom.svg
| p2 = Indo-Greek Kingdom
| flag_p2 = Map of the Indo-Greeks.png
| p4 = Northern Satraps
| flag_p4 = Map_of_the_Northern_Satraps_(Northern_Sakas).jpg
| s1 = Paratarajas
| flag_s1 = Map_of_Paradan.png
| s2 = Kushan Empire
| flag_s2 = Map of the Kushan Empire.png
| s3 = Sasanian Empire
| flag_s3 = Derafsh Kaviani flag of the late Sassanid Empire.svg
| image_flag =
| flag_type =
| image_coat =
| image_map =
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|overlay_image=Map of the Indo-Parthians.png
| width=290 
| float = center
| border =none
| nodiv = 1
| mini = 1
| relief = yes
| places =
{{Annotation|text-align=center|220|5|South-Asia 40 CE|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|105|155|[[Satavahana Empire|SATAVAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|125|220|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|125|230|[[Ay dynasty|AY]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|125|205|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|105|195|[[Chera dynasty|CHERAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|115|185|[[Chutu dynasty|CHUTUS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|20|15|[[Yuezhi|YUEZHI]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|75|115|[[Western Satraps|WESTERN SATRAPS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|160|105|[[Mitra dynasty (Kosambi)|MITRAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|95|102|[[Malavas|MALAVAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|85|85|[[Yaudheya|YAUDHEYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=center|150|135|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGA- VAHANA]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|200|120|[[Samatata|SAMATATAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|text-align=right|270|175|MAPS [[Template:South Asia in 500 BCE|-500]] [[Template:South Asia in 150 BCE|-150]] [[Template:South Asia in 120 CE|120]] [[Template:South Asia in 350 CE|350]] [[Template:South Asia in 500 CE|500]] [[Template:South Asia in 600 CE|600]] [[Template:South Asia in 800 CE|800]] [[Template:South Asia in 1000|1000]] [[Template:South Asia in 1175|1175]] [[Template:South Asia in 1250|1250]] [[Template:South Asia in 1400|1400]] [[Template:South Asia in 1500 CE|1500]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=5|color=#000000}}
|caption=
}}
| image_map_alt = Map of the Indo-Parthians.
| map_width = 290
| image_map_caption = {{center|Indo-Parthian Kingdom at its maximum extent, circa 40 CE, and neighbouring South Asian polities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=21, 145, map XIV.1 (f)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=058}}</ref>}}
| capital = [[Taxila]] [[Kabul]]
| common_languages = [[Old Aramaic|Aramaic]] [[Koine Greek|Greek]] [[Pali]] ([[Kharoṣṭhī|Kharoshthi]] script) [[Sanskrit]], [[Prakrit]] ([[Brāhmī script|Brahmi]] script) [[Parthian language|Parthian]]
| religion = [[Buddhism]] [[Hinduism]] [[Zoroastrianism]]
| government_type = Monarchy
| leader1 = [[Gondophares|Gondophares I]] (first)
| year_leader1 = 19–46
| leader2 = [[Farn-Sasan]] (last)
| year_leader2 = ?–226
| title_leader = [[Indo-Greek Kingdom#Indo-Greek kings: their coins, territories and chronology|King]]
| legislature =
}}
The '''Indo-Parthian Kingdom''' was a [[Parthia]]n kingdom founded by [[Gondophares]], and active from 19 CE to c. 226 CE. At their zenith, they ruled an area covering parts of eastern [[Iran]], various parts of [[Afghanistan]] and the northwest regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]] (most of modern [[Pakistan]] and parts of northwestern [[India]]). The rulers may have been members of the [[House of Suren]], and the kingdom has even been called the "Suren Kingdom" by some authors.{{sfn|Gazerani|2015|p=26}}

The kingdom was founded in 19/20 when the governor of [[Drangiana]] ([[Sistan|Sakastan]]) [[Gondophares]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Ghosh |first=Suchandra |title=Indo-Parthian Kingdom |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe038 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Empire |pages=1–2 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |place=Oxford, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe038 |isbn=978-1-118-45507-4 |access-date=2023-01-28 |editor2-last=MacKenzie |editor2-first=John M}}</ref> declared independence from the [[Parthian Empire]]. He would later make expeditions to the east, conquering territory from the [[Indo-Scythians]] and [[Indo-Greeks]], thus transforming his kingdom into an empire.{{efn|"As a result, the Indo-Greek kingdom emerged to the south, but it did not exist long and was soon replaced by the Indo-Parthian kingdom."{{sfn|Ellerbrock|2021|p=117}}}}{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=35}} The domains of the Indo-Parthians were greatly reduced following the invasions of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushans]] in the second half of the 1st. century. They managed to retain control of [[Sakastan]], until its conquest by the [[Sasanian Empire]] in c. 224/5.{{sfn|Olbrycht|2016|p=25}} In [[Baluchistan]], the [[Paratarajas]], a local Indo-Parthian dynasty, fell into the orbit of the [[Sasanian Empire]] circa 262 CE.<ref name="PA29">"New light on the Paratarajas" Pankaj Tandon [http://people.bu.edu/ptandon/Paratarajas.pdf p.29-35]</ref>

The Indo-Parthians are noted for the construction of the [[Buddhist]] [[monastery]] [[Takht-i-Bahi]] ([[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]) in Mardan, Pakistan.

==Gondophares I and his successors==
[[File:GondopharesCoin.JPG|thumb|150px|left|Portrait of [[Gondophares]], founder of the Indo-Parthian kingdom. He wears a headband, earrings, a necklace, and a cross-over jacket with round decorations.]]
[[Gondophares|Gondophares I]] originally seems to have been a ruler of [[Seistan]] in what is today eastern Iran, probably a vassal or relative of the [[Apracarajas]]. He may have replaced previous Parthian governors of Seistan, such as [[Cheiroukes]] or [[Tanlismaidates]].{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=56}} These Parthian satraps had been ruling the region of [[Sakastan]] since the time when [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates II]] (124–88 BC) had vanquished the Sakas of the region.{{sfn|Rezakhani|2017|p=32|loc="The coinage of a series of authorities whose names are given as Tanlis, Tanlis Mardates, and probably a queen named Rangodeme are quite likely to be the last series issued by these ‘satraps’ before the establishment of the dynasty of Gondophares in Sistan and Arachosia. The early rulers of Sakistan/Sistan can thus be characterised as Arsacid governors, possibly of Saka origin, who are appointed following the defeat of the Sakas in the region by Mithridates II"}}

Around 20–10 BC,<ref>The chronology of the Gondopharid kings has long been uncertain, predominantly based on coins. This reconstruction is based on "Indo-Scythian Coins and History IV" by Robert Senior, CNG 2006, as the four volumes of Senior's work provide an almost complete catalogue of the coinage of the period. Senior's chronology is based on the existence of only one king Azes, a theory that was vindicated when it was shown that a coin of the so-called Azes II was overstruck with a type attributed to Azes I (see Senior, "The final nail in the coffin of Azes II", Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society 197, 2008).</ref> he made conquests in the former [[Indo-Scythian]] kingdom, perhaps after the death of the important ruler [[Azes]]. Gondophares became the ruler of areas comprising [[Arachosia]], [[Seistan]], [[Sindh]], [[Punjab (region)|Punjab]], and the [[Kabul]] valley, but it does not seem as though he held territory beyond eastern [[Punjab region|Punjab]].<ref>Rosenfield, p129</ref> Gondophares called himself "King of Kings", a [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] title that in his case correctly reflects that the Indo-Parthian empire was only a loose framework: a number of smaller dynasts certainly maintained their positions during the Indo-Parthian period, likely in exchange for their recognition of Gondophares and his successors. These smaller dynasts included the [[Apracarajas]] themselves, and Indo-Scythian [[satrap]]s such as [[Zeionises]] and [[Rajuvula]], as well as anonymous Scythians who struck imitations of [[Azes]] coins. The [[Ksaharata]]s also held sway in [[Gujarat]], perhaps just outside Gondophares' dominions.

[[File:Takht-e-bahi.jpg|thumb|Ancient [[Buddhist]] [[monastery]] [[Takht-i-Bahi]] (a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]) constructed by the Indo-Parthians.]]
After the death of Gondophares I, the empire started to fragment. The name or title ''[[Gondophares]]'' was adapted by [[Sarpedones]], who become '''Gondophares II''' and was possibly son of the first Gondophares. Even though he claimed to be the main ruler, Sarpedones’ rule was shaky and he issued a fragmented coinage in Sind, eastern Punjab and Arachosia in southern Afghanistan. The most important successor was [[Abdagases]], Gondophares’ nephew, who ruled in Punjab and possibly in the homeland of Seistan. After a short reign, Sarpedones seems to have been succeeded by [[Orthagnes]], who became '''Gondophares III Gadana'''. Orthagnes ruled mostly in Seistan and Arachosia, with Abdagases further east, during the first decades AD, and was briefly succeeded by his son Ubouzanes [https://web.archive.org/web/20051001231141/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/par_rel/print/i_ubouzanes.jpg Coin]. After 20 AD, a king named [[Sases]], a nephew of the Apracaraja ruler Aspavarma, took over Abdagases’ territories and became '''Gondophares IV Sases'''{{citation needed|reason=What is the evidence equating the Apraca Sasan with the Indo-Parthian Sases?}}. According to Senior, this is the Gondophares referred to in the [[Takht-i-Bahi]] inscription.<ref>A votive inscription of the 26th year of Guduvhara or Gondophares, is reported to have been found on a stone at [[Takht-i-Bahi]], northeast of [[Peshawar]] with a date in the year 103 of an unspecified era reckoning. This era is likely to have been the Malva or Vikrama era, founded in 57 BCE, this would give a date of 20 CE for this king's ascension (see [[Hindu calendar]]). The stone was formerly in the museum at [[Lahore]]. The point is especially important for those Christians who consider that a germ of history is embedded in the ''[[Acts of Thomas]].''</ref>

There were other minor kings: Sanabares was an ephemeral usurper in Seistan, who called himself Great King of Kings, and there was also a second Abdagases [https://web.archive.org/web/20040411002040/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/par_rel/print/i_abdagases.jpg Coin], a ruler named Agata in Sind, another ruler called Satavastres [https://web.archive.org/web/20051001231145/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/par_rel/print/i_satavastres.jpg Coin], and an anonymous prince who claimed to be brother of the king Arsaces, in that case an actual member of the ruling dynasty in [[Parthia]].

But the Indo-Parthians never regained the position of Gondophares I, and from the middle of the 1st century AD the [[Kushans]] under [[Kujula Kadphises]] began absorbing the northern Indian part of the kingdom.{{sfn|Gazerani|2015|pp=26-27}}

===Rulers of Turan and Sakastan (160-230 AD)===
[[File:KINGS of TURAN. Pahares I. Circa 160-230 AD. Bearded bust left, wearing Parthian-style tiara - Crude figure of Nike walking right.jpg|thumb|Coinage of [[Pahares I]], Indo-Parthian king of [[Turan]] (Circa 160-230 CE). Bearded bust left, wearing Parthian-style tiara. Crude figure of Nike walking right.]]
The Indo-Parthians managed to retain control of [[Turan (Sasanian province)|Turan]] and [[Sistan|Sakastan]], which they ruled until the fall of the [[Parthian Empire]] at the hands of the [[Sasanian Empire]] circa 230 CE.{{sfn|Gazerani|2015|pp=26-27}} [[Pahares I]] (160-230 AD) was a ruler of [[Turan (Sasanian province)|Turan]] following the partition of the remains of the [[Indo-Parthian kingdom]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitchiner |first1=Michael |title=Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian Coinage |publisher=Hawkins Publications |isbn=978-0-904173-12-3 |page=779 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a4EaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA779 |language=en}}</ref> The kingdom of Sakastan was ruled by a second king with the name [[Sanabares II]] (160-175 AD).<ref name="ACW">{{cite book |last1=Mitchiner |first1=Michael |title=The Ancient & Classical World, 600 B.C.-A.D. 650 |publisher=Hawkins Publications |isbn=978-0-904173-16-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zuQLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA348 |language=en|quote="Pakores was succeeded in the office of Great King by Sanabares (c. AD 135-160). The much reduced Indo-Parthian realm then split into its two geographical constituents. These now became the Kingdom of Turan whose king was named Pahares and the Kingdom of Sakastan ruled by a second king bearing the name Sanabares (c. AD 160-175). These two kingdoms, Turan and Sakastan, were to persist until the first Sasanian Emperor, Ardeshir I, about AD 230. Both then became vassal kingdoms within the Sasanian Empire. Tabari recorded the submission made by the King of Turan which transpired when Ardeshir was at Gor: then envoys of the king of the Kushan, of the kings of Turan and Mokran came to him with declarations of their submission."}}</ref> The Kingdoms of Turan and Sakastan ended when they submitted to the Sasanian ruler [[Ardeshir I]] circa 230 CE.<ref name="ACW"/> These events were recorded by [[Al-Tabari]], describing the arrival of envoys to Ardeshir at [[Firuzabad, Fars|Gor]]:<ref name="ACW"/>

{{quote|“Then he [Ardashir] marched back from the Sawad to Istakhr, from there irst to Sagistan, then to Gurgan, then to Abrasahr, Merv, Balkh, and Khwarizm to the farthest boundaries of the provinces of Kohrasan, whereupon he returned to Merv. Ater he had killed many
people and sent their heads to the Fire temple of Anahedh he returned from Merv to Pars and settled in Gor. Then envoys of the king of the Kushan, of the kings of Turan and [[Makran|Mokran]] came to him with declarations of their submission."|[[Al-Tabari]]<ref name="ACW"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bracey |first1=Robert |title=The Mint Cities of the Kushan Empire |journal=The City and the Coin in the Ancient and Early Medieval World |date=1 January 2012 |publisher=BAR International Series 2402 |page=124 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2078818}}</ref>}}

==Archaeology and sources==
[[File:A picture Texila by Usman Ghani.jpg|thumb|The Hellenistic temple with [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns at [[Jandial]], [[Taxila]], is usually interpreted as a Zoroastrian [[fire temple]] from the period of the Indo-Parthians.]]
The city of [[Taxila]] is thought to have been a capital of the Indo-Parthians. Large strata were excavated by Sir [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] with a quantity of Parthian-style artifacts. The nearby temple of [[Jandial]] is usually interpreted as a Zoroastrian [[fire temple]] from the period of the Indo-Parthians.

Some ancient writings describe the presence of the Indo-Parthians in the area, such as the story of Saint [[Thomas the Apostle]], who was recruited as a carpenter to serve at the court of king "Gudnaphar" (thought to be Gondophares) in India. The [[Acts of Thomas]] describes in chapter 17 Thomas' visit to king Gudnaphar in northern India; chapters 2 and 3 depict him as embarking on a sea voyage to India, thus connecting Thomas to the west coast of India.

As Senior points out,<ref>see Senior, "The final nail in the coffin of Azes II".</ref> this Gudnaphar has usually been identified with the first Gondophares, who has thus been dated after the advent of Christianity, but there is no evidence for this assumption, and Senior's research shows that Gondophares I could be dated even before 1 AD. If the account is even historical, Saint Thomas may have encountered one of the later kings who bore the same title.

[[File:GondopharesFinePortrait.jpg|thumb|Portrait on Gondophares on one of his coins.]]
The Greek philosopher [[Apollonius of Tyana]] is related by [[Philostratus]] in ''[[Life of Apollonius Tyana]]'' to have visited India, and specifically the city of [[Taxila]] around 46 AD. He describes constructions of the Greek type,<ref>Description of the Hellenistic urbanism of Taxila: 
* "Taxila, they tell us, is about as big as Nineveh, and was fortified fairly well after the manner of Greek cities" [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_2_16.html#§20 (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 20)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310044312/https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_2_16.html#§20 }}
*"I have already described the way in which the city is walled, but they say that it was divided up into narrow streets in the same irregular manner as in Athens, and that the houses were built in such a way that if you look at them from outside they had only one story, while if you went into one of them, you at once found subterranean chambers extending as far below the level of the earth as did the chambers above." [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_2_21.html#§23 (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 23)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310023858/https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_2_21.html#§23 }}</ref>
probably referring to [[Sirkap]], and explains that the [[Indo-Parthian]] king of Taxila, named [[Phraotes]], received a Greek education at the court of his father and spoke Greek fluently:

:{{block quote |"Tell me, O King, how you acquired such a command of the Greek tongue, and whence you derived all your philosophical attainments in this place?"<ref>[https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_2_26.html#§29 (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 29)]</ref>}}
:{{block quote |[...]-"My father, after a Greek education, brought me to the sages at an age somewhat too early perhaps, for I was only twelve at the time, but they brought me up like their own son; for any that they admit knowing the Greek tongue they are especially fond of, because they consider that in virtue of the similarity of his disposition he already belongs to themselves."<ref>[https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_2_31.html#§31 (Life of Apollonius Tyana, II 31)]</ref>}}

The [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]] is a surviving 1st century guide to the routes commonly being used for navigating the Arabian Sea. It describes the presence of Parthian kings fighting with each other in the area of Sindh, a region traditionally known at that time as "Scythia" due to the previous rule of the Indo-Scythians there:

:"This river ([[Indus]]) has seven mouths, very shallow and marshy, so that they are not navigable, except the one in the middle; at which by the shore, is the market-town, Barbaricum. Before it there lies a small island, and inland behind it is the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara; it is subject to Parthian princes who are constantly driving each other out." Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap 38<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/periplus.html Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap 38]</ref>

An inscription from [[Takht-i-Bahi]] bears two dates, one in the regnal year 26 of the Maharaja Guduvhara (again thought to be a Gondophares), and the year 103 of an unknown era.<ref>Rosenfield, p130.</ref>

===Religion of the Indo-Parthians===
[[File:FireAltarWorship.JPG|thumb|left|Devotees at [[Zoroastrian]] fire-altar.]]
We do not know the religion of the House of Suren although we know they were in religious conflict with the Zoroastrian [[Arsacid Dynasty]].{{sfn|Gazerani|2015|p=111}} Unlike the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians, there are no explicit records of Indo-Parthian rulers supporting Buddhism, such as religious dedications, inscriptions, or even legendary accounts. Also, although Indo-Parthian coins generally closely follow Greek numismatics, they never display the Buddhist [[triratna]] symbol (apart from the later [[Sases]]), nor do they ever use depictions of the elephant or the bull, possible religious symbols which were profusely used by their predecessors. They are thought to have retained [[Zoroastrianism]], being of Iranian extraction themselves. This [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] mythological system was inherited from them by the later [[Kushan]]s who ruled from the [[Peshawar]]-[[Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa]] region of [[Pakistan]].

Coins of the [[Hindu]] deity [[Shiva]] have also been found issued in the reign of Gondophares I.<ref>Gondophares I Indological researches in India: selected works of Prof. K.D. Bajpai[https://books.google.com/books?id=MOJtAAAAMAAJ&q=indo+parthian+shiva+coin]</ref><ref>Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Volume 46 Pg. 274
[https://books.google.com/books?id=TPMXAQAAMAAJ&q=indo+parthian+shiva+coin]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/0001_0099/gondopharescoins/gondopharescoins.html|title=Gondopharescoins}}</ref>

===Representation of Indo-Parthian devotees===
[[File:IndoParthianKing.JPG|thumb|Indo-Parthian King.<ref>Alternatively "Scythian prince drinking" in {{cite journal |last1=Pons |first1=Jessie |title=The Figure with a Bow in Gandhāran Great Departure Scenes. Some New Readings. |journal=Entangled Religions |page=52 |url=https://www.academia.edu/38803912}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Betts |first1=Alison |last2=Vicziany |first2=Marika |last3=Jia |first3=Peter Weiming |last4=Castro |first4=Angelo Andrea Di |title=The Cultures of Ancient Xinjiang, Western China: Crossroads of the Silk Roads |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78969-407-9 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxUSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 |language=en}}</ref>]]
On their coins and in the art of Gandhara, Indo-Parthians are depicted with short crossover [[jacket]]s and large baggy trousers, possibly supplemented by [[chaps|chap]]-like over-trousers.<ref>Described in "Rome's enemies, Parthians and Sassanid Persians", {{ISBN|0-85045-688-6}}</ref> Their jackets are adorned with rows of decorative rings or medals. Their hair is usually bushy and contained with a headband, a practise largely adopted by the Parthians from the 1st century AD.<ref>"Parthians, from about the 1st century AD, seem to have preferred to show off their carefully tonsured hair, usually only wearing a fillet of thick ribbon; before then, the Scythian cap or [[bashlyk]] was worn more frequently". In "Parthians and Sassanid Parthians" Peter Willcox {{ISBN|0-85045-688-6}}, p12</ref>

Individuals in Indo-Parthian attire are sometimes shown as actors in Buddhist devotional scenes. It is usually considered that most of the excavations that were done at [[Sirkap]] near [[Taxila]] by [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] relate to Indo-Parthian layers, although more recent scholarship sometimes relates them to the [[Indo-Greeks]] instead.<ref>Pierfrancesco Gallieri, in "Crossroads of Asia": "The parallels are so striking that it is not excluded that the objects discovered in Taxila and dated to between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE were in reality produced earlier, maybe by artisans who had followed the Greeks kings during their retreat from Bactria to India" p211 (in French in the original)</ref> These archaeological researches provided a quantity of Hellenistic artifacts combined with elements of Buddhist worship ([[stupa]]s). Some other temples, such as nearby [[Jandial]] may have been used as a Zoroastrian [[fire temple]].

===Buddhist sculptures===
The statues found at Sirkap in the late Scythian to Parthian level (level 2, 1–60 AD) suggest an already developed state of Gandharan art at the time or even before Parthian rule. A multiplicity of statues, ranging from Hellenistic gods, to various Gandharan lay devotees, are combined with what are thought as some of the early representations of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Today, it is still unclear when the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]] exactly emerged, but the findings in Sirkap do indicate that this art was already highly developed before the advent of the [[Kushan]]s.

===Stone palettes===
{{main|Stone palette}}
Numerous [[stone palette]]s found in Gandhara are considered as good representatives of Indo-Parthian art. These palettes combine Greek and Persian influences, together with a frontality in representations which is considered as characteristic of Parthian art. Such palettes have only been found in archaeological layers corresponding to Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian rule, and are essentially unknown the preceding [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryan]] layers or the succeeding [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] layers.<ref>"Let us remind that in [[Sirkap]], stone palettes were found at all excavated levels. On the contrary, neither Bhir-Mound, the [[Maurya]] city preceding Sirkap on the [[Taxila]] site, nor Sirsukh, the [[Kushan]] city succeeding her, did deliver any stone palettes during their excavations", in "Les palettes du Gandhara", p89. "The terminal point after which such palettes are not manufactured anymore is probably located during the Kushan period. In effect, neither [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] nor Taxila (although the Sirsukh had only been little excavated), nor [[Begram]], nor [[Surkh Kotal]], neither the great Kushan archaeological sites of Soviet [[Central Asia]] or [[Afghanistan]] have yielded such objects. Only four palettes have been found in Kushan-period archaeological sites. They come from secondary sites, such as Garav Kala and Ajvadz in Soviet Tajikistan and Jhukar, in the Indus Valley, and Dalverzin Tepe. They are rather roughly made." In "Les Palettes du Gandhara", Henri-Paul Francfort, p91. (in French in the original)</ref>

Very often these palettes represent people in Greek dress in mythological scenes, but a few of them represent people in Parthian dress (head-bands over bushy hair, crossed-over jacket on a bare chest, jewelry, belt, baggy trousers). A palette from the [[Naprstek Museum]] in [[Prague]] shows an Indo-Parthian king seated crossed-legged on a large sofa, surrounded by two attendants also in Parthian dress. They are shown drinking and serving wine.
<gallery>
File:IndoParthianHunting.JPG|Indo-Parthian man hunting.
File:IndoParthianReveling.JPG|Indo-Parthian revelers.
File:IndoParthianCouple.JPG|Indo-Parthian couple.
</gallery>

==Silk Road transmission of Buddhism==
{{main|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
{{Unreferenced section}}
[[File:BuddhistReliquaryWithContent1stCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|[[Gandhara]] Buddhist reliquary with content, including Indo-Parthian coins. 1st century AD.]]
Some pockets of Parthian rule remained in the East, even after the takeover by the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]] in 226. From the 2nd century several Central-Asian Buddhist missionaries appeared in the Chinese capital cities of [[Loyang]] and sometimes [[Nanjing]], where they particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. The first known translators of Buddhist texts into Chinese are actually Parthian missionaries, distinguished in Chinese by their Parthian surname "An", for "Anshi", "country of the [[Arsacid dynasty of Parthia|Arsacids]]".
*[[An Shih Kao]], was a [[Parthia]]n prince, who made the first known translations of [[Hinayana]] Buddhist texts into Chinese (148–170).
*[[安玄 (Ān Xuán)|An Hsuan]], was a Parthian merchant who became a monk in China 181 AD.
*[[Tan-ti]] (c. 254), a Parthian monk.
*[[An Fajin]] (281–306), a monk of Parthian origins.

==Main Indo-Parthian rulers==
[[File:AbdagasesOnHorse.jpg|thumb|Coins of the Indo-Parthian king Abdagases, in which his clothing is clearly apparent. He wears baggy trousers, rather typical of Parthian clothing.]]
[[File:AbdagasesOnHorseFacing.jpg|thumb|Coins of the Indo-Parthian king Abdagases, in which his clothing is clearly apparent. He wears baggy trousers and a crossover jacket.]]
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
* [[Gondophares|Gondophares I]] (c. 19 – 46) [https://web.archive.org/web/20051001231146/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/par_rel/print/i_gondopharesI.jpg Coin]
* [[Sarpedones|Gondophares II Sarpedones]] (first years AD – c. 20 AD)[https://web.archive.org/web/20051001231140/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/par_rel/print/i_sarpedones.jpg Coin]
* [[Abdagases I]] (first years AD – mid-1st century AD) [https://web.archive.org/web/20051001231147/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/indoparthian/i_ipr_abdagases_o.jpg Coin]
* [[Gadana|Gondophares III Gudana]], previously [[Orthagnes]] (c. 20 AD – 30 AD)
* [[Sases|Gondophares IV Sases]], (mid-1st century AD)
* [[Ubouzanes]], (late-1st century AD)
* [[Pacores]] (late 1st century AD) [https://web.archive.org/web/20051001231149/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/indoparthian/i_ipr_pakores_o5.jpg Coin]

== See also ==
* [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]
* [[Indo-Sasanians]]
* [[Indo-Scythians]]
* [[Kushan Empire]]
* [[Yuezhi]]
* [[Pahlavas]]
* [[Kambojas]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Sīstān | first = Clifford Edmund | last = Bosworth | encyclopedia = The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume IX: San–Sze | location=Leiden, and New York | publisher=BRILL | year=1997 | isbn=9789004082656 | pages = 681–685 | url =http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-1/sistan-SIM_5452?s.num=247&s.rows=100&s.start=180 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = DRANGIANA | last = Schmitt | first = R. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/drangiana | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5 | pages = 534–537 | year = 1995 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire |first=Uwe |last=Ellerbrock |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 }}
* {{cite book | title = The History of Ancient Iran | year = 1984 | publisher = C.H.Beck | last = Frye | first = Richard Nelson | author-link = Richard Nelson Frye | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye/page/n20 1]–411 | isbn = 9783406093975 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000frye| url-access = registration | quote = The history of ancient iran. }}
* {{cite book | title = The Sistani Cycle of Epics and Iran's National History: On the Margins of Historiography | year = 2015 | publisher = BRILL | last = Gazerani| first = Saghi | pages = 1–250 | isbn = 9789004282964 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=92zsCgAAQBAJ&q=false}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | article = GONDOPHARES | last = Bivar | first = A. D. H. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gondophares | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XI, Fasc. 2 | pages = 135–136 | year = 2002 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Olbrycht |first1=Marek Jan|editor-last1=Curtis|editor-first1=Vesta Sarkhosh|editor-last2=Pendleton|editor-first2=Elizabeth J.|editor-last3=Alram|editor-first3=Michael|editor-last4=Daryaee|editor-first4=Touraj|title=The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=9781785702082 |chapter=Dynastic Connections in the Arsacid Empire and the Origins of the House of Sāsān}}
* {{cite book | title = ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity | year = 2017 | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | last = Rezakhani| first = Khodadad | pages = 1–256 | isbn = 9781474400305 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bjRWDwAAQBAJ&q=false}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050206140303/http://www.grifterrec.com/coins/indoparthian/indoparthian.html Coins of the Indo-Parthians]
* [http://sites.google.com/site/grecoindian/Home/history-of-greco-india History of Greco-India]

{{Middle kingdoms of India}}
{{Ancient India and Central Asia}}
{{Parthian Empire}}

[[Category:Parthian Empire]]
[[Category:Indo-Parthian Kingdom| ]]
[[Category:10s establishments]]
[[Category:220s disestablishments]]
[[Category:1st-century BC establishments]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 1st century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 2nd century]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]

American Community Survey

2022-03-19T17:24:57Z

Chitrasen pradhan: Contributed a new addition.

{{Short description|Demographic survey in the United States}}
{{Use mdy dates}}
{{Infobox recurring event
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The '''American Community Survey''' ('''ACS''') is an annual demographics survey program conducted by the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]]. It regularly gathers information previously contained only in the long form of the [[United States Census Bureau|decennial census]], including ancestry, citizenship, educational attainment, income, language proficiency, migration, [[Disability in the United States|disability]], employment, and housing characteristics. These data are used by many [[Public sector|public-sector]], [[Private sector|private-sector]], and not-for-profit stakeholders to allocate funding, track shifting demographics, plan for emergencies, and learn about local communities.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eberstadt|first1=Nicholas|last2=Nunn|first2=Ryan|last3=Schanzenbach|first3=Diane W.|last4=Strain|first4=Michael|title=In Order That They Might Rest Their Arguments on Facts: The Vital Role of Government-Collected Data|url=http://www.hamiltonproject.org/papers/in_order_that_they_might_rest_their_arguments_on_facts_the_vital_role_of_go}}</ref> Sent to approximately 295,000 addresses monthly (or 3.5 million per year), it is the largest household survey that the Census Bureau administers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title = ACS Information Guide|url = https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/about/information-guide.html|website = www.census.gov|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = US Census Bureau|page = 8}}</ref>

The American Community Survey gathers information annually in the 50 [[U.S. state]]s, the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], and [[Puerto Rico]].{{efn|The US Census has a separate form for Puerto Rico called the Puerto Rico Community Survey, (PRCS). The questions asked are different from the questions in the ACS.<ref>[https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/about/puerto-rico-community-survey.html ''About the Puerto Rico Community Survey.''] Accessed 18 October 2020.</ref>}} It does not gather information in the four major [[Territories of the United States|U.S. territories]], [[American Samoa]], [[Guam]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], and the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]].<ref>https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/section-1557-top-15-languages-faqs.pdf Frequently Asked Questions to Accompany the Estimates of at Least the Top 15 Languages Spoken by Individuals with Limited English Proficiency under Section 1557 of the Affordable Care Act (ACA). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Civil Rights (OCR). Page 2. Retrieved August 30, 2019.</ref><ref name="ACS_Aug30">http://www3.drcog.org/documents/archive/ACS_Basics.pdf U.S. Census Bureau. An Overview Of the American Community Survey. Page 5. Retrieved August 30, 2019.</ref>

==History==
The [[Article One of the United States Constitution|United States Constitution (Article I, Section II)]] requires an enumeration of the population every ten years "in such Manner as they (Congress) shall by Law direct". From the first census in 1790, legislators understood that it should collect basic demographic information beyond the number of people in the household. James Madison first proposed including questions in the census to "enable them to adapt the public measures to the particular circumstances of the community". Such knowledge collected with each census, he said, "would give them an opportunity of marking the progress of the society".<ref>{{cite web|title=The Founder's Constitution|url=http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/a1_2_3s19.html|publisher=The University of Chicago Press.|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref> The questions included in censuses since 1790 have reflected American understandings of and concerns about societal trends and the growing nation's expanded data needs.<ref>{{cite web|last1=U.S. Census Bureau|title=Through The Decades: Index of Questions|url=https://www.census.gov/history/www/through_the_decades/index_of_questions/|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref>

By 1940, advancements in statistical methods enabled the Census Bureau to start asking a sample of the population a subset of additional detailed questions without unduly increasing cost or respondent burden.<ref>{{cite web|last1=U.S. Census Bureau|title=1940 (Population) – History – U.S. Census Bureau|url=https://www.census.gov/history/www/through_the_decades/index_of_questions/1940_population.html|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref> In subsequent decades, questions that had previously been asked of all respondents, as well as new questions, moved to the sample questionnaire form. As that form grew longer than the census form sent to most households, it became known as the census "long form".

Following the [[1960 United States Census|1960 Census]], federal, state and local government officials, as well as those working in the private sector, began demanding more timely long-form-type data. Lawmakers representing rural districts claimed they were at a data disadvantage, unable to self-fund additional surveys of their populations.<ref>{{cite web|title=The American Community Survey: A Replacement for the Long Form? United States House Subcommittee on the Census of the Committee of Government Reform, 106th Congress (2000).|website=[[Library of Congress]] |url=https://www.loc.gov/law/find/hearings/pdf/00088786221.pdf|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mid-Decade Census, Part 1: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Census and Statistics, 87th Congress (1961)|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=umn.31951d03671454b;view=1up;seq=6|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref> Congress explored the creation of a mid-decade census, holding hearings and even authorizing a mid-decade census in 1976, but not funding it.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mid-Decade Census: Hearings before the United States House Subcommittee on Census and Statistics of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, 89th Congress (1965)|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4018515;view=1up;seq=5|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mid-Decade Census: Hearings before the United States House Subcommittee on Census and Statistics of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, 92nd Congress, first session on proposals for a mid-decade census of population and housing (1971)|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112119647367;view=1up;seq=7|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=13 U.S.C. 141(d)|url=http://uscode.house.gov/browse/prelim@title13/chapter5/subchapter2&edition=prelim|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref>

Efforts to obtain data on a more frequent basis began again after the 1990 Census, when it became clear that the more burdensome long form was depressing overall census response rates and jeopardizing the accuracy of the count. At Congress's request, the Census Bureau developed and tested a new design to obtain long-form data. U.S. statistician [[Leslie Kish]] had introduced the concept of a rolling sample (or continuous measurement) design in 1981.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Alexander|first1=Charles|title=Still Rolling: Leslie Kish's Rolling Samples and the American Community Survey|url=https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2001/acs/2001_Alexander_01.pdf|website=U.S. Census Bureau|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref> This design featured ongoing, monthly data collection aggregated on a yearly basis, enabling annual data releases. By combining multiple years of this data, the Census Bureau could release "period" estimates to produce estimates for smaller areas. After a decade of testing, it launched as the American Community Survey in 2005, replacing the once-a-decade census long form.<ref>{{cite web|last1=US Census Bureau|title=American Community Survey: Design and Methodology (PDF) p. 2-1.|url=https://www.census.gov/history/pdf/ACSHistory.pdf|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ACS Design and Methodology. Chapter 2: Program History|url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/methodology/design_and_methodology/acs_design_methodology_ch02_2014.pdf|website=U.S. Census Bureau|access-date=June 19, 2017}}</ref>

==Implementation==
The ACS has an initial sample of approximately 3.5 million housing unit addresses and group quarters in the United States. The Census Bureau selects a random sample of addresses to be included in the ACS. Each address has about a 1-in-480 chance of being selected in a given month, and no address should be selected more than once every five years. Data is collected by internet, mail, telephone interviews and in-person interviews. Approximately one third of those who do not respond to the survey by mail or telephone are randomly selected for in-person interviews. About 95 percent of households across all response modes ultimately respond.<ref>{{cite web|last1=US Census Bureau|title=Response Rates|url=https://www.census.gov/acs/www/methodology/sample-size-and-data-quality/response-rates/index.php|website=www.census.gov|access-date=May 19, 2017}}</ref>

Like the decennial census, ACS responses are [[United States Census#Respondent confidentiality|confidential]]. Every employee at the Census Bureau takes an oath of nondisclosure and is sworn for life to not disclose identifying information. Violations can result in a 5-year prison sentence and/or $250,000 fine.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Is My Privacy Protected?|url = https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/about/is-my-privacy-protected.html|website = www.census.gov|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = US Census Bureau}}</ref> Under {{UnitedStatesCode|13|9}}, census responses are "immune from legal process" and may not "be admitted as evidence or used for any purpose in any action, suit, or other judicial or administrative proceeding".

== Data availability ==
[[File:Sample ACS data table.png|thumb|upright=1.1|Sample of an American Community Survey data table]]
The Census Bureau aggregates individual ACS responses, also known as [[Microdata (statistics)|microdata]], into estimates at many [[:Category:United States Census Bureau geography|geographic summary levels]]. Among these summary levels are legal and administrative entities such as [[U.S. state|states]], [[County (United States)|counties]], [[Place (United States Census Bureau)#Incorporated place|cities]], and [[List of United States congressional districts|congressional districts]], as well as statistical entities such as [[metropolitan statistical area]]s, [[census tract|tracts]], [[census block group|block groups]], and [[census designated place]]s. Estimates for [[census block]]s are not available from ACS.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title = Areas Published|url = https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/geography-acs/areas-published.html|website = www.census.gov|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = US Census Bureau}}</ref> [[Puerto Rico]] is the only U.S. territory that is part of the ACS program.<ref name="ACS_Aug30"/>

In order to balance geographic resolution, temporal frequency, statistical significance, and respondent privacy, ACS estimates released each year are aggregated from responses received in the previous calendar year or previous five calendar years. The Census Bureau provides guidance for data users about which data set to use when analyzing different population and geography sizes.<ref>{{cite web|last1=U.S. Census Bureau|title=When to Use 1-Year, 3-Year or 5-Year Data|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/guidance/estimates.html|website=www.census.gov|access-date=May 24, 2017}}</ref>

From 2007 to 2013, 3-year estimates were available for areas with 20,000 people or more. This data product was discontinued in 2015 due to budget cuts.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The ACS 3-year Demographic Estimates Are History|url = http://apdu.org/2015/02/03/the-acs-3-year-demographic-estimates-are-history/|website = APDU: The Association of Public Data Users|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = Poole|first = Ken}}</ref> The last 3-year release was the 2011-2013 ACS 3-year estimates.

Current data releases include:
* '''1-year estimates''' are available for areas with a population of at least 65,000 people. The 2015 ACS 1-year estimates were released in 2016 and summarize responses received in 2015 for all states but only 26% of [[County (United States)|counties]] due to the 65,000 minimum population threshold.<ref name=":2" /> This is most suitable for data users interested in shorter-term changes at medium to large geographic scales.
* '''Supplemental estimates''' are shown in annual tables summarizing populations for geographies with populations of 20,000 or more.<ref>{{cite web|last1=US Census Bureau|title=American Community Survey Supplemental Data|url=https://www.census.gov/data/developers/data-sets/ACS-supplemental-data.html|website=www.census.gov|access-date=May 24, 2017}}</ref>
* '''5-year estimates''' are available for areas down to the [[Census block group|block group]] scale, on the order of 600 to 3000 people. The 2015 ACS 5-year estimates, summarizing data from 2011 to 2015, were released in 2016.<ref name=":2" />

Within the last 10 years, the American Community Survey has collected and supplied all data at local levels. This was a large breakthrough in the survey because it allows the American people more individualized data on a community level as opposed to extrapolating from data collected over a larger area. It has also provided unparalleled information to be more accessible for local government planning and financing. Many conclusions for local data is averaged from various information across the area, and while useful, it is not always an adequate representation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Spielman|first1=Seth|last2=Singleton|first2=Alex|title=Studying Neighborhoods Using Uncertain Data from the American Community Survey: A Contextual Approach|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|volume=105|issue=5|pages=1003–1025|doi=10.1080/00045608.2015.1052335|doi-access=free}}</ref>

ACS estimates are available via a number of online data tools.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Data Tools Chart|url = https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/guidance/which-data-tool/data-tools-chart.html|website = www.census.gov|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = US Census Bureau}}</ref> [https://www.census.gov U.S. Census website] (AFF) is the primary tool for disseminating ACS data, allowing users to drill down to specific tables and geographies (starting with 2013 estimates, AFF also includes block group data). A selection of the most popular tables is shown in [https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/ QuickFacts]. Other tools include [http://onthemap.ces.census.gov/em/ OnTheMap for Emergency Management], [https://www.census.gov/data/data-tools/cbb.html Census Business Builder] and [https://census.gov/mycd/ My Congressional District]. [https://www.census.gov/tribal/ My Tribal Area] featuring 5-year estimates for federally recognized tribes, launched in 2017. The Summary File is the most detailed data source, and is available as a series of downloadable text files or through an [[application programming interface]] (API) for software developers.

Custom cross-tabulations of ACS questions can be made using the [https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/technical-documentation/pums.html Public Use Microdata Sample] (PUMS), freely accessible through the [https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/data/pums.html Census Bureau website] and [[Integrated Public Use Microdata Series]]. PUMS data contain responses to every question from a sample of respondents. To protect respondent privacy, PUMS data are [[Data anonymization|anonymized]] and only available down to areas containing 100,000 people or more known as [[Public Use Microdata Area]]s (PUMAs).<ref>{{Cite web|title = About PUMS|url = https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/technical-documentation/pums/about.html|website = www.census.gov|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = US Census Bureau}}</ref> The analysis of all ACS microdata without the sampling and anonymization in PUMS is restricted to qualified researchers at secure Federal Statistical Research Data Centers (FSRDCs).<ref>{{Cite web|title = Federal Statistical Research Data Centers|url = https://www.census.gov/fsrdc|website = www.census.gov|access-date = August 11, 2015|last = US Census Bureau}}</ref>

== Controversy ==
===Support===
American Community Survey data provides important information that cannot be found elsewhere. The federal government, as well as various businesses, researchers, and local governments use ACS data for planning and decision-making purposes. ACS data are used by public and business decision-makers to more clearly identify issues and opportunities and more effectively allocate scarce resources to address them.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Census Project|title=Letter to Senate Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce, Science, Justice and Related Agencies 3/17/16|url=https://censusproject.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/business-community-letter-on-fy-2017-budget-3-17-16-senate-cjs.pdf|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=American Economic Association|title=The American Community Survey is Essential|url=https://censusproject.files.wordpress.com/2015/12/aea-stat-statement-in-support-of-acs.pdf|access-date=August 7, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=National Retail Federation|title=The Greatest Survey You've Never Heard Of|url=https://nrf.com/news/the-greatest-survey-youve-never-heard-of|access-date=August 7, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808043607/https://nrf.com/news/the-greatest-survey-youve-never-heard-of|archive-date=August 8, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Fiscal Year 2008, 184 federal domestic assistance programs used ACS-related datasets to help guide the distribution of $416 billion, 29 percent of all federal assistance.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Brookings Institution|title=Surveying for Dollars: the Role of the American Community Survey in the Geographic Distribution of Federal Funds|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/surveying-for-dollars-the-role-of-the-american-community-survey-in-the-geographic-distribution-of-federal-funds/|access-date=July 14, 2017}}</ref>

The American Community Survey is authorized by 13 U.S.C. § 141 and 13 U.S.C. § 193.<ref name="gao.gov">{{cite web|last1=US Government Accountability Office|title=U.S. GAO – Legal Authority for American Community Survey, B-289852|url=http://www.gao.gov/decisions/other/289852.htm}}</ref> Federal courts have held that the long form is constitutional.

In 2000, the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Texas]] ruled that the 2000 Census and the 2000 Census questions did not violate the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]] or other constitutional provisions as alleged by plaintiffs. The court said responses to census questions are not a violation of a citizen's right to privacy or speech.<ref>Morales v. Daley, 116 F. Supp. 2d 801, 820 (S.D. Tex. 2000) " . . . [I]t is clear that the degree to which these questions intrude upon an individual's privacy is limited, given the methods used to collect the census data and the statutory assurance that the answers and attribution to an individual will remain confidential. The degree to which the information is needed for the promotion of legitimate governmental interests has been found to be significant. A census of the type of [[2000 United States Census|Census 2000]] has been taken every ten years since the first census in 1790. Such a census has been thought to be necessary for over two hundred years. There is no basis for holding that it is not necessary in the year 2000."</ref>

The court's decision was later affirmed by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit]], and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] denied petition for writ of certiorari.<ref>The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit affirmed the District Court decision on October 10, 2001, 275 F.3d 45. The U.S. Supreme Court denied petition for writ of certiorari on February 19, 2002, 534 U.S. 1135. No published opinions were filed with these rulings.</ref> Additionally, a number of other courts, including the U.S. Supreme Court, have consistently held through the years that the census and the questions in the census are authorized by both the Constitution and statute.<ref>As early as 1870, the Supreme Court characterized as unquestionable the power of Congress to require both an enumeration and the collection of statistics in the census. The Legal Tender Cases, Tex.1870; 12 Wall., U.S., 457, 536, 20 L.Ed. 287. In 1901, a district court said the Constitution's census clause (Art. 1, Sec. 2, Clause 3) is not limited to a count of the population and "does not prohibit the gathering of other statistics, if 'necessary and proper,' for the intelligent exercise of other powers enumerated in the constitution, and in such case there could be no objection to acquiring this information through the same machinery by which the population is enumerated". United States v. Moriarity, 106 F. 886, 891 (S.D.N.Y.1901). All of these decisions are consistent with the Supreme Court's recent description of the census as the "linchpin of the federal statistical system ... collecting data on the characteristics of individuals, households, and housing units throughout the country". Dept. of Commerce v. U.S. House of Representatives, 525 U.S. 316, 341 (1999).</ref>

In 2002, the [[General Accounting Office|GAO]] confirmed that the Census Bureau has authority to conduct the survey and "require responses from the public".
All individual American Community Survey responses are kept private and are used (along with other ACS responses) to create estimates of demographic characteristics for various geographies. Because of data swapping techniques to ensure confidentiality, it is impossible to figure out how individual people responded based on data from published ACS estimates.<ref name="gao.gov"/>

===Opposition===
Opponents of the American Community Survey disagree with the court's findings about its constitutionality. They believe the survey asks for more information, and at a higher frequency, than the simple enumeration required by [[Article One of the United States Constitution|Article 1, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution]]. Despite the [[Government Accountability Office]]'s conclusion that the Census Bureau has the authority to conduct the survey under {{USC|13|141}} and {{USC|13|193}}, several U.S. representatives have challenged the ACS as unauthorized by the [[Census Act 1920|Census Act]] and a violation of the [[Right to Financial Privacy Act]]. Rep. [[Ron Paul]] of Texas, who opposes the ACS, said of it that the founding fathers of the United States "never authorized the federal government to continuously survey the American people".<ref>[http://archive.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul192.html "None of Your Business!"] by [[Ron Paul]]</ref>

Those who decline to complete the survey may receive visits to their homes from Census Bureau personnel. Because it is a mandatory survey, it is governed by federal laws that could impose a fine of as much as $5,000 for refusing to participate.

To date, no person has been prosecuted for refusing to answer the ACS.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Americans must answer U.S. Census Bureau survey by law, though agency hasn't prosecuted since 1970|url = http://www.politifact.com/texas/statements/2014/jan/09/us-census-bureau/americans-must-answer-us-census-bureau-survey-law-/|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = Selby|first = W. Gardner}}</ref> Former Director of the Census Bureau [[Kenneth Prewitt]] remarked that the Department of Commerce is "not an enforcement agency" and that "the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] would have to do the prosecution, and we don't recommend that".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Census Bureau, Census 2000, Director Prewitt press briefing on March 30, 2000|url = https://www.census.gov/dmd/www/mar30briefing.html|website = www.census.gov|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = US Census Bureau}}</ref> The Census Bureau prefers to gain cooperation by convincing respondents of the importance of participation, while acknowledging that the mandate improves response rates (and thus accuracy) and lowers the annual cost of survey administration by more than $90 million.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Mandatory vs. Voluntary Methods|url = https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/methodology/mandatory-voluntary-methods.html|website = www.census.gov|access-date = July 31, 2015|last = US Census Bureau}}</ref>

In 2014, the Census Project, a collaboration of pro-Census business and industry associations, gathered signatures from 96 national and local organizations urging the [[United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform|US House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform]] to reject a proposal to make the American Community Survey voluntary.<ref>{{cite web|last1=The Census Project|title=Letter to House Oversight and Government Reform Committee|url=https://censusproject.files.wordpress.com/2015/12/censusprojectacsltr-hr1078markup-march2014-final.pdf|access-date=July 14, 2017}}</ref> Signers included the [[US Chamber of Commerce]], the [[National Association of Realtors]] and the [[US Conference of Mayors]]. The letter cited results from a congressionally mandated test of a voluntary ACS that found that mail response rates would drop "dramatically," by more than 20 percentage points.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Navarro|first1=Alfredo|last2=King|first2=Karen E.|last3=Starsinc|first3=Michael|title=Comparison of the American Community Survey Voluntary Versus Mandatory Estimates|url=https://www.census.gov/library/working-papers/2011/acs/2011_Navarro_01.html|website=U.S. Census Bureau|access-date=July 14, 2017}}</ref> The resulting loss in quality and reliability would essentially eliminate data for 41 percent of U.S. counties, small cities, towns and villages, many school districts, neighborhoods, remote areas, and American Indian reservations.<ref>{{cite web|last1=The Census Project|title=Letter to House Oversight and Government Reform Committee|url=https://censusproject.files.wordpress.com/2015/12/censusprojectacsltr-hr1078markup-march2014-final.pdf|access-date=July 14, 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of household surveys in the United States]]
* [[2011 National Household Survey|National Household Survey]], a similar survey that is a successor to the [[Canada 2011 Census|2011 long-form Canadian census]]

==Notes==
{{noteslist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://www.census.gov/acs/www/ American Community Survey site at the United States Census Bureau]
* [http://usa.ipums.org/usa/ ACS data] from the [[Integrated Public Use Microdata Series]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090625230912/http://www.factfinder.census.gov/home/saff/main.html?_lang=en American FactFinder – United States Census Bureau's Searchable Database]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020806025619/http://www.census.gov/acs/www/SBasics/SQuest/SQuest1.htm Access to all survey questionnaires used from 1996 to 2011]
* [http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/edicollect/123 American Community Survey (ACS) User Guide for Disability Statistics]
* [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/USCODE-2009-title13/html/USCODE-2009-title13.htm US Code Title 13]

[[Category:United States Census Bureau]]
[[Category:Household surveys]]
[[Category:2005 establishments in the United States]]