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North Assam division

2026-04-27T19:51:51Z

BrookEjw0071:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = North Assam division
| settlement_type = [[Administrative divisions of Assam|Division of Assam]]
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_seal =
| image_map = Divisions of Assam.svg
| map_caption = The five divisions of Assam
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = [[Assam]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| seat_type = Capital
| seat = [[Tezpur]]
| seat1_type = Largest City
| seat1 = [[Tezpur]]
| government_footnotes =
| leader_party =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 6,613
| area_note =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 3,684,298
| population_as_of = 2011 census
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_note =
}}

'''North Assam division''' is an administrative [[Divisions of Assam|division of Assam]] under the jurisdiction of a Commissioner, who is officially stationed at [[Tezpur]]. It consists of the following districts: [[Udalguri district|Udalguri]], [[Darrang district|Darrang]], [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]] and [[Biswanath district|Biswanath]]. Shri Rakesh Kumar, IAS is the current Commissioner of this division.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gad.assam.gov.in/information-services/divisions|title=Divisions | General Administration | Government of Assam, India|access-date=12 December 2021|archive-date=27 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927200920/https://gad.assam.gov.in/information-services/divisions|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Districts==
North Assam district comprises mainly 4 districts, namely Udalguri, Darrang, Sonitpur and Biswanath.

{| class= "wikitable sortable"
|-
! Code<ref>[[ISO 3166-2:IN|ISO 3166]]</ref>
! District
! Headquarter
! Population (2011)<ref name="districtcensus">{{cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/Assam.html|title= District Census 2011}}</ref>
! Area (km2)
! Density (/km2)
|-
| BS|| [[Biswanath district|Biswanath]]|| [[Biswanath Chariali]]|| 612 491 || 1,100||557
|-
| DR|| [[Darrang district|Darrang]]|| [[Mangaldai]]|| 928 500|| 1,585|| 586
|-
| ST|| [[Sonitpur district|Sonitpur]]|| [[Tezpur]]|| 1 311 619|| 2,076|| 632
|-
| UD|| [[Udalguri district|Udalguri]]# ||[[Udalguri]] ||831 688
| 1,852|| 449
|-
!Total
!4
!—
!3 684 298
!6,613
!557
|}

# [[Bodoland Territorial Region#Districts|Districts]] within the [[Bodoland Territorial Region]]

==Demographics==
As per 2011 census, North Assam division has a population of 3,684,298

===Languages===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages spoken in North Assam Division (2011)<ref name="censuslang">{{cite web |title=C-16 Population By Mother Tongue – Assam |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-1800.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=16 August 2020}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
|value1 = 36.36
|color1 = yellow
|label2 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|value2 = 25.07
|color2 = red
|label3 = [[Boro language (India)|Boro]]
|value3 = 10.57
|color3 = blue
|label4 = [[Sadri language|Sadri]]
|value4 = 8.54
|color4 = silver
|label5 = [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
|value5 = 4.98
|color5 = orange
|label6 = [[Hindi]]
|value6 = 3.42
|color6 = green
|label7 = Others
|value7 = 11.06
|color7 = grey
}}

According to 2011 census, the total number of Assamese speakers in the division were 1,339,782, Bengali speakers were 923,791, Boro speakers were 389,390, Sadri speakers were 314,665, Nepali speakers were 183,601 and Hindi speakers were 125,908.

==See also==
*[[Upper Assam Division]]
*[[Lower Assam Division]]
*[[Hills and Barak Valley Division|Barak Valley Division]]
*[[Central Assam Division]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Divisions of Assam]]

Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation

2026-04-25T07:32:33Z

BrookEjw0071:

{{Short description|City governing body in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}

{{Infobox legislature
| name = Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation
| native_name =
| coa_pic =
| coa_res =
| coa_alt =
| coa_caption = [[Emblem|Emblem of the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation]]
| logo = File:GHMC logo.png
| coa-pic = File:Ghmc1.jpg
| coa-res =
| house_type = [[Municipal corporation]]
| jurisdiction = Hyderabad
| foundation = {{Start date and age|df=yes|paren=yes|br=yes|1869}},<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ghmc.gov.in/greaterhyd.asp |title=Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation |website=ghmc.gov.in |access-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017055525/http://ghmc.gov.in/greaterhyd.asp |archive-date=17 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| leader1_type = [[Mayor of Hyderabad, India|Mayor]]
| leader1 =
| party1 =
| election1 = [[2020 Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation election|11 February 2021]]
| leader2_type = [[Mayor of Hyderabad, India|Deputy Mayor]]
| leader2 =
| party2 =
| election2 = [[2020 Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation election|11 February 2021]]
| leader3_type = [[Municipal commissioner]]
| leader3 = R. V. Karnan, IAS
| preceded_by = [[Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad]] (2007)
| succeeded_by = *[[Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation]]
*[[Cyberabad Municipal Corporation]] and
*[[Malkajgiri Municipal Corporation]] under '''Core Urban Region Economy (CURE)''' area(2026) <ref>{{cite web | title=Congress' Big Hyderabad Municipal Body Shake Up Before Crucial Election | date=11 February 2026 | url=https://www.ndtv.com/south/congress-big-hyderabad-municipal-body-shake-up-before-crucial-election-10986744}}</ref>
| seats = '''150'''
| structure1 =
| structure1_res = 300px
| political_groups1 = *{{colorbox|{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}}} [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (43)<ref name="bypoll" />
* {{colorbox|{{party color|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}}} [[Bharat Rashtra Samithi|BRS]] (43)<ref name="bypoll">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/jolt-to-bjp-as-rajasekhar-of-congress-wins-in-lingojiguda/articleshow/82376988.cms|title = Jolt to BJP as Rajasekhar of Congress wins in Lingojiguda | Hyderabad News - Times of India| website=[[The Times of India]] | date=4 May 2021 }}</ref><ref name="defection">{{Cite web |author=News Desk |date=17 October 2023 |title=Hyderabad: BRS Madhapur corporator Jagadeeshwar Goud joins Congress |url=https://www.siasat.com/hyderabad-brs-madhapur-corporator-jagadeeshwar-goud-joins-congress-2726179/ |access-date=7 January 2024 |website=The Siasat Daily |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="defection2" />
*{{colorbox|{{party color|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}}} [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen|AIMIM]] (41)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/ghmc-polls-trs-wins-mayoral-posts-with-aimim-extending-last-minute-support-101613050221656.html|title=Hindustan Times |date=11 February 2021 }}</ref>
*{{colorbox|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}} [[Indian National Congress|INC]] (23)<ref name="defection" /><ref name="defection2">{{Cite web |last=|first=|date=27 October 2023 |title=Ex-Congress Leader to Form Revanth Badhitula Sena |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/271023/congress-leader-from-hyderabad-joins-brs.html |access-date=10 January 2024 |website=Deccan Chronicle |language=en-US}}</ref>
| last_election1 = [[2020 Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation election|1 December 2020]]
| next_election1 = TBD (To be decided)
| session_room = Ghmc1.jpg
| meeting_place = GHMC Building
| website = {{URL|http://www.ghmc.gov.in/}}
| motto = On Mission Tomorrow
}}

The '''Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation''' ('''GHMC''') is the civic body that oversees the central and few parts of southern areas of [[Hyderabad]], Telangana. It is the local government for the city of Hyderabad. The GHMC is responsible for civic administration, including urban planning, sanitation, road maintenance, and public health services. It was the [[List of municipal corporations in India|largest municipal corporations in India]] with an area of 2053 km2 until 11 February 2026, when GHMC was split into three independent municipal corporations.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-12-01 |title=GHMC expansion plan likely to double wards of civic body to 300 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ghmc-expansion-plan-likely-to-double-wards-of-civic-body-to-300/articleshow/125679581.cms |access-date=2025-12-04 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref name="richest"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/civic-split-raises-red-flags-over-fiscal-strain/articleshow/128272911.cms|title=Civic split raises red flags over fiscal strain}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Hyderabad Municipal Board (1869–1933) ===
In 1869, municipal administration was first introduced for the city of Hyderabad.<ref name="hy1">{{cite news |title=Birth and growth of Hyderabad municipal corporation |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2013/sep/16/birth-and-growth-of-hyderabad-municipal-corporation-517183.html |access-date=18 June 2022 |publisher=The New Indian Express |date=16 September 2013}}</ref> The city of Hyderabad was divided into four and the suburbs of Chaderghat were divided into five divisions. The whole management of both the city and the suburbs was handled by the then City Police Commissioner, Kotwal-e-Baldia.<ref name="ghmc.gov.in">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ghmc.gov.in/ |title=ghmc.gov.in |access-date=23 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090101030345/http://ghmc.gov.in/ |archive-date=1 January 2009 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

=== Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad (1933–2007) ===
In 1933, Chaderghat Municipality was merged with Hyderabad Municipality to form Hyderabad Municipal Corporation and was given statutory status under the Hyderabad Municipal Act. During the following year (1934), the first elections were held for Municipal Corporation and a Standing Committee was appointed at that time.<ref name="ghmc.gov.in" />

In 1937, Jubilee Hills Municipality was formed by the amalgamation of Jubilee Hills and Banjara Hills. Later, in 1942, the corporation status for the city was removed. In the year 1945, Secunderabad Municipality was formed. Again in 1950, Hyderabad regained its lost Corporation status along with the amalgamation of Jubilee Hills Municipality.

The Hyderabad Corporation and the Secunderabad Corporation, were established in 1950 via the Hyderabad Corporation Act. Jubilee Hills Municipality merged in Hyderabad Corporation during this time.<ref name="ghmc.gov.in" /> In 1955, the Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Act merged the [[municipal corporation]]s overseeing Hyderabad and neighbouring Secunderabad.

Once again in 1955, both the municipal corporations of Hyderabad and Secunderabad were merged to form Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad (MCH). In 1956, Hyderabad became capital of Andhra Pradesh after the state was formed.

=== Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (2007–2025) ===
The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation was formed on 16 April 2007 by merging 12 municipalities and 8 gram panchayats with the [[Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad]]. The municipalities are [[L. B. Nagar]], [[Gaddi Annaram]], [[Uppal Kalan]], [[Malkajgiri]], [[Kapra]], [[Alwal]], [[Quthbullapur]], [[Kukatpally]], [[Serilingampally]], [[Rajendranagar]], [[Ramachandrapuram, Medak district|Ramachandrapuram]], and [[Patancheru]]. These municipalities are in [[Rangareddy district]] and [[Medak district]]. The panchayats are [[Shamshabad]], Satamarai, Jallapalli, Mamdipalli, Mankhal, Almasguda, Sardanagar and Ravirala.

The Government Order 261 was initially issued in July 2005. Now, the Supreme Court has rejected the plea to interfere into the matter, the Andhra Pradesh government has passed the GO 261 that is related to the creation of Greater Hyderabad on 16 April 2007. Earlier, the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad had a population of 45 lakhs living in an area of 172 km2. The new urban agglomeration sprawls across {{convert|625|km2|sqmi}} with a population of 67 lakhs.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/New-geographical-map-of-Hyderabad-released/articleshow/45543021.cms|title=New geographical map of Hyderabad released|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=17 December 2014 }}</ref> The erstwhile city of the Nizams has now transformed into an area far greater.

The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) comprises the limits of the erstwhile Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad (MCH) along with 10 municipalities and 8 panchayats in erstwhile [[Ranga Reddy district]] and 2 municipalities in erstwhile [[Medak district]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/greater-hyderabad-formed-107041801041_1.html|title=Greater Hyderabad formed}}</ref> Secunderabad cantonment does not come under purview of GHMC. There are eight civilian wards in Secunderabad Cantonment Board, with a population of four lakh.<ref>{{cite web |date=28 December 2018 |title=Secunderabad Cantonment Board met just twice this year to discuss people issues |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2018/dec/28/scb-met-just-twice-this-year-to-discuss-peoples-issues-1917509.html}}</ref>
[[File:Ghmc building.jpg|thumb|GHMC Head Office]]
The Government has decided to divide the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation into six zones in 2019 (south, east, north, north east, west and central zones), [[Administrative divisions of Hyderabad|30 circles and 150 wards]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/sixth-zone-created-in-ghmc/article23842019.ece|title=Sixth zone created in GHMC|newspaper=The Hindu|date=11 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/ghmcs-new-circles-to-be-established-by-june-1/article18579435.ece|title=GHMC's new circles to be established by June 1|newspaper=The Hindu|date=26 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/|title=Outlook India - India's Best Magazine| Find Latest News, Top Headlines, Live Updates|website=Outlook India}}</ref> [[Old City (Hyderabad, India)|Old City]] has about 50 wards in seven circles. Each ward would cover about 40,000 - 50,000 people.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ghmc-to-add-50-more-wards-act-to-be-amended/articleshow/74719087.cms|title=GHMC to add 50 more wards, Act to be amended|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=20 March 2020 }}</ref> The GHMC is headed by a Commissioner and also has a Special Commissioner both of whom belong to [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]. Each zone will have a zonal commissioner, an officer of the rank of additional commissioner with a deputy municipal commissioners heading every circle. There will also be a separate engineering wing with an Engineer in Chief and Chief Engineer at head office level and a superintending engineer for each zone; a town planning wing with Additional Commissioner (Planning) and a Chief City Planner at the head office level and a city planner for each zone.

In February 2018, Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) has listed its municipal bonds on the [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] (BSE). The civic body became the second to list its bonds on the BSE's newly launched bond platform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indtoday.com/ghmc-lists-its-bonds-on-bse-bond-platform/|title = GHMC lists its bonds on BSE bond platform | INDToday|date = 22 February 2018}}</ref>

===Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (2025-2026)===

In November 2025, it was announced that the 27 adjoining [[List of urban local bodies in Telangana|urban local bodies]] (7 municipal corporations: [[Badangpet]], [[Bandlaguda Jagir Municipal Corporation|Bandlaguda Jagir]], [[Meerpet–Jillelguda]], [[Boduppal]], [[Peerzadiguda]], [[Jawaharnagar, Telangana|Jawaharnagar]], [[Nizampet]] and 20 municipalities: [[Pedda Amberpet]], [[Jalpally]], [[Shamshabad]], [[Turkayamjal]], [[Manikonda]], [[Narsingi, Ranga Reddy district|Narsingi]], [[Adibatla]], [[Tukkuguda]], [[Medchal]], [[Dammaiguda]], [[Nagaram, Medchal–Malkajgiri district|Nagaram]], [[Pocharam, Medak district|Pocharam]], [[Ghatkesar]], [[Gundlapochampalli]], [[Thumkunta]], [[Kompally]], [[Dundigal]], [[Bolarum]], [[Tellapur]], [[Ameenpur]]) will be merged into GHMC.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-11-26 |title=Megapolis in making: Hyderabad set for major expansion as 27 ULBs join GHMC; 150 wards to get Rs 2cr each in massive development drive |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/megapolis-in-making-hyderabad-set-for-major-expansion-as-27-ulbs-join-ghmc-150-wards-to-get-rs-2cr-each-in-massive-development-drive/articleshow/125578768.cms |access-date=2025-12-04 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2025-11-26 |title=Telangana Cabinet approves GHMC expansion, underground power network, new DISCOM |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2025/Nov/26/telangana-cabinet-approves-ghmc-expansion-underground-power-network-new-discom |access-date=2025-12-04 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=IANS |date=2025-11-25 |title=Hyderabad to expand, Telangana Cabinet approves merging 27 urban local bodies with GHMC |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/telangana/hyderabad-to-expand-telangana-cabinet-approves-merging-27-urban-local-bodies-with-ghmc |access-date=2025-12-04 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Keval |first=Varun |date=2025-11-25 |title=Hyderabad: GHMC Becomes Bigger Than Ever: New Map, New Jurisdictions, New Rules |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/news/cities/hyderabad/hyderabad-ghmc-becomes-bigger-than-ever-new-map-new-jurisdictions-new-rules-1026185 |access-date=2025-12-04 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref> On 3 December 2025, the government order was issued stating that merger came into effect from 2 December 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-03 |title=బృహత్ నగరంగా హైదరాబాద్ - జీహెచ్ ఎంసీలో విలీనమైన 27 పట్టణ స్థానిక సంస్థలు |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/te/state/telangana-government-issues-notification-on-ghmc-expansion-updates-telangana-news-tgs25120306818 |access-date=2025-12-04 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=te |quote=జీహెచ్ ఎంసీ విస్తరణను నవంబర్ 25న మంత్రివర్గం ఆమోదించడం, డిసెంబర్ 1న జీహెచ్ఎంసీ చట్టం, తెలంగాణ పురపాలక చట్టాల సవరణకు గవర్నర్ ఆమోదముద్ర వేయడంతో వెనువెంటనే నోటిఫికేషన్ జారీ చేసిన ప్రభుత్వ ప్రధాన కార్యదర్శి రామకృష్ణారావు, డిసెంబర్ 2 నుంచే 27 పట్టణ స్థానిక సంస్థలు జీహెచ్ ఎంసీలో విలీనమైనట్లు ఉత్తర్వుల్లో పేర్కొన్నారు. |trans-quote=Following the cabinet's approval of the expansion of GHMC on 25 November 2025 and the Governor's approval of the amendment to the GHMC Act and the Telangana Municipal Acts on 1 December 2025, Chief Secretary Ramakrishna Rao issued a notification immediately, stating in the order that 27 urban local bodies have been merged into GHMC from 2 December 2025.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Swathi |first=V. |date=2025-12-03 |title=GHMC expansion notified with 57 circles |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/ghmc-expansion-notified-with-57-circles/article70353842.ece |access-date=2025-12-04 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ABN |date=2025-12-04 |title=Greater Hyderabad: విలీనం.. ఇక అధికారికం |url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2025/telangana/greater-hyderabad-merger-official-20-municipalities-and-7-corporations-added-to-ghmc-ksv-1472033.html |access-date=2025-12-04 |website=Andhrajyothy Telugu News |language=te}}</ref> The number of wards were increased to 300.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2025-12-09 |title=State notifies GHMC ward strength at 300 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2025/Dec/09/state-notifies-ghmc-ward-strength-at-300 |access-date=2025-12-09 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-12-08 |title=Expanded GHMC to have 300 wards |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/expanded-ghmc-to-have-300-wards/article70373741.ece |access-date=2025-12-09 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

===GHMC split (2026-present)===
On 11 February 2026, The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) was divided into three corporations: GHMC, MMC, and CMC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/ias-officers-transfers-feb-2026-new-commissioners-appointed-for-malkajgiri-and-cyberabad-municipal-corporations/article70618109.ece|title=New Commissioners appointed for Malkajgiri and Cyberabad municipal corporations}}</ref><ref name="richest">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/cyberabad-municipal-corporation-set-to-become-richest-civic-body-in-telangana/articleshow/128221834.cms|title=Cyberabad Municipal Corporation set to become richest civic body in Telangana}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/newly-formed-malkajgiri-cyberabad-civic-corporations-in-hyderabad-stare-at-groundwater-depletion/articleshow/128572504.cms|title=Newly formed Malkajgiri, Cyberabad civic corporations in Hyderabad stare at groundwater depletion}}</ref> Following the end of the local body term on 9 February 2026, the Government of Telangana appointed special commissioners until the next local body elections are held.<ref>{{cite web
|title=GHMC set for trifurcation: Hyderabad, Cyberabad and Malkajgiri corporations to be formed
|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/ghmc-set-for-trifurcation-hyderabad-cyberabad-and-malkajgiri-corporations-to-be-formed-1935541
|website=Deccan Chronicle
|access-date=10 February 2026
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Murthy |first=Sistla Dakshina |title=GHMC bifurcated: Cyberabad, Malkajgiri to have separate municipal corporations |url=https://newsmeter.in/regional/telangana/ghmc-bifurcated-cyberabad-malkajgiri-to-have-separate-municipal-corporations-762883 |website=NewsMeter |date=11 February 2026 |access-date=11 February 2026}}</ref> All the three corporations are governed by the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Act, 1955.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/all-the-three-corporations-to-be-governed-by-the-ghmc-act-1955/article70620480.ece|title=All the three corporations to be governed by the GHMC Act, 1955}}</ref> The reorganised GHMC covers approximately 689  km2.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/six-zones-with-30-circles-in-reorganised-ghmc/article70618646.ece|title=Six zones with 30 Circles in reorganised GHMC}}</ref>

==Administration==
The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation is headed by a [[Municipal commissioner (India)|Municipal Commissioner]], an [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]] officer. The commissioner wields the executive power of the house. A quinquennial election is held to elect corporators to power. The corporators are responsible for overseeing that their constituencies have the basic civic infrastructure in place, and that there is no lacuna on the part of the authorities.

=== Executive ===
The Andhra Pradesh Government appointed CVSK Sarma as the first Chief Commissioner of GHMC in 2007. There is also a provision for a directly elected mayor of Hyderabad. However, the Chief Commissioner can allocate more funds and in general has more power.

=== Legislature ===
{{Further|List of mayors of Hyderabad}}
The term of the legislature of precursor to the GHMC namely the Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad, then simply called by the same name ended before the formation of the GHMC. The Standing Committee of the Legislature takes a major role in the decision-making process within the legislature when it is in session. 64 ex-officio members including 5 Lok Sabha MPs whose constituencies are in GHMC jurisdiction vote in GHMC election.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/010216/ghmc-polls-candidates-shying-away-from-poll-expenditure.html|title=GHMC poll fray 2016|date=February 2016}}</ref><ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/GHMC-in-dilemma-over-ex-officio-members/articleshow/5280541.cms|title=GHMC in dilemma over ex-officio members|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=29 November 2009 }}</ref><ref name="sakshipost.com">http://www.sakshipost.com/index.php/news/politics/72601-here-are-the-50-ex-officio-members-eligible-to-vote-in-ghmc-mayor-election.html{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The [[Mayor of Hyderabad (India)|Mayor]] is the head of the house. They function through four organs namely Council, Mayor, standing Committees and commissioner. The council, which consists of the registered voters of the corporation, is a deliberative body.

== Administrative divisions of GHMC ==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Hyderabad}}

[[File:GHMC ZONES,CIRCLES,WARDS MAP DEC 2025.jpg|thumb|The new GHMC is divided into 12 municipal zones]]

The Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) is the civic body that oversees [[Hyderabad]], the capital and largest city in the Indian state of [[Telangana]]. It is the local government for the cities of Hyderabad and [[Secunderabad]]. Its geographical area covers most of the urban development agency the [[Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority]] (HMDA). 24 Assembly constituencies comes under GHMC.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/24-seats-at-stake-as-titans-clash-for-greater-hyderabad-pie/articleshow/104514077.cms?from=mdr|title=24 seats at stake as titans clash for Greater Hyderabad pie|newspaper=The Times of India |date=18 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/kcrs-early-election-gamble-gives-enough-ammo-to-trs/articleshow/66104449.cms|title=KCR's early election gamble gives enough ammo to TRS|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=7 October 2018 }}</ref> 64 ex-officio members including 5 Lok Sabha MPs whose constituencies are in GHMC jurisdiction vote in GHMC election.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com"/><ref name="sakshipost.com"/>

== Elections ==
=== 2020 GHMC election ===
{{Main|2020 Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation election}}

After 2016, third GHMC elections were held in December 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 November 2020|title=GHMC elections: What Hyderabad wants|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ghmc-elections-what-hyderabad-wants/articleshow/79363000.cms|access-date=23 November 2020|website=Times of india|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=4 December 2020|title=GHMC results: BJP makes massive inroads at the expense of.TRS|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/south/ghmc-results-bjp-makes-massive-inroads-at-the-expense-of-trs-923392.html|access-date=4 December 2020|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref> The GHMC council's term will end on Feb 11, 2026.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ghmc-may-be-put-under-special-officers-rule-as-poll-rejig-face-delays/articleshow/125597809.cms|title=GHMC may be put under special officer’s rule as poll, rejig face delays}}</ref>
{|CLASS="sortable wikitable"
|-
!S.No.
!colspan=2|Party Name
!Symbol
!Won
!Change
|-
|1
|{{party color cell|Bharat Rashtra Samithi}}
|[[Bharat Rashtra Samithi]]
|
|56
|{{decrease}}43
|-
|2
|{{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|[[File:BJP election symbol.png|50px]]
|48
|{{increase}}44
|-
|3
|{{party color cell|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}
|[[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]
|[[File:Indian Election Symbol Kite.svg|50px]]
|44
|{{no change}}
|-
|4
|{{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|[[File:Indian National Congress symbol.svg|30px]]
|2
|{{no change}}
|-
|5
|{{party color cell|Telugu Desam Party}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party]]
|[[File:Indian_Election_Symbol_Cycle.png|55px]]
|0
|{{decrease}}1
|-
|}

=== 2016 GHMC election ===
{{main|2016 Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation election}}

Second GHMC election were conduced in February 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 February 2017|title=GHMC Election Results: TRS sweeps, Congress and TDP decimated|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-ghmc-election-results-counting-begins-for-greater-hyderabad-municipal-corporation-elections-2174308|access-date=5 July 2020|website=DNA India|language=en}}</ref>
{|CLASS="sortable wikitable"
|-
!S.No.
!colspan=2|Party Name
!Symbol
!Alliance
!Won
!Change
|-
|1
|{{party color cell|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}
|[[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]]
|
|''None''
|99
|''New''
|-
|2
|{{party color cell|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}
|[[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]
|[[File:Indian Election Symbol Kite.svg|50px]]
|''None''
|44
|{{increase}}1
|-
|3
|{{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| [[File:BJP election symbol.png|50px]]
|[[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]]
|4
|{{decrease}}1
|-
|4
|{{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|[[File:Indian National Congress symbol.svg|30px]]
|''None''
|2
|{{decrease}}50
|-
|5
|{{party color cell|Telugu Desam Party}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party]]
|[[File:Indian_Election_Symbol_Cycle.png|50px]]
|[[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]]
|1
|{{decrease}}44
|}

=== 2009 GHMC election ===
{{Main|2009 Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation election}}

{|CLASS="sortable wikitable"
|-
!S.No.
!colspan=2|Party Name
!Symbol
!Won
|-
|2
|{{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|[[File:Indian National Congress symbol.svg|30px]]
|52
|-
|1
|{{party color cell|Telugu Desam Party}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party]]
|[[File:Indian_Election_Symbol_Cycle.png|50px]]
|45
|-
|3
|{{party color cell|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}
|[[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]
|[[File:Indian Election Symbol Kite.svg|50px]]
|43
|-
|4
|{{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|[[File:BJP election symbol.png|50px]]
|5
|-
|5
|bgcolor=#C1C1C1|
|[[Independent politician|Independents]]
|
|5
|}

=== 2002 MCH election ===
{{Main|2002 Hyderabad Municipal Corporation election}}

Last Municipal Corporation of Hyderabad (MCH) elections were held in 2002 for a total of 99 wards.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2002 |title=TDP occupies Hyderabad Municipal Corporation |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/tdp-occupies-hyderabad-municipal-corporation/articleshow/1139384294.cms |access-date=27 October 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!S.No.
!colspan=2|Party Name
!Symbol
!Won
|-
|1
|{{party color cell|All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen}}
|[[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]]
|[[File:Indian Election Symbol Kite.svg|50px]]
|34
|-
|2
|{{party color cell|Telugu Desam Party}}
|[[Telugu Desam Party]]
|[[File:Indian_Election_Symbol_Cycle.png|50px]]
|22
|-
|3
|{{party color cell|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|[[File:Indian National Congress symbol.svg|30px]]
|19
|-
|4
|{{party color cell|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|[[File:BJP election symbol.png|50px]]
|18
|-
|5
|{{party color cell|Telangana Rashtra Samithi}}
|[[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]]
|
|2
|-
|6
|bgcolor=#C1C1C1|
|[[Telangana Sadhana Samithi]]
|
|1
|-
|7
|bgcolor=#C1C1C1|
|[[Independent politician|Independents]]
|
|3
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Hyderabad}}
* [[Administrative divisions of Hyderabad]]
* [[Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|ghmc.gov.in}}
*[https://hyderabad.urbanobservatory.in/ Hyderabad Urban Labs map]

{{Municipal corporations in Telangana}}
{{Hyderabad topics}}
{{Neighborhoods of Hyderabad|state=collapsed}}
{{State Agencies of Telangana}}
{{Telangana}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Municipal corporations in Telangana]]
[[Category:Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation| ]]
[[Category:Government of Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:1869 establishments in India]]

Yogeshwar Raju Sinha

2026-04-23T05:21:27Z

BrookEjw0071: done - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Yogeshwar Raju Sinha
| native_name =
| image =
| caption =
| office1 = Member of the [[Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = 3 December 2023
| term_end1 =
| successor1 =
| predecessor1 = Vinod Sevan Lal Chandrakar
| constituency1 = [[Mahasamund Assembly constituency|Mahasamund]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| other_party =
| spouse =
| children =
| father = Nandu Ram Sinha
| mother =
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Dr. C.V. Raman University]]
| profession =
| source =
}}

'''Yogeshwar Raju Sinha''' (born 1980)<ref name=":0" /> is an Indian politician from [[Chhattisgarh]]. He is an MLA from [[Mahasamund Assembly constituency]] in [[Mahasamund district]]. He won the [[2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election]], representing the Bharatiya Janata Party.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Mahasamund Election Result 2023 Live: Bjp Candidate Yogeshwar Raju Sinha Wins From Mahasamund |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/mahasamund-election-result-2023-live-updates-constituency-vote-counting-winner-loser-bjp-congress-jcc-chhattisgarh-assembly-election-results-news-1647377 |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahasamund Constituency Election Results 2023: Mahasamund Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/chhattisgarh/constituency-show/mahasamund |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Raju is from [[Mahasamund]], Chhattisgarh. His father, Nandu Ram Sinha, is a farmer. He completed his graduation in arts through open stream at Institute of Open and Distance Education which is affiliated with [[Dr. C.V. Raman University|Dr CV Raman University]], [[Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh|Bilaspur]] in 2017.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Yogeshwar Raju Sinha(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- MAHASAMUND(MAHASAMUND) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://myneta.info/Chhattisgarh2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=474 |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Raju won from Mahasamund Assembly constituency representing the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] in the 2023 Chhattisgarh Legislative Assembly election. He polled 84,594 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Rashmi Chandrakar of the [[Indian National Congress]], by a margin of 16,152 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yogeshwar Raju Sinha, BJP Candidate from Mahasamund Assembly Election 2024 Seat: Electoral History & Political Journey, Winning or Losing - News18 Assembly Election 2024 Result News |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/assembly/chhattisgarh/yogeshwar-raju-sinha-s26aed2008a042e2023c002/ |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=www.news18.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Mahasamund Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: BJP's Yogeshwar Raju Sinha defeats INC's Dr. Rashmi Chandrakar with 16152 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/mahasamund-assembly-election-results-2023-live-2470859-2023-12-03 |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Live Mahasamund Election Results {{!}} Mahasamund Assembly Election Results 2024 |url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections/chhattisgarh-assembly-election-results-2023/mahasamund |access-date=2024-10-28 |website=ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sinha, Yogeshwar Raju}}
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Chhattisgarh]]
[[Category:Chhattisgarh MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Mahasamund district]]

Virendra Yadav

2026-04-22T02:31:10Z

BrookEjw0071: article - done

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1961)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Bhai Virendra Yadav
| birth_name = Bhai Virendra Yadav
| caption =
| image = File:Bhai Virendra.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|3 May 1961|df=y}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vidhansabha.bih.nic.in/pdf/member_profile/187.pdf|title=Member Profile of Maner MLA|website=vidhansabha.bih.nic|accessdate=20 November 2015}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Maner]], [[Bihar]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|Member of Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Maner (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Maner]]
| term_start1 = 2000
| term_end1 = 2005
| term_start2 = 2010
| term_end2 = 2015
| term_start3 = 2015
| term_end3 = 2020
| term_start4 = 2020
| term_end4 = 2025
| term_start5 = 2025
| predecessor = [[Srikant Nirala]]
| successor =
| party = {{Party index link|Rashtriya Janata Dal|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
| other_party =
| website =
| alma_mater = B.A [[Magadh University]]
| profession = [[Indian politician|Politician]], social worker
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}

'''Bhai Virendra Yadav''' (born 3 May 1961) is an Indian politician. He was elected to the [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]] from [[Maner Assembly constituency|Maner]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/bihar/assembly-constituencies/maner.html|title=Maner MLA and Ex MLA list|website=www.elections.in|accessdate=9 November 2015}}</ref> in the 2010 [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]] elections, as a member of the [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]].<ref name="2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Results: Maner">{{cite news |date=14 November 2025 |title=2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Results: Maner |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04187.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20251209080621/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S04187.htm |archivedate=9 December 2025 |accessdate=9 December 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maner Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025">{{cite news |date=14 November 2025 |title=Maner Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/maner |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20251209080558/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/maner |archivedate=9 December 2025 |accessdate=9 December 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> Currently he is serving as a Main spokesman of Bihar [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]] Party.

Virendra was interested in contesting from [[Pataliputra (Lok Sabha constituency)|Patliputra]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://aajtak.intoday.in/story/rjd-mla-bhai-virendra-replies-tej-pratap-yadav-on-his-comment-atrc-1-1051925.html|title=पाटलिपुत्र सीट : RJD में मचा घमासान, पार्टी विधायक ने तेजप्रताप को बताई 'हैसियत'|website=aajtak.intoday.in|date=4 January 2019 |accessdate= 4 January 2019}}</ref> in the 2019 [[Lok Sabha]] election but was opposed by [[Tej Pratap Yadav]], as the latter's elder sister [[Misa Bharti]] was contesting from that seat.

<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/story-formation-of-25-committees-of-bihar-assembly-bjp-7-rjd-6-jdu-given-the-charge-of-chairman-in-5-committees-10346159.html | title=बिहार विधानसभा की 25 समितियों का गठन, BJP-7, RJD-6, Jdu को 5 समिति में सभापति का प्रभार }}</ref> He is currently the chairman of the Public Accounts Committee (PAC), Bihar Vidhan Sabha.

==Controversy==

In July 2025, Bhai Virendra was involved in a widely publicized controversy after an audio clip of a phone call between him and a panchayat secretary went viral on social media.<ref>{{cite web |title='Joote se maarenge': RJD MLA Bhai Virendra threatens panchayat secretary in viral audio |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/bihar-rjd-mla-bhai-virendra-viral-audio-threaten-panchayat-sachiv-hit-with-shoes-2762242-2025-07-28 |website=India Today |date=28 July 2025 |accessdate=29 July 2025}}</ref> In the clip, Virendra can be heard threatening the official with the phrase "joote se maarenge" ("will beat you with a shoe") while demanding swift action on a death certificate issue. When the official failed to recognize him, Virendra allegedly responded, "You don’t know Bhai Virendra?"

The panchayat secretary, Sandip Kumar, filed a formal complaint under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, alleging caste-based abuse and intimidation.<ref>{{cite web |title='Joota se maarunga': Panchayat-like spat between MLA and secretary over death certificate goes viral |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/new-updates/joote-se-maarenge-panchayat-like-phone-spat-between-vidhayak-and-sachiv-over-rinkis-death-certificate-goes-viral/articleshow/122948512.cms |website=The Economic Times |date=28 July 2025 |accessdate=29 July 2025}}</ref>

The incident sparked widespread reactions online and led to comparisons with fictional political drama from the popular Indian web series [[Panchayat (TV series)|Panchayat]]. Virendra later acknowledged using strong language but claimed it was a reaction to the official's tone and accused the official of violating his privacy by recording the call.<ref>{{cite web |title='Will beat you with shoes': RJD MLA Bhai Virendra admits to using harsh words |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/rjd-mla-admits-using-harsh-words-for-panchayat-secy/articleshow/122959619.cms |website=The Times of India |date=28 July 2025 |accessdate=29 July 2025}}</ref>

The episode made him the subject of widespread memes and commentary across Indian social media platforms.

==External links==
{{twitter|iBhaiVirendra}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Rashtriya Janata Dal}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Virendra, Bhai}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Magadh University alumni]]
[[Category:Rashtriya Janata Dal politicians]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 2010–2015]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 2015–2020]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 2020–2025]]
[[Category:People from Patna]]
[[Category:Samata Party politicians]]
[[Category:Bihar MLAs 2025–2030]]

{{Bihar-RJD-politician-stub}}

Neeraj Pandey (writer)

2026-04-19T16:28:35Z

BrookEjw0071: done

{{Short description|Indian writer (born 1989)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox writer
| image = NeerajPandeyOctober2025.jpg
| caption = Pandey in 2025
| image_upright = yes
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1989|3|09}}
| birth_place = [[Buxar]], [[Bihar]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Novelist]]|[[Screenwriter]]|[[Lyricist]]}}
| yearsactive = 2017—present
| notable_works = [[Mrs. (film)|Mrs.]], [[Hasmukh]], [[Ramprasad Ki Tehrvi]], [[Kaamyaab]]
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| alma_mater =
| spouse =
}}

'''Neeraj Pandey''' (born 9 March 1989) is an Indian novelist, screenwriter, and lyricist who works in [[Hindi cinema]].<ref name="ramprasadExpress" /><ref name="novel1" />

Pandey has written lyrics for ''[[Ramprasad Ki Tehrvi]]'', ''[[Kaamyaab]]'', and ''[[Mrs. (film)|Mrs.]]''.<ref name="ramprasadMashable" /><ref name="ramprasadTOI" /><ref name="MrsTOI" /> He has written dialogues for ''[[Hasmukh]]'' and ''[[Kacchey Limbu]],''<ref name="kaccheyLimbuScroll" /><ref name="kaccheyLimbuFreePress" /><ref name="kaccheyLimbuOTTPlay" /> and also co-written the second season of ''[[Your Honor (2020 Indian TV series)|Your Honor]].''<ref name="yourHonorIndiaToday" /> He has written the novels ''Door Aasmaan Mein'' and ''Kahin Aur Par Kahan''.<ref name="novel1">{{cite book |last1=Pandey |first1=Neeraj |title=Door Aasmaan Mein |date=22 April 2023 |publisher=Pankti Prakashan |location=India |isbn=978-8196329433 }}</ref><ref name="novel2">{{cite book |last1=Pandey |first1=Neeraj |title=Kahin Aur Par Kahan |date=30 September 2025 |publisher=Unbound Script |location=India |isbn=978-9348497796 }}</ref> He has also co-produced the film ''[[Aani Maani]]''.<ref name="kaccheyLimbuFreePress"/>

==Early life and education==
Pandey was born in the village of Naya Bhojpur in the [[Buxar district]] and grew up in [[Bhabua]].<ref name="ramprasadExpress" /><ref name=hasmukhNIE />

==Career==

In 2015, after working for seven years in the gaming and animation industries, Pandey moved to [[Mumbai]] to become a full time writer.<ref name="ramprasadExpress" /><ref name="ramprasadTOI" /> In 2023, he released his first novel, ''Door Aasmaan Mein''.<ref>{{cite web |title=The new Neeraj Pandey has two movies in MAMI this year |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/the-new-neeraj-pandey-has-two-movies-in-mami-this-year/articleshow/71600259.cms
|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=15 October 2019
|access-date=4 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bollywood screenwriter hustled out of theatre for not standing for the national anthem |url=https://scroll.in/article/801850/bollywood-screenwriter-hustled-out-of-theatre-for-not-standing-for-the-national-anthem
|website=[[Scroll.in]] |date=14 January 2016
|access-date=4 February 2025}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!scope="col" | Year
!scope="col" | Title
!scope="col" | Screenplay
!scope="col" | Dialogue
!scope="col" | Lyrics
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{refh}}
|-
|2017
|''[[Sameer (film)|Sameer]]''
|{{Ya}}
|{{Ya}}
|
|<ref name="ramprasadExpress" />
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2018
|scope="row"| ''[[Galti Se Mis-Tech]]''
| {{Ya}}
| {{Ya}}
|
|
|-
|scope="row"| ''[[Kaamyaab ]]''
|
|
|{{Ya}}
|<ref name="kaamyaabIndulge">{{cite web |title=Up-and-coming lyricist Neeraj Pandey speaks about working with Seema Pahwa on Ram Prasad ki Tehrvi |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/cinema/2021/Jan/08/up-and-coming-lyricist-neeraj-pandey-speaks-about-working-with-seema-pahwa-onram-prasad-ki-tehrvi-30809.html|website=[[Indulge Express]] |date=8 January 2021 |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2019
|scope="row"| ''[[Moothon|Moothon (The Elder One)]]''
|
|
|{{Ya}}
|<ref name="moothonTOI">{{cite web |title=Moothon' song: 'Bhai Re' song sees Nivin Pauly in a rugged avatar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/moothon-song-bhai-re-song-sees-nivin-pauly-in-a-rugged-avatar/articleshow/71956425.cms|website=[[OTTPlay]] |date=7 November 2019 |access-date=30 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
|scope="row"| ''[[Minus One (TV series)|Minus One (Season 2): New Chapter]]''
|
|
|{{Ya}}
|
|-
|scope="row"| ''[[Ramprasad Ki Tehrvi]]''
|
|
|{{Ya}}
|<ref name="ramprasadExpress">{{cite web |title=Neeraj Pandey is navigating the tough Bollywood landscape with heartwarming lyrics |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/neeraj-pandey-ramprasad-ki-tehrvi-kamyaab-6507639/|website=[[The Indian Express]] |date=15 July 2020 |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="ramprasadMashable">{{cite web |title='Ramprasad Ki Tehrvi' Review: Has Seema Pahwa Given Us One Of The Best Movies Of 2021 Already? Yes, She Has |url=https://in.mashable.com/entertainment/19354/ramprasad-ki-tehrvi-review-has-seema-pahwa-given-us-one-of-the-best-movies-of-2021-already-yes-she-h|website=[[Mashable]] |date=5 January 2021 |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="ramprasadTOI">{{cite web |title=Neeraj Pandey: Bollywood trusted me and that helped me become the writer I am today |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/neeraj-pandey-bollywood-trusted-me-and-that-helped-me-become-the-writer-i-am-today/articleshow/71689702.cms
|website=[[The Times of India]] |date=22 October 2019
|access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
|2020
|''[[Hasmukh]]''
|
|{{Ya}}
|
|<ref name=hasmukhHT>{{cite web |title='Hasmukh's writing could have been much better': Nikkhil Advani accepts what went wrong with Netfix show |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/hasmukh-s-writing-could-have-been-much-better-accepts-nikkhil-advani-says-netfix-show-was-not-supposed-to-be-olished/story-34KL5NC7lRxgmHuQNLHKqK.html|website=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="hasmukhNIE">{{cite web |title=The alchemist of lines |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/magazine/2020/Jun/07/the-alchemist-of-lines-2152290.html|website=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=7 June 2020 |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="hasmukhNDTV">{{cite web |title=Hasmukh Review: Vir Das Makes The Transition To Hindi With Aplomb. Plus, The Idea Is Killer |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/hasmukh-review-vir-das-makes-the-transition-to-hindi-with-aplomb-plus-the-idea-is-killer-2-5-stars-2213947|website=[[NDTV]] |access-date=31 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2021
|scope="row"| Tryst With Destiny
|
|{{Ya}}
|
|<ref name="trystOTTPlay">{{cite web |title=Tryst With Destiny trailer Twitter reaction: Drishyam Films' anthology creates quite a stir on the internet |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/tryst-with-destiny-trailer-twitter-reaction-drishyam-films-anthology-creates-quite-a-stir-on-the-internet/eee6663b95673|website=[[OTTPlay]] |access-date=30 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
|scope="row"| ''[[Your Honor (2020 Indian TV series)|Your Honor (Season 2)]]''
|{{Ya}}
|{{Ya}}
|
|<ref name="yourHonorIndiaToday">{{cite web |title=Your Honor 2 Review: Jimmy Sheirgill-starrer keeps viewers hooked with its gripping story |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/binge-watch/story/your-honor-2-review-jimmy-sheirgill-starrer-keeps-viewers-hooked-with-its-gripping-story-1878585-2021-11-19|website=[[India Today]] |date=19 November 2021 |access-date=30 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="yourHonorTOI">{{cite web |title=Your Honor Season 2 Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/hindi/your-honor/your-honor-season-2/seasonreview/87661527.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=31 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
|2022
|''[[Kacchey Limbu]]''
|
|{{Ya}}
|
|<ref name="kaccheyLimbuScroll">{{cite web |title='Kacchey Limbu' review: Feel-good gully cricket film is empowerment lite |url=https://scroll.in/reel/1049351/kacchey-limbu-review-feel-good-gully-cricket-film-is-empowerment-lite|website=[[Scroll.in]] |date=19 May 2023 |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="kaccheyLimbuFreePress">{{cite web |title=Neeraj Pandey's 'Kacchey Limbu' to have world premiere at 47th Toronto International Film Festival 2022 |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/bollywood/neeraj-pandeys-kacchey-limbu-to-have-world-premiere-at-47th-toronto-international-film-festival-2022|website=[[The Free Press Journal]] |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref><ref name="kaccheyLimbuOTTPlay">{{cite web |title=Kacchey Limbu release date: When and where to watch Radhika Madan, Ayush Mehra and Rajat Barmecha's sports drama on OTT |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/kacchey-limbu-release-date-when-and-where-to-watch-radhika-madan-ayush-mehra-and-rajat-barmechas-sports-drama-on-ott/d11e5f64e4362|website=[[OTTPlay]] |access-date=29 January 2025}}</ref>
|-
|2024
|Little Thomas
|
|
|{{Ya}}
|
|-
|2025
|''[[Mrs. (film)|Mrs.]]''
|
|
|{{Ya}}
|<ref name="MrsTOI">{{cite web |title=Mrs. Song - Rukte Rukte Chali Re |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/music/hindi/mrs-song-rukte-rukte-chali-re/videoshow/117647238.cms|website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
|2026
|''[[Happy Patel: Khatarnak Jasoos]]''
|
|
|{{Ya}}
|<ref name="HappyPatelMirchi">{{cite web |title=Banda Tere Liye from Happy Patel – Khatarnak Jasoos is out now; Vir Das turns 'item boy' in the first single |url=https://mirchi.in/stories/music/banda-tere-liye-from-happy-patel-khatarnak-jasoos-is-out-now-vir-das-turns-item-boy-in-the-first-single/153342618|website=[[Radio Mirchi|Mirchi]] |access-date=6 February 2026}}</ref>
|}

==Books==

*''Door Aasmaan Mein'' (2023), Pankti Prakashan <ref name="novel1"/>
*''Kahin Aur Par Kahan'' (2025), Unbound Script <ref name="novel2"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pandey, Neeraj}}
[[Category:Indian writers]]
[[Category:Indian screenwriters]]
[[Category:Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Indian lyricists]]
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian writers]]

Tanuku Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:36:10Z

BrookEjw0071: new - done

{{Short description|Constituency of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Tanuku
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh (61-Tanuku highlighted).png
| map_caption = Location of Tanuku Assembly constituency within Andhra Pradesh
| mla = [[Arimilli Radha Krishna]]
| party = {{Party index link|Telugu Desam Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| state = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| district = [[West Godavari district|West Godavari]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Narasapuram Lok Sabha constituency|Narasapuram]]
| reservation = None
| constituency_no = 61
| electors = 232,126
| established = 1951
| type = SLA
}}

'''Tanuku Assembly constituency''' is a constituency in [[West Godavari district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] that elects representatives to the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceoandhra.nic.in/ceoap_new/ceo/documents/Electors_Summary%20_25.03.2019.pdf|title=Electors Summary|date=25 May 2019|website=Chief Electoral Officer, Andhra Pradesh|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref> It is one of the seven assembly segments of [[Narasapuram Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref name="constituencies">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|date=17 December 2018|website=The Election Commission of India|pages=20, 30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003220916/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2018|url-status=dead|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>

[[Karumuri Venkata Nageswara Rao|Arimilli Radha Krishna]] is the current [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] of the constituency, having won the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] from [[YSR Congress Party|Telugu Desam Party]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Assembly Election 2019 |url=http://results.eci.gov.in/ac/en/constituencywise/ConstituencywiseS011.htm |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref> As of 2019, there are a total of 232,126 electors in the constituency.<ref name="electors">{{cite web|url=http://ceoandhra.nic.in/ceoap_new/ceo/documents/Electors_Summary%20_25.03.2019.pdf|title=Electors Summary|date=25 May 2019|website=Chief Electoral Officer, Andhra Pradesh|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>{{update after|2024|7}} The constituency was established in 1951, as per the ''Delimitation Orders (1951)''.

==Mandals==
Tanuku Assembly constituency consists of three mandals.

{{srn}}
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"
!Mandal
|-
| [[Tanuku]]
|-
| [[Attili]]
|-
| [[Iragavaram]]
|}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Political party
|-
| [[1952 Madras State Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| [[Chitturi Indrayya]]
| {{Full party name with color|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}
|-
| [[1955 Andhra State Legislative Assembly election|1955]]
| rowspan=2 |[[Mullapudi Harishchandra Prasad]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|-
| [[1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| G. Satyanarayana
| {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| Kantipudi Appa Rao
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress (I)]]
|-
| [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
| Rowspan=1 |Chitturi Venkareswara Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=5}}
|-
| [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| Mullapudi venkata krishna rao
|-
| [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| Mullapudi venkata krishna rao
|-
| [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
| Mullapudi venkata krishna rao
|-
| [[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
| Y. T. Raja
|-
| [[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| Chitturi Bapineedu
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| [[Karumuri Venkata Nageswara Rao]]
|-
| [[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| [[Arimilli Radha Krishna]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
| [[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
| Karumuri Venkata Nageswara Rao
| {{Full party name with color|YSR Congress Party}}
|-
| [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| Arimilli Radha Krishna
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2024 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Tanuku<ref name="Andhrapradesh Assembly Elections 2024 - Tanuku">{{cite news |title=Andhrapradesh Assembly Elections 2024 - Tanuku |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S0161.htm |access-date=30 January 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250130035012/https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S0161.htm |archive-date=30 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}

{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Arimilli Radha Krishna]]
|votes = 1,29,547
|percentage = 66.51
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Karumuri Venkata Nageswara Rao]]
|votes = 57,426
|percentage = 29.48
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Kadali Rama Rao
|votes = 2,422
|percentage = 1.24
|change =
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = NOTA
|candidate = None Of The Above
|votes = 1722
|percentage = 0.88
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 72,121
|percentage = 37.02
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,94,768
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = YSR Congress Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2019 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Tanuku}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Karumuri Venkata Nageswara Rao]]
|votes = 75,975
|percentage = 40.31
|change = +1.25
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Arimilli Radha Krishna]]
|votes = 73,780
|percentage = 39.14
|change = -17.17
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Janasena Party
|candidate = [[Pasupuleti Venkata Rama Rao]]
|votes = 31,961
|percentage = 16.96
|change = +16.96
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 2,195
|percentage = 1.16
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 188,494
|percentage = 81.20
|change = -0.66
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = YSR Congress Party
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2014 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Tanuku}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Arimilli Radha Krishna]]
|votes = 101,015
|percentage = 56.31
|change = +24.5
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Cheerla Radha Krishna]]
|votes = 70,067
|percentage = 39.06
|change = +39.06
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 30,948
|percentage = 17.25
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 179,400
|percentage = 81.87
|change = -0.68
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2009 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Tanuku}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Karumuri Venkata Nageswara Rao]]
|votes = 53,211
|percentage = 32.34
|change = -18.22
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Y T Raja]]
|votes = 51,760
|percentage = 31.81
|change = -14.91
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Praja Rajyam Party
|candidate = [[Akula Sreeramulu]]
|votes = 47,798
|percentage = 29.37
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,451
|percentage = 0.53
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 162,732
|percentage = 82.55
|change = +2.88
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2004 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Tanuku}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Chitturi Bapineedu]]
|votes = 65,189
|percentage = 50.92
|change = +11.71
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Y T Raja]]
|votes = 59,812
|percentage = 46.72
|change = -12.50
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 5,377
|percentage = 4.20
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 128,018
|percentage = 79.37
|change = +4.56
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1952===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1952 Madras State Legislative Assembly election]]: Tanuku<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2014-10-14 |archive-date=27 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201450/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Chitturi Indrayya |party=Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |votes=20,835 |percentage=42.24% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chitturi Subba Rao |party=Indian National Congress |votes=14,399 |percentage=29.20% |change=29.20% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kotipalli Appanna |party=Communist Party of India |votes=12,428 |percentage=25.20% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kalpatraju Kondayya |party=Independent politician |votes=892 |percentage=1.81% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Y. Narasimha Rao |party=Socialist Party (India) |votes=766 |percentage=1.55% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=6,436 |percentage=13.05% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=49,320 |percentage=78.84% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 62,557 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Coord|16.76|81.68|display=title}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh}}
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:West Godavari district]]
[[Category:Politics of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Madras State]]

Karnasubarner Guptodhon

2026-04-11T11:25:03Z

BrookEjw0071: starting a info.

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Karnasubarner Guptodhon
| image = Karnasubarner Guptodhon Poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Poster of the movie
| native_name = কর্ণসুবর্ণের গুপ্তধন
| director = [[Dhrubo Banerjee]]
| producer = [[Mahendra Soni]] [[Shrikant Mohta]]
| writer = Dhrubo Banerjee Sougata Basu
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on =
| starring = {{ubl|[[Abir Chatterjee]]|[[Arjun Chakrabarty]]|[[Ishaa Saha]]|[[Saurav Das]]}}[[Kamaleshwar Mukherjee]]
| narrator =
| music = [[Bickram Ghosh]]
| cinematography = Soumik Haldar
| editing = Sanglap Bhowmik
| studio = [[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
| distributor = [[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2022|09|30|India}}
| runtime = 128 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| budget =
| gross = {{INR|9.8}} crore<ref>{{cite news |title=Year Ender 2022- Bangla Films: ২০২২ সালে বক্স অফিসে সবচেয়ে বেশি সাড়া ফেলেছে এই ৫ বাংলা ছবি |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/tollywood-bengali-cinema/story/year-ender-2022-most-successful-tollywood-bangla-films-box-office-and-people-praised-bela-shuru-kishmish-aparajito-and-others-most-discussed-bangla-movies-year-soc-486234-2022-12-20 |access-date=22 November 2024 |work=[[Aaj Tak]] |date=20 December 2022 |language=bn}}</ref><ref name="abplive">{{cite news |title=৭ দিনে রেকর্ড ব্যবসা! বক্স অফিসে ঝড় তুলছে 'কর্ণসুবর্ণের গুপ্তধন' |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/karnasubarner-guptodhon-is-making-records-in-box-office-announces-svf-925651 |access-date=7 October 2022 |agency=abplive – Bengali |publisher=bengali.abplive.com|date=7 October 2022 |location=Kolkata |language=bn}}</ref>
}}
'''''Karnasubarner Guptodhon'''''<ref name="Anandabazar">{{cite news |title=কেন প্রতি বছর ফেরে 'সোনাদা'? আনন্দবাজার অনলাইনকে খুলে বললেন ধ্রুব |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/kornosuborno-guptadhan-first-motion-poster-has-been-released-dgtl/cid/1321854 |access-date=1 October 2022 |agency=Anandabazar |publisher=anandabazar.com |date= 3 January 2022 |location=Kolkata |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Karnasubarner Guptodhon: Sonada shines once again and makes it a joyful ride this Durga Puja |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/karnasubarner-guptodhon-sonada-shines-once-again-and-makes-it-a-joyful-ride-this-durga-puja/cid/1889825 |access-date=1 October 2022 |agency=Telegraph India |publisher=telegraphindia.com |date=1 October 2022 |location=Kolkata}}</ref> ({{lit|The treasure of Karnasubarna}}) is a 2022 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali]]-language [[Action adventure film|action-adventure film]] directed by Dhrubo Banerjee and produced by Shrikant Mohta and Mahendra Soni.<ref name="telegraphindia">{{cite news |title=Bengali films to watch at the multiplex in the Durga Puja week |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/bengali-films-to-watch-at-the-multiplex-in-the-durga-puja-week/cid/1889671 |access-date=1 October 2022 |agency=The Telegraph India |publisher=telegraphindia.com |date=30 September 2022 |location=Kolkata}}</ref> It is a sequel to ''[[Durgeshgorer Guptodhon]]'' and the third film in ''Sona Da'' franchise. The film was released on 30 September 2022, coinciding with [[Durga Puja]], under the banner of [[SVF Entertainment]]. The film was a [[Blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] at the box office and became the [[List of Indian Bengali films of 2022|second highest grossing Bengali film of 2022]] and one of the [[List of highest-grossing Indian Bengali films|highest-grossing Bengali films of all time]].

A sequel to this film and the ''Guptodhon'' franchise called ''Saptadingar Guptodhon'' was announced on 28 February 2025, during the slate announcement of the production house, where the trio are to yet again reprise their roles.

==Plot==
Invited for a wonderful occasion, the trio, Subarna Sen aka Sona Da, Abir and Jhinuk, discover an old riddle and follow a perilous trail to find the hidden treasure of [[Shashanka|King Shashanka]]. As they face resistance from an old foe and their lives are put in peril, the quest for the greatest treasure becomes a dangerous hunt for power and wealth. As Sona Da tries to unlock every clue and crack the riddle, his mind constantly gets challenged and his loved ones face threats. His entire adventure hangs by the thread until he unearths one of the greatest treasures that Bengal has ever known.

==Cast==
* [[Abir Chatterjee]] as Professor Subarna Sen aka. Sona da<ref name="telegraphindia"/>
* [[Arjun Chakrabarty]] as Abirlal Roy (Abir)<ref name="telegraphindia"/>
* [[Ishaa Saha]] as Jhinuk Majumdar
* Indradeep Dasgupta as Bhola Moira
* [[Rajatava Dutta]] as Dashanan Daw
* [[Kamaleshwar Mukherjee]] as Akhilesh Majumdar
* Anirban Sikdar as Ganesha
* [[Sourav Das (actor)|Sourav Das]] as Bhujanga Hazra
* [[Barun Chanda]] as Biswambar Bandhyopadhyay
* Kinjal Nanda as Pitambar
*[[Anuradha Roy (actress)|Anuradha Roy]] as Mrs. Bandyopadhyay
* Abhishek Daga - executive producer
* Riya Deb Roy - creative producer
* Siddhant Sheth - executive producer

==Soundtrack==
The background score and the soundtracks are composed by [[Bickram Ghosh]] and lyrics are penned down by Sugata Guha.

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| total_length =
| extra_column = Singer
| title1 = Karnasubarna Guptodhon Rap
| note1 =
| length1 = 2:26
| lyrics1 =
| extra1 = [[Bickram Ghosh]]
| music1 =
| title2 = Palash Palash Mon
| note2 =
| length2 = 2:50
| lyrics2 =
| extra2 = [[Iman Chakraborty]] Shovon Ganguly [[Bickram Ghosh]]
| music2 =
| title3 = Bhola Moirar Gaan
| note3 =
| length3 = 3:36
| lyrics3 =
| extra3 = [[Bickram Ghosh]] Raghab Chatterjee
| music3 =
| title4 = Tushu Gaan
| note4 =
| length4 = 2:45
| lyrics4 =
| extra4 = [[Bickram Ghosh]] [[Sahana Bajpaie]] Samantak
| music4 =
| title5 =
| note5 =
| length5 =
| lyrics5 =
| extra5 =
| music5 =
| title6 =
| note6 =
| length6 =
| lyrics6 =
| extra6 =
| music6 =
|}}

==Theatrical release==
The film was released in theaters on 30 September 2022, on the occasion of [[Durga Puja]].<ref name="Anandabazar1">{{cite news |date=29 September 2022 |title=মুক্তির আগেই রেকর্ড গড়ল ধ্রুব বন্দ্যোপাধ্যায়ের পুজোর ছবি |language=bn |publisher=www.anandabazar.com |agency=Anandabazar |location=Kolkata |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/karnasubarner-guptodhon-sets-new-record-in-bengali-film-market-for-advance-booking-dgtl/cid/1373718 |access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref> It simultaneously released in cities like [[Bengaluru]], Delhi, [[Guwahati]], [[Tezpur]], [[Mumbai]] and other parts of India including [[Kolkata]] and entire [[West Bengal]]. It also released in the United States, Netherlands and Australia.<ref name="Anandabazar1"/>

==Sequel==
A new sequel has been announced titled [[Saptadingar Guptodhon]]. It is set to release on 15th May 2026 with Abir Chatterjee, Arjun Chakraborty and Ishaa Saha reprising their roles, directed by Dhrubo Banerjee.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Instagram |url=https://www.instagram.com/itsmeabirchatterjee/p/DGrp5BnSfKc/ |access-date=2025-03-20 |website=www.instagram.com}}</ref>

[https://www.instagram.com/itsmeabirchatterjee/p/DGrp5BnSfKc/ Abir's Announcement Post]

==Reception==
===Box office===
More than 20,000 tickets were sold in advance by 29 September, before the film's release.<ref name="Anandabazar1"/> The film sold 80%–90% of its tickets on its release day.<ref>{{cite news |title=কড়া টক্কর সোনাদা আর বিক্রম-বেদার মধ্যে! বাকিদের নিয়ে 'কাছের মানুষ' অনেকটা দূরে |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/karnasubarner-guptodhon-and-vikram-vedha-doing-well-in-box-office-31664529660262.html |access-date=3 October 2022 |agency=Hindustan Times – Bengali |publisher=bangla.hindustantimes.com |date=30 September 2022 |language=bn}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The film grossed around {{INR|2}} crores<ref name="Hindustan-Times">{{cite news |author1=Priyanka Mukherjee |title=পুজোয় ৩ দিনে ২ কোটির ব্যবসা! দেবের রেকর্ড ভাঙার পথে আবিরের কর্ণসুবর্ণের গুপ্তধন? |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/karnasubarner-guptodhon-beats-other-puja-releases-including-dev-prosenjit-s-kacher-manus-earns-almost-2-cr-in-3-days-31664789731466.html |access-date=3 October 2022 |agency=Hindustan Times – Bengali |publisher=bangla.hindustantimes.com |date=3 October 2022 |location=Kolkata |language=bn}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> in its first weekend and {{INR|5.5}} crores<ref name="abplive"/> in its first week.

===Critical response===
''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film 4/5 in its reviews. The newspaper described the film as "a fun-packed adventure with a touch of history" and praised it for serving "its purpose to entertain."<ref>{{cite news |title=Karnasubarner Guptodhon Movie Review : A fun-packed adventure with a touch of history.. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/karnasubarner-guptodhon/movie-review/94588994.cms |access-date=3 October 2022 |agency=The Times of India |publisher=timesofindia.indiatimes.com |date=1 October 2022 |location=Kolkata}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/karnasubarner-guptodhon-review-dhrubo-banerjees-treasure-hunt-serves-its-purpose-to-entertain/b61353e1a8939 | title=Karnasubarner Guptodhon review: Sonada's third adventure is entertaining }}</ref> ''Firstpost''
described the film as "There is another treasure hunt beckoning Citizen Sonada." and regarded the plot as "craftily assembled but finally an unremarkable treasure-hunt story."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/karnasubarner-guptodhon-abir-chatterjees-own-temple-of-dhoom-11390951.html | title=Karnasubarner Guptodhon: Abir Chatterjee's own temple of d(h)oom | work=Firstpost | date=5 October 2022 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|22336444}}
* https://www.hoichoi.tv/movies/watch-karna-subarner-guptodhon-movie-trailer-online

{{Shree Venkatesh Films}}

[[Category:2022 films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]
[[Category:2022 Bengali-language films]]
[[Category:2020s adventure thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian adventure thriller films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Bickram Ghosh]]
[[Category:Bengali-language adventure thriller films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language mystery thriller films]]
[[Category:Shree Venkatesh Films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Dhrubo Banerjee]]

1966 anti-cow slaughter riot

2026-03-30T10:17:47Z

BrookEjw0071: put up new pg more to come!

{{Short description|Protest outside the Indian Parliament}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox civil conflict
| partof = the [[cow protection movement]]
| place = [[Delhi, India]]
| date = 7 November 1966
| goals = Nationwide ban on cow slaughter
| methods = Demonstrations, picketing, hunger strikes, [[bandh]]
| concessions = Joint parliamentary committee established to examine the feasibility of a ban on cow slaughter
| side1 =
[[Sadhu|Hindu ascetics]]

Sarvadaliya Gorasksha Maha-Abiyan Samiti
* [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]]
* [[Hindu Mahasabha]]
* [[Vishva Hindu Parishad]]
* [[Akhil Bharatiya Ram Rajya Parishad]]
* [[Bhartiya Jana Sangh]]
| side2 =
[[Indian National Congress]]

Government of India
* [[Delhi Police]]

| leadfigures1 =
[[Swami Karpatri]]
Shankaracharya of Puri
| leadfigures2 =
[[Indira Gandhi]]

| howmany1 = '''Marchers''': 100,000 to 120,000+

|casualties1= {{unbulleted list
| '''Deaths''': 7
| '''Injuries''': Hundreds
| '''Arrests''': about 1500
}}
}}
{{Indira Gandhi series}}
On 7 November 1966, a group of [[Hindus|Hindu]] protestors, led by [[Asceticism|ascetics]], [[naga sadhus]] and backed by [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] and [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]] (aka Jan Sangh), approached the [[Parliament of India|Indian Parliament]] to protest to criminalize cow slaughter.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iVsfVOTUnYEC|title=The Hindu nationalist movement and Indian politics: 1925 to the 1990s; strategies of identity-building, implantation and mobilisation (with special reference to Central India)|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|date=1999|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=0-14-024602-9|pages=205–209|chapter=The Mixed Strategy|oclc=255173890}}</ref> The incident resulted in a riot which ended with a death toll of 7 people and hundreds were injured.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> The total damage was estimated at 1 billion rupees by city officials; numerous vehicles were destroyed, along with numerous shops.<ref name="Calls On Army" /><ref name=":15" />

The episode was the culmination of a long-term movement by the Hindu Right to protect the cow, a traditional symbol of reverence in Hindu society. A meeting in late 1965 involving lobbying groups, [[naga sadhus]] and many religious dharma acharyas and influential Hindu religious orders initiated a year-long program of demonstrations and picketing, culminating in the planned march to the Parliament. Jan Sangh was a participant in the march. The march attracted hundreds of thousands of people for that march outside the parliament. Political figures including [[Bhupesh Gupta]] suspected clear-cut involvement of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA).<ref name="Lok Sabha Secretariat ">{{cite book | title=Bhupesh Gupta | publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat | series=Eminent parliamentarians monograph series | year=1990 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8xHAAAAMAAJ | page=62}}</ref>

The protest was targeting the key leaders of then government. The police responded with tear gas and cane clubs, but their resistance proved futile.<ref name="save-the-cow">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48432319/save-the-cow-mob-in-delhi-rampage/ |title='Save-the-cow' mob in Delhi rampage |date=8 November 1966 |page=1 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019 |location=Delhi}}</ref> As waves of demonstrators armed with tridents attacked the police and pelted them with stones, a policeman was stoned to death. Police were slow to respond,<ref name=":15" /> but at around 1:30 pm, they engaged in rifle fire and mounted a charge with lead-tipped clubs.<ref name="save-the-cow" /> While the charge was successful in dispersing the immediate mob, it caused fatal injuries, and having failed to succeed in breaching the Parliament gates, the mob merely scattered to attack other less-protected areas of Delhi.<ref name="Holy Men" /><ref name="save-the-cow" /><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> Houses of prominent legislators from the ruling party ([[Indian National Congress]]), including that of [[K. Kamaraj]], were broken into.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=0klj8wIChNAC&dat=19661108&printsec=frontpage&hl=en|title=The Spokesman-Review – Google News Archive Search|date=8 November 1966|access-date=5 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313065024/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=0klj8wIChNAC&dat=19661108&printsec=frontpage&hl=en|archive-date=13 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Passengers were forced out of vehicles before being set on fire, high-profile government buildings were ransacked, and random arson was indulged in.<ref name="save-the-cow" /><ref name="auto">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48432473/hindu-mobs-on-rampage-in-new-delhi/ |title=Hindu Mobs On Rampage In New Delhi |date=8 November 1966 |page=1 |work=[[The Times (Shreveport)|The Times]] |agency=AP |location=New Delhi |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref>

Two weeks later, influential saints began their hunger strikes in protest; however, fissures in the front began to appear, and Gandhi chose to incorporate a Parliamentary Committee to analyze the feasibility of imposing a ban on cow slaughter. The front was consistently outvoted, the nominees eventually resigned, the committee never produced a report, and the politicians successfully shifted the focus of national politics away from the issue. The episode had significant effects on the national polity for many years. This was one of the few breaches of parliament, along with the 2001 Indian Parliament Attack.

== Background ==

=== Cow slaughter and religion ===
The scope, extent, and status of cow slaughter in ancient India has been a subject of intense scholarly dispute.

[[Marvin Harris]] notes the Vedic literature to be contradictory, with some stanzas suggesting ritual slaughter and meat consumption, while others suggesting a taboo on meat eating; however, Hindu literature relating to cow veneration became extremely common in the first millennium [[A.D.]], and by about 1000 A.D., vegetarianism had become a well accepted Hindu tenet.<ref name="harris201">Marvin Harris (1990), [http://academic.regis.edu/rlumpp/PDF%20files/RT%20201%20India%27s%20Sacred%20Cow.pdf India's sacred cow] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329091317/http://academic.regis.edu/rlumpp/PDF%20files/RT%20201%20India's%20Sacred%20Cow.pdf|date=29 March 2017}}, Anthropology: contemporary perspectives, 6th edition, Editors: Phillip Whitten & David Hunter, Scott Foresman, {{ISBN|0-673-52074-9}}, pages 201–204</ref> [[D. N. Jha]], [[Romila Thapar]], Juli Gittinger et al. assert that cows were neither inviolable nor revered in the ancient times; the contemporary sacredness was a result of multiple factors including the development of ''[[Ahimsa]]'' philosophy during the [[Upanishads|Upanishad spans]] and increasing influence of Brahminism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gittinger|first=Juli L.|title=The Rhetoric of Violence, Religion, and Purity in India's Cow Protection Movement |date=2017|url=https://hcommons.org/deposits/download/hc:27846/CONTENT/gittinger-rhetoric-of-violence-cow-protection-1.pdf/|journal=Journal of Religion and Violence|volume=5|issue=2|pages=131–150|doi=10.5840/jrv201751540|jstor=26671533|issn=2159-6808|url-access=subscription}}</ref> There have been rebuts.

The "protection of the cow" policy has commanded huge political significance in the subcontinent in precolonial spans;<ref name="Veer1994p90">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p29ArJ7j6zgC|title=Religious Nationalism: Hindus and Muslims in India|author=Peter van der Veer|publisher=University of California Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-520-08256-4|pages=90–91|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331184232/http://books.google.com/books?id=p29ArJ7j6zgC|archive-date=31 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> the Mughal emperor [[Akbar]] had banned the killing of cows, and cow slaughter was treated as a [[Capital punishment|capital offense]] in many Hindu and Sikh-ruled states.<ref name="McLane2015p276">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efp9BgAAQBAJ|title=Indian Nationalism and the Early Congress|author=John R. McLane|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-7023-3|pages=276–283|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204194157/https://books.google.com/books?id=efp9BgAAQBAJ|archive-date=4 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Cow protection and national politics ===
The first organised cow protection movement was started by Kukas of [[Sikhism]], a reformist group, during the [[British Raj]] in the late 1800s, which framed cows as a "sign of the moral quality of the state".<ref name="Veer1994p90" /> Their ideas soon spread to Hindu reform movements,<ref name="metcalf152">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7UgAwAAQBAJ|title=A Concise History of Modern India|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-139-53705-6|pages=152–153}}</ref> with [[Arya Samaj]] playing a tremendous role in converting this sentiment into a national movement<ref>{{cite journal|last=Freitag|first=Sandria|date=October 1980|title=Sacred Symbols as Mobilizing Ideology: The North Indian Search for a "Hindu" Community|journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume=22|issue=4|pages=597–625|doi=10.1017/s0010417500009567|s2cid=67853505}}</ref><ref name="Partition p. 240">''From Plassey to Partition, a History of modern India'', Śekhara Bandyopādhyāẏa, p. 240, {{ISBN|81-250-2596-0}}.</ref> and extensively lobbying for criminalizing cow slaughter.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Copland|first=Ian|date=April 2014|title=History in Flux: Indira Gandhi and the 'Great All-Party Campaign' for the Protection of the Cow, 1966–8|journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]]|volume=49|issue=2|pages=410–439|doi=10.1177/0022009413515535|issn=0022-0094|jstor=43697306|s2cid=154959158}}</ref> The first ''Gaurakshini sabha'' (cow protection council) was established in the Punjab Province in 1882.<ref>''The Making of an Indian Metropolis, Colonial governance and public culture in Bombay, 1890/1920'', Prashant Kidambi, p. 176, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-5612-8}}.</ref> The movement often manifested as brazen Anti-Muslim riots<ref name="Tejani2008p49">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xtrPKa59j4C&pg=PA49|title=Indian Secularism: A Social and Intellectual History, 1890–1950|author=Shabnum Tejani|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-253-22044-8|pages=43–49}}</ref><ref name="Gene R. Thursby 1975 76–88">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abcfAAAAIAAJ|title=Hindu-Muslim Relations in British India|author=Gene R. Thursby|publisher=BRILL Academic|year=1975|isbn=90-04-04380-2|pages=76–88}}</ref> claiming thousands of lives across the country, especially on the occasions of Islamic festivals of sacrifices.<ref name="Menon2012p22">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QRmJCwAAQBAJ|title=Riots and After in Mumbai: Chronicles of Truth and Reconciliation|author=Meena Menon|publisher=SAGE Publications|year=2012|isbn=978-81-321-1935-7|pages=22–37, 55–58, 73–82}}</ref><ref name="Gene R. Thursby 1975 76–88"/><ref name="Sengupta2011p347">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC|title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib|author=Nitish K. Sengupta|publisher=Penguin|year=2011|isbn=978-0-14-341678-4|pages=347–348|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210192517/https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC|archive-date=10 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Cow riots of 1893]] were the most intense civil disturbance on the Indian subcontinent since the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].<ref name="doyle157">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QK2tDAAAQBAJ|title=Communal Violence in the British Empire: Disturbing the Pax|author=Mark Doyle|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic Publishing|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4742-6826-4|pages=157–161}}</ref>

Post-independence, the insertion of a clause about protection of cows into the [[Directive Principles]] and large-scale migration of Muslim populations into Pakistan led to a large reduction in riots.<ref name="Copland2013p237">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWcZulI5tL0C&pg=PA238|title=A History of State and Religion in India|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3=Asim Roy, Kate Brittlebank and Adam Bowles|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-1-136-45950-4|pages=237–239}}</ref><ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Copland|first=Ian|date=2 October 2017|title=Cows, Congress and the Constitution: Jawaharlal Nehru and the Making of Article 48|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=40|issue=4|pages=723–743|doi=10.1080/00856401.2017.1352646|s2cid=149181607|issn=0085-6401}}</ref> However, with the accumulation of political power in the hands of conservative [[Savarna]] elites, the Hindu Mahasabha and other allied organisations saw even more opportunity to actively solicit a total ban on cow slaughter. The overtly secular stances of Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] (who threatened to resign if such a bill were passed) foiled the efforts.<ref name=":15" /> Tensions began to re-emerge in the 1960s, when a new generation of Muslims born after independence and who were less aware of the trauma of religious violence in India of the 1940s, reached adolescence and began to assert their rights, whilst Nehru began to lose his firm grip over the Indian sociopolitical scenario.<ref name="Copland2013p237" /><ref name=":15" />

=== All Party Campaign ===
After Nehru's death in 1964, a lobbying group set up by business magnate [[Ramkrishna Dalmia|Seth Dalmia]], [[Mauli Chandra Sharma|Murli Chandra Sharma]] of the [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh|Bharatiya Jan Sangh]], [[M. S. Golwalkar]] of the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] for the purpose of cow protection, began to actively engage in open political campaigns.<ref name=":15" /> The topic soon penetrated into popular sociopolitical discourse,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=5 June 2015|title=Cow-Based Politics|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/1967/2/letter-maharashtra-columns/cow-based-politics.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=2|issue=2|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223143152/https://www.epw.in/journal/1967/2/letter-maharashtra-columns/cow-based-politics.html|archive-date=23 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and the group gradually added [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]], [[Hindu Mahasabha]], [[Akhil Bharatiya Ram Rajya Parishad]], [[Vishva Hindu Parishad]], and other Hindu parties. All stakeholders were subsequently invited to a meeting at Delhi in late 1965, which saw three of the four principal [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] [[shankaracharya]]s, dozens of [[mahant]]s, and other ascetics from different religious orders promise to play integral roles in a nationwide campaign to mobilize the masses.<ref name=":15" /> [[Swami Karpatri]] was chosen as the leader, and he advocated for a program of demonstrations and picketing, leading up to a march on Parliament in November 1966, which was approved.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":13">{{cite book|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|chapter=The Rise of Hindu Nationalism and the Marginalisation of Muslims in India Today|date=2001|pages=146|editor-last=Shastri|editor-first=Amita|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-137-11508-9_7|isbn=978-1-137-11508-9|editor2-last=Wilson|editor2-first=A. Jeyaratnam|title=The Post-Colonial States of South Asia: Democracy, Development and Identity}}</ref> The [[Shankaracharya]] of Puri also decided to undertake a fast until death unless cow slaughter was banned across the country; other ascetics supported his proposed agenda and some offered to court arrest, shall the need arise.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Noronha|first=Ernesto|year=1994|title=BJP: Cow as a Political Symbol|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=29|issue=24|pages=1447–1448|issn=0012-9976|jstor=4401327}}</ref>

Picketing started outside the residence of Home Minister Gulzarilal Nanda in August 1966; as a patron of the [[Bharat Sadhu Samaj]], he was widely seen as a figure sympathetic to their cause.<ref name=":15" /> In October 1966, a procession in [[Washim]], Maharashtra, demanding a nationwide ban on cow slaughter led to a riotous situation; police fired on the rioters, killing 11 people.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Muralidharan|first=Sukumar|date=5 June 2015|title=The Many Faces of Indira Gandhi|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2018/3/review-article/many-faces-indira-gandhi.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=53|issue=3|pages=34|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512060433/https://www.epw.in/journal/2018/3/review-article/many-faces-indira-gandhi.html|archive-date=12 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> There was a discussion about the issue in the Union Cabinet, which refused to concede to popular sentiments; however Home Minister [[Gulzarilal Nanda]] recommended that states might choose to introduce a ban at their discretion.<ref name=":14" /> This episode served as an immediate trigger for more demonstrations.<ref name=":15" />

On 6 November, preparations were highly visible, with posters plastered across the city and high-profile business houses sponsoring the meals of the marchers.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|year=1966|title=Sadhus Slaughter Sadachari|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=1|issue=13|pages=530–531|issn=0012-9976|jstor=4357202}}</ref> A total [[bandh]] of all shops in Delhi was planned;<ref name=":11" /> [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh|Bhartiya Jan Sangh]] had joined in the rally at the last moment, and the front was now named ''Sarvadaliya Gorasksha Maha-Abiyan Samiti'' (SGMS; 'Committee for the Great All-Party Campaign for the Protection of the Cow').<ref name=":15" />

== Mob Attack and Police firing ==
On the morning of 7 November, a few hundred thousand people, predominantly from the [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh|Bharatiya Jan Sangh]], [[Hindu Mahasabha]], and [[Arya Samaj]], had assembled from far-off places at an open space near the Parliamentary Complex.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/archives/article16183780.ece|title=(dated November 8, 1966)|date=8 November 2016|work=The Hindu|access-date=23 December 2019|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/814368/did-you-know-the-first-parliament-attack-took-place-in-1966-and-was-carried-out-by-gau-rakshaks|title=Looking back: The first Parliament attack took place in 1966 – and was carried out by gau rakshaks|last=Daniyal|first=Shoaib|website=Scroll.in|date=28 August 2016 |access-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105203512/http://scroll.in/article/814368/did-you-know-the-first-parliament-attack-took-place-in-1966-and-was-carried-out-by-gau-rakshaks|archive-date=5 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Holy Men">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48431404/holy-men-stir-up-riots-in-delhi/ |title=Holy Men Stir Up Riots in Delhi |first=Inder |last=Malhotra |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=New Delhi |page=1 |date=8 November 1966 |access-date=23 December 2019 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> A vast majority of them were ash-smeared, trident-wielding, mostly [[Aghori|Aghori Sadhus]].<ref name=":15" /> [[Christophe Jaffrelot]] noted it as the most popular mass movement since independence.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|date=1 August 2013|title=Refining the moderation thesis. Two religious parties and Indian democracy: the Jana Sangh and the BJP between Hindutva radicalism and coalition politics|journal=Democratization|volume=20|issue=5|pages=879|doi=10.1080/13510347.2013.801256|s2cid=144174913|issn=1351-0347}}</ref>

Proceedings started around noon, and the environment was reportedly 'relaxed, almost festive' per a report by ''[[The New York Times]]'', with the virtues of cows being extolled;<ref name=":15" /> the first speaker was [[Swami Karpatri]].<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|chapter-url=http://brossard.pretnumerique.ca/isbn/9780062973856|title=India after Gandhi the history of the world's largest democracy|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|date=2019|isbn=978-0-06-297385-6|language=en|chapter=War and Succession|publisher=HarperCollins |access-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224150615/http://brossard.pretnumerique.ca/isbn/9780062973856|archive-date=24 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Soon afterwards, [[Swami Rameshwaranand]], a Lok Sabha legislator<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://loksabhaph.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/1612.htm|title=Members Bioprofile|website=loksabhaph.nic.in|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223113034/http://loksabhaph.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/1612.htm|archive-date=23 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> of Jan Sangh,<ref name="Calls On Army">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48431795/india-calls-on-army-to-halt-bloody-riots/ |title=India Calls On Army To Halt Bloody Riots |date=8 November 1966 |work=[[The Record (North Jersey)|The Record]] |agency=AP, UPI |location=New Delhi |page=8 |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref> from Karnal, Punjab<ref name=":16">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/The-very-first-attack-on-Parliament/article16440305.ece|title=The very first attack on Parliament|last=Ramesh|first=Jairam|date=9 November 2016|work=The Hindu|access-date=24 December 2019|issn=0971-751X|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224125514/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/The-very-first-attack-on-Parliament/article16440305.ece|archive-date=24 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> who had earlier been expelled from the house for 10 days for a continual failure to abide by parliamentary decorum whilst urging for a ban on cow slaughter, rose to the podium.<ref name="Holy Men" /><ref name=":15" /> He leveraged his expulsion, asking the mob "to teach a lesson" by forcing the Parliament to close down,<ref name="Holy Men" /><ref name="new march">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48432129/holy-men-in-new-march/ |title=Holy men in new march |date=9 November 1966 |page=5 |work=[[The Age]] |agency=AAP-Reuters |location=New Delhi |via=Newspapers.com|access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref> while other hard-line leaders served as accompanying provocateurs.<ref name=":15" /> Jana Sangh leader [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] appealed to the Swami to withdraw his call and urged the demonstrators to maintain peace, but was not heeded.<ref name=":17" />

Thus invited, the mob went on a rampage, crying "Swami Rameshwaranand ki jai",<ref name=":17" /> and breached the barricades; the police responded with tear gas and cane clubs, but their resistance proved futile.<ref name="save-the-cow"/> As waves of demonstrators armed with tridents attacked the police and pelted them with stones, a policeman was stoned to death. Police were slow to respond,<ref name=":15" /> but at around 1:30 pm, they engaged in rifle fire and mounted a charge with lead-tipped clubs.<ref name="save-the-cow" /> While the charge was successful in dispersing the immediate mob, it caused fatal injuries, and having failed to succeed in breaching the Parliament gates, the mob merely scattered to attack other less-protected areas of Delhi.<ref name="Holy Men" /><ref name="save-the-cow" /><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" /> Houses of prominent legislators from the ruling party ([[Indian National Congress]]), including that of [[K. Kamaraj]], were broken into.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0"/> Passengers were forced out of vehicles before being set on fire, high-profile government buildings were ransacked, and random arson was indulged in.<ref name="save-the-cow" /><ref name="auto"/>

The riot ended at around 4:30 pm with a death toll of eight and hundreds injured.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> The total damage was estimated at 1 billion rupees by city officials; numerous vehicles were destroyed, along with numerous shops.<ref name="Calls On Army" /><ref name=":15" /> A curfew was imposed for 48 hours but withdrawn the next morning;<ref name=":11" /> the army was deployed for the first time,{{clarify|reason=The first time since what? The first time ever? The first time inside the country?|date=January 2020}}<ref name=":15" /> and a law concerning unlawful assembly was imposed for an indefinite time span.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name="Holy Men" /> About 1,500 demonstrators, including over 500 ascetics and prominent leaders of Hindu Nationalist parties and SGMS, were arrested.<ref name="Mrs Gandhi">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48432699/mrs-gandhi-dismisses-minister/ |title=Mrs Gandhi dismisses Minister |first=Inder |last=Malhotra |date=9 November 1966 |page=1 |work=[[The Guardian]] |location=New Delhi |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48433464/sacred-cows-uproar-breaks-up-parliament/ |title=Sacred Cows Uproar Breaks Up Parliament |date=12 November 1966 |page=3 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |location=Delhi |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=seized>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48433583/leaders-of-riots-seized/ |title=Leaders of riots seized |date=10 November 1966 |page=3 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |location=Delhi |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=":15" />

The Lieutenant Governor described the rioting as highly organised;<ref name=":11" /> intelligence agencies had failed to predict the situation.<ref name="Holy Men" /> The extent of the violence was the most significant since the [[Partition of India|partition riots]], and [[M. N. Srinivas]] commented that the episode solidly convinced him that the Hindus of North India had not evolved into modern people.<ref name=":15" /> A few days later, [[Balraj Madhok]], Rameshwaranand, and other prominent functionaries of RSS and Jan Sangh were arrested on charges of stoking the riots.<ref name=seized /><ref name="new march" /><ref name="Extremists held">{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48433717/extremists-held-by-police-in-india/ |title=Extremists held by police in India |date=10 November 1966 |page=4 |work=[[The Age]] |agency=AAP |location=New Delhi |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref> Political figures including [[Bhupesh Gupta]] suspected clear-cut involvement of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) in the agitation.<ref name="Lok Sabha Secretariat "/>

Vajpayee condemned the riots and blamed undesirable elements for the violence, saying that it had harmed a pious cause.<ref name=":17" /> There was widespread discontent against [[Gulzarilal Nanda|Nanda]], who was believed to be sympathetic to the rioters, forcing him to resign;<ref name="Mrs Gandhi" /><ref name="new march" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48433877/india-govt-learns-grim-lesson/ |title=India Govt. learns grim lesson |first=John |last=Slee |date=12 November 1966 |page=4 |work=[[The Age]] |location=New Delhi |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] acquitted him of all blame before the Parliament and temporarily held the portfolio herself before choosing [[Yashwantrao Chavan]] as a replacement.<ref name=":6" /><ref name="Extremists held" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48433970/india-police-head-fired-after-riots/ |title=India Police Head Fired After Riots |date=10 November 1966 |page=18 |work=[[The Times (Shreveport)|The Times]] |agency=AP |location=New Delhi |via=Newspapers.com |access-date=23 December 2019}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
Beginning on 17 November, [[Sadhu]]s started courting arrest, as planned. On the 20th, [[Prabhudutt Brahmachari]] and the Shankaracharya of Puri began hunger strikes; others soon followed.<ref name=":15" /> Gandhi took a hardliner stance, refusing to 'cow down to the cow savers' and detained the fasting sadhus to shift them out of public view; however, the fasting continued along with popular mobilization by cow-slaughter activists.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":12" /> Whilst her stance was commended across [[liberal media]] and supported by the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|Communist Party]] and others,<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gupta|first=Bhabani Sen|date=March 1968|title=A Maoist Line for India|journal=The China Quarterly|volume=33|pages=10|doi=10.1017/S030574100000374X|s2cid=154879089|issn=1468-2648}}</ref> failing health of the Shankaracharya and the death of two less-prominent fasters followed.<ref name=":15" />

Soon, fissures started appearing within SGMS.<ref name=":15" /> A religious faction led by [[Swami Karpatri]] split away around December 1966 to fight elections around the locus of cow protection, to the discontent of Gowalkar.<ref name=":15" /> Within a couple of weeks, the fourth Shankaracharya and other Vaishnava religious orders subsequently criticized the front for placing Shankaracharya's health in jeopardy.<ref name=":15" /> On 24 January, a seriously ailing Shankaracharya criticized the BJS for pandering to electoral politics and failing to protect either Hinduism or the cow.<ref name=":15" />

Gandhi used this time to set up a [[joint parliamentary committee]] composed of animal husbandry experts and politicians across the divides (including from the SGMS); their agenda was to examine the 'feasibility' of a 'total ban on the slaughter of the cow and its progeny' and deliver a recommendation within a time frame of six months.<ref name=":15" /> The committee was to be chaired by [[Amal Kumar Sarkar|Retd. Justice Amal Kumar Sarkar]] (along with two Congress [[chief minister]]s, two Congress [[Minister of State|Ministers of State]], four central bureaucrats, and three nominees of SGMS—the Shankaracharya of Puri, Golwalkar, and R. P. Mookerji, elder brother of [[Syama Prasad Mukherjee]]), and the offer was accepted by all parties, with minimal negotiations.<ref name=":15" /> In the meantime, Gandhi once again recommended on 5 January 1967 that states enact their own bans on cow slaughter.<ref name=":15" /> Shankaracharya broke his fast; it had lasted 73 days and was longer than any other hunger strike in recorded Indian history.<ref name=":15" />

Jan Sangh failed to leverage the cow-protection episode in any major manner from an electoral sense; their seats increased from 14 to just 35 in the [[1967 Indian general election|1967 Lok Sabha elections]] and Congress lost many seats, with its popular vote share dropping by about 4%; Jan Sangh had managed, however, to successfully challenge the Congress hegemony in urban Hindu areas, especially the [[cow belt]].<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=V. B.|year=1971|title=Jan Sangh in Uttar Pradesh: Fluctuating Fortunes and Uncertain Future|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=6|issue=3/5|pages=311|issn=0012-9976|jstor=4381552}}</ref><ref name=":15" />

The committee started its work after the elections. Shrewd planning by Gandhi had filled the committee with trusted secularists, federalists and people with an economic interest in the beef trade.<ref name=":15" /> The two factions often collided with a near-complete lack of any common ground. Outfoxed and outmaneuvered, the three members of the SGMS eventually resigned in July 1968.<ref name=":15" /> Whilst the committee continued, the issue rapidly lost momentum in national politics.<ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ipwpbhd6sQUC|title=India Since Independence|last=Chandra|first=Bipan|date=11 February 2008|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-81-8475-053-9|pages=237|language=en|author-link=Bipan Chandra}}</ref> The committee was finally dissolved in 1979, having never submitted a report.<ref name=":16" />

== Legacy ==
Overall, the agitation propelled the Hindu Right into the foreground of national politics for the first time; simultaneously, Gandhi's successful negotiation helped establish her image as a resolute leader who later had the tenacity to lead a weakened Congress after the [[Indian National Congress (Organisation)|1969 split]].<ref name=":15" /> The episode also played a significant role in Gandhi's choosing to shift away from the staunch secular ideals displayed by her father, embracing the Hindu way of life and enabling communal politics.<ref name=":15" />

[[Indian National Congress (R)|Congress (R)]] went on to choose the cow-and-calf symbol during the 1971 Lok Sabha elections.<ref name=":15" /> On the other hand, after years of failure over issue of cow protection and a failure to mobilize the lower castes to their cause, the Hindu Right chose to shift their primary focus from cow protection to the [[Ram Janmabhoomi|Ram Janmbhoomi movement]].<ref name=":15" /> RSS and VHP commemorate the event every year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/holy-cow-rss-vhp-1966-gau-rakhshaks-movement-349224-2016-10-30|title=Holy cow: RSS, VHP to revive 1966 gau rakshaks' movement|last=Rai|first=Siddhartha|date=31 October 2016|website=India Today|url-status=live|access-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224125510/https://www.indiatoday.in/mail-today/story/holy-cow-rss-vhp-1966-gau-rakhshaks-movement-349224-2016-10-30|archive-date=24 December 2019}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Cattle slaughter in India]]
* [[Cow protection movement]]
* [[Bhartiya Gau Raksha Dal]]
* [[List of massacres in India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Hindu Nationalism}}

{{coord missing|Delhi}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Anti-cow slaughter riot, 1966}}
[[Category:1966 murders in India]]
[[Category:Indira Gandhi administration]]
[[Category:Hinduism and cattle]]
[[Category:1966 controversies]]
[[Category:Anti-Muslim riots in India]]
[[Category:1966 riots]]
[[Category:November 1966 in Asia]]
[[Category:Hinduism-motivated violence in India]]
[[Category:1960s in Delhi]]
[[Category:Murder in Delhi]]
[[Category:1966 mass murders]]
[[Category:20th-century mass murders in India]]
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in Delhi]]
[[Category:Attacks on legislatures in India]]
[[Category:Attacks on residential buildings in India]]
[[Category:Arson attacks on vehicles in India]]
[[Category:Arson in the 1960s]]
[[Category:1966 fires]]
[[Category:1960s fires in Asia]]
[[Category:Attacks on buildings and structures in 1966]]
[[Category:History of the Indian National Congress]]
[[Category:Political riots in India]]
[[Category:20th-century political riots]]

V. Dinesh Reddy

2026-03-29T04:44:03Z

BrookEjw0071: new - done

{{BLP primary sources|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox police officer
| name = V. Dinesh Reddy
| education = Hyderabad Public School
| alma_mater = Madras Christian College, St. Stephen's College, Delhi
| known_for = Director General of Andhra Pradesh Police (Retired), President of All India Hockey Federation
| notable_works =
| spouse =
| relatives =
| service_label = IPS
| service = Indian Police Service (Andhra Pradesh Cadre)
| allegiance = India
| service_years = 1977 - 2013
| status = Retired
| rank = Director General of Police
| other_work = President of Hyderabad Hockey Association, President of All India Hockey Federation, Politician (YSR Congress Party)
| website =
| module =
}}
'''V. Dinesh Reddy ''' is an Indian police officer from the state of [[Andhra Pradesh]] serving as the [[Director General of Police|Director General]] of [[Andhra Pradesh Police]]. He is an [[Indian Police Service]] (IPS) officer from the 1977 batch of the Andhra Pradesh cadre. He completed his schooling from Hyderabad public school (HPS) and college from Madras Christian College (MCC) and St.Stephens Delhi. Dinesh Reddy joined the Indian Police Service on 30 July 1977 from the Andhra Pradesh Cadre and he retired serving as the Director General of Andhra Pradesh Police in 2013.

He held positions such as Hyderabad Range DIG, Warangal Range DIG, Excise and Prohibition Commissioner, IG Railways, Additional DG of Law and Order AP, [[Commissioner of Police, Hyderabad City]], APSRTC MD, Director of Vigilance and Enforcement and Director General of Andhra Pradesh Police. He worked in both Telangana and Andhra regions. He is also keen in sports and supports it. He was elected and he served as The President of Hyderabad Hockey Association and then also as The President of All India Hockey Federation.

==Political Campaign==
Dinesh reddy, contested on a [[YSR Congress Party ]]’s ticket as a Lok Sabha candidate from [[Malkajgiri Lok Sabha constituency|Malkjgiri Constituency]] IN 2014. This constituency is one of the Lok Sabha (Lower House of the Parliament) constituencies in Telangana. This constituency came into existence in 2008, following the implementation of delimitation of parliamentary constituencies based on the recommendations of the Delimitation Commission of India constituted in 2002, Dinesh Reddy joined BJP.

==External links==
* Official Website : [https://web.archive.org/web/20140415025951/http://dineshreddy.org/ www.dineshreddy.org]
* [http://www.aponline.gov.in/apportal/departments/departments.asp?dep=17&org=100&suborg=101&category=Key%20Contacts Andhra Pradesh Police Website]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reddy, V. Dinesh}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian Police Service officers]]
[[Category:Andhra Pradesh Police]]
[[Category:Police commissioners of Hyderabad]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Telangana]]

Syracuse University

2026-03-28T01:51:17Z

BrookEjw0071: minor expand lead as per guidelines and added references per standard format

{{Short description|Private university in Syracuse, New York, US}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Syracuse University
| image_name = Syracuse University seal.svg
| image_upright = 0.6
| image_alt = school name around wreath around Latin motto
| caption = Seal of Syracuse University
| motto = {{lang|la|Suos Cultores Scientia Coronat}} ([[Latin]])
| mottoeng = "Knowledge crowns those who seek her"
| established = {{start date and age|1870|03|24}}<ref name="Syracuse University Chronology" />
| type = [[Private university|Private]] [[research university]]
| accreditation = [[Middle States Commission on Higher Education|MSCHE]]
| religious_affiliation = Nonsectarian; historically affiliated with the [[United Methodist Church]]<ref name="Morrow2015"/>
| academic_affiliations = {{hlist
|[[Coalition of Urban and Metropolitan Universities|CUMU]]
|[[International Association of Methodist-related Schools, Colleges, and Universities|IAMSCU]]
|[[National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities|NAICU]]
|[[Oak Ridge Associated Universities|ORAU]]
|[[Universities Research Association|URA]]
|[[National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program|Space-grant]]
}}
| endowment = $2.27 billion (2025)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edge.sitecorecloud.io/nacubo1-nacubo-prd-dc8b/media/Nacubo/Documents/EndowmentFiles/2025-NCSE-Endowment-Market-Values-for-US-and-Canadian-Institutions-FINAL.xlsx |title=U.S. and Canadian 2025 NCSE Participating Institutions Listed by Fiscal Year 2025 Endowment Market Value |publisher=National Association of College and University Business Officers (NACUBO) |access-date=February 15, 2026 |format=XLSX}}</ref>
| budget = $1.9 billion (2025)<ref name="sept25-update">{{cite news |last1=Syverud |first1=Kent |author1-link=Kent Syverud |title=Chancellor Syverud Updates Senate on University Finances, Enrollment, Leaders and Shared Governance |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2025/09/18/chancellor-syverud-updates-senate-on-university-finances-enrollment-leaders-and-shared-governance/ |access-date=23 September 2025 |work=Syracuse University News |date=18 September 2025}}</ref><ref name="budget 2019"/>
| chancellor = [[Kent Syverud]]
| provost = Lois Agnew
| faculty = 2,100+<ref name="enrollment"/>
| administrative_staff = 5,300+<ref name="enrollment"/>
| students = 22,589 (2024)<ref name="enrollment"/>
| undergrad = 15,957 (2024)<ref name="enrollment"/>
| postgrad = 6,632 (2024)<ref name="enrollment"/>
| city = [[Syracuse, New York]]
| country = United States
| coor = {{coord|43.0376|N|76.1340|W|source:placeopedia_US-MA_type:edu|display=title,inline}}
| campus = Midsize city<ref name="campus"/>
| campus_size = {{convert|969|acres|ha|1}}<ref name="Campus Size"/>
| sporting_affiliations = {{hlist|[[NCAA Division I FBS]] – [[Atlantic Coast Conference|ACC]]|[[Atlantic Hockey America|AHA]]|[[Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges|EARC]]|[[Intercollegiate Rowing Association|IRA]]|[[Power Esports Conference|PEC]]}}
| free_label2 = Newspaper
| free2 = ''[[The Daily Orange]]''
| colors = Orange {{color box|#F76900}}<ref name="color"/> 
| nickname = [[Syracuse Orange|Orange]]
| mascot = [[Otto the Orange]]
| website = {{URL|https://syracuse.edu}}
| logo = Syracuse University wordmark.svg
| logo_upright = 1.1
}}

'''Syracuse University''' (informally ''''Cuse''' or '''SU''')<ref name="'Cuse" /> is a [[Private university|private]] [[research university]] in [[Syracuse, New York]], United States. It was established in 1870 with roots in the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]] but has been [[nonsectarian]] since 1920.<ref>Nonsectarian status:
*{{cite web|url=http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/syracuse-university-2882|title=Syracuse University | US News|publisher=Colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com|date=September 28, 2012|access-date=October 10, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013212050/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/syracuse-university-2882|archive-date=October 13, 2012|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.princetonreview.com/syracuseuniversity.aspx |title=Syracuse University |publisher=Princetonreview.com |date=September 22, 2013 |access-date=December 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234830/http://www.princetonreview.com/syracuseuniversity.aspx |archive-date=December 30, 2013 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.cappex.com/colleges/Syracuse-University-196413 |title=Syracuse University – School Overview |publisher=Cappex |access-date=October 10, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530054143/http://www.cappex.com/colleges/Syracuse-University-196413 |archive-date=May 30, 2012 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite news|url=http://www.bizjournals.com/buffalo/feature/colleges/2011/03/college-135.html?page=all|title=Syracuse University|date=March 28, 2011|access-date=April 4, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728163351/http://www.bizjournals.com/buffalo/feature/colleges/2011/03/college-135.html?page=all|archive-date=July 28, 2013|url-status=live}}
The relationship with the [[United Methodist Church]] persisted for some time:
*{{cite web|url=http://supolicies.syr.edu/ethics/bylaws.htm|title=Syracuse University Bylaws, Scope: Trustees/University Governance|quote=Three Trustees shall be elected by the Board to represent the North Central New York, Western New York and Wyoming Conferences of the United Methodist Church. The Syracuse University Board of Trustees and the named conferences may recommend persons for election as Trustees in this capacity. The representatives need not reside in the areas they represent.|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=December 16, 2011|date=May 14, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130114049/http://supolicies.syr.edu/ethics/bylaws.htm|archive-date=January 30, 2012|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|title=A Brief Report of Church Relatedness: Syracuse University – INCORPORATION AND THE METHODIST CHURCH|quote=The current bylaws authorize the Board to elect three Organization Trustees: one Trustee each to represent the North Central New York, Western New York, and Wyoming conferences of the United Methodist Church. Both the conferences and the Board may recommend persons for election as Organization Trustees. Today Syracuse University is considered a Methodist-related institution. Syracuse University's affiliation is expressed in the tradition, though not regulation, of having a United Methodist minister serve as dean of Hendricks Chapel and in the University's participation in the annual University Teacher/Scholar Award sponsored by the Methodist Church. In addition, the University administers a number of Methodist-funded scholarships and houses the Bishop Ledden Endowed Professorship in the Department of Religion.|publisher=Syracuse University|date=June 15, 2010}}
*{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sw9ILcqw2hsC&q=salvation+of+separated+brethren&pg=PA162|title=Separated brethren: a review of Protestant, Anglican, Eastern Orthodox & other religions in the United States|quote=Among Protestant denominations, Methodists take first place in hospitals and colleges. Some of their one hundred colleges and universities have all but severed ties with the denominations, but others remain definitely Methodist: Syracuse, Boston, Emory, Duke, Drew, Denver, and Southern Methodist. The church operates three hundred sixty schools and institutions overseas.|publisher=[[Our Sunday Visitor]]|access-date=March 27, 2010|isbn=9781931709057|year=2002}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite web |url=http://public.gbhem.org/iamscu/search_results.asp?act=search_gen&search_txt=Syracuse+University&type=schools&submit=GO |title=Syracuse University |publisher=International Association of Methodist Schools, Colleges, and Universities (IAMSCU) |access-date=June 30, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723085909/http://public.gbhem.org/iamscu/search_results.asp?act=search_gen&search_txt=Syracuse+University&type=schools&submit=GO |archive-date=July 23, 2011 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite web|url=http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=2&mid=5585|title=United Methodist schools score high in rankings|publisher=The United Methodist Church|quote=Other United Methodist schools on the top national list are Syracuse (N.Y.) University (tied for 52nd); Boston University (tied for 56th); Southern Methodist University, Dallas (tied for 71st); and American University, Washington (tied for 86th).|date=August 31, 2004|access-date=June 30, 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701131654/http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=2&mid=5585|archive-date=July 1, 2012}}</ref> Located in the city's [[University Hill, Syracuse|University Hill neighborhood]], east and southeast of [[downtown Syracuse]], the large campus features an eclectic mix of architecture, ranging from nineteenth-century [[Romanesque Revival architecture|Romanesque Revival]] to contemporary buildings. Syracuse University is organized into 13 schools and colleges and is [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education|classified]] among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".<ref name="Carnegie_Classification" />

Syracuse University athletic teams, the [[Syracuse Orange|Orange]], participate in 20 intercollegiate sports. SU is a member of the [[Atlantic Coast Conference]] (ACC) for all [[NCAA Division I]] athletics,<ref name="realignment" /> except for the [[College rowing (United States)|men's rowing]] and [[Syracuse Orange women's ice hockey|women's ice hockey]] teams.<ref name="IRA" /><ref name="ice_hockey" /> SU is also a member of the [[Eastern College Athletic Conference]].<ref name="Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC)" /> Alumni, faculty, and affiliates include former president [[Joe Biden]], [[List of American universities with Olympic medals|36 Olympic Medalists]], [[Academy Award]] winners, [[Emmy Awards|Emmy Award]] winners, [[Grammy Awards|Grammy Award]] winners, governors, and members of the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] and [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].

==History==

===Founding===
[[File:Genesee Wesleyan Seminary in 1870 (Lima, New York).png|thumb|[[Genesee Wesleyan Seminary]]]]

The institution's roots can be traced to the [[Genesee Wesleyan Seminary]]. The seminary was founded in 1831 by the Genesee [[Annual conferences within Methodism|annual conference]] of the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]] in [[Lima, New York]], south of [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]].<ref name="genesee_wesleyan_collection" /> In 1850, it was resolved to enlarge the institution from a seminary into a college, or to connect a college with the seminary, becoming [[Genesee College]]. However, the location was soon thought by many to be insufficiently central. Its difficulties were compounded by a new railroad that competed with the [[Erie Canal]] and reconfigured the region's primary economic conduits to bypass Lima. The trustees of the struggling college decided to seek an alternate locale whose economic and transportation advantages could provide a surer base of support.

The college began looking for a new home at the same time that Syracuse, ninety miles to the east, was searching to bring a university to the city after having failed to convince [[Ezra Cornell]] and [[Andrew Dickson White]] to locate [[Cornell University]] in Syracuse rather than in [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]].{{sfn|Galpin|1952}}{{sfn|Greene|2000}} Syracuse resident White pressed that the new university should relocate on the hill in Syracuse (the current location of Syracuse University) due to the city's attractive transportation hub, which would ease the recruitment of faculty, students, and other persons of note. However, as a young carpenter working in Syracuse, Cornell had been cheated of his wages by an employer there.<ref name="reminiscences" /><ref name="cornell_syr" /> Instead, he insisted Cornell University be in Ithaca on his large farm on East Hill, overlooking the town and [[Cayuga Lake]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Goldwin |url=https://archive.org/details/reminiscences0000gold_l3c9/page/370/mode/2up?view=theater |title=Reminiscences |date=1911 |publisher=Macmillan |others=Internet Archive |pages=370}}</ref>

Meanwhile, there were several years of dispute between the Methodist ministers, Lima, and contending cities across the state over proposals to move Genesee College to Syracuse.<ref name="Syracuse v Genesee" /> At the time, the ministers wanted a share of the funds from the [[Morrill Land Grant Act]] for Genesee College. They agreed to a ''[[quid pro quo]]'' donation of $25,000 from Senator Cornell in exchange for their (and their Methodist constituents') support for his bill. Cornell insisted the bargain be written into the bill and Cornell became New York State's Land Grant University in 1865.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}} In 1869, Genesee College obtained New York State approval to move to Syracuse but Lima got a court injunction to block the move, and thus Genesee stayed in Lima until it was dissolved in 1875.<ref name="found" /> By that time, however, the court injunction had been made moot by the founding of a new university on March 24, 1870.<ref name="Syracuse v Genesee" /><ref name="New University in Syracuse" /><ref name="Methodist resolves october 1870" /> On that date the State of New York granted the new Syracuse University its own charter independent of Genesee College.<ref name="found" /> The Methodist church subscribed an endowment of $400,000 and the City of Syracuse offered $100,000 to establish the school.<ref name="founding_endowment" /><ref name="found" /> Methodist bishop [[Jesse T. Peck]] had donated $25,000 to the proposed school<ref name="dickinson" /> and was elected the first president of the board of trustees.{{sfn|Greene|2000}}<ref name="Peck" />

Daniel Steele, a former Genesee College president, served as the first administrative leader of Syracuse until its Chancellor was appointed.{{sfn|Greene|2000|p=2}} The university opened in September 1871 in rented space downtown.<ref name="found" /><ref name="first years" /><ref name="A&S-150" /> Judge [[George F. Comstock]], a member of the new university's board of trustees, had offered the school {{convert|50|acre|m2}} of farmland on a hillside to the southeast of the city center.<ref name="comstock land" /> Comstock intended Syracuse University and the hill to develop as an integrated whole; a contemporary account described the latter as "a beautiful town ... springing up on the hillside and a community of refined and cultivated membership ... established near the spot which will soon be the center of a great and beneficent educational institution."{{sfn|Gorney|2006}}

The university was founded as coeducational and racially integrated: "open to men and women, white and black."<ref name="first years" /> President Peck stated at the opening ceremonies, "The conditions of admission shall be equal to all persons... there shall be no invidious discrimination here against woman.... brains and heart shall have a fair chance... "<ref name="coed" /> Syracuse implemented this policy with a high proportion of women students for its era. In the College of Liberal Arts, the ratio between male and female students during the 19th century was approximately even. The College of Fine Arts was predominantly female, while lower ratios of women enrolled in the College of Medicine and the College of Law.<ref name="coed" /> Men and women were taught together in the same courses, and many extra-curricular activities were coeducational as well. Syracuse also developed "women-only" organizations and clubs.<ref name="coed" />

===Expansion===
[[File:Annual Class of Syracuse University, July 1876, from Robert N. Dennis collection of stereoscopic views.jpg|thumb|First Annual Class of Syracuse University in July 1876]]

Coeducation at Syracuse traced its roots to the early days of Genesee College where educators and students like [[Frances Willard (suffragist)|Frances Willard]] and [[Belva Lockwood]] were heavily influenced by the Women's movement in nearby [[Seneca Falls, New York]]. However, the progressive "co-ed" policies practiced at Genesee would soon find controversy at the new university in Syracuse.{{sfn|Greene|2000}} Colleges and universities admitted few women students in the 1870s. Administrators and faculty argued women had inferior minds and could not master mathematics and the classics. [[Erastus Otis Haven]], Syracuse University chancellor and former president of the [[University of Michigan]] and [[Northwestern University]], maintained that women should receive the advantages of higher education. He enrolled his daughter Frances at Syracuse, where she joined the other newly admitted female students in founding the [[Gamma Phi Beta]] sorority.{{sfn|Greene|2000}} The inclusion of women in the early days of the university led to the proliferation of various women's clubs and societies. Frank Smalley, a Syracuse professor coined the term "[[sorority]]" specifically for Gamma Phi Beta.<ref name="smalley" />
[[File:Hall of Languages at Syracuse University, as seen from Newhouse Steps.jpg|thumb|The Hall of Languages was the first building on the Syracuse University campus, opening in 1873.]]

[[File:Crousecollegesu.jpg|thumb|[[Crouse College]], a [[Romanesque Revival architecture|Romanesque]] building completed in 1889, housed the first [[School of Fine Arts|College of Fine Arts]] in the U.S. It is now the home of the [[Setnor School of Music]].]]

In the late 1880s, the university engaged in a rapid building spree. Holden Observatory (1887)<ref name="holden" /> was followed by two Romanesque Revival buildings – [[Ranke Library|Von Ranke Library]] (1889), now Tolley Humanities Building,<ref name="tolley2" /> and [[Crouse College]] (1889).<ref name="crouse1" /> Together with the [[Hall of Languages, Syracuse University|Hall of Languages]], these first buildings formed the basis for the "Old Row," a grouping which, along with its companion Lawn, established one of Syracuse's most enduring images.{{sfn|Gorney|2006}} The emphatically linear organization of these buildings along the brow of the hill follows a tradition of American campus planning which dates to the construction of the "[[Old Campus|Yale Row]]" in the 1790s. At Syracuse, "The Old Row" continued to provide the framework for growth well into the twentieth century.{{sfn|Gorney|2006}}

[[File:Syracuse-university 1908 winter.jpg|thumb|Left to right: [[Hall of Languages, Syracuse University|Hall of Languages]] and [[Ranke Library|
Von Ranke Library]]<ref name="tolley1" />]]

From its founding until the early 1920s, the university grew rapidly. It offered programs in the physical sciences and modern languages and, in 1873, added one of the first architecture programs in the U.S.{{sfn|Greene|Baron|1996}} It was also the first institution to grant a [[Bachelor of Fine Arts|Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA)]] degree in the United States.<ref name="Syracuse University History 2"/> In 1874, Syracuse created the nation's first bachelor of fine arts degree.<ref name="Syracuse University History" /> In 1876, the school offered its first post-graduate courses in the College of Arts and Sciences.{{sfn|Greene|Baron|1996}} SU created its first doctoral program in 1911.<ref name="SU1906" /> In 1919, Syracuse added its business school which contains multiple MBA programs.<ref name="whitman1" /> SU's school of journalism, now the [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications]], was established at Syracuse in 1934.<ref name="SU1931" />

The growth of Syracuse University from a small liberal arts college into a major comprehensive university was due to the efforts of two men, chancellor [[James Roscoe Day]] and [[John Dustin Archbold]]. James Roscoe Day was serving the Calvary Church in New York City, where he befriended Archbold. Together, the two dynamic figures would oversee the first of two great periods of campus renewal in Syracuse's history.{{sfn|Greene|2000}}

John Dustin Archbold was a capitalist, philanthropist, and President of the board of trustees at Syracuse University. He was known as John D. Rockefeller's right-hand man and successor at the [[Standard Oil]] Company. He was a close friend of Syracuse University Chancellor James R. Day and gave almost $6 million to the university over his lifetime.{{sfn|Greene|2000}} Said a journalist in 1917:
<blockquote>Mr. Archbold's ... is the president of the board of trustees of Syracuse University, an institution which has prospered so remarkably since his connection with it that its student roll has increased from hundreds to over 4,000, including 1,500 young women, placing it in the ranks of the foremost institutions of learning in the United States.<ref name="Men who are making America" /></blockquote>

[[File:Syracuse-university bowne-hall.jpg|thumb|From left to right: Bowne Hall,<ref name="bowne_hall" /> Carnegie Library,<ref name="carnegie_library" /> Archbold Gymnasium<ref name="Archbold_Gym" />]]

In 1905, James D. Phelps secured a donation of $150,000 from [[Andrew Carnegie]] for a new university library provided the university raised an equal sum as an endowment for the library. The university raised the required endowment in a little over a month, with the largest share being contributed by Archbold.<ref name="Carnegie donation 1905"/> On September 11, 1907, the transfer of the [[Leopold von Ranke|Von Ranke]] collection from the old library building marking the opening of the new [[Carnegie library]] with a collection of over 71,000 volumes.<ref name="carnegie_library" />

In addition to keeping the university financially solvent during its early years, Archbold also contributed funds for eight buildings, including the full cost of [[Archbold Stadium]] (opened 1907, demolished 1978),<ref name="archbold_Consolidated"/> Sims Hall<ref name="sims_hall" /> (men's dormitory, 1907), the [[Archbold Gymnasium]] (1909, nearly destroyed by fire in 1947, but still in use), and the oval athletic field.

===Modern===
[[File:Syracuse-university 1920 quad.jpg|thumb|The Old Row, campus of Syracuse University, 1920]]

After [[World War II]], Syracuse University transformed into a major research institution. Enrollment increased in the four years after the war due to the [[G.I. Bill]], which paid tuition, room, board, and a small allowance for veterans returning from World War II.<ref name="GI Bill exhibit" /> In 1946, the university admitted 9,464 freshmen, nearly four times greater than the previous incoming class.<ref name="SU1931" /> Branch campuses were established in [[Endicott, New York]], and [[Utica, New York]], which became [[Binghamton University]] and [[Utica University]] respectively.

By the end of the 1950s, Syracuse ranked twelfth nationally in terms of the amount of its sponsored research and it had over four hundred professors and graduate students engaging in that investigation.{{sfn|Greene|Baron|1996}} From the early 1950s through the 1960s, Syracuse University added programs and staff that continued the transformation of the school into a research university. In 1954, Arthur Phillips was recruited from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] and started the first [[pathogen]]-free animal research laboratory. The lab focused on studying medical problems using animal models. The School of Social Work, which eventually merged into the College of Human Ecology, was founded in 1956.<ref name="Syracuse University History, 1951–1960" /> Syracuse's [[Syracuse University College of Engineering and Computer Science|College of Engineering]] also founded the nation's second-oldest computer engineering and bioengineering programs. In 1962, [[Samuel Irving Newhouse Sr.]] donated $15 million to begin construction of a school of communications, eventually known as the [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications]]. In 1966, Syracuse University was admitted to the [[Association of American Universities]].<ref name="Syracuse University History, 1961–1970" />

===1988 crash of Pan Am Flight 103===
{{main|Pan Am Flight 103}}
[[File:Syracuse University Flight 103 Memorial.jpg|thumb|SU's Flight 103 Memorial]]

On December 21, 1988, 35 Syracuse University students were killed in the terrorist bombing of [[Pan Am Flight 103]] over [[Lockerbie, Scotland|Lockerbie]], Scotland. The students were returning from a study-abroad program in Europe. That evening, Syracuse University went on with a basketball game just hours after the attack, for which the university was severely criticized and the university's chancellor subsequently apologized.<ref name="Conduct" /><ref name="lockerbie_basketball" /> The bombing of Flight 103 was the deadliest terrorist attack against the United States prior to the [[September 11 attacks|attacks on September 11, 2001]].<ref name="lockerbie" /><ref name="Lockerbie1" />

In April 1990, Syracuse University dedicated a memorial wall to the students killed on Flight 103, constructed at the entrance to the main campus in front of the Hall of Languages. Every year the university holds "Remembrance Week" during the fall semester to commemorate the students. The university also maintains a link to the tragedy with the "Remembrance Scholars" program, when 35 senior students receive scholarships during their final year at the university. With the "Lockerbie Scholars" program, two graduating students from Lockerbie Academy study at Syracuse for one year.<ref name="Lockerbie Scholars" />

===Twenty-first century===
{{Update|section|date=August 2025}}

In 2018, the university's [[Theta Tau]] fraternity was expelled after a video showing a mock [[initiation ritual]] featuring racist, [[antisemitic]], [[ableist]], and [[Homophobia|homophobic language]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/23/us/new-video-syracuse-university-theta-thau-frat/index.html|title=Their fraternity is expelled. They're removed from classes. And another disturbing Syracuse frat video surfaces|author-first1=Lauren |author-last1=del Valle|agency=CNN|date=April 23, 2018 |access-date=November 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210195725/https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/23/us/new-video-syracuse-university-theta-thau-frat/index.html|archive-date=December 10, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.syracuse.com/news/2019/01/theta-tau-scandal-judge-upholds-syracuse-university-suspensions-of-frat-brothers.html|title=Theta Tau scandal: Judge upholds Syracuse University suspensions of frat brothers|last=McMahon|first=Julie|date=January 9, 2019|website=syracuse|language=en|access-date=November 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210195100/https://www.syracuse.com/news/2019/01/theta-tau-scandal-judge-upholds-syracuse-university-suspensions-of-frat-brothers.html|archive-date=December 10, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2019, over ten instances of racist graffiti, [[swastikas]], and other bigoted language were found around campus.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2019/11/19/white-supremacist-manifesto-air-dropped-students-is-latest-racist-incident-syracuse-university/|title=White supremacist manifesto shared at library, students say, as racist incidents roil Syracuse University|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=November 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120185451/https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2019/11/19/white-supremacist-manifesto-air-dropped-students-is-latest-racist-incident-syracuse-university/|archive-date=November 20, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> That same week, the university suspended the [[Alpha Chi Rho]] fraternity after the university determined that four of its members yelled a [[racial epithet]] at a black student on campus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cnycentral.com/news/local/fraternity-at-syracuse-university-suspended-after-allegations-of-racist-language|title=Fraternity at Syracuse University suspended after allegations of racist language|last=Carter|first=Sam|date=November 18, 2019|agency=WSTM|access-date=November 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210195101/https://cnycentral.com/news/local/fraternity-at-syracuse-university-suspended-after-allegations-of-racist-language|archive-date=December 10, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> All social activities at fraternities were suspended for the rest of the semester as a result of these racist and antisemitic incidents, but officials of the university were criticized for not doing enough.<ref name="Randle"/>

Days later, a [[white supremacist]] manifesto was allegedly sent to several students studying in the library using Apple's [[AirDrop]] service and was also posted on a website about Greek Life at Syracuse University—the same manifesto that had been cited prior to the [[Christchurch mosque shootings]].<ref name="Randle"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/syracuse-students-flee-campus-rocked-by-racist-incidents|title=Syracuse Students Flee Campus Rocked by Racist Incidents|last=Gelfand|first=Sam|date=November 20, 2019|access-date=November 20, 2019|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121012517/https://www.thedailybeast.com/syracuse-students-flee-campus-rocked-by-racist-incidents|archive-date=November 21, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the [[Syracuse, New York#Police department|Syracuse Police Department]] and the university's Department of Public Safety could not find anyone who directly received the manifesto to verify these claims.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Leffert |first1=Catherine |title=Syracuse police find no devices that received white supremacist manifesto so far |url=http://dailyorange.com/2019/11/syracuse-police-department-finds-no-devices-received-white-manifesto-investigation-continues/ |access-date=November 22, 2019 |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |date=November 21, 2019 |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104258/https://dailyorange.com/2019/11/syracuse-police-department-finds-no-devices-received-white-manifesto-investigation-continues/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Reports of racist manifesto at Syracuse University likely a hoax, chancellor says |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syracuse-university-kent-syverud-reports-of-racist-manifesto-likely-hoax-chancellor-says/ |access-date=November 22, 2019 |agency=[[CBS News]] |date=November 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122144940/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/syracuse-university-kent-syverud-reports-of-racist-manifesto-likely-hoax-chancellor-says/ |archive-date=November 22, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> In response, Syracuse University denied that there was any "credible threat", and the chancellor said that the alleged circulation of the manifesto "was probably a hoax" in an address to the University Senate.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Aratani |first1=Lauren |title=Syracuse students call for chancellor to quit over racist incidents on campus |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/nov/21/syracuse-university-protests-chancellor-racist-incidents-kent-syverud |access-date=November 22, 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=November 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122141055/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/nov/21/syracuse-university-protests-chancellor-racist-incidents-kent-syverud |archive-date=November 22, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<nowiki>#</nowiki>[[NotAgainSU]] is a student-led organization that began after racist incidents at Syracuse University in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Diavolo |first=Lucy |date=2019-11-20 |title=Syracuse Students Demand Action After Racist Incident Spree |url=https://www.teenvogue.com/story/notagainsu-sit-in-protest-racist-incidents-syracuse-university |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=Teen Vogue |language=en-US}}</ref> In response, students organized a sit-in where they occupied, and presented a list of 19 demands for Chancellor [[Kent Syverud]] to sign. After several protests, some taking place at his personal residence, the list was signed with revisions on November 21.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-14 |title=BEHIND THE PROTEST: One year after the formation of #NotAgainSU |url=https://dailyorange.com/2020/11/story-movement-one-year-formation-notagainsu/ |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=The Daily Orange |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last1=Baker |first1=Chris |last2=McMahon |first2=Julie |date=2019-11-21 |title=Syracuse University protesters demand Chancellor Syverud's resignation |url=https://www.syracuse.com/syracuse-university/2019/11/syracuse-university-protesters-to-demand-syveruds-resignation.html |access-date=2024-04-02 |website=syracuse |language=en |archive-date=April 18, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250418020211/https://www.syracuse.com/syracuse-university/2019/11/syracuse-university-protesters-to-demand-syveruds-resignation.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{as of|2020}}, the university had supported faculty member [[Douglas Biklen]] and his discredited pseudoscientific practice of [[facilitated communication]] for nearly 30 years. The university's Institute on Communication and Inclusion, founded by Biklen, (formerly called the "Facilitated Communication Institute"), has offered workshops with the intent of "giving a voice and a means to communicate to people with disabilities".<ref>{{cite web |title=Institute on Communication and Inclusion |url=http://soe.syr.edu/centers_institutes/institute_communication_inclusion/default.aspx |website=soe.syr.edu |publisher=Syracuse University School of Education |access-date=September 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907110203/http://soe.syr.edu/centers_institutes/institute_communication_inclusion/default.aspx |archive-date=September 7, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, in a 2016 article, the editorial board of the independent student newspaper [[The Daily Orange]], condemned the university's support for this practice. "It is inexcusable and equal-parts embarrassing for Syracuse University as a research institution to stand behind facilitated communication (FC) despite it being a potentially life-destroying practice that has been empirically debunked."<ref>{{cite web |title=Syracuse University's reinforcement of facilitated communication inexcusable, concerning |url=http://dailyorange.com/2016/04/syracuse-universitys-reinforcement-of-facilitated-communication-inexcusable-concerning/ |work=The Daily Orange |date=April 12, 2016 |access-date=September 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415182457/http://dailyorange.com/2016/04/syracuse-universitys-reinforcement-of-facilitated-communication-inexcusable-concerning |archive-date=April 15, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In July 2025, [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] and President [[Kent Syverud]] announced that the university has closed its Office of Diversity and Inclusion, replacing it with an "Office of People and Culture" housed within [[Human Resources]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dailyorange.com/2025/07/su-closes-office-of-diversity-and-inclusion-opens-people-and-culture/|title=SU closes Office of Diversity and Inclusion, opens People and Culture|website=The Daily Orange|date=July 31, 2025|access-date=July 31, 2025}}</ref> The closure followed federal policies implemented by the [[Trump administration]] threatening universities with loss of federal funding for maintaining diversity programs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.syracuse.com/education/2025/07/su-to-close-it-diversity-and-inclusion-office-will-launch-new-people-and-culture-unit.html|title=SU to close its diversity and inclusion office, will launch new People and Culture unit|website=Syracuse.com|date=July 31, 2025|access-date=July 31, 2025}}</ref> Syracuse University was among over 130 institutions identified by the administration for potential investigations related to [[diversity, equity, and inclusion]] programs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/trump-singled-out-these-130-colleges-as-possible-targets-for-investigation-is-yours-on-the-list|title=Trump Singled Out These 130 Colleges as Possible Targets for Investigation. Is Yours on the List?|website=The Chronicle of Higher Education|access-date=July 31, 2025}}</ref> The [[executive order]] specifically targeted universities with [[Financial endowment|endowments]] exceeding $1 billion,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/ending-illegal-discrimination-and-restoring-merit-based-opportunity/|title=Ending Illegal Discrimination And Restoring Merit-Based Opportunity|website=The White House|date=January 21, 2025|access-date=July 31, 2025}}</ref> with the university's endowment valued at over $2 billion as of 2024.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://finance.syr.edu/treasurer/investment-management/|title=Investment Management|website=Syracuse University|access-date=July 31, 2025}}</ref>

In late August 2025, Syverud announced he would step down as president and chancellor in June 2026, concluding a twelve-year tenure that began in 2014. Syverud cited personal and professional reflection as the basis for his decision, with his departure also coinciding with the expiration of his contract.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2025/08/26/message-to-the-orange-community/|title=Message to the Orange Community|website=Syracuse University News|date=August 26, 2025|access-date=August 26, 2025}}</ref> On March 3, 2026, J. Michael (Mike) Haynie was appointed 13th Chancellor and President of Syracuse University and will assume his new responsibilities on July 1, 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=News |date=2026-03-03 |title=J. Michael Haynie Appointed 13th Chancellor and President of Syracuse University |url=https://news.syr.edu/2026/03/03/j-michael-haynie-appointed-13th-chancellor-and-president-of-syracuse-university/ |access-date=2026-03-03 |website=Syracuse University Today |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Campuses==
{{see also|List of Syracuse University buildings}}
[[File:Hendricks Chapel - panoramio (3).jpg|thumb|[[Hendricks Chapel]]]]

The university is set on a campus that features an eclectic mix of buildings, ranging from nineteenth-century Romanesque Revival structures to contemporary buildings designed by renowned architects such as [[I.M. Pei]]. The center of campus, with its grass quadrangle, landscaped walkways, and outdoor sculptures, offers students the amenities of a traditional college experience. The university overlooks [[downtown Syracuse]], a medium-sized city of approximately 150,000 residents in [[Central New York]].<ref name="Best Places to Live-Syracuse, NY" />

The school also owns an on-campus [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts|Sheraton Hotel]];<ref name="Sheraton" /> (later turned into a dorm named Orange Hall), Marshall Square Mall;<ref name="MarshallMall">{{cite news |last=Gelb |first=Matt |date=April 28, 2007 |title=SU to open Marshall Square Mall gym in August |url=https://dailyorange.com/2007/04/su-to-open-marshall-square-mall-gym-in-august/ |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |location=Syracuse, NY |access-date=September 8, 2022 |archive-date=September 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909044710/https://dailyorange.com/2007/04/su-to-open-marshall-square-mall-gym-in-august/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the [[Drumlins Country Club]], a nearby, 36-hole [[golf course]] to the east of South Campus;<ref name="Drumlins Country Club" /> the Marshall, a 287-bed student housing complex (later renamed Milton Hall);<ref name="The Marshall"/> the Fisher Center and [[Joseph Lubin (accountant)|Joseph I. Lubin]] House in New York City;<ref name="Lubin House: Welcome" /> the Paul Greenberg House in Washington, D.C.;<ref name="Syracuse University Greenberg House" /> the Minnowbrook Conference Center, a 28-acre (121,000 m2) retreat in the [[Adirondack mountains]] of [[Upstate New York]];<ref name="Minnowbrook Conference Center"/> and various properties surrounding its [[University Hill, Syracuse|University Hill]] campus.<ref name="SU buys properties"/><ref name="SU buys properties2"/>

===Main campus===
[[File:Syracuse University HallofLanguages.jpg|thumb|[[Hall of Languages, Syracuse University|Hall of Languages]]]]

Also called "North Campus," the Main Campus contains nearly all academic buildings and residence halls. Its centerpiece is The Kenneth A. Shaw Quadrangle, more affectionately known as "The Quad",<ref name="quad" /> which is surrounded by academic and administrative buildings, including [[Hendricks Chapel]].<ref name="hendricks_book" /><ref name="hendricks_chapel" /> The North Campus represents a large portion of the [[University Hill, Syracuse|University Hill]] neighborhood. Buses run to South Campus, as well as [[downtown Syracuse]] and other locations in the city.<ref name="Syracuse University Map" />

[[File:Ernie Davis Hall.jpg|thumb|Ernie Davis Hall, a residence and dining hall opened in 2009]]

About 70 percent of students live in university housing. First- and second-year students are required to live on campus. All 22 residence halls are coeducational, and each contains a lounge, laundry facility, and various social/study spaces. Residence halls are secured with a card access system. Residence halls are located on both Main Campus and South Campus, the latter of which is a five-minute ride via bus. Learning communities and interest housing options are also available. Food facilities include six residential dining centers, two food courts, and several cafes. A few blocks walk from Main Campus on East Genesee Street, the [[Syracuse Stage]] building includes two [[proscenium]] theatres. The Storch is used primarily by the Drama Department and the Archbold is used primarily by Syracuse Stage, a professional [[Regional theater in the United States|regional theatre]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syracuse University Ranking 2026: Latest QS, US News & T.H.E. Rankings |url=https://www.upgrad.com/study-abroad/university/usa/syracuse-university-797/ranking/ |access-date=2026-03-07 |website=Upgrad abroad |language=en-in}}</ref>

[[File:Syracuse - panoramio (4).jpg|thumb|View from the [[Kenneth Shaw|Kenneth A. Shaw]] quadrangle, commonly known as "the Quad"]]

The [[Comstock Tract Buildings]], a historic district of older buildings on the campus, was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1980.<ref name="nrhptextComstock" /> Three buildings on campus—the [[Crouse College, Syracuse University|Crouse Memorial College]] and the [[Hall of Languages, Syracuse University|Hall of Languages]], and the [[Pi Chapter House of Psi Upsilon Fraternity]]—are individually listed on the National Register.<ref name="nris" />

In 2017, the university released a campus framework report detailing plans to align the campus's physical landscape, buildings, and infrastructure over the next 20 years.<ref name="Sasaki" /><ref name="campus framework" />

===South campus===
After World War II, a large, undeveloped hill owned by the university was used to house returning [[veterans]] in military-style campus housing. During the 1970s, this housing at [[Skytop, Syracuse|Skytop]] was replaced by permanent two-level townhouses equipped with kitchen, bathroom, and private bedrooms for two or three undergraduate students each or graduate families.<ref name="SouthCampusApt">{{cite web |title=South Campus Apartments |url=https://housingmealplans.syr.edu/residential-facilities/south-campus-apts/ |website=Syracuse University |access-date=September 8, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=September 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909034335/https://housingmealplans.syr.edu/residential-facilities/south-campus-apts/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are also three small residence halls that feature open doubles. More than 2,000 students live on the South Campus, which is one mile away from the Main Campus and connected by frequent shuttle bus service.<ref name="SouthCampus">{{cite web |title=South Campus Housing |url=https://www.syracuse.edu/life/housing/south-campus/ |website=Syracuse University Athletics |access-date=September 8, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=September 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909034343/https://www.syracuse.edu/life/housing/south-campus/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="SouthCampusApt"/>

South Campus is home to the Institute for Sensory Research, [[Tennity Ice Skating Pavilion]], Comstock Art Facility, Skytop Softball Stadium, Skytop Track, Goldstein Student Center, Outdoor Education Center, Skytop Office Building, and the Inn Complete pub, a graduate student bar.<ref name="SouthCampus"/><ref name="SUAthleticFacilities">{{cite web |title=Syracuse University Athletics Department Facilities |url=https://cuse.com/facilities |website=Syracuse University Athletics |access-date=September 8, 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Just north is the headquarters of [[Syracuse Orange|SU Athletics]], the [[John A. Lally Athletics Complex]], formerly known as [[Manley Field House]].<ref name="Lally">{{cite web |title=Facilities: John A. Lally Athletics Complex |url=https://cuse.com/facilities/john-a-lally-athletics-complex/117 |website=Syracuse University Athletics |access-date=September 8, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=September 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909021549/https://cuse.com/facilities/john-a-lally-athletics-complex/117 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Lally2">{{cite news |last=Alandt |first=Anthony |date=November 22, 2021 |title=SU announces $150 million initiative for Manley Field House renovations |url=https://dailyorange.com/2021/11/syracuse-announces-manley-field-house-renovations/ |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |location=Syracuse, NY |access-date=September 8, 2022 |archive-date=September 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909021602/https://dailyorange.com/2021/11/syracuse-announces-manley-field-house-renovations/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Named after alumnus John Lally, the academic and athletics village is home to 20 Syracuse University athletics teams.<ref name="Lally"/> The complex is surrounded by other athletic facilities, including the [[Carmelo K. Anthony Basketball Center]], [[J.S. Coyne Stadium]], Ensley Athletic Center, and [[SU Soccer Stadium]].<ref name="SUAthleticFacilities"/>

===Downtown Syracuse===
[[File:The Warehouse, Syracuse University (2006).jpg|thumb|[[The Warehouse (Syracuse)|The Warehouse]]]]

In December 2004, the university announced that it had purchased or leased twelve buildings in [[downtown Syracuse]]. Five design programs—Communication, Advertising, Environmental and Interior Design, Industrial and Interactive Design, and Fashion—reside permanently in the newly renovated facilities, fittingly called [[The Warehouse (Syracuse)|The Warehouse]], which was renovated by [[Gluckman Mayner Architects]]. Both programs were chosen to be located in the downtown area because of their history of working on projects directly with the community. The Warehouse also houses a contemporary art space that commissions, exhibits, and promotes the work of local and international artists in a variety of media. Hundreds of students and faculty have also been affected by the temporary move of the [[Syracuse University School of Architecture|School of Architecture]] downtown for the $12 million renovation of its campus facility, Slocum Hall.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SU Nancy Cantor Warehouse |url=https://www.designlabarch.com/syracusecantorwarehouse |access-date=2026-03-07 |website=designLAB architects |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About |url=https://vpa.syracuse.edu/warehouse-gallery/about/ |access-date=2026-03-07 |website=vpa.syracuse.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Slocum Hall |url=https://soa.syr.edu/school/slocum-hall/ |access-date=2026-03-07 |website=soa.syr.edu |language=en}}</ref>

Since 2009, the Syracuse Center of Excellence in Environmental and Energy Systems, led by Syracuse University in partnership with [[Clarkson University]] and the [[State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry]], creates innovations in environmental and energy technologies that improve human health and productivity, security, and sustainability in urban and built environments.<ref name="Syracuse Center of Excellence in Environmental and Energy Innovations" /><ref name="Excellence in Environmental and Energy Innovations" /> The [[Department of African American Studies - Syracuse University#Paul Robeson Performing Arts Company (PRPAC)|Paul Robeson Performing Arts Company]] and the [[Department of African American Studies - Syracuse University#Community Folk Art Center (CFAC)|Community Folk Art Center]] will also be located downtown. On March 31, 2006, the university and the city announced an initiative to connect the main campus of the university with the arts and culture areas of downtown Syracuse and The Warehouse.<ref name="Connective Corridor design competition" /> Using natural gas, the Green Data Center generates its electricity on-site, providing cooling for [[Server (computing)|servers]] and for a neighboring building.<ref name="go-green" />

The Connective Corridor project, supported by of public and private funds, will be a strip of cultural development that will connect the main campus of the university to downtown Syracuse. In 2008, an engineering firm was studying traffic patterns and lighting to commence the project. A design competition was held to determine the best design for the project.<ref name="The Connective Corridor—Project Overview" />{{update inline|date=August 2021}}

===Metropolitan satellite locations===
[[File:Syracuse University in Washington DC (53767357830).jpg|thumb|Syracuse University center at 1333 New Hampshire Avenue NW, [[Dupont Circle]], [[Washington D.C.]]]]
SU has established an admissions presence in Los Angeles, California, that will enhance the university's visibility on the West Coast and will join the university's West Coast offices of alumni relations, institutional advancement, and the LA semester program in the same location. Syracuse University has also established an admissions presence in New York City, Atlanta, Georgia, Chicago, Illinois, and Boston, Massachusetts.<ref name="admission_tours" /> [[Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs]] maintains their Washington D.C. operations in collaboration with [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]].<ref name="CSIS1" /><ref name="CSIS2" /> Also in Washington, D.C. is the newly launched Center for Democracy, Journalism and Citizenship, a research center jointly run by the [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications|Newhouse School]] and Maxwell School.<ref name="New DC Center"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Loughlin |first1=Wendy S. |title=Syracuse University Opens New Center in Nation's Capital |url=https://newhouse.syracuse.edu/news/syracuse-university-opens-new-center-in-nations-capital/ |access-date=29 December 2024 |work=[[Newhouse School at Syracuse University]] |date=September 25, 2024 |language=en |archive-date=December 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241229051030/https://newhouse.syracuse.edu/news/syracuse-university-opens-new-center-in-nations-capital/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Art===

====Art collections====
{{see also|List of university art museums and galleries in New York State}}

Syracuse is home to the Syracuse University Art Museum.<ref name="art_museum"/> The main gallery space is located in the Shaffer Art Building on the main campus.<ref name="art_museum Brairton"/>

The Warehouse Gallery is a new contemporary art space that is operated under the umbrella of the SU Art Museum. Housed in a former furniture warehouse off-campus, the Warehouse Gallery features works from international artists in a variety of media.<ref name="art_Warehouse"/>

The Louise and Bernard Palitz Gallery is located on the second floor of the Lubin House in New York City.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nyc.syr.edu/about/lubin-house/index.html|title=Lubin House | New York City|website=nyc.syr.edu|access-date=April 29, 2023|archive-date=May 5, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505013649/https://nyc.syr.edu/about/lubin-house/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It has a rotation of exhibitions, including two annual public shows, local and regional artists, featured items from the university's art collection, and professional artists.<ref name="art_Palitz"/>

====Other venues====
There are many other venues for student work at Syracuse University, including the Lowe Art Gallery in Shaffer Art Building,<ref name="art_Lowe"/> the Robert B Menschel Photography Gallery that features work from professional photographers as well as students and local artists, and the White Cube Gallery in Schine Student Center that showcases work for the student body outside of the school of art and design.<ref name="art_schine"/>

SU has a permanent art collection of over 45,000 objects from artists including [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]], [[Rembrandt]], [[Edward Hopper|Hopper]], [[Louis Comfort Tiffany|Tiffany]] and [[Andrew Wyeth|Wyeth]]. More than 100 important paintings, sculptures, and murals are displayed in public places around campus.<ref name="Collections: Art on Campus"/> Notable sculptures on campus include [[Sol LeWitt]]'s ''Six Curved Walls'', [[Anna Hyatt Huntington]]'s ''Diana'', [[Jean-Antoine Houdon]]'s ''George Washington'', [[Antoine Bourdelle]]'s ''Herakles'', [[James Earle Fraser (sculptor)|James Earle Fraser]]'s ''[[Lincoln the Mystic|Lincoln]]'', [[Malvina Hoffman]]'s ''The Struggle of Elemental Man,'' and [[Ivan Meštrović]]'s ''Moses'', ''Job'' and ''Supplicant Persephone''. A mural version of [[Ben Shahn]]'s ''[[The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti]]'' adorns an exterior wall at HBC.

Students can also research primary sources through the Special Collections Research Center (SCRC),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://library.syr.edu/find/scrc/|title=Special Collections Research Center|access-date=August 3, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812031949/http://library.syr.edu/find/scrc/|archive-date=August 12, 2015}}</ref> which is composed of rare books, manuscripts, works of architecture and design, and popular culture (cartoons, science fiction, and pulp literature), photography, the history of recorded sound, and more. SCRC is part of Syracuse University Libraries and is located on the 6th floor of Bird Library.

==Academics==
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:90%; line-height:1.4em; width:300px"
|- style="color:white; background:#F76900;"
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | '''School founding'''
|-
| '''School''' ||style="text-align: center;"| '''Year founded'''
|-
| colspan="2" |<hr />
|-
| [[Syracuse University College of Arts and Sciences|College of Arts and Sciences]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1871
|-
| [[Syracuse University College of Visual and Performing Arts|College of Visual and Performing Arts]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1873
|-
| [[Syracuse University School of Architecture|School of Architecture]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1873
|-
| [[Syracuse University College of Law|College of Law]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1895
|-
| [[Syracuse University School of Information Studies|School of Information Studies]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1896
|-
| [[Syracuse University College of Engineering and Computer Science|College of Engineering and Computer Science]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1901
|-
| [[Syracuse University School of Education|School of Education]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1906
|-
| Graduate School|| style="text-align: center;" | 1912
|-
| [[David B. Falk College of Sport|Falk College of Sport]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1917
|-
| [[Syracuse University College of Professional Studies|College of Professional Studies]]||style="text-align: center;"| 1918
|-
| [[Martin J. Whitman School of Management|Whitman School of Management]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1919
|-
| [[Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1924
|-
| [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications|Newhouse School of Public Communications]] ||style="text-align: center;"| 1934
|}

Syracuse is a comprehensive, highly residential research university. The majority of enrollments are in the full-time, four-year undergraduate program that balances arts & sciences and professions. There is a high graduate coexistence with the comprehensive graduate program and a [[Research I university|
very high level of research]] activity.<ref name="Carnegie_Classification" /> It is accredited by the [[Middle States Commission on Higher Education]].<ref name="middle_states" />

The most popular majors at Syracuse University include: Communication, Journalism, and Related Programs; Social Sciences; Business, Management, Marketing, and Related Support Services; Visual and Performing Arts; and Engineering.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syracuse University Academics |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/syracuse-university-2882/academics |access-date=November 5, 2025 |website=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> The average freshman retention rate, an indicator of student satisfaction, is 91 percent.<ref name="2024 cds">{{cite web |url=https://institutionalresearch.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/syracuse_university_cds_2023-2024.pdf |title=Common Data Set 2023-2024 |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 16, 2024 |archive-date=September 17, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240917010136/https://institutionalresearch.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/syracuse_university_cds_2023-2024.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="collegescorecard" /> The student-faculty ratio at Syracuse University is 15:1, and the school has 58.5 percent of its classes with fewer than 20 students.

===Organization===
Syracuse is governed by a 70-member board of trustees with 64 trustees elected by the board to four-year terms and six elected by the alumni to four-year terms. Of the 64 board-elected trustees, three must represent specified conferences of the [[United Methodist Church]]. In addition, the Chancellor and the President of the Syracuse Alumni Association serve as ex officio voting trustees. Two students and one faculty member serve as non-voting representatives on the board.<ref name="bylaws" /> The board selects, and sets the salary of, the chancellor. The university bylaws also establish a university senate with "general supervision over all educational matters concerning the University as a whole". The senate consists of administrators, faculty, students and staff.<ref name="bylaws" />

Syracuse University is organized into 13 schools and colleges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Find a Program |url=https://www.syracuse.edu/academics/programs/ |access-date=2026-03-07 |website=www.syracuse.edu |language=en}}</ref>

===Admissions===
{{Infobox U.S. college admissions
|year = 2023
|admit rate = 41.7%
|admit rate change = -8.17
|yield rate = 20.9%
|yield rate change = 0.3
|test optional = yes
|SAT Total = 1280–1410 (among 24% of [[freshman|FTFs]])
|SAT Total change =
|ACT = 28–32 (among 9% of [[freshman|FTFs]])
|ACT change =
|GPA = 3.8
|float = right
|ref = <ref name="2024 cds"/>
}}

Syracuse's admissions process is "more selective" according to the [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education|Carnegie Classification]].<ref name="Carnegie_Classification" /> For the 2023 incoming class, Syracuse accepted 17,545 of its 42,089 applicants, or 41.69 percent. 3,672 students enrolled in the class, a yield rate of 20.93 percent.<ref name="2024 cds" /> In 2024, the school received around 45,000 applications.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Syverud |first1=Kent |title=Chancellor Syverud Provides Updates to University Senate on University Climate and Shared Governance |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2024/09/26/chancellor-syverud-provides-updates-to-university-senate-on-university-climate-and-shared-governance/ |access-date=27 September 2024 |work=Syracuse University News |date=26 September 2024 |archive-date=September 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240926175216/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2024/09/26/chancellor-syverud-provides-updates-to-university-senate-on-university-climate-and-shared-governance/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2018, 26% of the incoming students were [[Person of color|students of color]]; 18% were [[First-generation college students in the United States|first-generation college students]]; 21% were [[Pell Grant|federal Pell grant]] eligible (an indicator for low-income students), and 75% received some financial aid. Students came from 48 states, along with Washington, D.C., Guam and Puerto Rico. Nearly 600 international undergraduate students from 59 countries were also admitted.<ref name="SAT_2018" /><ref name="collegescorecard" /><ref name="Pell_grant" />

In fall 2024, Syracuse University had a total acceptance rate of 45.9%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=College Navigator - Syracuse University |url=https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/?q=Syracuse+University&s=all&id=196413#admsns |access-date=2026-02-28 |website=nces.ed.gov}}</ref>

===Degrees===
The university offers undergraduate degrees in over 200 [[academic major|majors]] in the nine undergraduate schools and colleges.<ref name="Office of Admissions1" /> [[Bachelor's degree]]s are offered through the [[Syracuse University School of Architecture]], the [[Syracuse University College of Arts and Sciences|College of Arts and Sciences]], the [[Syracuse University School of Education|School of Education]], the [[David B. Falk College of Sport]], the [[Syracuse University College of Engineering and Computer Science|College of Engineering and Computer Science]], the [[Syracuse University School of Information Studies|School of Information Studies]], [[Martin J. Whitman School of Management]], [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications]], and the [[Syracuse University College of Visual and Performing Arts|College of Visual and Performing Arts]]. Also offered are [[Master's degree|Master's]] and [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctoral]] degrees online<ref name="mba_online" /> and in person from the Graduate School and from specialized programs in the Martin J. Whitman School of Management, [[Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs]], [[Syracuse University College of Law|College of Law]], among others. Additionally, SU offers Certificates of Advanced Study Programs for specialized programs for education, counseling, and other academic areas. SU also offers over 100 minors.<ref name="advance study ischool" /><ref name="advance study maxwell" /><ref name="advance study education" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Syracuse University Academics |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/syracuse-university-2882/academics |access-date=November 19, 2025 |website=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref>

The university has offered multiple international study programs since 1911. SU Abroad, formerly known as the Division of International Programs Abroad (DIPA), currently offers joint programs with universities in over 40 countries.<ref name="SUAbroad" /> The university operates eight international centers, called SU Abroad Centers, that offer structured programs in a variety of academic disciplines. The centers are located at Beijing, [[Istanbul]], [[Florence]], Hong Kong, London ([[Faraday House]]), [[Madrid]], [[Strasbourg]], and [[Santiago]].<ref name="SUAbroad" /><ref name="SU Abroad" />

===Rankings and reputation===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{Infobox US university ranking
| Wamo_NU = 97
| USNWR_NU = 75
| THE_WSJ = 117
| Forbes = 108
| THES_W = 401–500
| USNWR_W = 479
| QS_W = 741-750
| ARWU_W = 701–800
}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right; text-align:center"
|-
! colspan=4 style="{{CollegePrimaryStyle|Syracuse Orange|color=white}}" |National programs rankings<ref name="USNWR" />
|-
! Program
! Ranking
|-
| Audiology || 29
|-
| Biological Sciences || 112
|-
| Business || 84
|-
| Chemistry || 96
|-
| Clinical Psychology || 50
|-
| Computer Science || 68
|-
| Earth Sciences || 54
|-
| Economics || 50
|-
| Education || 55
|-
| Engineering || 111
|-
| English || 73
|-
| Fine Arts || 53
|-
| History || 67
|-
| Law || 102
|-
| Library & Information Studies || 6
|-
| Mathematics || 74
|-
| Physics || 69
|-
| Political Science || 50
|-
| Psychology || 90
|-
| Public Affairs || 1
|-
| Social Work || 59
|-
| Sociology || 61
|-
| Speech–Language Pathology || 32
|}

{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right; text-align:center"
|-
! colspan=4 style="{{CollegePrimaryStyle|Syracuse Orange|color=white}}" |Online programs rankings<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Syracuse University – U.S. News Best Online School Rankings|magazine=U.S. News & World Report|access-date=September 28, 2020|url=https://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/syracuse-university-196413|archive-date=December 10, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210195054/https://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/syracuse-university-196413|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! Program
! Ranking
|-
| Master's in Computer Information Technology || 19
|-
| Master's in Computer Information Technology for Veterans || 11
|-
| Master's in Business Programs (excluding MBA) || 47
|-
| Master's in Business Programs for Veterans (excluding MBA) || 25
|-
| MBA Programs || 54
|-
| MBA Programs for Veterans || 32
|-
| Bachelor's Programs || 133
|}

{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="float:right; text-align:center"
|-
! colspan=4 style="{{CollegePrimaryStyle|Syracuse Orange|color=white}}" |Global programs rankings<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Syracuse University – U.S. News Best Global University Rankings|magazine=U.S. News & World Report|access-date=September 28, 2020|url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/syracuse-university-196413|archive-date=August 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807223840/https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/syracuse-university-196413|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! Program
! Ranking
|-
| Arts & Humanities || 218
|-
| Economics & Business || 232
|-
| Engineering || 899
|-
| Physics || 245
|-
| Social Sciences & Public Health || 221
|}
{{col-end}}

[[File:Slocum Hall, Syracuse University.JPG|thumb|Slocum Hall, [[Syracuse University School of Architecture|The School of Architecture]]]]
[[File:Newhouse-School-Syracuse-Univ-2014.jpg|thumb|[[Newhouse School of Public Communications|S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications]]]]

In its 2021 ranking of U.S. colleges, ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' ranked Syracuse tied for 58th among undergraduate national universities.<ref name="USNWR overall" /> A 2019 survey in the Academic Ranking of World Universities places Syracuse University in the top 100 world universities in social sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2019/subject-ranking/social-sciences|title=World University Rankings 2019 by subject: social sciences|date=October 8, 2018|website=Times Higher Education (THE)|access-date=July 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704035631/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2019/subject-ranking/social-sciences|archive-date=July 4, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Top 100 world universities in Social Sciences" /> In 2019, Syracuse University was ranked 22nd in [[New York State]] by average professor salaries.<ref name="Faculty Compensation AAUP" /><ref name="Faculty Compensation ithaca" /> Syracuse was ranked 1st in ''[[The Princeton Review]]'''s 2015 and 2019 list of top party schools.<ref name="party school 2015" /><ref name="party school 2019" /> SU was named as one of top [[Fulbright Award]] producing institutions for 2020–21.<ref name="Fulbright 21"/>

The [[Newhouse School of Public Communications|Newhouse School of Communications]] (formally S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications) offers 7 undergraduate and 12 master's degree programs. It has an undergraduate acceptance rate of about 10%;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Facts and Figures |url=https://newhouse.syracuse.edu/about/facts-and-figures/ |access-date=2026-02-28 |website=Newhouse School at Syracuse University |language=en}}</ref> incoming students have, on average, a 3.9 GPA and SAT scores in the 1320 range and ACT scores of 30.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAQ |url=https://newhouse.syracuse.edu/admissions/undergraduate/faq/ |access-date=2026-02-28 |website=Newhouse School at Syracuse University |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Syracuse University School of Architecture|School of Architecture]] Bachelor of Architecture program was ranked 5th nationally in both the ''most Hired from'' and ''most admired'' categories by the journal ''Design Intelligence'' in its 2019–20 rankings.<ref>{{cite web |title=Most Hired from Architecture Schools |url=https://www.di-rankings.com/most-hired-from-schools-architecture/ |publisher=DesignIntelligence |access-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-date=April 5, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210405173217/https://www.di-rankings.com/most-hired-from-schools-architecture/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Most Admired Architecture Schools |url=https://www.di-rankings.com/most-admired-schools-architecture/ |publisher=DesignIntelligence |access-date=April 13, 2021 |archive-date=February 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220201940/https://www.di-rankings.com/most-admired-schools-architecture/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:SU-Dineen-Hall-2015b.jpg|thumb|Dineen Hall, the [[Syracuse University College of Law|College of Law]]|alt=]]
[[File:The Martin J. Whitman School of Management.jpg|thumb|[[Martin J. Whitman School of Management]]|alt=]]

The [[Syracuse University School of Information Studies|School of Information Studies]] offers [[Information management|information management and technology]] courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels at Syracuse University. Within the School of Information Studies, ''U.S. News & World Report'' has ranked the graduate program as the 6th best Library and Information Studies graduate school in the United States for 2022, with the graduate program in School Library Media ranked 3rd, the graduate program in Digital Librarianship ranked 4th, and the graduate Information Systems program tied at No. 5.<ref name="USNWR" />

The School of Management was renamed the [[Martin J. Whitman School of Management]] in 2003, in honor of Syracuse alumnus and benefactor [[Martin J. Whitman]]. The school is home to about 2,200 undergraduate and graduate students. The graduate program was ranked tied at No. 54 among business schools nationwide by ''U.S. News & World Report'' for 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syracuse University (Whitman) |url=https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-business-schools/syracuse-university-01158 |access-date=January 5, 2026 |website=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> The school was ranked No. 39 on ''Poets&Quants''’ list of the Best Undergraduate Business Programs in the U.S. in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Allen |first=Nathan |title=Syracuse University's Martin J. Whitman School of Management |url=https://poetsandquantsforundergrads.com/school-profile/syracuse-universitys-martin-j-whitman-school-management/ |access-date=January 5, 2026 |website=Poets&Quants for Undergrads |language=en-US}}</ref>

The [[Syracuse University College of Law|College of Law]] was ranked tied for 102nd nationally by ''U.S. News & World Report'' for 2022.<ref name="USNWR" /> It is an emerging leader in the relatively novel field of National Security Law.<ref name="INSCT – Institute for National Security & Counterterrorism" /> In 2007, the law school started the Cold Case Justice Initiative, investigating cold cases from the civil rights era in the South. Its professors and students have identified 196 cases, of which more than 100 are in Georgia, and will give information to the US Department of Justice to have cases prosecuted.<ref name="Cold Case Justice Initiative" /> The FBI has identified 122 cold cases that it is trying to resolve. President [[Joe Biden]] is a graduate of the College of Law.

[[File:Abraham Lincoln Statue and Maxwell School, Syracuse University, 2012.jpg|thumb|The statue of Abraham Lincoln outside the [[Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs]]|alt=]]

The [[Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs]] combines social sciences with public administration and international relations. It was ranked as the No. 1 graduate school for public affairs in the U.S. by ''U.S. News & World Report'' for 2022.<ref name="USNWR" />

''Military Times'' ranked Syracuse University the top "Private School for Vets" and 5th overall in the "Best for Vets" in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2018/10/23/military-times-names-syracuse-no-1-private-institution-on-2019-best-colleges-for-vets-list/|title=Military Times Names Syracuse No. 1 Private Institution on 2019 Best Colleges for Vets List|website=SU News|date=October 23, 2018 |language=en-US|access-date=February 13, 2020|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104258/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2018/10/23/military-times-names-syracuse-no-1-private-institution-on-2019-best-colleges-for-vets-list/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://charts.militarytimes.com/chart/15 |title=Best for Vets: Colleges 2020 4-year Schools |website=rebootcamp.militarytimes.com|language=en-US|access-date=February 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120195742/https://rebootcamp.militarytimes.com/news/education/2018/10/22/best-for-vets-colleges-the-best-schools-for-military-students-in-2019/|archive-date=November 20, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Syracuse University was ranked tied for 30th in "Best Colleges for Veterans" by ''U.S. News & World Report'' for 2022.<ref name="USNWR overall" /> The school completed the $63 million state-of-the-art National Veterans Resource Center (NVRC) in 2020,<ref name="NVRC 62Million"/> the first-of-its kind facility in the United States.<ref name="NVRC DO"/>

[[File:Shaffer Art Building & Center for Science and Technology as seen from the Orange Grove, Syracuse University (2012).jpg|thumb|From left to right: Link Hall, Life Sciences Complex, and Shaffer Art Building|alt=Image of Link Hall, Life Sciences Complex, and Shaffer Art Building at Syracuse University]]

Civil liberties organization [[Foundation for Individual Rights in Education|FIRE]] gave Syracuse its 2021 "Lifetime Censorship Award", "[f]or its unashamed assault on expressive freedoms".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thefire.org/10-worst-colleges-for-free-speech-2021/ |title=10 Worst Colleges for Free Speech: 2021 |author= |date=February 17, 2021 |website=theFIRE.org |publisher=Foundation for Individual Rights in Education |access-date=September 8, 2021 |archive-date=September 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908185022/https://www.thefire.org/10-worst-colleges-for-free-speech-2021/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Libraries===
[[File:Carnegie Library (Syracuse University) 02.jpg|thumb|Carnegie Library at Syracuse University]]

[[File:Bird Library at Syracuse University as seen from the university place walkway 01.jpg|thumb|Bird Library at Syracuse University]]

Syracuse University's main library is the Ernest Stevenson Bird Library (Bird Library), which opened in September 1972.<ref name="Bird library history"/><ref name="Bird library greene"/> It is Syracuse University's busiest academic building. Its seven levels cover 227,249 square feet and include social sciences and humanities resources.

As of June 2025, the libraries held more than 4.8 million titles in its general collections and over 210,000 titles in its law collection. More than half of its general collections was electronic. It is one of the hundred largest libraries in the country.<ref name="ALA_holdings" /> Syracuse University Libraries’ provides access to its digital collections, both special and general collections, through its open access digital library. Bird Library is also home to the largest collection of national archives of [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]].<ref name="Kenya National Archives" />

Since 1878, the university has participated in the [[Federal Depository Library Program]] of the [[U.S. Government Publishing Office]] (GPO) as a Regional depository library.<ref name="GPO Depository Library"/><ref name="Govt Publications at SU"/> It was the first library to commit to permanently preserving new volumes as they are published, in addition to the print collections of historical government publications produced by the US-GPO.<ref name="GPO first"/> Bird Library provides public access to the government documents collection, located on its 3rd floor. It also collects publications from the State of New York, City of Syracuse, and Onondaga County.

The LaunchPad, located on the 1st floor of Bird Library, is a cross-disciplinary entrepreneurial and innovation hub for the campus community.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syracuse University Libraries - Home |url=https://library.syracuse.edu/ |access-date=2026-02-19 |website=Syracuse University Libraries |language=en}}</ref>

The Carnegie Library serves as a quiet reading room.<ref name="carnegie_library" /> It also includes team rooms and a computer workstation and printing room. In addition to Bird and Carnegie Library, Syracuse University hosts the King + King Architecture Library in Slocum Hall and the College of Law Library in Dineen Hall.

The Special Collections Research Center, located on the sixth floor of Bird Library, held 87,760 total linear feet of rare books, printed materials, original manuscripts, photographs, artworks, audio and moving image recordings, and university records, as of June 2025. SCRC's primary sources span over 4,000 years—from the 21st century BCE to the 21st century CE—and are actively used in teaching, exhibitions and research. They represent an array of subject areas relevant to Syracuse University and the local and global communities, including Activism and Social Reform, Adult Education, Architecture and Industrial Design, Recorded Sound and Broadcasting, Photography and Photojournalism and Syracuse University History. Notable collections include the Margaret Bourke-White Papers, Marcel Breuer Papers, Grove Press Records, Ted Koppel Collection, Joyce Carol Oates Papers, Plastics Collection, Gerrit Smith Papers, and the [[Leopold von Ranke]] library.

The university is also home to the SCRC's Belfer Audio Archive, whose holdings total approximately 540,000 recordings in all formats, primarily cylinders, discs, and magnetic tapes. In July 2008, Syracuse University became the owner of the second largest collection of [[78 rpm]] records in the United States, after the [[Library of Congress]], after a donation of more than 200,000 records. The donation, valued at $1 million, more than doubled the university's collection of 78 rpm records to about 400,000.<ref name="records1" /><ref name="records2" /> Some of the voices found in the Belfer Collection include [[Thomas Edison]], [[Amelia Earhart]], and [[Albert Einstein]].<ref name="belfer1" /><ref name="belfer2" /> Since 2011, the libraries has produced ''Sound Beat'', a daily 90-second audio interstitial program that airs on nearly 375 stations across the world.<ref name="Sound Beat1" /><ref name="Sound Beat2" />

Syracuse University Libraries includes a high-density, climate-controlled offsite storage and service complex known as the Facility that houses many of its collection materials.

[[Syracuse University Press]], established in 1943, publishes scholarly books in several academic fields, as well as book on the history and environment of New York State.

The Martin Luther King Jr. Library in Sims Hall is the university's only departmental library run by a school or college, the College of Arts and Sciences. It also has a special Harriet Tubman Research Collection and an Environmental Justice and Gender collection as part of its over 15,000 acquisitions in African, African-American, Afro-Latino, and Caribbean studies.

===Faculty===
{{main category|Syracuse University faculty}}
Syracuse University has 1013 full-time instructional faculty, 96 part-time faculty, and 454 [[adjunct faculty]]. Approximately 86% of the full-time faculty have earned PhDs or professional degrees.<ref name="facts" /> The current faculty includes scholars such as [[MacArthur Fellow]] [[Don Mitchell (geographer)|Don Mitchell]], Professor of Geography, who has developed studies in cultural geography; [[Bruce Kingma]], Associate Provost and Kauffman Professor of Entrepreneurship, a pioneer in the field of information economics and online learning; [[Catherine Bertini]], Professor of Practice in Public Administration, who has worked on the role of women in food distribution; [[Frederick C. Beiser]], Professor of Philosophy, one of leading scholars of [[German idealism]]; [[Mary Karr]], the Jesse Truesdell Peck Professor of Literature, who has received a [[Guggenheim Fellowship]] in poetry; [[John Caputo]], the Thomas J. Watson Professor of Humanities, who founded [[Postmodern Christianity#Weak Theology|weak theology]]; [[Sean O'Keefe]], former chairman of [[Airbus Group, Inc.]] and former [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]; and political theorist [[Elizabeth F. Cohen]].

==Research==
[[File:Holden Observatory, Syracuse University.jpg|thumb|Holden Observatory, the second-oldest building at the university<ref name="holden"/><ref name="holden physics"/><ref name="holden moves slowly"/>|alt=]]Syracuse is [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education|classified]] among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity".<ref name="Carnegie_Classification" /> According to the [[National Science Foundation]], Syracuse spent $154.3 million on research and development in FY 2019, ranking it 136th in the nation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Higher education R&D expenditures at higher education institutions in both survey populations, ranked by all R&D expenditures, by source of funds: FY 2019 |url=https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf21314/assets/data-tables/tables/nsf21314-tab005.pdf |website=National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics |publisher=[[National Science Foundation]] |access-date=February 2, 2021 |archive-date=March 19, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319015903/https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf21314/assets/data-tables/tables/nsf21314-tab005.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Table 20. Higher education R&D expenditures, ranked by FY 2018 R&D expenditures: FYs 2009–18 |url=https://ncsesdata.nsf.gov/herd/2018/html/herd18-dt-tab020.html |website=ncsesdata.nsf.gov |publisher=[[National Science Foundation]] |access-date=July 30, 2020 |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930141919/https://ncsesdata.nsf.gov/herd/2018/html/herd18-dt-tab020.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Through the university's Office of Research, which promotes research, technology transfer, and scholarship, and its Office of Sponsored Programs, which assists faculty in seeking and obtaining external research support, SU supports research in the fields of management and business, sciences, engineering, education, information studies, energy, environment, communications, computer science, public and international affairs, and other specialized areas.<ref name="Syracuse University Research" /> Syracuse became a member of the [[Association of American Universities]] (AAU) in 1966, an organization of leading research universities devoted to maintaining a strong system of research and education.<ref name="Association of American Universities Member Institutions" /> In 2011, however, the university's board of trustees voted to pull out of the research consortium due to dispute over the counting of non-Federal research dollars.<ref name="selingo20110502" />

SU has established 29 research centers and institutes that focuses research, often across disciplines, in a variety of areas.<ref name="sucenter" /> The [[Burton Blatt Institute]] advances research in economic and social issues for individuals with disabilities, and it has international projects in the field.<ref name="Burton Blatt Institute: BBI Projects" /> [[Martin J. Whitman School of Management|The Martin J Whitman School of Management]] supports the largest number of research centers, including The Ballentine Investment Institute, the George E. Bennett Center for Accounting and Tax Research, the Robert H. Brethen Operations Management Institute, Michael J. Falcone Center for Entrepreneurship, The H. H. Franklin Center for Supply Chain Management, Olivia and Walter Kiebach Center for International Business Studies, and the Earl V. Snyder Innovation Management Program. In 2010, the university launched SURFACE, an online, open-access institutional repository for research, which is run by the Syracuse University Library System.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://surface.syr.edu/about.html|title=About Institutional Repositories – SURFACE: the Institutional repository for Syracuse University|website=surface.syr.edu|access-date=March 4, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305063408/https://surface.syr.edu/about.html|archive-date=March 5, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other research programs include The Syracuse Biomaterials Institute,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://biomaterials.syr.edu/|title=Syracuse Biomaterials Institute: Where Materials Matter|website=biomaterials.syr.edu|access-date=June 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521020430/http://biomaterials.syr.edu/|archive-date=May 21, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> the Alan K. Campbell Public Affairs Institute through the Maxwell School, the Center for the Study of Popular Television through the Newhouse School of Public Communications,<ref name="sucenter" /> and [[La Casita Cultural Center]]—a 2011 research program focused on [[cultural memory]], child development, and [[latino studies]].<ref>{{cite web |title=La Casita Embraces Culture, Engagement, Research and Community |url=https://www.syracuse.edu/stories/la-casita-embraces-culture-engagement-research-and-community/ |website=www.syracuse.edu |access-date=31 July 2025 |language=en |date=10 November 2023}}</ref>

Syracuse University also has collaborations with [[CERN]] and [[Fermilab]], among other institutes. Syracuse also has a comparatively large number of collaborators on the [[LIGO Scientific Collaboration]], which led to the [[first observation of gravitational waves]] in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://my.ligo.org/census.php|title=myLigo|website=my.ligo.org|access-date=June 4, 2017|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140505132832/https://my.ligo.org/census.php|archive-date=May 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gwg.syr.edu/|title=Gravitational Wave Group|website=gwg.syr.edu|access-date=June 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316184059/http://gwg.syr.edu/|archive-date=March 16, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.syr.edu/2016/02/gravitational-waves-detected-100-years-after-einsteins-prediction-38878/|title=Gravitational Waves Detected 100 Years after Einstein's Prediction|work=SU News|access-date=June 4, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806100825/https://news.syr.edu/2016/02/gravitational-waves-detected-100-years-after-einsteins-prediction-38878/|archive-date=August 6, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Center for Gravitational Wave Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
researches [[gravitational waves]] astronomy, designing of ''Cosmic Explorer'' next-gen observatory, development new [[quantum optics]] technologies and precision measurement to build new detectors.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Marshall |first1=Kerrie |title=Syracuse University Announces the Opening of the Center for Gravitational Wave Astronomy and Astrophysics |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2023/09/29/syracuse-university-announces-the-opening-of-the-center-for-gravitational-wave-astronomy-and-astrophysics/ |access-date=January 20, 2024 |work=Syracuse University News |date=September 29, 2023 |archive-date=December 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204235204/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2023/09/29/syracuse-university-announces-the-opening-of-the-center-for-gravitational-wave-astronomy-and-astrophysics/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bernardi |first1=Dan |title=Five NSF Grants Fund Syracuse University Researchers' Work with Cosmic Explorer |url=https://artsandsciences.syracuse.edu/news-all/news-2023/five-nsf-grants-fund-syracuse-university-researchers-work-with-cosmic-explorer/ |access-date=January 20, 2024 |work=[[Syracuse University College of Arts and Sciences]] |date=October 10, 2023 |language=en-us}}</ref>

In June 2022, Syracuse University announced the launch of the Center for Democracy, Journalism and Citizenship, a collaborative initiative between the [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications|Newhouse School]] and [[Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs|Maxwell School]], in Washington D.C.<ref name="New DC Center">{{cite news |last=McClellan |first=Katie |date=June 10, 2022 |title=SU announces D.C.-based Center for Democracy, Journalism and Citizenship |url=https://dailyorange.com/2022/06/syracuse-universtiy-center-democracy-journalism-citizenship/ |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |location=Syracuse, NY |access-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906230255/https://dailyorange.com/2022/06/syracuse-universtiy-center-democracy-journalism-citizenship/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The center aims to address the loss of trust in journalism and democracy, political polarization, and the deterioration of civil discourse.<ref name="New DC Center"/> It will host prominent speakers at public events, sponsor scholarly and applied research, and provide students with an opportunity to spend a semester in Washington D.C.<ref name="New DC Center2">{{cite news |last=Weiner |first=Mark |date=July 6, 2022 |title=Syracuse University will open D.C. center to promote civil debate, fight disinformation |url=https://www.syracuse.com/politics/2022/07/syracuse-university-will-open-dc-center-to-promote-civil-debate-fight-disinformation.html |work=[[The Post-Standard]] |location=Syracuse, NY |access-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906231104/https://www.syracuse.com/politics/2022/07/syracuse-university-will-open-dc-center-to-promote-civil-debate-fight-disinformation.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Syracuse University Press===
{{main|Syracuse University Press}}

Syracuse University Press has several areas of focus: Middle East studies, Native American studies, peace and conflict resolution, Irish studies and Jewish studies, New York State, television and popular culture, sports and entertainment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/publisher/syracuseup|website=JSTOR|title=Syracuse University Press|access-date=October 21, 2022|archive-date=October 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021123129/https://www.jstor.org/publisher/syracuseup|url-status=live}}</ref> The press was founded on August 2, 1943, by Chancellor [[William Pearson Tolley]] and benefactor [[Thomas J. Watson]].{{sfn|Greene|Baron|1996|p=98}} It is a member of the [[Association of American University Presses]].<ref name="AAUP press" />

==Student life==

{| class="wikitable floatright sortable collapsible"; text-align:right; font-size:80%;"
|+ style="font-size:90%" |Student body composition as of May 2, 2022
|-
! Race and ethnicity<ref>{{cite web|title=College Scorecard: Syracuse University|url=https://collegescorecard.ed.gov/school/?196413-Syracuse-University|publisher=[[United States Department of Education]]|access-date=May 8, 2022|archive-date=December 22, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222234029/https://collegescorecard.ed.gov/school/?196413-Syracuse-University|url-status=live}}</ref>
! colspan="2" data-sort-type=number |Total
|-
| [[Non-Hispanic whites|White]]
|align=right| {{bartable|55|%|2||background:gray}}
|-
| [[Foreign national]]
|align=right| {{bartable|14|%|2||background:orange}}
|-
| [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic]]
|align=right| {{bartable|10|%|2||background:green}}
|-
| [[African Americans|Black]]
|align=right| {{bartable|7|%|2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
| Other{{efn|Other consists of [[Multiracial Americans]] & those who prefer to not say.}}
|align=right| {{bartable|7|%|2||background:brown}}
|-
| [[Asian Americans|Asian]]
|align=right| {{bartable|7|%|2||background:purple}}
|-
| Native American
|align=right| {{bartable|1|%|2||background:gold}}
|-
! colspan="4" data-sort-type=number |[[Economic diversity]]
|-
| [[American lower class|Low-income]]{{efn|The percentage of students who received an income-based federal [[Pell grant]] intended for low-income students.}}
|align=right| {{bartable|14|%|2||background:red}}
|-
| [[Affluence in the United States|Affluent]]{{efn|The percentage of students who are a part of the [[American middle class]] at the bare minimum.}}
|align=right| {{bartable|86|%|2||background:black}}
|}

Syracuse University has a diverse student population, representing all 50 US states and over 127 countries.<ref name="facts"/> 52% of the 2020 class were women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.syr.edu/aboutsu/facts.html#16 |title=Syracuse University Facts-Student Demographics |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 19, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913010059/http://www.syr.edu/aboutsu/facts.html |archive-date=September 13, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Approximately 15 percent of students are from outside of the US, and are supported by the ''Center for International Services'' within the university's Division of Student Affairs.<ref name="Center for International Services" />

===Media===
[[File:CitrusTV controlroom.jpg|thumb|The CitrusTV control room during a taping of CitrusTV News]]

[[CitrusTV]] (formerly UUTV, HillTV and Synapse) is the university's entirely student-run television studio and one of the largest student-run TV studios in the country, with over 300 active members.<ref name="Citrus-members" />

There are also multiple student-run magazines and other print publications, including: ''The Onondagan Yearbook'' (defunct), ''The Daily Orange'', ''Student Voice'', ''Perception'', ''Jerk Magazine'', ''What the Health'', ''360'', ''Baked Magazine'', ''The Out Crowd'', and ''Equal Time''.<ref name="Ed2010" /> ''[[The Daily Orange]]'', a fully independent student newspaper published since 1903, is free and published daily during the Syracuse University academic year. It is often ranked among the best student newspapers in the United States.<ref name="facts"/><ref name="Daily Orange Awards"/>

[[WAER]], a radio station owned by the university, features jazz music, NPR, and Syracuse Orange play-by-play programming around the clock. It is best known for its sports staff, which has produced many prominent sportscasters. [[WJPZ-FM]] and [[WERW (student radio)|WERW]] are independent student-run radio stations and feature [[Contemporary hit radio|Top 40 (CHR)]], underground rock music, world music, folk music, occasional news, and some political or public affairs programs.

===Student government===
Founded in 1957, the Student Association (SA) represents the undergraduate students of both SU and ESF. SA elects a President and Vice President (on a unified ticket) each academic year. They also each year elect a Comptroller, who, with the assembly, oversees the allocation and designation of the Student Activity Fee that was first collected in the 1968–69 school year. The goals of SA are to participate through a unified student voice in the formulation of Syracuse University rules and regulations. The SA-SGA Alumni Organization maintains the history and an organizational timeline on its website.<ref name="Student Association" />

The graduate students at Syracuse University are represented by the Graduate Student Organization (GSO), while the law students at Syracuse University are represented by the Law Student Senate. Each of the three organizations elects students to serve in the Syracuse University Senate, which also includes faculty, staff, and administrators.<ref name="usenate bylaws" />

===Fraternities and sororities===
[[File:Pi Chapter House of Psi Upsilon Fraternity on Syracuse University campus.jpg|thumb|[[Pi Chapter House of Psi Upsilon Fraternity]]]]
{{Main|Syracuse University fraternity and sorority system}}

The Syracuse University [[Fraternities and sororities|fraternity]] and [[sorority]] system offers organizations that are members of the [[National Panhellenic Conference|Panhellenic Council]] (NPC), the [[North American Interfraternity Conference|Interfraternity Council]] (IFC), the [[National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations]], the [[National Multicultural Greek Council]], the Professional Fraternity Council (PFC), and the [[National Pan-Hellenic Council]] (NPHC). In addition to SU students, ESF students are permitted to join the university's fraternity and sorority system.

The oldest fraternity at SU is [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]], which established a chapter in 1871 soon after the founding of the university, followed by [[Psi Upsilon]] in 1875 and [[Phi Kappa Psi]] in 1884.<ref name="greekhistory" /> Sororities were also a part of the early history of SU. [[Alpha Phi]] was founded at SU in 1872, followed by [[Gamma Phi Beta]] in 1874 (''first organization to use the term "sorority"''),<ref name="Baird_Manual" /> and [[Alpha Gamma Delta]] in 1904. [[Alpha Phi Alpha]] established a chapter at SU in 1910 and was reorganized in 1949 and 1973. The first NPHC fraternity,<ref name="Alpha Phi Alpha — Delta Zeta Chapter — Syracuse University" /> [[Omega Psi Phi]], was established at SU in 1922, and the first NPHC sorority, [[Delta Sigma Theta]] in 1973.<ref name="greekhistory" /> [[Alpha Phi Delta]], the only historically Italian-American heritage fraternity, was founded at SU in 1914. University policy prohibits fraternities and sororities from discriminating "on the basis of race, creed, color, gender, national origin, religion, marital status, age, disability, sexual orientation, or status as a disabled veteran or a veteran of the Vietnam era."<ref name="Chapter Development Plan" />

===Syracuse University Ambulance===
Syracuse University Ambulance,<ref name="Ambulance home"/> commonly referred to as SUA, is a SU Health Services-based student organization that responds to over 1,500 medical emergencies each year. SUA was formed in 1973 by a group of students out of a need for emergency medical services on campus.<ref name="Ambulance 50 years"/> Starting with only a few members and meager equipment, the Syracuse University Medical Crisis Unit was formed. The organization has evolved greatly over time but, with 100 volunteer students, remains a student-run organization to this day. SUA provides emergency and non-emergency services 24 hours a day, seven days a week during the academic school year, and is funded by a portion of the student health fee.<ref name="Ambulance 50 years"/> Providing [[Life support|intermediate life support]] (ILS), rapid cardiac [[defibrillation]], emergency and non-emergency transportation, and special event standby services, SUA operates two full-time transporting ambulances, a supervisor's fly car, and a MCI trailer for [[mass-casualty incident]]s. Additionally, SUA operates four transport vans for non-emergency transports. [[Advanced life support]] (ALS) mutual aid is provided by the City of Syracuse's private [[Emergency medical services|EMS]] provider, American Medical Response (AMR).<ref name="Ambulance NewsHouse"/>

===Programming board===
University Union (UU) is the official programming board of the university, established in 1962.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.universityunion.syr.edu/|title=University Union|access-date=June 12, 2022|archive-date=April 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418011136/https://www.universityunion.syr.edu/|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is entirely run by a team of dedicated students and is one of the largest registered student organizations at SU in terms of budget, membership, size, and frequency of events. University Union hosts large-scale concert events including the annual Juice Jam festival in September and Block Party in April. Additionally, UU keeps the campus entertained throughout the year with the smaller Bandersnatch Concert Series, weekly cinemas screenings, special advanced screenings, and events featuring popular comedians and speakers.

The ''Goon Squad'' is a volunteer group whose student members welcome new students and their families at their residence halls during orientation. One of the oldest traditions at Syracuse, the group formed in 1944,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ramirez |first1=Clare |title=Goon Squad commemorates 70 years of Orange traditions |url=https://dailyorange.com/2014/08/goon-squad-commemorates-70-years-orange-traditions/ |access-date=31 July 2024 |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |date=20 August 2014 |archive-date=December 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203020116/https://dailyorange.com/2014/08/goon-squad-commemorates-70-years-orange-traditions/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Truong |first1=Debbie |title=Attitude adjustment: Goon Squad sheds authoritative reputation for more supportive role |url=https://dailyorange.com/2011/11/attitude-adjustment-goon-squad-sheds-authoritative-reputation-for-more-supportive-role/ |access-date=31 July 2024 |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |date=9 November 2011 |archive-date=January 24, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124184046/https://dailyorange.com/2011/11/attitude-adjustment-goon-squad-sheds-authoritative-reputation-for-more-supportive-role/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and is part of Syracuse's official welcoming committee.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Enslin |first1=Rob |title=Goon Squad Traditions Make Lasting Impact |url=https://www.syracuse.edu/stories/goon-squad-traditions/ |access-date=31 July 2024 |date=29 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

===Spiritual life===
{{main|Hendricks Chapel}}

Hendricks Chapel is an interfaith chapel located on the Quad, and serves as the spiritual center of Syracuse University.<ref name="hendricks_book" /><ref name="hendricks_chapel-1" /> The chapel is home to ten chaplaincies, including [[Baptists|Baptist]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical Christian]], [[Black church|Historically Black Churches]], [[Islam]]ic, Jewish, [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], [[Modern Paganism|Pagan]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], and [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]].<ref name="Chaplaincies" /> In addition, there are a number of student spiritual groups, including groups associated with the chaplaincies as well as [[Adventism|Adventist]], [[Christian Science]], [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]], [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Jainism|Jainist]], [[Latter Day Saint movement|Mormon]], [[Shinto]], [[Sikhism|Sikh]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christian]], [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]], [[Taoism|Taoist]], and more.<ref name="Chaplaincies-2" />

Additional buildings located on campus support specific spiritual groups, including the Alibrandi Catholic Center<ref name="Catholic" /> and the Winnick Hillel Center for Jewish Life.<ref name="hillel" /> Off campus, the Chabad House<ref name="Chabad House" /> and [[Islamic Society of Central New York|Islamic Society of CNY]] also support student spiritual life.

=== Campus food ===
[[File:Schine Student Center (Syracuse University) 01.jpg|alt=|thumb|The Schine Student Center]]
The university's five dining halls, thirteen cafes, and two food courts serve thousands of students every day. In 2022, ''[[The Daily Orange]]'' reported the per meal cost of the meal plan was $19.59.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 6, 2021 |title=Here's how SU's meal plan prices compare to other institutions |url=http://dailyorange.com/2021/10/syracuse-university-meal-plan-prices-compare-institutions/ |access-date=July 16, 2022 |website=The Daily Orange |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Ernie Davis]] dining hall was built in 2009. It has been recognized for its architecture<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arpeggio project selected for an AIA NY Design Award {{!}} Arpeggio |url=https://www.arpeggiollc.com/ernie-davis-hall-of-syracuse-university-selected-for-an-aia-ny-design-award/ |access-date=July 16, 2022 |website=www.arpeggiollc.com |archive-date=July 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716103402/https://www.arpeggiollc.com/ernie-davis-hall-of-syracuse-university-selected-for-an-aia-ny-design-award/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and named one of the best dining halls in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staub |first=Morgan |title=Colleges with the Best Dining Halls – College Raptor |url=https://www.collegeraptor.com/find-colleges/articles/college-comparisons/colleges-best-dining-halls/ |access-date=July 16, 2022 |website=College Raptor Blog |language=en-US}}</ref> Syracuse's food program is managed by the university rather than a third-party vendor. In 2022, ''Food Management'' reported the university had 6,844 students enrolled in its daily meal plans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 27, 2022 |title=Meet the 2022 College Power Players |url=https://www.food-management.com/colleges-universities/meet-2022-college-power-players |access-date=July 16, 2022 |website=Food Management |language=en}}</ref> In 2014, ''Food Management'' reported the university had 8,108 students enrolled in its daily meal plans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 30, 2014 |title=College Power Players: Syracuse |url=https://www.food-management.com/colleges-universities/college-power-players-syracuse |access-date=July 15, 2022 |website=Food Management |language=en |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715161545/https://www.food-management.com/colleges-universities/college-power-players-syracuse |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 2017, the university has received an A+ grade from [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals|PETA]] and been included on the organization's Dean's List of schools in the "vanguard" of [[vegan cuisine]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 2, 2020 |title=Syracuse University Food Services Receives A+ Score from PETA for Fourth Consecutive Year {{!}} Syracuse University News |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2020/01/02/syracuse-university-food-services-receives-a-score-from-peta-for-fourth-consecutive-year/ |access-date=July 16, 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=July 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716110119/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2020/01/02/syracuse-university-food-services-receives-a-score-from-peta-for-fourth-consecutive-year/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Montville |first=Kenneth |title=Check out Syracuse University's Vegan Report Card grade! |url=https://collegereportcard.peta.org/college/syracuse-university/ |access-date=July 16, 2022 |website=PETA's Vegan Report Card |language=en-us |archive-date=July 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716110353/https://collegereportcard.peta.org/college/syracuse-university/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Kimmel food court closed in 2021 after the Schine Student Center reopened after renovations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 17, 2021 |title=Move over Schine, students still upset over closure of Kimmel |url=http://dailyorange.com/2021/02/move-over-schine-students-still-upset-over-closure-of-kimmel/ |access-date=July 17, 2022 |website=The Daily Orange |language=en-US |archive-date=July 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717180004/https://dailyorange.com/2021/02/move-over-schine-students-still-upset-over-closure-of-kimmel/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

A student-run chapter of the [[Food Recovery Network]] donates about 70 pounds of leftover food each day to food banks. During the fall 2021 semester, the program donated more than 5,000 pounds of food. However, a 2022 ''[[The Daily Orange|Daily Orange]]'' report found more than 230 pounds of food still goes to waste each day.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 6, 2022 |title=SU dining halls are wasting food. It needs to stop. |url=http://dailyorange.com/2022/04/syracuse-university-dining-halls-are-wasting-food-it-needs-to-stop/ |access-date=July 16, 2022 |website=The Daily Orange |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2010, the dining halls began collecting food waste to be turned into compost with the Onondaga County Resource Recovery Agency.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 14, 2010 |title=Food Services collects 30 tons of waste for composting |url=http://dailyorange.com/2010/09/food-services-collects-30-tons-of-waste-for-composting/ |access-date=July 17, 2022 |website=The Daily Orange |language=en-US}}</ref> Two student-run food pantries operate on campus, one in [[Hendricks Chapel]] and one on South Campus. The pantries are supplemented by a garden that produced 450 pounds of fresh produce in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 16, 2021 |title=Syracuse University addresses food insecurity on campus |url=https://www.localsyr.com/news/local-news/syracuse-university-addresses-food-insecurity-on-campus/ |access-date=July 17, 2022 |website=WSYR |language=en-US |archive-date=July 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717170443/https://www.localsyr.com/news/local-news/syracuse-university-addresses-food-insecurity-on-campus/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Journalist and alumna [[Avery Yale Kamila]] reported the dining halls stopped serving [[veal]] in 1991, following student protests, and at the time served soy milk, veggie burgers, and vegan casseroles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kamila |first=Avery Yale |date=September 5, 2021 |title=Vegan Kitchen: The making of a vegan |url=https://www.pressherald.com/2021/09/05/vegan-kitchen-the-making-of-a-vegan/ |access-date=July 17, 2022 |website=Press Herald}}</ref> Alumnus and former basketball player Matt Roe, who played for the Orange in 1986–1989, told ''[[The Athletic]]'' in 2020 when asked about Syracuse food memories that "Everything on campus was good. Sometimes Shaw Dining Hall was decent."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gutierrez |first=Matthew |title=The Syracuse alumni poll: Best memories, note to self, favorite food in town |url=https://www.nytimes.com/athletic/1759983/2020/04/22/the-syracuse-alumni-poll-best-memories-note-to-self-favorite-food-in-town/ |access-date=July 17, 2022 |website=The Athletic |language=en}}</ref>

==Athletics==
{{main|Syracuse Orange}}

=== Syracuse Orange ===
[[File:Syracuse Orange logo.svg|left|175x175px|alt=|frameless]]
[[File:Carrier Dome.JPG|thumb|Basketball game in the [[JMA Wireless Dome|JMA Dome]]]]

Syracuse University's sports teams have had "the Orange" nickname since 2004, although the former names of Orangemen and Orangewomen are still sometimes used. The school's mascot is [[Otto the Orange]]. SU fields intercollegiate teams in eight men's sports and 12 women's sports. The [[Syracuse Orange men's basketball|men's]] and [[Syracuse Orange women's basketball|women's basketball]] teams, the [[Syracuse Orange football|football team]], and both the [[Syracuse Orange men's lacrosse|men's]] and [[Syracuse Orange women's lacrosse|women's lacrosse]] teams play in the [[JMA Wireless Dome|JMA Dome]], formerly known as the Carrier Dome. Other sports are located at the nearby [[Manley Field House]], except ice hockey which takes place in the [[Tennity Ice Skating Pavilion]]. Most of Syracuse University's intercollegiate teams participate in [[NCAA Division I]] in the [[Atlantic Coast Conference]] since 2013.<ref name="ACC" /> The [[Syracuse Orange women's ice hockey]] team participates in [[College Hockey America]].

[[File:Syracuse Football 2005 Opener.jpg|thumb|[[Syracuse Orange football|Syracuse football]] opener in [[JMA Wireless Dome|JMA Dome]]|alt=]]
[[File:Syracuse-university 1910 varsity-crew.jpg|thumb|Syracuse University rowing crew, 1910 on [[Onondaga Lake]]|alt=]]

SU has reached 31 team national championships, including 14 for men's lacrosse, six for men's rowing, five for women's rowing, two [[cross country running]], and one each in [[boxing]], [[College football|football]], women's lacrosse, and women's field hockey.<ref name="SU Athletics National Championships" /> Syracuse student-athletes in individual sports have won 49 national titles.<ref name="SU Athletics National Championships" /> Under long-time the Hall of Fame head coach [[Jim Boeheim]], [[Syracuse Orange men's basketball|men's basketball team]] won seven [[Big East Conference (1979–2013)|Big East]] regular-season championships, five [[Big East men's basketball tournament|Big East tournament]] championships, and 35 [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship|NCAA tournament]] appearances, including the [[2003 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament|2003 NCAA championship]]. The men's basketball team holds the largest on-campus attendance record of 35,642 attendees. The record was set in the [[JMA Wireless Dome|JMA Dome]] playing [[Duke University|Duke]] on Saturday, February 23, 2019.

In 1959, Syracuse earned its first [[NCAA Division I-A national football champions|National Championship]] following an undefeated football season and a Cotton Bowl victory over [[University of Texas at Austin|Texas]]. The team featured sophomore running back [[Ernie Davis]] who, in 1961, became the first African-American to win the [[Heisman Trophy]]. Davis was slated to play for the [[Cleveland Browns]] in the same backfield as [[Jim Brown]], but died of [[leukemia]] before being able to play professionally.<ref name="cityofelmira" />

Syracuse played its first intercollegiate lacrosse game in 1916, and captured its first USILA championship in 1920.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://usila.org/sports/2015/10/27/GEN_1027151106.aspx|title=National Champions|website=usila.org|access-date=May 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529151657/https://usila.org/sports/2015/10/27/GEN_1027151106.aspx|archive-date=May 29, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> It won USILA championships in 1922, 1924, and 1925. In the modern NCAA era, Syracuse is the first school to capture 11 National Championships, the [[NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship all-time team records|most of any team in college lacrosse]] history. Most recently, Syracuse reached the men's Division I championship game in 2013 after winning two championships in [[2008 NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship|2008]] & [[2009 NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship|2009 seasons]] and reaching the quarterfinals in 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncaa.com/history/lacrosse-men/d1|title=DI Men's Lacrosse Championship History: NCAA.com|website=www.ncaa.com|access-date=May 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506002958/https://www.ncaa.com/history/lacrosse-men/d1|archive-date=May 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://bleacherreport.com/articles/183701-miracle-on-grasssyracuse-defeats-cornell-in-ot-10-9-for-championship|title=Miracle On Grass:Syracuse Defeats Cornell In OT 10–9 For Championship|last=Boaz|first=Calvin W.|website=[[Bleacher Report]] |language=en|access-date=January 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529085142/http://bleacherreport.com/articles/183701-miracle-on-grasssyracuse-defeats-cornell-in-ot-10-9-for-championship|archive-date=May 29, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> The women's lacrosse team reached the NCAA Division I National Championship game for the first time in school history in [[2012 NCAA Division I Women's Lacrosse Championship|2012]], which they lost to Northwestern.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/ct-xpm-2012-05-27-ct-spt-0528-northwestern-lacrosse-20120528-story.html|title=Northwestern does it again |last=Hersh |first=Philip |work=[[Chicago Tribune]] |date=May 27, 2012 |language=en-US|access-date=January 19, 2020|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104409/https://www.chicagotribune.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Syracuse University rowing crew is a full member of the [[Intercollegiate Rowing Association]] (IRA). The IRA governs [[College rowing (United States)|intercollegiate rowing]] between [[Varsity team|varsity]] rowing programs across the United States. Syracuse was added as "full" members of the association briefly after its founding in 1894. Syracuse crew also participates in the [[Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges]]. In 1997, the [[Syracuse Orange women's rowing|Syracuse Women's Rowing]] team qualified for the inaugural [[NCAA Division I Rowing Championship]] in [[Rancho Cordova, California]], finishing as the 12th ranked crew in the country. The women's rowing team competes in two conferences, both the [[Atlantic Coast Conference]] as well as the prestigious [[Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges]], and formerly the [[Big East Conference]].

Syracuse University hosted the 2019 [[United States Intercollegiate Boxing Association]] national championship tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webpoint.usaboxing.org/wp15/Events2/ViewEvt.wp?EventID=22697|title=2019 USIBA National Championship|website=USA Boxing|access-date=September 14, 2019|archive-date=August 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807164848/https://webpoint.usaboxing.org/wp15/Events2/ViewEvt.wp?EventID=22697|url-status=live}}</ref>[[File:Syracuse lacrosse at the WH.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Syracuse Orange men's lacrosse|Syracuse University men's lacrosse team]] are honored at the [[White House]] by President of the United States [[George W. Bush]] for winning the [[2008 NCAA Division I Men's Lacrosse Championship|2008 NCAA Division I national championship]].|alt=]]

=== JMA Dome ===
{{Main|JMA Wireless Dome}}

Toward the end of the 1970s, Syracuse University was under pressure to improve its football facilities to remain an NCAA Division I football school. Its small concrete stadium, [[Archbold Stadium]], was seventy years old and not up to the standards of other schools. The stadium could not be expanded; it had been reduced from 40,000 seats to 26,000 due to the fire codes. Syracuse University decided to build a new stadium. In 1978, Archbold Stadium was demolished to make way for the [[Carrier Dome]], which was named after [[Carrier Global Corporation]] following a $2.75 million gift and would have a domed [[Teflon]]-coated, [[fiberglass]] [[air-supported structure|inflatable roof]].<ref name="Dome"/> It would also serve as the home for the men's basketball team, as a replacement for Manley Field House. The Carrier Dome was constructed between April 1979 and September 1980.{{sfn|Greene|Baron|Hall|Sharp|1998}}<ref name="Dome">{{Cite news |date=March 11, 2014|title=Deja vu: Four decades ago, Syracuse community fought over plans to build an SU stadium |url=https://www.syracuse.com/news/2014/03/deja_vu_four_decades_ago_syracuse_community_fought_over_plans_to_build_an_su_sta.html |access-date=January 19, 2020|work=[[syracuse.com]] |language=en|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104422/https://www.syracuse.com/news/2014/03/deja_vu_four_decades_ago_syracuse_community_fought_over_plans_to_build_an_su_sta.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Syracuse Stadium new roof.jpg|thumb|[[JMA Wireless Dome|JMA Dome]], campus view]]

In May 2018, the university announced a major renovation to the Carrier Dome as the central portion of a larger campus update. The renovation, estimated to cost $120 million, was completed in 2022. The most significant changes are the replacement of the current air-supported roof with a fixed roof, two-thirds of which will be translucent, the installation of air conditioning and the largest center-hung video board in college sports. The upgrade also included new lighting and sound systems, [[Wi-Fi]] improvements, [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990|accessibility]] upgrades, improved restrooms, and new concession spaces.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Syracuse University Announces $118 Million Investment to Create a New Stadium Experience – Syracuse University Athletics|url=https://cuse.com/news/2018/5/14/general-syracuse-university-announces-118-million-investment-to-create-a-new-dome-experience.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925104224/https://cuse.com/news/2018/5/14/general-syracuse-university-announces-118-million-investment-to-create-a-new-dome-experience.aspx|archive-date=September 25, 2018|access-date=September 25, 2018|website=Syracuse University Athletics}}</ref> The university announced the next phase of its work towards enhanced stadium experience, which will include complete replacement of benches with individual seats; a construction of an event facility adjacent to the Dome; and an upgrade of the entire wireless infrastructure. This phase two work will begin in spring 2023 following Commencement and will be completed ahead of the 2024 football season.<ref>{{Cite news |date=April 20, 2022 |title=Syracuse University to Rename On-Campus Stadium, Readies Next Phase of Transformation |work=Syracuse University News |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2022/04/20/syracuse-university-to-rename-on-campus-stadium-readies-next-phase-of-transformation/ |access-date=May 19, 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=May 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519170053/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2022/04/20/syracuse-university-to-rename-on-campus-stadium-readies-next-phase-of-transformation/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Transformation of JMA Wireless Dome Continues, University Readies Installation of New Seats, Other Enhancements |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2022/12/08/transformation-of-jma-wireless-dome-continues-university-readies-installation-of-new-seats-other-enhancements/ |access-date=December 19, 2022 |work=[[Syracuse University News]] |date=December 8, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Carlson |first1=Chris |title=What's the new building going up next to the Carrier Dome? A pregame fan lounge to thin out crowded concourses |url=https://www.syracuse.com/orangesports/2022/05/whats-the-new-building-going-up-next-to-the-carrier-dome-a-pregame-fan-lounge-to-thin-out-crowded-concourses.html |access-date=December 19, 2022 |work=[[syracuse.com]] |date=May 2, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=December 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221218232411/https://www.syracuse.com/orangesports/2022/05/whats-the-new-building-going-up-next-to-the-carrier-dome-a-pregame-fan-lounge-to-thin-out-crowded-concourses.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In May 2022, Syracuse University and [[JMA Wireless]] inked a 10-year naming rights deal to rename the Carrier Dome as the [[JMA Wireless Dome]], referred to as the JMA Dome.<ref>{{Cite press release |date=May 19, 2022 |title=Syracuse University, JMA Wireless Announce Naming Rights Partnership, Usher in the JMA Wireless Dome Era |work=Syracuse University News |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2022/05/19/syracuse-university-jma-wireless-announce-naming-rights-partnership-usher-in-the-jma-wireless-dome-era/ |access-date=May 19, 2022 |language=en-US |archive-date=May 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519170058/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2022/05/19/syracuse-university-jma-wireless-announce-naming-rights-partnership-usher-in-the-jma-wireless-dome-era/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This is only the second name for the venue since it opened in 1980.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bye-bye Carrier, hello JMA Wireless; Syracuse dome renamed |url=https://apnews.com/article/sports-syracuse-university-949906458f3e5af8f8953c75803713c6 |access-date=May 19, 2022 |work=[[AP News]] |date=May 19, 2022 |language=en |archive-date=May 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519200329/https://apnews.com/article/sports-syracuse-university-949906458f3e5af8f8953c75803713c6 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Alumni==
{{main list|List of Syracuse University people#Notable alumni
}}<gallery perrow="7" class="center">
File:Joe Biden presidential portrait (cropped).jpg|[[Joe Biden]], 46th president of the United States
File:Kathy Hochul, November 2017.jpeg|[[Kathy Hochul]], 57th [[governor of New York]]
File:Donna Shalala, official portrait, 116th Congress.jpg|[[Donna Shalala]], politician and academic
File:Aaron Sorkin (27566400913).jpg|[[Aaron Sorkin]], playwright and screenwriter
File:Commander Eileen Collins - GPN-2000-001177.jpg|[[Eileen Collins]], first female [[Space Shuttle]] pilot and commander
File:Carmelo Anthony - 51958670372 (cropped).jpg|[[Carmelo Anthony]], basketball player
File:Bob Costas Visit to Moody College (40016210250) (cropped).jpg|[[Bob Costas]], sportscaster

</gallery>

Syracuse University has over 260,000 alumni representing all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and more than 171 countries and territories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Syracuse University Facts, Figures & Rankings|url=https://www.syracuse.edu/about/facts-figures-rankings/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803012610/https://www.syracuse.edu/about/facts-figures-rankings/|archive-date=August 3, 2021|access-date=August 7, 2021|website=syr.edu}}</ref> Among the individuals who have attended or graduated from Syracuse University include writers [[George Saunders]], [[Stephen Crane]], [[Joyce Carol Oates]], [[John D. MacDonald]], [[Cheryl Strayed]], [[Shirley Jackson]], [[Barry N. Malzberg]], and [[Alice Sebold]]; [[William Safire]], [[Pulitzer Prize]] winning commentator; [[Pierre Ramond]], string theorist; Cambridge University historian Sir [[Moses I. Finley]]; [[John Stanley (politician born 1942)|Sir John Stanley]], British Member of Parliament; [[Salvador del Solar]], former prime minister of [[Peru]]; [[Arthur Rock]], legendary venture capitalist and cofounder of Intel; [[Vishal Sikka]], Former CEO and MD of [[Infosys]]; [[Donna Shalala]], CEO of the [[Clinton Foundation]]; [[Joe Biden]], 46th President of the United States; [[Kathy Hochul]], 57th [[Governor of New York]]; [[Robert Jarvik]], inventor of the first [[artificial heart]] implanted into human beings; [[Eileen Collins]], first female commander of a [[Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle]]; Prince [[Sultan bin Salman]], first Arab, first Muslim and the youngest person to travel to space; [[Robert Menschel]], partner/director at [[Goldman Sachs]]; [[Samuel Irving Newhouse Jr.]], owner of [[Conde Nast]] publications; [[Lowell Paxson]], founder of [[Home Shopping Network]]; [[Betsey Johnson]] fashion designer; lawyer [[David P. Weber]]; and Prince [[Al-Waleed bin Talal]]. [[Emily C. Gorman]], former director of the United States [[Women's Army Corps]], completed her graduate studies at Syracuse.

Alumni in journalism and broadcasting include [[Ted Koppel]], [[Megyn Kelly]], [[Michael Barkann]], [[Bob Costas]], [[Marv Albert]], [[Len Berman]], [[Marc S. Ellenbogen]], [[Marty Glickman]], [[Dorothy Thompson]], [[Beth Mowins]], [[Dave Pasch]], [[Sean McDonough]], [[Ian Eagle]], [[Dave O'Brien (sportscaster)|Dave O'Brien]], [[Dick Stockton]], [[Arun Shourie]], [[Mike Tirico]], [[Brian Higgins (sportscaster)|Brian Higgins]], [[Adam Zucker]], [[Lakshmi Singh]], [[Larry Hryb]] (of [[Microsoft]]), [[Steve Kroft]] of ''[[60 Minutes]]'', Pulitzer Prize winner [[Eugene Payne]] and [[Adam Schein]] of [[Mad Dog Sports Radio]], Vietnam war historian and correspondent [[Bernard Fall]], national political columnist [[Roscoe Drummond]], CBS News anchor [[Jeff Glor]], and Nepalese columnist and TV personality [[Vijay Kumar Pandey]].

Notable SU alumni in the performing arts and art include [[Dick Clark]], [[Taye Diggs]], [[Rob Edwards (screenwriter)|Rob Edwards]], [[Peter Falk]], [[Vera Farmiga]], [[Peter Guber]], [[Peter Hyams]], [[Frank Langella]], [[Jessie Mueller]], [[Aribert Munzner]], [[Lou Reed]], [[Tom Everett Scott]], [[Aaron Sorkin]], [[Jerry Stiller]], [[Lexington Steele]], [[Bill Viola]], [[Vanessa Williams]], [[Pete Yorn]], [[Susan Sensemann]], [[Clairo]], and Hong Kong Cantopop singer [[Priscilla Chan (singer)|Priscilla Chan]].

Prominent athletes include [[Kathrine Switzer]], the first woman to officially run the Boston Marathon, [[Jim Brown]], actor and NFL Hall of Famer with the [[Cleveland Browns]]; [[Ernie Davis]], the first African-American Heisman Trophy winner; [[Donovan McNabb]], former [[NFL]] quarterback; former [[Indianapolis Colts]] wide receiver [[Marvin Harrison]]; [[Dwight Freeney]], [[defensive end]] for the [[San Diego Chargers]]; [[Larry Csonka]], former [[Miami Dolphins]] running back, Pro Football Hall of Famer and television host, [[Carmelo Anthony]], forward for Syracuse's NCAA men's basketball championship squad and NBA veteran; NBA forward [[Jerami Grant]]; 2013–2014 NBA Rookie of the Year [[Michael Carter-Williams]]; 7-time NBA All Star, pro basketball Hall of Famer and former Mayor of Detroit [[Dave Bing]]; [[Tim Green]], former [[Atlanta Falcons]] player, author, lawyer, and [[National Public Radio]] commentator; [[Darryl Johnston]], three-time [[Super Bowl]] winner with the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the 1990s; [[Mikey Powell]], who formerly played lacrosse for the [[Boston Cannons]]; [[Floyd Little]], who played for the [[Denver Broncos]]; [[Kyle Johnson (American football)|Kyle Johnson]], who played the majority of his NFL career with the [[Denver Broncos]]; [[John Mackey (American football)|John Mackey]] a member of the NFL Hall of Fame played for the [[History of the Baltimore Colts|Baltimore Colts]] (1963–71); and [[Tom Coughlin]], former [[New York Giants|New York Giants head coach]] and executive VP of football operation at [[Jacksonville Jaguars]].

==Affiliations==
===Affiliated institutions===
====State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry====
{{Main|State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry}}

The College of Environmental Science and Forestry (ESF) has a long affiliation with Syracuse University, shares many campus resources, and operates its main academic campus immediately adjacent to Syracuse University. ESF was founded in 1911 as the [[History of the New York State College of Forestry|New York State College of Forestry]] at Syracuse University, under the leadership of Syracuse University Trustee [[Louis Marshall]], with the active support of Syracuse University Chancellor Day. Its founding followed the Governor's veto of annual appropriations to a separate [[New York State College of Forestry at Cornell]].<ref name="agriculture" />

ESF is an autonomous institution, administratively separate from SU, while resources, facilities, and some infrastructure are shared. The two schools share a common Schedule of Classes; students at both institutions may take courses at the other, and degrees from ESF bear the Syracuse University seal along with the State University of New York. A number of concurrent degree programs and certificates are offered between the schools, as well. The college receives an annual appropriation as part of the SUNY budget, and the state builds and maintains all of the college's educational facilities. The state has similar relationships with five [[statutory college]]s that are at [[Alfred University]] and [[Cornell University]].

ESF faculty, students, and students' families join those from SU to take part in a joint convocation ceremony at the beginning of the academic year in August and joint commencement exercises in May. ESF and SU students share access to libraries, recreational facilities, student clubs, and other activities at both institutions, except for the schools' intercollegiate sports teams, affiliated with the NCAA and [[United States Collegiate Athletic Association|USCAA]], respectively. First-year ESF students live in Centennial Hall on ESF's campus.<ref name="The ESF-SU Relationship" />

====State University of New York Upstate Medical University====
{{main|State University of New York Upstate Medical University}}

The medical school was formerly a college within SU, known as the Syracuse University Medical School. In 1950, SU sold the medical school to the [[State University of New York]] system.<ref name="medical school sold" /> The campuses of the two universities are adjacent to each other on [[University Hill, Syracuse|University Hill]] in Syracuse. The universities jointly offer a [[Master of Public Health]], a PhD program in [[biomedical engineering]], and M.D./MBA degree program.<ref name="SUNY Upstate MPH"/><ref name="SUNY Upstate MD-MBA"/>

===Formerly affiliated institutions===
====State University of New York at Binghamton====
{{main|Binghamton University}}

Binghamton University was established in 1946 as Triple Cities College, to serve the needs of local veterans of the [[Binghamton, New York]] area, who were returning from [[World War II]]. Established in [[Endicott, New York]], the college was a branch of Syracuse University. Triple Cities College offered local students the first two years of their education, while the following two were spent at Syracuse University. In 1946, students could earn their degrees entirely at the Binghamton campus. In 1950, it was absorbed by the [[State University of New York]] and renamed Harpur College.<ref name="About: History" />

====Utica University====
{{main|Utica University}}

[[Utica University]], an independent private university located in [[Utica, New York]], was founded by Syracuse University in 1946. Utica University became independent from Syracuse in 1995 but still offers its students the option to receive a specialized bachelor's degree from Syracuse University through a mutual relationship between the two schools.<ref name="Fast Facts" />

==See also==
{{Portal|New York (state)}}
* [[Feiner v. New York]]
* [[Say Yes to Education]]
* [[Syracuse University Alma Mater]]
* [[Syracuse, New York in fiction|Syracuse University in pop culture]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="A&S-150">{{cite news |last1=Bernardi |first1=Dan |title=Celebrating 150 Years of Intellectual Fearlessness in the College of Arts and Sciences |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2020/09/01/celebrating-150-years-of-intellectual-fearlessness-in-the-college-of-arts-and-sciences/ |access-date=September 1, 2020 |work=SU News |date=September 1, 2020 |archive-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903135045/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2020/09/01/celebrating-150-years-of-intellectual-fearlessness-in-the-college-of-arts-and-sciences/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="AAUP press">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aupresses.org/aaup-members/membership-list#s|title=Member Presses|website=aupresses.org|access-date=May 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601051223/http://www.aupresses.org/aaup-members/membership-list#s|archive-date=June 1, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="About: History">{{cite web|url=http://www2.binghamton.edu/about/history.html|title=About: History|publisher=SUNY Binghamton|access-date=December 25, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711094734/http://www2.binghamton.edu/about/history.html|archive-date=July 11, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="ACC">{{cite web|url=http://www.theacc.com/genrel/091811aaa.html|title=ACC Extends Formal Invitations for Membership to Pittsburgh and Syracuse|publisher=Atlantic Coast Conference|access-date=September 18, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011140140/http://www.theacc.com/genrel/091811aaa.html|archive-date=October 11, 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="admission_tours">{{Cite web|url=https://www.syracuse.edu/admissions/visit-tour/in-your-area/|title=Syracuse in Your Area – Syracuse University|website=syracuse.edu|access-date=May 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804105930/https://www.syracuse.edu/admissions/visit-tour/in-your-area/|archive-date=August 4, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="advance study ischool">{{Cite web|url=https://ischoolonline.syr.edu/academics/certificates-advanced-study/|title=Certificates of Advanced Study {{!}} iSchool@Syracuse|website=ischoolonline.syr.edu|language=en|access-date=January 31, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223220037/https://ischoolonline.syr.edu/academics/certificates-advanced-study/|archive-date=December 23, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="advance study maxwell">{{Cite web|url=https://www.maxwell.syr.edu/paia/midcareer/certificates/|title=Certificates of Advanced Study {{!}} Maxwell School|date=August 11, 2018|website=The Maxwell School of Syracuse University|language=en|access-date=January 31, 2020|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104333/https://www.maxwell.syr.edu/paia/midcareer/certificates/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="advance study education">{{Cite web|url=https://soe.syr.edu/admissions/graduate/cas/|title=Certificates of Advanced Study {{!}} Syracuse University School of Education|date=July 17, 2018|language=en-US|access-date=January 31, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131133110/https://soe.syr.edu/admissions/graduate/cas/|archive-date=January 31, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="agriculture">Education & Agriculture, A History of the NYS College of Agriculture at Cornell University, 1963, by Gould P. Colman, page 161, Cornell University Press</ref>
<ref name="ALA_holdings">{{cite web |title=The Nation's Largest Libraries: A Listing By Volumes Held |url=http://www.ala.org/tools/libfactsheets/alalibraryfactsheet22 |website=Tools, Publications & Resources |publisher=American Library Association |access-date=May 12, 2020 |language=en |date=October 2012 |archive-date=October 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025034945/http://www.ala.org/tools/libfactsheets/alalibraryfactsheet22 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Alpha Phi Alpha — Delta Zeta Chapter — Syracuse University">{{cite web|url=http://students.syr.edu/apa/|title=Alpha Phi Alpha – Delta Zeta Chapter – Syracuse University|access-date=April 2, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717030556/http://students.syr.edu/apa/|archive-date=July 17, 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="Ambulance 50 years">{{cite news |last1=Homan Rodoski |first1=Kelly |title=Syracuse University Ambulance Marks 50 Years of Service to Campus Community and Imparting Lifelong Lessons to Its Members |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2023/05/11/syracuse-university-ambulance-marks-50-years-of-service-to-campus-community-and-imparting-lifelong-lessons-to-its-members/ |access-date=May 12, 2023 |work=[[Syracuse University News]] |date=May 11, 2023 |archive-date=May 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512122348/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2023/05/11/syracuse-university-ambulance-marks-50-years-of-service-to-campus-community-and-imparting-lifelong-lessons-to-its-members/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Ambulance home">{{cite web|url=http://sua.syr.edu/|title=Syracuse University Ambulance|website=sua.syr.edu|access-date=December 29, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230232253/http://sua.syr.edu/|archive-date=December 30, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Ambulance NewsHouse">{{cite news |last1=Cunnin |first1=J.F. |title=Behind the scenes: Syracuse University Ambulance |url=https://www.thenewshouse.com/nharchive/behind-the-scenes-syracuse-university-ambulance/ |access-date=May 12, 2023 |work=[[The NewsHouse]] |date=May 13, 2020 |archive-date=May 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512135437/https://www.thenewshouse.com/nharchive/behind-the-scenes-syracuse-university-ambulance/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Archbold_Gym">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/archbold.html|title=University Archives: Syracuse University Libraries|website=library.syr.edu|access-date=September 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924224852/https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.syr.edu%2Fbuildings%2Farchbold.html|archive-date=September 24, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="archbold_Consolidated">{{cite book |title=Syracuse University Stadium |date=1907 |publisher=Consolidated Engineering & Construction Company |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-1010728788 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1ZDAAAAYAAJ |access-date=30 January 2023}} * {{Internet Archive|id=cu31924015587250|name=Syracuse University stadium |page=|url-access=registration|at=no}}</ref>
<ref name="art_Lowe">{{cite web|url=http://www.syracusearts.net/dir/Lowe-Art-Gallery/|title=Lowe Art Gallery: Syracuse Arts Directory|access-date=August 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924112605/http://www.syracusearts.net/dir/Lowe-Art-Gallery/|archive-date=September 24, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="art_museum">{{cite news |title=Syracuse University Art Galleries Now Known as Syracuse University Art Museum |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2020/05/29/syracuse-university-art-galleries-now-known-as-syracuse-university-art-museum/ |access-date=June 1, 2020 |work=SU News |date=May 29, 2020 |archive-date=June 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618002023/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2020/05/29/syracuse-university-art-galleries-now-known-as-syracuse-university-art-museum/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="art_museum Brairton">{{cite news |last1=Brairton |first1=Betsey A. |title=Art for a Changing World |url=https://www.syracuse.edu/stories/art-museum-virtual-programming/ |access-date=January 29, 2023 |work=Syracuse University |date=October 20, 2020 |language=en |archive-date=January 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129045820/https://www.syracuse.edu/stories/art-museum-virtual-programming/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="art_Palitz">{{Cite web|url=http://lubinhouse.syr.edu/palitzgallery/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320185011/http://lubinhouse.syr.edu/palitzgallery/|url-status=dead|title=Lubinhouse.syr.edu|archive-date=March 20, 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="art_schine">{{cite web|url=http://scps.syr.edu/schine-student-center/galleries.html|title=Galleries|access-date=August 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722003309/http://scps.syr.edu/schine-student-center/galleries.html|archive-date=July 22, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="art_Warehouse">{{cite web|url=http://thewarehousegallery.syr.edu/about.html |title=The Warehouse Gallery |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320185407/http://thewarehousegallery.syr.edu/about.html |archive-date=March 20, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Association of American Universities Member Institutions">{{cite web|url=http://www.aau.edu/about/article.aspx?id=5476|title=Association of American Universities Member Institutions|website=aau.com|access-date=September 24, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521132512/http://www.aau.edu/about/article.aspx?id=5476|archive-date=May 21, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Baird_Manual">{{Bairds20|page=III-32}}</ref>
<ref name="belfer1">{{cite web |title=Belfer Audio Laboratory and Archive |url=https://library.syracuse.edu/spaces/belfer-audio-laboratory-and-archive |website=library.syracuse.edu |publisher=Syracuse University Libraries |access-date=January 17, 2024 |location=Syracuse, NY |language=en |archive-date=March 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315112531/https://library.syracuse.edu/spaces/belfer-audio-laboratory-and-archive/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="belfer2">{{cite web |last1=Hoehl |first1=David |title=A Visit to the Belfer Audio Laboratory at Syracuse University |url=https://www.tnt-audio.com/vintage/syracuse_e.html |website=www.tnt-audio.com |issn=1825-4853 |publisher=TNT Audio USA |access-date=May 12, 2020 |language=en |date=May 2019 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807200544/https://www.tnt-audio.com/vintage/syracuse_e.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Best Places to Live-Syracuse, NY">{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/magazines/moneymag/bplive/2008/snapshots/PL3673000.html |title=Best Places to Live-Syracuse, NY |date=August 2008 |publisher=CNNMoney |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123060735/http://money.cnn.com/magazines/moneymag/bplive/2008/snapshots/PL3673000.html |archive-date=January 23, 2009 |access-date=January 6, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Bird library greene">{{cite journal |last1=Greene |first1=John Robert |last2=Baron |first2=Karrie |author1-link=John Robert Greene |title=The Planning and Funding of the E. S. Bird Library |journal=The Courier |date=January 1, 1995 |volume=30 |pages=135–146 |url=https://surface.syr.edu/libassoc/324/ |access-date=May 8, 2023 |publisher=Syracuse University Libraries |archive-date=May 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508194018/https://surface.syr.edu/libassoc/324/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Bird library history">{{cite web |title=History of Bird Library |url=https://library.syracuse.edu/special-collections-research-center/university-archives/buildings/bird-library/ |website=Syracuse University Libraries |access-date=May 8, 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
<ref name="bowne_hall">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/bowne.html|title=University Archives {{!}} Syracuse University Libraries|website=library.syr.edu|access-date=September 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924224926/https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.syr.edu%2Fbuildings%2Fbowne.html|archive-date=September 24, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="budget 2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.syracuse.com/syracuse-university/2019/11/syracuse-universitys-goals-raise-15-billion-and-its-academic-profile.html |title=Syracuse University's goals: Raise $1.5 billion and its academic profile |publisher=Syracuse.com |year=2019 |access-date=November 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109224653/https://www.syracuse.com/syracuse-university/2019/11/syracuse-universitys-goals-raise-15-billion-and-its-academic-profile.html |archive-date=November 9, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Burton Blatt Institute: BBI Projects">{{cite web|url=http://bbi.syr.edu/projects/|title=Burton Blatt Institute: BBI Projects|publisher=Burton Blatt Institute|access-date=September 24, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208113239/http://bbi.syr.edu/projects/|archive-date=December 8, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="bylaws">{{cite web|url=http://supolicies.syr.edu/ethics/bylaws.htm|title=Syracuse University Bylaws|access-date=November 15, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609163329/http://supolicies.syr.edu/ethics/bylaws.htm|archive-date=June 9, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="campus">{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/?q=syracuse&s=all&id=196413|title=IPEDS-Syracuse University|access-date=November 7, 2021|archive-date=November 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107182823/https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/?q=syracuse&s=all&id=196413|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="campus framework">{{cite report |date=May 2017 |title=Campus Framework: Full Report Vision for Excellence (2017–2037) |url=https://campusframework.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/CF.2017.single.pdf |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 20, 2020 |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104207/https://campusframework.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/CF.2017.single.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Campus Size">Campus grew from 683 acres in 2013 to over 950 acres as of 2025. *{{cite news |last1=Price |first1=Charlotte |title=969 acres of grass, 24 miles of sidewalks: SU's daily operation to maintain its campus |url=https://dailyorange.com/2025/09/sus-daily-landscaping-operation/ |access-date=6 October 2025 |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |date=25 September 2025}} *{{cite web |title=Grounds - CFO – Syracuse University |url=https://finance.syr.edu/facilities/services/grounds/ |website=finance.syr.edu |access-date=6 October 2025}} *{{cite web|url=http://bfms.syr.edu/BFMS/display.cfm?content_ID=%23%28%285.%0A|title=Syracuse University Business and Facilities Maintenance Services|publisher=Syracuse University|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128100328/http://bfms.syr.edu/BFMS/display.cfm?content_ID=%23%28%285%2E%0A|archive-date=January 28, 2013}}</ref>
<ref name="Carnegie_Classification">{{cite web|url=https://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/lookup/view_institution.php?unit_id=196413|title=Institutions: Syracuse University|publisher=Carnegie Foundation|access-date=July 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721160443/http://carnegieclassifications.iu.edu/lookup_listings/view_institution.php?unit_id=196413|archive-date=July 21, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Carnegie donation 1905">{{cite web |last1=Modrow |first1=Sebastian |title=Sign of the Times: A Carnegie Library for Syracuse University – 'Let the reader emerge!' Milestones of the Syracuse University Libraries |url=https://digitalexhibits.syr.edu/sul-milestones/let-the-reader-emerge/sign-of-the-times-a-carnegie-library-for-syracuse-university/ |publisher=Special Collections Research Center |access-date=May 8, 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
<ref name="carnegie_library">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syracuse.edu/carnegie-library/|title=Carnegie Library|website=Syracuse University Libraries}}</ref>
<ref name="Catholic">{{cite web|url=http://hendricks.syr.edu/spiritual-life/chaplaincies/roman-catholic.html|title=Roman Catholic|access-date=August 3, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905152829/http://hendricks.syr.edu/spiritual-life/chaplaincies/roman-catholic.html|archive-date=September 5, 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="Center for International Services">{{cite web|url=http://international.syr.edu/|title=Center for International Services|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=September 19, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915234640/http://international.syr.edu/|archive-date=September 15, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Chabad House">{{Cite web|url=https://www.chabadsyracuse.com/|title=Chabad Lubavitch of Central New York|website=chabadsyracuse.com|access-date=May 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529151658/https://www.chabadsyracuse.com/|archive-date=May 29, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Chaplaincies">{{cite web|url=http://hendricks.syr.edu/spiritual-life/chaplaincies/index.html|title=Chaplaincies|access-date=August 3, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905151701/http://hendricks.syr.edu/spiritual-life/chaplaincies/index.html|archive-date=September 5, 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="Chaplaincies-2">{{cite web|url=http://hendricks.syr.edu/spiritual-life/religious-groups/index.html|title=Religious Groups|access-date=August 3, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810191953/http://hendricks.syr.edu/spiritual-life/religious-groups/index.html|archive-date=August 10, 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="Chapter Development Plan">{{cite web|url=http://fasa.syr.edu/forms/Chapter%20Operations%20Manual%202010.pdf |title=Chapter Development Plan |page=7 |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=December 26, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101009171621/http://fasa.syr.edu/forms/Chapter%20Operations%20Manual%202010.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Citrus-members">{{cite web|url=http://citrustv.net/about-us/|title=About Us|access-date=June 8, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426080623/http://www.citrustv.net/about-us/|archive-date=April 26, 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="cityofelmira">{{cite web|url=http://www.cityofelmira.net/history/ernie_davis.html |title=Pages in the History of Elmira – Ernie Davis: the "Elmira Express" |publisher=City of Elmira |access-date=October 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705161429/http://www.cityofelmira.net/history/ernie_davis.html |archive-date=July 5, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="coed">{{cite web|url=http://archives.syr.edu/exhibits/women.html|title=Co-ed From the Start: Women Students at Syracuse University in the 19th Century|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=December 20, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609183926/http://archives.syr.edu/exhibits/women.html|archive-date=June 9, 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="Cold Case Justice Initiative">{{cite web|url=http://atlanta.syr.edu/news/current-stories/ccji-story.html|title=Cold Case Justice Initiative uncovers 196 new cases from civil rights era – Syracuse University|access-date=August 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810091648/http://atlanta.syr.edu/news/current-stories/ccji-story.html|archive-date=August 10, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Collections: Art on Campus">{{cite web |title=Collections: Art on Campus |url=https://onlinecollections.syr.edu/search/*/objects?filter=collections%3AArt%20on%20Campus |website=onlinecollections.syr.edu |publisher=[[Syracuse University Art Museum]] |access-date=22 November 2024 |archive-date=January 24, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124183945/https://onlinecollections.syr.edu/search/*/objects?filter=collections%3AArt%20on%20Campus |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="collegescorecard">{{Cite web|url=https://collegescorecard.ed.gov/school/?196413-Syracuse-University|title=Syracuse University College Scorecard|website=collegescorecard.ed.gov|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222234029/https://collegescorecard.ed.gov/school/?196413-Syracuse-University|archive-date=December 22, 2017|access-date=January 26, 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="color">{{cite book |title=Syracuse University Brand Guidelines |url=https://www.syracuse.edu/wp-content/uploads/syracuse-university-brand-guidelines.pdf |access-date=April 6, 2021 |archive-date=June 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611181304/https://www.syracuse.edu/wp-content/uploads/syracuse-university-brand-guidelines.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="comstock land">{{cite news |title=Religious items |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64069121/ |access-date=October 11, 2020 |work=The New York Times |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |page=5 |location=New York, New York |date=October 9, 1870 |language=en |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104334/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64069121/syracuse-university-site-selected/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Conduct">{{cite book|last=Deppa|first=Joan|title=The media and disasters: Pan Am 103|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|year=1994|isbn=0-8147-1856-6}}</ref>
<ref name="cornell_syr">Carol Kammen, 2003, p. 13 "Glorious to View Cornell", [[Cornell University Press]]; Ithaca, NY {{ISBN|978-0-935995-03-9}}</ref>
<ref name="crouse1">{{Cite web|url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/crouse.html|title=SU Archives: Buildings – Crouse College of Fine Arts|website=archives.syr.edu|access-date=May 15, 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520215451/http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/crouse.html|archive-date=May 20, 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="CSIS1">{{Cite news|url=http://dailyorange.com/2017/10/maxwell-partners-think-tank-establish-masters-degree-program-tailored-working-professionals/|title=Maxwell partners with think tank to establish master's degree program tailored to working professionals|date=October 23, 2017|website=[[The Daily Orange]]|language=en-US|access-date=February 13, 2020|archive-date=February 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212194715/http://dailyorange.com/2017/10/maxwell-partners-think-tank-establish-masters-degree-program-tailored-working-professionals/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="CSIS2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.csis.org/programs/executive-education/educational-institutions/educational-programs-csis|title=Educational Programs at CSIS- Center for Strategic and International Studies|website=www.csis.org|language=en|access-date=February 13, 2020|archive-date=February 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212194725/https://www.csis.org/programs/executive-education/educational-institutions/educational-programs-csis|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="'Cuse">{{cite news|url=http://cuse.com/news/2008/12/13/marronetosyracuse.aspx|title=Marrone's Focus is on the 'Cuse|publisher=Syracuse University|date=December 13, 2008|access-date=January 5, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016041303/http://cuse.com/news/2008/12/13/marronetosyracuse.aspx|archive-date=October 16, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Daily Orange Awards">{{Cite web |url=https://www.spj.org/moe17.asp#Newspapers |title=2017 Mark of Excellence: National Winners and Finalists |access-date=November 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103052306/https://www.spj.org/moe17.asp#Newspapers |archive-date=November 3, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="dickinson">{{cite web|url=http://chronicles.dickinson.edu/encyclo/p/ed_peckJT.html |title=Peck at Dickinson |access-date=August 26, 2009 |archive-date=July 28, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080728182658/http://chronicles.dickinson.edu/encyclo/p/ed_peckJT.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Drumlins Country Club">{{cite web|url=http://www.drumlins.com/index.shtml |title=Drumlins Country Club. Syracuse, New York |publisher=Drumlins Country Club |access-date=October 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821034748/http://www.drumlins.com/index.shtml |archive-date=August 21, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC)">{{cite web|title=Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC)|publisher=Easter College Athletic Conference|access-date=September 16, 2008|url=http://ecac.prestosports.com/membership/division_III/index|date=September 29, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203152205/http://ecac.prestosports.com/membership/division_III/index|archive-date=February 3, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Ed2010">{{cite web|url=http://www.syracuseed2010.com/resources.html|title=Ed2010 at SU: Resources|access-date=April 2, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716180902/http://www.syracuseed2010.com/resources.html|archive-date=July 16, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="enrollment">{{cite web|title=Syracuse University Facts, Figures & Ranking|publisher=Syracuse University|url=https://www.syracuse.edu/about/facts-figures-rankings/|access-date=September 10, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910211235/https://www.syracuse.edu/about/facts-figures-rankings/|archive-date=September 10, 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Excellence in Environmental and Energy Innovations">{{cite web|url=http://syracusecoe.syr.edu/?skuvar=22|title=Excellence in Environmental and Energy Innovations|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=December 25, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016041304/http://syracusecoe.syr.edu/?skuvar=22|archive-date=October 16, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="facts">{{cite web|url=https://www.syracuse.edu/about/facts-figures-rankings/|title=Facts, Figures and Rankings|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=January 9, 2021|url-status=live|archive-date=January 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105140845/https://www.syracuse.edu/about/facts-figures-rankings/}}</ref>
<ref name="Faculty Compensation AAUP">{{Cite web|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/aaup-compensation-survey/state/new-york-1493?institution-name=&professor-category=1591&order=field_avg_salary&sort=desc&page=2|title=AAUP Faculty Compensation Survey|website=insidehighered.com|access-date=July 21, 2019|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104455/https://www.insidehighered.com/aaup-compensation-survey/state/new-york-1493?institution-name=&professor-category=1591&order=field_avg_salary&sort=desc&page=2|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Faculty Compensation ithaca">{{cite web|url=http://www.ithacajournal.com/story/news/local/2015/04/13/new-york-professor-pay/25683261/|title=Half of N.Y. colleges pay profs less than $100K|author-last1=Tumulty|author-first1= Brian|date=April 13, 2015|work=Ithaca Journal|access-date=August 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922203002/http://www.ithacajournal.com/story/news/local/2015/04/13/new-york-professor-pay/25683261/|archive-date=September 22, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Fast Facts">{{cite web|url=http://www.utica.edu/instadvance/marketingcomm/about/fastfacts.cfm|title=Fast Facts|publisher=Utica College|access-date=October 6, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008005806/http://utica.edu/instadvance/marketingcomm/about/fastfacts.cfm|archive-date=October 8, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="first years">{{cite news |title=Methodist News: Syracuse University Colleges |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64070106/ |access-date=November 27, 2020 |work=The Evening Telegraph |date=June 10, 1871 |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |page=7 |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104435/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64070106/methodist-news-syracuse-university/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="found">{{cite web|url=http://archives.syr.edu/history/founding_su.html|title=History of the Founding of Syracuse University|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=December 15, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927002226/http://archives.syr.edu/history/founding_su.html|archive-date=September 27, 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="founding_endowment">{{cite news |title=Personal, Political, and General |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64068799/ |access-date=October 11, 2020 |work=The New York Times |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |page=2 |location=New York, New York |date=March 10, 1871 |language=en |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104438/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64068799/syracuse-university-400000-endowment/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Fulbright 21">{{cite news |last1=Homan Rodoski |first1=Kelly |title=Syracuse University Named as One of Top Fulbright Award Producing Institutions in the US for 2020–21 |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2021/02/18/syracuse-university-named-as-one-of-top-fulbright-award-producing-institutions-in-the-us-for-2020-21/ |access-date=August 4, 2021 |work=SU News |date=February 18, 2021 |archive-date=August 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804232636/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2021/02/18/syracuse-university-named-as-one-of-top-fulbright-award-producing-institutions-in-the-us-for-2020-21/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="genesee_wesleyan_collection">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/digital/guides_sua/html/sua_gws_prt.htm|title=Genesee Wesleyan Seminary Collection An inventory of the collection at the Syracuse University Archives|website=library.syr.edu|access-date=May 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529151653/https://library.syr.edu/digital/guides_sua/html/sua_gws_prt.htm|archive-date=May 29, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="GI Bill exhibit">{{cite web |last1=Mason |first1=Meg |title=Our Doors Opened Wide: Syracuse University and the GI Bill, 1945–1950 |url=https://digitalexhibits.syr.edu/gibill/ |website=[[Special Collections Research Center (Syracuse University)|Special Collections Research Center]] |publisher=[[Syracuse University Libraries]] |access-date=November 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103150612/https://digitalexhibits.syr.edu/gibill/ |archive-date=November 3, 2023 |location=Syracuse, N.Y. |language=en |format=exhibition |date=November 1, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="go-green">{{cite web|author-last1=Gibson|author-first1= Tom|url=http://www.progressiveengineer.com/features/Orange-Goes-Green.htm|title=Orange Lead the Way|publisher=Progressive Engineer|access-date=December 3, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211054028/http://www.progressiveengineer.com/features/Orange-Goes-Green.htm|archive-date=December 11, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="GPO Depository Library">{{cite web |title=Account Syracuse University: Depository Library Number 0426 |url=https://ask.gpo.gov/s/account/001t000000T9GgCAAV/es-bird-library |website=ask.gpo.gov |publisher=[[Federal Depository Library Program]] |access-date=May 8, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="GPO first">{{cite press release |last1=Somerset |first1=Gary |title=Syracuse University First Library to Preserve Government Collections as They Are Published |url=https://www.gpo.gov/docs/default-source/news-content-pdf-files/2022/syracuse-university-becomes-first-library-to-preserve-government-collections-as-they-are-published.pdf |access-date=July 5, 2022 |work=[[United States Government Publishing Office]] |date=June 9, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Govt Publications at SU">{{cite web |last1=Olson |first1=John |title=Research Guides: Government Information: Home |url=https://researchguides.library.syr.edu/government |website=researchguides.library.syr.edu |access-date=25 October 2024 |language=en |quote=libraries is the second oldest depository library in New York State and has been a part of the Federal Depository Library Program for more than 140 years when it was designated by US Congressional Representative Frank Hiscock on Feb 7, 1878. |archive-date=November 4, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241104163622/https://researchguides.library.syr.edu/government |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="greekhistory">{{cite web|url=http://studentlife.syr.edu/greek/history/history.aspx |title=The History of Syracuse University Fraternity and Sorority Community |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905144526/http://studentlife.syr.edu/greek/history/history.aspx |archive-date=September 5, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="hendricks_book">{{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=Richard L. |last2=Wright |first2=Donald G. |last3=Myers |first3=Lawrence Jr. |title=Hendricks Chapel: Seventy-five Years of Service to Syracuse University |date=2005 |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |location=Syracuse, New York |oclc=58729694 |isbn=9780815608271 |url=https://press.syr.edu/supressbooks/1061/hendricks-chapel/ |access-date=March 12, 2021 |language=en |archive-date=April 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418091550/https://press.syr.edu/supressbooks/1061/hendricks-chapel/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="hendricks_chapel">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/hendricks.html|title=University Archives: Syracuse University Libraries|website=library.syr.edu|access-date=September 24, 2018|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104311/https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.syr.edu%2Fbuildings%2Fhendricks.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="hendricks_chapel-1">{{cite web|url=http://hendricks.syr.edu|title=Hendricks Chapel|access-date=August 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905104725/http://hendricks.syr.edu/|archive-date=September 5, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="hillel">{{cite web|url=http://www.suhillel.org|title=Hillel at Syracuse University|access-date=August 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016041301/http://www.suhillel.org/|archive-date=October 16, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="holden">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/holden.html|title=University Archives Syracuse University Libraries|website=library.syr.edu|access-date=September 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924224943/https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.syr.edu%2Fbuildings%2Fholden.html|archive-date=September 24, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="holden physics">{{cite web|title=Holden Observatory|url=http://physics.syr.edu/about/holden-observatory.html|website=Department of Physics|access-date=January 5, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106071753/http://physics.syr.edu/about/holden-observatory.html|archive-date=January 6, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="holden moves slowly">{{cite news |last1=Croyle |first1=Johnathan |title=TBT: SU's observatory moves slowly to new home |url=https://www.syracuse.com/vintage/2016/06/throwback_thursday_sus_holden.html |access-date=February 2, 2021 |work=[[The Post Standard]] |date=June 23, 2016 |language=en |archive-date=August 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824043114/https://www.syracuse.com/vintage/2016/06/throwback_thursday_sus_holden.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="INSCT – Institute for National Security & Counterterrorism">{{cite web|url=http://insct.syr.edu/|title=INSCT – Institute for National Security & Counterterrorism|publisher=Syracuse University College of Law|access-date=September 17, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915012010/http://insct.syr.edu/|archive-date=September 15, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="IRA">{{Cite web|url=http://irarowing.com/membership/|title=Membership – IRA National Championship Regatta|access-date=May 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529153200/http://irarowing.com/membership/|archive-date=May 29, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="ice_hockey">{{Cite web|url=https://www.syracuse.com/orangewomen/2019/03/syracuse-womens-hockey-reaches-ncaa-tournament-for-1st-time-in-school-history.html|title=Syracuse women's hockey reaches NCAA tournament for 1st time in school history|date=March 9, 2019|website=syracuse.com|access-date=May 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529151657/https://www.syracuse.com/orangewomen/2019/03/syracuse-womens-hockey-reaches-ncaa-tournament-for-1st-time-in-school-history.html|archive-date=May 29, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Kenya National Archives">{{cite report |author= |date=1900 |title=The Kenya National Archives Guides |url=https://surface.syr.edu/archiveguidekenya/ |location=Syracuse University Bird Library |publisher=[[Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs]] |archive-date=May 8, 2023 |access-date=May 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508194019/https://surface.syr.edu/archiveguidekenya/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="lockerbie">{{cite news|title=An Act of War?–On the 15th Anniversary a Former Pilot Compares the Downing of Pan Am 103 to the Sept. 11, 2001 Attacks on America|quote=Until Sept. 11, Flight 103 had been the deadliest act of terrorism against the United States, killing...189 Americans.|date=December 21, 2003|first=Ken|last=Kaye|newspaper=South Florida Sun-Sentinel|page=3A}}</ref>
<ref name="Lockerbie1">{{cite news|title=20 years later, pain of Lockerbie still fresh|quote=When a bomb hidden aboard Pan Am flight 103 exploded over Lockerbie, Scotland...189 Americans (were) killed, making it the largest terrorist attack against the U.S. until nearly 3,000 people were killed Sept. 11, 2001.|date=December 21, 2008|first=Ben|last=Conery|newspaper=The Washington Times|page=A3}}</ref>
<ref name="lockerbie_basketball">{{cite news |last1=Yen |first1=Marianne |title=A Tragic End to the Semester |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1988/12/23/a-tragic-end-to-the-semester/a9ae4eeb-5970-4bf6-bad1-95433ffad90f/ |access-date=November 27, 2020 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=December 23, 1988 |location=Syracuse, New York |archive-date=May 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503141923/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1988/12/23/a-tragic-end-to-the-semester/a9ae4eeb-5970-4bf6-bad1-95433ffad90f/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Lockerbie Scholars">{{cite web|url=http://undergraduatestudies.syr.edu/Lockerbiescholars/home.html |title=Lockerbie Scholars |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=October 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725181801/http://undergraduatestudies.syr.edu/Lockerbiescholars/home.html |archive-date=July 25, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Lubin House: Welcome">{{cite web|url=http://lubinhouse.syr.edu/|title=Lubin House: Welcome|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=October 6, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014101447/http://lubinhouse.syr.edu/|archive-date=October 14, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="mba_online">{{Cite news|url=https://onlinebusiness.syr.edu/mba/|title=Online MBA Program – Syracuse University|access-date=June 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615190549/https://onlinebusiness.syr.edu/mba/|archive-date=June 15, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="medical school sold">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/digital/guides_sua/html/sua_medicine.htm|title=College of Medicine Records A description of its records at the Syracuse University Archives|website=library.syr.edu|language=en|access-date=March 29, 2020|archive-date=March 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329234310/https://library.syr.edu/digital/guides_sua/html/sua_medicine.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Men who are making America">{{cite book|last=Forbes|first=BC|title=Men who are making America|url=https://archive.org/details/menwhoaremaking00forbgoog|publisher=B.C. Forbes Publishing|location=New York, NY|year=1917|page=[https://archive.org/details/menwhoaremaking00forbgoog/page/n557 440]}}</ref>
<ref name="Methodist resolves october 1870">{{Cite news |publisher=The Advocate |location=Buffalo, New York |page=2 |title=Syracuse University |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64068558/ |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |date=October 13, 1870 |access-date=October 17, 2020 |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104357/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64068558/question-of-syracuse-university/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="middle_states">{{cite web |title=Syracuse University |url=https://www.msche.org/institution/0413/ |publisher=Middle States Commission on Higher Education |access-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807202848/https://www.msche.org/institution/0413/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Minnowbrook Conference Center">{{cite web |url=http://www.minnowbrook.org/ |title=Minnowbrook Conference Center |publisher=Minnowbrook Conference Center |access-date=October 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925101056/http://www.minnowbrook.org/ |archive-date=September 25, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Morrow2015">{{cite web |last1=Morrow |first1=Kevin |title=University Signs on to 'Justice and Dignity' Resolution |work=Syracuse University News |url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2015/03/20/university-signs-on-to-justice-and-dignity-resolution-15154/ |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=January 24, 2022 |language=en |date=March 20, 2015 |quote="Syracuse University is proud to endorse this prophetic resolution for it represents the best of who we are and who we strive to be," Steinwert says. "As a United Methodist-related institution we are committed to creating a diverse and inclusive learning environment that nurtures a new generation of leaders ready to engage the world's most difficult challenges. ... While the University has maintained a strong relationship with the United Methodist Church, SU has identified itself as nonsectarian since 1920. While the University identifies itself as nonsectarian, it holds membership in NASCUMC and receives funding from the United Methodist Church. |archive-date=January 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124063755/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2015/03/20/university-signs-on-to-justice-and-dignity-resolution-15154/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="New University in Syracuse">{{cite news |title=The Methodist Church: State Convention at Syracuse |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64069302/ |access-date=November 27, 2020 |work=The Advocate |date=March 3, 1870 |location=Buffalo, New York |page=2 |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104313/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64069302/new-university-in-syracuse/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="nrhptextComstock">{{cite report|author-first1=Robert A. |author-last1=Mann |editor-first1= Alice Jean |editor-last1=Stuart |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Syracuse University-Comstock Tract Buildings|series= Records of the National Park Service |url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/75320467 |publication-date=July 22, 1980 |pages=3–4 |via=[[National Archives]] NextGen Catalog (NAID: 75320467) |accessdate=February 9, 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223232629/https://s3.amazonaws.com/NARAprodstorage/lz/electronic-records/rg-079/NPS_NY/80004279.pdf |archivedate=February 23, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="nris">{{cite web|url=https://npgallery.nps.gov/nrhp|title=National Register Information System|date=January 12, 2009|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=January 13, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725123211/http://nrhp.focus.nps.gov/|archive-date=July 25, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="NVRC 62Million">{{Cite web|url=https://www.waer.org/post/sus-625-million-national-veterans-resource-center-track-completion-spring-2020|title=SU's $62.5 Million National Veteran's Resource Center on Track for Completion in Spring 2020|last=Smith|first=John|website=waer.org|date=May 15, 2019|access-date=July 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519030244/https://www.waer.org/post/sus-625-million-national-veterans-resource-center-track-completion-spring-2020|archive-date=May 19, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="NVRC DO">{{Cite news|url=http://dailyorange.com/2016/10/syracuse-universitys-nvrc-will-serve-center-education-resources-veterans/|title=Syracuse University's NVRC will serve as center of education, resources for veterans|date=October 19, 2016|author-first1=Stacy|author-last1=Fernández|website=The Daily Orange – The Independent Student Newspaper of Syracuse, New York|access-date=July 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721220653/http://dailyorange.com/2016/10/syracuse-universitys-nvrc-will-serve-center-education-resources-veterans/|archive-date=July 21, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Office of Admissions1">{{cite web|url=http://admissions.syr.edu/academics/majors/|title=Office of Admissions|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=September 16, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929045709/http://admissions.syr.edu/academics/majors/|archive-date=September 29, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="party school 2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.collegeatlas.org/top-party-schools.html|title=Top Party Schools in the US 2015–19|access-date=August 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150810163046/http://www.collegeatlas.org/top-party-schools.html|archive-date=August 10, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="party school 2019">{{Cite news|url=https://www.foxbusiness.com/features/cost-nations-top-party-schools-colleges|title=America's top party schools: Celebrate at what price?|date=August 7, 2019|website=FOXBusiness|access-date=August 9, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808223140/https://www.foxbusiness.com/features/cost-nations-top-party-schools-colleges|archive-date=August 8, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Peck">{{cite news |title=Summary of Church News |quote="The Rev. Dr. Jesse T. Peck of Albany, has been chosen the President of Syracuse University." |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64068942/ |access-date=October 11, 2020 |work=The Evening Telegraph |page=7 |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |date=April 23, 1870 |language=en |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104509/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64068942/peck-president-syracuse-university-1870/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Pell_grant">{{cite web |author1=US Department of Education |title=Distribution of Federal Pell Grant Program Funds by Institution and Award Year |url=https://www2.ed.gov/finaid/prof/resources/data/pell-institution.html |website=www2.ed.gov |access-date=April 29, 2020 |language=en |date=February 26, 2020 |archive-date=April 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422143704/https://www2.ed.gov/finaid/prof/resources/data/pell-institution.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="quad">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/quad.html|title=University Archives: Syracuse University Libraries|website=library.syr.edu|access-date=September 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925025559/https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.syr.edu%2Fbuildings%2Fquad.html|archive-date=September 25, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Randle">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/19/nyregion/syracuse-manifesto-racism-fraternity.html|title=Racist Manifesto Lands on Syracuse Students' Phones, Deepening Crisis|last1=Randle|first1=Aaron|date=November 19, 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=November 20, 2019|last2=McKinley|first2=Jesse|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120173027/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/19/nyregion/syracuse-manifesto-racism-fraternity.html|archive-date=November 20, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="realignment">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/19/sports/ncaafootball/congressional-scrutiny-of-conference-realignment-is-said-to-be-likely.html|title=College Football – Syracuse and Pittsburgh Join A.C.C.|last=Thamel|first=Pete |author-link=Pete Thamel |date=September 18, 2011|work=The New York Times|access-date=May 29, 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529151653/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/19/sports/ncaafootball/congressional-scrutiny-of-conference-realignment-is-said-to-be-likely.html|archive-date=May 29, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="records1">{{cite news|url=https://www.syracuse.com/news/2008/07/su_receives_records_worth_1_mi.html|title=SU receives records worth $1 million|publisher=syracuse.com|date=July 2, 2008|access-date=May 12, 2020|archive-date=August 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807173735/https://www.syracuse.com/news/2008/07/su_receives_records_worth_1_mi.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="records2">{{cite news |last1=Kilgannon |first1=Corey |title=A Trove of Old 78s Heads to Syracuse |url=https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/07/22/a-trove-of-old-vinyl-heads-to-syracuse/ |access-date=May 12, 2020 |work=City Room |publisher=New York Times |date=July 22, 2008 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807183212/https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/07/22/a-trove-of-old-vinyl-heads-to-syracuse/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="reminiscences">Goldwin Smith, Reminiscences (New York, 1911), p.371;quoted in Morris Bishop (1962), p.11, ''A History of Cornell''. [[Cornell University Press]]</ref>
<ref name="Sasaki">{{cite web |title=Syracuse University Campus Framework |url=https://www.sasaki.com/projects/syracuse-university-campus-framework/ |website=Sasaki |publisher=Sasaki Associates |access-date=September 20, 2020 |language=en |archive-date=August 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814021927/https://www.sasaki.com/projects/syracuse-university-campus-framework/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="SAT_2018">{{Cite web|url=https://news.syr.edu/blog/2018/08/23/incoming-class-distinguished-by-highest-average-sat-score-in-institutions-history-significant-spike-in-applications-leads-to-one-of-the-most-academically-competitive-classes-to-date/|title=Incoming Class Distinguished by Highest Average SAT Score in Institution's History, Significant Spike in Applications Leads to One of the Most Academically Competitive Classes to Date|website=SU News|date=August 23, 2018|language=en-US|access-date=January 26, 2020|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104312/https://news.syr.edu/blog/2018/08/23/incoming-class-distinguished-by-highest-average-sat-score-in-institutions-history-significant-spike-in-applications-leads-to-one-of-the-most-academically-competitive-classes-to-date/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="selingo20110502">{{cite journal|url=http://chronicle.com/article/Facing-an-Ouster-Syracuse-U/127363/|title=Facing an Ouster From an Elite Group of Universities, Syracuse U. Says It Will Withdraw|journal=Chronicle of Higher Education|date=May 2, 2011|access-date=May 2, 2011|author-last1=Selingo|author-first1= Jeffrey J.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418160139/http://chronicle.com/article/Facing-an-Ouster-Syracuse-U/127363/|archive-date=April 18, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Sheraton">{{Cite news|url=https://www.syracuse.com/news/2011/10/with_dormitory_space_scarce_sy.html|title=With dormitory space scarce, Syracuse University places students in hotels, off-campus apartments|date=October 3, 2011|website=syracuse|language=en|access-date=January 31, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131133734/https://www.syracuse.com/news/2011/10/with_dormitory_space_scarce_sy.html|archive-date=January 31, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="sims_hall">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/sims.html|title=University Archives: Syracuse University Libraries|website=library.syr.edu|access-date=September 24, 2018|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104444/https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.syr.edu%2Fbuildings%2Fsims.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="smalley">{{cite web |last1=Becque |first1=Fran |title=Women's Fraternities, Sororities, and Dr. Frank Smalley |url=https://www.franbecque.com/womens-fraternities-sororities-and-dr-frank-smalley/ |website=Fraternity History & More |access-date=May 17, 2020 |date=August 12, 2013 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807200446/https://www.franbecque.com/womens-fraternities-sororities-and-dr-frank-smalley/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Sound Beat1">{{cite web |title=About Sound Beat |url=https://soundbeat.org/about/ |publisher=[[Syracuse University libraries]] |access-date=January 30, 2024 |archive-date=January 30, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130183822/https://soundbeat.org/about/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Sound Beat2">{{cite news |last1=Stewart |first1=Savannah |title='Sound Beat' radio show revives forgotten art |url=https://dailyorange.com/2024/01/sound-beat-revives-forgotten-art/ |access-date=January 30, 2024 |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |date=January 23, 2024 |archive-date=January 30, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130182522/https://dailyorange.com/2024/01/sound-beat-revives-forgotten-art/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Student Association">{{cite web|url=http://students.syr.edu/sa/about.html |title=Student Association |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725053540/http://students.syr.edu/sa/about.html |archive-date=July 25, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="SU Abroad">{{cite web|url=http://suabroad.syr.edu|title=SU Abroad – Your Place in the World|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=September 17, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917195827/http://suabroad.syr.edu/|archive-date=September 17, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="SU Athletics National Championships">{{cite web|url=https://cuse.com/sports/2006/12/21/SUNationalChampions |title=SU Athletics – Syracuse National Champions|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=September 24, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914052009/http://www.suathletics.com/Sports/gen/2006/SUNationalChampions.asp|archive-date=September 14, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="SU buys properties">{{cite news |last=Katz |first=Grace |date=August 2, 2022 |title=SU buys properties on South Crouse Avenue, including Varsity Pizza's |url=https://dailyorange.com/2022/08/syracuse-university-south-crouse-varsity-faegans/ |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |location=Syracuse, NY |access-date=September 8, 2022 |archive-date=September 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908064727/https://dailyorange.com/2022/08/syracuse-university-south-crouse-varsity-faegans/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="SU buys properties2">{{cite news |last=Katz |first=Grace |date=January 26, 2022 |title=SU acquires building from Crouse Hospital in $34 million deal |url=https://dailyorange.com/2022/01/syracuse-university-acquires-building-crouse-hospital-34-million/ |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |location=Syracuse, NY |access-date=September 8, 2022 |archive-date=September 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909044715/https://dailyorange.com/2022/01/syracuse-university-acquires-building-crouse-hospital-34-million/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="SU1906">{{cite web|url=http://www.syr.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1906.html |title=Syracuse University History 1906–1930 |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917074745/http://www.syr.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1906.html |archive-date=September 17, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="SU1931">{{cite web|url=http://syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1931.html |title=Syracuse University History 1931–1950 |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724105418/http://www.syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1931.html |archive-date=July 24, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="SUAbroad">{{cite web|url=http://suabroad.syr.edu/programs/location/ |title=SU Abroad – Programs By Location |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=October 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013141700/http://suabroad.syr.edu/programs/location/ |archive-date=October 13, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="sucenter">{{cite web|url=http://syracuse.edu/research/centers.html|title=Syracuse University Research Centers|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=September 24, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219170653/http://www.syracuse.edu/research/centers.html|archive-date=February 19, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="SUNY Upstate MD-MBA">{{cite news |last1=Alandt |first1=Anthony |title=SUNY Upstate, SU partner for joint M.D./MBA degree program |url=https://dailyorange.com/2022/04/suny-upstate-syracuse-university-md-mba-degree/ |access-date=April 20, 2022 |work=[[The Daily Orange]] |date=April 20, 2022 |archive-date=April 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220420180632/https://dailyorange.com/2022/04/suny-upstate-syracuse-university-md-mba-degree/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="SUNY Upstate MPH">{{cite news|url=http://readme.readmedia.com/news/show/SUNY-Upstate-Medical-University-Syracuse-University-Offer-Joint-Master-of-Public-Health-Degree-in-Fall-2009/301039 |title=SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse University Offer Joint Master of Public Health Degree in Fall 2009 |date=October 30, 2008 |publisher=[[SUNY Upstate Medical University]] |access-date=January 14, 2009 |archive-date=February 11, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211110440/http://readme.readmedia.com/news/show/SUNY-Upstate-Medical-University-Syracuse-University-Offer-Joint-Master-of-Public-Health-Degree-in-Fall-2009/301039 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse Center of Excellence in Environmental and Energy Innovations">{{cite web|url=http://www.syracusecoe.org/overview/index.aspx |title=Syracuse Center of Excellence in Environmental and Energy Innovations |year=2008 |publisher=SyracuseCoE |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302152128/http://www.syracusecoe.org/overview/index.aspx |archive-date=March 2, 2009 |access-date=January 6, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse University Chronology">{{cite web|title=150 Years Timeline|publisher=Syracuse University|url=https://www.syracuse.edu/150years/150-years-timeline/|access-date=February 3, 2020|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104315/https://www.syracuse.edu/150years/150-years-timeline/|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse University Greenberg House">{{cite web|url=http://greenberghouse.syr.edu/|title=Syracuse University Greenberg House|publisher=Syracuse University|access-date=October 6, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925065003/http://greenberghouse.syr.edu/|archive-date=September 25, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse University History, 1951–1960">{{cite web|url=http://syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1951.html |title=Syracuse University History, 1951–1960 |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=October 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724105538/http://www.syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1951.html |archive-date=July 24, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse University History, 1961–1970">{{cite web|url=http://syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1961.html |title=Syracuse University History, 1961–1970 |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=October 6, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724105258/http://www.syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1961.html |archive-date=July 24, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse University History">{{cite web|url=http://syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1870.html |title=Syracuse University History |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020093352/http://www.syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1870.html |archive-date=October 20, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse University History 2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.syracuse.edu/about/history/ |title=Our History |website=Syracuse University |access-date=August 12, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211051311/http://www.syracuse.edu/aboutsu/chronology/1931.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse University Map">{{cite web|url=http://www.syr.edu/syracwis/imagerep/maps/main.jpg |title=Syracuse University Map |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 20, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801190616/http://www.syr.edu/syracwis/imagerep/maps/main.jpg |archive-date=August 1, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse University Research">{{cite web|url=http://syracuse.edu/research.php |title=Syracuse University Research |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=September 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515220835/http://www.syracuse.edu/research.php |archive-date=May 15, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="Syracuse v Genesee">{{cite news |title=Syracuse v Genesee |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64071516/ |access-date=November 27, 2020 |work=[[Democrat and Chronicle]] |agency=from [[Union College]] Magazine |date=June 21, 1871 |location=Rochester, New York |page=3 |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |archive-date=November 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126104316/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/64071516/syracuse-versus-genesee-from-union/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="The Connective Corridor—Project Overview">{{cite web|url=http://connectivecorridor.syr.edu/project-overview/ |title=The Connective Corridor—Project Overview |year=2008 |publisher=Syracuse University |access-date=January 6, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207205500/http://connectivecorridor.syr.edu/project-overview/ |archive-date=February 7, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="The ESF-SU Relationship">{{cite web|url=http://www.esf.edu/welcome/esfsu.htm|title=The ESF-SU Relationship|publisher=State University of New York|access-date=September 18, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219062046/http://www.esf.edu/welcome/esfsu.htm|archive-date=December 19, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="The Marshall">{{cite news |last=Moriarty |first=Rick |date=July 27, 2021 |title=Syracuse University buys luxury student housing partially owned by Jim Boeheim |url=https://www.syracuse.com/news/2021/07/syracuse-university-buys-luxury-student-housing-partially-owned-by-jim-boeheim.html |work=[[The Post-Standard]] |location=Syracuse, NY |access-date=September 8, 2022 |archive-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906215520/https://www.syracuse.com/news/2021/07/syracuse-university-buys-luxury-student-housing-partially-owned-by-jim-boeheim.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="tolley1">{{Cite web|url=https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/tolley.html|title=University Archives {{!}} Syracuse University Libraries|website=library.syr.edu|access-date=September 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924224919/https://library.syr.edu/skin/?url=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.syr.edu%2Fbuildings%2Ftolley.html|archive-date=September 24, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="tolley2">{{Cite web|url=http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/tolley.html|title=SU Archives: Buildings – Tolley Building|website=archives.syr.edu|access-date=May 15, 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426184622/http://archives.syr.edu/buildings/tolley.html|archive-date=April 26, 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="Top 100 world universities in Social Sciences">{{cite web|url=http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/ARWU-FIELD2008/SOC2008.htm |title=Top 100 world universities in Social Sciences |publisher=Institute of Higher Education, Shanghai Jiao Tong University |access-date=September 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913075313/http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/ARWU-FIELD2008/SOC2008.htm |archive-date=September 13, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="usenate bylaws">{{cite web|publisher=Syracuse University|title=Syracuse University Senate Bylaws|url=http://universitysenate.syr.edu/bylaws/|access-date=June 2, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605055113/http://universitysenate.syr.edu/bylaws/|archive-date=June 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="Connective Corridor design competition">{{cite news |last=Meseroll |first=Paula |url=http://sunews.syr.edu/story_details.cfm?id=3172 |title=Syracuse University, City of Syracuse, federal representatives announce start of Connective Corridor design competition |publisher=Syracuse University News |date=March 31, 2006 |access-date=September 24, 2008 |archive-date=November 24, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124141631/http://sunews.syr.edu/story_details.cfm?id=3172 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="whitman1">{{Cite web|url=https://whitman.syr.edu/about/index.aspx|title=History and Overview – Syracuse University Whitman School of Management|website=whitman.syr.edu|access-date=June 19, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620001157/https://whitman.syr.edu/about/index.aspx|archive-date=June 20, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="USNWR">{{cite magazine|title=Syracuse University – U.S. News Best Grad School Rankings|magazine=U.S. News & World Report|access-date=September 28, 2020|url=https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/syracuse-university-196413/overall-rankings|archive-date=December 10, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210195059/https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/syracuse-university-196413/overall-rankings|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="USNWR overall">{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/syracuse-university-2882/overall-rankings|magazine=U.S. News & World Report|title=Syracuse University Rankings|year=2021|access-date=September 28, 2020|archive-date=June 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625005645/https://www.usnews.com/best-colleges/syracuse-university-2882/overall-rankings|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last1=Greene |first1=John Robert |author1-link=John Robert Greene |title=The Hill: An Illustrated Biography of Syracuse University, 1870-Present |date=1 September 2000 |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |location=Syracuse, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8156-0648-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K1a86olo2gsC  |language=en}} 
*{{cite book |last1=Gorney |first1=Jeffrey |title=Syracuse University: An Architectural Guide |date=26 June 2006 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8156-0810-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Az2l98pmUCcC  |language=en }} 
*{{cite book |last1=Galpin |first1=William Freeman |title=Syracuse University: Volume I: The Pioneer Days |date=March 1952 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8156-2010-5 |oclc=3123028 |url=https://press.syr.edu/supressbooks/1933/syracuse-university-7/ |language=en |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |access-date=October 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523053908/https://press.syr.edu/supressbooks/1933/syracuse-university-7/ |url-status=live }} {{Internet Archive|id=syracuseuniversi0001wfre|name=Syracuse University: The Pioneer Days |page=|url-access=registration|at=no}} 
*{{cite book |last1=Galpin |first1=William Freeman |title=Syracuse University: Volume II: The Growing Years |date=1 December 1960 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8156-2011-2 |oclc=1109803877 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt3qOwAACAAJ |language=en }} {{Internet Archive|id=syracuseuniversi0002wfre |name=Syracuse University: Volume II: The Growing Years |page=|url-access=registration|at=no}} 
*{{cite book |last1=Galpin |first1=William Freeman |last2=Barck Jr |first2=Oscar Theodore |editor1-last=Wilson |editor1-first=Richard R. |title=Syracuse University: Volume III: The Critical Years |date=August 1984 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8156-8108-3 |oclc=1023038841 |url=https://press.syr.edu/supressbooks/1836/syracuse-university-5/ |language=en |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |access-date=May 4, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322150603/https://press.syr.edu/supressbooks/1836/syracuse-university-5/ |url-status=live }} {{Internet Archive|id=syracuseuniversi0000galp |name=Syracuse University: Volume III: The Critical Years |page=|url-access=registration|at=no }}
*{{cite book |last1=Greene |first1=John Robert |last2=Baron |first2=Karrie A.  |title=Syracuse University: Volume IV: The Tolley Years 1942-1969 |date=May 1996 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8156-2701-2 |oclc=1023039053 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PfZQ9FmZIUC |language=en }} 
*{{cite book |last1=Greene |first1=John Robert |last2=Baron |first2=Karrie A. |last3=Hall |first3=Debora D. |last4=Sharp |first4=Matthew  |title=Syracuse University: Volume V: The Eggers Years |date=November 1998 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8156-0549-2 |oclc=1285849861 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=kd2MsADwS14C  |language=en }} {{Internet Archive|id=syracuseuniversi0000gree |name=Syracuse University: Volume V: The Eggers Years |page=|url-access=registration|at=no }} 
{{Refend}}

==External links==
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* [https://cuse.com/ Athletics website]

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61st National Film Awards

2026-03-26T06:42:28Z

BrookEjw0071: brief improve formatting as per guidelines and cleaned formatting for accuracy

{{Short description|2014 Indian film award}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox film awards
| number = 61
| award = National Film Awards
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| awarded_for = Best of Indian cinema in 2013
| award_org = [[Directorate of Film Festivals]]
| presenting_org = [[Pranab Mukherjee]] {{small|([[President of India]])}}
| announced_date = {{Start date|df=yes|2014|04|16}}
| presented_date = {{Start date|df=yes|2014|05|03}}
| site =
| host =
| website = [http://dff.nic.in/ dff.nic.in]
| lifetime_achievement = [[Gulzar]]
| best_feature = ''[[Ship of Theseus (film)|Ship of Theseus]]''
| best_non_feature = ''Rangbhoomi''
| best_book = ''[[Nandagopal|Cinema Ga Cinema]]''
| best_critic = Alaka Sahani
| most_wins = ''[[Jaatishwar]]'' (4)
| last = 60th
| next = 62nd
}}

The '''61st National Film Awards''' ceremony was an event during which the [[Directorate of Film Festivals]] of India presented its annual [[National Film Awards]] to honour the best films of 2013 in the [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]]. The ceremony was held on 3 May 2014.<ref name="60thnfacallzee">{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/generalnews/news/nat-film-awards-ceremony-to-be-heldmay-3-every-year-soni/4460/|title=Nat Film Awards ceremony to be held on May 3 every year: Soni|newspaper=[[Business Standard]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|author=[[Press Trust of India]]|date=3 May 2012|access-date=3 May 2012|archive-date=3 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903185826/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/nat-film-awards-ceremony-to-be-held-on-may-3-every-year-soni-112050300505_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=61st National Film Awards For 2013 |url=http://www.dff.nic.in/List%20of%20Awards.pdf# |publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals |date=16 April 2014 |access-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416181218/http://www.dff.nic.in/List%20of%20Awards.pdf |archive-date=16 April 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Selection process ==

The Directorate of Film Festivals invited nominations for the awards on 24 January 2014. The acceptable last date for entries was until 14 February 2014.<ref name="61stnfacall">{{cite web|url=http://www.dff.nic.in/NFA_61st.html|title=Entries invited for 61st National Film Awards for the year 2013|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|location=[[New Delhi]]|access-date=15 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301101727/http://www.dff.nic.in/NFA_61st.html|archive-date=1 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Feature and Non-Feature Films certified by [[Central Board of Film Certification]] between 1 January 2013, and 31 December 2013, were eligible for the film award categories. Books, critical studies, reviews or articles on cinema published in Indian newspapers, magazines, and journals between 1 January 2013, and 31 December 2013, were eligible for the best writing on cinema section.<ref name=61stnfacalldff>{{cite web|title=Call for entries; 61st National Film Awards for 2013|url=http://www.dff.nic.in/final%202014.jpg|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=15 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209041811/http://dff.nic.in/final%202014.jpg|archive-date=9 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Entries of dubbed, revised or copied versions of a film or translation, abridgements, edited or annotated works and reprints were ineligible for the awards.<ref name="61streg"/>

For the Feature and Non-Feature Films sections, films in any Indian language, shot on [[16 mm film|16 mm]], [[35mm movie film|35 mm]], a wider film gauge or a [[Digital cinematography|digital format]], and released in cinemas, on video or digital formats for home viewing were eligible. Films were required to be certified as a feature film, a featurette or a Documentary/Newsreel/Non-Fiction by the Central Board of Film Certification.<ref name="61streg">{{cite press release|url=http://www.dff.nic.in/61st_NATIONAL_FILM_AWARDS_2013_1_regulations_updated.pdf|title=61st National Film Awards: Regulations|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|access-date=15 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302171319/http://www.dff.nic.in/61st_NATIONAL_FILM_AWARDS_2013_1_regulations_updated.pdf|archive-date=2 March 2014|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

== Dadasaheb Phalke Award ==

Introduced in 1969, the [[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]] is the highest award given to recognise the contributions of film personalities towards the development of Indian cinema and for distinguished contributions to the medium, its growth and promotion.<ref name="17thaward">{{cite web|url=http://dff.nic.in/images/Documents/98_17thNfacatalogue.pdf|title=17th National Film Awards|publisher=Directorate of Film Festivals|access-date=2 September 2020|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725172021/http://dff.nic.in/images/Documents/98_17thNfacatalogue.pdf|url-status=live|page=38}}</ref> A committee consisting of seven personalities from the Indian film industry was appointed to evaluate the Dadasaheb Phalke award nominations for 2013. Following were the jury members:

* '''Jury Members'''
{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| style="background-color:#F0EADF;" |{{•}} [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]]
|-
| style="background-color:#F0EADF;" |{{•}} [[Amjad Ali Khan]]
|-
| style="background-color:#F0EADF;" |{{•}} [[B. Saroja Devi]]
|-
| style="background-color:#F0EADF;" |{{•}} [[D. Ramanaidu]]
|-
| style="background-color:#F0EADF;" |{{•}} [[Pratibha Prahlad]]
|-
| style="background-color:#F0EADF;" |{{•}} [[Ramesh Sippy]]
|-
| style="background-color:#F0EADF;" |{{•}} [[Sharmistha Mukherjee]]
|-
|}

For the year 2013, the award was announced on 12 April 2014 to be presented to [[Gulzar]], a veteran poet, lyric writer and film director. He has won five National Film Awards, 20 [[Filmfare Awards]], one [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Academy Award]], one [[Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media|Grammy Award]] and is also [[Padma Bhushan]] recipient of 2004.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=104826|title=Veteran Film Lyricist and Director Gulzar to be conferred Dadasaheb Phalke Award for the year 2013|publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India|access-date=12 April 2014|date=12 April 2014|archive-date=13 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413132123/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=104826|url-status=live}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Image
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Awardee(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Awarded As
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Awards
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
! scope="row" |[[Dadasaheb Phalke Award]]
| [[File:Gulzar 2008 - still 38227.jpg|75px]]
| [[Gulzar]]
| Poet, Lyricist and Film director
|''Swarna Kamal'', {{INRConvert|1|m|nolink=yes}} and a Shawl
|}

== Feature films ==
A Bengali film, [[Jaatishwar]] won the maximum number of awards (4) followed by Telugu film [[Na Bangaaru Talli]], Tamil film [[Thanga Meenkal]] and Marathi film [[Yellow (2014 film)|Yellow]] (3 awards each)

=== Jury ===
For the Feature Film section, six committees were formed based on the different geographic regions in India. The two-tier evaluation process included a central committee and five regional committees. The central committee, headed by [[Saeed Akhtar Mirza]], included the heads of each regional committee and five other jury members. At regional level, each committee consisted of one chief and four members. The chief and one non-chief member of each regional committee were selected from outside that geographic region. The table below names the jury members for the central and regional committees:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dff.nic.in/Jury%20Profiles.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=27 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214059/http://www.dff.nic.in/Jury%20Profiles.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

'''Central Jury'''

{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#F5EFD0;" |{{•}} [[Saeed Akhtar Mirza]] (chairperson)

|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[M. S. Sathyu]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Manju Borah]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Chitraarth Puran Singh
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Nirad Mohapatra]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} [[Thangar Bachan]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} Arunoday Sharma
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} [[Khalid Mohamed]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Utpalendu Chakrabarty]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} Pandit [[Bhajan Sopori]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} C. V. Reddy
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|}

'''Northern Region''': {{small|(Bhojpuri, Dogri , English, Hindi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Urdu)}}

{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#F5EFD0;" |{{•}}[[Manju Borah]] (chair)
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Virendra Saini]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}G. S. Bhaskar
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Bhanu Bharti]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Sona Jain
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|}

'''Eastern Region''': {{small|(Assamese, Bengali, Oriya and North-Eastern dialects)}}

{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#F5EFD0;" |{{•}}[[M. S. Sathyu]] (chair)
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Meena Debbarma
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Ranjit Das
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} [[Sreelekha Mukherji]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} [[Beena Paul]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|}

'''Western Region''': {{small|(Gujarati, Konkani, Marathi)}}

{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#F5EFD0;" |{{•}}Chitraarth Puran Singh (chair)
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Rajat Dholakia]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Meenakshi Shedde
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Rajen Borah
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Tejaswini Pandit]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|}

'''Southern Region I''': {{small|(Malayalam, Tamil)}}

{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#F5EFD0;" |{{•}}[[Nirad Mohapatra]] (chair)
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Unni Vijayan
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Kesari Harvoo
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Priya Krishnaswamy]]
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Arun Bose
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|}

'''Southern Region II''': {{small|(Kannada, Telugu)}}

{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#F5EFD0;" |{{•}}[[Thangar Bachan]] (chair)
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}M. Manu Chakravarthy
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[B. S. Lingadevaru]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Joseph Pulinthanath
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}[[Chandra Siddhartha]]
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|}

=== All India Awards ===

==== Golden Lotus Award ====
All the winners are awarded with a ''Swarna Kamal'' (Golden Lotus Award), a certificate and a cash prize.<ref name="61streg"/>

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%;background-color:#F4F4F4;"
|-
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:23%;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:21%;"|Name of Film(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:7%;"|Language
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:35%;"|Awardee(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:14%;"|Cash prize
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film|Best Feature Film]]
|''[[Ship of Theseus (film)|Ship of Theseus]]''
|English, [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
|Producer: Recyclewala Films Pvt Ltd Director: [[Anand Gandhi]]
| {{INRConvert|2.50|l|nolink=yes}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[Indira Gandhi Award for Best Debut Film of a Director|Best Debut Film of a Director]]
|''[[Fandry]]''
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|Producer: Navalkha Arts and Holy Basil Combine Director: [[Nagraj Manjule]]
| {{INRConvert|1.25|l|nolink=yes}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment|Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment]]
|''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]''
|Hindi
|Producer: [[Viacom 18 Motion Pictures]] and ROMP Pictures Director: [[Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra]]
| {{INRConvert|2.00|l|nolink=yes}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Children's Film|Best Children's Film]]
|''[[Kaphal]]''
|Hindi
|Producer: [[Children's Film Society of India]] Director: Batul Mukhtiar
|{{INRConvert|1.50|l|nolink=yes}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Direction|Best Direction]]
| ''[[Shahid (film)|Shahid]]''
| [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| [[Hansal Mehta]]
|{{INRConvert|2.50|l|nolink=yes}}
|}

==== Silver Lotus Award ====

All the winners were awarded with a ''Rajat Kamal'' (Silver Lotus Award), a certificate and a cash prize.<ref name="61streg"/>

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%;background-color:#F4F4F4;"
|-
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:28%;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:22%;"|Name of Film(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:7%;"|Language(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:30%;"|Awardee(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:13%;"|Cash prize
|-
! scope="row" |[[Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration|Best Feature Film on National Integration]]
|''[[Thalaimuraigal]]''
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|Producer: Company Productions Director:[[Balu Mahendra]]
|{{INRConvert|150000|nolink=yes}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues|Best Film on Other Social Issues]]
|''[[Tuhya Dharma Koncha]]''
|Marathi
|Producer: Indian Magic Eye Motion Pictures Pvt Ltd. Director : [[Satish Manwar]]
|{{INRConvert|150000|nolink=yes}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Film on Environment Conservation/Preservation|Best Film on Environment Conservation/Preservation]]
|''[[Perariyathavar]]''
|[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
|Producer: Ambalakkara Global Films Director: [[Dr. Biju]]
|{{INRConvert|150000|nolink=yes}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" |[[National Film Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]]
|''[[Shahid (film)|Shahid]]''
|Hindi
|[[Rajkumar Rao]]
| rowspan="2" | {{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
|''[[Perariyathavar]]''
|Malayalam
|[[Suraj Venjaramoodu]]
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|''[[Liar's Dice (film)|Liar's Dice]]''
|Hindi
|[[Geetanjali Thapa]]
| {{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
|''[[Jolly LLB]]''
|Hindi
|[[Saurabh Shukla]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" |[[National Film Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|''[[Astu]]''
|Marathi
|[[Amruta Subhash]]
| rowspan="2" | {{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
|''[[Ship of Theseus (film)|Ship Of Theseus]]''
|English-Hindi
|[[Aida El-Kashef]]
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" |[[National Film Award for Best Child Artist|Best Child Artist]]
|''[[Fandry]]''
|Marathi
|[[Somnath Awghade]]
| rowspan="2" | {{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
|''[[Thanga Meenkal]]''
|Tamil
|Baby Sadhana
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]]
|''[[Jaatishwar]]'' {{small|("E Tumi Kemon Tumi")}}
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|[[Rupankar Bagchi]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer|Best Female Playback Singer]]
|''[[Tuhya Dharma Koncha]]'' {{small|("Khurkhura")}}
|Marathi
|[[Bela Shende]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]
|''[[Liar's Dice (film)|Liar's Dice]]''
|Hindi
|[[Rajeev Ravi]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]] {{•}}{{small|[[Screenwriter|Screenplay Writer]] ([[Screenplay|Original]])}}
|''[[December-1]]''
|Kannada
|[[P. Sheshadri]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]] {{•}}{{small|Screenplay Writer (Adapted)}}
|''Prakruti''
|Kannada
|Panchakshari
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Screenplay|Best Screenplay]] {{•}}{{small|[[Dialogue]]s}}
|''[[Astu]]''
|Marathi
|[[Sumitra Bhave–Sunil Sukthankar|Sumitra Bhave]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Audiography|Best Audiography]] {{•}}{{small|[[Production sound mixer|Location Sound Recordist]]}}
|''[[Madras Cafe]]''
|Hindi
|Nihar Ranjan Samal
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Audiography|Best Audiography]] {{•}}{{small|[[Sound design|Sound Designer]]}}
|''[[Madras Cafe]]''
|Hindi
|Bishwadeep Chatterjee
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Audiography|Best Audiography]] {{•}}{{small|[[Re-recording (filmmaking)|Re-recordist of the Final Mixed Track]]}}
|''[[Swapaanam]]''
|Malayalam
|D. Yuvaraj
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Editing|Best Editing]]
|''[[Vallinam]]''
|Tamil
|[[V. J. Sabu Joseph]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Art Direction|Best Art Direction]]
|''[[Miss Lovely]]''
|Hindi
|{{•}}[[Ashim Ahluwalia]] {{•}}Tabasheer Zutshi {{•}}Parichit Paralkar
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]
|''[[Jaatishwar]]''
|Bengali
|Sabarni Das
| {{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Make-up Artist|Best Make-up Artist]]
|''[[Jaatishwar]]'' {{small|("for the make-up of the actor [[Prosenjit Chatterjee|Prosenjit]].")}}
|Bengali
|Vikram Gaikwad
| {{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Music Direction|Best Music Direction]] {{•}}{{small|[[Soundtrack|Songs]]}}
|''[[Jaatishwar]]''
|Bengali
|[[Kabir Suman]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Music Direction|Best Music Direction]] {{•}}{{small|[[Background music|Background Score]]}}
|''[[Na Bangaaru Talli]]''
|Telugu
|[[Shantanu Moitra]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Lyrics|Best Lyrics]]
|''[[Thanga Meenkal]]'' {{small|("Ananda Yaazhai")}}
|Tamil
|[[Na. Muthukumar]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Special Effects|Best Special Effects]]
|''[[Jal (film)|Jal]]''
|Hindi
|Intermezzo Studio Alien Sense Films Pvt Ltd
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Choreography|Best Choreography]]
|''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]'' {{small|("Masto Ka Jhoond")}}
|Hindi
|[[Ganesh Acharya]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" |[[National Film Award – Special Jury Award (Feature Film)|Special Jury Award]]
|''[[Yellow (2014 film)|Yellow]]''
|Marathi
|Producer: Viva In En Director: [[Mahesh Limaye]]
| rowspan="2" |{{INRConvert|200000|nolink=yes}}
|-
|''[[Miss Lovely]]''
|Hindi
|Producer: Future East Film Pvt Ltd Director : [[Ashim Ahluwalia]]
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" |[[National Film Award – Special Mention (Feature Film)|Special Mention]]
|''[[Yellow (2014 film)|Yellow]]''
|Marathi
|Gauri Gadgil (Child actor)
| rowspan="3" |Certificate only
|-
|''[[Yellow (2014 film)|Yellow]]''
|Marathi
|Sanjana Rai (Child actor)
|-
|''[[Na Bangaaru Talli]]''
|Telugu
|[[Anjali Patil]] (Actress)
|}

=== Regional Award ===

National Film Awards are also given to the best films in the regional languages of India. Awards for the regional languages are categorised as per their mention in the [[Languages with official status in India#Schedule|Eighth schedule]] of the [[Constitution of India]]. Awardees included producers and directors of the film. No films in languages other than those specified in the Schedule VIII of the Constitution were eligible.<ref name="61streg"/>

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%;background-color:#F4F4F4;"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:20%;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:16%;"|Name of Film
! scope="col" colspan="2" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:44%;"|Awardee(s)
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:20%;"|Cash prize
|-
! style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:25%;"|Producer(s)
! style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Director
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Assamese|Best Feature Film in Assamese]]
|''[[Ajeyo]]''
|Shiven Arts
|[[Jahnu Barua]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Bengali|Best Feature Film in Bengali]]
|''[[Bakita Byaktigato]]''
|Tripod Entertainment Pvt Ltd
|Pradipta Bhattacharyya
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi|Best Feature Film in Hindi]]
|''[[Jolly LLB]]''
|[[Fox Star Studios]]
|[[Subhash Kapoor]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Kannada|Best Feature Film in Kannada]]
|''[[December-1]]''
|Basant Productions
|[[P. Sheshadri]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[Discontinued and Intermittent National Film Awards#Best Feature Film in Konkani|Best Feature Film in Konkani]]
|''[[Baga Beach (film)|Baga Beach]]''
|Sharvani Productions
|[[Laxmikant Shetgaonkar]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Malayalam|Best Feature Film in Malayalam]]
|''[[North 24 Kaatham]]''
|Surya Cine Arts
|[[Anil Radhakrishnan Menon]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Marathi|Best Feature Film in Marathi]]
|''[[Aajcha Divas Majha]]''
|White Swan Productions
|[[Chandrakant Kulkarni]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil|Best Feature Film in Tamil]]
|''[[Thanga Meenkal]]''
|[[JSK Film Corporation]]
|[[Ram (director)|Ram]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu|Best Feature Film in Telugu]]
|''[[Na Bangaaru Talli]]''
|Sun Touch Productions
|[[Rajesh Touchriver]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|}

'''Best Feature Film in Each of the Language Other Than Those Specified In the Schedule VIII of the Constitution'''

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:24%;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:20%;"|Name of Film
! scope="col" colspan="2" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:36%;"|Awardee(s)
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:20%;"|Cash prize
|-
! style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Producer
! style="background-color:#EFE4B0;"|Director
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in English|Best Feature Film in English]]
|''The Coffin Maker''
|Shree Narayan Studio
|Veena Bakshi
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" | [[Discontinued and Intermittent National Film Awards#Best Khasi Feature Film|Best Feature Film in Khasi]]
|''[[Ri: Homeland of Uncertainty|Ri]]''
|Kurbah Films
|[[Pradip Kurbah]]
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|-
! scope="row" | [[Discontinued and Intermittent National Film Awards#Best Sherdukpen Feature Film|Best Feature Film in Sherdukpen]]
|''[[Crossing Bridges (film)|Crossing Bridges]]''
|TNT Films Production
|Sange Dorjee Thongdok
|{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}} each
|}

== Non-Feature Films ==

=== Jury ===
A committee of seven, headed by chair, [[Ashoke Viswanathan]] was appointed to evaluate the Non-Feature Films entries. The jury members were:

{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#F5EFD0;" |{{•}} Ashoke Viswanathan (chairperson)
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} Bishnu Dev Halder
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} S. Manjunathan
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Umesh Aggarwal
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Reena Mohan
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Sandeep Marwah
| style="width:50%" |{{•}}Ramesh Asher
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|}

=== Golden Lotus Award ===
All the winners were awarded with ''Swarna Kamal'' (Golden Lotus Award), a certificate and cash prize.<ref name="61streg"/>

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%;background-color:#F4F4F4;"
|-
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:24%;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:22%;"|Name of Film(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:18%;"|Language(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:22%;"|Awardee(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:14%;"|Cash prize
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film|Best Non-Feature Film]]
|''Rangbhoomi''
|Hindi
|Producer: [[Films Division of India|Films Division]] Director: Kamal Swaroop
|{{INRConvert|150000|nolink=yes}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film Direction|Best Non-Feature Film Direction]]
|''Chidiya Udh''
|{{dash}}
|Pranjal Dua
|{{INRConvert|150000|nolink=yes}}
|}

=== Silver Lotus Award ===

All the winners were awarded with ''Rajat Kamal'' (Silver Lotus Award) and cash prize.<ref name="61streg"/>

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%;background-color:#F4F4F4;"
|-
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:25%;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:22%;"|Name of Film(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:7%;"|Language(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:33%;"|Awardee(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:13%;"|Cash prize
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best First Non-Feature Film of a Director|Best First Non-Feature Film]]
|''Kanyaka''
|Malayalam
|Producer: [[Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute]] Director: Christo Tomy
|{{INRConvert|75|k}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Biographical Film|Best Biographical Film]] / [[National Film Award for Best Historical Reconstruction/Compilation Film|Best Historical Reconstruction Film]]
|''The Last Adieu''
|English
|Producer: Films Division Director: Shabnam Sukhdev
|{{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Educational/Motivational/Instructional Film|Best Educational Film]]
|''The Quantum Indians''
|English
|Producer: Public Service Broadcasting Trust Director: [[Raja Choudhury]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
! scope="row"|[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Environment/Conservation/Preservation Film|Best Environment Film]] Including [[National Film Award for Best Agriculture Film|Agriculture]]
|''[[Foresting Life]]''
|Hindi-Assamese
|Producer: A Media For Social Impact Director: Aarti Shrivastava
|{{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" |[[National Film Award for Best Arts/Cultural Film|Best Arts / Cultural Film]]
|''[[The Lost Behrupiya]]''
|Hindi
|Producer: Holybull Entertainment LLP Director: [[Sriram Dalton]]
| rowspan="2" | {{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
|''[[O Friend, This Waiting !]]''
|English-Telugu
|Producer: Justin McCarthy Director: Sandhya Kumar and Justin McCarthy
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" |[[National Film Award for Best Promotional Film|Best Promotional Film]]
|''Chasing The Rainbow''
|English
|Producer: Edumedia India Director: Charu Shree Roy
|rowspan="2" | {{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
|''Kush''
|Hindi
|Producer: Red Carpet Moving Pictures Pvt. Ltd. Director: Shubhashish Bhutiani
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Scientific Film|Best Science and Technology Film]]
|The Pad Piper
|English
|Producer: Akanksha Sood Singh Director: Akanksha Sood Singh
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Film on Social Issues|Best Film on Social Issues]]
|''[[Gulabi Gang (film)|Gulabi Gang]]''
|Hindi-[[Bundeli language|Bundelkhandi]]
|Producer: Raintree Films, Piraya Film As and Final Cut for Real Aps Director: Nishtha Jain
| {{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Investigative Film|Best Investigative Film]]
|''[[Katiyabaaz]]''
|Hindi-Urdu-English
|Producer: Globalistan Films Pvt. Ltd. Director: Deepti Kakkar and Fahad Mustafa
|{{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Short Fiction Film|Best Short Fiction Film]]
|''Mandrake ! Mandrake !''
|Hindi
|Producer: [[Film and Television Institute of India|FTII]] Director: Ruchir Arun
|{{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film on Family Welfare|Best Film on Family Welfare]]
|''Heyro Party''
|Bengali
|Producer: Baishakhi Banerjee and Deepak Gawade Director: Deepak Gawade
|{{INRConvert|50|k}} each
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]
|''Mandrake ! Mandrake !''
|Hindi
|[[Camera operator|Cameraman]]: Kavin Jagtiani [[Film laboratory|Lab]]: [[Reliance MediaWorks]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film Audiography|Best Audiography]]
|''Chidiya Udh''
|{{dash}}
|Gautam Nair
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film Editing|Best Editing]]
|''[[Gulabi Gang (film)|Gulabi Gang]]''
|Hindi-[[Bundeli language|Bundelkhandi]]
|Arjun Gourisaria
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film Music Direction|Best Music Direction]]
|''[[Yugadrashta]]''
|Assamese
|[[Anurag Saikia]]
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film Narration / Voice Over|Best Narration / Voice Over]]
|''Kankee O Saapo''
|Oriya
|Lipika Singh Darai
|{{INRConvert|50|k}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" |[[National Film Award – Special Jury Award (Non-Feature Film)|Special Jury Award]]
|''Ananthamurthy – Not A Biography...But A Hypothesis''
|English
|[[Girish Kasaravalli]] (Director)
| rowspan="2" |{{INRConvert|100000|nolink=yes}}
|-
|''Tamaash''
|Kashmiri
|[[Satyanshu Singh]] and Devanshu Singh (Director)
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="4" |[[National Film Award – Special Mention (Non-Feature Film)|Special Mention]]
|''Accsex''
|English-Hindi
|Shweta Ghosh (Director)
| rowspan="4" | Certificate only
|-
|''Candles In The Wind''
|Punjabi-Hindi (Director)
|Kavita Bahl and Nandan Saxena
|-
|''Dharmam''
|Tamil
|Madonne M. Ashwin (Director)
|-
|''At the Cross Roads : Nondon Bagchi Life and Living''
|English-Bengali
|Rajdeep Paul and Sarmistha Maiti (Director)
|}

== Best Writing on Cinema ==

=== Jury ===
A committee of three, headed by Sharad Dutt was appointed to evaluate the nominations for the best writing on Indian cinema. The jury members were as follows:

{| style="width:100%;border: 1px solid #BEB168;background-color:#FDFCF6;"
|-
| colspan="2" style="background-color:#F5EFD0;" |{{•}} Sharad Dutt (chairperson)
|- style="background-color:#F0EADF;"
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} Ganesh Anantharamna
| style="width:50%" |{{•}} Balaji Vittal
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|}

The Best Writing on Cinema awards are intended to encourage the study and appreciation of cinema as an art form and the dissemination of information and critical appreciation of the medium through books, articles, reviews etc.

=== Golden Lotus Award ===

All the winners were awarded with ''Swarna Kamal'' (Golden Lotus Award), cash prize and a certificate.<ref name="61streg"/>

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%;background-color:#F4F4F4;"
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:18%;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:27%;"|Name of Book
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:7%;"|Language
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:15%;"|Author(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:20%;"|Publisher(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:13%;"|Cash prize
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Book on Cinema|Best Book on Cinema]]
|''Cinema Ga Cinema''
|Telugu
|[[Nandagopal]]
|Praga India, Hyderabad
|{{INRConvert|75|k}}
|}

{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%;background-color:#F4F4F4;"
|- style="background-color:#F4F4F4"
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:20%;"|Name of Award
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:25%;"|Language(s)
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:30%;"|Awardee
! scope="col" style="background-color:#EFE4B0;width:25%;"|Cash prize
|-
! scope="row" |[[National Film Award for Best Film Critic|Best Film Critic]]
|English
|Alaka Sahani
|{{INRConvert|75|k}}
|}

== Awards not presented ==
{{col-float}}
;Feature films
* [[National Film Award for Best Animated Film|Best Animated Film]]
* [[National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare|Best Film on Family Welfare]]
* [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Oriya|Best Feature Film in Oriya]]
{{col-float-break}}
; Non-feature films
* [[National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Animation Film|Best Animation Film]]
* [[National Film Award for Best Anthropological/Ethnographic Film|Best Anthropological / Ethnographic Film]]
* [[National Film Award for Best Exploration/Adventure Film|Best Exploration / Adventure Film (Including sports)]]
{{col-float-end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==

;Official websites
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
* [http://dff.nic.in/images/Documents/41_61stNfaArchives.pdf 61st National Film Awards: Official Catalogue]
* [https://dff.nic.in/Archive.aspx National Film Awards Archives]
* [https://dff.nic.in Official Page for Directorate of Film Festivals, India]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140302171319/http://www.dff.nic.in/61st_NATIONAL_FILM_AWARDS_2013_1_regulations_updated.pdf 61st National Film Awards: Regulations for submission]
{{div col end}}

;Other resources
*[http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=104863 Ministry of Information & Broadcasting (Press release)]

{{Sister project links|wikt=no|q=no|v=no|commons=61st National Film Awards Winners|n=no|b=no|author=no|s=no|voy=no}}
{{National Film Awards}}

[[Category:National Film Awards (India) ceremonies]]
[[Category:2014 Indian film awards]]
[[Category:2014 awards in India]]

History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia

2026-03-25T09:47:52Z

BrookEjw0071: updated structure for clarity

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Indian_cultural_zone.svg|thumb|300px|right|Historic [[Indosphere]] cultural influence zone of [[Greater India]] for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the [[Indian honorifics|honorific titles]], [[Indian name#Global Indian influence in names|naming of people]], [[Place names in India#Global Indian influence in place name|naming of places]], [[loanword|linguistic borrowings]], mottos of organisations and educational institutes as well as adoption of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hindu temple architecture#Southeast Asia as part of Greater India|Indian architecture]], [[Indian martial arts#Influence|martial arts]], [[Music of India#Globalization of Indian music|Indian music and dance]], [[Clothing in India|traditional Indian clothing]], and [[Indian cuisine#Outside India|Indian cuisine]], a process which has been also aided by the ongoing historic expansion of [[Indian diaspora]].<ref name=diasind1>{{Cite book|title=A history of India|first=Hermann|last=Kulke|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|others=Rothermund, Dietmar, 1933–|isbn=0-203-39126-8|edition= 4th|location=New York|oclc=57054139}}</ref>]]

[[Southeast Asia]] was in the [[Greater India|Indian sphere of cultural influence]] from 290 BCE to the 15th century CE, when [[Hinduism|Hindu]]-[[Buddhism|Buddhist]] influences were incorporated into local political systems. Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the [[Indian subcontinent]] had established trade, cultural and political relations with [[Southeast Asian]] kingdoms in [[Burma]], [[Bhutan]], [[Thailand]], the [[Sunda Islands]], [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Philippines]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], and [[Champa]]. This led to the [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indianisation]] and [[Sanskritisation]] of Southeast Asia within the [[Indosphere]], Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist [[Mandala (political model)|Mandala]] (polities, city states and confederacies).{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

[[Culture of India|Indian culture]] itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also including [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] linguistic influence onto early Indians.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|date=1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|language=en}}</ref> However some scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, concluded that not only linguistic but there are also some cultural, and even political Austroasiatic influence on early [[Culture of India|Indian culture]] and traditions. [[India]] is seen as a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous traditions. This distinctly [[Culture of India|Indian cultural]] system was later adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social construct and statehood of [[Southeast Asian]] regional polity, which rulers gained power and stability, transforming small chieftains into regional powers.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lévi|first1=Sylvain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dx5dzJGGBg0C&q=austroasiatic+influence+on+india&pg=PR15|title=Pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian in India|last2=Przyluski|first2=Jean|last3=Bloch|first3=Jules|date=1993|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0772-9|language=en|quote=It has been further proved that not only linguistic but also certain cultural and political facts of ancient India, can be explained by Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) elements.}}</ref>

Unlike the other kingdoms which existed on the Indian subcontinent, the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava empire]] which ruled the southeastern coast of the [[India]]n peninsula did not impose cultural restrictions on people who wished to cross the sea.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} The [[Chola dynasty|Chola empire]], which executed the [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I|South-East Asian campaign of Rajendra Chola I]] and the [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]], profoundly impacted [[Southeast Asia]]. This impact led to more exchanges with [[Southeast Asia]] on the sea routes. Whereas [[Buddhism]] thrived and became the main religion in many countries of [[Southeast Asia]], it became a minority religion in [[India]].

The peoples of [[maritime Southeast Asia]] — present-day [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]] — are thought to have migrated southward from [[South China]] sometime between 2500 and 1500 BC. The influence of the civilization which existed on the [[Indian subcontinent]] gradually became predominant among them, and it also became predominant among the peoples which lived on the [[Southeast Asian]] mainland.

Southern Indian traders, adventurers, teachers and priests continued to be the dominating influences in Southeast Asia until about 1500 CE. Hinduism and Buddhism both spread to these states from India and for many centuries, they existed there with mutual toleration. Eventually the states of the mainland mainly became Buddhist.

==Drivers of the Indianization of Southeast Asia==
The key drivers of the [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indianisation]] of Southeast Asia were the [[Austronesian maritime trade network|Austronesian]]<ref name="Bellina2014"/><ref name="Mahdi1999"/> and [[Indian maritime history|Indian maritime trade]] especially the [[spice trade]] and the [[Maritime Silk Road]], the emissaries of [[Ashoka]], and the [[Ashoka#Buddhist missions|Buddhist missions]] of [[Ashoka|Emperor Ashoka the Great]].

==Indian maritime trade with Southeast Asia==
[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|thumb|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and [[Maritime Silk Road|historic]] maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<ref name="Manguin2016">{{cite book|first1=Pierre-Yves |last1=Manguin|editor1-first=Gwyn |editor1-last=Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World |chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages=51–76|isbn =978-3-319-33822-4|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50}}</ref>]]
{{see also |Austronesian maritime trade network| Indian maritime history | Spice trade |Maritime silk road}}
[[File:Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Indian ship on lead coin of [[Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi]], testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Satavahanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.]]
[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] sailors from [[Island Southeast Asia]] first established contact and trade with [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]] as early as 500 BCE. This resulted in the introduction of Southeast Asian material culture and [[cultigen]]s to South Asia; as well as connecting the material cultures of India and [[China]]. These early Austronesian trade routes linking Island Southeast Asia with India also became the maritime aspect of the wider [[spice trade]] network, which were later also used by [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Arab]] maritime trade. The sustained contact between Southeast Asia and South Asia resulted in cultural exchange, in addition to the exchange of commodities.<ref name="Bellina2014">{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina |editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =978-1-58839-524-5|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0-415-10054-0}}</ref><ref name="Manguin2016"/><ref name="BlenchFruits">{{cite journal |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2004 |volume=24 |issue=The Taipei Papers (Volume 2) |pages=31–50 |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/viewFile/11869/10496}}</ref>

The first clear mention of a navy occurs in the [[Hindu mythology|mythological epic]] the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref name=Chakravarti>Chakravarti (1930)</ref> Historically, however, the first attested attempt to organise a navy in India, as described by [[Megasthenes]] (c. 350—290 BCE), is attributed to [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (reign 322—298 BCE).<ref name=Chakravarti/> The [[Mauryan empire]] (322–185 BCE) navy continued till the times of emperor [[Ashoka]] (reign 273—232 BCE), who used it to send massive diplomatic missions to Greece, [[Syria]], Egypt, [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] and [[Epirus]].<ref name=Chakravarti/> Following nomadic interference in [[Siberia]]—one of the sources for India's bullion—India diverted its attention to the [[Malay Peninsula]], which became its new source for gold and was soon exposed to the world via a series of maritime [[trade route]]s.<ref name=shaffer309>Shaffer, 309</ref> The period under the Mauryan empire also witnessed various other regions of the world engage increasingly in the Indian Ocean maritime voyages.<ref name=shaffer309 />

=== Buddhist missions ===
In the Sri Lankan tradition, [[Moggaliputta-Tissa]] – who is patronised by Ashoka – sends out nine Buddhist missions to spread Buddhism in the "border areas" in c. 250 BCE. This tradition does not credit Ashoka directly with sending these missions. Each mission comprises five monks, and is headed by an elder.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}} To Sri Lanka, he sent his own son Mahinda, accompanied by four other Theras – Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}} Next, with Moggaliputta-Tissa's help, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to distant regions such as Kashmir, Gandhara, Himalayas, the land of the Yonas (Greeks), Maharashtra, Suvannabhumi, and Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Strong|1995|p=143}}

The Sri Lankan tradition dates these missions to Ashoka's 18th regnal year, naming the following missionaries:{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=50}}

* Mahinda to Sri Lanka
* Majjhantika to Kashmir and Gandhara
* Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala (possibly modern Mysore region)
* Rakkhita to Vanavasa
* Dhammarakkhita the Greek to Aparantaka (western India)
* Maha-dhamma-rakkhita to Maharashtra
* Maharakkhita to the Greek country
* Majjhima to the Himalayas
* Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (possibly Lower Burma and Thailand)

The tradition adds that during his 19th regnal year, Ashoka's daughter Sanghamitta went to Sri Lanka to establish an order of nuns, taking a sapling of the sacred Bodhi Tree with her.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}}{{sfn|Guruge, Unresolved|1995|p=51}}

Scholars, such as [[Erich Frauwallner]] and [[Richard Gombrich]], believe that the missions mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition are historical.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=11}} According to these scholars, a part of this story is corroborated by archaeological evidence: the ''Vinaya Nidana'' mentions names of five monks, who are said to have gone to the Himalayan region; three of these names have been found inscribed on relic caskets found at [[Bhilsa]] (near [[Vidisha]]). These caskets have been dated to the early 2nd century BCE, and the inscription states that the monks are of the Himalayan school.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=10}} The missions may have set out from Vidisha in central India, as the caskets were discovered there, and as Mahinda is said to have stayed there for a month before setting out for Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|pp=11–12}}

According to Gombrich, the mission may have included representatives of other religions, and thus, Lamotte's objection about "dhamma" is not valid. The Buddhist chroniclers may have decided not to mention these non-Buddhists, so as not to sideline Buddhism.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=12}} Frauwallner and Gombrich also believe that Ashoka was directly responsible for the missions, since only a resourceful ruler could have sponsored such activities. The Sri Lankan chronicles, which belong to the Theravada school, exaggerate the role of the Theravadin monk Moggaliputta-Tissa in order to glorify their sect.{{sfn|Gombrich|1995|p=12}}

Some historians argue that Buddhism became a major religion because of Ashoka's royal patronage.{{sfn|Thapar|1995|p=32}}

===Early Common Era—High Middle Ages===
{{main | Greater India | Indosphere | Chola invasion of Srivijaya | Maritime history of Odisha }}
{{See also | Sanskritisation |Chola dynasty|Chera dynasty|Pandya dynasty|Pallava dynasty}}
[[Image:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|right|300px|Chola territories during [[Rajendra Chola I]], c. 1030 CE.]]
During this era, [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Buddhist]] religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with [[Greater India|economic activity and commerce]] as patrons entrusted large funds which would later be used to benefit local economy by estate management, craftsmanship and promotion of trading activities.<ref name=Donkin67>Donkin, 67</ref> [[Buddhism]], in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art and literacy.<ref name=Donkin69>Donkin, 69</ref>

In [[Java]] and [[Borneo]], the introduction of Indian culture created a demand for aromatics, and trading posts here later served Chinese and Arab markets.<ref name=Donkin1>Donkin, 59</ref> The ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea|Periplus Maris Erythraei]]'' names several Indian ports from where large ships sailed in an easterly direction to ''[[Chryse (placename)|Chryse]]''.<ref>Donkin, 64</ref> Products from the [[Maluku Islands]] that were shipped across the ports of Arabia to the [[Near East]] passed through the ports of India and Sri Lanka.<ref name=Donkin4>Donkin, 92</ref> After reaching either the Indian or the Sri Lankan ports, products were sometimes shipped to [[East Africa]], where they were used for a variety of purposes including burial rites.<ref name=Donkin4/>

[[Maritime history of Odisha]], known as [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] in ancient times, started before 350 BC according to early sources. The people of this region of eastern [[India]] along the coast of the [[Bay of Bengal]] sailed up and down the [[Coastal India|Indian coast]], and travelled to [[Indo China]] and throughout [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], [[Indosphere|introducing elements]] of [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|their culture]] to the [[Greater India|people with whom they traded]]. The 6th century ''[[Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa|Manjusrimulakalpa]]'' mentions the [[Bay of Bengal]] as 'Kalingodra' and historically the Bay of Bengal has been called 'Kalinga Sagara' (both Kalingodra and Kalinga Sagara mean Kalinga Sea), indicating the importance of Kalinga in the [[Indian maritime history|maritime trade]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-IbAQAAMAAJ |title=The Journal of Orissan History, Volumes 13-15 |publisher=Orissa History Congress |year=1995 |page=54 }}</ref> The old traditions are still celebrated in the annual [[Bali Jatra]], or Boita-Bandana festival held for five days in October / November.<ref name=orissatourism>{{cite web
|url=http://www.orissatourism.in/Bali-Yatra.html
|title=Bali Yatra
|work=Orissa Tourism
|access-date=16 November 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721180800/http://www.orissatourism.in/Bali-Yatra.html
|archive-date=21 July 2011

}}</ref>

The [[Chola dynasty]] (200–1279) reached the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.<ref name=sastri5>Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 5
</ref> Emperors [[Rajaraja Chola I]] (reigned 985–1014) and [[Rajendra Chola I]] (reigned 1012–1044) extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits.<ref name=kulke115>Kulke & Rothermund, 115</ref> At its peak, the [[Chola Empire]] stretched from the island of [[Sri Lanka]] in the south to the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] basin in the north.<ref name=sastric194>Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V. Nilakanta Sastri, ''The CōĻas'' pp 194–210.</ref> The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.<ref name=majumdar407>Majumdar, 407</ref> Chola navies [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|invaded and conquered Srivijaya]] and [[Srivijaya]] was the largest empire in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].<ref>The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman—'''Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, 211–220'''.</ref> Goods and ideas from India began to play a major role in the "[[Greater India|Indianization]]" of the wider world from this period.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Shaffer
| first1 = Lynda Noreen
| chapter = Southernization
| editor1-last = Adas
| editor1-first = Michael
| editor1-link = Michael Adas
| title = Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qcSsoJ0IXawC
| series = Critical perspectives on the past
| others = American Historical Association
| year = 2001
| publisher = Temple University Press
| publication-date = 2001
| page = 308
| isbn = 978-1-56639-832-9
| access-date = 2013-12-24
| quote = The term 'southernization' [...] is used [...] to refer to a multifaceted process that began in Southern Asia and spread from there [...]. The process included [...] many interrelated strands of development[:] [...] the metallurgical, the medical, [...] the literary [...] the development of mathematics; the production and marketing of subtropical or tropical spices; the pioneering of new trade routes; the cultivation, processing, and marketing of southern crops such as sugar and cotton; and the development of various related technologies. [...] Southernization was well under way in Southern Asia by the fifth century C.E.
}}</ref>

[[Kollam|Quilon or Kollam]] in [[Kerala]] coast, once called Desinganadu, has had a high commercial reputation since the days of the Phoenicians and Romans.<ref>{{cite book |first=K. A. Nilakanta |last=Sastri |title=History of South India |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1958 |orig-date=1935}}</ref> Fed by the Chinese trade, it was mentioned by [[Ibn Battuta]] in the 14th century as one of the five Indian ports he had seen in the course of his travels during twenty-four years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/travel/article/destination/kollam/1095/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009210850/http://www.mathrubhumi.com/travel/article/destination/kollam/1095/| title=Kollam, Destination - Mathrubhumi Travel and Tourism|archivedate=October 9, 2014|website=www.mathrubhumi.com}}</ref> The Kollam Port became operational by AD.825,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voerPYsAB5wC&dq=Marco+polo+Quilon&pg=PA710 |title=Page No.710, International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |isbn=978-1-136-63979-1 |access-date=23 November 2016|last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |last2=Watson |first2=Noelle |last3=Schellinger |first3=Paul |date=12 November 2012 |publisher=Routledge }}</ref> allowing Desinganadu's rulers to exchange the embassies with Chinese rulers and there was flourishing Chinese settlement at [[Quilon]]. The Indian commercial connection with [[Southeast Asia]] proved vital to the merchants of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] and [[Iran|Persia]] between the 7th and 8th centuries CE.<ref name=Donkin1/>

The kingdoms of [[Vijaynagara]] and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] established footholds in Malaya, [[Sumatra]] and Western [[Java]].<ref name=indiannavy>[http://indiannavy.nic.in/ ''Early History'' (Indian Navy)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928143945/http://www.indiannavy.nic.in/ |date=2013-09-28 }}, [[National Informatics Center]], [[Government of India]].</ref>

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 116–117.</ref> Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 12</ref><ref name=kulke118>Kulke & Rothermund, 118</ref> The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund, 124</ref><ref>Tripathi, 465</ref><ref>Tripathi, 477</ref> The [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) of China, the [[Srivijaya]] empire in Maritime Southeast Asia under the Sailendras, and the [[Abbasid]] [[caliphate]] at [[Baghdad]] were the main trading partners.<ref name="trade">Nilakanta Sastri, ''The CōĻas'', 604</ref>

During the reign of [[Pandya]] Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765–790), the [[Chera dynasty]] were a close ally of the [[Pallavas]].<ref name=ahosi/> Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king.<ref name=ahosi/> Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.<ref name=ahosi>See ''A History of South India'' – pp 146 – 147</ref> Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150 CE), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (14th century).<ref name=Donkin4/> Chinese traveler [[Xuanzang]] mentions the town of [[Puri]] where "merchants depart for distant countries."<ref name=Donkin2>Donkin, 65</ref>

==Late Middle Ages==
{{further | Maratha Navy | Shivaji }}
[[Image:WorldShips1460. Indian ships..jpg|thumb|300px|right|Indian vessel as shown in the [[Fra Mauro map]] (1460).]]

[[Ma Huan]] (1413–51) reached [[Cochin]] and noted that [[Indian coinage|Indian coins]], known as ''fanam'', were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of one ''fen'' and one ''li'' according to the Chinese standards.<ref name=Chaudhuri223>Chaudhuri, 223</ref> They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-''li'' weight each.<ref name=Chaudhuri223/>

===Maritime route===
{{main|Maritime Silk Road}}

Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the [[wikt:maritime|maritime]] section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia, [[Indonesia|Indonesian archipelago]], [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Arabian Peninsula]], all the way to Egypt and finally Europe.<ref>{{cite web| title = Maritime Silk Road| work = SEAArch| url =https://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/tag/maritime-silk-route/| url-status=live| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140105043328/http://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/tag/maritime-silk-route/| archive-date = 5 January 2014}}</ref>

The trade route encompassed numbers of bodies of waters; including [[South China Sea]], [[Strait of Malacca]], [[Indian Ocean]], [[Gulf of Bengal]], [[Arabian Sea]], [[Persian Gulf]] and the Red Sea. The maritime route overlaps with historic Southeast Asian maritime trade, [[Spice trade]], [[Indian Ocean trade]] and after 8th century – the Arabian naval trade network. The network also extend eastward to [[East China Sea]] and [[Yellow Sea]] to connect China with [[Korean Peninsula]] and [[Japanese archipelago]].

===Expansion of religions===
[[File:Nestorian-Stele-Budge-plate-X.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Xi'an Stele]], created in 781, describes the introduction of Christianity to China]]

[[Richard Foltz]], [[Xinru Liu]], and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture, notably in the area of religions. [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Judaism]], Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions.<ref>[[Richard Foltz]], ''Religions of the Silk Road'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd edition, 2010, {{ISBN|978-0-230-62125-1}}</ref> Notably, established Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road offered a haven, as well as a new religion for foreigners.<ref>Xinru Liu, The Silk Road in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 77.</ref>

The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads, according to [[Jerry H. Bentley]], also led to [[syncretism]]. One example was the encounter with the Chinese and [[Xiongnu]] nomads. These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative. The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques, dress style, and lifestyle, while the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques, some dress style, music, and dance.<ref name="Jerry H 1993">[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 38.</ref> Perhaps most surprising of the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu, Chinese soldiers sometimes defected and converted to the Xiongnu way of life, and stayed in the steppes for fear of punishment.<ref name="Jerry H 1993"/>

Nomadic mobility played a key role in facilitating inter-regional contacts and cultural exchanges along the ancient Silk Roads.<ref name="hermes_2018">{{cite journal|last1=Hermes|first1=Taylor R.|last2=Frachetti|first2=Michael D.|last3=Bullion|first3=Elissa A.|last4=Maksudov|first4=Farhod|last5=Mustafokulov|first5=Samariddin|last6=Makarewicz|first6=Cheryl A.|title=Urban and nomadic isotopic niches reveal dietary connectivities along Central Asia's Silk Roads|journal=Scientific Reports|date=26 March 2018|volume=8|issue=1|page=5177|doi=10.1038/s41598-018-22995-2|pmid=29581431|language=En|issn=2045-2322|bibcode=2018NatSR...8.5177H|pmc=5979964}}</ref><ref name="frachetti_2017">{{cite journal|last1=Frachetti|first1=Michael D.|last2=Smith|first2=C. Evan|last3=Traub|first3=Cynthia M.|last4=Williams|first4=Tim|title=Nomadic ecology shaped the highland geography of Asia's Silk Roads|journal=Nature|date=8 March 2017|volume=543|issue=7644|pages=193–98|doi=10.1038/nature21696|pmid=28277506|language=En|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2017Natur.543..193F|s2cid=4408149|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1544288/}}</ref>

====Transmission of Buddhism====
{{Main|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Greco-Buddhism}}
[[File:Buddha of Miran.png|thumb|upright|Fragment of a wall painting depicting [[Buddha]] from a [[stupa]] in [[Miran (Xinjiang)|Miran]] along the Silk Road (200AD - 400AD)]]

[[File:Central Asian Buddhist Monks.jpeg|thumb|upright|A blue-eyed [[Buddhism in Central Asia|Central Asian monk]] teaching an East-Asian monk, [[Bezeklik]], [[Turfan]], eastern [[Tarim Basin]], China, 9th century; the monk on the right is possibly [[Tocharians|Tocharian]],<ref>[[Albert von Le Coq|von Le Coq, Albert]]. (1913). [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/LFc-42/V-1/page/0003.html.en ''Chotscho: Facsimile-Wiedergaben der Wichtigeren Funde der Ersten Königlich Preussischen Expedition nach Turfan in Ost-Turkistan''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915144010/http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/LFc-42/V-1/page/0003.html.en |date=15 September 2016 }}. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer (Ernst Vohsen), im Auftrage der Gernalverwaltung der Königlichen Museen aus Mitteln des Baessler-Institutes, [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-B-31/V-1/page-hr/0107.html.en Tafel 19] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915183256/http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-B-31/V-1/page-hr/0107.html.en |date=15 September 2016 }}. (Accessed 3 September 2016).</ref> although more likely [[Sogdia]]n.<ref name="gasparini 2014 pp134-163">Ethnic [[Sogdia]]ns have been identified as the [[:File:BezeklikSogdianMerchants.jpg|Caucasian figures seen in the same cave temple]] (No. 9). See the following source: Gasparini, Mariachiara. "[http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525084750/http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711 |date=2017-05-25 }}" in Rudolf G. Wagner and Monica Juneja (eds), ''Transcultural Studies'', Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg, No 1 (2014), pp. 134–63. {{ISSN|2191-6411}}. See also [http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 endnote #32] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525084750/http://heiup.uni-heidelberg.de/journals/index.php/transcultural/article/view/12313/8711#_edn32 |date=2017-05-25 }} . (Accessed 3 September 2016.)</ref><ref>For information on the Sogdians, an [[Eastern Iranian people]], and their inhabitation of [[Turfan]] as an ethnic minority community during the phases of [[Tang dynasty|Tang Chinese]] (7th–8th century) and [[Kingdom of Qocho|Uyghur rule]] (9th–13th century), see Hansen, Valerie (2012), ''The Silk Road: A New History'', Oxford University Press, p. 98, {{ISBN|978-0-19-993921-3}}.</ref>]]

Buddhist knowledge among people on the Silk Road increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.<ref name="Foltz 1999 38">{{cite book |last=Foltz |first=Richard C. |title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century |publisher=St Martin's Press |year=1999 |location=New York |page=38}}</ref> The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road became prominent in the 1st century CE, according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor [[Emperor Ming of Han|Ming]] (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast, East, and Central Asia.<ref>[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 69, 73.</ref> Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=James A. |date=2009 |title=China's Southwestern Silk Road in World History |url=http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/6.1/anderson.html |journal=World History Connected |volume=6 |issue=1 |access-date=2 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209152743/http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/6.1/anderson.html |archive-date=9 February 2014 }}</ref>

The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs together.<ref>Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 16.</ref> Buddha's community of followers, the [[Sangha]], consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard C.|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=St Martin's Press|location=New York|page=37}}</ref> As the number of members within the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having the Buddha and his disciples visit.<ref>Xinru Liu, "The Silk Road in World History" (New york: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 51.</ref> It is believed that under the control of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]]s, Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to the middle of the third century.<ref>Xinru Liu, "The Silk Road in World History" (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 42.</ref> Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the territory of the [[Tarim Basin]], due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan, [[Sogdiana|Sogdian]], or [[Kuchean]].<ref>Foltz, "Religions of the Silk Road", pp. 37–58</ref>

[[File:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|upright|Bilingual edict ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by Indian Buddhist King Ashoka, 3rd century BCE; ''see'' [[Edicts of Ashoka]], from [[Kandahar]]. This edict advocates the adoption of "godliness" using the Greek term [[Eusebeia]] for [[Dharma]]. [[Kabul]] Museum.]]

One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk. Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first Buddhist text translations into the Chinese language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of [[Merv]], in due course and with the coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard C.|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=St Martin's Press|location=New York|page=47}}</ref>

From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with [[Fa-hsien]]'s pilgrimage to India (395–414), and later [[Xuanzang]] (629–644) and [[Hyecho]], who traveled from Korea to India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml|title=Ancient Silk Road Travellers|author1=Silkroad Foundation|author2=Adela C.Y. Lee|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090806070134/http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml|archive-date=6 August 2009}}</ref> The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy adventure novel called ''[[Journey to the West]]'', which told of trials with demons and the aid given by various disciples on the journey.

[[File:A statue depicting Buddha giving sermon, from Sarnath, now at Museum of Asian Art, Dahem Berlin.jpg|thumb|upright|A statue depicting Buddha giving a sermon, from [[Sarnath]], {{convert|3000|km|0|abbr=on}} southwest of Ürümqi, Xinjiang, 8th century]]

There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in the [[Khotan]] region.<ref name="Foltz 1999 38"/> The Mahayana, which was more of a "pan-Buddhist movement" than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle" are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road.<ref>{{cite book|last=Foltz|first=Richard C.|title=Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century|year=1999|publisher=St Martin's Press|location=New York|page=41}}</ref> With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality, including material wealth." It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point; this was often difficult for followers to understand.<ref>Xinru Liu, "The Silk Road in World History" (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 21.</ref>

During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, [[merchants]] played a large role in the spread of religion, in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism an appealing alternative to previous religions. Merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled.<ref>[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 43–44.</ref> Merchants also helped to establish [[diaspora]] within the communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. These communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized marketplaces, lodging, and storage.<ref>[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 48.</ref> The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese society.<ref>[[Jerry H. Bentley]], ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 50.</ref> The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended in Central Asia around the 7th century with the rise of Islam.

==Brunei==
{{main | History_of_Brunei#Indianised | l1=Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of Brunei }}

===Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms (? - ~1400)===
The history of Brunei before the arrival of [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]]'s ships in 1519-1522 CE is based on the interpretation of Chinese sources and local legends. Historians believe that there was a forerunner Indianised Hindu-Buddhist state to the present day Brunei Sultanate. One predecessor state was called Vijayapura, which possibly existed in northwest [[Borneo]] in the 7th century.{{efn|1=Not to be confused with the [[Vijayapura|Indian state of the same name]].}} It was probably a subject state of the powerful Indianised Hindu-Buddhist [[Srivijaya]] empire based in [[Sumatra]]. One predecessor state was called Po-ni (pinyin: Boni).<ref>{{Cite web | title=This view recently has been challenged. See Johannes L. Kurz "Boni in Chinese Sources: Translations of Relevant Texts from the Song to the Qing Dynasties" | url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/article_view.asp?id=172 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018034702/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/article_view.asp?id=172 | archive-date=2014-10-18 | year=2006}}</ref> By the 10th century Po-ni had contacts with first the [[Song Dynasty|Song]] dynasty and at some point even entered into a tributary relationship with China. By the 14th century Po-ni also fell under the influence of the Indianised Hindu [[Java]]nese [[Majapahit]] Empire. The book of [[Nagarakretagama]], canto 14, written by Prapanca in 1365 mentioned ''Berune'' as a vassal state of Majahpahit.<ref>{{cite web | title=Naskah Nagarakretagama | publisher=Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia | url=http://kelembagaan.pnri.go.id/Digital_Docs/homepage_folders/activities/highlight/naskah_nagara_kretagama/isi.htm | language=id | access-date=13 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523163555/http://kelembagaan.pnri.go.id/Digital_Docs/homepage_folders/activities/highlight/naskah_nagara_kretagama/isi.htm | archive-date=23 May 2017 }}</ref> However this may have been nothing more than a symbolic relationship, as one account of the annual tribute owed each year to Majahpahit was a jar of [[areca]] juice obtained from the young green nuts of the areca palm. The Ming dynasty resumed communications with Po-ni in the 1370s and the Po-ni ruler Ma-na-jih-chia-na visited the Ming capital Nanjing in 1408 and died there; [[Tomb of the King of Boni|his tomb]] was rediscovered in the 20th century, and is now a protected monument.

===Indianised Islamic sultanate (~1400 - present day)===
In 1402, [[Muhammad Shah of Brunei|Sultan Muhammad Shah]] died, he was first to convert from Hindu-Buddhism to Islam, and his pre-conversion name was Awang Alak Betatar.

==Burma (Myanmar)==
At the western end of the South East Asian mainland, Lower Burma was occupied by the Mon peoples who are thought to have come originally from western China. In Lower Burma they supplanted an earlier people: the Pyu, of whom little is known except that they practised Hinduism.

===Arrival of Buddhism and impact of Indian literature (3rd century CE onward)===
The Mons strongly influenced by their contacts with Indian traders during the 3rd century B.C adopted Indian literature and art and the Buddhist religion. The Mons were one of the earliest known civilizations in Southeast Asia. They consisted of several [[Mon kingdoms]], spreading from Lower Burma into much of Thailand, where they founded the kingdom of [[Dvaravati]]. Their principal settlements in Burma were [[Thaton Kingdom]] and Pegu.

===Tibeto-Burman Buddhist kingdoms (11th - 13th century CE )===
From about the 9th century onward Tibeto-Burman tribes moved south from the hills east of Tibet into the Irrawaddy plain. They founded their capital at [[Bagan]] in Upper Burma in the 10th century. They eventually absorbed the Mons, their cities and adopted the Mon civilization and Buddhism. The [[Bagan Kingdom]] united all Burma under one rule for 200 years - from the 11th to 13th centuries. The zenith of its power occurred during the reign of King Anawratha (1044–1077), who conquered the Mon kingdom of Thaton. King Anawratha built many of the temples for which Bagan is famous. It is estimated that some 13,000 temples once existed within the city, which some 5,000 still stand.

===13th-21st century===
{{empty section|date=April 2020}}
In the 14th century, the Delhi sultanate controlled nearly all the territory that comprises present-day India. However, invaders from Central Asia weakened and broke up the sultanate's empire before it was swept aside by the Mughals in 1526.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/india-1000-1300-ce-dynasties-religions.html#:~:text=In%20the%2014th%20century%2C%20the,by%20the%20Mughals%20in%201526 | title=Medieval Period in India {{!}} History, Timeline & Life |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126130442/https://study.com/academy/lesson/india-1000-1300-ce-dynasties-religions.html#:~:text=In%20the%2014th%20century%2C%20the,by%20the%20Mughals%20in%201526 | archive-date=2021-11-26 }}</ref>

==Cambodia==
===Funan===
{{See also | Funan }}
[[File:Siem Reap Reflections (CAMBODIA-REFLECTION-ANGKOR WAT) VI (1070423631).jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Angkor Wat]]]]
The first of these Hinduised states to achieve widespread importance was the [[Kingdom of Funan]] founded in the 1st century CE in what is now [[Cambodia]] — according to legend, after the marriage of a merchant monk [[Kaundinya I]] with princess [[Queen Soma|Soma]] who was the daughter of the chieftain of the local [[Nāga]] clan. Funan flourished for some 500 years. It carried on a prosperous trade with India and China, and its engineers developed an extensive canal system. An elite practised statecraft, art and science, based on Indian culture. Vassal kingdoms spread to southern Vietnam in the east and to the [[Malay Peninsula]] in the west.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

===Chenla and Angkor===
{{See also | Chenla | Khmer empire }}
In the late 6th century CE, dynastic struggles caused the collapse of the Funan empire. It was succeeded by another Hindu-Khmer state, [[Chenla]], which lasted until the 9th century. Then a [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] king, Jayavarman II (about 800–850) established a capital at [[Angkor]] in central Cambodia. He founded a cult which identified the king with the Hindu God Shiva – one of the triad of Hindu gods, Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, Shiva the god symbolising destruction and reproduction. The Angkor empire flourished from the 9th to the early 13th century. It reached the peak of its fame under Jayavarman VII at the end of the 12th century, when its conquests extended into Thailand in the west (where it had conquered the Mon kingdom of Dwaravati) and into Champa in the east. Its most celebrated memorial is the great temple of [[Angkor Wat]], built early in the 12th century. This summarises the position on the South East Asian mainland until about the 12th century. Meanwhile, from about the 6th century, and until the 14th century, there was a series of great maritime empires based on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. In early days these Indians came mostly from the ancient kingdom of [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]], on the southeastern coast of India. Indians in Indonesia are still known as "Klings", derived from Kalinga.

==East Timor==
The later Timorese were not seafarers, rather they were land focused peoples who did not make contact with other islands and peoples by sea. Timor was part of a region of small islands with small populations of similarly land-focused peoples that now make up eastern Indonesia. Contact with the outside world was via networks of foreign seafaring traders from as far as China and India that served the archipelago. Outside products brought to the region included metal goods, rice, fine textiles, and coins exchanged for local spices, [[sandalwood]], deer horn, bees' wax, and slaves.<ref name="Taylor 2003 page 378">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |url-access=registration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/378 378]|publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=0-300-10518-5}}</ref>

===Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms===

==== Indianised Javanese Hindu-Buddhist Srivijaya empire (7th - 12th century) ====
{{expand section|date=April 2020}}

Oral traditions of people of [[Wehali]] principality of East Timor mention their migration from Sina Mutin Malaka or ''"Chinese White [[Malacca]]"'' (part of [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indianised]] Hindu-Buddhist [[Srivijaya empire]]) in ancient times.<ref>H.J. Grijzen (1904), 'Mededeelingen omtrent Beloe of Midden-Timor', ''Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap'' 54, pp. 18-25.</ref>

==== As a vassal of the Indianized Javanese Hindu empire of Majapahit (12th - 16th century) ====
{{See also | Majapahit empire }}

[[Nagarakretagama]], the chronicles of the [[Majapahit]] empire called Timor a tributary,<ref name="Taylor 2003 page 377">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jean Gelman |title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean |url-access=registration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/377 377]|publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |location= New Haven and London |isbn=0-300-10518-5}}</ref> but as Portuguese chronologist [[Tomé Pires]] wrote in the 16th century, all islands east of Java were called "Timor".<ref>[http://www.uc.pt/timor/CURSO1A.HTM Population Settlements in East Timor and Indonesia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990202035244/http://www.uc.pt/Timor/CURSO1A.HTM |date=2 February 1999 }} – University of Coimbra</ref> Indonesian nationalist used the Majapahit chronicles to claim East Timor as part of Indonesia.<ref>[http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cesa/History_of_Timor.pdf History of Timor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324213447/http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cesa/History_of_Timor.pdf |date=2009-03-24 }} – Technical University Lisbon (PDF-Datei; 805 kB)</ref>

=====Trade with China=====
Timor is mentioned in the 13th-century Chinese ''[[Zhu Fan Zhi]]'', where it is called ''Ti-wu'' and is noted for its sandalwood. It is called ''Ti-men'' in the ''[[History of Song (Yuan dynasty)|History of Song]]'' of 1345. Writing towards 1350, [[Wang Dayuan]] refers to a ''Ku-li Ti-men'', which is a corruption of ''Giri Timor'', meaning island of Timor.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ptak | first1 = Roderich | year = 1983 | title = Some References to Timor in Old Chinese Records | journal = Ming Studies | volume = 1 | pages = 37–48 | doi = 10.1179/014703783788755502 }}</ref> Giri from "mountain" in [[Sanskrit]], thus "mountainous island of Timor".

=====Chiefdoms or polities=====
{{see also | Mandala (political model)| l1=Mandala}}
Early European explorers report that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms in the early 16th century. One of the most significant is the [[Wehali]] or [[Wehale kingdom]] in central Timor, to which the [[Tetum language|Tetum]], [[Bunak]] and [[Kemak people|Kemak]] ethnic groups were aligned.

===European colonisation and Christianisation (16th century onward)===
Beginning in the early sixteenth century, European colonialists—the Dutch in the island's west, and Portuguese in the east—would divide the island, isolating the East Timorese from the histories of the surrounding archipelago.<ref name="Taylor 2003 page 377"/>

==Indonesia==
{{main|History of Indonesia#Hindu-Buddhist civilisations}}
[[File:Prajnaparamita Java Side Detail.JPG|thumb|upright|An exquisite statue of [[Prajnaparamita of Java|Prajñāpāramitā]] from 13th century [[Singhasari]], East Java, seated in lotus position on a [[lotus throne]] performing ''dharmachakra-[[mudra]]''.]]
Approximately for more than a millennia, between 5th to 15th centuries, the various Indianised states and empires flourished in the [[Indonesian archipelago]]; from the era of [[Tarumanagara]] to [[Majapahit]]. Though founded possibly by either early Indian settlers or by native polities that adopted Indian culture, and have maintaining diplomatic contacts with India, these archipelagic Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms remained politically independent from the kingdoms of Indian subcontinent.

===Srivijaya empire===
The Indonesian archipelago saw the rise of Hindu-Buddhist empires of [[Sumatra]] and [[Java]]. In the islands of Southeast Asia, one of the first organised state to achieve fame was the Buddhist Malay kingdom of [[Srivijaya]], with its capital at Palembang in southern [[Sumatra]]. Its commercial pre-eminence was based on command of the sea route from India to China between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula (later known as the Straits of [[Malacca]]). In the 6th – 7th centuries [[Srivijaya]] succeeded Funan as the leading state in Southeast Asia. Its ruler was the overlord of the Malay Peninsula and western [[Java]] as well as [[Sumatra]]. During the era of Srivijaya, Buddhism became firmly entrenched there.

===Sailendra dynasty===
[[File:Panoramic views of Borobudur.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of 9th century [[Borobudur]], the elaborate [[stupa]]s took the form of a [[step pyramid]] and [[mandala]] plan, built by King Samaratungga of [[Shailendra dynasty|Shailendra]] dynasty, ruler of [[Mataram kingdom]].]]
The expansion of Srivijaya was resisted in eastern Java, where the powerful Buddhist [[Sailendra]] dynasty arose. From the 7th century onwards there was great activity in temple building in central Java. The most impressive of the ruins is at [[Borobudur]], considered to have been the largest Buddhist temple in the world. Sailendra rule spread to southern Sumatra, and up to the Malay Peninsula to [[Cambodia]] (where it was replaced by the [[Angkor]]ian kingdom). In the 9th century, the Sailendras moved to Sumatra, and a union of Srivijaya and the Sailendras formed an empire which dominated much of Southeast Asia for the next five centuries. After 500 Years of supremacy, Srivijaya was superseded by Majapahit.

===Mataram kingdom===
[[File:Prambanan Complex 1.jpg|thumb|The 9th-century Shivaistic temple of [[Prambanan]] in [[Central Java]] near [[Yogyakarta]], the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia]]
In the 10th century, [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] to the challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting in the destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century. Restored by King [[Airlangga]] (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death and the new state of Kediri was formed in eastern Java.

===Kediri kingdom===
[[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] kingdom, spread its influence to the eastern part of Southeast Asia and became the centre of Javanese culture for the next two centuries. The spice trade was now becoming of increasing importance, as the demand by European countries for spices grew. Before they learned to keep sheep and cattle alive in the winter, they had to eat salted meat, made palatable by the addition of spices. One of the main sources was the [[Maluku Islands]] (or "Spice Islands") in Indonesia, and Kediri became a strong trading nation.

===Singhasari kingdom===
In the 13th century, however, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown by a revolution, and [[Singhasari]] arose in east Java. The domains of this new state expanded under the rule of its warrior-king [[Kertanegara]]. He was killed by a prince of the previous Kediri dynasty, who then established the last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom, Majapahit.

===Majapahit empire===
With the departure of the Sailendras and the fall of Singhasari, a new [[Majapahit]] kingdom appeared in eastern Java, which reverted from Buddhism to Hinduism. By the middle of the 14th century, Majapahit controlled most of Java, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, part of [[Borneo]], the southern [[Celebes]] and the Moluccas. It also exerted considerable influence on the mainland.

==Laos==
{{See also | History of Laos#Indianisation | l1= Indianised early kingdoms of Laos }}

=== Funan kingdom ===

The first indigenous kingdom to emerge in [[Indochina]] was referred to in Chinese histories as the [[Kingdom of Funan]] and encompassed an area of modern [[Cambodia]], and the coasts of southern [[Vietnam]] and southern [[Thailand]] since the 1st century CE. [[Funan Kingdom|Funan]] was an [[Greater India|Indianised kingdom]],
that had incorporated central aspects of Indian institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, writing and architecture and engaged in profitable Indian Ocean trade.<ref name=funan>{{cite journal |url=https://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/BIPPA/article/view/9966/0 |title= Trade and Exchange Networks in Iron Age Cambodia: Preliminary Results from a Compositional Analysis of Glass Beads |last=Carter |first=Alison Kyra |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |volume=30 |publisher= Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2010 |access-date=12 February 2017|doi=10.7152/bippa.v30i0.9966|doi-broken-date= 12 July 2025 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Hal1985">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hal|title=Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqGAAAAIAAJ&q=funan+mountain+kings|year=1985|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-0843-3|page=63}}</ref>

=== Champa kingdom ===
By the 2nd century CE, Austronesian settlers had established an Indianised kingdom known as [[Champa]] along modern central Vietnam. The [[Cham people]] established the first settlements near modern [[Champasak Province|Champasak]] in Laos. [[Funan]] expanded and incorporated the [[Champasak Province|Champasak]] region by the sixth century CE, when it was replaced by its successor polity [[Chenla]]. Chenla occupied large areas of modern-day Laos as it accounts for the earliest kingdom on Laotian soil.<ref name="Hal1985"/><ref>National Library of Australia. [http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html Asia's French Connection : George Coedes and the Coedes Collection] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021052224/http://www.nla.gov.au/asian/form/coedes2.html |date=21 October 2011 }}</ref>

=== Chenla kingdom ===
The capital of early [[Chenla]] was Shrestapura which was located in the vicinity of [[Champasak Province|Champasak]] and the [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] of [[Wat Phu]]. [[Wat Phu]] is a vast temple complex in southern Laos which combined natural surroundings with ornate sandstone structures, which were maintained and embellished by the [[Chenla]] peoples until 900 CE, and were subsequently rediscovered and embellished by the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] in the 10th century. By the 8th century CE [[Chenla]] had divided into "Land Chenla" located in Laos, and "Water Chenla" founded by Mahendravarman near [[Sambor Prei Kuk]] in [[Cambodia]]. Land [[Chenla]] was known to the Chinese as "Po Lou" or "Wen Dan" and dispatched a trade mission to the [[Tang dynasty]] court in 717 CE. Water [[Chenla]], would come under repeated attack from [[Champa]], the [[Medang Kingdom|Medang]] sea kingdoms in Indonesia based in Java, and finally pirates. From the instability the Khmer emerged.<ref name=ljam1/>

=== Khmer kingdom ===
Under the king [[Jayavarman II]] the [[Khmer Empire]] began to take shape in the 9th century CE.<ref name=ljam1>{{cite web |url=http://www.e-reading.club/bookreader.php/142071/Encyclopedia_of_ancient_Asian_civilizations.pdf |title= Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations by Charles F. W. Higham – Chenla – Chinese histories record that a state called Chenla... | publisher= Library of Congress |access-date=13 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |title=Considerations on the Chronology and History of 9th Century Cambodia by Dr. Karl-Heinz Golzio, Epigraphist – ...the realm called Zhenla by the Chinese. Their contents are not uniform but they do not contradict each other. |publisher=Khmer Studies |access-date=5 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524140459/http://www.khmerstudies.org/download-files/publications/siksacakr/no2/consideration.pdf?lbisphpreq=1 |archive-date=24 May 2015 }}</ref>

=== Dvaravati city state kingdoms ===
In the area which is modern northern and central Laos, and northeast [[Thailand]] the [[Mon people]] established their own kingdoms during the 8th century CE, outside the reach of the contracting [[Chenla]] kingdoms. By the 6th century in the [[Chao Phraya River]] Valley, [[Mon people]]s had coalesced to create the [[Dvaravati|Dvaravati kingdoms]]. In the 8th century CE, Sri Gotapura (Sikhottabong) was the strongest of these early city states, and controlled trade throughout the middle Mekong region. The city states were loosely bound politically, but were culturally similar and introduced [[Therevada Buddhism]] from [[Sri Lanka]]n missionaries throughout the region.<ref name="Viravond">{{cite web |url = http://www.reninc.org/bookshelf/history_of_laos_viravong.pdf |title = HISTORY OF LAOS |author = Maha Sila Viravond |access-date = December 29, 2017 |publisher = Refugee Educators' Network }}</ref><ref name="Manich">{{cite web |url = http://www.reninc.org/bookshelf/history_of_laos_manich.pdf |title = HISTORY OF LAOS (including the history of Lonnathai, Chiangmai) |author = M.L. Manich |access-date = December 29, 2017 |publisher = Refugee Educators' Network }}</ref>

==Malaysia==
The [[Malay Peninsula]] was settled by prehistoric people 80,000 years ago. Another batch of peoples the deutro Malay migrated from southern China within 10,000 years ago. Upon arrival in the peninsula some of them mix with the Australoid. This gave the appearance of the Malays. It was suggested that the visiting ancient Dravidians named the peoples of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatera as "Malay ur" meant hills and city based on the geographical terrain of [[Peninsular Malaysia]] and Sumatera. Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος; c. 90 – c. 168), known in English as Ptolemy, was a Greek geographer, astronomer, and astrologer who had written about Golden Chersonese, which indicates trade with the Indian Sub-Continent and China has existed since the 1st century AD.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zZCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Golden+Chersonese%22+malay&pg=PA71|title=Imago Mvndi|year=1958|publisher=Brill Archive|language=en}}</ref> Archeologist have found relic and ruin in [[Bujang Valley]] settlement dating back at 110AD. The settlement is believed to be the oldest civilization in Southeast Asia influenced by ancient Indians. Today, Malaysians of direct Indian descent account for approximately 7 per cent of the total population of Malaysia (approximately. 2 million) {{citation needed|date=July 2018}}

[[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] from [[India]] dominated early regional history, reaching their peak during the reign of the [[Sumatra]]-based [[Srivijaya]] civilisation, whose influence extended through [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], the [[Malay Peninsula]] and much of [[Borneo]] from the 7th to the 13th centuries, which later gradually defeated and converted to Islam in 14th and 15th century before the European colonisation began in the 16th century.

===Indianised Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms (3rd century BCE to 14th century CE)===
==== Early trade and Indian settlements ====
In the first millennium CE, Malays became the dominant race on the peninsula. The small early states that were established were greatly influenced by Indian culture, as was most of Southeast Asia.<ref name="Marshall">{{cite book|title=World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72VwCFtYHCgC|year=2007|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7642-9}}</ref> [[Indianization of Southeast Asia|Indian influence in the region]] dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE. Tamil culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the Tamil [[Pallava dynasty]] in the 4th and 5th century.<ref>History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. by Sigfried J. de Laet p.395</ref>

[[File:BuddhaguptaStone001.jpg|thumb|200px|The Buddha-Gupta stone, dating to the 4th–5th century CE, was dedicated by an Indian Merchant, Buddha Gupta, as an expression of gratitude for his safe arrival after a voyage to the Malay peninsula. It was found in Seberang Perai, Malaysia and is kept in the National Museum, Calcutta, India.]]
In ancient Indian literature, the term ''[[Suvarnadvipa]]'' or the "Golden Peninsula" is used in ''[[Ramayana]]'', and some argued that it may be a reference to the Malay Peninsula. The ancient Indian text ''[[Vayu Purana]]'' also mentioned a place named ''[[Malayadvipa]]'' where gold mines may be found, and this term has been proposed to mean possibly Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=41559897 |title=An Introduction to the Study of Ancient Times in the Malay Peninsula and the Straits of Malacca |first=Roland |last= Braddell|journal=Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume= 15|number= 3 (129) |date=December 1937|pages= 64–126 }}</ref> The Malay Peninsula was shown on [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Ptolemy's world map|map]] as the "[[Golden Chersonese|Golden Khersonese]]". He referred to the Straits of Malacca as ''Sinus Sabaricus''.<ref>[http://www.cebu-online.com/makeitcebu/12thaseansummit/members/malaysia.php ASEAN Member: Malaysia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219192107/http://www.cebu-online.com/makeitcebu/12thaseansummit/members/malaysia.php |date=2020-02-19 }} Retrieved 29 May 2008.</ref>

[[China–India relations#History|Trade relations with China and India]] were established in the 1st century BC.<ref>{{cite book|author=Derek Heng|title=Sino–Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth through the Fourteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLE_ToRyuLsC&pg=PT39|date=15 November 2009|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-89680-475-3|pages=39–}}</ref> Shards of Chinese pottery have been found in [[Borneo]] dating from the 1st century following the [[southward expansion of the Han dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Jacques|last=Gernet|title=A History of Chinese Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-49781-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/127 127]}}</ref> In the early centuries of the first millennium, the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the Indian religions of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], religions which had a major effect on the language and culture of those living in Malaysia.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ishtiaq Ahmed|author2=Professor Emeritus of Political Science Ishtiaq Ahmed|title=The Politics of Religion in South and Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2T8oSfy3GZgC&pg=PA129|date=4 May 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-72703-0|pages=129–}}</ref> The [[Sanskrit]] writing system was used as early as the 4th century.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Stephen Adolphe Wurm|author2=Peter Mühlhäusler|author3=Darrell T. Tryon|title=Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCx0D0iE2QoC|year=1996|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-013417-9}}</ref>

====Indianised Hindu Malay kingdoms (3rd century to 7th century)====
There were numerous Malay kingdoms in the 2nd and 3rd century, as many as 30, mainly based on the Eastern side of the Malay Peninsula.<ref name="Marshall"/> Among the earliest kingdoms known to have been based in the Malay Peninsula is the ancient kingdom of [[Langkasuka]], located in the northern Malay Peninsula and based somewhere on the west coast.<ref name="Marshall"/> It was closely tied to [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan]] in Cambodia, which also ruled part of northern Malaysia until the 6th century. In the 5th century, the [[Old Pahang Kingdom|Kingdom of Pahang]] was mentioned in the ''[[Book of Song]]''. According to the [[Sejarah Melayu]] ("Malay Annals"), the [[Khmer people|Khmer]] prince Raja Ganji Sarjuna founded the kingdom of [[Gangga Negara]] (modern-day [[Beruas]], [[Perak]]) in the 700s. Chinese chronicles of the 5th century CE speak of a great port in the south called [[Kantoli|Guantoli]], which is thought to have been in the [[Straits of Malacca]]. In the 7th century, a new port called Shilifoshi is mentioned, and this is believed to be a Chinese rendering of [[Srivijaya]].

====Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Malay kingdoms as vassal of Srivijaya empire (7th - 13th century)====
{{main | Srivijaya empire }}
Between the 7th and the 13th century, much of the [[Malay Peninsula]] was under the Buddhist [[Srivijaya]] empire. The site of Srivijaya's centre is thought be at a [[River delta|river mouth]] in eastern [[Sumatra]], based near what is now Palembang.<ref name="state.gov">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2777.htm |title=Malaysia |publisher=State.gov |date=14 July 2010 |access-date=14 September 2010}}</ref> For over six centuries the [[Maharajah]]s of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the archipelago. The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or community leaders) swearing allegiance to the central lord for mutual profit.<ref name="History">{{cite book|author1=Barbara Watson Andaya|author2=Leonard Y. Andaya|title=A History of Malaysia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GSBCcNn1fsC|date=15 September 1984|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-38121-9}}</ref>

=====Relationship of the Srivijaya empire with the Tamil Chola empire=====
{{see also | South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I | Chola invasion of Srivijaya}}

[[Chola dynasty|Chola empire]] also had profound impact on Southeast Asia, who executed [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I]] and [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]].

The relation between Srivijaya and the [[Chola Empire]] of south India was friendly during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]] but during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] the Chola Empire [[South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I|invaded Srivijaya cities]].<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref>
In 1025 and 1026 Gangga Negara was attacked by [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola Empire]], the [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil]] emperor who is now thought to have laid [[Kota Gelanggi]] to waste. Kedah—known as ''Kedaram'', ''Cheh-Cha'' (according to ''I-Ching'') or ''Kataha'', in ancient [[Pallava]] or [[Sanskrit]]—was in the direct route of the invasions and was ruled by the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] from 1025. A second invasion was led by [[Virarajendra Chola]] of the [[Chola dynasty]] who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century.<ref>''History of Asia'' by B. V. Rao (2005), p. 211</ref> The senior Chola's successor, Vira Rajendra Chola, had to put down a Kedah rebellion to overthrow other invaders. The coming of the Chola reduced the majesty of [[Srivijaya]], which had exerted influence over [[Kedah]], [[Patani (historical region)|Pattani]] and as far as [[Nakhon Si Thammarat|Ligor]]. During the reign of [[Kulothunga Chola I]] Chola overlordship was established over the Srivijaya province [[kedah]] in the late 11th century.<ref>Singapore in Global History by Derek Thiam Soon Heng, Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied p.40</ref> The expedition of the [[Chola]] Emperors had such a great impression to the [[Malay people]] of the medieval period that their name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melaya.<ref>History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000–1800 by Geoffrey C. Gunn p.43</ref><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref><ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226</ref> Even today the Chola rule is remembered in [[Malaysia]] as many [[Malaysians|Malaysian]] princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such was the Raja of [[Perak]] called [[Raja Chulan]].<ref>Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans, by A. Kalyanaraman p.158</ref><ref>India and Malaya Through the Ages: by S. Durai Raja Singam</ref>

[[File:Muzium Negara KL67.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Avalokiteshvara statue found in Perak, 8th–9th century bronze.]]
[[Paṭṭiṉappālai|Pattinapalai]], a Tamil poem of the 2nd century CE, describes goods from [[Early history of Kedah|Kedaram]] heaped in the broad streets of the Chola capital. A 7th-century Indian drama, ''Kaumudhimahotsva'', refers to Kedah as Kataha-nagari. The ''Agnipurana'' also mentions a territory known as Anda-Kataha with one of its boundaries delineated by a peak, which scholars believe is [[Gunung Jerai]]. Stories from the ''Katasaritasagaram'' describe the elegance of life in Kataha. The Buddhist [[Nakhon Si Thammarat kingdom|kingdom of Ligor]] took control of Kedah shortly after. Its king [[Chandrabhanu]] used it as a base to attack [[Sri Lanka]] in the 11th century and ruled the northern parts, an event noted in a stone inscription in Nagapattinum in [[Tamil Nadu]] and in the Sri Lankan chronicles, ''[[Mahavamsa]]''.

=====Decline of the Srivijaya empire and conflicts between its capital and its former vassal states (12th - 13th century)=====
At times, the Khmer kingdom, the Siamese kingdom, and even the Chola kingdom tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states.<ref name="Marshall"/> The power of Srivijaya declined from the 12th century as the relationship between the capital and its vassal states broke down. Wars with the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and it may have also waged wars with the Indian states. In the 11th century, the centre of power shifted to [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]], a port which was possibly located further up the Sumatran coast near the [[Batang Hari River|Jambi River]].<ref name="History"/> The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further undermined by the [[The spread of Islam in Indonesia|spread of Islam]]. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such as [[Aceh]], broke away from Srivijaya's control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese kings of [[Sukhothai kingdom|Sukhothai]] had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the 14th century, the Hindu Java-based [[Majapahit]] empire came into possession of the peninsula.<ref name="state.gov"/>

===Defeat and conversion to Islamic sultanates in 14th and 15th century===
In the 14th century that first [[Islam]]ic sultanate was established. The adoption of Islam in the 14th century saw the rise of a number of sultanates, the most prominent of which was the [[Sultanate of Malacca]]. Islam had a profound influence on the [[Malay people]].

===European colonisation and modern era (16th century - 20th century)===
{{main|History of Malaysia#Colonial era|Portuguese Malacca|Dutch Malacca|British Malaya}}
The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were the first European colonial powers to establish themselves on the Malay Peninsula and [[Southeast Asia]], capturing Malacca in 1511, followed by the Dutch in 1641. However, it was the British who, after initially establishing bases at [[Jesselton]], [[Kuching]], [[Penang]] and [[Singapore]], ultimately secured their hegemony across the territory that is now Malaysia. The [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]] defined the boundaries between [[British Malaya]] and the [[Netherlands East Indies]] (which became Indonesia). A fourth phase of foreign influence was immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.<ref>Annual Report on the Federation of Malaya: 1951 in C.C. Chin and Karl Hack, Dialogues with Chin Peng pp. 380, 81.</ref>

== Philippines ==
{{main | Indian influences in early Philippine polities | History_of_the_Philippines#Pre-colonial_period_(900_AD_to_1565)| l2=Indianised kingdoms of Philippines | List of India-related topics in the Philippines | l3= India-related topics in the Philippines }}

=== Indianised kingdoms in Philippines ===

<section begin=pushpin map />
{{location map+ |Philippines | AlternativeMap =|float=right |height=1000|width=500 |caption=Locations of pre-colonial principalities, polities, kingdoms and sultanates in the Philippine archipelago |places=
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=8 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=20.35 |long=121.54 |label=[[Idjang]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=15.89 |long=120.28 |label=[[Pangasinan (historical polity)|Pangasinan]] |position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.35 |long=120.58 |label=[[Maynila (historical polity)|Maynila]] |position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=11.09 |long=122.29 |label=[[Madja-as]] |position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=8.57 |long=125.32 |label=[[Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]] |position=bottom right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=6.03 |long=121.00 |label=[[Sultanate of Sulu]] |position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=6.42 |long=121.98 |label=[[Kingdom of Kumalarang|Kumalarang]] |position=left}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=6.92 |long=122.07 |label=[[Sanmalan]]|position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=12.55 |long=121.05 |label=[[Ma-i]] |position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat= 11.53|long=120.13 |label=[[Sandao]] |position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=9.67 |long=123.87 |label=[[Bo-ol]] |position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=7.13 |long=124.15 |label=[[Sultanate of Maguindanao]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=10.31 |long=123.88 |label=[[Cebu (historical polity)|Cebu]] |position=top right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.35 |long=121.01 |label=[[Namayan]] |position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.37 |long=120.58 |label=[[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]] |position=left}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.73 |long=121.92 |label=[[Pulilu]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=8.02 |long=124.00 |label=[[Confederate States of Lanao]]|position=top}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=14.35 |long=121.06 |label=[[Cainta (historical polity)|Cainta]] |position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=15.55 |long=120.20 |label=[[Caboloan]] |position=left}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=12.50 |long=123.51 |label=[[Ibalon]] |position=right}}
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |mark=Blue pog.svg |lat=17.20 |long=120.35 |label=[[Ilocos Sur#Precolonial Era|Samtoy]] |position=left}}
}}
<section end=pushpin map />
{{further|Precolonial barangay|Dambana|Suyat}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width =
| image1 = Naturales 4.png
| caption1 = A Tagalog couple of the ''[[Maginoo]]'' nobility class depicted in the 16th-century [[Boxer Codex]].
| image2 =
| caption2 =
}}

** Luzon
*** Around Manila and [[Pasig river|Pasig River]] were 3 polities which were earlier Hindu-Buddhist, later Islamic and then subsumed and converted to Catholicism by Spanish in 16th century
**** [[Namayan]]
**** [[Maynila (historical polity)]]
***** [[Rajah Sulayman]] (also Sulayman III, 1558–1575), Rajah of Maynila
***** [[Rajah Matanda]] (1480–1572), ruler of Maynila, together with [[Rajah Sulayman]] was co-ruled Maynila, their cousin [[Lakandula]] ruled Tondo. Rajah Sulayman was one of three kings that ruled parts of present-day Manila, and fought against the Spanish Empire's colonisation of the Philippines
**** [[Tondo (historical polity)]] on the Pasig River in modern-day Metro Manila
***** [[Lakandula]], was a raja who was cousin of Rajah Sulayman and Rajah Matanda
***** [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], earliest known written document found in the Philippines, in [[Sanskritisation|Indianized]] [[Kawi script]] with [[Sanskrit]] loanwords
*** [[Ma-i]], a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of [[Mindoro]] island, from before 10th century till 14th century.
*** [[Sandao]], neighboring vassal-states of Ma-i near Palawan
*** [[Pulilu]], another vassal-state of Ma-i but located in Quezon Province
** Visayas
*** [[Cebu (historical polity)|Cebu]] at [[Singhapala]] (Mabolo in Cebu city on Mahinga creek) capital city in southern Cebu island was a Hindu kingdom founded by [[Sri Lumay]] or Rajamuda Lumaya, a half-Malay and half-Tamil from [[Sumatra]]. Cebu was subsumed by Spanish in 16th century.
**** King Sri Lumay was half [[Tamils|Tamil]] and half Malay, noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro Muslim raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayang Sugbu (literally "that of Sri Lumay's great fire") to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbu ("scorched earth").
**** Sri Bantug, king and successor son of Sri Lumay
**** [[Rajah Humabon]], king and successor son of Sri Batung
***** [[Battle of Mactan]] on 27 April 1521 between Rajah Humabon and Ferdinand Magellan in which Lapulapu fought on side of Rajah, resulting in the death of Ferdinand Magellan.
***** [[Lapulapu]], warrior under Rajah Humabon, Lapulapu fought Spanish{{clarify|date=March 2021}}
***** [[Ferdinand Magellan]], Portuguese explorer on hired by Spanish empire
**** [[Rajah Tupas]] (Sri Tupas), nephew and successor of Rajah Humabon, last to rule the kingdom before subsumed by Spanish [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] in the battle of Cebu during 1565.
**** Caste system: Below the rulers were the [[Timawa]], the feudal warrior class of the ancient Visayan societies of the Philippines who were regarded as higher than the ''[[uripon]]'' (commoners, [[serf]]s, and slaves) but below the ''[[Tumao]]'' (royal [[nobility]]) in the Visayan social hierarchy. They were roughly similar to the [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]] ''[[maharlika]]'' caste. Lapu Lapu was a [[Timawa]].
**** A crude Buddhist medallion and a copper statue of a Hindu Deity, [[Ganesha]], has been found by Henry Otley Beyer in 1921 in ancient sites in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and in Mactan, Cebu.<ref name="asj.upd.edu.ph">{{Cite web | url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-15-1977/francisco-indian-prespanish-philippines.pdf | title=Indian penetration of pre Spanish Philippines: a new look at the evidence | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219150123/http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-15-1977/francisco-indian-prespanish-philippines.pdf | archive-date=2018-02-19 }}</ref> The crudeness of the artifacts indicates they are of local reproduction. Unfortunately, these icons were destroyed during World War II. However, black and white photographs of these icons survive.
*** [[Madja-as]] of [[Panay island]] was a supra-baranganic polity from 14th century till 16th century until subsumed by Spanish.
** Mindanao
*** [[Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]] in northeast Mindanao, a Hindu kingdom that existed earlier than the 10th century. According to researcher Eric Casino, its first King who was named Rajah Kiling was not a native Filipino and was in fact from India as Kiling is the local term for Indians. In nearby Malaysia the similarly worded [[Keling]] means an immigrant from India. Butuan flourished until being subsumed by the Spanish in 16th century
*** [[Sanmalan]] in the Zamboanga Peninsula
**** [[Mount Diwata]]: named after [[Anito|diwata]] concept of Philippines based on the [[devata]] deity concept of Hinduism
*** [[Kingdom of Kumalarang]] in [[Kumalarang]], Zamboanga del Sur
*** [[Confederate States of Lanao]] of Muslims in Maguindanao in northwestern Mindanao from 15th century till the present day.
*** [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]] in Cotabato in far west Mindanao from split from Srivijaya Hindu ancestors in 16th century and ruled till early 20th century, originally converted by sultan of Johor in 16th century but maintained informal kinship with Hindu siblings who are now likely Christians
*** [[Sultanate of Sulu]] in southwestern Mindanao, established in 1457 by a Johore-born Muslim explorer, gained independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578 and lasted till 1986. It also covered the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from [[Marudu Bay]] to Tepian Durian in present-day Kalimantan.
*** [[Lupah Sug]], a predecessor Hindu state before the establishment of Sultanate of Sulu.<ref name="Genealogy of Sultan Sharif Ul-Hashim of Sulu Sultanate">{{cite web|last=Julkarnain |first=Datu Albi Ahmad |title=Genealogy of Sultan Sharif Ul-Hashim of Sulu Sultanate |url=http://www.zambotoday.com/archives/7439-Genealogy-of-Sultan-Sharif-Ul-Hashim-of-Sulu-Sultanate.html |access-date=21 December 2010 |newspaper=Zambo Times |date=30 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718151329/http://www.zambotoday.com/archives/7439-Genealogy-of-Sultan-Sharif-Ul-Hashim-of-Sulu-Sultanate.html |archive-date=18 July 2011 }}</ref>
**** Maimbung principality: Hindu polity, predecessor of Lupah Sug Muslim sultanate. [[Sulu]] that time was called ''Lupah Sug''<ref name="Genealogy of Sultan Sharif Ul-Hashim of Sulu Sultanate" /> The Principality of Maimbung, populated by [[Buranun people]] (or ''Budanon'', literally means "mountain-dwellers"), was first ruled by a certain [[rajah]] who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title ''rajah sipad'' originated from the Hindu [[sri]] pada, which symbolises authority.<ref name="ibrahim 51">{{Harvnb|Ibrahim|1985|p=51}}</ref> The Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger.

=== Indians in Philippines during colonial era ===
* 1762–1764 [[British Manila]]
** [[Battle of Manila (1762)]] by the [[East India Company]]'s Indian soldiers during [[Anglo-Spanish War (1761–63)]]
** [[Cainta]] in [[Rizal Province|Rizal]]: historic colonial era settlement of escaped Indians [[sepoy]]s of British East India Company
* [[Indian Filipino]]: Filipino citizens with part or whole Indian blood

=== Key Indianised Hindu-Buddhist artifacts found in Philippines ===
* Luzon
** [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]] in Luzon, earliest known written document found in the Philippines, in [[Sanskritisation|Indianized]] [[Kawi script]] with [[Sanskrit]] loanwords
** Palawan [[Tabon Caves#Tabon Caves Garuda Gold Pendant|Tabon Caves Garuda Gold Pendant]] found in the [[Tabon caves]] in the island of [[Palawan]], is an image of [[Garuda]], the eagle bird who is the mount of [[Hindu]] deity [[Vishnu]]<ref name=TabonGaruda>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oocities.org/lppsec/pp/palawan.htm |title=Palawan Tabon garuda |access-date=2020-04-05 |archive-date=2021-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224152835/http://www.oocities.org/lppsec/pp/palawan.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Visayas
** [[Rajahnate of Cebu]] Buddhist medallion and copper statue of Hindu Deity: A crude Buddhist medallion and a copper statue of a Hindu Deity, [[Ganesha]], has been found by Henry Otley Beyer in 1921 in ancient sites in Puerto Princesa, Palawan and in Mactan, Cebu.<ref name="asj.upd.edu.ph"/> The crudeness of the artifacts indicates they are of local reproduction. Unfortunately, these icons were destroyed during World War II. However, black and white photographs of these icons survive.
* Mindanao
** [[Golden Tara]] ([[Agusan image]]) from [[Kingdom of Butuan]] in northeast Mindanao is a golden statue that was found in [[Agusan del Sur]] in northeast Mindanao.

==Singapore==
{{Main|Early history of Singapore}}
{{see also|Timeline of Singaporean history|Kingdom of Singapura}}

The Greco-Roman astronomer [[Ptolemy]] (90{{ndash}}168) identified a place called ''Sabana'' at the tip of [[Golden Chersonese]] (believed to be the [[Malay Peninsula]]) in the second and third century.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hack|first=Karl|url=http://www.hsse.nie.edu.sg/staff/kahack/cc%202.3%20(Little%20India).htm|title=Records of Ancient Links between India and Singapore|publisher=National Institute of Education, Singapore|access-date=4 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060426231828/http://www.hsse.nie.edu.sg/staff/kahack/cc%202.3%20%28Little%20India%29.htm|archive-date=26 April 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The earliest written record of Singapore may be in a Chinese account from the third century, describing the island of ''Pu Luo Chung'' ([[wikt:蒲|蒲]] [[wiktionary:羅|羅]] [[wikt:中|中]]). This is thought to be a [[Transcription into Chinese characters|transcription]] from the [[Malay language|Malay]] name ''"[[Pulau Ujong]]"'', or "island at the end" (of the [[Malay Peninsula]]).<ref name=utexas>{{cite web|title=Singapore: History, Singapore 1994|url=http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/countries/singapore/Singapore-History.html|publisher=Asian Studies @ University of Texas at Austin|access-date=7 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323095958/http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/countries/Singapore/Singapore-History.html|archive-date=23 March 2007}}</ref>

In 1025 CE, [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola Empire]] led forces across the [[Indian Ocean]] and invaded the [[Srivijaya empire|Srivijayan empire]], attacking several places in [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]].<ref name=Coedes>{{cite book|last=Coedès|first=George|author-link=George Coedès|editor=Walter F. Vella|others=trans. Susan Brown Cowing|title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1|pages=142–143}}</ref><ref name="Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41">''Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41''</ref> The Chola forces were said to have controlled [[Temasek]] (now [[Singapore]]) for a couple of decades.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sar Desai, D. R. |title=Southeast Asia: Past and Present|page=43|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|isbn=978-0-8133-4838-4|date=4 December 2012|publisher=Avalon }}</ref> The name Temasek however did not appear in Chola records, but a tale involving a Raja Chulan (assumed to be Rajendra Chola) and Temasek was mentioned in the semi-historical ''[[Malay Annals]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/2683a39c-55bf-4627-8e95-2d6870e29478|title=Sri Vijaya-Malayu: Singapore and Sumatran Kingdoms|work=History SG}}</ref>

The [[Nagarakretagama]], a [[Java (island)|Javanese]] eulogy written in 1365, referred to a settlement on the island called ''[[Temasek|Tumasik]]'' (possibly meaning "''Sea Town''" or "''Sea Port''").<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DTOJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA381|title=Singapore Street Names: A Study of Toponymics|author=Victor R Savage |author2=Brenda Yeoh |publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2013|isbn=978-981-4484-74-9|page=381}}</ref>

===Hindu-Buddhist kingdom (? - ~1511)===

The name [[Temasek]] is also given in [[Sejarah Melayu]] (''Malay Annals''), which contains a tale of the founding of Temasek by a prince of [[Srivijaya]], Sri Tri Buana (also known as [[Sang Nila Utama]]) in the 13th century. Sri Tri Buana landed on Temasek on a hunting trip, and saw a strange beast said to be a lion. The prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" in Sanskrit. The actual origin of the [[Names of Singapore|name Singapura]] however is unclear according to scholars.<ref name=turnbull>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y9yvBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|title=A History of Modern Singapore, 1819–2005|author=C.M. Turnbull| author-link = Mary Turnbull | pages=21–22|publisher=NUS Press|year=2009|isbn= 978-9971-69-430-2}}</ref>

[[File:Mao Kun map - Singapore.png|thumb|The [[Mao Kun map]] from [[Wubei Zhi]] which is based on the early 15th century maps of [[Zheng He]] showing Temasek (淡馬錫) at the top left, and Long Ya Men (龍牙門) on the right panel.]]

In 1320, the [[Mongol Empire]] sent a trade mission to a place called ''[[Long Ya Men]]'' (or ''Dragon's Teeth Gate''), which is believed to be [[Keppel Harbour]] at the southern part of the island.<ref>{{cite web|title=Singapore: Relations with Malaysia|url=https://www.pbs.org/nbr/site/research/educators/060106_15a/|author=Community Television Foundation of South Florida|publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]|date=10 January 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061222073109/http://www.pbs.org/nbr/site/research/educators/060106_15a/|archive-date=22 December 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The Chinese traveller [[Wang Dayuan]], visiting the island around 1330, described ''[[Long Ya Men]]'' as one of the two distinct settlements in ''[[Temasek|Dan Ma Xi]]'' (from Malay ''[[Temasek]]''), the other being ''[[Ban Zu]]'' (from Malay ''pancur''). ''Ban Zu'' is thought to be present day [[Fort Canning]] Hill, and [[Archaeology in Singapore|recent excavations]] in Fort Canning found evidence indicating that Singapore was an important settlement in the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archaeology in Singapore – Fort Canning Site|url=http://www.seaarchaeology.com/v1/html/sg/fort_canning.html|publisher=Southeast-Asian Archaeology|access-date=9 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429114614/http://www.seaarchaeology.com/v1/html/sg/fort_canning.html|archive-date=29 April 2007|df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Reconstructing Banzu, a Fourteenth-Century Port Settlement in Singapore|author=Derek Heng Thiam Soon|journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume= 75, No. 1|issue=282|date= 2002|pages= 69–90}}</ref> Wang mentioned that the natives of ''Long Ya Men'' (thought to be the ''[[Orang Laut]]'') and Chinese residents lived together in ''Long Ya Men''.<ref name=wheatley>{{cite book|author=Paul Wheatley|author-link=w:Paul Wheatley (geographer)|title=The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500|location=Kuala Lumpur|publisher=[[w:University of Malaya|University of Malaya Press]]|year=1961|oclc=504030596|pages= 82–85}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hybrid Identities in the Fifteenth-Century Straits of Malacca|url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/wps/wps06_067.pdf|publisher=Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore|access-date=24 October 2017}}</ref> Singapore is one of the oldest locations where a Chinese community is known to exist outside China, and the oldest corroborated by archaeological evidence.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|page=120|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|author1-link=John N. Miksic |author=John Miksic|publisher=NUS Press|year=2013|isbn=978-9971-69-574-3}}</ref>

Sometime in its history, the name of Temasek was changed to Singapura. The ''[[Sejarah Melayu]]'' (''Malay Annals'') contains a tale of a prince of [[Srivijaya]], Sri Tri Buana (also known as [[Sang Nila Utama]]), who landed on Temasek after surviving a storm in the 13th century. According to the tale, the prince saw a strange creature, which he was told was a [[Asiatic lion|lion]]; believing this to be an auspicious sign, he decided to found a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" in [[Sanskrit]]. It is unlikely there ever were lions in Singapore, though [[tiger]]s continued to roam the island until the early 20th century. However, the lion motif is common in Hindu mythology, which was dominant in the region during that period (one of the words for "throne" in the [[Malay language]] is "singgasana", meaning "lion's seat" in Sanskrit), and it has been speculated that the "Singapura" name, and the tale of the lion, were invented by court historians of the [[Malacca Sultanate]] to glorify Sang Nila Utama and his line of descent.<ref name="baker">{{cite book | last = Baker | first = Jim | title = Crossroads: A Popular History of Malaysia and Singapore | publisher = Marshall Cavendish International Asia | date = 2008 }}</ref>

Different versions of its history are told in Portuguese sources, suggesting that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed by [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]] from Palembang.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300_1800|author= John N. Miksic |publisher=NUS Press |date=15 November 2013|isbn= 978-9971-69-574-3|pages=155–163 }}</ref> Historians believe that during the late 14th century, [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]], the last Srivijayan prince, fled to Temasek from [[Palembang]] after being deposed by the [[Majapahit Empire]]. According to Portuguese accounts, Parameswara killed the local chief with the title Sang Aji eight days after being welcomed into Temasek.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|author= John N. Miksic |publisher=NUS Press |date=15 November 2013|isbn= 978-9971-69-574-3|pages=155–156 }}</ref>

[[File:SingaporeStone-bwphoto.jpg|thumb|right|A fragment of the [[Singapore Stone]], inscribed with an [[Indic script]], c. 10th to 13th century.]]
By the 14th century, the empire of [[Srivijaya]] had already declined, and Singapore was caught in the struggle between Siam (now [[Thailand]]) and the Java-based Majapahit Empire for control over the Malay Peninsula. According to the [[Malay Annals]], Singapore was defeated in one Majapahit attack. The last king, [[Parameswara (king)|Sultan Iskandar Shah]] (a prince of Srivijaya empire, his Hindu name Parameswara before he was converted to Islam) ruled the island for several years, before being forced to [[Melaka]] where he founded the [[Sultanate of Malacca]].<ref name=uslcPrecolonial>{{cite web|title=Singapore – Precolonial Era|url=http://countrystudies.us/singapore/3.htm|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=18 June 2006}}</ref> Portuguese sources however indicated that Temasek was a Siamese vassal whose ruler was killed by [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]] (thought to be the same person as Sultan Iskandar Shah) from Palembang, and Parameswara was then driven to Malacca, either by the Siamese or the Majapahit, where he founded the [[Malacca Sultanate]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMt3BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300_1800|author= John N. Miksic|publisher=NUS Press |year=2013|isbn= 978-9971-69-574-3|pages=155–163}}</ref> Modern archaeological evidence suggests that the settlement on [[Fort Canning]] was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards.<ref name=turnbull/>

===Islamic sultanate (1511 - 1613)===
The Malacca Sultanate extended its authority over the island and Singapore became a part of the Malacca Sultanate.<ref name=utexas/> However, by the time the Portuguese arrived in the early 16th century, Singapura had already become "great ruins" according to [[Alfonso de Albuquerque]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/3be6e35b-321c-4961-83a7-0ef0ffa44f24|title=Singapura as "Falsa Demora"|work=Singapore SG|publisher=National Library Board Singapore}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUhjKE8APSYC&pg=PA73|title=The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque, Second Viceroy of India|author=Afonso de Albuquerque|page=73|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 2010|isbn=978-1-108-01154-9}}</ref> In 1511, the Portuguese seized Malacca; the sultan of Malacca escaped south and established the [[Johor Sultanate]], and Singapore then became part of the sultanate which was destroyed in 1613.<ref name=Borschbergp157-158/>

===British colony and modern era (19th century - present)===

The Portuguese however destroyed the settlement in Singapore in 1613, and the island sank into obscurity for the next two centuries.<ref name=Borschbergp157-158>{{cite book|last=Borschberg|first =P.|title=The Singapore and Melaka Straits. Violence, Security and Diplomacy in the 17th century|publisher=NUS Press|year=2010 |location=Singapore|pages=157–158 |isbn = 978-9971-69-464-7}}</ref><ref name=countrystudies>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/singapore/3.htm|title=Country Studies: Singapore: History|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=1 May 2007}}</ref>

==Thailand==
[[File:Map-of-southeast-asia 1400 CE km.PNG|thumb|281x281px| Map of South-east Asia c. 900CE, showing the [[Khmer Empire]] in red and [[Haripunjaya]] in light green]]

===Propagation of Buddhism in Thailand by emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE)===
Historically, the cultural and economic interaction between the two countries can be traced to roughly around the 6th century B.C. The single most significant cultural contribution of India, for which Thailand is greatly indebted to India, is [[Buddhism]]. Propagated in Thailand in the 3rd century B.C. by Buddhist monks sent by [[King Asoka]], it was adopted as the state religion of Thailand and has ruled the hearts and minds of Thais ever since. Presently 58,000,000 Thais, an overwhelming 94% of the total Thai populace adheres to Buddhism. However, direct contact can be said to have begun only in the 3rd century B.C. when King Asoka sent Buddhist monks to propagate Buddhism in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. Besides Buddhism, Thailand has also adopted other typically Indian religious and cultural traditions. The ceremonies and rites especially as regards the Monarchy evidence a strong Hindu influence.

=== Sukhothai period: Settlement of Indian traders and Brahmins in Thailand (1275–1350) ===
The Indians who moved into Thailand in the [[Sukhothai period]] (1275–1350) were either merchants who came to Siam or Thailand, for the purpose of trading or [[Brahmans]] who played an important role in the Siamese court as experts in astrology and in conducting ceremonies. The first group of Brahmans who entered Siam before the founding of Sukhothai as the first capital of Siam (1275–1350) popularized Hindu beliefs and traditions. During the Sukhothai period Brahman temples already existed. Brahmans conducted ceremonies in the court. The concepts of divine kingship and royal ceremonies are clear examples of the influence of Brahmanism.

The [[Coronation of the Thai monarch]] are practiced more or less in its original form even up to the present reign. The Thai idea that the king is a reincarnation of the Hindu deity [[Vishnu]] was adopted from Indian tradition. (Though this belief no longer exists today, the tradition to call each Thai king of the present Chakri dynasty Rama (Rama is an incarnation of Vishnu) with an ordinal number, such as Rama I, Rama II etc. is still in practice.)

=== Ayutthaya period: Settlement of more Indian Tamil traders in Thailand (1350–1767 CE) ===
In the [[Ayutthaya kingdom]] era (1350–1767), more Tamil merchants entered the South of the country by boat as evidenced by the statues of Hindu gods excavated in the South.

=== Later migration of Indians to Thailand (1855 CE - present day) ===
After the year 1855, the Tamils who migrated to Thailand can be classified into three groups according to the religion they believed in, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.

===Indian cultural influence on Thailand===
====Dance====
[[Thai literature]] and [[Thai art|drama]] draws great inspiration from [[Indian art]]s and [[Hindu mythology|legend]]. The Hindu epic of [[Ramayana]] is as popular in Thailand as it is in India. Thailand has adapted the Ramayana to suit the Thai lifestyle in the past and has come up with its own version of the Ramayana, namely, the [[Ramakien]].

Two of the most popular classical dances the [[Khon]], performed by men wearing ferocious masks, and the [[Dance in Thailand#Lakhon|Lakhon]] ([[Lakhon nai]], [[Lakhon chatri]] and [[Lakhon nok]]), performed by women who play both male and female roles draws inspiration primarily from the Ramakien. Percussion instruments and [[Piphat]], a type of woodwind accompany the dance.<ref name="indthai">{{cite web | url=http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Historical-Ties-India-and-Thailand-1.aspx | title=Historical Ties India and Thailand }}</ref>

In addition, there are [[shadow play]] called [[nang talung]] in Thai. This is a show in which shadows of pieces of cow or water buffalo hide cut to represent human figures with movable arms and legs are thrown on a screen for the entertainment of spectators. In [[South India]], this kind of show is called Bommalattam.

====Language====

[[Thai language]] too bears close affinity with Sanskrit and Dravidian languages. An indication of the close linguistic affiliation between India and Thailand is found in common Thai words like Ratha Mantri, Vidhya, Samuthra, Karuna, Gulab, Prannee etc. which are almost identical to their Indian counterparts. Thai language basically consists of monosyllabic words that are individually complete in meaning. His Majesty King [[Ram Khamhaeng]] the Great created the [[Thai script|Thai alphabet]] in 1283. He modeled it on the ancient Indian alphabets of [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]] through the medium of the [[Khmer script|old Khmer characters]]. Like most world languages, the Thai language is a complicated mixture derived from several sources. Many Thai words used today were derived from [[Pali]], [[Sanskrit]], Khmer, Malay, English and Chinese.<ref name="indthai" />

====Religious ceremonies and festivals====
Several Thai ceremonies have been adopted from Indian tradition. These include ceremonies related to ordination, marriage, merit making and cremation. Though the Buddha is the prime inspiration of Thailand, Brahma and other Hindu deities are widely worshipped among the Thais, due in part to the popularity of the Hindu ceremonial rites, which are used especially for royal ceremonies.

(1) The '''[[Triyampawai ceremony|Triyampawai Ceremony]] or the Giant Swing Ceremony'''. Originally a [[Brahmin]] ceremony performed to pay homage to the God [[Shiva]], it was traditionally held front of [[Wat Suthat]], while the King and Queen watched the ceremony from a gold silk pavilion. Though the ceremony was abolished during the reign of King [[Rama VII]] due to a severe economic fall, Brahman priests are still allocated money to make offerings to God Shiva.

(2) The '''[[Royal Ploughing Ceremony]]''', which is officiated by H.M. the king at [[Sanam Luang]] in May every year with pomp. Originally a Brahmanic rite, it was adopted to mark the beginning of the farming season as also to bless all farmers with fertility for the year.

(3) The '''Royal Ceremony for preparing Celestial Rice''' or [[Glutinous rice#Thai|Khao thip]] which was said to be originally prepared by celestial beings in honor of God Indra. A portion of the celestial rice is offered to monks while the remainder was divided in varying quantities among the royal family, courtiers and household members. The making of the ambrosial dish has come to a natural end since custom demanded that virgins alone should perform the preparation and stirring of celestial rice.

(4) The '''[[Kathina]] Ceremony''' or the period during which Buddhist monks receive new robes, which generally falls in the months of October- November.

(5) '''[[Loy Krathong]]''' – the Festival of Lights which is celebrated on the full moon night of the twelfth lunar month. The [[Loi Krathong|floating of Loi Krathong lanterns]], which began in the [[Sukhothai Kingdom]] period, continued throughout the different stages of Thai history. The present day understanding is that the festival is celebrated as an act of worship to [[Phra Mae Thorani|Chao Mae Kangka]], the Goddess of the Waters, for providing the water much needed throughout the year, and as a way of asking forgiveness if they have polluted it or used it carelessly.

(6) '''[[Songkran]] Festival''': Songkran day marks Thai New Year day. "Songkran" signifies the sun's move into the first house of the zodiac. It is similar to Indian [[Holi]] and [[Makar Sankranti]].

(7) '''[[Vesak|Visakha]] Puja Day''' which is considered as the greatest Buddhist holy day as it commemorates the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha.

Other famous ceremonial holy days include [[Māgha Pūjā|Magha Puja]] day, in February and [[Asalha Puja]] day in July which commemorates the day on which the Buddha delivered the [[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta|First Sermon]] to his five disciples, namely, Konthanya, Vassapa, Bhattiya, [[Mahanama (arhat)|Mahanama]] and Assashi at [[Sarnath|Esipatanamaruekathayawan]] (Isipatana forest at Sarnath in India) and there explained his concept of the [[Four Noble Truths]] (Ariyasai).<ref name="indthai" />

====Hindu astrology====
[[Hindu astrology]] still has a great impact on several important stages of Thai life. Thai people still seek advice from knowledgeable Buddhist monks or Brahman astrologers about the auspicious or inauspicious days for conducting or abstaining from ceremonies for moving house or getting married.

==== Influence of Ayurveda on Thai traditional medicine and massage ====
According to the Thai monk Venerable [[Buddhadasa]] Bhikku's writing, 'India's Benevolence to Thailand', the Thais also obtained the methods of making [[Ayurveda|herbal medicines]] (Ayurveda) from the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of family [[Clusiaceae|Guttiferae]], kanika or [[Parijata|harsinghar]], phikun or ''[[Mimusops elengi]]'' and bunnak or the [[Mesua ferrea|rose chestnut]] etc. were brought from India.<ref name="indthai" />

==== Influence of Indian cuisine and spices on Thai cuisine ====
Thai monk [[Buddhadasa]] Bhikku's pointed out that [[Thai cuisine]] too was influenced by [[Indian cuisine]]. He wrote that Thai people learned how to use [[Ayurveda|spices]] in their food in various ways from Indians.<ref name="indthai" />

==Vietnam==
===Early Chinese vassal states===
At the eastern extremity of mainland Southeast Asia, northern [[Vietnam]] was originally occupied by Austro-Asiatic peoples. However, when regional power structures shifted [[Kra–Dai-speaking peoples|Kra-Dai speaking]] [[Baiyue|tribes from Southern China]] began to settle in these lands. About 207 BC, [[Triệu Đà]], a [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] general, taking advantage of the temporary fragmentation of the Chinese Empire on the collapse of the [[Qin dynasty]], created in northern Vietnam the kingdom of [[Nanyue]]. During the 1st century BC, Nanyue was incorporated in the Chinese Empire of the [[Han dynasty]]; and it remained a province of the empire until the fall of the [[Tang dynasty]] early in the 10th century. It then regained its independence, often as a nominal tributary kingdom of the Chinese emperor.

=== Establishment of Indianised Hindu kingdom of Champa (10th century -) ===
In south-central Vietnam the Chams, a people of [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] stock, established the Hinduised kingdom of [[Champa]] c. 400. Subject to periodic invasions by the Annamese and by the Khmers of Cambodia, Champa survived and prospered. In 1471, a Vietnamese army of approximately 260,000, invaded Champa under Emperor [[Lê Thánh Tông]] (黎聖宗). The invasion began as a consequence of Cham King's [[Bàn La Trà Toàn|Trà Toàn]] attack on Vietnam in 1470. The Vietnamese committed genocide against the Cham slaughtering approximately 60,000. The Vietnamese destroyed, burnt and raided massive parts of Champa, seizing the entire kingdom. Thousands of Cham escaped to Cambodia, the remaining were forced to assimilate into [[Vietnamese culture]]. Today, only 80,000 Cham remain in Vietnam.

===Influence of Indian-origin Buddhism on Vietnam via Chinese culture===
Vietnam, or then known as [[Annam (Chinese province)|Annam]] ([[wikt:安|安]][[wikt:南|南]]; pinyin: Ānnán), experienced little Hindu influence – usually via Champa. Unlike other Southeast Asian countries (except for Singapore and the Philippines), Vietnam was influenced by the Indian-origin religion Buddhism via the strong impact of [[East Asian cultural sphere|culture of China]].

==See also==
* [[Indianisation|Spread of Indian influence]]
** [[Greater India]]
** [[Indosphere]]
** [[Buddhism in Southeast Asia]]
** [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia]]
** [[Indianization of Southeast Asia]]
* Trading routes
** [[Indian maritime history]]
** [[Silk Road]]
** [[Ancient maritime history]]
* Other related
** [[List of Southeast Asian leaders]]
** [[Southeast Asian Games]]
** [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]]
** [[Tiger Cub Economies]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Cœdès|first= George|author-link= George Cœdès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}
*Lokesh, Chandra, & International Academy of Indian Culture. (2000). Society and culture of Southeast Asia: Continuities and changes. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.
*R. C. Majumdar, Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia
*[[R. C. Majumdar]], ''India and South-East Asia'', I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6, 1979, {{ISBN|81-7018-046-5}}.
*R. C. Majumdar, ''Champa'', ''Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East'', Vol.I, Lahore, 1927. {{ISBN|0-8364-2802-1}}
*R. C. Majumdar, ''Suvarnadvipa'', ''Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East'', Vol.II, Calcutta,
*R. C. Majumdar, ''Kambuja Desa Or An Ancient Hindu Colony In Cambodia'', Madras, 1944
*R. C. Majumdar, ''Hindu Colonies in the Far East'', Calcutta, 1944, {{ISBN|99910-0-001-1}} Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia.
*[[R. C. Majumdar]], History of the Hindu Colonization and Hindu Culture in South-East Asia
* {{cite book|author=Daigorō Chihara|title=Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiUTOanLClcC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-10512-3}}
*K.P. Rao, ''Early Trade and Contacts between South India and Southeast Asia (300 B.C.-A.D. 200)'', ''East and West'' Vol. 51, No. 3/4 (December 2001), pp. 385–394

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last=Gombrich |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Gombrich |chapter=Aśoka – The Great Upāsaka |title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies |editor=Anuradha Seneviratna |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |isbn=978-955-24-0065-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |access-date=26 November 2019}}
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Guruge, Unresolved|1995}} |last=Guruge |first=Ananda W. P. |author-link=Ananda W. P. Guruge |chapter=Emperor Aśoka and Buddhism: Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist Tradition & Aśokan Inscriptions |title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies |editor=Anuradha Seneviratna |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |isbn=978-955-24-0065-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1995}}
* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|Ibrahim|1985}} |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Ahmad |first2=Sharon |last2=Siddique |first3=Yasmin |last3=Hussain |title=Readings on Islam in Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=1985 |isbn=978-9971-988-08-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BeDKqPTeHnUC}}
* {{cite book |last=Strong |first=John S. |author-link=John S. Strong |chapter=Images of Aśoka: Some Indian and Sri Lankan Legends and their Development |title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies |editor=Anuradha Seneviratna |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |isbn=978-955-24-0065-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |access-date=26 November 2019}}
* {{cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |chapter=Aśoka and Buddhism as Reflected in the Aśokan Edicts |title=King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary Studies |editor=Anuradha Seneviratna |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |isbn=978-955-24-0065-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iE5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1995 |access-date=26 November 2019}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{sister project links}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090611115235/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/graphics/ref_maps/pdf/southeast_asia.pdf Topography of Southeast Asia in detail] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
* [https://archive.today/20121212135345/http://www.lib.uci.edu/libraries/collections/sea/sasian.html Southeast Asian Archive] at the University of California, Irvine.
* [https://archive.today/20030225003006/http://www.lib.uci.edu/libraries/collections/sea/seaexhibit/ "Documenting the Southeast Asian Refugee Experience"], exhibit at the [[University of California, Irvine]], Library.
* [http://seasiavisions.library.cornell.edu Southeast Asia Visions, a collection of historical travel narratives] Cornell University Library Digital Collection
* [http://www.southeastasia.org www.southeastasia.org] Official website of the ASEAN Tourism Association
* [http://vimeo.com/20278207/ Southeast Asia Time Lapse Video] Southeast Asia Time Lapse Video
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/42850/rec/1 Art of Island Southeast Asia], a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
* [http://aero-comlab.stanford.edu/jameson/world_history/A_Short_History_of_South_East_Asia1.pdf A Short History of South East Asia] {{Update after|2014|2|27}}

{{India-related topics in Philippines}}
{{Former and present states in the Philippines}}
{{Historic Filipino monarchs}}
{{Hinduism (compact)}}
{{Asia in topic|Hinduism in}}
{{Southeast Asia}}
{{Regions of Asia}}

[[Category:Foreign relations of ancient India]]
[[Category:History of Southeast Asia|*]]
[[Category:Medieval international relations]]
[[Category:Indosphere]]
[[Category:Medieval history of India]]

Rifling

2026-03-24T15:06:15Z

BrookEjw0071: reworked lead additionally and improved wording for accuracy

{{Short description|Grooves in a weapon barrel for accuracy}}
[[File:105mm tank gun Rifling.jpg|thumb|Rifling of a 105 mm [[Royal Ordnance L7]] tank gun]]
[[File:Rifling of a cannon (M75; 90mm; y.1891; Austro-Hungarian; exposed in Ljubljana, Slovenia).jpg|right|thumbnail|Conventional rifling of a 90 mm M75 [[cannon]] (production year 1891, [[Austria-Hungary]])]]
[[File:GAU-8 bore.jpg|thumb|Rifling in a [[GAU-8]] [[autocannon]]]]

'''Rifling''' is the term for [[Helix|helical]] grooves [[machining|machined]] into the internal surface of a [[firearm]]'s [[Gun barrel|barrel]] for imparting a [[Rotation|spin]] to the fired [[projectile]] to improve its [[Aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] stability and accuracy. It is also the term (as a verb) for creating such grooves. Firearms without rifling are called ''[[smoothbore]]''.

Rifling is measured by ''twist rate'', the distance the rifling takes to complete one full revolution, expressed as a ratio with 1 as its base (e.g., 1:{{convert|10|in|cm|1}}). A shorter distance/lower ratio indicates a tighter twist, generating a higher spin rate (and greater projectile stability).

The combination of length, weight, and shape of a projectile determines the twist rate needed to [[Gyroscope|gyroscopically]] stabilize it: barrels intended for short, large-diameter projectiles such as spherical lead balls require a very low twist rate, such as 1 turn in 48 inches (122 cm).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chuckhawks.com/54_caliber_muzzleloader.htm |title=The .54 Caliber Muzzleloader |author=Smith, Randy D. |publisher=Chuck Hawks |access-date=2008-08-19 |archive-date=2008-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080811055709/http://www.chuckhawks.com/54_caliber_muzzleloader.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Barrels intended for long, small-diameter projectiles, such as the ultra-low-drag 80-[[Grain (mass)|grain]] 0.223 inch bullets (5.2 g, 5.56 mm), use twist rates of 1 turn in 8 inches (20 cm) or faster.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shilen.com/calibersAndTwists.html |title=Products::Rifle Barrels::Calibers and Twists |publisher=Shilen Rifles, Inc. |access-date=2008-08-19 |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927002444/http://www.shilen.com/calibersAndTwists.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rifling that increases the twist rate from [[breech-loading weapon|breech]] to [[Muzzle (firearms)|muzzle]] is called a ''gain'' or ''progressive'' twist; a rate which decreases down the length of a barrel is undesirable because it cannot reliably stabilize the projectile as it travels down the bore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.midwayusa.com/guntecdictionary.exe/showterm?TermID=2535 |title=gain twist |publisher=MidwayUSA GunTec Dictionary |access-date=2008-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215044336/http://www.midwayusa.com/guntecdictionary.exe/showterm?TermID=2535 |archive-date=2009-02-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=lilja_accurate>{{cite web |url=http://riflebarrels.com/articles/barrel_making/rifle_barrel_accurate.htm |title=What makes a barrel accurate? |author=Lilja, Dan |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830201913/http://www.riflebarrels.com/articles/barrel_making/rifle_barrel_accurate.htm |archive-date=2007-08-30 }}</ref>

An extremely long projectile, such as a [[flechette]], requires impractically high twist rates to stabilize; it is often stabilized aerodynamically instead. An aerodynamically stabilized projectile can be fired from a [[smoothbore]] barrel without a reduction in accuracy.

== History ==
[[File:Zuege.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional rifling of a 9 mm handgun barrel]]
{{main|Rifle}}

[[Musket]]s are [[smoothbore]], large caliber weapons using ball-shaped ammunition fired at relatively low velocity. Due to the high cost, great difficulty of precision manufacturing, and the need to load readily and speedily from the muzzle, musket balls were generally a loose fit in the barrels. Consequently, the balls would often bounce off the sides of the barrel, and their final destination after leaving the muzzle was less predictable. This was countered when accuracy was more important, for example, when hunting, by using a tighter-fitting combination of a closer-to-bore-sized ball and a patch. The accuracy was improved, but it is still not reliable for precision shooting over long distances.

Like the inventor of gunpowder itself, the inventor of barrel rifling is not yet definitively known. Straight grooving had been applied to small arms since at least 1480, originally intended as "soot grooves" to collect [[fouling|gunpowder residue]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Manucy |first1=Albert |title=Artillery Through The Ages: A Short Illustrated History of Cannon, Emphasizing Types Used in America |date=1949 |publisher=National Park Service Washington DC |pages=70}}</ref>

Some of the earliest recorded European attempts at spiral-grooved musket barrels were by [[Gaspard Kollner]], a gunsmith of [[Vienna]] in 1498, and by Augustus Kotter of [[Nuremberg]] in 1520. Some scholars allege that, at the end of the 15th century, Kollner's works used only straight grooves, and that it was not until he received help from Kotter that a working spiral-grooved firearm was made.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Greener |first1=William Wellington |title=The Gun and Its Development |date=March 1, 2013 |publisher=Skyhorse |isbn=978-1616088422 |page=620 |edition=9th}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lrml.org/historical/longrange/history02.htm |title=Long Range Shooting: A Historical Perspective |author=Curtis, W. S. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070622145927/http://www.lrml.org/historical/longrange/history02.htm |archive-date=2007-06-22 }}; Petzal, David E., and Bourjaily, Phil, with Fenson, Brad. ''The Total Gun Manual'' (Canadian edition) (San Francisco: WeldonOwen, 2014), p. 5.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Merrill |first1=Art |title=How To Calculate Rifling Twist Rates For Stabilizing Bullets |url=https://www.ssusa.org/content/how-to-calculate-rifling-twist-rates-for-stabilizing-bullets/ |website=Shooting Sports USA |access-date=19 May 2022}}</ref> There may have been attempts even earlier than this, as the main inspiration of rifled firearms came from archers and crossbowmen who realized that their projectiles flew far faster and more accurately when they imparted rotation through twisted fletchings.

Though true rifling dates from the 16th century, it had to be engraved by hand and consequently did not become commonplace until the mid-19th century. Due to the laborious and expensive manufacturing process involved, early rifled firearms were primarily used by wealthy recreational hunters, who did not need to fire their weapons many times in rapid succession and appreciated the increased accuracy. Rifled firearms were not popular with military users since they were difficult to clean, and loading projectiles presented numerous challenges. If the bullet was of sufficient diameter to take up the rifling, a large mallet was required to force it down the bore. If, on the other hand, it was of reduced diameter to assist in its insertion, the bullet would not fully engage the rifling, and accuracy would be reduced.

The first practical military weapons to use rifling with black powder were [[Breech-loading weapon| breech-loaders]], such as the [[Queen Anne pistol]].

== Twist rate ==
[[Image:Rus122shrapnel.JPG|thumb|Russian 122 mm shrapnel shell (which has been fired) showing rifling marks on the [[copper]] alloy [[driving band]] around its base, indicating clockwise spin]]
[[File:Cannonball equiped with winglets for rifled cannons circa 1860.jpg|thumb|[[Round shot|Cannonball]] equipped with winglets inside the bore of a rifled cannon c. 1860]]
[[File:Shell La Hitte.jpg|thumb|upright|Ogival shell of the [[La Hitte system]], 1858, designed to engage with clockwise rifling]]

For best performance, the barrel should have a twist rate sufficient to spin-stabilize any [[bullet]] that it would reasonably be expected to fire, but not significantly more. Large-diameter bullets provide more stability, as the larger radius provides more [[angular momentum|gyroscopic inertia]]. In contrast, long bullets are harder to stabilize, as they tend to be very back-heavy and the aerodynamic pressures have a longer arm ("lever") to act on. The slowest twist rates are found in [[muzzle-loading]] firearms meant to fire a round ball; these will have twist rates as low as 1 in {{convert|72|in|cm}}, or slightly longer, although for a typical multi-purpose muzzleloader rifle, a twist rate of 1 in {{convert|48|in|cm}} is very common. The [[M16 rifle|M16A2]] rifle, which is designed to fire the [[5.56×45mm NATO|5.56×45mm NATO SS109 ball and L110 tracer]] bullets, has a 1 in {{convert|7|in|cm|adj=on}} or 32 calibers twist. Civilian [[AR-15]] rifles are commonly found in 1 in {{convert|12|in|cm}} (54.8 cal) for older rifles and 1 in {{convert|9|in|cm}} (41.1 cal) for most newer rifles. However, some are made with 1 in {{convert|7|in|cm}} or 32-caliber twist rates, the same as those used for the M16 rifle. Rifles, which generally fire longer, smaller diameter bullets, will in general have higher twist rates than handguns, which fire shorter, larger diameter bullets.

There are three methods in use to describe the twist rate:

Traditionally, the most common method expresses the twist rate in terms of the 'travel' (length) required to complete one full revolution of the projectile in the rifled barrel. This method does not provide a straightforward understanding of whether a twist rate is ''relatively'' slow or fast when comparing bores of different diameters.

The second method describes the 'rifled travel' required to complete one full projectile revolution in calibers or bore diameters:

<math display=block>\text{twist} = \frac{L}{D_\text{bore}},</math>

where <math>\text{twist}</math> is the twist rate expressed in bore diameters; <math>L</math> is the twist length required to complete one full projectile revolution (in mm or in); and <math>D_\text{bore}</math> is the bore diameter (diameter of the lands, in mm or in).

The twist travel <math>L</math> and the bore diameter <math>D_\text{bore}</math> must be expressed in a consistent unit of measure, i.e. metric (mm) ''or'' imperial (in).

The third method simply reports the angle of the grooves relative to the bore axis, measured in degrees.

The latter two methods have the inherent advantage of expressing twist rate as a ratio and provide an easy way to understand whether a twist rate is ''relatively'' slow or fast, even when comparing bores of differing diameters.

In 1879, [[George Greenhill]], a professor of mathematics at the [[Royal Military Academy, Woolwich|Royal Military Academy (RMA) at Woolwich]], London, UK<ref>[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Greenhill.html "Alfred George Greenhill." (October 2003).] School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland.</ref> developed a [[rule of thumb]] for calculating the optimal twist rate for lead-core bullets. This shortcut uses the bullet's length and requires no allowances for weight or nose shape.<ref>Mosdell, Matthew. ''The Greenhill Formula''.http://www.mamut.net/MarkBrooks/newsdet35.htm (Accessed 2009 AUG 19)</ref> The eponymous ''Greenhill Formula'', still used today, is:

<math display=block>\text{twist} = \frac{C D^2}{L} \times \sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{SG}}{10.9}}</math>

where <math>C</math> is 150 (use 180 for muzzle velocities higher than 2,800 f/s); <math>D</math> is the bullet's diameter in inches; <math>L</math> is the bullet's length in inches; and <math>\mathrm{SG}</math> is the bullet's [[specific gravity]] (10.9 for lead-core bullets, which cancels out the second half of the equation).

The original value of <math>C</math> was 150, which yields a twist rate in inches per turn, when given the diameter <math>D</math> and the length <math>L</math> of the bullet in inches. This works up to velocities of about 840 m/s (2800 ft/s); above those velocities, a <math>C</math> of 180 should be used. For instance, with a velocity of 600 m/s (2000 ft/s), a diameter of {{convert|0.5|in|mm}} and a length of {{convert|1.5|in|mm}}, the Greenhill formula would give a value of 25, which means 1 turn in {{convert|25|in|mm}}.

Improved formulas for determining stability and twist rates include the [[Miller Twist Rule]]<ref>Miller, Don. ''[http://www.jbmballistics.com/bibliography/articles/miller_stability_2.pdf How Good Are Simple Rules For Estimating Rifling Twist]{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'', Precision Shooting, June 2009</ref> and the McGyro program<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jbmballistics.com/ballistics/downloads/text/mcgyro.txt |type=BASIC |format=TXT |title=McGyro |author=R. L. McCoy |date=April 1986 |website=JBM Ballistics |access-date=November 18, 2017 |archive-date=October 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012150803/http://www.jbmballistics.com/ballistics/downloads/text/mcgyro.txt |url-status=live }}</ref> developed by Bill Davis and Robert McCoy.

[[Image:parrottgun.jpg|right|thumbnail|A [[Parrott rifle]], used by both [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] and [[Union Army|Union]] forces in the [[American Civil War]].]]

If an insufficient twist rate is used, the bullet will begin to [[Yaw angle|yaw]] and then tumble; this is usually seen as "keyholing", where bullets leave elongated holes in the target as they strike at an angle. Once the bullet starts to yaw, any hope of accuracy is lost, as the bullet will begin to veer off in random directions as it [[Precession|precesses]].

Conversely, a rate of twist that is too high can also cause problems. The excessive twist can cause accelerated barrel wear and, coupled with high velocities, induce a very high spin rate, which can lead to projectile [[Bullet#Materials|jacket]] ruptures, causing high-velocity spin-stabilized projectiles to disintegrate in flight. Projectiles made of a single metal cannot practically achieve flight and spin velocities high enough to cause disintegration in flight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gsgroup.co.za/22x64.html|title=GS CUSTOM BULLETS — The 22x64 Experiment|access-date=2011-12-09|archive-date=2012-03-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320024136/http://gsgroup.co.za/22x64.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Smokeless powder]] can produce muzzle velocities of approximately {{convert|1600|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on}} for spin stabilized projectiles and more advanced propellants used in [[smoothbore]] tank guns can produce muzzle velocities of approximately {{convert|1800|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.defense-update.com/products/digits/120ke.htm | title=120mm Tank Gun KE Ammunition | publisher=Defense Update | access-date=2007-09-03 | date=2006-11-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070805005735/http://www.defense-update.com/products/digits/120ke.htm | archive-date=2007-08-05 | url-status=dead }}</ref> A higher twist than needed can also cause more subtle problems with accuracy; any inconsistency within the bullet, such as a void that causes an unequal distribution of mass, may be magnified by the spin. Undersized bullets also have problems, as they may not enter the rifling exactly [[concentric]] and [[coaxial]] to the bore, and excess twist will exacerbate the accuracy problems this causes.

A bullet fired from a rifled barrel can spin at over 300,000 [[Revolutions per minute|rpm]] (5 [[kHz]]), depending on the bullet's [[muzzle velocity]] and the barrel's [[twist rate]].

The general definition of the spin <math>S</math> of an object rotating around a single axis can be written as:

<math display=block>S = \frac{\upsilon}{C}</math>

where <math>\upsilon</math> is the linear [[velocity]] of a point in the rotating object (in units of distance/time) and <math>C</math> refers to the circumference of the circle that this measuring point performs around the axis of rotation.

A bullet that matches the rifling of the firing barrel will exit that barrel with a spin:

<math display=block>S = \frac{\upsilon_0}{L}</math>
where <math>\upsilon_0</math> is the muzzle velocity and <math>L</math> is the twist rate.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://accurateshooter.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/calculating-bullet-rpm-spin-rates-and-stability/ |title= Calculating Bullet RPM |date= 3 June 2008 |access-date= 4 February 2015 |archive-date= 8 August 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100808011856/http://accurateshooter.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/calculating-bullet-rpm-spin-rates-and-stability/ |url-status= live }}</ref>

For example, an M4 Carbine with a twist rate of 1 in {{convert|7|in|mm|1}} and a muzzle velocity of {{convert|3050|ft/s|m/s|0}} will give the bullet a spin of 930 m/s / 0.1778 m ≈ 5.230 kHz (313,835 rpm).

Excessive rotational speed can exceed the bullet's designed limits, and the resulting centrifugal force can cause the bullet to disintegrate radially during flight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loadammo.com/Topics/July01.htm |title=Twist Rate |date=18 August 2012 |access-date=4 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512015023/http://www.loadammo.com/Topics/July01.htm |archive-date=May 12, 2013 }}</ref>

== Design ==
A barrel of circular [[Gauge (bore diameter)|bore]] cross-section is not capable of imparting a spin to a projectile, so a rifled barrel has a non-circular cross-section. Typically, the rifled barrel contains one or more grooves that run down its length, giving it a cross-section resembling an [[internal gear]]. However, it can also take the shape of a [[polygonal rifling|polygon]], usually with rounded corners. Since the barrel is not circular in cross-section, it cannot be accurately described with a single diameter. Rifled bores may be described by the ''bore diameter'' or ''land diameter'' (the diameter between ''lands'' or high points in the rifling), or by ''groove diameter'' (the diameter between ''grooves'' or low points in the rifling). Differences in naming conventions for [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridges]] can confuse; for example, the projectiles of the [[.303 British]] are actually slightly larger in diameter than the projectiles of the [[.308 Winchester]], because the ".303" refers to the bore diameter in inches (bullet is .312), while the ".308" refers to the bullet diameter in inches (7.92 mm and 7.82 mm, respectively).

Despite differences in form, the common goal of rifling is to deliver the projectile accurately to the target. In addition to imparting the spin to the bullet, the barrel must hold the projectile securely and concentrically as it travels down the barrel. This requires that the rifling meet several tasks:<ref name=lilja_accurate />
*It must be sized so that the projectile will [[swage]] or [[obturate]] upon firing to fill the bore.
*The diameter should be consistent, and must not increase towards the muzzle.
*The rifling should be consistent down the length of the bore, without changes in cross-section, such as variations in groove width or spacing.
*It should be smooth, with no scratches lying perpendicular to the bore, so it does not abrade material from the projectile.
*The chamber and crown must smoothly transition the projectile into and out of the rifling.

Rifling may not begin immediately forward of the chamber. There may be an unrifled throat ahead of the chamber, so a cartridge may be chambered without pushing the bullet into the rifling. This reduces the force required to load a cartridge into the chamber and prevents a bullet from being left stuck in the rifling when an unfired cartridge is removed from the chamber. The specified diameter of the throat may be somewhat greater than the groove diameter, and may be enlarged by use if hot powder gas melts the interior barrel surface when the rifle is fired.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hornady.com/team-hornady/ballistic-calculators/ballistic-resources/internal-ballistics |title=Internal Ballistics |publisher=[[Hornady]] |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=22 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622005054/https://www.hornady.com/team-hornady/ballistic-calculators/ballistic-resources/internal-ballistics |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Freebore]] is a groove-diameter length of [[smoothbore]] barrel without lands forward of the throat. Freebore allows the bullet to transition from [[static friction]] to sliding friction and gain linear [[momentum]] before encountering the resistance of increasing rotational momentum. Freebore may allow more effective use of propellants by reducing the initial pressure peak during the minimum volume phase of [[internal ballistics]] before the bullet starts moving down the barrel. Barrels with freebore length exceeding the rifled length have been known by a variety of trade names, including [[Ball and shot gun|paradox]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.classicshooting.com/blogs/reading/17662636-definition-of-a-paradox-gun |title=Definition of a Paradox Gun |last=Holland & Holland |author-link=Holland & Holland |publisher=Classic Shooting Company |access-date=21 June 2018 |archive-date=21 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621221255/https://www.classicshooting.com/blogs/reading/17662636-definition-of-a-paradox-gun |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Manufacture ==
[[file:Aciéries de Saint-Chamond - Rayage des canons de 75 - Saint-Chamond - Médiathèque de l'architecture et du patrimoine - APZ0001439.jpg|thumb|Rifling a [[Canon de 75 modèle 1897|75-mm gun]] barrel during WWI]]
{{Further|Internal ballistics}}

An early method of introducing rifling to a pre-drilled barrel was to use a cutter mounted on a square-section rod, accurately twisted into a spiral of the desired pitch, mounted in two fixed square-section holes. As the cutter was advanced through the barrel, it twisted at a uniform rate governed by the pitch. The first cut was shallow. The cutter points were gradually expanded with repeated cuts. The blades were in slots in a wooden [[dowel]], which were gradually packed out with slips of paper until the required depth was obtained. The process was finished off by casting a [[Slug (projectile)|slug]] of molten lead into the barrel, withdrawing it, and using it with a paste of [[Emery (rock)|emery]] and oil to smooth the bore.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wilkinson|first1=Henry|title=Engines of War, Or, Historical and Experimental Observations on Ancient and Modern Warlike Machines and Implements|date=1840|publisher=Longman|location=London|pages=108–110|oclc=254626119}}</ref>

Most rifling is created by either:

* Cutting one groove at a time with a [[machine tool|tool]] (''cut rifling'' or ''single point cut rifling'');
* Cutting all grooves in one pass with a special progressive [[broach (metalwork)|broaching]] bit (''broached rifling'');
* [[Machine press|Pressing]] all grooves at once with a tool called a "button" that is pushed or pulled down the barrel (''button rifling'');
* [[Forge|Forging]] the [[gun barrel|barrel]] over a [[mandrel]] containing a reverse image of the rifling, and often the chamber as well (''hammer forging'');
* [[Shear forming#Flow forming|Flow forming]] the [[gun barrel|barrel]] preform over a [[mandrel]] containing a reverse image of the rifling (''rifling by flow forming'')
* Using non-contact forces such as [[chemical reaction]] or [[heat]] from [[laser]] source to [[Etching|etch]] the rifling pattern (''etching rifling'')
* Machining the rifling grooves texture on a thin metal plate, then folding the plate into the inner bore of the barrel (''liner rifling'')

The ''grooves'' are the spaces that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called ''lands''. These lands and grooves can vary in number, depth, shape, direction of twist (right or left), and twist rate. The spin imparted by rifling significantly improves the stability of the projectile, improving both range and accuracy. Typically, rifling is a constant rate down the barrel, usually measured by the length of travel required to produce a single turn. Occasionally, firearms are encountered with a ''gain twist'', where the rate of spin increases from chamber to muzzle. While intentional gain twists are rare, slight gain twists due to manufacturing variance are, in fact, fairly common. Since a reduction in twist rate is very detrimental to accuracy, [[gunsmith]]s who are [[machining]] a new barrel from a rifled blank will often measure the twist carefully so they may put the faster rate, no matter how minute the difference is, at the muzzle end.

== Projectiles ==
[[File:7,62x39 bullets - unfired and fired.JPG|thumb|upright|left|57-N-231 standard [[7.62×39mm]] military bullets with steel core - the one on the left is unfired, the one on the right is fired, with the rifling grooves visible. Notice the copper wash scraped off and the steel jacket is exposed on the groove marks]]
[[File:7,62mm G3 oder MG3.jpg|thumb|upright|Three recovered [[7.62×51mm NATO]] bullets (next to an unfired cartridge), showing rifling marks imparting anti-clockwise spin]]

The original firearms were [[muzzleloader|loaded from the muzzle]] by forcing a ball from the muzzle to the chamber. Whether using a rifled or smooth bore, a good fit was needed to seal the bore and provide the best possible accuracy from the gun. To ease the force required to load the projectile, these early guns used an undersized ball, and a patch made of cloth, paper, or leather to fill the ''windage'' (the gap between the ball and the walls of the bore). The patch acted as a [[wadding]], provided some degree of [[seal (mechanical)|pressure seal]]ing, kept the ball seated on the charge of [[black powder]], and kept the ball concentric with the bore. In rifled barrels, the patch also provided a means to transfer the spin from the rifling to the bullet, as the patch is engaged rather than the ball. Until the advent of the hollow-based [[Minié ball]], which expands and obturates upon firing to seal the bore and engage the rifling, the patch provided the best means of getting the projectile to engage the rifling.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Complete Blackpowder Handbook: The Latest Guns and Gear |author=Sam Fadala |publisher=Gun Digest |year=2006 |isbn=0-89689-390-1}} Chapter 18, The Cloth Patch</ref>

In [[Breech-loading weapon|breech-loading firearms]], the task of seating the projectile into the rifling is handled by the ''throat'' of the [[Chamber (firearms)|chamber]]. Next is the ''freebore'', which is the portion of the throat down which the projectile travels before the rifling starts. The last section of the throat is the ''throat angle'', where the throat transitions into the rifled barrel.

The throat is usually sized slightly larger than the projectile, so that the loaded cartridge can be inserted and removed easily, but the throat should be as close as practical to the groove diameter of the barrel. Upon firing, the projectile expands under the pressure from the chamber and obturates to fit the throat. The bullet then travels down the throat and engages the rifling, where it is engraved, and begins to spin. Engraving the projectile requires significant force, and in some firearms, the substantial freebore helps keep chamber pressures low by allowing the propellant gases to expand before they are required to engrave the projectile. Minimizing freebore improves accuracy by reducing the likelihood that a projectile will deform before entering the rifling.<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook for Shooters & Reloaders Volume II |author=P. O. Ackley |publisher=Plaza Publishing |year=1966}} pages 97–98</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.riflebarrels.com/articles/50calibre/throats_50_bmg.htm |title=Thoughts on Throats for the 50 BMG |author=Daniel Lilja |access-date=2008-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513011603/http://www.riflebarrels.com/articles/50calibre/throats_50_bmg.htm |archive-date=2008-05-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

When the projectile is swaged into the rifling, it takes on a mirror image of the rifling as the lands push into the projectile in a process called ''engraving''. Engraving captures not only the major features of the bore, such as the lands and grooves, but also minor features, such as scratches and tool marks. The relationship between the bore characteristics and the engraving on the projectile is often used in [[forensic ballistics]].

Deep-cut groove rifling barrels can be found in automatic firearms to deliberately ease out the gas pressure (although it can affect their velocity), thereby surpassing the projectile. The [[Heckler & Koch VP70]] is an example that uses this to ease pressure on the pistol slide.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qB4KbBcwtYg |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/qB4KbBcwtYg| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live| title=HK VP70 bullet velocity test|website=[[YouTube]] }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.firearmsnews.com/editorial/the-hk-vp70-machine-pistol/357643 |title=The H&K VP70 Machine Pistol - Firearms News}}</ref>

== Recent developments ==
[[File:Polygonal vs normal rifling.svg|thumb|left|Conventional rifling (left) and [[polygonal rifling]] (right). Both types of rifling use a spiraling pattern]]
[[File:Hammer forged 6-right polygonal rifling pattern.png|thumb|The spiraling pattern (here with polygonal rifling) is shown]]

The grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More recently, [[polygonal rifling]], a throwback to the earliest types of rifling, has become popular, especially in [[handgun]]s. Polygonal barrels tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of the sharp edges of the land (the grooves are the spaces that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called lands) reduces erosion of the barrel. Supporters of polygonal rifling also claim higher velocities and greater accuracy. Polygonal rifling is currently seen on pistols from [[Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod|CZ]], [[Heckler & Koch]], [[Glock]], [[Tanfoglio]], and the [[Kahr Arms]] ([[Kahr P series|P series]] only), as well as the [[Desert Eagle]].

{{anchor|Extended range, full bore}}
[[File:ERFB 155-mm projectiles for the G6 howitzer.jpg|thumb]]
For field artillery pieces, the ''extended range, full bore'' (ERFB) concept developed in early 1970s by Dennis Hyatt Jenkins and Luis Palacio<ref>{{US-patent|3939773A}}, {{patent|GB|1405329A}}</ref> of [[Gerald Bull]]'s [[Space Research Corporation]] for the [[GC-45 howitzer]] replaces the [[bourrelet]] with small nubs, which both tightly fit into lands of the barrel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=155 mm HE ER FB-BB (OFd M3-DV) |author= |website=MSM GROUP |date= |access-date=29 July 2022 |url=https://www.msm.sk/en/what-we-do/defence/ammunition/artillery-ammo/155-mm-he-er-fb-bb-ofd-m3-dv/ |archive-date=15 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715081144/https://www.msm.sk/en/what-we-do/defence/ammunition/artillery-ammo/155-mm-he-er-fb-bb-ofd-m3-dv/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite conference|url=https://asat.journals.ekb.eg/article_25665_987e8a5fd08bf4dd1b97a1fcd8a2c2fd.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429105945/https://asat.journals.ekb.eg/article_25665_987e8a5fd08bf4dd1b97a1fcd8a2c2fd.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-29 |url-status=live|title=ASSESSMENT OF ERFB-BB PROJECTILE|first1=HASSAN|last1=YAKOUT|first2=MOHAMED S.|last2=ABDEL-KADER|publisher=MILITARY TECHNICAL COLLEGE|location=CAIRO, EGYPT|date=14–16 May 1991|conference=FOURTH ASAT CONFERENCE|id=MF-366}}</ref> Guns capable of firing these projectiles have achieved significant increases in range, but this is compensated with a significantly (3–4 times) decreased accuracy, due to which they were not adopted by NATO militaries.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://soapbox.manywords.press/2018/07/05/extended-range-full-bore-rounds | title=Extended Range, Full Bore Rounds | date=5 July 2018 }}</ref> Unlike a shell narrower than the gun's bore with a [[Sabot (firearms)|sabot]], ERFB shells use the full bore, permitting a larger payload. Examples include the South African [[G5 howitzer|G5]] and the German [[PzH 2000]]. ERFB may be combined with [[base bleed]].

== Variable pitch rifling ==
A ''gain-twist'' or ''progressive rifling'' begins with a slow [[#Twist rate|twist rate]] that gradually increases down the bore, resulting in very little initial change in the projectile's [[angular momentum]] during the first few inches of bullet travel after it enters the [[gun barrel#Bore|throat]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forgottenweapons.com/ask-ian-progressive-twist-gain-twist-in-small-arms/ | title=Ask Ian: Progressive Twist (Gain Twist) in Small Arms? | date=21 July 2022 }}</ref> This enables the bullet to remain essentially undisturbed and true to the case mouth. After engaging the rifling at the throat, the bullet is progressively subjected to [[accelerate]]d [[angular momentum]] as it is propelled down the barrel. The theoretical advantage is that by gradually increasing the spin rate, torque is imparted along a much longer bore length, allowing thermomechanical [[stress (mechanics)|stress]] to be spread over a larger area rather than being focused predominantly at the throat, which typically [[wear]]s out much faster than other parts of the barrel. Gain-twist rifling was used before and during the [[American Civil War]] (1861–65). Colt [[Colt Army Model 1860|Army]] and [[Colt M1861 Navy|Navy]] revolvers both employed gain-twist rifling. Gain-twist rifling, however, is more difficult to produce than uniform rifling and, therefore, is more expensive. The military has used gain-twist rifling in a variety of weapons, such as the {{val|20|u=mm}} [[M61 Vulcan]] Gatling gun used in some current fighter jets and the larger {{val|30|u=mm}} [[GAU-8 Avenger]] Gatling gun used in the A10 Thunderbolt II close air support jet. In these applications, it enables lighter barrel construction by reducing chamber pressures through low initial twist rates while ensuring the projectiles have sufficient stability once they leave the barrel. It is seldom used in commercially available products, though notably on the [[Smith & Wesson Model 460]] (X-treme Velocity Revolver).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smith-wesson.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/Product4_750001_750051_765500_-1_757771_757767_757751_ProductDisplayErrorView_Y|title=Product: Model 460XVR™|access-date=2014-12-31|archive-date=2016-09-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915175038/http://www.smith-wesson.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/Product4_750001_750051_765500_-1_757771_757767_757751_ProductDisplayErrorView_Y|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Paradox gun]]
* [[Rifled musket]]
* [[Comparison microscope]]
* [[Gun barrel sequence]]
* [[Greenhill formula]]
* [[Glossary of firearms terminology]]
* [[Miller twist rate]]

== References ==
{{refs}}

== External links ==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://www.lasc.us/RangingShotBarrelMakingFeature.htm Article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911084109/http://www.lasc.us/RangingShotBarrelMakingFeature.htm |date=2007-09-11 }} on barrel making from an [[IHMSA]] shooter
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060621103003/http://www.riflebarrels.com/articles/barrel_making/making_rifle_barrel.htm Article] on barrel making from Lilja, a maker of world-class competition barrels
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721153551/http://www.riflebarrels.com/articles/barrel_making/twist_machine.htm Article] on making and measuring rifling by Lilja; includes pictures of button rifling machine
* [http://entrustmt.com/services/rifle-barrel-blanks/rifle-barrel-blank-manufacturing/ Article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160622044533/http://entrustmt.com/services/rifle-barrel-blanks/rifle-barrel-blank-manufacturing/ |date=2016-06-22 }} on rifle barrel manufacturing process, including gundrilling, reaming, rifling, and finishing
* [http://www.6mmbr.citymaker.com/barrelFAQ.html 6mmBR article] on barrels
* [http://7.62x54r.net/MosinID/MosinSlug.htm Bore slugging tutorial] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618211203/http://7.62x54r.net/MosinID/MosinSlug.htm |date=2006-06-18 }}, explaining how to determine the true bore and groove size and choose appropriate bullet diameters
* [http://accurateshooter.wordpress.com/2008/06/03/calculating-bullet-rpm-spin-rates-and-stability/ Calculating Bullet RPM — Spin Rates And Stability]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081956/http://lothar-walther.de/brcms/pdf/2103.pdf Common rifling dimensions of revolver, pistol, and rifle ammunition]

{{Firearms}}

[[Category:Artillery components]]
[[Category:Firearm components]]
[[Category:15th-century introductions]]
[[Category:1490s]]
[[Category:1498 in Europe]]
[[Category:15th-century inventions]]

Achaemenid Empire

2026-03-20T10:02:28Z

BrookEjw0071: Improved article clarity and structure

{{Short description|Ancient Iranian empire, 550–330 BC}}
{{Redirect|Persian Empire||Persian Empire (disambiguation)}}
{{Pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{native name|peo|𐎧𐏁𐏂}} {{Transliteration|peo|Xšāça}}
| conventional_long_name = Achaemenid Empire
| common_name = Persia
| era = [[Classical antiquity]]
| government_type = Monarchy
| area_rank = [[List of largest empires#Timeline of largest empires at the time|1st]]
| year_start = 550 BCE
| year_end = 330 BC
| life_span = 550–330 BCE
| event_start = [[Medo-Persian conflict|Succession to Media]]
| date_start =
| event_end = [[Wars of Alexander the Great|Fall to Macedonia]]
| date_end =
| event1 = [[Battle of Thymbra|Conquest of Lydia]]
| date_event1 = 547 BC
| event2 = [[Fall of Babylon|Conquest of Babylonia]]
| date_event2 = 539 BC
| event3 = [[Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|Conquest of the Indus Valley]]
| date_event3 = 535–518 BC
| event4 = [[Battle of Pelusium|Conquest of Egypt]]
| date_event4 = 525 BC
| event5 = [[Scythian campaign of Darius I|Invasion of Scythia]]
| date_event5 = 513 BC
| event6 = [[Greco-Persian Wars]]
| date_event6 = 499–449 BC
| event7 = [[Babylonian revolts (484 BC)|Babylonian Revolts]]
| date_event7 = 484 BC
| event8 = [[Corinthian War]]
| date_event8 = 395–387 BC
| event9 = [[Great Satraps' Revolt]]
| date_event9 = 372–362 BC
| event10 = [[Second Achaemenid conquest of Egypt|Reconquest of Egypt]]
| date_event10 = 343 BC
| image_flag = Standard of Cyrus the Great.svg
| flag_width = 95px
| flag_size = 100px
| flag_type = [[Shahbaz (bird)|Standard of Cyrus the Great]]{{efn|The standard was described as "a golden eagle mounted upon a lofty shaft." This image is from a reconstruction, the design based on [[c:File:Achaemenid plaque from Persepolis.JPG | an Achaemenid tile from Persepolis]], and the coloring based on the [[Alexander Mosaic]], which depicts the standard in dark red and gold.<ref>{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=7|fascicle=3|title=Derafṣ̌|last=Shahbazi|first=Alireza Shapur|pages=312-315|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/derafs/}}</ref>}}
| image_coat =
| symbol =
| symbol_type =
| image_map = Achaemenid Empire 500 BCE.jpg 
| map_width = 260px
| image_map_caption = Map of the Achaemenid Empire's greatest territorial extent, achieved during the reign of [[Darius the Great]] (522–486 BC)<ref>2002 Oxford Atlas of World History [https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA42 p.42 (West portion of the Achaemenid Empire)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133020/https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA42 |date=29 November 2022 }} and [https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA43 p.43 (East portion of the Achaemenid Empire)].</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Brien |first1=Patrick Karl |title=Atlas of World History |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-521921-0 |pages=42–43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA43 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Visible online: [http://users.rowan.edu/~mcinneshin/101/wk05/images/NEWachaemexp.jpg Philip's Atlas of World History (1999)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017082134/http://users.rowan.edu/~mcinneshin/101/wk05/images/NEWachaemexp.jpg |date=17 October 2018 }}</ref><ref>The Times Atlas of World History, p. 79 (1989): {{cite book |last1=Barraclough |first1=Geoffrey |title=The Times Atlas of World History |date=1997 |publisher=Times Books |isbn=978-0-7230-0906-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IYYAQAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref>
| capital = {{ubl|[[Babylon]]<ref name=EY>{{cite book|last=Yarshater|first=Ehsan|author-link=Ehsan Yarshater|title=The Cambridge History of Iran|volume =3|year=1993|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-20092-9|page=482|quote=Of the four residences of the Achaemenids named by [[Herodotus]]—[[Ecbatana]], [[Pasargadae]] or [[Persepolis]], [[Susa]] and [[Babylon]]—the last [situated in Iraq] was maintained as their most important capital, the fixed winter quarters, the central office of bureaucracy, exchanged only in the heat of summer for some cool spot in the highlands. Under the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] and the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] the site of the Mesopotamian capital moved slightly to the north on the [[Tigris]]—to [[Seleucia]] and [[Ctesiphon]]. It is indeed symbolic that these new foundations were built from the bricks of ancient [[Babylon]], just as later [[Baghdad]], a little further upstream, was built out of the ruins of the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian]] double city of [[Al-Mada'in|Seleucia-Ctesiphon]].}}</ref>||[[Pasargadae]] (Cyrus the Great)|[[Ecbatana]] (ceremonial)|[[Susa]] (Darius the Great)|[[Persepolis]] (ceremonial)}}
| common_languages = {{ubl|[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]{{efn|Literary language in [[Achaemenid Babylonia|Babylonia]].}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kittel|first1=Harald|last2=Frank|first2=Armin Paul|last3=House|first3=Juliane|author-link3=Juliane House|last4=Greiner|first4=Norbert|last5=Schultze|first5=Brigitte|last6=Koller|first6=Werner| title = Traduction: encyclopédie internationale de la recherche sur la traduction| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oD0dBqGDNscC| year = 2007| publisher = Walter de Gruyter| isbn = 978-3-11-017145-7| pages = 1194–1195}}</ref>|[[Elamite language|Elamite]]<ref>{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=8|fascicle=4|title=Iran vii. Non-Iranian Languages (3) Elamite|last=Windfuhr|first=Gernot L.|pages=386–390|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vii3-elamite/}}</ref>|[[Ancient Greek|Greek]]<ref name="Iranian, E. Tucker 2001">{{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Elizabeth |editor-last=Christidis |editor-first=Anastasios-Phoivos |year=2001 |title=A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity |chapter=Greek and Iranian |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83307-3 }}</ref>|[[Median language|Median]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Young |first1=T. Cuyler |title=History of Iran: Achaemenid Society and Culture |url=https://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/achaemenid_society_culture.php |work=Iran Chamber Society }}</ref>|''see {{section link|#Languages}}''}}
| official_languages = [[Old Persian]] (dynastic, official) [[Imperial Aramaic|Aramaic]] (official, ''[[lingua franca]]''){{sfn|Wiesehöfer|2001|p=119}}
| religion = '''State religion''': [[Zoroastrianism]] '''Others''': {{ubl|[[Ancient Mesopotamian religion|Mesopotamian religion]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Boiy |first=T. |year=2004 |title=Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon |location=Leuven |publisher=Peeters Publishers |page=101 |isbn=978-90-429-1449-0 }}</ref>|[[Second Temple Judaism]]|[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic Hinduism]]|[[Ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian religion]]|[[Ancient Greek religion|Greek religion]]|''see {{section link|#Religion}}''}}
| demonym =
| currency = {{hlist|[[Daric]]|[[siglos]]}}
| title_leader = Monarchs{{efn|Either King ({{Transliteration|peo|Xšāyaθiya}}) or [[King of Kings]] ({{Transliteration|peo|Xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām}})}}
| year_leader1 = 559–530 BC
| leader1 = [[Cyrus the Great]]
| year_leader2 = 530–522 BC
| leader2 = [[Cambyses II]]
| year_leader3 = 522–522 BC
| leader3 = [[Bardiya]]
| year_leader4 = 522–486 BC
| leader4 = [[Darius the Great]]
| year_leader5 = 486–465 BC
| leader5 = [[Xerxes I]]
| year_leader6 = 465–424 BC
| leader6 = [[Artaxerxes I]]
| year_leader7 = 424–424 BC
| leader7 = [[Xerxes II]]
| year_leader8 = 424–423 BC
| leader8 = [[Sogdianus]]
| year_leader9 = 423–405 BC
| leader9 = [[Darius II]]
| year_leader10 = 405–358 BC
| leader10 = [[Artaxerxes II]]
| year_leader11 = 358–338 BC
| leader11 = [[Artaxerxes III]]
| year_leader12 = 338–336 BC
| leader12 = [[Arses of Persia|Artaxerxes IV]]
| year_leader13 = 336–330 BC
| leader13 = [[Darius III]]
| footnotes =
| stat_area1 = 5500000
| stat_year1 = 500 BC
| ref_area1 = <ref name="Turchin">{{cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D. |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |date=26 August 2006 |pages=219–229 |doi=10.5195/jwsr.2006.369 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Taagepera">{{cite journal |last1=Taagepera |first1=Rein |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. |journal=Social Science History |date=1979 |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |pages=115–138 |doi=10.2307/1170959 |jstor=1170959 }}</ref><ref name="OxfordArea">{{Cite book|last1=Bang|first1=Peter Fibiger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|title=The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience|last2=Bayly|first2=C. A.|last3=Scheidel|first3=Walter|year=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977311-4|pages=92–94|language=en}}</ref>
| stat_pop1 = 17–35 million
| ref_pop1 = <ref name="Dynamics of Ancient Empires">{{Cite book|title=The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium|url=https://archive.org/details/dynamicsanciente00sche|url-access=limited|last1=Morris|first1=Ian|last2=Scheidel|first2=Walter|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-975834-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/dynamicsanciente00sche/page/n95 77]}}</ref>
| p1 = Persis
| p2 = Median kingdom
| p3 = Lydia
| p4 = Neo-Babylonian Empire
| p5 = Elam
| p6 = Sindhu-Sauvīra
| p7 = Gandhāra (kingdom)
| p8 = Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
| p9 = Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
| s1 = Macedonian Empire
}}

The '''Achaemenid Empire'''{{Efn|Also called the '''Achaemenian Empire''',{{sfn|Lavan|Payne|Weisweiler|2016|p=17}} the '''Persian Empire''',{{sfn|Lavan|Payne|Weisweiler|2016|p=17}} '''Ancient Persia''', '''Old Persia''', or the '''First Persian Empire'''.{{sfn|Brosius|2020|p=1}}}} ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|iː|m|ə|n|ɪ|d}} {{respell|ə|KEE|mə|nid}}; {{langx|peo|[[wikt:𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎶|𐎧𐏁𐏂]]}}, {{Transliteration|peo|Xšāça}}, {{Text|{{Literal translation}}| 'The Empire'<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199732159.013.0005 |first1=A. Shapur |last1=Shahbazi |chapter=The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 bce) |pages=120–141 |editor-first1=Touraj |editor-last1=Daryaee |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-973215-9 |quote-page=131 |quote=Although the Persians and Medes shared domination and others were placed in important positions, the Achaemenids did not—could not—provide a name for their multinational state. Nevertheless, they referred to it as Khshassa, 'the Empire'. }}</ref> or 'The Kingdom'<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1=Kent |first1=Roland G. |author-link=Roland Grubb Kent|title=Old Persian: grammar, texts, lexicon |date=1954 |publisher=American Oriental Society |isbn=978-0-940490-33-8 |page=181 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106016799493&view=1up&seq=203}}</ref>}}) was an [[History of Iran#Classical antiquity|ancient Iranian empire]] founded by [[Cyrus the Great]] of the [[Achaemenid dynasty]] in 550 BC. At peak, its territorial extent was roughly {{convert|5.5|e6sqkm|e6sqmi|abbr=off}}, making it the [[List of largest empires#Timeline of largest empires at the time|largest empire of its time]]. Based in the [[Iranian plateau]], it stretched from the [[Skudra|Balkans]] and [[Putaya|Cyrenaica]] in the west to the [[Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|Indus Valley]] in the east, including [[Anatolia]], [[Ancient history of Cyprus#Persian period|Cyprus]], [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]], the [[South Caucasus]], parts of [[Eastern Arabia]], and large parts of [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Turchin" /><ref name="Taagepera" /><ref name="OxfordArea" />

By the 7th century BC, the region of [[Persis]], located in the southwestern part of the Iranian plateau, had been settled by [[Ancient Iranian peoples|Persian people]].<ref name="book">{{cite book|last1=Sacks|first1=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsGmuQAACAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World|last2=Murray|first2=Oswyn|last3=Brody|first3=Lisa|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8160-5722-1|page=256}}</ref> From Persis, Cyrus rose and defeated [[Median kingdom|Media]], [[Lydia]], and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], thus marking the establishment of a new imperial polity in the [[ancient Near East]]. While its conquests were largely successful in most regions, the Achaemenid Empire's attempts to expand into [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] proved extremely difficult over the course of [[Greco-Persian Wars|decades of wars]] and multiple kings, ultimately resulting in its defeat in the [[Greek mainland]].

In 330 BC, amidst a [[Wars of Alexander the Great|Greek military campaign that began in 336 BC]], the Achaemenid Empire was conquered in its entirety by [[Alexander the Great]], who annexed it to his [[Macedonian Empire]].<ref name="Ulrich">{{cite book |author=Wilcken |first=Ulrich |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00wilc |title=Alexander the Great|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-393-00381-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/alexandergreat00wilc/page/146 146] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Taagepera"/> Upon Alexander's death, which sparked the beginning of the [[Hellenistic period]] in 323 BC, the majority of the former Achaemenid Empire's territories came under the rule of the [[Seleucid Empire]] and the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]]. Almost a century later, Iranian elites in the central plateau successfully reclaimed power from the Seleucids and established the [[Parthian Empire]], which existed for nearly half a millennium before being succeeded by the Iranian [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref name="book" />

In the modern era, the Achaemenid Empire has been recognized for its centralized bureaucracy and administration; its multicultural policy and religious tolerance, [[Religious tolerance#In Antiquity|especially under Cyrus]]; its complex infrastructure projects, such as the [[Royal Road]] and an [[Chapar Khaneh|organized postal system]]; the use of official languages ([[Old Persian|Persian]] and [[Imperial Aramaic|Aramaic]]) across its territories; and the development of a civil service and a large, professional [[Achaemenid Persian army|army]] and [[Achaemenid navy|navy]]. Many of these systems were adopted and expanded upon by later empires in the [[Greco-Roman world]] and beyond.<ref name="schmitt">{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=1|fascicle=4|title=Achaemenid Dynasty|last=Schmitt|first=Rüdiger|pages=414–426|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/achaemenid-dynasty/}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The Achaemenid Empire is named after [[Achaemenes]], who is credited as the progenitor of the Achaemenid dynasty. The term ''{{lang|en|Achaemenid}}'' means "of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes" ({{langx|peo|[[Wikt:𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁|𐏃𐎧𐎠𐎶𐎴𐎡𐏁]]|Haxāmaniš}};<ref>{{cite book|last1=Curtis|first1=Vesta Sarkhosh|author-link1=Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis|last2=Stewart|first2=Sarah|author-link2=Sarah Stewart (historian)|title=The Sasanian Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qPVHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79|year=2010|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-0-85773-309-2}}</ref> a [[bahuvrihi]] compound translating to "having a friend's mind").{{sfn|Tavernier|2007|p=17}} Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of the [[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]] in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of [[Assyria]].<ref name=enc/>

Around 850 BC the original [[nomad]]ic people who began the empire called themselves the ''Parsa'' and their constantly shifting territory ''Parsua'', for the most part localized around Persis.<ref name=book/> The name "Persia" is a Greek and [[Latin]] pronunciation of the native word referring to the country of the people originating from [[Persis]] ({{langx|peo|[[Wikt:𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿|𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿]]|Pārsa}}).<ref name="enc">{{cite book |author=Stokes |first=Jamie |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofpe0000unse_h6k0/page/551/ |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-7158-6 |volume=II |page=551}}</ref> The [[Old Persian language|Persian]] term {{lang|peo|𐎧𐏁𐏂}} {{Transliteration|peo|Xšāça}}, literally meaning "The Kingdom",<ref name="auto"/> was used to refer to the Empire formed by their multinational state.<ref name=name>{{cite book|editor-last1=Daryaee |editor-first1=Touraj |last=Shapour Shahbazi|first=Alireza|author-link=Alireza Shapour Shahbazi |title=The Oxford handbook of Iranian history |url=https://archive.org/details/incompleteoxford00dary |url-access=limited |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-973215-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/incompleteoxford00dary/page/n142 131]|quote=Although the Persians and Medes shared domination and others were placed in important positions, the Achaemenids did not—could not—provide a name for their multinational state. Nevertheless, they referred to it as Khshassa, "the Empire".|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199732159.001.0001}}</ref>

==History==
===Timeline===
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:800 height:115
PlotArea = width:700 height:90 left:65 bottom:20
AlignBars = justify

Colors =
id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) #
id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) #
id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) #
id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) #
id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) #
id:filler value:rgb(1,1,0.01) # background bar
id:black value:black

Period = from:-675 till:-329
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:-675
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:10 start:-675

PlotData =
align:center textcolor:black fontsize:10 mark:(line,black) width:15 shift:(0,-5)

bar:Period color:pink
from: -675 till: -550 text:Origins
bar:Period color:age
from: -550 till: -499 shift:(0,3) text:Expansion
from: -499 till: -449 shift:(0,-10) text:[[Greco-Persian wars]]
from: -449 till: -358 text:Cultural
from: -358 till: -330 text:Decline

bar:Rulers color:era
from:-675 till:-640 text: [[Teispes of Anshan|Teispes]]
from:-640 till:-600 text: [[Cyrus I]]
from:-600 till:-559 text: [[Cambyses I]]
from:-559 till:-530 shift:(0,5) text: [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]]
from:-530 till:-522 shift:(0,-9) text: [[Cambyses II]]
from:-522 till:-522 shift:(0,-17) text: [[Bardiya|Smerdis]]
from:-522 till:-486 shift:(0,-33) text: [[Darius I]]
from:-486 till:-465 text: [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]]
from:-465 till:-424 shift:(0,-10) text: [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]
from:-424 till:-424 shift:(0,-3) text: [[Xerxes II]]
from:-424 till:-424 shift:(0,-25) text:[[Sogdianus of Persia|Sogdianus]]
from:-424 till:-404 shift:(-20,14) text: [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]]
from:-404 till:-358 shift:(-10,4) text: [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]]
from:-358 till:-338 shift:(0,-8) text: [[Artaxerxes III]]
from:-338 till:-336 shift:(-20,21) text: [[Arses of Persia|Arses]]
from:-336 till:-330 shift:(-10,11) text: [[Darius III]]
from:-330 till:-329 shift:(0,-15) text: [[Bessus]]

bar:  color:pink
from: -675 till: -480 text:Early
from: -480 till: -380 text:Middle
from: -380 till: -330 text:Late
</timeline>
{{block indent|left=4.5|1=''Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details''}}

===Origin of the Achaemenid dynasty===
{{Main|Achaemenes|Teispids|Achaemenid family tree}}

[[File:Achaemenid lineage.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Family tree of the Achaemenid rulers.]]
{{blockquote|The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here. ... : the [[Pasargadae (tribe)|Pasargadae]], [[Maraphii]], and [[Maspii]], upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished; they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, [[Kerman Province#History and culture|Germanii]], all of which are attached to the soil, the remainder—the [[Dahae|Dai]], [[Mardi (people)|Mardi]], [[Dropici]], [[Sagarti]], being [[nomad]]ic.|[[Herodotus]]|[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]] 1.101 & 125}}

The Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic [[Persian people|Persians]]. The Persians were [[Iranian peoples|Iranian people]] who arrived in what is today [[Iran]] {{Circa|1000 BC}} and settled a region including north-western Iran, the [[Zagros Mountains]] and [[Persis]] alongside the native [[Elam]]ites.{{sfn|Brosius|2006|p=3}} The Persians were originally [[nomadic pastoralism|nomadic pastoralists]] in the western Iranian Plateau. The Achaemenid Empire may not have been the first Iranian empire, as the [[Medes]], another group of Iranian people, possibly established a short-lived empire when they played a major role in overthrowing the Assyrians.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A history of the ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 BC|last=Van de Mieroop|first=Marc|isbn=978-1-118-71817-9|edition=Third|location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK|oclc=904507201|date=25 June 2015}}</ref>

The Achaemenids were initially rulers of the Elamite city of [[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]] near the modern city of [[Marvdasht]];{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=17}} the title "King of Anshan" was an adaptation of the earlier Elamite title "King of Susa and Anshan".{{sfn|Brosius|2006|p=6}} There are conflicting accounts of the identities of the earliest Kings of Anshan. According to the [[Cyrus Cylinder]] (the oldest extant genealogy of the Achaemenids) the kings of Anshan were [[Teispes]], [[Cyrus I]], [[Cambyses I]] and [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II]], also known as Cyrus the Great, who founded the empire.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=17}}

The later [[Behistun Inscription]], written by [[Darius the Great]], claims that Teispes was the son of [[Achaemenes]] and that Darius is also descended from Teispes through a different line, but no earlier texts mention Achaemenes.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=16}} In [[Herodotus]]' [[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]], he writes that Cyrus the Great was the son of Cambyses I and [[Mandane of Media]], the daughter of [[Astyages]], the king of the Median Empire.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=15}}

===Formation and expansion===
{{Further|Wars of Cyrus the Great|First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt|Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley|European Scythian campaign of Darius I}}
[[File:Achaemenid (greatest extent).svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Achaemenid Empire at greatest extent ([[orthographic projection]])]]

====550s BC====
Cyrus revolted against the [[Median kingdom|Median Empire]] in 553 BC, and in 550 BC succeeded in defeating the Medes, capturing Astyages and taking the Median capital city of [[Ecbatana]].<ref>[[Cylinders of Nabonidus|Nabonidus Cylinder]] [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/nabonidus-cylinder-from-sippar/ I.8–II.25]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512055152/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/nabonidus-cylinder-from-sippar/|date=12 May 2021}}.</ref><ref>[[Nabonidus Chronicle]] [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/ II.1–4]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511170730/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/|date=11 May 2021}}.</ref>{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=31}} Once in control of Ecbatana, Cyrus styled himself as the successor to Astyages and assumed control of the entire empire.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=33}} By inheriting Astyages' empire, he also inherited the territorial conflicts the Medes had with both [[Lydia]] and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]].{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=34}}

====540s BC====
King [[Croesus]] of Lydia sought to take advantage of the new international situation by advancing into what had previously been Median territory in Asia Minor.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D72 I.72], [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D73 I.73]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225143018/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D73|date=25 February 2021}}.</ref>{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=35}} Cyrus led a counterattack which not only fought off Croesus' armies, but also led to the capture of [[Sardis]] and the fall of the Lydian Kingdom in 546 BC.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=36}}{{sfn|Brosius|2006|p=11}}{{efn|The chronology of the reign of Cyrus is uncertain, and these events are alternatively dated in 542–541 BC.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=34}}}} Cyrus placed [[Pactyes]] in charge of collecting tribute in Lydia and left, but once Cyrus had left Pactyes instigated a rebellion against Cyrus.{{sfn|Brosius|2006|p=11}}{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=37}}<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+1.154&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 I.154].</ref> Cyrus sent the Median general [[Mazares]] to deal with the rebellion, and Pactyes was captured. Mazares, and after his death [[Harpagus]], set about reducing all the cities which had taken part in the rebellion. The subjugation of Lydia took about four years in total.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=37–38}}

When the power in Ecbatana changed hands from the Medes to the Persians, many tributaries to the Median Empire believed their situation had changed and revolted against Cyrus.<ref>[[Justin (historian)|Justin]], ''Epitome'' {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20210517225411/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans1.html I.7]}}.</ref> This forced Cyrus to fight wars against [[Bactria]] and the nomadic [[Saka]] in Central Asia.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=39}} During these wars, Cyrus established several [[garrison town]]s in Central Asia, including the [[Cyropolis]].{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=40}}

====530s BC====
Nothing is known of Persia–Babylon relations between 547 and 539 BC, but it is likely that there were hostilities between the two empires for several years leading up to the war of 540–539 BC and the [[Fall of Babylon]].{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=41–43}} In October 539 BC, Cyrus won a battle against the Babylonians at [[Opis]], then took [[Sippar]] without a fight before finally capturing the city of [[Babylon]] on 12 October, where the Babylonian king [[Nabonidus]] was taken prisoner.<ref>[[Nabonidus Chronicle]] [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/ III.12–16]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511170730/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/|date=11 May 2021}}.</ref>{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=41–43}}{{sfn|Brosius|2006|pp=11–12}}

Upon taking control of the city, Cyrus depicted himself in propaganda as restoring the divine order which had been disrupted by [[Nabonidus]], who had promoted the cult of [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] rather than [[Marduk]],<ref>[[Cyrus Cylinder]] [https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327188&partId=1 23–35] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119192924/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327188&partId=1 |date=19 January 2019 }}</ref>{{sfn|Kuhrt|1983|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=43–44}} and he also portrayed himself as restoring the heritage of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] by comparing himself to the Assyrian king [[Ashurbanipal]].<ref>[[Cyrus Cylinder]] [https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327188&partId=1 43] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190119192924/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=327188&partId=1 |date=19 January 2019 }}</ref>{{sfn|Kuhrt|1983|pp=88–89}}{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=43–44}} Cyrus is credited with freeing the people of [[Yehud (Province)|Judah]] from their exile and with authorizing the reconstruction of much of [[Jerusalem]], including the [[Second Temple]].{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=46}}

[[File:Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg|thumb|[[Tomb of Cyrus|Cyrus the Great's tomb]], located at [[Pasargadae]]]]

====520s BC====
In 530 BC, Cyrus died and was succeeded by his eldest son [[Cambyses II]], while his younger son [[Bardiya]]{{efn|name=bardiya|Bardiya is referred to by a variety of names in Greek sources, including Smerdis, Tanyoxarces, Tanoxares, Mergis and Mardos. The earliest account to mention him is the [[Behistun Inscription]], which has his name as Bardiya.<ref name=behistunsmerdis/>{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=98}}}} received a large territory in Central Asia.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=49–50}}{{sfn|Brosius|2006|p=13}} By 525 BC, Cambyses had successfully subjugated [[Phoenicia]] and [[Cyprus]] and was making preparations to invade Egypt with the newly created [[Achaemenid navy|Persian navy]].{{sfn|Wallinga|1984|pp=406–409}}{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52–55}} Pharaoh [[Amasis II]] had died in 526, and had been succeeded by [[Psamtik III]], resulting in the defection of key Egyptian allies to the Persians.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52–55}} Psamtik positioned his army at [[Pelusium]] in the [[Nile Delta]]. He was soundly defeated by the Persians in the [[Battle of Pelusium]] before fleeing to [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], where the Persians defeated him and took him prisoner. After attempting a failed revolt, Psamtik III promptly committed suicide.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52–55}}<ref name=III.11,13>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227142639/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=27 February 2021 }}, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D13 III.13] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310031638/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D13 |date=10 March 2021 }}</ref>

Herodotus depicts Cambyses as openly antagonistic to the Egyptian people and their gods, cults, temples, and priests, in particular stressing the murder of the sacred bull [[Apis (deity)|Apis]].<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.29&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.29] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225191523/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.29&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=25 February 2021 }}</ref> He says that these actions led to a madness that caused him to kill his brother Bardiya (who Herodotus says was killed in secret),<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D30 III.30] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301014336/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D30 |date=1 March 2021 }}</ref> his own sister-wife<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D31 III.31] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304024925/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D31 |date=4 March 2021 }}</ref> and Croesus of Lydia.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D36 III.36] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226230453/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D36 |date=26 February 2021 }}</ref> He then concludes that Cambyses completely lost his mind,<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.38&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.38] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224210504/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.38&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=24 February 2021 }}</ref> and all later classical authors repeat the themes of Cambyses' impiety and madness. However, this is based on spurious information, as the epitaph of Apis from 524 BC shows that Cambyses participated in the funeral rites of Apis styling himself as pharaoh.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=55–57}}

Following the conquest of Egypt, the [[Ancient Libya|Libyans]] and the Greeks of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] and [[Barca (ancient city)|Barca]] in present-day eastern Libya ([[Cyrenaica]]) surrendered to Cambyses and sent tribute without a fight.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52–55}}<ref name=III.11,13/> Cambyses then planned invasions of [[Carthage]], the oasis of Ammon and [[Aethiopia|Ethiopia]].<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D17 III.17] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228091449/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D17 |date=28 February 2021 }}</ref> Herodotus claims that the naval invasion of Carthage was canceled because the Phoenicians, who made up a large part of Cambyses' fleet, refused to take up arms against their own people,<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D19 III.19] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224161429/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D19 |date=24 February 2021 }}</ref> but modern historians doubt whether an invasion of Carthage was ever planned at all.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52–55}} However, Cambyses dedicated his efforts to the other two campaigns, aiming to improve the Empire's strategic position in Africa by conquering the [[Kingdom of Kush|Kingdom of Meroë]] and taking strategic positions in the western oases. To this end, he established a garrison at [[Elephantine]] consisting mainly of Jewish soldiers, who remained stationed at Elephantine throughout Cambyses' reign.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52–55}} Herodotus claims that the invasion of Ethiopia was a failure due to the madness of Cambyses and the lack of supplies for his men,<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.25&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.25] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304045925/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.25&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=4 March 2021 }}</ref> but archaeological evidence suggests that the expedition was not a failure, and a fortress at the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Second Cataract of the Nile]], on the border between Egypt and Kush, remained in use throughout the Achaemenid period.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=52–55}}{{sfn|Heidorn|1992|pp=147–150}} Furthermore, in two inscriptions of Darius, Nubia is listed as one of the lands in the empire, and a Nubian delegation is depicted in Persepolis on the [[Apadana|Apadana reliefs]] which visually present the lands of Darius’ empire. These suggest that Cambyses saw success in subduing Nubia.{{sfn|Brosius|2020|p=40}}

The events surrounding Cambyses's death and Bardiya's succession are greatly debated as there are many conflicting accounts.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=98}} According to Herodotus, as Bardiya's assassination had been committed in secret, the majority of Persians still believed him to be alive. This allowed two [[Magi]] to rise up against Cambyses, with one of them sitting on the throne able to impersonate Bardiya because of their remarkable physical resemblance and shared name (Smerdis in Herodotus's accounts{{efn|name=bardiya}}).<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.61&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.61] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224155236/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.61&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=24 February 2021 }}</ref> [[Ctesias]] writes that when Cambyses had Bardiya killed he immediately put the magus Sphendadates in his place as satrap of Bactria due to a remarkable physical resemblance.<ref>Ctesias, ''Persica'' [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/ctesias-overview-of-the-works/photius-excerpt-of-ctesias-persica/ 11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402145945/http://www.livius.org/sources/content/ctesias-overview-of-the-works/photius-excerpt-of-ctesias-persica/ |date=2 April 2017 }}</ref> Two of Cambyses' confidants then conspired to usurp Cambyses and put Sphendadates on the throne under the guise of Bardiya.<ref>Ctesias, ''Persica'' [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/ctesias-overview-of-the-works/photius-excerpt-of-ctesias-persica/ 15] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402145945/http://www.livius.org/sources/content/ctesias-overview-of-the-works/photius-excerpt-of-ctesias-persica/ |date=2 April 2017 }}</ref> According to the [[Behistun Inscription]], written by the following king [[Darius the Great]], a magus named Gaumata impersonated Bardiya and incited a revolution in Persia.<ref name=behistunsmerdis/> Whatever the exact circumstances of the revolt, Cambyses heard news of it in the summer of 522 BC and began to return from Egypt, but he was wounded in the thigh in Syria and died of gangrene, so Bardiya's impersonator became king.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=61}}{{efn|Sources differ on the circumstances of Cambyses' death. According to Darius the Great in the [[Behistun Inscription]], he died of natural causes.<ref name=behistunsmerdis>[[Behistun Inscription]] [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-t-05/ 11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511170933/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-t-05/ |date=11 May 2021 }}</ref> According to Herodotus, he died after accidentally wounding himself in the thigh.<ref>Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.64&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 III.64] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227041028/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+3.64&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=27 February 2021 }}</ref> The true cause of death remains uncertain.{{sfn|Brosius|2006|p=13}}}} The account of Darius is the earliest, and although the later historians all agree on the key details of the story, that a magus impersonated Bardiya and took the throne, this may have been a story created by Darius to justify his own usurpation.{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=100–101}} Iranologist [[Pierre Briant]] hypothesises that Bardiya was not killed by Cambyses, but waited until his death in the summer of 522 BC to claim his legitimate right to the throne as he was then the only male descendant of the royal family. Briant says that although the hypothesis of a deception by Darius is generally accepted today, "nothing has been established with certainty at the present time, given the available evidence".{{sfn|Briant|2002|pp=101–103}}

[[File:Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent according to Oxford Atlas of World History 2002.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent {{circa|500 BC}}]]

According to the [[Behistun inscription]], Gaumata ruled for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BC by [[Darius the Great]] (Old Persian {{Transliteration|peo|Dāryavuš}}, "who holds firm the good", also known as {{Transliteration|peo|Darayarahush}}). The Magi, though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis ({{Transliteration|peo|Gaumata}}), saw a second pseudo-Smerdis ({{Transliteration|peo|Vahyazdāta}}) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.<ref>{{cite book| author = Herodotus| title = Herodotus: the text of Canon Rawlinson's translation, with the notes abridged, Volume 1| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Xe_fAAAAMAAJ| year = 1897| publisher = C. Scribner's| page = 278}}</ref>

[[Herodotus]] writes<ref>{{cite book|last=Herodotus|title=The Histories Book 3.80–83}}</ref> that the native leadership debated the best form of government for the empire.

====510s BC====
Ever since the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]] king [[Amyntas I]] surrendered his country to the Persians in about 512–511, Macedonians and Persians were strangers no more as well. The subjugation of [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] was part of Persian military operations initiated by [[Darius the Great]] (521–486) in 513—after immense preparations—a huge Achaemenid army invaded the [[Balkans]] and [[European Scythian campaign of Darius I|tried to defeat]] the European [[Scythians]] roaming to the north of the [[Danube]] river.<ref name="books.google.nl">Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington [https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&pg=PA345 ''A Companion to Ancient Macedonia'']. pp. 342–345. John Wiley & Sons, 2011 {{ISBN|978-1-4443-5163-7}}</ref> Darius' army subjugated several [[Thracians|Thracian people]], and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of the [[Black Sea]], such as parts of modern [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Russia]], before it returned to [[Asia Minor]].<ref name="books.google.nl"/><ref>The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth,{{ISBN|978-0-19-860641-3}}, p. 1515, "The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516"</ref> Darius left in Europe one of his commanders named [[Megabazus]] whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.<ref name="books.google.nl"/> The Persian troops subjugated gold-rich [[Thrace]], the coastal Greek cities, and defeated and conquered the powerful [[Paeonians]].<ref name="books.google.nl"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/ia-in/influence/influence02.html|title=Persian influence on Greece (2)|access-date=17 December 2014|archive-date=24 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724223725/https://www.livius.org/ia-in/influence/influence02.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn|Howe|Reames|2008|p=239}} Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to Amyntas, demanding acceptance of Persian domination, which the Macedonians did. The Balkans provided many soldiers for the multi-ethnic Achaemenid army. Many of the Macedonian and Persian elite intermarried, such as the Persian official [[Bubares]] who married Amyntas' daughter, Gygaea. Family ties that the Macedonian rulers Amyntas and Alexander enjoyed with Bubares ensured them good relations with the Persian kings Darius and [[Xerxes the Great|Xerxes I]], who was also known as Xerxes the Great. The Persian invasion led indirectly to Macedonia's rise in power and Persia had some common interests in the Balkans; with Persian aid, the Macedonians stood to gain much at the expense of some Balkan tribes such as the Paeonians and Greeks. All in all, the Macedonians were "willing and useful Persian allies. Macedonian soldiers fought against Athens and [[Sparta]] in Xerxes I's army.<ref name="books.google.nl"/> The Persians referred to both Greeks and Macedonians as ''[[Yona|Yauna]]'' ("[[Ionian Greeks|Ionians]]", their term for "Greeks"), and to Macedonians specifically as ''Yaunã Takabara'' or "Greeks with hats that look like shields", possibly referring to the Macedonian [[kausia]] hat.<ref>Johannes Engels, "Ch. 5: Macedonians and Greeks", In: Roisman and Worthington, "A companion to Ancient Macedonia", p. 87. Oxford Press, 2010.</ref>
[[File:Achaemenid prince's head 1.jpg|thumb|The Persian queen [[Atossa]], daughter of [[Cyrus the Great]], sister-wife of [[Cambyses II]], [[Darius the Great]]'s wife, and mother of [[Xerxes the Great]]]]

====5th century BC====
By the 5th century BC, the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the [[Persian Plateau]] and all of the territories formerly held by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian Empire]] ([[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]], [[Cyprus]] and [[Persian Egypt|Egypt]]), but beyond this, all of [[Anatolia]] and [[Armenia]], as well as the [[Southern Caucasus]] and parts of the [[North Caucasus]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Paeonia (kingdom)|Paeonia]], [[Thrace]] and [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] to the north and west, most of the [[Black Sea]] coastal regions, parts of [[Central Asia]] as far as the [[Aral Sea]], the [[Amu Darya|Oxus]] and [[Syr Darya|Jaxartes]] to the north and north-east, the [[Hindu Kush]] and the western [[Indus River|Indus basin]] (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and [[Pakistan]]) to the far east, parts of northern [[Arabia]] to the south, and parts of eastern [[Ancient Libya|Libya]] ([[Cyrenaica]]) to the south-west, and parts of [[Oman]], China, and the [[UAE]].<ref name="livius.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/articles/place/maka/ |title=Maka |website=livius.org}}</ref><ref name="behi">[[Behistun Inscription]]</ref><ref>{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=6|fascicle=6|title=Dāḡestān|last1=Gamzatov|first1=Gadzhi Gamzatovich|last2=Thordarson|first2=Fridrik|pages=568–576|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dagestan/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riW0kKzat2sC&q=achaemenid+empire+abkhazia&pg=PA409|title=The Making of the Georgian Nation|access-date=29 December 2014|isbn=978-0-253-20915-3|last1=Suny|first1=Ronald Grigor|year=1994|publisher=Indiana University Press }}</ref><ref name="c_ramirez-faria">{{cite book| last1= Ramirez-Faria| first1= Carlos| title = Concise Encyclopedia of World History| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC| access-date = 7 October 2012| year = 2007| publisher = Atlantic Publishers & Dist| isbn = 978-81-269-0775-5| page = 6}}</ref>{{sfn|Kuhrt|2013|p=2}}<ref>{{cite book| last1= O'Brien| first1= Patrick| title = Concise Atlas of World History| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC| access-date = 7 October 2012| year = 2002| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]| isbn = 978-0-19-521921-0| page = 43}} {{cite book| title = Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia| url = https://archive.org/details/forgottenempirew00curt| url-access = limited| year = 2005| publisher = [[University of California Press]]| isbn = 978-0-520-24731-4| page = [https://archive.org/details/forgottenempirew00curt/page/n48 47]| first1 = John E.| first2 = Nigel| last1 = Curtis| last2 = Tallis}} {{cite book| author = Facts on File, Incorporated| title = Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC| access-date = 7 October 2012| year = 2009| publisher = [[Infobase Publishing]]| isbn = 978-1-4381-2676-0 | page = 60}} {{cite book| last1= Parker| first1= Grant| title = The Making of Roman India| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ahMXbSFxGhUC| access-date = 7 October 2012| year = 2008| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]| isbn = 978-0-521-85834-2| page = 13}} {{cite book| last1= Thapar| first1= Romila| author-link = Romila Thapar| title = Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC| access-date = 7 October 2012| year = 2004| publisher = [[University of California Press]]| isbn = 978-0-520-24225-8| page = 157}}</ref>

===Greco-Persian Wars===
{{Main|Greco-Persian Wars}}

[[File:Greek-Persian duel.jpg|thumb|Greek [[hoplite]] and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient [[Kylix (drinking cup)|kylix]], 5th century BC]]
The [[Ionian Revolt]] in 499 BC, and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus, and Caria, were military rebellions by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 to 493 BC. At the heart of the rebellion was the dissatisfaction of the Greek cities of Asia Minor with the tyrants appointed by Persia to rule them, along with the individual actions of two Milesian tyrants, [[Histiaeus]] and [[Aristagoras]]. In 499 BC, the then-tyrant of [[Miletus]], Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap [[Artaphernes]] to [[Siege of Naxos (499 BC)|conquer Naxos]], in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus, both financially and in terms of prestige. The mission was a debacle, and sensing his imminent removal as a tyrant, Aristagoras chose to incite the whole of Ionia into rebellion against the Persian king, Darius I, who was commonly known as Darius the Great.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

The Persians continued to reduce the cities along the west coast that still held out against them, before finally imposing a peace settlement in 493 BC on Ionia that was generally considered to be both just and fair. The [[Ionian Revolt]] constituted the first major conflict between Greece and the Achaemenid Empire, and as such represents the first phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Asia Minor had been brought back into the Persian fold, but Darius had vowed to punish Athens and Eretria for their support of the revolt.<ref>{{cite book |author=West |first=Willis Mason |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientworldfro00westgoog |title=The ancient world from the earliest times to 800 CE |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |year=1904 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientworldfro00westgoog/page/n187 137] |quote=The Athenian support was particularly troubling to Darius since he had come to their aid during their conflict with Sparta.}}</ref> Moreover, seeing that the political situation in Greece posed a continued threat to the stability of his Empire, he decided to embark on the conquest of all of Greece. The first campaign of the invasion was to bring the territories in the [[Balkan]] peninsula back within the empire.<ref name="A companion to Ancient Macedonia">Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&dq=Achaemenid+Persians+ruled+balkans&pg=PA345 "A companion to Ancient Macedonia"]. John Wiley & Sons, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-4443-5163-7}}, pp. 135–138, 343–345.</ref> The Persian grip over these territories had loosened following the Ionian Revolt. In 492 BC, the Persian general [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] re-subjugated [[Thrace]] and made [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]] a fully [[subordinate]] part of the empire; it had been a vassal as early as the late 6th century BC but retained a great deal of autonomy.<ref name="A companion to Ancient Macedonia"/> However, in 490 BC the Persian forces were defeated by the Athenians at the [[Battle of Marathon]] and Darius I would die before having the chance to launch an invasion of Greece.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Darius I {{!}} Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Darius-I|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-29}}</ref>

[[File:Achaemenid king fighting hoplites, Cimmerian Bosphorus intaglio (composite).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Achaemenid king fighting hoplites, seal and seal holder, [[Cimmerian Bosporus]].]]
[[Xerxes I]] (485–465 BC, Old Persian ''Xšayārša'' "Hero Among Kings"), son of [[Darius the Great|Darius I]], vowed to complete the job. He organized a massive invasion aiming to conquer [[Greece]]. His army entered Greece from the north in the spring of 480 BC, meeting little or no resistance through [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and [[Thessaly]], but was delayed by a small Greek force for three days at [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]]. A simultaneous naval [[battle of Artemisium]] was tactically indecisive as large storms destroyed ships from both sides. The battle was stopped prematurely when the Greeks received news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. The battle was a tactical victory for the Persians, giving them uncontested control of Artemisium and the Aegean Sea.<ref name="VIII21">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+8.21 VIII, 21].</ref>

Following his victory at the [[Battle of Thermopylae]], Xerxes sacked the evacuated city of [[Athens]] and prepared to meet the Greeks at the strategic [[Isthmus of Corinth]] and the [[Saronic Gulf]]. In 480 BC the Greeks won a decisive victory over the Persian fleet at the [[Battle of Salamis]] and forced Xerxes to retire to [[Sardis]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Hanson|first=Victor Davis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C|title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power|year=2007|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-42518-8|language=en}}</ref> The land army which he left in Greece under [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] retook Athens but was eventually destroyed in 479 BC at the [[Battle of Plataea]]. The final defeat of the Persians at [[Battle of Mycale|Mycale]] encouraged the Greek cities of Asia to revolt, and the Persians lost all of their territories in Europe with Macedonia once again becoming independent.<ref name="books.google.nl"/> [[Artabanus of Persia|Artabanus]], the commander of the royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court, assassinated Xerxes with the help of a [[eunuch]], Aspamitres.<ref>[[Xerxes I#refkhshayayrsha|Iran-e-Bastan/Pirnia, book 1, p. 873]].</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stoneman |first1=Richard |title=Xerxes |chapter=Assassination |date=2015 |pages=195–209 |doi=10.12987/yale/9780300180077.003.0009 |isbn=978-0-300-18007-7 }}</ref> The exact year and date of Xerxes' assassination is disputed among historians.

===Cultural phase and Zoroastrian reforms===
After [[Xerxes I]] was assassinated, he was succeeded by his eldest surviving son [[Artaxerxes I]]. It was during his reign that [[Elamite]] ceased to be the language of government,{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} and Aramaic gained in importance. It was probably during this reign that the solar calendar was introduced as the national calendar. Under Artaxerxes I, [[Zoroastrianism]] became the ''de facto'' religion of the empire.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

After Persia had been defeated at the [[Battle of Eurymedon]] (469 or 466 BC<ref>See discussion on possible dates for the battle in the article [[Battle of the Eurymedon]].</ref>), military action between Greece and Persia was halted. When Artaxerxes I took power, he introduced a new Persian strategy of weakening the Athenians by funding their enemies in Greece. This indirectly caused the Athenians to move the treasury of the [[Delian League]] from the island of [[Delos]] to the Athenian acropolis. This funding practice inevitably prompted renewed fighting in 450 BC, where the Greeks attacked at the [[Battle of Salamis in Cyprus (450 BC)|Battle of Cyprus]]. After [[Cimon]]'s failure to attain much in this expedition, the [[Peace of Callias]] was agreed between [[Athens]], [[Argos, Peloponnese|Argos]] and [[Persia]] in 449 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Artaxerxes I Makrokheir (Artaxerxes I) Makrokheir (± 475-± 424) » Stamboom Homs » Genealogy Online|url=https://www.genealogieonline.nl/en/stamboom-homs/I6000000006131531097.php|last=Homs|first=George|website=Genealogy Online|language=en|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Artaxerxes I of Persia|year=2010|isbn=978-613-0-82634-5}}</ref>

Artaxerxes offered [[Political asylum|asylum]] to [[Themistocles]], who was the winner of the [[Battle of Salamis]], after Themistocles was [[ostracized]] from [[Athens]]. Also, Artaxerxes gave him [[Magnesia on the Maeander|Magnesia]], [[Myus]], and [[Lampsacus]] to maintain him in bread, meat, and wine. In addition, Artaxerxes I gave him [[Palaescepsis]] to provide him with clothes, and he also gave him [[Percote]] with bedding for his house.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://plutarch.classicauthors.net/PlutarchsLives/PlutarchsLives3.html|title=Plutarch's Lives by Plutarch: Themistocles Themistocles, Part II|date=1 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001032753/http://plutarch.classicauthors.net/PlutarchsLives/PlutarchsLives3.html|archive-date=1 October 2015|access-date=22 March 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Achaemenid gold ornaments,70.142.6-.11.jpg|thumb|right|Achaemenid gold ornaments, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]

When Artaxerxes died in 424 BC at [[Susa]], his body was taken to the tomb already built for him in the [[Naqsh-e Rustam]] Necropolis. It was Persian tradition that kings begin constructing their own tombs while they were still alive. Artaxerxes I was immediately succeeded by his eldest and only legitimate son, [[Xerxes II]].{{sfn|Kuhrt|2013|page=880}} However, after a few days on the throne, he was assassinated while drunk by Pharnacyas and Menostanes on the orders of his illegitimate brother [[Sogdianus]], who apparently had gained the support of his regions. Sogdianus reigned for six months and fifteen days before being captured by his half-brother, [[Darius II|Ochus]], who had rebelled against him. Sogdianus was executed by being [[Suffocation in ash|suffocated in ash]] because Ochus had promised he would not die by the sword, by poison or by hunger.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kitto |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wd0-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PR98-IA43 |title=Palestine: the Bible History of the holy land |publisher=London |year=1841 |page=657}}</ref> Ochus then took the royal name Darius II. Darius' ability to defend his position on the throne ended the short power vacuum.<ref name="Zawadski">{{Cite journal|last=Zawadzki|first=S.|date=1995–1996|title=The Circumstances of Darius II's Accession|journal=Jahrbericht Ex Oriente Lux|volume=34|pages=45–49}}</ref>

From 412 BC [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]], at the insistence of [[Tissaphernes]], gave support first to Athens, then to Sparta, but in 407 BC, Darius' son [[Cyrus the Younger]] was appointed to replace Tissaphernes and aid was given entirely to Sparta which finally defeated Athens in 404 BC. In the same year, Darius fell ill and died in Babylon. His death gave an Egyptian rebel named [[Amyrtaeus]] the opportunity to throw off [[Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Persian control over Egypt]]. At his death bed, Darius' Babylonian wife [[Parysatis]] pleaded with him to have her second eldest son Cyrus (the Younger) crowned, but Darius refused. Queen Parysatis favoured Cyrus more than her eldest son [[Artaxerxes II]]. [[Plutarch]] relates (probably on the authority of [[Ctesias]]) that the displaced Tissaphernes came to the new king on his coronation day to warn him that his younger brother Cyrus (the Younger) was preparing to assassinate him during the ceremony. Artaxerxes had Cyrus arrested and would have had him executed if their mother Parysatis had not intervened. Cyrus was then sent back as Satrap of Lydia, where he prepared an armed rebellion. Cyrus assembled a large army, including a contingent of [[Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries]], and made his way deeper into Persia. The army of Cyrus was stopped by the royal Persian army of [[Artaxerxes II]] at [[Battle of Cunaxa|Cunaxa]] in 401 BC, where Cyrus was killed. The [[Ten Thousand Greek Mercenaries]] including [[Xenophon]] were now deep in Persian territory and were at risk of attack. So they searched for others to offer their services to but eventually had to return to Greece.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brennan |first1=Shane |last2=Thomas |first2=David |title=The Landmark Xenophon's Anabasis |date=2021 |publisher=Pantheon Books |location=New York |isbn=9780307906854}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref>Maurice Whittemore Mather (ed.), Joseph William Hewitt (ed.), [[Xenophon]]: ''Anabasis, Books 1–4''. University of Oklahoma Press, 1979, {{ISBN|978-0-8061-1347-0}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=dQltw0UIC2UC&pg=PA44 p. 44].</ref>

[[Artaxerxes II]] was the longest reigning of the Achaemenid kings and it was during this 45-year period of relative peace and stability that many of the monuments of the era were constructed. Artaxerxes moved the capital back to [[Persepolis]], which he greatly extended. Also, the summer capital at [[Ecbatana]] was lavishly extended with gilded columns and roof tiles of silver and copper.<ref>(Polybius, 27 October 2012).</ref> The extraordinary innovation of the Zoroastrian shrines can also be dated to his reign, and it was probably during this period that Zoroastrianism spread from [[Armenia]] throughout [[Asia Minor]] and the [[Levant]]. The construction of temples, though serving a religious purpose, was not a purely selfless act, as they also served as an important source of income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids adopted the concept of a mandatory temple tax, a one-tenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the temple nearest to their land or another source of income.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dandamaev |first1=Muhammad A. |last2=Lukonin |first2=Vladimir G. |title=The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran |date=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-32107-5 |pages=361–362 }}</ref>

[[File:Achaemenid Empire.gif|thumb|upright=1.5|Persian Empire timeline including important events and territorial evolution – 550–323 BC]]
Artaxerxes II became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies, the [[Sparta]]ns, who, under [[Agesilaus II]], invaded [[Asia Minor]]. To redirect the Spartans' attention to Greek affairs, Artaxerxes II subsidized their enemies: in particular the [[Athens|Athenians]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebans]] and [[Corinth]]ians. These subsidies helped to engage the [[Sparta]]ns in what would become known as the [[Corinthian War]]. In 387 BC, Artaxerxes II betrayed his allies and came to an arrangement with Sparta, and in the [[Treaty of Antalcidas]] he forced his erstwhile allies to come to terms. This treaty restored control of the Greek cities of [[Ionia]] and [[Aeolis]] on the Anatolian coast to the Persians while giving Sparta dominance on the Greek mainland. In 385 BC he [[Artaxerxes' II Cadusian Campaign|campaigned against the Cadusians]]. Although successful against the Greeks, Artaxerxes II had more trouble with the [[Egypt]]ians, who had successfully revolted against him at the beginning of his reign. An attempt to reconquer Egypt in 373 BC was completely unsuccessful, but in his waning years the Persians did manage to defeat a joint Egyptian–Spartan effort to conquer [[Achaemenid Phoenicia|Phoenicia]]. He quashed the [[Revolt of the Satraps]] in 372–362 BC. He is reported to have had a number of wives. His main wife was [[Stateira (wife of Artaxerxes II)|Stateira]], until she was poisoned by Artaxerxes II's mother Parysatis in about 400 BC. Another chief wife was a Greek woman of [[Phocaea]] named Aspasia (not the same as the concubine of [[Pericles]]). Artaxerxes II is said to have had more than 115 sons from 350 wives.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 April 2014 |title=The Achaemenid Empire |url=http://iranologie.com/the-history-page/the-achaemenid-empire/ |access-date=21 June 2015}}[http://www.iranologie.com/history/Achaemenid/chapter%20V.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619124220/http://www.iranologie.com/history/Achaemenid/chapter%20V.html|date=19 June 2008}}</ref>

In 358 BC Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by his son [[Artaxerxes III]]. In 355 BC, Artaxerxes III forced [[Athens]] to conclude a peace which required the city's forces to leave [[Asia Minor]] and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lexicorient.com/e.o/artaxerxes3.htm |title=Artaxerxes 3 |access-date=5 March 2008 |last=Kjeilen |first=Tore| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080225213722/http://lexicorient.com/e.o/artaxerxes3.htm| archive-date=25 February 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref> Artaxerxes started a campaign against the rebellious [[Cadusii|Cadusians]], but he managed to appease both of the Cadusian kings. One individual who successfully emerged from this campaign was Darius Codomannus, who later occupied the Persian throne as [[Darius III]].<ref>{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=6|fascicle=1|article=DARIUS v. Darius III|year=1994|last=EIr|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/darius-v/|page=51-54|quote=In the Greek tradition he was unanimously depicted as an outsider who had risen to the throne through outstanding bravery, first shown in single combat in an early expedition of Artaxerxes III Ochus (359-38 B.C.E.) against the Cadusii.}}</ref>

Artaxerxes III then ordered the disbanding of all the satrapal armies of Asia Minor, as he felt that they could no longer guarantee peace in the west and was concerned that these armies equipped the western satraps with the means to revolt.<ref name="PersianArmy">{{cite book |title=The Persian Army 560–330 BC |url=https://archive.org/details/persianarmybc00seku |url-access=limited |last=Sekunda |first=Nick |author2=Nicholas V. Sekunda|author3=Simon Chew|year=1992 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-85532-250-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/persianarmybc00seku/page/n28 28]}}</ref> The order was however ignored by [[Artabazos II of Phrygia]], who asked for the help of Athens in a rebellion against the king. Athens sent assistance to [[Sardis]]. [[Orontid dynasty#Orontid Kings and satraps of Armenia|Orontes of Mysia]] also supported Artabazos and the combined forces managed to defeat the forces sent by Artaxerxes III in 354 BC. However, in 353 BC, they were defeated by Artaxerxes III's army and were disbanded. Orontes was pardoned by the king, while Artabazos fled to the safety of the court of [[Philip II of Macedon]]. In {{circa|351 BC}}, Artaxerxes embarked on a campaign to recover Egypt, which had revolted under his father, Artaxerxes II. At the same time, a rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor, which, being supported by [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], threatened to become serious. Levying a vast army, Artaxerxes [[Second Achaemenid conquest of Egypt|invaded Egypt]] and engaged in fighting with [[Nectanebo II]]. After a year of fighting the Egyptian [[Pharaoh]], Nectanebo inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persians with the support of mercenaries led by the Greek generals Diophantus and Lamius.<ref name=Miller1986>{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=James Maxwell|author-link1=J. Maxwell Miller (biblical scholar)|last2=Hayes|first2=John Haralson|title=A History of Ancient Israel and Judah|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill/page/465 465]|publisher=The Westminster Press|location=Philadelphia|year=1986|isbn=978-0-664-21262-9|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill/page/465}}</ref> Artaxerxes was compelled to retreat and postpone his plans to reconquer Egypt. Soon after this defeat, there were rebellions in [[Achaemenid Phoenicia|Phoenicia]], [[History of Anatolia#Achaemenid Empire|Asia Minor]] and [[Ancient history of Cyprus#Persian period|Cyprus]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

{{multiple image
| align = right
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 350
| title = Darius vase
| image1 = Darius vase Napoli Museum without background.jpg
| caption1 = The [[Darius Vase]] at the [[National Archaeological Museum, Naples|Archaeological Museum of Naples]]. c. 340–320 BC.
| image2 = Darius detail on the Darius vase.jpg
| caption2 = Detail of [[Darius I|Darius]], with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right) giving his name.
}}
In 343 BC, Artaxerxes committed responsibility for the suppression of the Cyprian rebels to [[Idrieus]], prince of [[Caria]], who employed 8,000 Greek mercenaries and forty [[trireme]]s, commanded by [[Phocion]] the Athenian, and [[Evagoras II|Evagoras]], son of the elder [[Evagoras I|Evagoras]], the Cypriot monarch.<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus & Branchidæ |url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008617553 |last=Newton |first=Sir Charles Thomas |author2=R.P. Pullan |year=1862 |publisher=Day & son |page=[https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008617553/page/n78 57]}}</ref><ref name="Persianempire">{{cite web |url=http://persianempire.info/ArtaxerxesIII.htm |title=Artaxerxes III Ochus ( 358 BC to 338 BC )|access-date=2 March 2008}}</ref> Idrieus succeeded in reducing Cyprus. Artaxerxes initiated a counter-offensive against [[Sidon]] by commanding [[Belesys]], satrap of Syria, and [[Mazaeus]], [[Cilicia (satrapy)|satrap of Cilicia]], to invade the city and to keep the [[Phoenicia]]ns in check. Both satraps suffered crushing defeats at the hands of [[Tennes]], the Sidonese king, who was aided by 40,000 Greek mercenaries sent to him by [[Nectanebo II]] and commanded by [[Mentor of Rhodes]]. As a result, the Persian forces were driven out of [[Phoenicia]].<ref name="Persianempire"/>

After this, Artaxerxes personally led an army of 330,000 men against [[Sidon]]. Artaxerxes' army comprised 300,000-foot soldiers, 30,000 [[cavalry]], 300 triremes, and 500 transports or provision ships. After gathering this army, he sought assistance from the Greeks. Though refused aid by [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]], he succeeded in obtaining a thousand Theban heavy-armed hoplites under Lacrates, three thousand Argives under Nicostratus, and six thousand Æolians, [[Ionians]], and Dorians from the Greek cities of Asia Minor. This Greek support was numerically small, amounting to no more than 10,000 men, but it formed, together with the Greek mercenaries from Egypt who went over to him afterward, the force on which he placed his chief reliance, and to which the ultimate success of his expedition was mainly due. The approach of Artaxerxes sufficiently weakened the resolution of Tennes that he endeavoured to purchase his own pardon by delivering up 100 principal citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Persian king and then admitting Artaxerxes within the defences of the town. Artaxerxes had the 100 citizens transfixed with javelins, and when 500 more came out as supplicants to seek his mercy, Artaxerxes consigned them to the same fate. Sidon was then burnt to the ground, either by Artaxerxes or by the Sidonian citizens. Forty thousand people died in the conflagration.<ref name=Persianempire/> Artaxerxes sold the ruins at a high price to speculators, who calculated on reimbursing themselves by the treasures which they hoped to dig out from among the ashes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tomrawlinson.com/Personal/Links/RawlinsonGeorge.htm |title=Phœnicia under the Persians |access-date=10 March 2008 |last=Rawlinson |first=George |author-link=George Rawlinson |year=1889 |website=History of Phoenicia |publisher=Longmans, Green |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720031359/http://www.tomrawlinson.com/Personal/Links/RawlinsonGeorge.htm |archive-date=20 July 2006 }}</ref> Tennes was later put to death by Artaxerxes.<ref name=Lovetoknow>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Artaxerxes |volume=2 |page=663}}</ref> Artaxerxes later sent Jews who supported the revolt to [[Hyrcania]] on the south coast of the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/GogAndMagog.htm |title=The Legend of Gog And Magog |access-date=10 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315084037/http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/GogAndMagog.htm |archive-date=15 March 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary |last=Bruce |first=Frederick Fyvie |year=1990 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-0966-7 |page=117}}</ref>

===Second conquest of Egypt===
{{main|Second Achaemenid conquest of Egypt}}

[[File:HibisGate3Dareios1AmunRaKamutef.jpg|thumb|upright|Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity [[Amun-Ra Kamutef]], [[Temple of Hibis]]]]
[[File:Darius I statue list of subject countries.jpg|thumb|upright|The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius, on the [[Egyptian statue of Darius I]].]]
The reduction of Sidon was followed closely by the invasion of Egypt. In 343 BC, Artaxerxes III, in addition to his 330,000 Persians, had now a force of 14,000 Greeks furnished by the Greek cities of Asia Minor: 4,000 under [[Mentor of Rhodes|Mentor]], consisting of the troops that he had brought to the aid of Tennes from Egypt; 3,000 sent by Argos; and 1,000 from Thebes. He divided these troops into three bodies, and placed at the head of each a Persian and a Greek. The Greek commanders were Lacrates of Thebes, [[Mentor of Rhodes]] and Nicostratus of Argos while the Persians were led by Rhossaces, Aristazanes, and [[Bagoas]], the chief of the eunuchs. [[Nectanebo II]] resisted with an army of 100,000 of whom 20,000 were Greek mercenaries. Nectanebo II occupied the [[Nile]] and its various branches with his large navy.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

The character of the country, intersected by numerous canals and full of strongly fortified towns, was in his favour and Nectanebo II might have been expected to offer a prolonged, if not even a successful resistance. However, he lacked good generals, and, over-confident in his own powers of command, he was out-maneuvered by the Greek mercenary generals, and his forces were eventually defeated by the combined Persian armies. After his defeat, Nectanebo hastily fled to [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], leaving the fortified towns to be defended by their garrisons. These garrisons consisted of partly [[Greeks|Greek]] and partly Egyptian troops; between whom jealousies and suspicions were easily sown by the Persian leaders. As a result, the Persians were able to rapidly reduce numerous towns across Lower Egypt and were advancing upon Memphis when Nectanebo decided to quit the country and flee southwards to [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="Persianempire"/> The Persian army completely routed the Egyptians and occupied the Lower Delta of the Nile. Following Nectanebo fleeing to Ethiopia, all of Egypt submitted to Artaxerxes. The Jews in Egypt were sent either to [[Babylon]] or to the south coast of the [[Caspian Sea]], the same location that the Jews of [[Phoenicia]] had earlier been sent.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

After this victory over the Egyptians, Artaxerxes had the city walls destroyed, started a reign of terror, and set about looting all the temples. [[Persia]] gained a significant amount of wealth from this looting. Artaxerxes also raised high taxes and attempted to weaken [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] enough that it could never revolt against Persia. For the 10 years that Persia controlled Egypt, believers in the native religion were persecuted and sacred books were stolen.<ref name="Egyptloot">{{cite web|url=http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/history/periods/persianii.html |title=Persian Period II |access-date=6 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217023749/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/history/periods/persianii.html |archive-date=17 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Before Artaxerxes returned to Persia, he appointed Pherendares as [[History of Achaemenid Egypt|satrap of Egypt]]. With the wealth gained from his reconquering Egypt, Artaxerxes was able to amply reward his mercenaries. He then returned to his capital having successfully completed his invasion of Egypt.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

After his success in Egypt, Artaxerxes returned to Persia and spent the next few years effectively quelling insurrections in various parts of the Empire so that a few years after his conquest of Egypt, the Persian Empire was firmly under his control. Egypt remained a part of the Persian Empire from then until [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest of Egypt.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

After the conquest of Egypt, there were no more revolts or rebellions against Artaxerxes. Mentor and [[Bagoas]], the two generals who had most distinguished themselves in the Egyptian campaign, were advanced to posts of the highest importance. Mentor, who was governor of the entire Asiatic seaboard, was successful in reducing to subjection many of the chiefs who during the recent troubles had rebelled against Persian rule. In the course of a few years, Mentor and his forces were able to bring the whole Asian Mediterranean coast into complete submission and dependence.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Bagoas went back to the Persian capital with Artaxerxes, where he took a leading role in the internal administration of the Empire and maintained tranquillity throughout the rest of the Empire. During the last six years of the reign of Artaxerxes III, the Persian Empire was governed by a vigorous and successful government.<ref name="Persianempire" />

The Persian forces in [[Ionia]] and [[Lycia]] regained control of the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and took over much of [[Athens]]' former island empire. In response, [[Isocrates]] of Athens started giving speeches calling for a 'crusade against the barbarians' but there was not enough strength left in any of the Greek city-states to answer his call.<ref name="conspiracy">{{cite web|url=http://www.iranologie.com/history/Achaemenid/chapter%20V.html |title=Chapter V: Temporary Relief |access-date=1 March 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619124220/http://www.iranologie.com/history/Achaemenid/chapter%20V.html |archive-date=19 June 2008 }}</ref>

Although there were no rebellions in the Persian Empire itself, the growing power and territory of [[Philip II of Macedon]] in [[Macedon]] (against which [[Demosthenes]] was in vain warning the Athenians) attracted the attention of Artaxerxes. In response, he ordered that Persian influence was to be used to check and constrain the rising power and influence of the Macedonian kingdom. In 340 BC, a Persian force was dispatched to assist the [[Thrace|Thracian prince]], [[Cersobleptes]], to maintain his independence. Sufficient effective aid was given to the city of [[Perinthus]] that the numerous and well-appointed army with which Philip had commenced his siege of the city was compelled to give up the attempt.<ref name="Persianempire"/> By the last year of Artaxerxes' rule, Philip II already had plans in place for an invasion of the Persian Empire, which would crown his career, but the Greeks would not unite with him.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://historyofmacedonia.org/AncientMacedonia/PhilipofMacedon.html |title= Philip of Macedon Philip II of Macedon Biography |access-date=7 March 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080314165325/http://www.historyofmacedonia.org/AncientMacedonia/PhilipofMacedon.html| archive-date=14 March 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>

In 338 BC Artaxerxes was poisoned by [[Bagoas]] with the assistance of a physician.{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=769}}

===Fall to Alexander III of Macedon===
[[File:Napoli BW 2013-05-16 16-25-06 1 DxO.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Issus]], between [[Alexander the Great]] on horseback to the left, and [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]] in the chariot to the right, represented in a Pompeii [[mosaic]] dated 1st century BC – [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]]]]
[[File:Alexander’s first victory over Darius, the Persian king.jpg|thumb|Alexander's first victory over Darius, the Persian king depicted in medieval European style in the 15th century romance ''The History of Alexander's Battles'']]
Artaxerxes III was succeeded by [[Artaxerxes IV Arses]], who before he could act was also poisoned by Bagoas. Bagoas is further said to have killed not only all Arses' children, but many of the other princes of the land. Bagoas then placed [[Darius III]], a nephew of Artaxerxes IV, on the throne. Darius III, previously the [[Orontid Dynasty|Satrap of Armenia]], personally forced Bagoas to swallow poison. In 334 BC, when Darius was just succeeding in subduing Egypt again, Alexander and his battle-hardened troops [[Wars of Alexander the Great|invaded Asia Minor]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

[[Alexander the Great]] (Alexander III of Macedon) defeated the Persian armies at [[Battle of Granicus|Granicus]] (334 BC), followed by [[Battle of Issus|Issus]] (333 BC), and lastly at [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugamela]] (331 BC). Afterwards, he marched on [[Susa]] and [[Persepolis]] which surrendered and was destroyed by fire in early 330 BC.{{sfn|Olmstead|2022|p=524}} From Persepolis, Alexander headed north to [[Pasargadae]], where he visited the [[tomb of Cyrus]], the man whom he had heard of from the ''[[Cyropaedia]]''.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

In the ensuing chaos created by Alexander's invasion of Persia, Cyrus's tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which it had been treated, and questioned the Magi, putting them on trial.<ref name="Cleveland">{{cite book |author=Cleveland |first=Charles Dexter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaU1AAAAMAAJ |title=A compendium of classical literature: comprising choice extracts translated from Greek and Roman writers, with biographical sketches |publisher=Biddle |year=1861 |page=313}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Jackson |first=Abraham Valentine Williams |url=https://archive.org/details/persiapastandpr01jackgoog |title=Persia past and present |publisher=The Macmillan Company |year=1906 |page=[https://archive.org/details/persiapastandpr01jackgoog/page/n470 278]}}</ref> By some accounts, Alexander's decision to put the Magi on trial was more an attempt to undermine their influence and display his own power than a show of concern for Cyrus's tomb.<ref>{{cite book |author=Griffiths |first1=Ralph |url=https://archive.org/details/monthlyreview70grifgoog |title=The Monthly review |last2=Griffiths |first2=George Edward |publisher= |year=1816 |page=[https://archive.org/details/monthlyreview70grifgoog/page/n522 509]}}</ref> Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb's condition and restore its interior, showing respect for Cyrus.<ref name=Cleveland /> From there he headed to [[Ecbatana]], where Darius III had sought refuge.<ref name="crystalinks.com">{{cite web |title=Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus the Great, Darius the Great, Xerxes the Great |url=https://www.crystalinks.com/Achaemenid_Empire.html |website=Crystalinks }}{{self-published inline|date=January 2026}}</ref>

Darius III was taken prisoner by [[Bessus]], his [[Bactria]]n [[satrap]] and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men murder Darius III and then declared himself Darius' successor, as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia leaving Darius' body in the road to delay Alexander, who brought it to Persepolis for an honourable funeral. Bessus would then create a coalition of his forces, to create an army to defend against Alexander. Before Bessus could fully unite with his confederates at the eastern part of the empire,<ref>{{cite book |author=Dodge |first=Theodore Ayrault |url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderhistory01dodg |title=Alexander: a history of the origin and growth of the art of war from the earliest times to the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, with a detailed account of the campaigns of the great Macedonian |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin & Company |year=1890 |page=438}}</ref> Alexander, fearing the danger of Bessus gaining control, found him, put him on trial in a Persian court under his control, and ordered his execution in a "cruel and barbarous manner."<ref>{{cite book |author=Smith |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/asmallerhistory14smitgoog |title=A smaller history of Greece: from the earliest times to the Roman conquest |publisher=Harper & Brothers |year=1887 |page=[https://archive.org/details/asmallerhistory14smitgoog/page/n225 196]}}</ref>

Alexander generally kept the original Achaemenid administrative structure, leading some scholars to dub him as "the last of the Achaemenids".<ref>{{cite book |author=Briant |first1=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ziEp4kjhW9AC |title=Alexander the Great and His Empire: A Short Introduction |last2=Kuhrt |first2=Amélie |date=2010 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-14194-7 |pages=183–185}}</ref> Upon Alexander's death in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his generals, the [[Diadochi]], resulting in a number of smaller states. The largest of these, which held sway over the Iranian plateau, was the [[Seleucid Empire]], ruled by Alexander's general [[Seleucus I Nicator]]. Native Iranian rule would be restored by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] of northeastern Iran over the course of the 2nd century BC through the [[Parthian Empire]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resources – Iran History|url=http://toosfoundation.com/category/resources-iran-history/|website=toosfoundation.com|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref>

===Descendants in later Persian dynasties===
;"Frataraka" of the Seleucid Empire
[[File:KINGS of PERSIS. Vādfradād (Autophradates) I. 3rd century BC.jpg|thumb|[[Frataraka]] dynasty ruler [[Vadfradad I]] (Autophradates I). 3rd century BC. Istakhr (Persepolis) mint.<ref>{{cite web |title=CNG: Feature Auction CNG 96. KINGS of PERSIS. Vādfradād (Autophradates) I. 3rd century BC. AR Tetradrachm (28mm, 15.89 g, 9h). Istakhr (Persepolis) mint. |url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=256484 |website=Classical Numismatic Group }}</ref>]]
{{Main|Frataraka}}

Several later Persian rulers, forming the ''[[Frataraka]]'' dynasty, are known to have acted as representatives of the [[Seleucids]] in the region of [[Fārs]].<ref name="EI"/> They ruled from the end of the 3rd century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and [[Vahbarz]] or [[Vādfradād I]] obtained independence {{circa|150 BC}}, when Seleucid power waned in the areas of southwestern Persia and the Persian Gulf region.<ref name="EI">{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=10|fascicle=2|title=Frataraka|last=Wiesehöfer|first=Josef|page=195|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/frataraka/}}</ref>

;Kings of Persis under the Parthian Empire
{{main|Kings of Persis}}

[[File:KINGS of PERSIS. Dārēv (Darios) I. 2nd century BC.jpg|thumb|[[Dārēv I]] (Darios I) used for the first time the title of ''mlk'' (King). 2nd century BC.]]
During an apparent transitional period, corresponding to the reigns of Vādfradād II and another uncertain king, no titles of authority appeared on the reverse of their coins. The earlier title ''prtrk' zy alhaya'' (Frataraka) had disappeared. Under [[Dārēv I]] (Darios I) however, the new title of ''mlk'', or king, appeared, sometimes with the mention of ''prs'' (Persis), suggesting that the kings of Persis had become independent rulers.<ref name="CNG"/>

When the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] [[Arsacid]] king [[Mithridates I of Parthia|Mithridates I]] (c. 171–138 BC) took control of [[Persis]], he left the Persian dynasts in office, known as the [[Kings of Persis]], and they were allowed to continue minting coins with the title of ''mlk'' ("King").<ref name="EI"/>

;Sasanian Empire
{{main|Sasanian Empire}}

With the reign of Šābuhr, the son of [[Pāpag]], the kingdom of Persis then became a part of the [[Sasanian Empire]]. Šābuhr's brother and successor, Ardaxšir (Artaxerxes) V, defeated the last legitimate Parthian king, [[Artabanus V of Parthia|Artabanos V]] in 224 AD, and was crowned at [[Ctesiphon]] as [[Ardaxšir I]] (Ardashir I), ''šāhanšāh ī Ērān'', becoming the first king of the new [[Sasanian Empire]].<ref name="CNG">{{cite web |title=CNG: Feature Auction CNG 90. KINGS of PERSIS. Vahbarz (Oborzos). 3rd century BC. AR Obol (10mm, 0.50 g, 11h). |url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=208365 |website=Classical Numismatic Group }}</ref>

;Kingdom of Pontus
The Achaemenid line would also be carried on through the [[Kingdom of Pontus]], based in the [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]] region of northern [[Asia Minor]]. This Pontic Kingdom, a state of [[Persian people|Persian]] origin,<ref>B. C. McGing''. The Foreign Policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus'', p. 11.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Freely |first1=John |title=Children of Achilles: The Greeks in Asia Minor since the Days of Troy |date=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-630-7 |pages=69–70 }}</ref><ref>''Strabo of Amasia: A Greek Man of Letters in Augustan Rome'', by Daniela Dueck, p. 3</ref><ref name="EIO Pontus">{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|title=Pontus|last=McGing|first=Brian|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/pontus/}}</ref> may even have been directly related to [[Darius I]] and the [[Achaemenid dynasty]].<ref name="EIO Pontus"/> It was founded by [[Mithridates I of Pontus|Mithridates I]] in 281 BC and lasted until its conquest by the [[Roman Republic]] in 63 BC. The kingdom grew to its largest extent under [[Mithridates VI]] the Great, who conquered [[Colchis]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Bithynia]], the Greek colonies of the [[Chersonesus Taurica|Tauric Chersonesos]] and for a brief time the Roman province of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]]. Thus, this Persian dynasty managed to survive and prosper in the [[Hellenistic world]] while the main Persian Empire had fallen.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} Despite Greek influence on the Kingdom of Pontus, Pontics continued to maintain their Achaemenid lineage.<ref name="EIO Pontus" />
[[File:Sphinx Darius Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|Winged [[sphinx]] from the [[Palace of Darius in Susa]], [[Louvre]] museum]]

Both the later dynasties of the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]] would on occasion claim Achaemenid descent. Recently there has been some corroboration for the Parthian claim to Achaemenid ancestry via the possibility of an inherited disease ([[neurofibromatosis]]) demonstrated by the physical descriptions of rulers and from the evidence of familial disease on ancient coinage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ashrafian |first1=Hutan |title=Limb gigantism, neurofibromatosis and royal heredity in the Ancient World 2500 years ago: Achaemenids and Parthians |journal=Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive & Aesthetic Surgery |date=April 2011 |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=557 |doi=10.1016/j.bjps.2010.08.025 |pmid=20832372 }}</ref>

==Government==
[[File:Map of Achaemenid Imperial Satraps (English Version).png|thumb|upright=1.6|Satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire showing their ancient names and the extent of their territory.]]
[[Cyrus the Great]] founded the empire as a multi-[[State (polity)|state]] empire, governed from four capital cities: [[Pasargadae]], [[Babylon]], [[Susa]] and [[Ecbatana]]. The Achaemenids allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the [[satrap]]y system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A '[[satrap]]' (governor) was the governor who administered the region, a 'general' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a 'state secretary' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government. At differing times, there were between 20 and 30 satrapies.

Cyrus the Great created an organized army including the [[Persian Immortals|Immortals]] unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=261}} Cyrus also formed an innovative [[postal system]] throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called [[Chapar Khaneh]].<ref>Herodotus, trans. A. D. Godley, vol. 4, book 8, verse 98, pp. 96–97 (1924).</ref>

[[Persepolis Administrative Archives]] provide many insights into the Achaemenid government system. Found at [[Persepolis]] in the 1930s, they are mostly in [[Achaemenid Elamite|Elamite]]; the remains of more than 10,000 of these cuneiform documents have been uncovered. [[Imperial Aramaic|Aramaic]] is represented by about 1,000 or more original records.<ref>[https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/persepolis-fortification-archive Persepolis Fortification Archive.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160929234803/http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/persepolis-fortification-archive |date=29 September 2016 }} Oriental Institute – The University of Chicago</ref> Only one tablet in [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]] has been identified so far.<ref>Stolper, Matthew W. and Tavernier, Jan (2007), [http://www.achemenet.com/document/2007.001-Stolper-Tavernier.pdf From the Persepolis Fortification Archive Project, 1: An Old Persian Administrative Tablet from the Persepolis Fortification.]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920045714/http://www.achemenet.com/document/2007.001-Stolper-Tavernier.pdf|date=20 September 2022}}. ''ARTA'' 2007.001.</ref>

Also, many seals and seal impressions are found in these Persepolis archives. These documents represent administrative activity and flow of data in Persepolis over more than fifty consecutive years (509–457 BC).

===Coinage===
{{Main|Achaemenid coinage}}

[[File:Double daric 330-300 obverse CdM Paris.jpg|thumb|right|[[Daric]] of Artaxerxes II]]
The Persian [[daric]] was the first [[gold coin]] which, along with a similar silver coin, the [[siglos]], introduced the bimetallic [[monetary standard]] of the Achaemenids, which has continued until today.<ref name="iranica">{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=7|fascicle=1|title=Daric|last=Alram|first=Michael|pages=36–40|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/daric/}}</ref> This was accomplished by [[Darius I]], who reinforced the empire and expanded [[Persepolis]] as a ceremonial capital;<ref>{{multiref|1={{cite book|title=Persepolis Recreated|publisher=NEJ International Pictures|edition=1st|year=2005|isbn=978-964-06-4525-3|first1=Farzin|last1=Rezaeian}}|2=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nCwxJsk14e4{{Dead link|date=June 2025}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512055818/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nCwxJsk14e4 |date=12 May 2021 }}}}</ref> he revolutionized the economy by placing it on the silver and gold coinage.

===Tax districts===
{{see also|Districts of the Achaemenid Empire}}
[[File:Tribute in the Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Districts of the Achaemenid Empire|Volume of annual tribute per district]], in the Achaemenid Empire, according to [[Herodotus]].<ref name=HIII>Herodotus [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3D*.html Book III, 89–95] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133022/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/3D%2A.html |date=29 November 2022 }}</ref><ref name=ZA>{{cite book |last1=Archibald |first1=Zosia |last2=Davies |first2=John K. |last3=Gabrielsen |first3=Vincent |title=The Economies of Hellenistic Societies, Third to First Centuries BC |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-958792-6 |page=404 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9YUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA404 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Iranica - Achaemenid Relations">{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=8|fascicle=1|title=INDIA iii. Political and Cultural Relations: Achaemenid period|last=Callieri|first=Pierfrancesco|pages=10–13|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/india-iii-relations-achaemenid-period/}}</ref>]]

Darius also introduced a regulated and sustainable tax system that was precisely tailored to each satrapy, based on their supposed productivity and their economic potential. For instance, [[Babylon]] was assessed for the highest amount and for a startling mixture of commodities – 1,000 [[Talent (measurement)|silver talents]], four months' supply of food for the army. [[Hindush|India]] was clearly already fabled for its gold; [[Egypt]] was known for the wealth of its crops; it was to be the granary of the Persian Empire (as later of Rome's) and was required to provide 120,000 measures of grain in addition to 700 talents of silver. This was exclusively a tax levied on subject peoples.<ref name="historyworld.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa65 |title=History of Iran (Persia) |publisher=Historyworld.net |access-date=7 January 2011}}</ref> There is evidence that conquered and rebellious enemies could be sold into slavery.<ref>[[Muhammad Dandamayev|M. Dandamayev]], "Foreign Slaves on the Estates of the Achaemenid Kings and their Nobles", in Trudy dvadtsat' pyatogo mezhdunarodnogo kongressa vostokovedov II, Moscow, 1963, pp. 151–152</ref> Alongside its other innovations in administration and taxation, the Achaemenids may have been the first government in the ancient Near East to register private slave sales and tax them using an early form of [[sales tax]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stolper |first1=Matthew W. |title=Registration and Taxation of Slave Sales in Achaemenid Babylonia |journal=Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie |date=1989 |volume=79 |issue=1 |doi=10.1515/zava.1989.79.1.80 }}</ref>

Other accomplishments of Darius' reign included the codification of the ''dāta'' (a universal legal system which would become the basis of later Iranian law), and the construction of a new capital at [[Persepolis]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Nyrop |editor-first1=Richard F. |title=Iran, a Country Study |date=1978 |publisher=American University (Washington, D.C. ) Foreign Area |pages=25–26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lvvrt670CB8C&pg=PA25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=7|fascicle=1|title=Dāta|last=Schmitt|first=Rüdiger|pages=114–115|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/data/}}</ref>

=== Transportation and communication ===
Under the Achaemenids, trade was extensive and there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. Tariffs on trade, along with agriculture and tribute, were major sources of revenue for the empire.<ref name="historyworld.net" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/D/DAR/darius-i-the-great.html|title=Darius I (Darius the Great), King of Persia (from 521 BC)|publisher=1902encyclopedia.com|access-date=7 January 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Khalili Collection Aramaic Documents IA 6F.jpg|thumb|Letter from the Satrap of Bactria to the governor of Khulmi, concerning camel keepers, 353 BC]]
[[File:Tuyserkan-Ganjnameh Road (2022).jpg|thumb|Part of the royal road that connected Ecbatana to Anatolia, this road is still in use today.]]
The satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the [[Royal Road]] from [[Susa]] to [[Sardis]], built under the command of [[Darius the Great|Darius I]]. It connected the [[Iranian plateau|Iranian Plateau]] to [[Central Asia]] and the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daryaee |first=Touraj |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0199390427 |pages=4}}</ref> It featured stations and [[caravanserai]]s at specific intervals. The relays of mounted couriers (the [[angarium]]) could reach the remotest of areas in fifteen days. Herodotus observes that "there is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers. Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night stays these courageous couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds."<ref>The words are actually inscribed on the [[frieze]] of the [[James A. Farley Post Office Building]] in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. The inscription is based on: Herodotus with George Rawlinson, trans., ''The History of Herodotus'' (New York, New York: Tandy-Thomas Co., 1909), vol. 4, Book 8, § 98, [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x000329532;view=1up;seq=163 p. 147.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308112106/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x000329532;view=1up;seq=163 |date=8 March 2021 }}</ref> Despite the relative local independence given by the satrapy system, royal inspectors, the "eyes and ears of the king", toured the empire and reported on local conditions.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Another highway of commerce was the [[Khurasan Road|Great Khorasan Road]], an informal mercantile route that originated in the fertile lowlands of Mesopotamia and snaked through the Zagros highlands, through the Iranian plateau and Afghanistan into the Central Asian regions of [[Samarkand]], [[Merv]] and [[Fergana Valley|Ferghana]], allowing for the construction of frontier cities like [[Cyropolis]]. Following Alexander's conquests, this highway allowed for the spread of cultural syncretic fusions like [[Greco-Buddhism]] into Central Asia and China, as well as empires like the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]], [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek]] and [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] to profit from trade between East and West. This route was greatly rehabilitated and formalized during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], during which it developed into a major component of the famed [[Silk Road]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/diary-young-explorers-iran-and-royal-road|title=The Diary of Young Explorers: Iran and the Royal Road {{!}} Silk Roads|website=en.unesco.org|access-date=2020-04-11}}</ref>

==Military==
Despite its humble origins in Persis, the empire reached an enormous size under the leadership of [[Cyrus the Great]]. Cyrus created a multi-state empire where he allowed regional rulers, [[satrap]]s, to rule as his proxy over a certain designated area of his empire called a [[satrapy]]. The basic rule of governance was based upon loyalty and obedience of each satrapy to the central power, or the king, and compliance with tax laws.<ref name=cyv>{{cite book| author = Palmira Johnson Brummett |author2=Robert R. Edgar |author3=Neil J. Hackett|author4=Robert R. Edgar|author5=Neil J. Hackett| title = Civilization past & present, Volume 1| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vz65MAm_6JMC| year = 2003| publisher = Longman| isbn = 978-0-321-09097-3| page = 38}}</ref> Due to the ethno-cultural diversity of the subject nations under the rule of Persia, its enormous geographic size, and the constant struggle for power by regional competitors,<ref name=book/> the creation of a professional army was necessary for both maintenance of the peace and to enforce the authority of the king in cases of rebellion and foreign threat.<ref name=schmitt/>{{sfn|Briant|2002|p=261}} Cyrus managed to create a strong land army, using it to advance in his campaigns in [[Babylonian empire|Babylonia]], Lydia, and [[Asia Minor]], which after his death was used by his son [[Cambyses II]], in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] against [[Psamtik III]]. Cyrus would die battling a local Iranian insurgency in the empire, before he could have a chance to develop a naval force.<ref>''A history of Greece'', Vol. 2, by Connop Thirlwall, Longmans, 1836, p. 174</ref> That task would fall to [[Darius the Great|Darius I]], who would officially give Persians their own royal navy to allow them to engage their enemies on multiple seas of this vast empire, from the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Aegean Sea]], to the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Ionian Sea]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

===Ethnic composition===
[[File:Xerxes all ethnicities.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Relief of throne-bearing soldiers in their native clothing at the tomb of [[Xerxes I]], demonstrating the satrapies under his rule.]]
The empire's great armies were, like the empire itself, very diverse, having:{{efn|All peoples listed (except for the [[Caucasian Albania]]ns) are the ones that took part in the [[Second Persian invasion of Greece]].<ref>Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231123;layout=;loc=7.60.1 VII, 59] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133018/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=29 November 2022 }}</ref> The total amount of ethnicities could very well amount to much more.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}}} [[Persian people|Persians]],<ref name="vii-84">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.84.1 VII, 84] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154130/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.84.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Macedon]]ians,<ref name="books.google.nl"/> European [[Thrace|Thracians]], [[Paionia|Paeonians]], [[Medes]], Achaean [[Greeks]], [[Khuzistan|Cissians]], [[Hyrcanians]],<ref name="vii-62">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.62.1 VII, 62] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506153822/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.62.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Achaemenid Assyria|Assyrians]], [[Chaldea]]ns,<ref name="vii-63">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.63.1 VII, 63] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506153833/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.63.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Bactria]]ns, [[Sacae]],<ref name="vii-64">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.64.1 VII, 64] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133025/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=29 November 2022 }}</ref> [[Aria (satrapy)|Arians]], [[Parthia]]ns, [[Caucasian Albania]]ns,<ref name="Chaumont">{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=1|fascicle=8|title=Albania|last=Chaumont|first=Marie Louise|pages=806–810|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aran-arm/}}</ref> [[Khwarezm|Chorasmians]], [[Sogdiana|Sogdians]], [[Gandhara|Gandarans]], [[Daradas|Dadicae]],<ref name="vii-66">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.66.1 VII, 66] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506153916/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.66.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Caspians]], [[Drangiana|Sarangae]], [[Pashtun people|Pactyes]],<ref name="vii-67">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.67.1 VII, 67] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506153917/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.67.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Utians]], [[Maka (satrapy)|Mycians]], [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Yehud Medinata|Judeans]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]],<ref name="vii=89">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.89.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 VII, 89] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804175531/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.%207.89.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> [[Greek Cypriots|Cyprians]],<ref name="vii-90">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.90.1 VII 90] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129133027/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&redirect=true |date=29 November 2022 }}</ref> [[Cilicia]]ns, [[Pamphylia]]ns, [[Lycia]]ns, [[Dorians]] of Asia, [[Caria]]ns, [[Ionia]]ns, [[Aegean Islands|Aegean islanders]], [[Aeolis|Aeolians]], Greeks from [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]], [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Paricanians]],<ref name="vii-68">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.68.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 VII, 68] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723133518/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.68.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=23 July 2021 }}</ref> [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabians]], [[Ethiopia|Ethiopians of Africa]],<ref name="vii-69">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.69.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 VII, 69] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724232523/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.69.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=24 July 2020 }}</ref> [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province|Ethiopians of Baluchistan]],<ref name="vii-70">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.70.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 VII, 70] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723133542/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.70.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=23 July 2021 }}</ref> [[Libya]]ns,<ref name="vii-71">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.71.1 VII, 71] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154012/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.71.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Paphlagonia]]ns, [[Kutaisi|Ligyes]], [[Matiene|Matieni]], [[Bithynia|Mariandyni]], [[Cappadocia]]ns,<ref name="vii-72">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.72.1 VII, 72] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154017/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.72.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Phrygia]]ns, [[Armenia]]ns,<ref name="vii-73">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.73.1 VII, 73] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506135017/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.73.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Lydia]]ns, [[Mysia]]ns,<ref name="vii-74">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.74.1 VII, 74] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154038/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.74.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> Asian [[Bithyni|Thracians]],<ref name="vii-75">Herodotus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.75.1 VII, 75] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154046/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.75.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Pisidia|Lasonii]], [[Lycia|Milyae]],<ref name="vii-77">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.77.1 VII, 77] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154111/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.77.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Mushki|Moschi]], [[Tabal (state)|Tibareni]], [[Macrones]], [[Mossynoeci]],<ref name="vii-78">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.78.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 VII, 78] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724223706/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.78.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=24 July 2020 }}</ref> [[Trabzon|Mares]], [[Colchis|Colchians]], [[Urartu|Alarodians]], [[History of the Kurdish people|Saspirians]],<ref name="vii=79">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.79.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 VII, 79] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724224548/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.79.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=24 July 2020 }}</ref> [[Red Sea]] islanders,<ref name="vii-80">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.80.1 VII, 80] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154124/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.80.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Sagartians]],<ref name="vii-85">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.85.1 VII, 85] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506154200/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.85.1 |date=6 May 2008 }}</ref> [[Hindush]],<ref name="vii-65">Herodotus [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.65.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 VII, 65] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723133509/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hdt.+7.65.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 |date=23 July 2021 }}</ref> Eordi, [[Bottiaea|Bottiaei]], [[Chalkidiki|Chalcidians]], [[Bryges|Brygians]], [[Pieres|Pierians]], [[Perrhaebi]], Enienes, Dolopes, and [[Magnesia Prefecture|Magnesians]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

=== Infantry ===
The Achaemenid infantry consisted of three groups: the [[Immortals (Persian Empire)|Immortals]], the [[Sparabara]], and the [[Takabara]], though in the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, a fourth group, the [[Cardaces]], were introduced.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

The [[Immortals (Persian empire)|Immortals]] were described by [[Herodotus]] as being heavy [[infantry]], led by [[Hydarnes II]], that were kept constantly at a strength of exactly 10,000 men. He claimed that the unit's name stemmed from the custom that every killed, seriously wounded, or sick member was immediately replaced with a new one, maintaining the numbers and cohesion of the unit.<ref name="livius.org2" /> They had wicker shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, and bow and arrows. Underneath their robes they wore [[scale armour]] coats. The spear counterbalances of the common soldiery were of silver; to differentiate commanding ranks, the officers' spear butt-spikes were golden.<ref name="livius.org2">{{cite web |last=Jona |first=Lendering |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/immortals/ |title=Immortals|access-date=16 May 2009 |website=Livius.org |date=1997}}</ref> Surviving Achaemenid colored glazed bricks and carved reliefs represent the Immortals as wearing elaborate robes, hoop earrings and gold jewellery, though these garments and accessories were most likely worn only for ceremonial occasions.<ref>Volume IX, Encyclopædia Britannica, Fifteenth Edition 1983</ref>

[[File:Achaemenid infantry on Alexander Sarcophagus.jpg|thumb|upright|Color reconstruction of Achaemenid infantry on the [[Alexander Sarcophagus]] (end of 4th century BC).]]
The [[Sparabara]] were usually the first to engage in hand-to-hand combat with the enemy. Although not much is known about them today, it is believed that they were the backbone of the Persian army who formed a [[shield wall]] and used their two-metre-long spears to protect more vulnerable troops such as [[Archery|archers]] from the enemy. The Sparabara were taken from the full members of Persian society, were trained from childhood to be soldiers and when not called out to fight on campaigns in distant lands they practised hunting on the vast plains of [[Persia]]. However, when all was quiet and the ''Pax Persica'' held true, the Sparabara returned to normal life farming the land and grazing their herds. Because of this, they lacked true professional quality on the battlefield, yet they were well trained and courageous to the point of holding the line in most situations long enough for a counter-attack. They were armoured with quilted [[linen]] and carried large rectangular [[wicker]] shields as a form of light maneuverable defence. This, however, left them at a severe disadvantage against heavily armoured opponents such as the [[hoplite]], and their two-metre-long spear was not able to give the Sparabara ample range to plausibly engage a trained [[phalanx]]. The wicker shields were able to effectively stop arrows but not strong enough to protect the soldier from spears. However, the Sparabara could deal with most other infantry, including trained units from the East.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

The Achaemenids relied heavily on [[archery]]. Major contributing nations were the [[Scythians]], [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], and the [[Elam]]ites. The [[composite bow]] was used by the Persians and Medes, who adopted it from the Scythians and transmitted it to other nations, including the Greeks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Potts |first1=D. T. |title=The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56496-0 |page=345 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mc4cfzkRVj4C&pg=PA346 |language=en}}</ref> Achaemenid armies typically used socketed, three-bladed (also known as trilobate or Scythian) [[arrowheads]]. These arrowheads were cast from leaded tin-bronze, which made them amenable to mass-production unlike the wrought iron arrowheads of the period that had to be individually forged.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dugaw |first1=Sean |last2=Lipschits |first2=Oded |last3=Stiebel |first3=Guy D. |title=A New Typology of Arrowheads from the Late Iron Age and Persian Period and Its Historical Implications |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |date=2020 |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=64–89 |jstor=27100276 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yahalom-Mack |first1=Naama |last2=Herzlinger |first2=Gadi |last3=Bogdanovsky |first3=Alexander |last4=Tirosh |first4=Ofir |last5=Garfinkel |first5=Yosef |last6=Dugaw |first6=Sean |last7=Lipschits |first7=Oded |last8=Erel |first8=Yigal |date=2020 |title=Combining chemical and lead isotope analyses with 3-D geometric–morphometric shape analysis: A methodological case study of socketed bronze arrowheads from the southern Levant |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=118 |article-number=105147 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2020.105147 |bibcode=2020JArSc.118j5147Y }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Moorey |first=P. R. S. |date=1980 |title=Cemeteries of the First Millennium B.C. at Deve Hüyük, near Carchemish, salvaged by T. E. Lawrence and C. L. Woolley in 1913 |page=65 |publisher=British Archaeological Reports Limited |isbn=978-0-86054-101-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Delrue |first1=Parsival|date=2007 |title=Trilobate Arrowheads at Ed-Dur (U.A.E, Emirate of Umm Al-Qaiwain) |journal=Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy |volume=18 |number=2 |pages= 239–250|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0471.2007.00281.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=282545&partId=1&searchText=achaemenid&page=1 |website=British Museum |title=Collection online: arrow-head}}</ref>

The [[Takabara]] were a rare unit who were a tough type of [[peltasts]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Nicholas |last1=Sekunda|date=1992 |title=The Persian Army 560–330 BC |url=https://archive.org/details/persianarmybc00seku |url-access=limited |page= [https://archive.org/details/persianarmybc00seku/page/n30 30] |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-85532-250-9}}</ref> They tended to fight with their own native weapons which would have included a crescent-shaped light wickerwork [[shield]] and [[axe]]s as well as light linen cloth and [[leather]]. The Takabara were recruited from territories that incorporated modern Iran.

=== Cavalry ===
[[File:The Darius seal. Darius stands in a royal chariot below Ahura Mazda and shoots arrows at a rampant lion. From Thebes, Egypt. 6th-5th century BCE. British Museum (cropped).jpg|thumb|Seal of [[Darius the Great]] hunting in a chariot]]

The Persian cavalry was crucial for conquering nations and maintained its importance in the Achaemenid army to the last days of the Achaemenid Empire. The cavalry was separated into four groups. The [[chariot archer]]s, [[horse cavalry]], the [[camel cavalry]], and the [[Persian war elephants|war elephants]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

In the later years of the Achaemenid Empire, the chariot archer had become merely a ceremonial part of the Persian army, yet in the early years of the Empire, their use was widespread. The chariot archers were armed with lances, bows, arrows, swords, and [[scale armour]]. The horses were also suited with scale armour similar to scale armour of the [[Sassanian]] [[cataphract]]s. The chariots would contain imperial symbols and decorations.

[[File:Altıkulaç_Sarcophagus_Combat_scene_(detail).jpg|thumb|Armoured cavalry: Achaemenid Dynast of [[Hellespontine Phrygia]] attacking a Greek [[psiloi]], [[Altıkulaç Sarcophagus]], early 4th century BC.]]
The horses used by the Achaemenids for cavalry were often suited with scale armour, like most cavalry units. The riders often had the same armour as Infantry units, wicker shields, short spears, swords or large daggers, bow and arrow, and scale armour coats. The camel cavalry was different, because the camels and sometimes the riders, were provided little protection against enemies, yet when they were offered protection, they would have lances, swords, bow, arrow, and scale armour. The camel cavalry was first introduced into the Persian army by [[Cyrus the Great]], at the [[Battle of Thymbra]]. The elephant was most likely introduced into the Persian army by [[Darius I]] after his [[Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley|conquest of the Indus Valley]]. Elephants may have been used in Greek campaigns by Darius and [[Xerxes I]], but Greek accounts only mention 15 of them being used at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

=== Navy ===
{{main|Achaemenid navy}}

Since its foundation by Cyrus, the Persian empire had been primarily a land empire with a strong army but void of any actual naval forces. By the 5th century BC, this was to change, as the empire came across Greek and Egyptian forces, each with their own maritime traditions and capabilities. [[Darius the Great|Darius I]] was the first Achaemenid king to invest in a Persian fleet.<ref name=navy>{{cite book| author = Kaveh Farrokh| title = Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wywlvgAACAAJ | year = 2007 | publisher = Bloomsbury | isbn = 978-1-84603-108-3| page = 68}}</ref> Even by then no true "imperial navy" had existed either in Greece or Egypt. Persia would become the first empire, under Darius, to inaugurate and deploy the first regular imperial navy.<ref name=navy/> Despite this achievement, the personnel for the imperial navy would not come from Iran, but were often [[Phoenicia]]ns (mostly from [[Sidon]]), [[Egyptians]] and [[Greek people|Greeks]] chosen by Darius the Great to operate the empire's combat vessels.<ref name=navy/>

[[File:BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg|thumb|left|Reconstitution of Persian landing ships at the [[Battle of Marathon]].]]
At first the ships were built in Sidon by the Phoenicians; the first Achaemenid ships measured about 40 meters in length and 6 meters in width, able to transport up to 300 Persian [[Persian Immortals|troops]] at any one trip. Soon, other states of the empire were constructing their own ships, each incorporating slight local preferences. The ships eventually found their way to the Persian Gulf<ref name=navy/> and Persian naval forces laid the foundation for a strong Persian maritime presence there. Persians also had ships often of a capacity 100 to 200 troops patrolling the empire's various rivers including the [[Karun]], [[Tigris]] and [[Nile]] in the west, as well as the [[Indus River|Indus]].<ref name=navy/>

[[File:Ship dashed against ship, till the Persian Army dead strewed the deep like flowers.jpg|thumb|upright|Greek ships against Achaemenid ships at the [[Battle of Salamis]].]]
The Achaemenid navy established bases located along the Karun, and in Bahrain, Oman, and Yemen. The Persian fleet was not only used for peace-keeping purposes along the Karun but also opened the door to trade with India via the Persian Gulf.<ref name=navy/> Darius's navy was in many ways a world power at the time, but it would be [[Artaxerxes II]] who in the summer of 397 BC would build a formidable navy, as part of a rearmament which would lead to his decisive victory at [[Knidos]] in 394 BC, re-establishing Achaemenid power in [[Ionia]]. Artaxerxes II would also use his navy to later on quell a rebellion in Egypt.<ref name=navi>{{cite book| author = Elspeth R.M. Dusinberre| title = Aspects of empire in Achaemenid Sardis| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uWkzTBHB6ekC| year = 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-81071-5| page = 42}}</ref>

The construction material of choice was wood, but some armoured Achaemenid ships had metallic blades on the front, often meant to slice enemy ships using the ship's momentum. Naval ships were also equipped with hooks on the side to grab enemy ships, or to negotiate their position. The ships were propelled by sails or manpower. The ships the Persians created were unique. As far as maritime engagement, the ships were equipped with two [[mangonel]]s that would launch projectiles such as stones, or flammable substances.<ref name=navy/>

[[Xenophon]] describes his eyewitness account of a massive military bridge created by joining 37 Persian ships across the Tigris. The Persians used each boat's buoyancy to support a connected bridge above which supply could be transferred.<ref name=navy/> [[Herodotus]] also gives many accounts of the Persians using ships to build bridges.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Volume 4, Issues 5–8|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|year=1982|author=Ehsan Yar-Shater|author-link=Ehsan Yarshater|title-link=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Persian Empire|author=John Manuel Cook|publisher=Schocken Books|year=1983|url=https://archive.org/details/persianempire0000cook/mode/2up|page=109|isbn=978-0-8052-3846-4 |quote=The Achaemenids maintained some bridges on their main routes. What we hear of is boat bridges, which seem to have been in normal use on the Tigris in Babylonia...}}</ref>

Darius I, in an attempt to subdue the [[Scythia]]n horsemen north of the Black Sea, crossed over at the [[Bosphorus]], using an enormous bridge made by connecting Achaemenid boats, then marched up to the [[Danube]], crossing it by means of a second boat bridge.<ref>{{cite book|author1=E.V. Cernenko |author2=Angus McBride |author3=M.V. Gorelik | title = The Scythians, 700–300 BC| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ozA8d9AFiMgC| date = 24 March 1983| publisher = Osprey Publishing| isbn = 978-0-85045-478-9}}</ref> The bridge over the Bosphorus essentially connected the nearest tip of Asia to Europe, encompassing at least some 1000 meters of open water if not more. Herodotus describes the spectacle, and calls it the "bridge of Darius":<ref>{{cite book| author = Herodotus |translator1=George Rawlinson |translator2=Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson |translator3=Sir John Gardner Wilkinson | title = The History of Herodotus: a new English version, Volume 3| url = https://archive.org/details/historyherodotu00unkngoog| year = 1859| publisher = John Murray| page = [https://archive.org/details/historyherodotu00unkngoog/page/n93 77] (Chp. 86)}}</ref>

{{blockquote|''Strait called Bosphorus, across which the bridge of Darius had been thrown, is hundred and twenty [[furlong]]s in length, reaching from the [[Euxine]], to the [[Propontis]]. The Propontis is five hundred furlongs across and fourteen hundred long. Its waters flow into the [[Dardanelles|Hellespont]], the length of which is four hundred furlongs ...''}}

Years later, a similar boat bridge would be constructed by [[Xerxes I]], in his invasion of Greece. Although the Persians failed to capture the Greek city-states completely, the tradition of maritime involvement was carried down by the Persian kings, most notably Artaxerxes II. Years later, when Alexander invaded Persia and during his advancement into India, he took a page from the Persian art of war, by having [[Hephaestion]] and [[Perdiccas]] construct a similar boat-bridge at the Indus river in India in the spring of 327 BC.<ref>{{cite book| author = Waldemar Heckel| title = Who's who in the age of Alexander the Great: prosopography of Alexander's empire| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JJ4K1wFZkrsC| year = 2006| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell| isbn = 978-1-4051-1210-9| page = 134}}</ref>

==Culture==
===Languages===
{{multiple image
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 352
| image1 = Corner of the Apadana Darius the Great inscription.jpg
| caption1 = Gold foundation tablets of Darius I for the [[Apadana Palace]], in their original stone box. The [[Apadana hoard|Apadana coin hoard]] had been deposited underneath {{Circa|510 BC}}.
| image2 = Deposition plate of Darius I in Persepolis.jpg
| caption2 = One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription).<ref>{{cite book |title=DPh – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/dph/? |language=en}}</ref>
}}

During the reign of Cyrus II and Darius I, and as long as the seat of government was still at [[Susa]] in [[Elam]], the language of the chancellery was [[Elamite language|Elamite]]. This is primarily attested in the [[Persepolis Fortification Tablets|Persepolis fortification and treasury tablets]] that reveal details of the day-to-day functioning of the empire.<ref name="EIR_Dandamayev_Elamite">{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|title=Persepolis Elamite Tablets|last=Dandamayev|first=Muhammad A.|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/persepolis-elamite-tablets/}}</ref> In the grand rock-face inscriptions of the kings, the Elamite texts are always accompanied by [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] (Babylonian dialect) and [[Old Persian]] inscriptions, and it appears that in these cases that the Elamite texts are translations of the Old Persian ones. It is then likely that although Elamite was used by the capital government in Susa, it was not a standardized language of government everywhere in the empire. The use of Elamite is not attested after 458 BC.{{citation needed|date=January 2026}}

[[File:BehistunInscriptiondetail.jpg|thumb|A section of the [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]] part of the trilingual [[Behistun inscription]]. Other versions are in [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]] and [[Elamite language|Elamite]].]]
[[File:Aramaic translation of the behistun inscripton.png|thumb|The [[Behistun papyrus]], a copy of the Behistun inscription in [[Official Aramaic|Aramaic]] on a [[papyrus]]. Aramaic was the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the empire.]]

Following the conquest of [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Official Aramaic|Aramaic]] language (as used in that territory) was adopted as a "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed "Official Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic", can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did."<ref>{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=2|fascicle=3|title=Aramaic|last1=Greenfield|first1=Jonas C.|last2=Rosenthal|first2=Franz|last3=Shaked|first3=Shaul|pages=250–261|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aramaic/}}</ref>

In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an [[official language]], noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Frye|first1=Richard N.|author-link1=Richard N. Frye|title=Review of G.R. Driver's 'Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B.C.'|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=18|issue=3/4|year=1955|pages=456–61|doi=10.2307/2718444|jstor=2718444|last2=Driver|first2=G. R.}} p. 457.</ref> Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the Achaemenid empire, suggesting that the use of Aramaic language in Achaemenid empire was more widespread than generally thought. Many centuries after the fall of the empire, [[Aramaic script]] and—as [[huzvarishn|ideograms]]—Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the [[Pahlavi scripts|Pahlavi writing system]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Geiger |first= Wilhelm |author2=Ernst Kuhn|year=2002|title=Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1|location=Boston|publisher=Adamant|author2-link=Ernst Kuhn|author-link=Wilhelm Geiger}}{{isbn?}} pp. 249ff.</ref>

Although Old Persian also appears on some seals and art objects, that language is attested primarily in the Achaemenid inscriptions of Western Iran, suggesting then that Old Persian was the common language of that region. However, by the reign of Artaxerxes II, the grammar and orthography of the inscriptions was so "far from perfect"<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ware |first1= James R. |last2=Kent |first2= Roland G.|title=The Old Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III|journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association|volume=55|year=1924|pages=52–61|doi=10.2307/283007|jstor=283007}} p. 53</ref> that it has been suggested that the scribes who composed those texts had already largely forgotten the language, and had to rely on older inscriptions, which they to a great extent reproduced verbatim.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gershevitch |first1=Ilya |title=Zoroaster's Own Contribution |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |date=January 1964 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=12–38 |doi=10.1086/371754 }} p. 20.</ref>

When the occasion demanded, Achaemenid administrative correspondence was conducted in [[Old Greek|Greek]], making it a widely used [[bureaucratic]] language.<ref name="Iranian, E. Tucker 2001"/> Even though the Achaemenids had extensive contacts with the Greeks and vice versa, and had conquered many of the Greek-speaking areas both in [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]] during different periods of the empire, the native Old Iranian sources provide no indication of Greek linguistic influence.<ref name="Iranian, E. Tucker 2001"/> However, there is plenty of evidence (in addition to the accounts of Herodotus) that Greeks, apart from being deployed and employed in the core regions of the empire, also evidently lived and worked in the heartland of the Achaemenid Empire, namely Iran.<ref name="Iranian, E. Tucker 2001"/> For example, Greeks were part of the various ethnicities that constructed [[Darius' palace in Susa]], apart from the Greek inscriptions found nearby there, and one short Persepolis tablet written in Greek.<ref name="Iranian, E. Tucker 2001"/>

===Customs===
[[File:Persia - Achaemenian Vessels.jpg|thumb|An [[Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton|Achaemenid rhyton]], or drinking vessel]]
[[Herodotus]] mentions that the Persians were invited to great [[birthday]] feasts (Herodotus, ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 8), which would be followed by many desserts, a treat which they reproached the Greeks for omitting from their meals. He also observed that the Persians drank wine in large quantities and used it even for counsel, deliberating on important affairs when drunk, and deciding the next day, when sober, whether to act on the decision or set it aside.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Herodotus, The Histories, Book 1, chapter 133|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126:book=1:chapter=133|access-date=2020-11-21|website=Perseus }}</ref>

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in the Achaemenid era}}

[[Religious tolerance|Religious toleration]] has been described as a "remarkable feature" of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name=Cambridge>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=William Bayne|last2=Gershevitch|first2=I.|title=The Cambridge History of Iran|date=1968|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-20091-2|page=412|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBbyr932QdYC&pg=PA412|language=en}}</ref> The [[Hebrew Bible]], known as [[Old Testament]] by [[Christians]], reports that Persian king [[Cyrus the Great]] released the [[Jews|Jewish people]] from the [[Babylonian captivity]] in 539–530 BC and [[Return to Zion|permitted them to return to their homeland]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Book of Ezra {{pipe}} King James Bible |url=http://www.kingjamesbibletrust.org/the-king-james-bible/ezra |publisher=Kingjamesbibletrust.org |access-date=21 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510013551/http://www.kingjamesbibletrust.org/the-king-james-bible/ezra |archive-date=10 May 2011 }}</ref> Cyrus the Great assisted in the restoration of the sacred places of various cities.<ref name=Cambridge />

It was during the Achaemenid period that [[Zoroastrianism]] reached southwestern Iran, where it came to be accepted by the rulers and through them became a defining element of Persian culture. The religion was not only accompanied by a formalization of the concepts and divinities of the traditional Iranian [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] but also introduced several novel ideas, including that of [[Free will in theology|free will]].<ref>{{cite book| author = A. V. Williams Jackson| title = Zoroastrian Studies: The Iranian Religion and Various Monographs (1928)| year = 2003| publisher = Kessinger Publishing| isbn = 978-0-7661-6655-4| page = 224| ol = 8060499M}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Virginia Schomp| title = The Ancient Persians| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=U21j7vDhCCIC| year = 2009| publisher = Marshall Cavendish| isbn = 978-0-7614-4218-9| page = 24}}</ref>

[[Mithra]]<ref name="Malandra1983">{{cite book | author = William W. Malandra | date = 1983 | title = An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion: Readings from the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions | publisher = U of Minnesota Press | pages = | isbn = 978-0-8166-1114-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8dKeJH3f59IC}} in the Achaemenid Empire.</ref> was worshipped in the Empire;<ref name="Briant2002">{{cite book | author = Pierre Briant | date = 2002 | title = From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire | publisher = Eisenbrauns | pages = 252– | isbn = 978-1-57506-120-7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lxQ9W6F1oSYC&pg=PA252}}</ref><ref name="Dandamaev1989">{{cite book | author = M. A. Dandamaev | date = 1989 | title = A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire | publisher = Brill | pages = 97– | isbn = 978-90-04-09172-6 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ms30qA6nyMsC&pg=PA97}}</ref> his temples and symbols were the most widespread,<ref name="Bivar1998">{{cite book | author = A. D. H. Bivar | date = 1998 | title = The Personalities of Mithra in Archaeology and Literature | publisher = Bibliotheca Persica Press | pages = | isbn = 978-0-933273-28-3 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vZTXAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> most people bore names related to him<ref name="AdrychBraceyDalglish2017">{{cite book | author1 = Philippa Adrych | author2 = Robert Bracey | author3 = Dominic Dalglish | author4 = Stefanie Lenk | author5 = Rachel Wood | date = 2017 | title = Images of Mithra | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = | isbn = 978-0-19-251111-9 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GPJ0DgAAQBAJ}}</ref> and most festivals were dedicated to him.<ref name="Perrot2013">{{cite book | author = Jean Perrot | date = 2013 | title = The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia | publisher = Bloomsbury Academic | pages = | isbn = 978-1-84885-621-9 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MSJXzAEACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="StojanovStoyanov2000">{{cite book | author1 = Juri P. Stojanov | author2 = Yuri Stoyanov | date = 11 August 2000 | title = The Other God: Dualist Religions from Antiquity to the Cathar Heresy | publisher = Yale University Press | pages = 77– | isbn = 978-0-300-08253-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Bco_AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA77}}</ref>

[[File:201312 iran Shiraz 72 (12475982935).jpg|thumb|A bas-relief of [[Farvahar]] at Persepolis]]
During the reign of [[Artaxerxes I]] and [[Darius II]], the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] wrote: "[the Persians] have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, [[Ancient Greek religion|as the Greeks imagine]]."<ref name="Herodotus, I.131">Herodotus, I.131</ref> He claims the Persians offer sacrifice to: "the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period, they began the worship of [[Urania]], which they borrowed from the [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Arabians]] and [[Assyria]]ns. [[Mullissu|Mylitta]] is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, to whom the Persians referred as [[Anahita]]."<ref name="Herodotus, I.131"/>

The Babylonian scholar and priest [[Berossus|Berosus]] records—although writing over seventy years after the reign of [[Artaxerxes II]]—that the emperor had been the first to make cult statues of divinities and have them placed in temples in many of the major cities of the empire.<ref>Berosus, III.65</ref> Berosus also substantiates Herodotus when he says the Persians knew of no images of gods until Artaxerxes II erected those images. On the means of sacrifice, Herodotus adds "they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations."<ref name="Herodotus, I.132">Herodotus, I.132</ref> Herodotus also observed that "no prayer or offering can be made without a [[Magi|magus]] present".<ref name="Herodotus, I.132"/>

===Women===
The position of women in the Achaemenid Empire varied depending on the culture to which they belonged and therefore differed by region. The position of Persian women in actual Persia has traditionally been described from mythological Biblical references and the sometimes biased Ancient Greek sources, neither of them fully reliable as sources, but the most reliable references are the archeological Persepolis Fortification Tablets (PFT), which describes women in connection to the royal court in Persepolis, from royal women to female laborers who were recipients of food rations at Persepolis.<ref name="Maria Brosius">{{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|title=Women i. In Pre-Islamic Persia|last=Brosius|first=Maria|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/women-i/}}</ref>

The hierarchy of royal women at the Persian court was ranked as follows: the king's mother, then the queen, the king's daughters, the king's concubines, and the other women of the royal palace.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> The king normally married a female member of the royal family or a Persian noblewoman related to a satrap or another important Persian man; it was permitted for members of the royal family to marry relatives, but there is no evidence for marriage between closer family members than half-siblings.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> The king's concubines were often either slaves, sometimes prisoners of war, or foreign princesses, whom the king did not marry because they were foreigners, and whose children did not have the right to inherit the throne.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/>

Greek sources accuse the king of having hundreds of concubines secluded in a [[harem]]. There is no archeological evidence supporting the existence of a harem, or the seclusion of women from contact with men, at the Persian court.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> The royal women joined the king at breakfast and dinner and accompanied him on his journeys.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> They may have participated in the royal hunt, as well as during the royal banquets. [[Herodotos|Herodotus]] relates how the Persian envoys at the Macedonian court demanded the presence of women during a banquet because it was the custom for women to participate in the banquets in their own country.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/>

The queen may have attended the king's audience, and archeological evidence shows that she gave her own audiences, at least for female supplicants.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> Royal women and noblewomen at court could travel on their own, accompanied by both male and female staff, own and manage their own fortune, land, and business.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> Depictions of Persian women show them with long dresses and veils which did not cover their faces or their hair, only flowing down over their neck at the back of the head as an ornament.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/>

Royal and aristocratic Achaemenid women were given an education in subjects that did not appear compatible with seclusions, such as horsemanship and archery.<ref>(Ctesias, frg. 16 (56) in Jacoby, Fragmente III/C, p. 471)</ref> Royal and aristocratic women held and managed vast estates and workshops and employed large numbers of servants and professional laborers.{{sfn|Brosius|1996|pp=125–182}} Royal and aristocratic women do not seem to have lived in seclusion from men, since it is known that they appeared in public{{sfn|Brosius|1996|pp=83–93}} and traveled with their husbands,{{sfn|Brosius|1996|pp=83–93}} participated in hunting<ref>(Heracleides of Cyme apud Athenaeus, 514b)</ref> and in feasts.{{sfn|Brosius|1996|pp=94–97}} The chief wife of a royal or aristocratic man did not live in seclusion, as it is clearly stated that wives customarily accompanied their husbands at dinner banquets. They left the banquet when the "women entertainers" came in and the men began "merrymaking".<ref>(Plutarch, Moralia, 140B)</ref>

No woman ever ruled the Achaemenid Empire, as [[monarch]] or as [[regent]], but some queen's consorts are known to have had influence over the affairs of state, notably [[Atossa]] and [[Parysatis]].

There is not evidence of any women being employed as an official in the administration or within religious service; however, there are plenty of archeological evidence of women being employed as free labourers in Persepolis, where they worked alongside men.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> Women could be employed as the leaders of their workforce, known by the title ''arraššara pašabena'', which were then given a higher salary than the male workers of their workforce.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> Female laborers were given less than men. Qualified workers within the crafts were given equal pay regardless of their sex.<ref name="Maria Brosius"/> Women are abundant in religious context in the cuneiform sources from late Achaemenid and Hellenistic [[Babylon]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Debourse |first1=Céline |chapter=Women in Cultic Functions in Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic Babylon |pages=147–158 |chapter-url={{GBurl|8bJfEQAAQBAJ|p=147}} |editor1-last=Dolansky |editor1-first=Shawna |editor2-last=Shectman |editor2-first=Sarah |title=The Bloomsbury Handbook of Religion, Gender, and Sexuality in the Ancient Near East |date=2025 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-38202-2 }}</ref>

===Architecture and art===
{{Main|Achaemenid architecture}}

[[File:History History Travel from Shiraz to Isfahan, Iran (26376451617).jpg|thumb|The ruins of Persepolis]]
Achaemenid architecture included large cities, temples, palaces, and [[mausolea]] such as the [[Tomb of Cyrus the Great]]. The quintessential feature of its architecture was its eclectic nature, with elements of Median, Assyrian, and Asiatic Greek all incorporated, yet maintaining a unique Persian identity seen in the finished products.<ref>{{cite book| author = Charles Henry Caffin| title = How to study architecture| url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HnoWAAAAYAAJ| year = 1917| publisher = Dodd, Mead and Company| page = [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HnoWAAAAYAAJ/page/n348 80]}}</ref> Its influence pervades the regions ruled by the Achaemenids, from the Mediterranean shores to India, especially with its emphasis on monumental stone-cut design and gardens subdivided by water-courses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/irans-cultural-heritage-reflects-the-grandeur-and-beauty-of-the-golden-age-of-the-persian-empire-129413|title=Iran's cultural heritage reflects the grandeur and beauty of the golden age of the Persian empire|last=MacDonald|first=Eve|website=The Conversation|date=8 January 2020 |language=en|access-date=2020-02-15}}</ref>

Achaemenid art includes [[frieze]] reliefs, metalwork such as the [[Oxus Treasure]], decoration of palaces, glazed brick masonry, fine craftsmanship (masonry, carpentry, etc.), and gardening. Although the Persians drew artists from all corners of their empire, incorporating their styles and techniques, they did not merely produce a combination of styles, but a synthesis of a new, unique Persian style.<ref>{{cite book |last1=van Lerberghe |first1=Karel |title=Immigration and Emigration Within the Ancient Near East: Festschrift E. Lipiński |date=1995 |publisher=Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oriëntalistiek |isbn=978-90-6831-727-5 |page=119 }}</ref>

One of the most remarkable examples of both Achaemenid architecture and art is the grand palace of [[Persepolis]], and its detailed workmanship, coupled with its grand scale. In describing the construction of the [[Palace of Darius in Susa]], [[Darius the Great]] records:
{{blockquote|text=Yaka timber was brought from [[Gandhara|Gandara]] and from [[Carmania (region)|Carmania]]. The gold was brought from [[Sardis]] and from [[Bactria]] ... the precious stone lapis-lazuli and carnelian ... was brought from [[Sogdiana]]. The turquoise from [[Chorasmia]], the silver and ebony from [[Egypt]], the ornamentation from [[Ionia]], the ivory from [[Ethiopia]] and from [[Sindh]] and from [[Arachosia]]. The stone-cutters who wrought the stone were Ionians and [[Sardis|Sardians]]. The goldsmiths were [[Medes]] and [[Egyptians]]. The men who wrought the wood were Sardinians and Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick were Babylonians. The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians.
|author=[[Darius the Great]]
|source=[http://www.avesta.org/op/op.htm#dsf DSf inscription]
}}

<gallery>
File:History of Egypt, Chaldea, Syria, Babylonia and Assyria (1903) (14584070300).jpg|A reconstruction of the [[Palace of Darius in Susa]]. The palace served as a model for [[Persepolis]].
File:Lion Darius Palace Louvre Sb3298.jpg|A lion on a decorative panel from [[Darius the Great]]'s palace, [[Louvre]]
File:Nowruz Zoroastrian.jpg|An iconic relief of lion and bull fighting, [[Apadana of Persepolis]]
File:Gold cup kalardasht.jpg|An Achaemenid golden bowl with lioness imagery, [[Mazandaran]], [[National Museum of Iran]]
File:Lobed bowl with a royal inscription MET DT345459.jpg|A silver [[Patera|phiale]] with a royal inscription, reading "Artaxerxes, the great king, king of kings, king of lands, son of Xerxes the king, Xerxes son of Darius the king, the Achaemenid: in his house this silver bowl was made."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lobed bowl with a royal inscription |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324026 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250815192504/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324026 |archive-date=2025-08-15 |access-date=2026-01-06 |website=[[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>

=== Tombs ===
[[File:Iran, Persepolis, Tomb of Artaxerxes III.jpg|thumb|The tomb of [[Artaxerxes III]] in [[Persepolis]]]]
Many Achaemenid rulers built tombs for themselves. The most famous, [[Naqsh-e Rostam]], is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km north-west of [[Persepolis]], with the tombs of four of the kings of the dynasty are carved in this mountain: [[Tomb of Darius I|Darius I]], [[Xerxes I]], [[Artaxerxes I]] and [[Darius II]]. Other kings constructed their own tombs elsewhere.<ref name="Viking">{{cite book |last1=Cotterell |first1=Arthur |title=The Penguin Encyclopedia of Classical Civilizations |date=1993 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-82699-5 |page=162 }}</ref>

[[Artaxerxes II]] and [[Artaxerxes III]] preferred to carve their tombs beside their spring capital [[Persepolis]]. The left tomb belongs to [[Artaxerxes II]] and the right tomb belongs to [[Artaxerxes III]], the last Achaemenid king to have a tomb. The [[Tomb of Cyrus the Great|tomb]] of the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, [[Cyrus the Great]], was built in [[Pasargadae]] (now a world heritage site).<ref name="Viking"/>

==Legacy==
[[File:The maussolleion model dsc02711-miniaturk nevit.jpg|thumb|The [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]], one of the [[Seven wonders of the ancient world]], was built by Greek architects for the local Persian [[satrap]] of [[Caria]], [[Mausolus]] (Scale model)]]

The Achaemenid Empire has been referred to as the first “world empire” as it contained in the words of Persian kings “many people and many languages”. The diverse groups which made up the empire enjoyed a great deal of legal and cultural autonomy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daryaee |first=Touraj |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0199390427 |pages=120}}</ref> The Achaemenid Empire has also left a lasting impression on the heritage and cultural identity of Asia and the Middle East, and influenced the development and structure of future [[empire]]s. In fact, the Greeks, and later on the Romans, adopted the best features of the Persian method of governing an empire.<ref>"Mastering World History" by Philip L. Groisser, New York, 1970, p. 17</ref>

The Persian model of governance was particularly formative in the expansion and maintenance of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], whose rule is widely considered the period of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. Like the ancient Persians, the Abbasid dynasty centered their vast empire in Mesopotamia (at the newly founded cities of [[Baghdad]] and [[Samarra]], close to the historical site of Babylon), derived much of their support from Persian aristocracy and heavily incorporated the Persian language and architecture into Islamic culture.<ref name="Hovannisian">{{Cite book|last1=Hovannisian|first1=Richard G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39XZDnOWUXsC&q=abbasid+and+achaemenid&pg=PA81|title=The Persian Presence in the Islamic World|last2=Sabagh|first2=Georges|last3=Yāršātir|first3=Iḥsān|date=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-59185-0|language=en}}</ref>

The Achaemenid Empire is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the [[polis|Greek city-states]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] and for the emancipation of the [[Babylonian captivity|Jewish exiles in Babylon]]. The historical mark of the empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. For example, many [[Athens|Athenians]] adopted Achaemenid customs in their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange,<ref>{{cite book| author = Margaret Christina Miller| title = Athens and Persia in the Fifth Century BC: A Study in Cultural Receptivity| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oGXMMD5rXBQC| year = 2004| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-60758-2| page = 243}}</ref> some being employed by or allied to the Persian kings. The impact of the [[Edict of Cyrus]] is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts, and the empire was instrumental in the spread of [[Zoroastrianism]] as far east as China. The empire also set the tone for the [[politics]], heritage and [[history]] of [[Iran]] (also known as Persia).<ref>{{cite book|title=Birth of the Persian Empire|author1=Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis |author2=Sarah Stewart |publisher=I.B.Tauris|year=2005|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0IF9IdkdYEC&pg=PA7|isbn=978-1-84511-062-8}}</ref>

Historian [[Arnold J. Toynbee|Arnold Toynbee]] regarded Abbasid society as a "reintegration" or "reincarnation" of Achaemenid society, as the synthesis of Persian, Turkic and Islamic modes of governance and knowledge allowed for the spread of [[Persianate society|Persianate culture]] over a wide swath of Eurasia through the Turkic-origin [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuq]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], [[Safavid Iran|Safavid]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] empires.<ref name="Hovannisian" /> Historian [[Bernard Lewis]] writes,

<blockquote>The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i-Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna. [...] By the time of the great Mongol invasions of the thirteenth century, Iranian Islam had become not only an important component; it had become a dominant element in Islam itself, and for several centuries the main centers of the Islamic power and civilization were in countries that were, if not Iranian, at least marked by Iranian civilization ... The major centers of Islam in the late medieval and early modern periods, the centers of both political and cultural power, such as India, Central Asia, Iran, Turkey, were all part of this Iranian civilization.<ref>{{cite book |title=From Babel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East |url=https://archive.org/details/frombabeltodrago00lewi |url-access=registration |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/frombabeltodrago00lewi/page/44 44] |isbn=978-0-19-517336-9}}</ref></blockquote>

[[Georg W. F. Hegel]] in his work ''[[Lectures on the Philosophy of History|The Philosophy of History]]'' introduces the Persian Empire as the "first empire that passed away" and its people as the "first historical people" in history. According to his account:

<blockquote>The Persian Empire is an empire in the modern sense—like that which existed in Germany, and the great imperial realm under the sway of Napoleon; for we find it consisting of a number of states, which are indeed dependent, but which have retained their own individuality, their manners, and laws. The general enactments, binding upon all, did not infringe upon their political and social idiosyncrasies, but even protected and maintained them; so that each of the nations that constitute the whole, had its own form of constitution. As light illuminates everything—imparting to each object a peculiar vitality—so the Persian Empire extends over a multitude of nations, and leaves to each one its particular character. Some have even kings of their own; each one its distinct language, arms, way of life and customs. All this diversity coexists harmoniously under the impartial dominion of Light ... a combination of peoples—leaving each of them free. Thereby, a stop is put to that barbarism and ferocity with which the nations had been wont to carry on their destructive feuds.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Philosophy of History |author=George W.F. Hegel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GbxWvCCUdD8C |isbn=978-1-60206-438-6|year=2007|publisher=Cosimo }}</ref></blockquote>

[[Will Durant]], the American historian and philosopher, during one of his speeches, "Persia in the History of Civilization", as an address before the ''[[Iran–America Society]]'' in [[Tehran]] on 21 April 1948, stated:

<blockquote>For thousands of years Persians have been creating beauty. Sixteen centuries before Christ there went from these regions or near it ... You have been here a kind of watershed of civilization, pouring your blood and thought and art and religion eastward and westward into the world ... I need not rehearse for you again the achievements of your Achaemenid period. Then for the first time in known history an empire almost as extensive as the United States received an orderly government, a competence of administration, a web of swift communications, a security of movement by men and goods on majestic roads, equalled before our time only by the zenith of Imperial Rome.<ref>{{cite web|last=Durant|first=Will|title=Persia in the History of Civilization|url=http://www.mazdapublisher.com/Documents/Persian%20Civilization.pdf|website=Addressing 'Iran-America Society|publisher=Mazda Publishers, Inc.|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723072146/http://www.mazdapublisher.com/Documents/Persian%20Civilization.pdf|archive-date=23 July 2011}}</ref></blockquote>

==Rulers==
[[File:Achamenid-dynasty-timeline.png|upright=3.4|Achamenid dynasty timeline]]

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:120px;"| Name
! Image
! Comments
! Dates
|-
|[[Achaemenes]]
|
|First ruler of the Achaemenid kingdom and founder of the dynasty. Attested to only by the Behistun Inscription.
|705 BC
|-
|[[Teispes]]
|
|Son of Achaemenes. Attested to only by the Behistun Inscription.
|640 BC
|-
|[[Cyrus I]]
|[[File:Cyrus I on horseback, seal.png|100px]]
|Son of Teispes, first Achaemenid ruler with attestation.
|580 BC
|-
|[[Cambyses I]]
|
|Son of Cyrus I and father of Cyrus II. No records from his reign survive.
|550 BC
|-
| [[Cyrus II]]
|
| Transformed the dynasty into an empire; King of the "four corners of the world"
| 560–530 BC
|-
| [[Cambyses II]]
| [[File:Cambyses II of Persia.jpg|130x130px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]
| 530–522 BC
|-
| [[Bardiya]]
| [[File:Gaumata portrait on the Behistun inscription.jpg|100px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]], allegedly an impostor named Gaumata.
| 522 BC
|-
| [[Darius I]]
| [[File:Darius I (The Great).jpg|125x125px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]. Cousin of Cambyses II and Bardiya.
| 522–486 BC
|-
| [[Xerxes I]]
| [[File:National Museum of Iran Darafsh (784).JPG|150x150px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]
| 486–465 BC
|-
| [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]
| [[File:Relief of Artaxerxes I, from his tomb in Naqsh-e Rustam.jpg|138x138px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]
| 465–424 BC
|-
| [[Xerxes II]]
|[[File:Coin of Achaemenid Empire (Xerxes II to Artaxerxes II) (Cropped).jpg|106x106px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]. Assassinated by his half-brother and successor, Sogdianus.
| 424 BC (45 days)
|-
| [[Sogdianus of Persia|Sogdianus]]
|[[File:Daric coin of the Achaemenid Empire (Xerxes II to Artaxerxes II) (Cropped).jpg|100x100px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]
| 424–423 BC
|-
| [[Darius II]]
| [[File:Darius II (reduced shadow).jpg|100px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]. His birth name was Ochus.
| 423–405 BC
|-
| [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]]
| [[File:Artaxerxes II relief portrait detail.jpg|121x121px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]]. Ruling for 47 years, Artaxerxes II was the longest reigning Achaemenid king. His birth name was Arses.
| 405–358 BC
|-
| [[Artaxerxes III]]
| [[File:Rock relief of Artaxerxes III in Persepolis.jpg|133x133px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]], having re-conquered the land after it was lost during the reign of Artaxerxes II. His birth name was Ochus.
| 358–338 BC
|-
| [[Artaxerxes IV]]
|[[File:Artaxerxes IV Arses.jpg|100px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]. His birth name was Arses.
| 338–336 BC
|-
| [[Darius III]]
| [[File:Darius III mosaic.jpg|frameless|107x107px]]
| [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] in addition to [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]; last ruler of the empire. His birth name was either Artashata or Codomannus.
| 336–330 BC
|}

==See also==
* [[List of rulers of the pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran]]
* [[List of Zoroastrian states and dynasties]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Briant |first=Pierre |year=2002 |title=From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |isbn=978-1-57506-031-6 |author-link=Pierre Briant }}
* {{cite book |last1=Brosius |first1=Maria |title=Women in Ancient Persia, 559-331 BC |date=1996 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-815009-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Brosius |first=Maria |year=2006 |title=The Persians |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-32089-4 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Brosius |first1=Maria |title=A History of Ancient Persia: The Achaemenid Empire |date=2020 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-5092-0 }}
* {{cite thesis |last=Heidorn |first=Lisa Ann |year=1992 |title=The Fortress of Dorginarti and Lower Nubia during the Seventh to Fifth Centuries B.C. |type=PhD |publisher=University of Chicago |id={{ProQuest|275736184}} |oclc=28133807 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Howe |first1=Timothy |last2=Reames |first2=Jeanne |year=2008 |title=Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza |publisher=Regina Books |isbn=978-1-930053-56-4 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kuhrt |first=Amélie |author-link=Amélie Kuhrt |year=1983 |title=The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policy |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |volume=8 |issue=25 |pages=83–97 |doi=10.1177/030908928300802507 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amélie |author-link=Amélie Kuhrt |year=2013 |title=The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-01694-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Olmstead |first=A.T. |title=History of the Persian Empire |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2022 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Lavan |first1=Myles |last2=Payne |first2=Richard E. |last3=Weisweiler |first3=John |title=Cosmopolitanism and Empire: Universal Rulers, Local Elites, and Cultural Integration in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean |chapter=Cosmopolitan Politics: The Assimilation and Subordination of Elite Cultures |date=2016 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190465667.003.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-046566-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tavernier |first=Jan |year=2007 |title=Iranica in the Achaeamenid Period (ca. 550–330 B.C.): Lexicon of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-429-1833-7 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Wallinga |first=Herman |year=1984 |title=The Ionian Revolt |journal=Mnemosyne |volume=37 |issue=3/4 |pages=401–437|doi=10.1163/156852584X00619 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wiesehöfer |first=Josef |translator-last=Azodi |translator-first=Azizeh |year=2001 |title=Ancient Persia |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-675-1 |author-link=Josef Wiesehöfer }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Achenbach |editor1-first=Reinhard |title=Persische Reichspolitik und lokale Heiligtümer |year=2019 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |location=Wiesbaden |isbn=978-3-447-11319-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Dandamaev |first=M. A. |author-link=Muhammad Dandamayev |year=1989 |title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-09172-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kosmin |first=Paul J. |author-link=Paul J. Kosmin |year=2014 |title=The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72882-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Nagel |first1=Alexander |title=Color and meaning in the art of Achaemenid Persia |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge; New York; Port Melbourne |isbn=978-1-00-936129-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Olmstead |first=Albert T. |year=1948 |title=History of the Persian Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532747 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-62777-9 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-first=Michael |editor1-last=Kozuh |editor2-first=Wouter F. M. |editor2-last=Henkelman |editor3-first=Charles E. |editor3-last=Jones |editor4-first=Christopher |editor4-last=Woods |date=2014 |title=Extraction & Control: Studies in Honor of Matthew W. Stolper |series=Studies In Ancient Oriental Civilization Volume 68 |url=https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/saoc/saoc-68-extraction-control-studies-honor-matthew-w-stolper |lccn=2013956374 |isbn=978-1-61491-001-5 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wiktionary|Achaemenid Empire}}
* [http://www.persiansarenotarabs.com/persian-history Persian History]
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Persia |volume=21 |pages=187–252 |short=1}}
* [https://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/achaemenians.html Livius.org on Achaemenids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017093213/https://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/achaemenians.html |date=17 October 2013 }}
* {{Encyclopædia Iranica Online|volume=5|fascicle=6|title=Čišpiš|last=Schmitt|first=Rüdiger|pages=600–601|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cispis-opers/}}
* [https://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html The Behistun Inscription] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225415/http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html |date=3 March 2016 }}
* [https://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions.html Livius.org on Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218193522/http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/achaemenians/inscriptions.html |date=18 December 2016 }}
* [http://www.iranchamber.com/art/articles/art_of_achaemenids.php Achaemenid art on Iran Chamber Society (www.iranchamber.com)]
* [http://www.persianempire.info/AchaemenidArchitecture.htm#tribute Photos of the tribute bearers from the 23 satrapies of the Achaemenid empire, from Persepolis]
* [http://irancollection.alborzi.com/ Coins, medals and orders of the Persian empire] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126095027/http://irancollection.alborzi.com/ |date=26 January 2021 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100502073108/http://en.tarikhema.ir/category/ancient/ancient-iran/achaemenid-empire Dynasty Achaemenid]
* [http://www.farsmovie.com/eng/index.htm Iran, The Forgotten Glory – Documentary Film About Ancient Iran (achaemenids & Sassanids)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100428091251/http://farsmovie.com/eng/index.htm |date=28 April 2010 }}
* [http://www.achemenet.com/ Achemenet] an electronic resource for the study of the history, literature and archaeology of the Persian Empire
* [http://www.virtualtourengine.com/tour.aspx?id=17&langindex=1 Persepolis Before Incursion] (Virtual tour project)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061126081333/http://www.museum-achemenet.college-de-france.fr/ Musée achéménide virtuel et interactif (Mavi)] a "Virtual Interactive Achemenide Museum" of more than 8000 items of the Persian Empire
* [http://persianpast.com/ Persian history in detail]{{dead link|date=February 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* [http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/3156/2007_168.pdf?sequence=1 Swedish Contributions to the Archaeology of Iran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722052638/http://samla.raa.se/xmlui/bitstream/handle/raa/3156/2007_168.pdf?sequence=1 |date=22 July 2021 }} Artikel i ''Fornvännen'' (2007) by Carl Nylander
{{Achaemenid Empire}}
{{Achaemenid Provinces}}
{{Ancient seafaring}}
{{Ancient Syria and Mesopotamia}}
{{Empires}}
{{Iran topics}}

[[Category:Achaemenid Empire| ]]
[[Category:330s BC]]
[[Category:550s BC]]
[[Category:4th century BC in Iran]]
[[Category:5th century BC in Iran]]
[[Category:6th century BC in Iran]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]
[[Category:Countries in ancient Africa]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Iran]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Africa]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Europe]]
[[Category:Former transcontinental empires]]
[[Category:History of Eastern Europe]]
[[Category:History of North Africa]]
[[Category:History of South Asia]]
[[Category:Ancient Near East]]
[[Category:History of Zoroastrianism]]
[[Category:Iron Age countries in Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age countries in Europe]]
[[Category:Monarchy in Persia and Iran]]
[[Category:Patronymics]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 6th century BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 4th century BC]]
[[Category:Former empires]]

Salesian College, Darjeeling

2026-03-14T18:31:09Z

BrookEjw0071: improved formatting and corrected details based on references

{{Multiple issues|
{{Promotional|date=June 2024}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2020}}
}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2017}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Salesian College (Autonomous)
| native_name = Salesian College Sonada & Siliguri
| image = Logo SCSC.jpg
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
| caption =
| latin_name =
| motto = Flamma ardens et lucens
| motto_lang =
| mottoeng = a flame that enlightens and enlivens
| top_free_label =
| top_free =
| type = Private College offering Post Graduate and Under graduate programmes
| established = {{start date and age|1933}}
| closed = 
| founder =
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| affiliation = [[University of North Bengal]]
| religious_affiliation =
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| chairman =
| chairperson =
| chancellor =
| president = (Dr.) Nirmol Gomes
| vice-president =
| superintendent =
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| provost =
| rector =
| principal = Fr. (Prof.) George Thadathil
| director =
| dean =
| head_label = Teacher-in-Charge
| head =
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| students = 1800+
| undergrad =
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| city = Sonada and Siliguri
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| province =
| country = [[India]]
| postcode = 734004
| coordinates = {{coord|26.7470377|N|88.4448553|E|region:IN-WB_type:edu|display=title,inline}}
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'''Salesian College (Autonomous), Sonada & Siliguri''' (SCS & SCSC) is a Government recognized, minority educational institution of the Catholic Church, run by [[Salesians of Don Bosco|Salesians of Don Bosco ('''SDB''')]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=SDB.ORG|url=https://www.sdb.org/en|access-date=2021-04-13|website=www.sdb.org}}</ref> [https://donboscokolkata.com/ Kolkata Province]<ref>{{Cite web|title=SALESIAN PROVINCE OF KOLKATA|url=https://donboscokolkata.com/|access-date=2021-04-13|language=en-US}}</ref> where over 1800 students do their Arts/Humanities, Commerce, Science and Professional Courses (''Under Graduate & Post Graduate'') under the [https://www.nbu.ac.in/ North Bengal University (NBU]{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}<ref>{{Cite web|title=University of North Bengal|url=https://www.nbu.ac.in/|access-date=2021-04-13|website=www.nbu.ac.in|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411211352/https://nbu.ac.in/|url-status=dead}}</ref>[https://www.nbu.ac.in/ )] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411211352/https://nbu.ac.in/ |date=11 April 2021 }}.

{{tooltip|2=Salesian College|SC}} was established in [[Shillong]] in 1933, before being shifted to Sonada, in 1938. It comes under '''section 2 (f)''' and '''12 (B)''' of [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission ('''UGC''')]] '''Act of 1956'''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Welcome to UGC, New Delhi, India|url=https://www.ugc.ac.in/recog_college.aspx#:~:text=The%20University%20Grants%20Commission%20(UGC,of%20assistance%20under%20various%20schemes.|access-date=2021-04-16|website=www.ugc.ac.in}}</ref> In 1935, {{tooltip|2=Salesian College|SC}} received affiliation to the Calcutta University for I.A., and in 1948 for BA Course in English, History and Latin followed by Economics in 1950. In 1962 its affiliation was transferred from Calcutta University as one of the founding colleges of {{tooltip|2=North Bengal University|NBU}}. It was in 1970 and 1979 that SC received affiliation for BA Honours Course in English and History respectively followed by the introduction of Education and Philosophy as B.A subjects. In 2006 it received affiliation for Education Honours course. The College opened a Computer Skills Department in 2002, offering the DIT and ADIT courses of C-DAC, Pune, and the Computer Application Certificate Course of NBU in 2004.

SCSC, Siliguri Campus was inaugurated on 9 July 2009. The [[Siliguri]] Campus offers BA /B.Com / B.Sc / BBA / BCA / BSW Honours & General courses with Career Oriented Programme (COP) courses in Travel & Tourism Management, Computer Application, Music, Sports Management and Communicative English. SC is also recognized as an IGNOU Study Centre (from May 2005 in SCS and 2010 in SCSC) offering courses in BA, B.Com., CIC, CLP, M A, M.Com., BSW & BCA. SC was accredited by NAAC on 16 September 2004, with an Institutional score between 60-70%, receiving the Grade C++.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Salesian College|url=https://salesiancollege.ac.in/|access-date=2021-04-16|language=en-US}}</ref>

On 26 February 2010, Salesian College was conferred the status of a ‘[https://www.ugc.ac.in/page/Centres-(CPEPA).aspx College with Potential for Excellence’ (CPE)]<ref>{{Cite web|title=University Grants commission ::Centre with Potential for Excellence in Particular Area|url=https://www.ugc.ac.in/page/Centres-(CPEPA).aspx|access-date=2021-04-16|website=www.ugc.ac.in}}</ref> by the University Grants Commission and now is in its Second cycle from 1 April 2014. In March 2012, in its Second Cycle, the College was re-accredited by [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|NAAC]] with ‘A’ grade. The college has retained its ‘A’ Grade in the Third Cycle starting from May 2019, the first College to receive such grade under the University of North Bengal. The college has started MA in English from 2016–17 and MA in Education and Psychology from 2019. From the academic session 2019-2020 Salesian College Siliguri campus has initiated Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) and Bachelor Vocational Studies in Retail and Tourism Management.

[https://publications.salesiancollege.net/ Salesian Publications],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Publication – Salesian College : Siliguri & Sonada|url=http://salesiancollege.in/?page_id=385|access-date=2021-04-24|language=en-US}}</ref> [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/salesian-research-center/ Salesian Research Centre]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Salesian Translation Center – Salesian College|url=https://salesiancollege.ac.in/salesian-translation-center/|access-date=2021-04-24|language=en-US}}</ref> and [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/salesian-translation-center/ Salesian Translation Centre]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Salesian Translation Centre – Salesian College : Siliguri & Sonada|url=http://salesiancollege.in/?page_id=383|access-date=2021-04-24|language=en-US}}</ref> offer opportunities for capacity building for aspiring teaching and research personnel of the region.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Salesian College Publications Portal|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/|access-date=2021-04-16|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Salesian Research Center – Salesian College|url=https://salesiancollege.ac.in/salesian-research-center/|access-date=2021-04-16|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Salesian Translation Center – Salesian College|url=https://salesiancollege.ac.in/salesian-translation-center/|access-date=2021-04-16|language=en-US}}</ref> Salesian College Extension Activities Centre has trained and placed over 600 youth of the region in collaboration with [[Ministry of Rural Development (India)|Ministry of Rural Development]] and [http://www.donboscotechdelhi.in/ Don Bosco Tech, New Delhi]. The College also caters to 28 villages of surrounding region as part of its extension activity. Salesian College invites young people and their parents to partner in nurturing an ideal society.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Logo – Salesian College|url=https://salesiancollege.ac.in/logo/|access-date=2021-04-16|language=en-US}}</ref>

Salesian College Sonada (SCS) is also the first college under University of North Bengal and entire northeast India to operate a Community Radio. Other neighbouring Community Radio stations are run by universities in [[Kolkata]] ([[Jadavpur University]])<ref>{{Cite web|title=Welcome to Jadavpur University website|url=http://www.jaduniv.edu.in/radioju.php|access-date=2021-04-16|website=www.jaduniv.edu.in}}</ref> and [[Guwahati]] ([[Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University|KK Handique Open University]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=JNAN TARANGA|url=http://jnantaranga.kkhsou.in/#:~:text=wELCOME%20TO%20JNAN%20TARANGA&text=In%20the%20north%20eastern%20region,radio%20service%20of%20the%20region.|access-date=2021-04-16|website=jnantaranga.kkhsou.in}}</ref> and [[Gauhati University]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=radioluit|url=https://sites.google.com/a/gauhati.ac.in/radioluit/#:~:text=Gauhati%20University%20obtained%20the%20license,AM%20to%208:00%20PM.|access-date=2021-04-16|website=sites.google.com}}</ref>). The SCS web radio was launched on 28 October 2016 as a Diwali gift to Nepali people all over the world. With due permission for Wireless Operation, the official broadcast of [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/90-8-radio-salesian/ Radio SALESIAN 90.8 FM] was held on 8 December 2016.Radio SALESIAN 90.8 FM broadcast can be heard live in parts of Darjeeling and Siliguri as well as [[Kurseong]], [[Mirik]], [[Salugara Monastery|Salugara]], [[Sonada]], [[Sukna]], [[Pashupatinath Temple|Pashupati (Nepal)]], Sukiapukuri, Balsun Valley and several other places.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Radio Salesian 90.8 FM – Salesian College|url=https://salesiancollege.ac.in/90-8-radio-salesian/|access-date=2021-04-16|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=History – Salesian College : Siliguri & Sonada|url=http://salesiancollege.in/?page_id=18|access-date=2021-04-24|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Programmes Offered==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!
!Under Graduate Programmes (UG)
!Post Graduate Programmes (PG)
|-
|'''''Arts and Humanities'''''
|
[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/english/ English], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/education/ Education], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/economics/ Economics], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/history/ History], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/geography/ Geography], Philosophy,

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/mass-communication-journalism/ Mass Communication and Journalism], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/political-science/ Political Science], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/psychology/ Psychology],

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/sociology/ Sociology], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/bachelor-of-social-work/ Social Work (BSW)] and [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/b-a-programme/ BA programme with]

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/b-a-programme/ Physical Education]
|[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/m-a-in-english/ English] ,

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/m-a-in-education/ Education],

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/ma-in-psychology/ Psychology]
|-
|'''''Sciences'''''
|
[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/economics/ Economics], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/physics/ Physics], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/mathematics/ Mathematics], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/statistics-general/ Statistics(GE)], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/bachelor-of-computer-science/ Computer Science]

and [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/bachelor-of-computer-application/ Bachelors of Computer Applications (BCA)]
|
|-
|'''''Commerce & Management'''''

'''''Studies'''''
|
Commerce - [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/department-of-commerce/ B Com Honours], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/bachelor-of-commerce-programme/ B Com Programme],

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/bachelor-of-business-administration/ Bachelors of Business Administration (BBA)] and

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/sonada/bachelor-of-vocation/ Bachelors of Vocation (BVoc)] in Tourism and Retail Management.
|
|-
|'''''Career Oriented'''''

'''''Programmes'''''
|
Certificate, Diploma & Adv. [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/ttm/ Diploma in Travel & Tourism],

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/computer-application/ Computer Applications], [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/communicative-english/ Communicative English],

[https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/sports-management/ Sports Management] & [https://salesiancollege.ac.in/programs/music/ Music].
|
|}

== Publications ==

# '''''JOURNALS''''' -
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/journals/pen-pain-and-writing-vol-viii-no-2-dec-2017/ Salesian bi-annual Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (ISSN 0976-1861)]
# '''''BOOKS''''' -
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/salesian-college-a-history-that-speaks-today/ Salesian College – A History that Speaks Today]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Salesian College – A History that Speaks Today|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/salesian-college-a-history-that-speaks-today/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/triumph-of-failure-john-henry-newman/ Triumph of Failure: John Henry Newman]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Triumph of Failure: John Henry Newman|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/triumph-of-failure-john-henry-newman/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/translated/krist/ Krist]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Krist|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/translated/krist/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/the-teesta-on-the-run/ The Teesta on the Run]<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Teesta on the Run|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/the-teesta-on-the-run/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/translated/brahmarshi-sree-narayan-guru/ Brahmarshi Sree Narayan Guru]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brahmarshi Sree Narayan Guru|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/translated/brahmarshi-sree-narayan-guru/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/the-clash/ The Clash] <ref>{{Cite web|title=The Clash|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/the-clash/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/being-a-priest-in-india-a-manifesto/ Being a Priest in India: A Manifesto] <ref>{{Cite web|title=Being a Priest in India : A Manifesto|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/being-a-priest-in-india-a-manifesto/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/books/translated/don-bosco-the-translator/ Don Bosco The Translator] and many more.
# '''''MAGAZINES''''' -
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/magazines/sparkle-2020/ Sparkle] <ref>{{Cite web|title=Sparkle 2020|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/magazines/sparkle-2020/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/magazines/scspeaks-2020/ SCSpeaks]<ref>{{Cite web|title=SCSpeaks 2020|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/magazines/scspeaks-2020/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/magazines/essence-2020-edition-1/ ESSENCE]<ref>{{Cite web|title=ESSENCE 2020 Edition 1|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/magazines/essence-2020-edition-1/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/magazines/elements-2020-volume-i/ ELEMENTS]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Elements 2020 Volume I|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/magazines/elements-2020-volume-i/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
# '''''NEWSLETTERS''''' -
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/the-salesian-times/tst-november-2020/ The Salesian Times]<ref>{{Cite web|title=TST November 2020|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/the-salesian-times/tst-november-2020/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>
#* Evolve
#* [https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/newsletters/alumnews-february-and-march-2021/ Alumnews]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Alumnews - February and March 2021|url=https://publications.salesiancollege.net/publications/newsletters/alumnews-february-and-march-2021/|access-date=2021-04-19|website=Publications Portal of Salesian College|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Innovision.jpg
File:Annual Sports Day.jpg
File:College Football Ground.jpg
File:Commerce building.jpg
File:Innovision In SC.jpg
</gallery>

== Accreditation ==
The college is recognised by the [[National Assessment and Accreditation Council|National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)]] & [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]] (UGC).<ref name="UGC">[http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/browse_reco_colleges.php?st=West%20Bengal Colleges in West Bengal, University Grants Commission]</ref>

==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*[[List of institutions of higher education in West Bengal]]
*[[Education in India]]
*[[Education in West Bengal]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.salesiancollege.ac.in/ Official website]
*[http://www.nbu.ac.in/ University of North Bengal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312081121/http://www.nbu.ac.in/ |date=12 March 2012 }}
*[http://www.ugc.ac.in/ University Grants Commission]
*[http://www.naac.gov.in/ National Assessment and Accreditation Council]

{{University of North Bengal}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Salesian schools]]
[[Category:Catholic universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Darjeeling district]]
[[Category:Colleges affiliated to University of North Bengal]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1933]]
[[Category:1933 establishments in India]]

Save Mollem

2026-03-09T10:28:32Z

BrookEjw0071: data - done

{{Short description|Social movement in Goa, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Save Mollem
|Image_Name =
|Image_Caption =
|aka = {{hlist|My Mollem|''Amchem Mollem''}}
|cause = Planned deforestation in the [[Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park]]
|Location = Largely in [[Goa]], India
|Date = 2020–2021
|Result = [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]]-appointed Central Empowered Committee (CEC) recommendation against the three projects
}}
'''Save Mollem''', also known as '''My Mollem''' and '''''Amchem Mollem''''', is a [[social movement]] that aimed to protect the planned deforestation in the [[Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park]] in [[Goa]], India. The movement gained recognition for its involvement by [[millennials]] and the unique artwork created to spread awareness.

==Background==
In December 2019, a newly constituted State Wildlife Advisory Board (SWLAB) met for approximately an hour. They discussed many projects, including:
* the double tracking of the existing railway line
* an electricity transmission line for electricity
* a highway expansion proposal

All of these would affect the [[Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary]].<ref name="VelhoClearedHindu20">{{Cite news|last=Velho|first=Nandini|date=2020-05-23|title=During lockdown, MoEFCC panels cleared or discussed 30 projects in biodiverse forests|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/during-lockdown-moefcc-panels-cleared-or-discussed-30-projects-in-biodiverse-forests/article31649606.ece|access-date=2020-08-03|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The projects first came into public view when a wildlife scientist wrote a cover-story in ''[[The Hindu]]'' in May 2020 that pointed out that two of these projects, the transmission line and the highway, were cleared during the [[COVID-19 lockdown in India]]. These projects would require the felling of at least 91 hectares (9,10,000 square meters) of forest.<ref name="VelhoClearedHindu20" /> These two also did not carry out a wildlife assessment. While the transmission line had cleared a wildlife assessment, it was contradictory, since scientific consensus agrees that power transmission lines have harmful effects on wildlife.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gokhale |first=Nihar |date=2021-01-02 |title=No impact assessments, no mitigation: Wildlife clearances in Goa's Mollem forests |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/no-impact-assessments-no-mitigation-wildlife-clearances-in-goas-mollem-forests/article33470539.ece |access-date=2025-01-24 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Reports suggested that the highway and railway expansion would benefit the [[Mormugao Port Authority]], which would be able to increase its coal export capabilities, favouring companies like [[JSW Group]], [[Vedanta Limited]] and [[Adani Group]], who export this coal.<ref name="BBCHotspot20">{{Cite news |date=2020-11-29 |title=Mollem: The battle to save a biodiversity hotspot in India's Goa |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-55082645 |access-date=2025-01-24 |work=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref>

The Mollem wildlife sanctuary is part of the [[Western Ghats]], which have been declared as a [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]]. The area in particular is home to 128 varieties of unique species of fauna.<ref name="BBCHotspot20" />

==Timeline of notable events and demonstrations==
===2020===
On [[World Environment Day]], 5 June 2020, a group of around 150 scientists, academics, conservationists and concerned citizens from across the country wrote to Union Minister of Forests and Environment (MoEF) [[Prakash Javadekar]]. They urged him to reconsider the approvals granted to the three projects that threatened the Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary and the Mollem National Park. By this time, the number of trees to be felled were pegged at 55,000.<ref>{{Cite web |last=de Souza |first=Gerard |date=2020-06-06 |editor-last=Saxena |editor-first=Sparshita |title=Scientists, conservationists urge Javadekar to reconsider forest felling for highway, railway expansion |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/scientists-conservationists-urge-javadekar-to-reconsider-forest-felling-for-highway-railway-expansion/story-qtDKH5OCoLHNkNBx2o2EPP.html |access-date=2020-08-03 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-05 |title=Explained {{!}} Why Goans are protesting against coal projects and want to 'Save Mollem'? - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/explained--why-goans-are-protesting-against-coal-projects-and-want-to-save-mollem-7394381.htm |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref>

In the months that followed, students and activists launched online petitions to spread awareness about the issue.<ref name="PalMidnightNewsClick20">{{Cite news |last=Pal |first=Sumedha |date=2020-11-02 |title=Midnight Protest in Goa Against Rail Line Doubling; No EIA Clearance, Allege Activists |url=https://www.newsclick.in/midnight-protest-goa-rail-line-doubling-no-EIA-clearance-activists |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220225305/https://www.newsclick.in/midnight-protest-goa-rail-line-doubling-no-EIA-clearance-activists |archive-date=20 February 2024 |access-date=2025-01-24 |work=NewsClick |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> They also spread [[meme]]s on social media, such as [[Instagram]] and [[Twitter]].<ref name="MenezesRaceMint20">{{Cite news |last=Menezes |first=Vivek |date=2020-12-03 |title=Inside the race to save Mollem |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/inside-the-race-to-save-mollem-11607008178992.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616170359/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/inside-the-race-to-save-mollem-11607008178992.html |archive-date=16 June 2024 |access-date=2025-01-24 |work=mint |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[hashtag]] #SaveMollem was used as a way to draw attention to the magnitude of the problem.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yadav |first=Anubhav |date=26 April 2021 |title=What happened to protestors in Goa? Save Mollem Forest |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/constitutionally-speaking/what-happened-to-protestors-in-goa-save-mollem-forest-31327/ |access-date=2025-01-24 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Adlakha |first=Nidhi |date=2020-11-13 |title=Why #SaveMollem needs our amplified attention and support |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/on-savemollem-and-why-it-needs-our-support/article33090990.ece/ |access-date=2025-01-24 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The movement became known for its involvement of [[millennial]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sarma |first1=Anjan |last2=Deka |first2=Chinmoyee |date=2021-06-19 |title=The Story of Mollem So Far |url=https://mahabahu.com/the-story-of-mollem-so-far/ |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=Mahabahu.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Multiple artworks were also created as part of the movement.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Menezes |first=Vivek |date=2020-12-13 |title=#SaveMollem: In Goa, young artists are trying to re-imagine green activism for a media-saturated age |url=https://scroll.in/article/981021/as-goa-resists-three-environmentally-destructive-projects-artists-create-images-to-savemollem |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref> They shared that [[Fridays for Future]] was one of their inspirations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dhara |first=Tushar |date=15 March 2021 |title=The young environmental groups leading India's new climate activism |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/environment/the-young-environmental-groups-leading-india-new-climate-activism |access-date=2025-01-24 |magazine= [[The Caravan]]}}</ref> The movement was also known as "''Amche Mollem''" and "My Mollem".<ref name="BijoliaHomegrown22">{{Cite web |last=Bijolia |first=Disha |date=2022-10-26 |title=Inside An Artist-Led Campaign That Saved Goa's Biodiversity |url=https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-creators/inside-an-artist-led-campaign-that-saved-goasbiodiversity |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=Homegrown |language=en}}</ref>

On 18 June, 18 scientists wrote to Forest Minister Javadekar, addressing the issue. This was followed by letters from 427 medical and nursing students on 9 July, 159 representatives from the tourism industry on 28 July, and 249 artists on 1 August.<ref name="MenezesRaceMint20" />

During the one day Goa Legislative Assembly session in July 2020, the [[Chief Minister of Goa]], [[Pramod Sawant]], who also holds the forest portfolio admitted that almost 70,000 trees would be cut down for the three projects.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Page 1, The Goan Everyday|url=http://epaper.thegoan.net/m5/2765356/The-Goan-Everyday/The-Goan-Everyday#page/1/1|access-date=2020-08-03|website=The Goan Everyday}}</ref> A couple of days after the Assembly session, the Leader of Opposition, [[Digambar Kamat]], wrote to the Central Empowered Committee (CEC) of the Supreme Court stating that he was not in favour of the “dubious forest clearances” given to the three projects. He lamented that the projects were being viewed in isolation, instead of as part of Goa's largest protected area.<ref>{{Cite web|date=Aug 1, 2020|title=Kamat takes up Mollem projects with central panel|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/kamat-takes-up-mollem-projects-with-central-panel/articleshow/77293665.cms|access-date=2020-08-03|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

On 15 August 2020, on account of [[Independence Day of India|Independence Day]], multiple protests were held across Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-08-16 |title=People's movement against double-tracking etc, firmly on track |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/People%E2%80%99s-movement-against-doubletracking-etc-firmly-on-track/164298 |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=Herald Goa}}</ref>

In October 2020, on a visit to Goa, Union Minister for Environment, Forest and Climate Change [[Prakash Javadekar]] said at a press conference that he was not aware about the opposition to the three controversial linear projects proposed in and around the protected forests at the Wildlife Sanctuary. He said that he had received no written objections to the projects, despite environmental activists and other various groups from the state sending the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change dozens of written representations digitally and by post.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-05|title=Javadekar feigns ignorance on protests against 3 controversial Mollem projects|url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/javadekar-feigns-ignorance-on-opposition-to-mollem-projects/59756.html|access-date=2020-10-11|website=The Goan EveryDay|language=en}}</ref>

A few days later, Curtorim MLA [[Aleixo Reginaldo Lourenco]] sent a letter to the Ministry of Environment, as well as the Goa Chief Minister saying that their feigning ignorance on the protests was disturbing to Goans. He reiterated that numerous Goans including students, teachers, architects, artists, scientists, and travel and tourism operators, had written to him over four months on the issue, and that he had written to the Centre over the issue of Mollem being stripped of its green cover.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-10|title=In a letter to the Centre, Curtorim MLA slams Javadekar on Mollem protests|url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/In-a-letter-to-the-Centre-Curtorim-MLA-slams-Javadekar-on-Mollem-protests/166267|access-date=2020-10-11|website=O Heraldo}}</ref>

Around the same time, noted Konkani writer [[Damodar Mauzo]] in a video on Mollem, urged Goans to unite and back the people of Mollem in their fight to save the forests from destruction. In the video, he also recited a poem on the ongoing struggle to save the forests penned by a Mollem local Sharaschandra Khandeparkar.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-10-11|title=Mauzo uploads video, recites poem to unite Goans, protect #Mollem|url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/%EF%BB%BFmauzo-uploads-video-recites-poem-to-unite-goans-protect-mollem/60027.html|access-date=2020-10-11|website=The Goan Everyday|language=en}}</ref>

On the night of 1 November 2020, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India]], hundreds of people sat on the railway lines passing through [[Chandor]]. The protestors included activists, members of different political parties, and citizens of different backgrounds and age groups.<ref name="PalMidnightNewsClick20" /><ref name="DuttArmsQuint20">{{Cite web |last=Dutt |first=Bahar |date=2020-11-03 |title=Why Are Goans Up In Arms Against State Infrastructure Projects? |url=https://www.thequint.com/opinion/goa-protests-mollem-national-park-bhagwan-mahaveer-wildlife-sanctuary-forest-clearance-endangered-species |url-access=subscription |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515104549/https://www.thequint.com/web/20230515104549/https://www.thequint.com/opinion/goa-protests-mollem-national-park-bhagwan-mahaveer-wildlife-sanctuary-forest-clearance-endangered-species#read-more |archive-date=15 May 2023 |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref> Six protestors were charged for unlawful assembly and rioting, despite people stating that the protest was peaceful.<ref name="BBCHotspot20" />

On 7 December 2020, protests were held in Panjim outside the office of the Forest Department in Panaji. Other protestors marched from the Church Square to the Forest Department.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-08 |title=Save Mollem protestors give ultimatum to Forest Dept |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Save-Mollem-protestors-give-ultimatum-to-Forest-Dept/168417 |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=Herald Goa}}</ref>

===2021===
In March 2021, the MoEF granted its approval for the clearing of 140 hectares of forest land for the double-tracking project.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-01 |title=Centre grants clearances to 140 hectares of forest land for Goa projects |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/centre-grants-clearances-to-140-hectares-of-forest-land-for-goa-projects-7208867/ |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=The Indian Express |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

In April 2021, the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]]-appointed Central Empowered Committee (CEC) recommended against the three projects. While the double tracking project was cancelled, the transmission line was recommended to be shifted to an existing 110 KV line, and the highway expansion project was recommended to get an environmental clearance (EC) first.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-27 |title=CEC comes to rescue of Mollem forest |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/CEC-comes-to-rescue-of-Mollem-forest/174164 |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=Herald Goa |language=en}}</ref>

==Reactions==
Responding to the letters sent to Javadekar, CM Sawant stated, "The opposition to these projects is coming from Africa, England and Russia. Those who have not seen Goa and Mollem are now commenting about it from foreign countries." The Minister for Power in Goa, [[Nilesh Cabral]], stated that the protestors should "first start using solar power" (before complaining about a power transmission line).<ref name="MenezesRaceMint20" />

==Awards and accolades==
The Save Mollem campaign was recognised for the Sanctuary Wildlife Service Awards 2021 by [[Sanctuary Asia]] magazine.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-06 |title=Save Mollem movement against 3 linear projects wins award |url=https://www.heraldgoa.in/goa/save-mollem-movement-against-3-linear-projects-wins-award-/183573 |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=Herald Goa |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[The Goenchi Mati Movement]]
* [[Goa Foundation]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Instagram}}


[[Category:21st-century social movements]]
[[Category:Hashtags]]
[[Category:Slogans]]
[[Category:2020 neologisms]]

Yuhanon Meletius

2026-03-07T11:58:46Z

BrookEjw0071: new

{{Short description|Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church bishop (born 1954)}}
{{About|the Malankara Orthodox Syrian bishop|the Syriac Orthodox Church bishop|Militos Yuhanon}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolitan]]
| name = '''Yuhanon Meletius'''
| image =
| caption =
| church = [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]
| diocese = [[Thrissur Orthodox Diocese|Thrissur Diocese]]
| term = 1990 – Present
| predecessor = 
| ordination = 23 December 1990
| ordained_by = Patriarch [[Ignatius Zakka I]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1954|7|04}}
| birth_place = [[Elakkaranadu]], [[Ernakulam]], [[Kerala]]
}}

'''Yuhanon Meletius''' is the [[metropolitan bishop]] of the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]'s [[Thrissur Orthodox Diocese|Thrissur Diocese]] in [[India]].<ref name=MOSC>{{cite web|title=H.G. Dr. Yuhanon Mar Meletius|url=https://mosc.in/holysynod/h-g-dr-yuhanon-mor-meletius-metropolitan|website=mosc.in|publisher=[[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]|access-date=27 August 2022|archive-date=28 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728110424/https://mosc.in/holysynod/h-g-dr-yuhanon-mor-meletius-metropolitan|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Dr. Yuhanon Mar Meletius|work=Malankara Orthodox TV|url=https://malankaraorthodox.tv/|access-date=27 August 2022|archive-date=27 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827082028/https://malankaraorthodox.tv/|url-status=live}}</ref> Following the death of [[Baselios Marthoma Paulose II]] in 2021, Meletius was one of the seven members of an administrative council that governed the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (MOSC).<ref name=Films>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/metropolitan-of-orthodox-church-differs-on-campaign-against-films/articleshow/85223237.cms|title=Metropolitan of Orthodox Church differs on campaign against films|date=11 August 2021|first=T|last=Ramavarman|work=[[Times of India]]|access-date=30 August 2022|location=[[Thrissur]]|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831003229/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/metropolitan-of-orthodox-church-differs-on-campaign-against-films/articleshow/85223237.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Yuhanon Meletius was born to Markose and Saramma Murimakkil at Ezhakkaranadu. He attended [[primary school]] at [[Maneed]] before attending St. Peter's College in [[Kolenchery]], graduating with a degree on [[Malayalam]]. He later attended [[United Theological College, Bangalore|United Theological College]] in [[Bangalore]] for a [[Master of Theology|MTh]] and [[Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago]] for [[PhD]] studies. He also studied [[Syriac language|Syriac]] at St Aphrem’s Seminary in [[Damascus]].<ref name=MOSC/>

==Ministry==
Meletius was ordained a [[deacon]] in 1973 by Paulose Phelexinos and ordained a [[priest]] by [[Baselios Paulose II]], the then-[[Catholicos of India|Catholicos]] of a united [[Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church]] and [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]. He was consecrated as a bishop in Damascus on 23 December 1990.<ref name=MOSC/>

On 18 January 2019, clashes erupted between Jacobite and Malanakara Orthodox Christians in front of St. Mary's Church in [[Puthur, Thrissur]], injuring several. Among those injured was Meletius, who was hospitalized. Meletius was also among those listed as accused in police cases against the clashing parties. In total, 70 Jacobite and 30 Orthodox were taken into custody. Meletius claimed that members of the Jacobite faction had tried to enter the church for their religious functions, which he claimed was prohibited by a court order.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/kerala-jacobite-orthodox-factions-clash-at-st-marys-church-in-puthur/articleshow/67583623.cms?from=mdr#_ga=2.47251557.318132082.1661916978-1423777103.1661916978|title=Kerala: Jacobite, Orthodox factions clash at St Mary's Church in Puthur|date=19 January 2019|first=T|last=Ramavarman|work=[[Times of India]]|access-date=30 August 2022|location=[[Thrissur]]|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831052047/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/kerala-jacobite-orthodox-factions-clash-at-st-marys-church-in-puthur/articleshow/67583623.cms?from=mdr#_ga=2.47251557.318132082.1661916978-1423777103.1661916978|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/temporary-truce-for-disputes-at-st-marys-church/articleshow/67593256.cms|title=Temporary truce for disputes at St Mary's Church|date=19 January 2019|first=T|last=Ramavarman|work=[[Times of India]]|access-date=30 August 2022|location=[[Thrissur]]|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831052047/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/temporary-truce-for-disputes-at-st-marys-church/articleshow/67593256.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> [[T. V. Anupama]], the [[district collector]], attempted mediation following the clashes and instructed both the Jacobite and Orthodox factions to vacate the church's surroundings, while Meletius accused the local police chief of instigating the Jacobite attempt to enter the church.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/jan/19/mannamangalam-church-sealed-on-collectors-orders-1926994.html|title=Orthodox-Jacobite dispute: Mannamangalam church sealed on Thrissur Collector's orders|work=[[New Indian Express]]|first=Gopika|last=Varrier|date=19 January 2019|location=[[Thrissur]]|access-date=31 August 2022|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831183713/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/jan/19/mannamangalam-church-sealed-on-collectors-orders-1926994.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Meletius was present as [[Baselios Marthoma Paulose II]], the [[Catholicos of the East (Indian Orthodox Church)|Malankara Catholicos of the East]], refused mediation from other Christian denominations in resolving the row in December 2019, which the MOSC declared an internal matter.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/dec/05/orthodox-faction-rejects-mediation-offer-by-heads-of-other-churches-2071623.html|title=Orthodox faction rejects mediation offer by heads of other churches|work=[[New Indian Express]]|date=5 December 2019|access-date=30 August 2022|location=[[Kerala]]|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831053518/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2019/dec/05/orthodox-faction-rejects-mediation-offer-by-heads-of-other-churches-2071623.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Meletius was among those who approved the budgetary needs of the MOSC; in 2020, he was among the functionaries who approved a [[Indian rupee|₹]]790 crore annual budget for the church.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/790-crore-budget-for-orthodox-church-in-kerala/article30831724.ece|title=₹790-crore budget for Orthodox Church in Kerala|location=[[Kerala]]|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=15 February 2020|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831052701/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/790-crore-budget-for-orthodox-church-in-kerala/article30831724.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> Following the July 2021 death of Baselios Marthoma Paulose II, Meletius was on the seven-person administrative council that governed the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church until [[Baselios Marthoma Mathews III]] was enthroned in October that year.<ref name=Films/>

Following the 2021 announcement of the title of director [[Nadirshah]]'s upcoming film ''[[Eesho (film)|Easho]]'' (Malayalam for "[[Jesus]]"), Meletius dissented against outrage over the film, saying "Does God require our protection?" in a [[Facebook]] post. The statement supporting the film's name was clarified to be his personal position rather than that of the church.<ref name=Films/> He later lamented those who were "whipped up" against the film who "did not do anything" when [[Jesuit]] and tribal activist [[Stan Swamy]] died in custody.<ref name=Telegraph/>

Meletius has been a critic of "Chrisanghis," Christian sympathizers with the rhetoric of the anti-minority [[Sangh Parivar]] and [[Hindutva]]. In May 2022, he said "Christians are moving on a suicidal path. I don’t think the Sangh parivar can take the Christians on that easily in [[Kerala]]. But I have no doubt that Kerala will also see what we now see in north India."<ref name="Telegraph" /> He has encouraged an interfaith closing of ranks akin to that seen during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] in order to combat "extremism". The comments came soon after Stan Swamy died in custody in the [[Communist Party of India (Maoist)|Elgar Parishad-Maoist]] case; Meletius has stated that he believes Swamy was "killed".<ref name=Telegraph>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/we-are-quickly-losing-indias-fundamental-character-bishop/cid/1867471|title=We are quickly losing India's fundamental character: Bishop|last=Rakesh|first=R.M.|date=30 May 2022|location=[[Bangalore]]|work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831003227/https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/we-are-quickly-losing-indias-fundamental-character-bishop/cid/1867471|url-status=live}}</ref> Meletius has also been a critic of [[P. C. George]], a [[Poonjar Assembly constituency|Poonjar]] politician who in 2022 Meletius called "opportunistic" and opposed to what Meletius called a majority of Christians who were "peace-loving" and "committed to the core values of India like democracy, freedom."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/george-not-spokesperson-of-christians/articleshow/91879742.cms?from=mdr#_ga=2.5843185.318132082.1661916978-1423777103.1661916978|title='George not spokesperson of Christians'|date=30 May 2022|first=T|last=Ramavarman|work=[[Times of India]]|access-date=30 August 2022|location=[[Thrissur]]|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831050305/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/george-not-spokesperson-of-christians/articleshow/91879742.cms?from=mdr#_ga=2.5843185.318132082.1661916978-1423777103.1661916978|url-status=live}}</ref> George responded by accusing Meletius of working for the [[Pinarayi]] government.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/pc-george-slams-metropolitan-mar-meletius-accuses-him-of-working-for-pinarayi-govt-1.7562163|title=PC George slams Metropolitan Mar Meletius; accuses him of working for Pinarayi govt.|date=30 May 2022|work=[[Mathrubhumi]]|access-date=31 August 2022|archive-date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831182335/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/pc-george-slams-metropolitan-mar-meletius-accuses-him-of-working-for-pinarayi-govt-1.7562163|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago alumni]]
[[Category:Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church bishops]]
[[Category:21st-century Oriental Orthodox archbishops]]
[[Category:People from Kerala]]
[[Category:Jacobite Syrian Christian Church clergy]]
[[Category:Metropolitan bishops]]

Indigenous Aryanism

2026-03-05T13:11:35Z

BrookEjw0071: slightly refine formatting for accuracy additionally and added references to improve readability

{{Short description|View that the Indo-Aryans are indigenous to India}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{semiprotected|small=yes}}
{{Indo-European topics}}
'''Indigenous Aryanism''', also known as the '''Indigenous Aryans theory''' ('''IAT''') and the '''Out of India theory''' ('''OIT'''), is the conviction{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=4}} that the [[Aryan]]s are indigenous to the [[Indian subcontinent]],{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxx}} and that the [[Indo-European languages]] radiated out from a homeland in India into their present locations.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxx}} It is a "[[Nationalist historiography|religio-nationalistic]]" view of Indian history,{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=95}}{{sfn|Jamison|2006}} and propagated as an [[Historical revisionism|alternative]] to the established [[Indo-Aryan migrations|migration model]],<ref name="Elst_2016"/> which considers the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] to be the area of origin of the Indo-European languages.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}{{sfn|Parpola|2015}}{{refn|group=note|name="Entry of the Indo-Aryans"}}

Reflecting traditional Indian views{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=95}} based on the [[Puranic chronology]], [[Indigenism|indigenists]] propose an older date than is generally accepted for the [[Vedic period]], and argue that the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] was a Vedic civilisation. In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the [[Sarasvati River|Sindhu-Sarasvati]] (or [[Indus]]) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)."{{sfn|Kak|2001b}}

Support for the IAT mostly exists among a subset of Indian scholars of [[Hinduism|Hindu religion]] and the [[History of India|history]] and [[Archaeology in India|archaeology]] of India,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=292-293}}{{sfn|Bryant|Patton|2005}}{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=186}}{{sfn|Bresnan|2017|p=8}}<ref name="Elst_2016"/> and plays a significant role in [[Hindutva]] politics.{{sfn|Fosse|2005|p=435-437}}{{sfn|Ravinutala|2013|p=6}}{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=95}}<ref group=web name="Doniger_2017"/><ref group=web name="Shahane_2019"/> It has no relevance or support in mainstream scholarship.{{refn|group=note|name="no support"}}

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Background==
{{main|Indo-Aryan migrations|Indo-European migrations}}
[[File:Early Vedic Culture (1700-1100 BCE).png|thumb|right|Early Vedic Culture (1700–1100 BCE)]]
The standard view on the origins of the Indo-Aryans is that of the [[Indo-Aryan migrations]], which states that they entered north-western India at about 1500 BCE.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xiii}} The [[Puranic chronology]], the timeline of events in ancient Indian history as narrated in the [[Mahabaratha]], the [[Ramayana]], and the [[Puranas]], envisions a much older chronology for the Vedic culture. In this view, the Vedas were received thousands of years ago, and the start of the reign of [[Manu Vaivasvate]], the [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]] of the current [[kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]] (aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, may be dated as far back 7350 BCE.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|p=122}} The [[Kurukshetra War]], the background-scene of the [[Bhagavad Gita]], which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at the heartland of [[Aryavarta]],{{sfn|Witzel|1995}}{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=19}} is dated in this chronology at ca. 3100 BCE.

Indigenists, reflecting traditional Indian views on history and religion,{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=95}} argue that the Aryans are indigenous to India, which challenges the standard view.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xiii}} In the 1980s and 1990s, the indigenous position has come to the foreground of the public debate.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xiii-xv}}

===Indian homeland and Aryan Invasion theory===
In 19th century [[Indo-European studies]], the language of the [[Rigveda]] was the most archaic Indo-European language known to scholars, indeed the only records of Indo-European that could reasonably claim to date to the [[Bronze Age]]. This primacy of Sanskrit inspired scholars such as [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]], to assume that the locus of the [[proto-Indo-European homeland]] had been in India, with the other dialects spread to the west by historical migration.{{sfn|Senthil Kumar|2012|p=123}}{{sfn|Hewson|1997|p=229}} With the 20th-century discovery of Bronze Age attestations of Indo-European ([[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]], [[Mycenaean Greek]]), [[Vedic Sanskrit]] lost its special status as the most archaic Indo-European language known.{{sfn|Senthil Kumar|2012|p=123}}{{sfn|Hewson|1997|p=229}}

In the 1850s, [[Max Müller]] introduced the notion of two Aryan races, a western and an eastern one, which migrated from the Caucasus into Europe and India respectively. Müller dichotomised the two groups, ascribing greater prominence and value to the western branch. Nevertheless, this "eastern branch of the Aryan race was more powerful than the indigenous eastern natives, who were easy to conquer."{{sfn|McGetchin|2015|p=116}} By the 1880s, his ideas had been adapted by racist [[Ethnology|ethnologists]]. For example, as an exponent of [[Scientific racism|race science]], colonial administrator [[Herbert Hope Risley]] (1851–1911) used the ratio of nose width to height to divide [[Indian people]] into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes.{{sfn|Trautmann|1997|p=203}}{{sfn|Walsh|2011|p=171}}

The idea of an Aryan "invasion" was fueled by the discovery of the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilisation]], which [[Late Harappan|declined]] around the period of the Indo-Aryan migration, suggesting a destructive invasion. This argument was developed by the mid-20th century archaeologist [[Mortimer Wheeler]], who interpreted the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquests. He famously stated that the Vedic god "[[Indra]] stands accused" of the destruction of the Indus Civilisation.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=238}} Scholarly critics have since argued that Wheeler misinterpreted his evidence and that the skeletons were better explained as hasty interments, not unburied victims of a massacre.{{sfn|Possehl|2002|p=238}}

===Indo-Aryan migration theory===
{{See also|Language shift|Sanskritisation}}

====Migrations====
[[File:From Corded Ware to Sintashta.jpg|thumb|right|According to Allentoft (2015), the Sintashta culture probably derived from the Corded Ware Culture. The Sintashta Culture is commonly thought to be the first manifestation of the Indo-Iranians.]]
[[File:Andronovo culture.png|thumb|right|The Andronovo culture's approximate maximal extent, with the formative Sintashta-Petrovka culture (red), the location of the earliest [[spoke]]-wheeled [[chariot]] finds (purple), and the adjacent and overlapping [[Afanasevo culture|Afanasevo]], [[Srubna culture|Srubna]], and [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] cultures (green).]]
[[File:Indo-Iranian origins.png|thumb|right|Archaeological cultures associated with [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] [[Indo-Iranian migration|migrations]] and [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] [[Indo-Aryan migration|migrations]] (after [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]). The [[Andronovo culture|Andronovo]], [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] and [[Yaz culture]]s have often been associated with [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] migrations. The [[Gandhara grave culture|GGC]], [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]], [[Copper Hoard Culture|Copper Hoard]] and [[Painted Grey Ware culture|PGW]] cultures are candidates for cultures associated with [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] [[Indo-Aryan migration|migrations]].]]

The idea of an "invasion" has been discarded in mainstream scholarship since the 1980s,{{sfn|Kazanas|2002}} and replaced by more sophisticated models,{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=311}}{{refn|group=note|Witzel: "For some decades already, linguists and philologists such as Kuiper 1955, 1991, Emeneau 1956, Southworth 1979, archaeologists such as Allchin 1982, 1995, and historians such as R. Thapar 1968, have maintained that the Indo-Aryans and the older local inhabitants ('Dravidians', 'Mundas', etc.) have mutually interacted from early on, that many of them were in fact frequently bilingual, and that even the RV already bears witness to that. They also think, whether explicitly following Ehret's model (1988, cf. Diakonoff 1985) or not, of smaller infiltrating groups (Witzel 1989: 249, 1995, Allchin 1995), not of mass migrations or military invasions. However, linguists and philologists still maintain, and for good reasons, that some IA speaking groups actually entered from the outside, via some of the (north)western corridors of the subcontinent."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=32}}}} referred to as the [[Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis|Indo-Aryan migration theory]]. It posits the introduction of [[Indo-Aryan languages]] into South Asia{{refn|group=note|name="Entry of the Indo-Aryans"}} through migrations of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking people from their ''Urheimat'' (original homeland) in the [[Pontic steppes|Pontic Steppes]] via the Central European Corded ware culture, and Eastern European/Central Asian Sintashta culture, through Central Asia into the Levant ([[Mitanni]]), south Asia, and Inner Asia ([[Wusun]] and [[Yuezhi]]). It is part of the [[Indo-European migrations|Kurgan-hypothesis/Revised Steppe Theory]], which further describes the spread of Indo-European languages into western Europe via migrations of Indo-European speaking people.

[[Historical linguistics]] provides the main basis for the theory, analysing the development and changes of languages, and establishing relations between the various Indo-European languages, including the time frame of their development. It also provides information about shared words, and the corresponding area of the origin of Indo-European, and the specific vocabulary which is to be ascribed to specific regions.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}{{sfn|Witzel|2001}}{{sfn|Witzel|2005}} The linguistic analyses and data are supplemented with archaeological and genetical data{{sfn|Reich|2018}}{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2019}}{{refn|group=note|The Ancient DNA revolution since about 2015, along with genome-wide techniques like [[Human genetic clustering|Admixture Analysis and PCA]] has provided a fresh new perspective and large amounts of relevant data regarding the steppe migrations.{{sfn|Reich|2018}}{{sfn|Witzel|2019|p=58}}{{sfn|Anthony|2021|p=9,12}} For Europe, Corded Ware and later Bell Beaker cultures are now shown to be the result of large-scale steppe pastoralist takeovers which replaced the local genetics up to 75% and 90% respectively,{{sfn|Haak|Lazaridis|Patterson|Rohland|2015}}{{sfn|Olalde|Brace|Allentoft|Armit|2018}}{{sfn|Saag|Varul|Scheib|Stenderup|2017}} while recent genetic research further confirmed the migration of Steppe pastoralists into Western Europe and South Asia.<ref name="Joseph 2017"/>{{sfn|Reich|2018}}{{sfn|Anthony|2019}}{{sfn|Witzel|2019}}{{sfn|Anthony|2021}} Even in areas where population turnover is lower, there is a marked sex bias in the resulting mixed population in favor of steppe males, such as in India.{{sfn|Silva et al.|2017}}}} and anthropological arguments, which together provide a coherent model{{sfn|Anthony|2007}}{{sfn|Reich|2018}} that is widely accepted.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|p=460-461}}

In the model, the first archaeological remains of the Indo-Europeans is the [[Yamnaya culture]],{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} from which emerged the Central European Corded Ware culture, which spread eastward creating the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] [[Sintashta culture]] (2100–1800 BCE), from which developed the [[Andronovo culture]] (1800–1400 BCE). Around 1800 BCE, Indo-Aryan people split-off from the Iranian branches, and migrated to the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|BMAC]] (2300–1700 BCE),{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}} and further to the Levant, northern India, and possibly Inner Asia.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009}}

====Cultural continuity and adaptation====
The migration into northern India was not necessarily of a large population, but may have consisted of small groups,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=342-343}} who introduced their language and social system into the new territory when looking for pasture for their herds.{{sfn|Bresnan|2017|p=13}} These were then emulated by larger groups,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=117}}{{refn|group=note|David Anthony (1995): "Language shift can be understood best as a social strategy through which individuals and groups compete for positions of prestige, power, and domestic security […] What is important, then, is not just dominance, but vertical social mobility and a linkage between language and access to positions of prestige and power […] A relatively small immigrant elite population can encourage widespread language shift among numerically dominant indigenes in a non-state or pre-state context if the elite employs a specific combination of encouragements and punishments. Ethnohistorical cases […] demonstrate that small elite groups have successfully imposed their languages in non-state situations."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|Witzel: "Just one "Afghan" IndoAryan tribe that did not return to the highlands but stayed in their Panjab winter quarters in spring was needed to set off a wave of acculturation in the plains, by transmitting its 'status kit' (Ehret) to its neighbors."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=13}} […] "Actually, even this is, strictly speaking, not necessary. The constant interaction of "Afghan" highlanders and Indus plain agriculturists could have set off the process. A further opening was created when, after the collapse of the Indus Civilization, many of its people moved eastwards, thus leaving much of the Indus plains free for IA style cattle breeding. A few agricultural communities (especially along the rivers) nevertheless continued, something that the substrate agricultural vocabulary of the RV clearly indicates (Kuiper 1991, Witzel 1999a,b). In an acculturation scenario the actual (small) number of people (often used a 'clinching' argument by autochthonists) that set off the wave of adaptations does not matter: it is enough that the 'status kit' (Ehret) of the innovative group (the pastoralist Indo-Aryans) was copied by some neighboring populations, and then spread further.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=13, note 27}}}} who adopted the new language and culture.{{sfn|Hickey|2010|p=151}}{{sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|p=39}}{{refn|group=note|Thomason and Kaufman note that Dravidian features in Sanskrit and later Indic languages may be explained by "absorption". They quote Emeneau: "absorption, not displacement, is the chief mechanism in radical language changes of the kind we are considering."{{sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|p=39}} Thomason and Kaufman note that a basic assumption is that Dravidians shifted in considerable numbers, so they could not only impose their own habits on Indic, but were also numerous enough to influence Indic as a whole.{{sfn|Thomason|Kaufman|1988|p=39}}}} Witzel also notes that "small-scale semi-annual
transhumance movements between the Indus plains and the Afghan and Baluchi highlands continue to this day."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=13}}

==Indigenous Aryanism==
{{See also|Yuga|Hinduism}}

According to Bryant, Indigenists
{{blockquote|... share a conviction that the theory of an external origin of the Indo-Aryan speaking people on the Indian subcontinent has been constructed on flimsy or false assumptions and conjectures. As far as such scholars are concerned, no compelling evidence has yet been produced to posit an external origin of the Indo-Aryans [...] they have taken it upon themselves to oppose
the theory of Aryan invasions and migrations—hence the label Indigenous Aryanism.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=4}}}}

The "Indigenist position" started to take shape after the discovery of the [[Harappan civilisation]], which predates the Vedas.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxviii-xxix}} According to this alternative view, the Aryans are indigenous to India,{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxx}} the Indus Civilisation is the Vedic Civilisation,{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxx}} the Vedas are older than the second millennium BCE,{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxviii}} there is no discontinuity between the (northern) Indo-European part of India and the (southern) Dravidian part,{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxviii}} and the Indo-European languages radiated out from a homeland in India into their present locations.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxx}} According to Bresnan, it is a natural response to the 19th century narrative of a superior Aryan race subjecting the native Indians, implicitly confirming the ethnocentric superiority of the European invaders of colonial times, instead supporting "a theory of indigenous development that led to the creation of the Vedas."{{sfn|Bresnan|2017|p=12}}

===Main arguments of the Indigenists===
The idea of "Indigenous Aryans" is supported with specific interpretations of archaeological, genetic, and linguistic data, and on literal interpretations of the [[Rigveda]].{{sfn|Bryant|2001}}{{sfn|Bryant|Patton|2005}}<ref group=web name="Kazanas-Collapse" /> [[Indigenous Aryans arguments|Standard arguments]], both in support of the "Indigenous Aryans" theory and in opposition the mainstream Indo-Aryan Migration theory, are:
* Questioning the Indo-Aryan Migration theory:
** Presenting the Indo-Aryan Migration theory as an "Indo-Aryan Invasion theory",{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{refn|group=note|name="invasion"|The term "invasion" is only being used nowadays by opponents of the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} The term "invasion" does not reflect the contemporary scholarly understanding of the Indo-Aryan migrations;{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}} and is merely being used in a polemical and distracting way.}} which was invented by 19th century colonialists to suppress the Indian people.<ref>Ram Kelkar (12 April 2021), [https://m.thewire.in/article/history/india-melting-pot-aryan-migration-theory-books The Nationalists Try – But India Remains Among the World's Oldest Melting Pots ], thewire.in</ref>
** Questioning the methodology of linguistics;{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=68-75}}{{sfn|Elst|2005}}{{sfn|Kak|2001}}
** Arguing for an indigenous cultural continuity, arguing there is a lack of [[archaeological]] remains of the Indo-Aryans in north-west India;{{sfn|Elst|2005}}
** Questioning the [[Indo-Aryan migration#Genetics: ancient ancestry and multiple gene flows|genetic evidence]]<ref group=web name="Sachan2015">Dinsa Sachan (4 July 2015), [https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/aryan-invasion-debunked-35674 '' Aryan invasion debunked. Genetic study shows South Asians have a diverse ancestry'']</ref><ref group=web name="Chavda">A.L. Chavda (05-05-2017), [http://indiafacts.org/aryan-invasion-myth-21st-century-science-debunks-19th-century-indology/ ''Aryan Invasion Myth: How 21st Century Science Debunks 19th Century Indology'']</ref>
** Contesting the possibility that small groups can change culture and languages in a major way;<ref group=web name="Kazanas-Collapse" />
* Re-dating India's history by postulating a Vedic-Puranic chronology:{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxviii-xxx}}
** Arguing for ancient, indigenous origins of Sanskrit,{{sfn|Elst|1999}}{{sfn|Elst|2005}} dating the Rigveda and the Vedic people to the 3rd millennium BCE or earlier;{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxviii}}{{sfn|Kak|1987}}{{sfn|Kak|1996}}{{sfn|Kak|2001}} This includes:
*** Identifying the [[Sarasvati River]], described in the Rig Veda as a mighty river, with the [[Ghaggar-Hakra River]], which had dried up c. 2000 BCE, arguing therefore for an earlier dating of the Rig Veda;{{sfn|Danino|2010}}
*** Arguing for the presence of horses and horse-drawn chariots before 2000 BCE;
** Identifying the Vedic people with the Harappan civilisation;{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxx}}{{sfn|Kak|1987}}
** Redating Indian history based on the Vedic-Puranic chronology.{{sfn|Kak|2015}}

===Questioning the Aryan Migration model===

====Rhetorics of "Aryan invasion"====
The outdated notion of an "Aryan invasion" has been used as a [[straw man]] to attack the Indo-Aryan Migration theory.{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{refn|group=note|name="invasion"}} According to Witzel, the invasion model was criticised by Indigenous Aryanists for being a justification for colonial rule:{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}
{{blockquote|The theory of an immigration of IA speaking Arya ("Aryan invasion") is simply seen as a means of British policy to justify their own intrusion into India and their subsequent colonial rule: in both cases, a "white race" was seen as subduing the local darker colored population.}}

While according to Koenraad Elst, a supporter of Indigenous Aryans:{{sfn|Elst|2005|p=234-235}}
{{blockquote|The theory of which we are about to discuss the linguistic evidence, is widely known as the "Aryan invasion theory" (AIT). I will retain this term even though some scholars object to it, preferring the term "immigration" to "invasion." ... North India's linguistic landscape leaves open only two possible explanations: either Indo-Aryan was native, or it was imported in an invasion.{{refn|group=note|Koenraad Elst: "The theory of which we are about to discuss the linguistic evidence, is widely known as the "Aryan invasion theory" (AIT). I will retain this term even though some scholars object to it, preferring the term "immigration" to "invasion." They argue that the latter term represents a long-abandoned theory of Aryan warrior bands attacking and subjugating the peaceful Indus civilization. This dramatic scenario, popularized by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, had white marauders from the northwest enslave the black aboriginals, so that "Indra stands accused" of destroying the Harappan civilization. Only the extremist fringe of the Indian Dalit (ex-Untouchable) movement and its Afrocentric allies in the USA now insist on this black-and-white narrative (vide Rajshekar 1987; Biswas 1995). But, for this once, I believe the extremists have a point. North India's linguistic landscape leaves open only two possible explanations: either Indo-Aryan was native, or it was imported in an invasion. In fact, scratch any of these emphatic "immigration" theorists and you'll find an old-school invasionist, for they never fail to connect Aryan immigration with horses and spoked-wheel chariots, that is, with factors of military superiority.{{sfn|Elst|2005|p=234-235}}}}}}

====Linguistic methodology====
Indigenists question the methodology and results of linguistics.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=68-75}}{{sfn|Elst|2005}}{{sfn|Kak|2001}} According to Bryant,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=75}} OIT proponents tend to be linguistic dilettantes who either ignore the linguistic evidence completely, dismiss it as highly speculative and inconclusive,{{refn|group=note|E.g. Chakrabarti 1995 and Rajaram 1995, as cited in Bryant 2001.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=75}}}} or attempt to tackle it with hopelessly inadequate qualifications; this attitude and neglect significantly minimises the value of most OIT publications.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|pp=74–107}}{{sfn|Bryant|1996}}

====Archaeological finds and cultural continuity====
{{Main|Indo-Aryan_migrations#Archaeology: migrations from the steppe Urheimat|l1=Archaeology of the Indo-Aryan migrations}}

In the 1960s, archaeological explanations for cultural change shifted from migration-models to internal causes of change.{{sfn|Anthony|2021}} Given the lack of archaeological remains of the Indo-Aryans, [[Jim G. Shaffer]], writing in the 1980s and 1990s, has argued for an indigenous cultural continuity between Harappan and post-Harappan times.{{sfn|Shaffer|2013}}{{sfn|Shaffer|Lichtenstein|1999}} According to Shaffer, there is no archaeological indication of an Aryan migration into northwestern India during or after the decline of the Harappan city culture.{{sfn|Shaffer|Lichtenstein|1999}}{{refn|group=note|[[David W. Anthony|David Anthony]], in his ''[[The Horse, the Wheel, and Language]]'', has provided an extensive overview of the archaeological trail of the Indo-European people across the Eurasian steppes and central Asia.}} Instead, Shaffer has argued for "a series of cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments."{{sfn|Shaffer|2013|p=88}} According to Shaffer, linguistic change has mistakenly been attributed to migrations of people.{{sfn|Shaffer|2013|p=85-86}}{{refn|group=note|name=Shaffer_Sanskrit|While arguing for an indigenous cultural continuity, Shaffer gives two possible alternative explanations for the similarities between Sanskrit and western languages, arguing for non-Indian origins.{{sfn|Shaffer|2013|p=86-87}} 1. The first is a linguistic relationship with a "Zagrosian family of language linking Elamite and Dravidian on the Iranian Plateau," [[Elamo-Dravidian languages|as proposed by McAlpin]]. According to Shaffer "linguistic similarities may have diffused west from the plateau as a result of the extensive trading networks linking cultures in the plateau with those in Mesopotamia and beyond," while also linking with the [[Kelteminar culture]] in Central Asia.{{sfn|Shaffer|2013|p=87}} Yet, Shaffer also notes that the Harappan culture was not extensively tied to this network in the third millennium BCE, leaving the possibility that "membership in a basic linguistic family - Zagrosian - may account for some of the linguistic similarities of later periods."{{sfn|Shaffer|2013|p=87}}{{refn|group=subnote|According to Franklin Southworth, "The Dravidian languages, now spoken mainly in peninsular India, form one of two main branches of the Zagrosian language family, whose other main branch consists of Elamitic and Brahui."<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s12284-011-9076-9|title = Rice in Dravidian|year = 2011|last1 = Southworth|first1 = Franklin|journal = Rice|volume = 4|issue = 3–4|pages = 142–148|s2cid = 12983737|doi-access = free| bibcode=2011Rice....4..142S }}</ref>}} 2. The second possibility is that "such linguistic similarities are a result of post-second millennium B.C. contacts with the west"{{sfn|Shaffer|2013|p=87}} by trade, taken over by people who also adopted a new way of societal organisation.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=14}} This language was used to record the myths preserved in the Vedas. According to Shaffer, "[o]nce codified, it was advantageous for the emerging hereditary social elites to stabilize such linguistic traits with the validity of the explanations offered in the literature enhancing their social position."{{sfn|Shaffer|2013|p=87-88}}}} Likewise, Erdosy also notes the absence of evidence for migrations, and states that "Indo-European languages may well have spread to South Asia through migration,"{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=90}} but that the Rigvedic ''aryas'', as a specific ethno-linguistic tribe holding a specific set of ideas,{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=75, 89-90}}{{refn|group=note|Parpola, as referred to by Bronkhorst, also notes that the term ''arya'' may not have referred to all ethnic groups who spoke an Indo-Aryan language.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007|p=265-266}}}} may well have been indigenous people whose "set of ideas" soon spread over India.{{sfn|Erdosy|1995|p=90}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2007|p=266}}

Since the 1990s, attention has shifted back to migrations as an explanatory model.{{sfn|Anthony|2021}} Pastoral societies are difficult to identify in the archaeological record, since they move around in small groups and leave little traces.<ref group=web>''Encyclopedia Britannica'', [https://www.britannica.com/place/the-Steppe/Emergence-of-the-pastoral-way-of-life ''Emergence of the pastoral way of life'']</ref> In 1990, [[David W. Anthony|David Anthony]] published a defense of migratory models,{{sfn|Anthony|2021}} and in his ''[[The Horse, the Wheel, and Language]]'' (2007), has provided an extensive overview of the archaeological trail of the Indo-European people across the Eurasian steppes and central Asia.{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} The development and "revolutionary"{{sfn|Witzel|2019|p=58}}{{sfn|Anthony|2021|p=9,12}}{{sfn|Khan|2019|p=146}} improvement of genetic research since the early 2010s{{sfn|Anthony|2021|p=9,12}}{{sfn|Khan|2019|p=146}} has reinforced this shift in focus, as it has unearthed previously unaccessible data, showing large-scale migrations in prehistoric times.{{sfn|Anthony|2021}}

====Genetic evidence====
{{Main|Indo-Aryan migrations#Genetics: ancient ancestry and multiple gene flows|l1=Genetic evidence of Indo-Aryan migrations}}

OIT-proponents have questioned the findings of genetic research,<ref group=web name="Sachan2015"/><ref group=web name="Chavda"/><ref group=web name="dnaindia.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-new-research-debunks-aryan-invasion-theory-1623744 |title=New research debunks Aryan invasion theory|date=10 December 2011}}</ref> and some older DNA-research had questioned the Indo-Aryan migrations.{{sfn|Underhill et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}} Since 2015 however, genetic research has "revolutionarily"{{sfn|Witzel|2019|p=58}}{{sfn|Anthony|2021|p=9,12}} improved, and further confirmed the migration of Steppe pastoralists into Western Europe and South Asia,<ref name="Joseph 2017">{{cite news |first=Tony |last=Joseph |date=16 June 2017 |url= https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/how-genetics-is-settling-the-aryan-migration-debate/article19090301.ece |title=How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate |work=The Hindu}}</ref>{{sfn|Reich|2018}}{{sfn|Anthony|2019}}{{sfn|Witzel|2019}}{{sfn|Anthony|2021}}{{refn|group=note|See, among others: {{harvtxt|Lazaridis et al.|2016}},{{harvtxt|Silva et al.|2017}}, {{harvtxt|Narasimhan et al.|2019}}}} and "many scientists who were either sceptical or neutral about significant Bronze Age migrations into India have changed their opinions."<ref name="Joseph 2017"/>{{refn|group=note|While {{harvtxt|Shinde et al.|2019}}, published in Cell, confirmed the Indo-Aryan migrations, news-reports stated that the study proved the Indo-Aryan migration theory to be wrong.<ref group=web>Pratul Sharma (6 september 2019), [https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2019/09/06/new-study-debunks-aryan-invasion-theory.html New DNA study debunks Aryan invasion theory], The Week</ref><ref group=web>The Times of India (7 september 2019), [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/dna-analysis-of-rakhigarhi-remains-challenges-aryan-invasion-theory/articleshow/71018198.cms DNA analysis of Rakhigarhi remains challenges Aryan invasion theory]</ref> This suggestion was reinforced by Shinde himself and Niraj Rai, stating that their study "completely sets aside the Aryan Migration/Invasion Theory."<ref group=web name=scroll.in_two_studies>Shoaib Daniyal (9 september 2019), [https://scroll.in/article/936872/two-new-genetic-studies-upheld-aryan-migration-theory-so-why-did-indian-media-report-the-opposite Two new genetic studies upheld Indo-Aryan migration. So why did Indian media report the opposite?], Scroll.in</ref><ref group=web name=The_Wire_party_line>C.P. Rajendran (13 september 2019), [https://thewire.in/media/rakhigarhi-indus-valley-civilisation-aryan-steppe-migration-vasant-shinde Scientists Part of Studies Supporting Aryan Migration Endorse Party Line Instead], The Wire</ref> Shinde's statements were refuted by his co-author Nick Patterson, and by Vagheesh Narasimhan, Shinde's co-author on {{harvtxt|Narasimhan et al.|2019}},<ref group=web name=scroll.in_two_studies/> and met with scepticism in other news reports.<ref group=web name=scroll.in_two_studies/><ref group=web name=The_Wire_party_line/> [[David Reich (geneticist)|David Reich]] repeated that Steppe people contributed to the genetic make-up of India,<ref group=web>Anubhuti Vishnoi (9 september 2019),[https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/indus-valley-civilisation-is-largest-source-of-ancestry-for-south-asians/articleshow/71042072.cms Indus Valley Civilisation is largest source of ancestry for South Asians: David Reich], The Economic Times</ref> while {{harvtxt|Friese|2019}} commented on the political complications of doing genetic research on India's history.{{sfn|Friese|2019}}}}

====Cultural change====
Indigenists contest the possibility that small groups can change culture and languages in a major way.<ref group=web name="Kazanas-Collapse" /> Mainstream scholarship explains this by elite dominance and [[language shift]].{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=67}}{{sfn|Mallory|2002b}}{{sfn|Salmons|2015|pp=114–119}} Small groups can change a larger cultural area,{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=347}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007}} when an elite male group integrates in small indigenous groups which takes over the elite language, in this case leading to a language shift in northern India.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2003|p=2287}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=117–118}}{{sfn|Pereltsvaig|Lewis|2015|pp=208–215}} Indo-Aryan languages were further disseminated with the spread of the [[Brahmanism|Vedic-Brahmanical culture]] in the process of [[Sanskritisation]]. In this process, local traditions ("little traditions") became integrated into the "great tradition" of Brahmanical religion,{{sfn|Turner|2020}} disseminating Sanskrit texts and Brahmanical ideas throughout India, and abroad.{{sfn|Sanskritization (Encyclopedia Britannica)}} This facilitated the development of the [[Hindu synthesis]],{{sfn|Flood|2013|p=148}}{{sfn|Sanskritization (Encyclopedia Britannica)}}{{sfn|Turner|2020}} in which the [[Brahmanism|Brahmanical tradition]] absorbed "local popular traditions of ritual and ideology."{{sfn|Flood|2013|p=148}}

===Redating Indian history===

====Redating the Rig Veda and the Rig Vedic people====

=====Sanskrit=====
According to the mainstream view, Sanskrit arose in South Asia after Indo-Aryan languages had been introduced by the Indo-Aryans in the first half of the second millennium BCE.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=14–15}}{{sfn|Pinkney|2014|p=38}}{{refn|group=note|name="Entry of the Indo-Aryans"}} The most archaic form of Sanskrit is [[Vedic Sanskrit]] found in the [[Rig Veda]], composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE.{{sfn|Lowe|2015|p=1–2}}{{sfn|Witzel|2006b|p=158–190, 160}}{{refn|group=note|name="Vedas"}}

Taking recourse to "Hindu astronomical lore"{{sfn|Elst|1999}}{{sfn|Witzel|2001}} Indigenists argue for ancient, indigenous origins of Sanskrit,{{sfn|Elst|1999}}{{sfn|Elst|2005}}{{refn|group=note|name="Shaffer_Sanskrit"}} dating the Rigveda and the Vedic people to the 3rd millennium BCE or earlier.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxviii}}{{efn-la|See {{harvtxt|Kak|1987}}; {{harvtxt|Kak|1996}}, {{harvtxt|Kazanas|2001}}; {{harvtxt|Kazanas|2002}} {{harvtxt|Elst|1999}}: "The astronomical lore in Vedic literature provides elements of an absolute chronology in a consistent way. For what it is worth, this corpus of astronomical indications suggests that the Rg-Veda was completed in the 4th millennium AD, that the core text of the Mahabharata was composed at the end of that millennium, and that the Brahmanas and Sutras are products of the high Harappan period towards the end of the 3rd millennium BC. This corpus of evidence is hard to reconcile with the AIT, and has been standing as a growing challenge to the AIT defenders for two centuries."}} According to [[Subhash Kak]], situating the arrival of the Aryans in the seventh millennium BCE, the hymns of the Rig Veda are organised in accordance with an astronomical code, supposedly showing "a tradition of sophisticated observational astronomy going back to events of 3000 or 4000 BCE."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=85-86}} His ideas have been [[Subhash Kak#Archaeoastronomy – The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda|rejected by mainstream scholars]].<ref name="Plofker_Centaurus">{{ Citation | last = Plofker | first = Kim | author-link = Kim Plofker | date = December 1996 | title = Review of Subash Kak, ''The Astronomical Code of the Ṛgveda'' | journal = Centaurus | volume = 38 | issue = 4 | pages = 362–364 | issn = 0008-8994 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0498.1996.tb00021.x }}</ref>{{sfn|Witzel|2001}}{{sfn|Kurien|2007|p=255}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Prophets Facing Backward : Postmodern Critiques of Science and Hindu Nationalism in India.|first=Meera|last=Nanda|date=2004|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=9780813536347|pages=112|oclc=1059017715}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mehendale|first=M. A.|date=1996|title=Review of THE ASTRONOMICAL CODE OF THE ṚGVEDA|journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute|volume=77|issue=1/4|pages=323–325|issn=0378-1143|jstor=41702197}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dani|first=S. G.|date=1994|title=The astronomical code of the Rigveda|journal=Current Science|volume=66|issue=11|pages=814|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24095698}}</ref>

=====Horses and chariots=====
{{See also|History of the horse in the Indian subcontinent}}
Several archaeological finds are interpreted as evidencing the presence of typical Indo-Aryan artefacts before 2000 BCE. Examples include the interpretation of animal bones from before 2000 BCE as horse-bones, and interpreting the [[Sinauli]] cart burials as chariots.{{r|Subramanian2018_Royal|group=web}}{{r|Daniyal2018|group=web}}{{r|Pattanaik2020|group=web}}{{refn|group=note|name=chariot}} While horse remains and related artifacts have been found in Late Harappan (1900-1300 BCE) sites, indicating that horses may have been present at Late Harappan times,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=270-271, 273}} horses did not play an essential role in the Harappan civilisation,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=273}} in contrast to the Vedic period (1500-500 BCE).{{sfn|Reddy|2006|p=A93}}{{refn|group=note|R.S. Sharma (1995), as quoted in {{harvnb|Bryant|2001}}: "the ''Rg Vedic'' culture was pastoral and horse-centered, while the Harappan culture was neither horse-centered nor pastoral."}} The earliest undisputed finds of horse remains in South Asia are from the [[Gandhara grave culture]], also known as the Swat culture (c. 1400-800 BCE),{{sfn|Reddy|2006|p=A93}} related to the Indo-Aryans{{sfn|Kennedy|2012|p=46}}

Horse remains from the Harappan site [[Surkotada]] (dated to 2400-1700 BC) have been identified by A.K. Sharma as ''Equus ferus caballus''.{{refn|group=note|Sharma (1974), as cited in {{harvnb|Bryant|2001|p=271}}}}{{refn|group=note|Bökönyi, as cited by [[B. B. Lal (archaeologist)|B. B. Lal]], stated that "The occurrence of true horse (''Equus caballus'' L.) was evidenced by the enamel pattern of the upper and lower cheek and teeth and by the size and form of incisors and phalanges (toe bones)."{{harvnb|Lal|1998|p=111}}, quoted from Bökönyi's letter to the Director of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1993-12-13.}} However, archaeologists like Meadow (1997) disagree, on the grounds that the remains of the ''Equus ferus caballus'' horse are difficult to distinguish from other equid species such as ''Equus asinus'' ([[donkey]]s) or ''Equus hemionus'' ([[onager]]s).{{sfn|Bryant|2001|pp=169-175}}

[[Bronze Age]] solid-disk wheel carts were found at [[Sinauli]] in 2018. They were related to the [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]], and dated at ca. 2000-1800 BCE.{{sfn|Parpola|2020}} They were interpreted by some as horse-pulled [[Chariot|"chariots"]], predating the arrival of the horse-centered Indo-Aryans.{{sfn|Witzel|2019|p=5}}{{sfn|Parpola|2020}}{{r|Subramanian2018_Royal|group=web}}{{r|Daniyal2018|group=web}}{{r|Pattanaik2020|group=web}}{{refn|group=note|name=chariot}} According to Parpola, the carts were ox-pulled charts, and related to a [[Indo-Aryan migrations#Multiple waves of migration into northern India|first wave of Indo-Iranian migrations]] into the Indian subcontinent,{{sfn|Parpola|2020}} noting that the [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]] (2000-1500 BCE) shows similarities with both the Late Harappan culture and steppe-cultures.{{sfn|Parpola|2020}}

=====Sarasvati river=====
In the Rig Veda, the goddess Sarasvati is described as a mighty river. Indigenists take these descriptions as references to a real river, the [[Sarasvati river]], identified with the [[Ghaggar-Hakra]], an eastern tributary to the Indus. Given the fact that the Ghaggar-Hakkra had dried-up at 2000 BCE, Indigenists argue that the Vedic people must therefore have been present much earlier.{{sfn|Danino|2010}}

Rig Vedic references to a physical river indicate that the Sarswati "had already lost its main source of water supply and must have ended in a terminal lake (samudra),"{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=93}} "depicting the present-day situation, with the Sarasvatī having lost most of its water."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=93}}{{refn|group=note|name=Witzel1|Witzel: "The autochthonous theory overlooks that RV 3.33206 already speaks of a necessarily smaller Sarasvatī: the Sudås hymn 3.33 refers to the confluence of the Beas and Sutlej (Vipåś, Śutudrī). This means that the Beas had already captured the Sutlej away from the Sarasvatī, dwarfing its water supply. While the Sutlej is fed by Himalayan glaciers, the Sarsuti is but a small local river depending on rain water. In sum, the middle and later RV (books 3, 7 and the late book, 10.75) already depict the present-day situation, with the Sarasvatī having lost most of its water to the Sutlej (and even earlier, much of it also to the Yamunå). It was no longer the large river it might have been before the early Rgvedic period.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=81}}}} "Sarasvati" may also be identified with the [[Helmand River|Helmand]] or Haraxvati river in southern [[Afghanistan]],<ref name=Kochhar/> the name of which may have been reused in its Sanskrit form as the name of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, after the Vedic tribes moved to the [[Punjab]].<ref name=Kochhar>{{citation |last=Kochhar |first=Rajesh |chapter=On the identity and chronology of the Ṛgvedic river Sarasvatī |title=Archaeology and Language III; Artefacts, languages and texts |editor1=Roger Blench |editor2=Matthew Spriggs |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-10054-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h8jfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA257}}</ref><ref name="Thapar2004">{{cite book|author=Romila Thapar|title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|year=2004|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24225-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/42 42]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/42}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|The Helmand river historically, besides Avestan ''Haetumant'', bore the name ''Haraxvaiti'', which is the [[Avestan]] form cognate to Sanskrit ''Sarasvati''.}} ''Sarasvati'' of the Rig Veda may also refer to two distinct rivers, with the family books referring to the Helmand River, and the more recent 10th mandala referring to the Ghaggar-Hakra.<ref name=Kochhar/>

====Identifying the Vedic people with the Harappan civilisation====
Indigenists claim a continuous cultural evolution of India, denying a discontinuity between the Harappan and Vedic periods,{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxiiiv–xxx}}{{sfn|Kak|1987}} identifying the IVC with the Vedic people.{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xxx}} According to Kak, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)."{{sfn|Kak|2001b}}{{refn|group=note|See also {{harvnb|Kak|1996}}}}{{sfn|Kak|1987}} This identification is incompatible with the archaeological, linguistic and genetic data, and rejected by mainstream scholarship.{{sfn|Witzel|2001}}

====Postulating a Puranic chronology====
{{Main|Puranic chronology}}

The idea of "Indigenous Aryanism" fits into traditional Hindu ideas of religious history, namely that Hinduism has timeless origins, with the Vedic Aryans inhabiting India since ancient times.{{refn|group=note|The Vedic Foundation states: "The history of Bharatvarsh (which is now called India) is the description of the timeless glory of the Divine dignitaries who not only Graced the soils of India with their presence and Divine intelligence, but they also showed and revealed the true path of peace, happiness and the Divine enlightenment for the souls of the world that still is the guideline for the true lovers of God who desire to taste the sweetness of His Divine love in an intimate style."<ref group=web name="VF-Intro" />}} The ideas Indigenist ideas are rooted in the chronology of the [[Puranas]], the [[Mahabharata]] and the [[Ramayana]], which contain lists of kings and genealogies{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=69}}{{sfn|Trautmann|2005|p=xx}} used to construct the traditional chronology of ancient India.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=69-70}} "Indigenists" follow a "Puranic agenda",{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=72, note 178}} emphasising that these lists go back to the fourth millennium BCE. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the Maurya court at Patna at {{circa}} 300 BCE, reported to have heard of a traditional list of 153 kings that covered 6042 years, beyond the traditional beginning of the ''[[Kali Yuga]]'' in 3102 BCE.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=69}} The royal lists are based on Sūta bardic traditions, and are derived from lists which were orally transmitted and constantly reshaped.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=69}}

These lists are supplemented with astronomical interpretations, which are also used to reach an earlier dating for the [[Rigveda]].{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=85-90}} Along with this comes a redating of historical personages and events, in which the Buddha is dated to 1100 BCE or even 1700 BCE, and Chandragupta Maurya (c. 300 BCE) is replaced by Chandragupta, the Gupta king.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=88 note 220}}{{refn|group=note|Witzel calls these "absurd dates", and refers to Elst 1999, ''Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate'', p.97 for more of them.{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=88 note 220}} Elst: "It is not only the Vedic age which is moved a number of centuries deeper into the past, when comparing the astronomical indications with the conventional chronology. Even the Gupta age (and implicitly the earlier ages of the Buddha, the Mauryas etc.) could be affected. Indeed, the famous playwright and poet Kalidasa, supposed to have worked at the Gupta court in about 400 AD, wrote that the monsoon rains started at the start of the sidereal month of Ashadha; this timing of the monsoon was accurate in the last centuries BCE. This implicit astronomy-based chronology of Kalidasa, about 5 centuries higher than the conventional one, tallies well with the traditional high chronology of the Buddha, whom Chinese Buddhist tradition dates to c. 1100 BC, and the implicit Puranic chronology even to c. 1700 BC.<ref group=web name="Elst2.3">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bharatvani.org/books/ait/ch23.htm |title=Koenraad Elst, ''2.3. THE PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOX'' |access-date=2015-02-07 |archive-date=2020-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922182934/http://www.bharatvani.org/books/ait/ch23.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Elst 1999 2.3 note 17: "The argument for a higher chronology (by about 6 centuries) for the Guptas as well as for the Buddha has been elaborated by K.D. Sethna in Ancient India in New Light, Aditya Prakashan, Delhi 1989. The established chronology starts from the uncertain assumption that the Sandrokottos/ Chandragupta whom Megasthenes met was the Maurya rather than the Gupta king of that name. This hypothetical synchronism is known as the sheet-anchor of Indian chronology.<ref group=web name="Elst2.3" />}} The Bharata War is dated at 3139–38 BCE, the start of the kali Yuga.{{refn|group=note|Elst: "In August 1995, a gathering of 43 historians and archaeologists from South-Indian universities (at the initiative of Prof. K.M. Rao, Dr. N. Mahalingam and Dr. S.D. Kulkarni) passed a resolution fixing the date of the Bharata war at 3139–38 BC and declaring this date to be the true sheet anchor of Indian chronology."<ref group=web name="Elst2.3" /> The Indic Studies Foundation reports of another meeting in 2003: "Scholars from across the world came together, for the first time, in an attempt to establish the 'Date of Kurukshetra War based on astronomical data.'"<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indicethos.org/Astronomy/GreatBharatawar.html |title=Indic Studies Foundation, ''Dating the Kurukshetra War'' |access-date=2015-02-07 |archive-date=2020-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218062230/http://www.indicethos.org/Astronomy/GreatBharatawar.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

==Indigenous Aryans scenarios==
[[File:Indo-Iranian migrations according to Kazanas.jpg|thumb|right|Indo-Iranian migrations according to Kazanas.<ref>[http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/pdf/en/indology/The_Collapse_of_the_AIT_13_2_2013.pdf Kazanas (2013), ''The Collapse of the AIT'']</ref>]]
[[Michael Witzel]] identifies three major types of "Indigenous Aryans" scenarios:{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=28}}

1. A "mild" version that insists on the indigeneity of the Rigvedic Aryans to the North-Western region of the Indian subcontinent in the tradition of [[Aurobindo]] and [[Dayananda]];{{refn|group=note|Witzel mentions:{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=28}}
* Aurobindo (no specific source)
* Waradpande, N.R., "Fact and fictions about the Aryans." In: Deo and Kamath 1993, 14-19
* Waradpande, N.R., "The Aryan Invasion, a Myth." Nagpur: Baba Saheb Apte Smarak Samiti 1989
* S. Kak 1994a, "On the classification of Indic languages." Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 75, 1994a, 185-195.
* Elst 1999, "Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate." Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. p.119
* Talageri 2000, "Rigveda. A Historical Analysis." New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, p.406 sqq,{{sfn|Talageri|2000}}
* Lal 1997, "The Earliest Civilization of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline)." New Delhi: Aryan Books International, p.281 sqq.}}

2. The "out of India" school that posits India as the [[Proto-Indo-European homeland]], originally proposed in the 18th century, revived by the [[Hindutva]] sympathiser{{sfn|Hansen|1999|p=262}} [[Koenraad Elst]] (1999), and further popularised within Hindu nationalism{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=344}} by Shrikant Talageri (2000);{{sfn|Talageri|2000}}{{refn|group=note|In any "Indigenous Aryan" scenario, speakers of Indo-European languages must have left India at some point prior to the 10th century BCE, when first mention of [[Iranian peoples]] is made in Assyrian records, but likely before the 16th century BCE, before the emergence of the [[Yaz culture]] which is often identified as a Proto-Iranian culture. (See, e.g., [[Roman Ghirshman]], ''L'Iran et la migration des Indo-aryens et des Iraniens'').<ref>[[Roman Ghirshman]], ''L'Iran et la migration des Indo-aryens et des Iraniens''(Leiden 1977). Cited by Carl .C. Lamberg-Karlovsky, ''Archaeology and language: The case of the Bronze Age Indo-Iranians'', in Laurie L. Patton & Edwin Bryant, ''Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History'' (Routledge 2005), p. 162.</ref>}}

3. The position that all the world's languages and civilisations derive from India, represented e.g. by [[David Frawley]].

Kazanas adds a fourth scenario:

4.The Aryans entered the Indus Valley before 4500 BCE and got integrated with the Harappans, or might have been the Harappans.{{sfn|Kazanas|2002}}

===Aurobindo's Aryan world-view===
For Aurobindo, an "Aryan" was not a member of a particular race, but a person who "accepted a particular type of self-culture, of inward and outward practice, of ideality, of aspiration."{{sfn|Heehs|2008|p=255-256}} Aurobindo wanted to revive India's strength by reviving Aryan traditions of strength and character.{{sfn|Boehmer|2010|p=108}} He denied the historicity of a racial division in India between "Aryan invaders" and a native dark-skinned population. Nevertheless, he did accept two kinds of culture in ancient India, namely the Aryan culture of northern and central India and Afghanistan, and the un-Aryan culture of the east, south and west. Thus, he accepted the cultural aspects of the division suggested by European historians.{{sfn|Varma|1990|p=79}}

===Out of India model===
[[File:OIT map.jpg|right|thumb|Map showing the spread of the Proto-Indo-European language from the Indus Valley. Dates are those of the "emerging non-invasionist model" according to Elst.]]

The "Out of India theory" (OIT), also known as the "Indian Urheimat theory," is the proposition that the [[Indo-European language family]] [[Indo-European homeland|originated]] in [[Northern India]] and spread to the remainder of the Indo-European region through a series of migrations.<ref group=web name="Kazanas-Collapse" /> It implies that the people of the [[Harappan civilisation]] were linguistically Indo-Aryans.{{sfn|Bryant|2001}}

====Theoretical overview====
Koenraad Elst, in his ''Update in the Aryan Invasion Debate'' (1999), investigates "the developing arguments concerning the Aryan Invasion Theory".{{sfn|Elst|1999}} Elst notes:{{sfn|Elst|1999|p=$6.2.3}}
{{blockquote|Personally, I don't think that either theory, of Aryan invasion and of Aryan indigenousness, can claim to have been proven by prevalent standards of proof; even though one of the contenders is getting closer. Indeed, while I have enjoyed pointing out the flaws in the AIT statements of the politicized Indian academic establishment and its American amplifiers, I cannot rule out the possibility that the theory which they are defending may still have its merits.}}

Edwin Bryant also notes that Elst's model is a "theoretical exercise:"{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=147}}
{{blockquote|...a purely theoretical linguistic exercise […] as an experiment to determine whether India can definitively be excluded as a possible homeland. If it cannot, then this further problematizes the possibility of a homeland ever being established anywhere on linguistic grounds.}}

And in ''Indo-Aryan Controversy'' Bryant notes:{{sfn|Bryant|Patton|2005|p=468}}
{{blockquote|Elst, perhaps more in a mood of devil's advocacy, toys with the evidence to show how it can be reconfigured, and to claim that no linguistic evidence has yet been produced to exclude India as a homeland that cannot be reconfigured to promote it as such.}}

===="The emerging alternative"====
Koenraad Elst summarises "the emerging alternative to the Aryan Invasion Theory" as follows.{{sfn|Elst|1999|p=$6.3}}

During the 6th millennium BCE, Proto-Indo-Europeans lived in the [[Punjab region]] of [[North India|northern India]]. As the result of demographic expansion, they spread into [[Bactria]] as the [[Kambojas]]. The [[Paradas]] moved further and inhabited the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] coast and much of central Asia while the [[China|Cinas]] moved northwards and inhabited the [[Tarim Basin]] in northwestern China, forming the [[Tocharians|Tocharian]] group of I-E speakers. These groups were [[Proto-Anatolian]] and inhabited that region by 2000 BCE. These people took the oldest form of the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language with them and, while interacting with people of the Anatolian and Balkan region, transformed it into a separate dialect. While inhabiting central Asia they discovered the uses of the horse, which they later sent back to the [[Urheimat]].{{sfn|Elst|1999|p=$6.3}} Later on during their history, they went on to occupy western Europe and thus spread the Indo-European languages to that region.{{sfn|Elst|1999|p=$6.3}}

During the 4th millennium BCE, civilisation in India started evolving into what became the urban [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley civilisation]]. During this time, the PIE languages evolved to [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]].{{sfn|Elst|1999|p=$6.3}} Some time during this period, the Indo-Iranians began to separate as the result of internal rivalry and conflict, with the Iranians expanding westwards towards [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Persia]], these possibly were the [[Pahlava]]s. They also expanded into parts of central Asia. By the end of this migration, India was left with the Proto-Indo-Aryans. At the end of the [[Mature Harappan]] period, the Sarasvati river began drying up and the remainder of the Indo-Aryans split into separate groups. Some travelled westwards and established themselves as rulers of the [[Hurrian]] [[Mitanni]] kingdom by around 1500 BCE (see [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni]]). Others travelled eastwards and inhabited the [[Gangetic basin]] while others travelled southwards and interacted with the [[Dravidian people]].{{sfn|Elst|1999|p=$6.3}}

===David Frawley===
In books such as ''The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India'' and ''[[In Search of the Cradle of Civilization]]'' [[In Search of the Cradle of Civilization|(1995)]], Frawley criticises the 19th century [[Racial groups in India (historical definitions)|racial interpretations of Indian prehistory]], such as the theory of conflict between invading [[Aryan race|Caucasoid Aryans]] and Dravidians.{{sfn|Arvidsson|2006|p=298}} In the latter book, Frawley, [[Georg Feuerstein]], and [[Subhash Kak]] reject the Aryan Invasion theory and support Out of India.

Bryant commented that Frawley's historical work is  more successful as a popular work, where its impact "is by no means insignificant", rather than as an academic study,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=291}}
and that Frawley "is committed to channelling a symbolic spiritual paradigm through a critical empirico rational one".{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=347}}

[[Pseudohistory|Pseudo-historian]]{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pp=214–218}} [[Graham Hancock]] (2002) quotes Frawley's historical work extensively for the proposal of highly evolved ancient civilisations prior to the end of the [[Last Glacial Period|last glacial period]]. including in India.{{sfn|Hancock|2002|pp=137, 147–8, 157, 158, 166–7, 181, 182}} Kreisburg refers to Frawley's "The Vedic Literature and Its Many Secrets".{{sfn|Kreisburg|2012|p=22–38}}

==Significance for colonial rule and Hindu politics==
{{Further|Indian independence movement|Hindu nationalism|Hindutva pseudohistory}}

The Aryan Invasion theory plays an important role in Hindu nationalism, which favors Indigenous Aryanism.{{sfn|Fosse|2005|p=435}}

===Colonial India===
{{Main|Colonial India}}

Curiosity and the colonial requirements of knowledge about their subject people led the officials of the East India Company to explore the history and culture of India in the late 18th century.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=3}} When similarities between Sanskrit, Greek and Latin were discovered by [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], a suggestion of "monogenesis" (single origin) was formulated for these languages as well as their speakers. In the latter part of the 19th century, it was thought that language, culture and race were inter-related, and the notion of biological race came to the forefront{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=4}} The presumed "Aryan race" which originated the Indo-European languages was prominent among such races, and was deduced to be further subdivided into "European Aryans" and "Asian Aryans," each with their own homelands.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=5}}

[[Max Mueller]], who translated the [[Rigveda]] during 1849–1874, postulated an original homeland for all Aryans in central Asia, from which a northern branch migrated to Europe and a southern branch to India and Iran. The Aryans were presumed to be fair-complexioned Indo-European speakers who conquered the dark-skinned ''dasas'' of India. The upper castes, particularly the Brahmins, were thought to be of Aryan descent whereas the lower castes and Dalits ("untouchables") were thought to be the descendants of ''dasas''.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=6}}

The Aryan theory served politically to suggest a common ancestry and dignity between the Indians and the British. [[Keshab Chunder Sen]] spoke of [[British Raj|British rule in India]] as a "reunion of parted cousins." [[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalist]] [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] endorsed the antiquity of ''Rigveda'', dating it to 4500 BCE. He placed the homeland of the Aryans somewhere [[The Arctic Home in the Vedas|close to the North Pole]]. From there, Aryans were believed to have migrated south in the post-glacial age, branching into a European branch that relapsed into barbarism and an Indian branch that retained the original, superior civilisation.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=8}}

Christian missionaries such as John Muir and [[John Wilson (Scottish missionary)|John Wilson]] highlighted what they saw as the oppression of lower castes by upper castes, which they attributed to the Aryan invasions. [[Jyotirao Phule|Jyotiba Phule]] argued that the dasas and sudras were indigenous to the land, whereas Brahmins were Aryan and outsiders.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=7}}

===Hindu revivalism and nationalism===
In contrast to the mainstream views, the [[Hindu revivalism|Hindu revivalist movements]] denied an external origin to Aryans. [[Dayananda Saraswati]], the founder of the [[Arya Samaj]] (Society of Aryans), held that Vedas were the source of all knowledge and were revealed to the Aryans. The first man (an Aryan) was created in [[Tibet]] and, after living there for some time, the Aryans came down and inhabited India, which was previously empty.{{sfn|Jaffrelot|1996|p=16}}

The [[Theosophical Society]] held that the Aryans were indigenous to India, but that they were also the progenitors of the European civilisation. The Society saw a dichotomy between the spiritualism of India and the materialism of Europe.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=9}}

According to Romila Thapar, the [[Hindutva|Hindu nationalists]], eager to construct a Hindu identity for the nation, held that the original Hindus were the Aryans and that they were indigenous to India. There was no Aryan invasion and no conflict among the people of India. The Aryans spoke Sanskrit and spread the Aryan civilisation from India to the west.{{sfn|Thapar|1996|p=9}} However, [[Hindutva]] creator [[V. D. Savarkar]] believed that Aryans migrated to South Asia.<ref name="y233">{{cite web | title=The father of Hindutva believed Aryans migrated to India | website=Quartz | date=2019-08-20 | url=http://qz.com/india/1691223/new-savarkar-biography-sheds-light-on-the-origins-of-hindutva}}</ref>

Witzel traces the "indigenous Aryan" idea to the writings of [[M. S. Golwalkar]]. Golwalkar (1939) denied any immigration of "Aryans" to the subcontinent, stressing that all Hindus have always been "children of the soil", a notion which according to Witzel is reminiscent of the ''[[blood and soil]]'' of contemporary fascism. Witzel adds that Savarkar offered a religious and cultural definition of Hindu-ness which he called "Hindutva". It has different components: territorial, political, nationalisitic, ancestral, cultural and religious. Since these ideas emerged on the brink of the internationalist and socially oriented Nehru-Gandhi government, they lay dormant for several decades after the independence, and only rose to prominence in the 1980s.{{sfn|Witzel|2006|pp=204–205}}

Bergunder likewise identifies Golwalkar as the originator of the "Indigenous Aryans" notion, and Goel's [[Voice of India]] as the instrument of its rise to notability:{{sfn|Bergunder|2004}}
{{blockquote|The Aryan migration theory at first played no particular argumentative role in Hindu nationalism. […] This impression of indifference changed, however, with Madhav Sadashiv Golwalkar (1906–1973), who from 1940 until his death was leader of the extremist paramilitary organization the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS). […] In contrast to many other of their openly offensive teachings, the Hindu nationalists did not seek to keep the question of the Aryan migration out of public discourses or to modify it; rather, efforts were made to help the theory of the indigenousness of the Hindus achieve public recognition. For this the initiative of the publisher Sita Ram Goel (b. 1921) was decisive. Goel may be considered one of the most radical, but at the same time also one of the most intellectual, of the Hindu nationalist ideologues. […] Since 1981 Goel has run a publishing house named ‘Voice of India' that is one of the few which publishes Hindu nationalist literature in English which at the same time makes a 'scientific' claim. Although no official connections exist, the books of 'Voice of India' — which are of outstanding typographical quality and are sold at a subsidized price — are widespread among the ranks of the leaders of the Sangh Parivar. […] The increasing political influence of Hindu nationalism in the 1990s resulted in attempts to revise the Aryan migration theory also becoming known to the academic public.}}

===Present-day political significance===
Lars Martin Fosse notes the political significance of "Indigenous Aryanism".{{sfn|Fosse|2005|p=435}} He notes that "Indigenous Aryanism" has been adopted by Hindu nationalists as a part of their ideology, which makes it a ''political'' matter in addition to a scholarly problem.{{sfn|Fosse|2005|p=435}} The proponents of Indigenous Aryanism necessarily engage in "moral disqualification" of Western Indology, which is a recurrent theme in much of the indigenist literature. The same rhetoric is being used in indigenist literature and the Hindu nationalist publications like the ''[[Organiser (newspaper)|Organiser]]''.{{sfn|Fosse|2005|p=437}}

According to Abhijith Ravinutala, the indigenist position is essential for Hindutva exclusive claims on India:{{sfn|Ravinutala|2013|p=6}}
{{blockquote|The BJP considers Indo-Aryans fundamental to the party's conception of Hindutva, or "Hindu-ness": India is a nation of and for Hindus only. Only those who consider India their holy land should remain in the nation. From the BJP's point of view, the Indo-Aryan peoples were indigenous to India, and therefore were the first 'true Hindus'. Accordingly, an essential part of 'Indian' identity in this point of view is being indigenous to the land.}}

Repercussions of the disagreements about Aryan origins have reached Californian courts with the [[Californian Hindu textbook controversy|Californian Hindu textbook case]], where according to ''[[The Times of India]]''<ref group=web name="ToI" /> historian and president of the Indian History Congress, [[Dwijendra Narayan Jha]] in a "crucial affidavit" to the Superior Court of California:<ref group=web name="ToI" />
{{blockquote|...[g]iving a hint of the Aryan origin debate in India, ... asked the court not to fall for the 'indigenous Aryan' claim since it has led to 'demonisation of Muslims and Christians as foreigners and to the near denial of the contributions of non-Hindus to Indian culture'.}}

According to Thapar, Modi's government and the BJP have "peddled myths and stereotypes", such as the insistence on "a single uniform culture of the Aryans, ancestral to the Hindu, as having prevailed in the subcontinent, subsuming all others", despite the scholarly evidence for migrations into India, which is "anathema to the Hindutva construction of early history".<ref group=web name="Thapar2019" />

==Rejection by mainstream scholarship==
The Indigenous Aryans theory has no relevance, let alone support, in mainstream scholarship.{{refn|group=note|name="no support"|No support in mainstream scholarship:
* {{harvtxt|Mallory|2013}}: "The speakers at this symposium can generally be seen to support one of the following three ‘solutions’ to the Indo-European homeland problem: 1. The Anatolian Neolithic model [...] 2. The Near Eastern model [...] 3. The Pontic-Caspian model."
* Romila Thapar (2006): "there is no scholar at this time seriously arguing for the indigenous origin of Aryans".{{sfn|Thapar|2006|p=127}}
* Wendy Doniger (2017): "The opposing argument, that speakers of Indo-European languages were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, is not supported by any reliable scholarship. It is now championed primarily by Hindu nationalists, whose religious sentiments have led them to regard the theory of Aryan migration with some asperity."<ref group=web name="Doniger_2017">Wendy Doniger (2017), [https://inference-review.com/article/another-great-story "Another Great Story"]", review of Asko Parpola's ''The Roots of Hinduism''; in: ''Inference, International Review of Science'', Volume 3, Issue 2</ref>
* {{harvtxt|Truschke|2020}}: "As Tony Joseph has pointed out, the Out of India theory lacks support from even “a single, peer-reviewed scientific paper” and is best considered nothing “more than a kind of clever and angry retort.”"
* Girish Shahane (September 14, 2019), in response to Narasimhan et al. (2019): "Hindutva activists, however, have kept the Aryan Invasion Theory alive, because it offers them the perfect strawman, 'an intentionally misrepresented proposition that is set up because it is easier to defeat than an opponent's real argument'  [...] The Out of India hypothesis is a desperate attempt to reconcile linguistic, archaeological and genetic evidence with Hindutva sentiment and nationalistic pride, but it cannot reverse time's arrow  [...] The evidence keeps crushing Hindutva ideas of history."<ref group=web name="Shahane_2019">Girish Shahane (September 14, 2019), [https://scroll.in/article/937043/why-hindutva-supporters-love-to-hate-the-discredited-aryan-invasion-theory ''Why Hindutva supporters love to hate the discredited Aryan Invasion Theory''], Scroll.in</ref>
* Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016): "Of course it is a fringe theory, at least internationally, where the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT) is still the official paradigm. In India, though, it has the support of most archaeologists, who fail to find a trace of this Aryan influx and instead find cultural continuity."<ref name="Elst_2016">Koenraad Elst (May 10, 2016), Koenraad Elst: "I am not aware of any governmental interest in correcting distorted history", ''Swarajya Magazine''</ref>}} According to Michael Witzel, the "indigenous Aryans" position is not scholarship in the usual sense, but an "apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking":{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=95}}
{{blockquote|The "revisionist project" certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority of traditional religious texts such as the Purāṇas. In the end, it belongs, as has been pointed out earlier, to a different 'discourse' than that of historical and critical scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a contemporary, outwardly 'scientific' guise ... The revisionist and autochthonous project, then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the "truth" of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at "rewriting" history out of national pride or for the purpose of "nation building".}}

In her review of Bryant's ''The Indo-Aryan Controversy'', which includes chapters by Elst and other "indigenists", Stephanie Jamison comments:{{sfn|Jamison|2006}}
{{blockquote|... the parallels between the Intelligent Design issue and the Indo-Aryan "controversy" are distressingly close. The Indo-Aryan controversy is a manufactured one with a non-scholarly agenda, and the tactics of its manufacturers are very close to those of the ID proponents mentioned above. However unwittingly and however high their aims, the two editors have sought to put a gloss of intellectual legitimacy, with a sense that real scientific questions are being debated, on what is essentially a religio-nationalistic attack on a scholarly consensus.}}

Sudeshna Guha, in her review of ''The Indo-Aryan Controversy'', notes that the book has serious methodological shortcomings, by not asking the question what exactly constitutes historical evidence.{{sfn|Guha|2007|p=341}} This makes the "fair and adequate representation of the differences of opinion" problematic, since it neglects "the extent to which unscholarly opportunism has motivated the rebirth of this genre of 'scholarship{{'"}}.{{sfn|Guha|2007|p=341}} Guha:{{sfn|Guha|2007|p=341}}
{{blockquote|Bryant's call for accepting "the valid problems that are pointed out on both sides" (p. 500), holds intellectual value only if distinctions are strictly maintained between research that promotes scholarship, and that which does not. Bryant and Patton gloss over the relevance of such distinctions for sustaining the academic nature of the Indo-Aryan debate, although the importance of distinguishing the scholarly from the unscholarly is rather well enunciated through the essays of Michael Witzel and Lars Martin Fosse.}}

According to Bryant,{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=75}} OIT proponents tend to be linguistic dilettantes who either ignore the linguistic evidence completely, dismiss it as highly speculative and inconclusive,{{refn|group=note|E.g. Chakrabarti 1995 and [[N. S. Rajaram|Rajaram]] 1995, as cited in Bryant 2001.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|p=74}}}} or attempt to tackle it with hopelessly inadequate qualifications; this attitude and neglect significantly minimises the value of most OIT publications.{{sfn|Bryant|2001|pp=74–107}}{{sfn|Bryant|1996}}{{refn|group=note|Witzel: "linguistic data have generally been neglected by
advocates of the autochthonous theory. The only exception so far is a thin book by the Indian linguist S. S. Misra (1992) which bristles with inaccuracies and mistakes (see below) and some, though incomplete discussion by Elst (1999)."{{sfn|Witzel|2001|p=32}}}}

Fosse notes crucial theoretical and methodological shortcomings in the indigenist literature.{{sfn|Fosse|2005}} Analysing the works of Sethna, Bhagwan Singh, Navaratna and Talageri, he notes that they mostly quote English literature, which is not fully explored, and omitting German and French Indology. It makes their works in various degrees underinformed, resulting in a critique that is "largely neglected by Western scholars because it is regarded as incompetent".{{sfn|Fosse|2005|p=438}}

According to Erdosy, the indigenist position is part of a "lunatic fringe" against the mainstream migrationist model.{{sfn|Erdosy|2012|p=x}}{{refn|group=note|Erdosy: "Assertions of the indigenous origin of Indo-Aryan languages and an insistence on a long chronology for Vedic and even Epic literature are only a few of the most prominent tenets of this emerging lunatic fringe."{{sfn|Erdosy|2012|p=x}}}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Dravidian culture]]
'''Indo-Aryans'''
* [[Indo-Iranians]]
* [[Indo-Aryan migrations]]
'''Politics'''
* [[Historiography and nationalism]]
* [[Saffronisation]]
* [[NCERT controversy]]
'''Indigenists'''
* [[Voice of India]]
** [[N. S. Rajaram]]
** [[David Frawley]]
* [[Subhash Kak]]
'''Books'''
* ''[[The Arctic Home in the Vedas]]'' (1903)
* ''[[In Search of the Cradle of Civilization]]''
* ''[[Aryan Invasion of India: The Myth and the Truth]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate]]'' (1999)
* ''[[The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis]]'' (2000)
'''Other'''
*[[Yamnaya culture]]

{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note|2|refs=

{{refn|group=note|name=chariot|These carts dubbed as "chariots" does not however have any spokes on the wheels like the chariots(Sanskrit: ''[[Ratha]]'') mentioned in Vedic literature.{{sfn|Parpola|2020}}}}

{{refn|group=note|name="Entry of the Indo-Aryans"|Entry of the Indo-Aryans: * {{harvtxt|Lowe|2015|pp=1–2}}: "... the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India." * {{harvtxt|Dyson|2018|pp=14–15}}: "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family." * {{harvtxt|Pinkney|2014|p=38}}: "According to [[Asko Parpola]], the Proto-Indo-Aryan civilization was influenced by two external waves of migrations. The first group originated from the southern Urals (c. 2100 BCE) and mixed with the peoples of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC); this group then proceeded to South Asia, arriving around 1900 BCE. The second wave arrived in northern South Asia around 1750 BCE and mixed with the formerly arrived group, producing the Mitanni Aryans (c. 1500 BCE), a precursor to the peoples of the ''Ṛgveda''."}}

{{refn|group=note|name="Vedas"|Vedas: * {{harvtxt|Lowe|2015|pp=1–2}}: "It consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India." * {{harvtxt|Witzel|2006b|pp=158–190, 160}}: "The Vedas were composed (roughly between 1500-1200 and 500 BCE) in parts of present-day Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and northern India. The oldest text at our disposal is the ''Rgveda (RV)''; it is composed in archaic Indo-Aryan (Vedic Sanskrit)." * {{harvtxt|Pinkney|2014|p=38}}: " [[Michael Witzel]] has assigned an approximate chronology to the strata of Vedic languages, arguing that the language of the ''Ṛgveda'' changed through the beginning of the Iron Age in South Asia, which started in the Northwest (Punjab) around 1000 BCE. On the basis of comparative philological evidence, Witzel has suggested a five-stage periodization of Vedic civilization, beginning with the ''Ṛgveda''. On the basis of internal evidence, the ''Ṛgveda'' is dated as a late Bronze Age text composed by pastoral migrants with limited settlements, probably between 1350 and 1150 BCE in the Punjab region."}}
}}
{{reflist|group=subnote}}

==References==

{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}

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{{refend}}

;Web-sources
{{reflist|group=web|refs=


<ref group=web name=Daniyal2018>Shoaib Daniyal (2018), [https://scroll.in/article/882188/putting-the-horse-before-the-cart-what-the-discovery-of-4000-year-old-chariot-in-up-signifies ''Putting the horse before the cart: What the discovery of 4,000-year-old ‘chariot’ in UP signifies''], Scroll.in</ref>

<ref group=web name="Kazanas-Collapse">{{cite web|last1=Kazanas|first1=Nicholas|title=The Collapse of the AIT and the prevalence of Indigenism: archaeological, genetic, linguistic and literary evidences.|url=http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/pdf/en/indology/The_Collapse_of_the_AIT_13_2_2013.pdf|work=www.omilosmeleton.gr|access-date=23 January 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030212/http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/pdf/en/indology/The_Collapse_of_the_AIT_13_2_2013.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>


<ref group=web name=Pattanaik2020>Devdutt Pattanaik (2020), [https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/who-is-a-hindu-the-missing-horse-of-baghpat/articleshow/77045101.cms ''Who is a Hindu? The missing horse of Baghpat''], MumbaiMirror</ref>


<ref group=web name=Subramanian2018_Royal>{{cite news|last=Subramanian | first=T. S. |title=Royal burial in Sanauli.| website=Frontline| date=28 September 2018 |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/arts-and-culture/heritage/article24923229.ece}}</ref>

<ref group=web name=Thapar2019>{{cite news |last1=Thapar |first1=Romila |title=Opinion {{!}} They Peddle Myths and Call It History (Published 2019) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/17/opinion/india-elections-modi-history.html |access-date=7 March 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=17 May 2019}}</ref>

<ref group=web name="ToI">{{cite news|title=US text row resolved by Indian|author=Mukul, Akshaya|date=9 September 2006|url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/US-text-row-resolved-by-Indian/articleshow/1971421.cms|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110907205755/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-09-09/india/27800566_1_aryans-textbook-affidavit|url-status= live|work=[[The Times of India]]|archive-date= 7 September 2011}}</ref>

<ref group=web name="VF-Intro">[http://www.thevedicfoundation.org/bhartiya_history/index.html The Vedic Foundation, ''Introduction'']</ref>
}}

==Further reading==

;Overview
[[Edwin Bryant (author)|Edwin Bryant]], a cultural historian, has given an overview of the various "Indigenist" positions in his PhD-thesis and two subsequent publications:
* {{cite thesis |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |title=The indigenous Aryan debate |publisher=Columbia University |date=1997 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |date=2001 |title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-513777-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bryant |first1=Edwin F. |last2=Patton |first2=Laurie L. |date=2005 |title=The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History |publisher=Routledge |ref=none}}

''The Indigenous Aryan Debate'' and ''The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture'' are reports of his fieldwork, primarily interviews with Indian researchers, on the reception of the Indo-Aryan migration theory in India. ''The Indo-Aryan Controversy'' is a bundle of papers by various "indigenists", including Koenraad Elst, but also a paper by Michael Witzel.

Another overview has been given by [[Thomas Trautmann]]:
* {{cite book |last=Trautmann |first=Thomas |date=2005 |title=The Aryan Debate |publisher=Oxford University Press |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Trautmann |first=Thomas |date=2006 |title=Aryans and British India |publisher=Yoda Press |isbn=9788190227216 |ref=none}}

;Literature by "indigenous Aryans" proponents
* {{cite book |last=Elst |first=Koenraad |author-link=Koenraad Elst |date=1999 |title=Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate |place=New Delhi |publisher=[[Aditya Prakashan]] |isbn=81-86471-77-4 |url= http://www.bharatvani.org/books/ait/ |access-date=2006-12-21 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130807014007/http://www.bharatvani.org/books/ait/ |archive-date=2013-08-07 |url-status=dead |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kazanas |first=Nicholas |title=Indigenous Indo-Aryans and the Rigveda |journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |volume=30 |date=2002 |pages=275–334 |ref=none}}
* [[Georg Feuerstein]], [[Subhash Kak]], [[David Frawley]], ''[[In Search of the Cradle of Civilization]]: New Light on Ancient India'' Quest Books (IL) (October, 1995) {{ISBN|0-8356-0720-8}}
* Lal, B. B. (2002), ''The Sarasvati flows on: The continuity of Indian culture'', Aryan Books International, {{ISBN|81-7305-202-6}}.
* Lal, B. B. (2015), ''The Rigvedic People: Invaders? Immigrants? or Indigenous?''. See also Koenraad Elst, [https://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=5649 "Book Review: The Rig Vedic People Were Indigenous to India, Not Invaders"]
* {{cite book |last=Mukhyananda |title=Vedanta: In the Context of Modern Science – A Comparative Study |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |date=1997 |id=ASIN: B0000CPAAF |ref=none}}
* [[N. S. Rajaram]], ''The Politics of History: Aryan Invasion Theory and the Subversion of Scholarship'' (New Delhi: Voice of India, 1995) {{ISBN|81-85990-28-X}}.
* Talageri, S. G., ''[[The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis]]'', New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan, 2000 {{ISBN|81-7742-010-0}} [http://voi.org/books/rig/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616191414/http://www.voi.org/books/rig/ |date=2006-06-16 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Danino |first=Michel |title=A Brief Note on the Aryan Invasion Theory |journal=Pragati Quarterly Research Journal |date=April–June 2009 |url= http://www.vicharakendram.org/Journels/Pragathy108-April-June2009.pdf |access-date=2015-02-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150203093925/http://www.vicharakendram.org/Journels/Pragathy108-April-June2009.pdf |archive-date=2015-02-03 |url-status=dead |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Motwani |first=Jagat |date=2011 |title=None but India (Bharat): The Cradle of Aryans, Sanskrit, Vedas, & Swastika – 'Aryan Invasion of India' and 'IE Family of Languages' Re-examined and Rebutted |publisher=iUniverse |ref=none}}

;Bharat
* {{cite book |last=Frawley |first=David |date=1993 |title=Gods, Sages and Kings: Vedic Secrets of Ancient Civilization |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |ref=none}}

;Criticism
* [[Shereen Ratnagar]] (2008), ''The Aryan homeland debate in India'', in Philip L. Kohl, Mara Kozelsky, Nachman Ben-Yehuda "Selective remembrances: archaeology in the construction, commemoration, and consecration of national pasts", pp 349–378
* [[Suraj Bhan (archaeologist)|Suraj Bhan]] (2002), "Aryanization of the Indus Civilization" in Panikkar, KN, Byres, TJ and Patnaik, U (Eds), ''The Making of History'', pp 41–55.
* {{Citation | last =Thapar | first =Romila | year =2019 | title =They Peddle Myths and Call It History | work =New York Times | url =https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/17/opinion/india-elections-modi-history.html |ref=none}}

;Other
* {{cite book |last=Guichard |first=Sylvie |date=2010 |title=The Construction of History and Nationalism in India: Textbooks, Controversies and Politics |publisher=Routledge |ref=none}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://members.tripod.com/ascjnu/aryan.html Thapar, Romila: The Aryan question revisited (1999)]
* [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/AryanHome.pdf Witzel, Michael: The Home of the Aryans]
* [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/RAJARAM/Har1.pdf Witzel, ''Horseplay at Harappa'', Harvard University]
* [http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1723/17231220.htm A tale of two horses] – [[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]], 11–24 November 2000.
* [http://www.montclair.edu/RISA/d-iaryan.txt Linda Hess, ''The Indigenous Aryan Discussion on RISA-L: The Complete Text (to 10/28/96)'']
* [http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic865582.files/Trautmann-AryanDebate.pdf Thomas Trautmann (2005), ''The Aryan Debate: Introduction'']{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}

{{Proto-Indo-European language}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Pseudohistory]]
[[Category:Politics of India]]
[[Category:Indology]]
[[Category:Vedic period]]
[[Category:Historiography of India]]
[[Category:Evolution of language]]
[[Category:Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups|Aryans]]
[[Category:Indigenous Aryanism|Indigenous Aryanism]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan peoples]]
[[Category:Aryanism]]
[[Category:Hindutva]]
[[Category:Indigenous nationalism]]

Dhool Ka Phool

2026-03-04T04:03:55Z

BrookEjw0071: brief correct structure for clarity and added references to improve readability

{{short description|1959 Indian film directed by Yash Chopra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Dhool Ka Phool
| image = Dhool Ka Phool.jpg
| caption = Original poster
| director = [[Yash Chopra]]
| producer = [[B. R. Chopra]]
| writer = [[Mukhram Sharma]]
| starring = [[Mala Sinha]] [[Rajendra Kumar]] [[Nanda (actress)|Nanda]] [[Manmohan Krishna]] [[Ashok Kumar]]
| music = [[N. Dutta]] [[Sahir Ludhianvi]] (lyrics)
| cinematography = Dharam Chopra
| editing = Pran Mehra
| distributor = B. R. Films
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1959|12|04}}
| runtime = 153 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Dhool Ka Phool''''' ({{translation|'''''Flower of Dust'''''}}) is a 1959 [[Cinema of India|Indian]] [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]]-language film produced by [[B. R. Chopra]] and directed by B. R.'s brother [[Yash Chopra]], being his first movie as a director, having been an assistant director in B. R.'s earlier film ''[[Naya Daur (1957 film)|Naya Daur]]''. The film stars [[Mala Sinha]] as a woman who gives up her newborn child, born out of wedlock, after being betrayed and abandoned by the man she loves, played by [[Rajendra Kumar]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |author-link1=Ashish Rajadhyaksha |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |author-link2=Paul Willemen |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-94325-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0000raja |p=358}}</ref> [[Nanda (actress)|Nanda]] and [[Manmohan Krishna]] appear in supporting roles, with [[Ashok Kumar]] making an extended appearance. At the [[7th Filmfare Awards]], Sinha received a nomination for Best Actress and [[Mukhram Sharma]] for Best Story. For his role as Abdul Rasheed, a Muslim man who adopts and raises the illegitimate child, Krishna won the [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor]].

==Plot==
Meena and Mahesh Kapoor are madly in love with each other. One day, both of them get intimate and Meena becomes pregnant. Mahesh marries Malti Rai (Nanda), who belongs to a good family. Meena gives birth to a little boy and takes the baby to his father. Mahesh disowns both of them, saying that it was his mistake.

Meena leaves the five-month-old infant boy in a dark forest, where a snake guards his life. On the way back from the city, Abdul Rasheed sees the child and protects him. Abdul also gets disowned by society because the baby is illegitimate and nobody knows about the parents and religion. In spite of all the odds, Abdul fights with the entire society and raises the child wholeheartedly. He names him Roshan (Master Sushil Kumar).

Meena starts working as an assistant to a lawyer, Jagdish Chandra. Jagdish starts developing a soft spot for her. They both get married without Meena revealing her past. Mahesh is now a judge and is blessed with a baby boy Ramesh (Daisy Irani). One fine day, Roshan and Mahesh's legitimate son Ramesh meet each other in school with their respective parents. In the presence of Mahesh, Abdul tells the principal of the school that he found Roshan in a forest eight years ago.

In school, Roshan and Ramesh become the best of friends. When other kids make fun of Roshan, Ramesh supports him. One day, he takes Roshan to his home, where his mother Malti welcomes him with love and affection, but Mahesh throws the boy out of his house, saying that he is not worth our respect and love, as he is illegitimate.

After all this, Roshan gets depressed and falls into bad company. Ramesh tries to stop him and dies in a car accident. This leaves Roshan more depressed. He gets involved in a theft, but he is innocent. The case comes into the court of judge Mahesh Kapoor. Abdul goes to Jagdish to fight this case, as he is a lawyer. He tells Jagdish, in front of his wife Meena, as to who actually is the mother of Roshan, and that when and under what circumstances he found Roshan. She immediately recognizes Roshan as her son. She testifies in his favour, in the court. Mahesh, recognizing Meena and their son, admits his fault.

The next day, Malti tells Mahesh to go to Abdul's house and bring Roshan, since he is his son. On the other hand, Meena is ready to leave the house sneakingly, but Jagdish stops her, saying that he respects her even more now. She can bring the child home. Both Meena and Mahesh go to Abdul's house to ask for Roshan. He first says no, but after that, he gives Roshan to Meena and Jagdish.

==Cast==
*[[Mala Sinha]] as Meena Khosla / Meena Chandra
*[[Rajendra Kumar]] as Mahesh Kapoor
*[[Nanda (actress)|Nanda]] as Malti Rai / Malti Kapoor
*[[Ashok Kumar]] as Jagdish Chandra
*Sushil Kumar as Roshan Kapoor
*[[Manmohan Krishna]] as Abdul Rashid
*[[Leela Chitnis]] as Gangu Dai
*[[Mohan Choti]] as Jaggu
*[[Jagdish Raj]] as Prosecuting Attorney
*[[Daisy Irani (actress)|Daisy Irani]] as Ramesh Kapoor
*Narbada Shankar as Pandit
*R.P. Kapoor
*Ravikant as Mahesh"s father
*Uma Datt

==Themes==

In the next film, ''[[Dharmputra]]'' (1961), about Hindu fundamentalism, Chopra reversed the theme, as therein a Hindu family brings up an illegitimate Muslim child.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nehru's vision shaped many Bollywood golden oldies |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Nehrus-vision-shaped-many-Bollywood-golden-oldies/articleshow/5233286.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513230400/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-16/delhi/28068204_1_secularism-yash-chopra-big-dams |url-status=live |archive-date=13 May 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=16 November 2009}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
All lyrics provided by [[Sahir Ludhianvi]] and music by [[Datta Naik|N. Datta]].
{|class="wikitable"
! # !! Song !! Singer
![[Raga]]
|-
| 1
| "Daaman Mein Daag Laga Baithe"
| [[Mohammed Rafi]]
|
|-
| 2
| "Tu Hindu Banega Na Musalman Banega"
| Mohammed Rafi
|[[Bhairavi (Hindustani)]]
|-
| 3
| "Tu Mere Pyar Ka Phool Hai"
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
|
|-
| 4
| "Tere Pyar Ka Aasra Chahta Hoon"
| Lata Mangeshkar, [[Mahendra Kapoor]]
|
|-
| 5
| "Dhadakne Lagi Dil Ke Taaron Ki Duniya"
| [[Asha Bhosle]], Mahendra Kapoor
|
|-
| 6
| "Jhukti Ghata, Gaati Hawa, Sapne Sajaye"
| Asha Bhosle, Mahendra Kapoor
|
|-
| 7
| "Apni Khatir Jeena Hai"
| [[Sudha Malhotra]], Mahendra Kapoor
|
|-
| 8
| "Kaise Kahoon Man Ki Baat"
| Sudha Malhotra
|[[Kafi (raga)]]
|-
|}

==Reception and legacy==
Part of the narrative includes the story of Abdul Rasheed, a Muslim man bringing up an "illegitimate" Hindu child. In one instance, their story features the classic song ''Too Hindu Banega Na Musalman Banega, Insaan Ki Aulaad Hai, Insaan Banega'', which comes to symbolise the film's narrative and arguably its core message.

The film was remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''[[Jeevana Teeralu]]'' (1977).

==Awards and nominations==
At the [[7th Filmfare Awards]], the film won one award and was nominated for other two:<ref>{{cite news |title=The Nominations - 1959 |url=http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/articleshow/366382.cms |access-date=16 September 2025 |work=[[Filmfare]] |publisher=The Times Group |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029231224/http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/articleshow/366382.cms |archive-date=29 Oct 2007}}</ref>

{{awards table}}
|-
| rowspan="3"|[[7th Filmfare Awards|1960]]
| [[Manmohan Krishna]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Mala Sinha]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress]]
| {{Nominated}}
|-
| [[Mukhram Sharma]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Story]]
| {{nom}}
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0052736}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5q_SFu97dY Dhool Ka Phool (1959)] on YouTube

{{Yash Chopra}}
{{B. R. Chopra}}

[[Category:1959 films]]
[[Category:1959 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Yash Chopra]]
[[Category:Songs_with_lyrics_by_Sahir_Ludhianvi]]
[[Category:Hindi films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Films scored by Datta Naik]]
[[Category:1959 directorial debut films]]

Enga Ooru Rasathi

2026-03-03T05:23:06Z

BrookEjw0071: minor correct information for consistency additionally and updated info after review

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Enga Ooru Rasathi
| image = Enga Ooru Rasathi.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = N. S. Rajendran
| screenplay = N. S. Rajendran
| story = [[P. Kalaimani]]
| producer = N. S. Rajendran
| starring = [[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]] [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]]
| cinematography = G. Thyagu
| editing = M. Vellaichamy M. Kesavan
| music = [[Gangai Amaran]]
| studio = Ravi Combines
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1980|10|4}}
| runtime = 105 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Enga Ooru Rasathi''''' ({{translation|Our town's princess}}) is a 1980 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film, directed and produced by N. S. Rajendran. The film stars [[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]] and [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]], with [[Goundamani]] and S. R. Vijaya in supporting roles. It was released on 4 October 1980,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Engavoor Rasathi ( 1980 ) |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/allCast.cgi?id=347 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041128174128/http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/allCast.cgi?id=347 |archive-date=28 November 2004 |access-date=14 April 2023 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref> and did not do well at the box office.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 October 2022 |title=இளையராஜா ரசிகர்களை ஏமாற்றிய எங்க ஊரு ராசாத்தி பாடல்! |url=https://tamil.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/cinema-enga-ooru-rasathi-composed-by-gangai-amaran-not-ilayaraja-813845.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128071418/https://tamil.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/cinema-enga-ooru-rasathi-composed-by-gangai-amaran-not-ilayaraja-813845.html |archive-date=28 November 2022 |access-date=14 April 2023 |website=[[News18]] |language=Tamil}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{No plot|date=April 2023}}

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Sudhakar (actor)|Sudhakar]]
* [[Radhika Sarathkumar|Radhika]]
* [[Goundamani]]
* [[Gandhimathi]] in Guest appearance
* S. R. Vijaya
* Latha
* [[C. K. Saraswathi]]
* Ambika
* Sethuraja
* Prabhakar
* G. Krishnamurthy
* Selvaraj
* C. R. S. Murthy
* Thirumurthy
}}

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Gangai Amaran]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 December 1980 |title=Enga Ooru Rasaathi |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/enga-ooru-rasaathi/728PFY4Y3jU_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414111001/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/enga-ooru-rasaathi/728PFY4Y3jU_ |archive-date=14 April 2023 |access-date=14 April 2023 |website=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Enga Vur Rasathi Tamil EP Vinyl Records |url=https://vintageav.shop/product/enga-vur-rasathi-tamil-ep-vinyl-records/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414111015/https://vintageav.shop/product/enga-vur-rasathi-tamil-ep-vinyl-records/ |archive-date=14 April 2023 |access-date=14 April 2023 |website=VintageAV.shop |language=en-US}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length
|-
| "Ponmaanai Thedi" || [[Malaysia Vasudevan]], [[S. P. Sailaja]] || [[Muthulingam (poet)|Muthulingam]] || 04:18
|-
| "Enga Ooru Mariyamma Thanjamana Kaaliyamma"|| Malaysia Vasudevan || [[Gangai Amaran]]|| 4:43
|-
| "Asapattu Paatha Oru Azhagana Ponnu"|| [[S. Janaki]] || [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]] || 4:18
|-
| "Sirikki Oruthi Singara" || Malaysia Vasudevan, S. P. Sailaja || Vaali
| 4:30
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt0282462}}
[[Category:1980 films]]
[[Category:1980 Indian films]]
[[Category:1980 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Gangai Amaran]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Roda Group of Temples

2026-02-28T18:17:06Z

BrookEjw0071: done

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name = Roda Group of temples
| image = Roda Temples-6.jpg
| caption = Shiva Temple No. I
| map_type = India Gujarat
| map_caption = Location in Gujarat
| coordinates = {{coord|23|39|32.4|N|73|04|58.9|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| location = Raisingpura (Roda) village, [[Sabarkantha|Sabarkantha district]], [[Gujarat]]
| locale =
| elevation_m =
| deity = [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Surya]], [[Ganesha]] and [[Navagraha]]
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Gurjara-Pratihara]] or [[Rashtrakuta]]
| temple_quantity = 7
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed = Late eighth to ninth century
}}
The '''Khed-Roda Group of Monuments''' include eighth-ninth century dated seven Hindu temples built during [[Pratihara]] or [[Rashtrakuta]] period. It also include a reservoir (''Kund'') and a stepwell. They are located between Raisingpura (Roda) and Khed Chandarani villages, 18 km from [[Himmatnagar]] in [[Sabarkantha district]] of [[Gujarat]], India.<ref name="(India)1974">{{cite book|author=Gujarat (India)|title=Gujarat State Gazetteers: Sabarkantha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wIxhAAAAIAAJ|year=1974|publisher=Directorate of Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State|page=727}}</ref> It is located on the bank of the seasonal stream which merges [[Hathmati River]] downstream.

==Etymology==
''Roda'' literally means brick-bats in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]. The site derived its name from these ruins containing brickbats and an old hamlet near the site.<ref name="Inamdar1926">{{cite book|author=P. A. Inamdar|title=Some Archaeological Finds in the Idar State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y7U9AAAAIAAJ|year=1926|publisher=Department of Archaeology, Idar State|pages=17–19}}</ref><ref name="MishraRay2016">{{cite book|author1=Susan Verma Mishra|author2=Himanshu Prabha Ray|title=The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces: The Temple in Western India, 2nd Century BCE–8th Century CE|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CtDLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42|date=5 August 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-19374-6|page=42}}</ref> Khed Chandrani is a nearby village.

==Archeological history==
The site was not known to the early archeologists. It was first studied by P. A. Inamdar in 1926 followed by U. P. Shah and [[Madhusudan Dhaky|M. A. Dhaky]] in 1960s. Dhaky considered these monuments as the "great-grandfather" of the [[Chaulukya dynasty|Solanki]] architecture of Gujarat, also known as [[Māru-Gurjara architecture|Maru-Gurjara architecture]].<ref name="Inamdar1926"/><ref name="MishraRay2016"/><ref name="Dhaky1961">{{cite journal|first=Madhusudan A.|last=Dhaky|author-link=Madhusudan Dhaky|year=1961|editor-last=Deva|editor-first=Krishna|title=The Chronology of the Solanki Temples of Gujarat|url=http://vmis.in/Resources/digital_publication_popup?id=136#page/6|journal=Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihas Parishad|publisher=Madhya Pradesh Itihas Parishad|publication-place=[[Bhopal]]|volume=3|pages=5–9}}</ref>

==Monuments==
There are six temples at the site and the photographic record of seventh exists. All these temples are east facing.<ref name="Dhaky1961"/>

The first two temples are reached by road. The first one is dedicated to Shiva (No. I) and the second is the Pakshi Mandir (No. II) which has no idols but carving of birds hence also known as the bird temple. Temple No. II is the smallest temple among the group. Further 500 metres, there is a large rectangular ''Ladushah kund'' (stepped reservoir) which may had elaborately carved shrines, one on each of its four corners formerly. Of these, two shrines (No. III and V) are surviving which are dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu respectively and the base of the third (No. IV) is still between these two. Other two lost shrines may have been dedicated to Goddess and [[Surya]]. Across the stream, there is another shrine which has [[Navagraha]] depicted on its doorframe so it is known as the Navagraha temple (No. VI). Some steps away, there is a ruined temple (No. VII) which is the largest temple among the group. There are stone steps near the temple No. VII leading to the river but are in dilapidated condition. It has an image of [[Ganesha]] so it is known as the Ganesha temple and also known as the Shiva temple. These temples were damaged in [[2001 Gujarat earthquake|2001 earthquake]] but were restored later. No mortar like fixing material is used for the construction of these temples and the lower parts of these temples are held together by the weight of the spires.<ref name="Inamdar1926"/><ref name="MishraRay2016"/><ref name="Dhaky1961"/><ref name="Vadodara Circle 2017"/><ref name="Desai2007">{{cite book|author=Anjali H. Desai|title=India Guide Gujarat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZRLGZNZEoEC&pg=PA194|year=2007|publisher=India Guide Publications|isbn=978-0-9789517-0-2|page=194}}</ref>

The sculptures collected from the site are now housed at the [[Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery]] in [[Vadodara]]. These sculptures depict various [[Hindu]] deities including a sculpture of Surya.<ref name="MishraRay2016"/>

The Nagrani Vav (stepwell) is located at the entrance of nearby Khed Chandarani village.<ref name="Inamdar1926"/><ref name="Dhaky1961"/><ref name="Arts 2004"/>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:Roda Temples-8.jpg|Shiva Temple (No. I) and Pakshi Mandir (No. II)
File:Roda Temples-9.jpg|Shiva Temple (No. I)
File:Roda Temples-3.jpg|Doorframe of Pakshi Mandir (No. II) and carvings of birds inside
File:Roda Temples-13.jpg|Temple No. III and V
File:Roda Temples-17.jpg|Temple No. III, V and Ladushah Kund
File:Roda Temples-23.jpg|Surviving base Temple No. VI
File:Roda Temples-18.jpg|Navagraha Temple (No. VI)
File:Roda Temples-21.jpg|Shiva Temple (No. VII)
File:Roda Piller.jpg|Pillar from the site now at Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery
File:Roda sculpture.jpg|sculpture of Surya at Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery
</gallery>

==Architecture==
These temples are classified under the Anarta School of Maha-Gurjara tradition of temple construction. It is the largest group of such styled temples.<ref name="DattaBeynon2016"/><ref name=":0">{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Hardy, Adam |entry=Roda |encyclopedia=Grove Art Online |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T072563}}</ref>

The Temple No. I is ''nirandhara'' shrine with bi-partite offset (''dwi-anga'') plan configuration. It is situated on east-facing ''jagati'' (plinth). The entrance ''mandapa'' is of ''prag-griva'' style with four pillars. The inner sanctum is square. The plinth has moldings of ''bhita'' and ''pattika''. The circumvention path (''pradakshina'') is provided by space on the plinth. The outer walls of the shrine is devoid of ornamentation. The ''mandapa'' has {{Transliteration|hi|phansana}} (pyramidal superstructure with decreasing number of mouldings) type roof and the ''latina'' type spire over the main shrine has elaborate bold ''jala'' pattern carvings.<ref name="DattaBeynon2016">{{cite book|author1=Sambit Datta|author2=David Beynon|title=Digital Archetypes: Adaptations of Early Temple Architecture in South and Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gQGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|date=22 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-15094-7|pages=67–70}}</ref> It is topped by large ''amalaka''. The Temple No. II It has a {{Transliteration|hi|phansana}} styled spire, not usual ''latina'' spire,<ref name="DattaBeynon2016" /> like shrines found in [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]].<ref name=":0" /> The Temple No. III is almost similar to Temple No. I except its tri-partite offset ({{Transliteration|hi|tri-anga}}) plan configuration.<ref name="DattaBeynon2016"/> The Temple No. VII has a {{Transliteration|hi|gudhamandapa}} with a porch while other temples have {{Transliteration|hi|prag-griva}} as in Temple No. I. Except No. VII, the pillars of these temples are of ''ruchaka'' type with carved upper parts. The ceilings are mostly flat with floral or other geometric carvings. These temples has elaborate carvings only on the doorways of small sanctuaries of the temples and porch columns. The carvings of basement is fewer and heavy. The sculptures of [[Narsimha]], [[Vamana|Trivikrama]] and [[Varaha]] is on the walls of Vishnu temple. There is a Shiva temple (No. VII) near the curve of the river. It has ''gudhamandapa'' (closed hall) with {{Transliteration|hi|phansana}} styled roof indicating the style of roof developed later in 11th century.<ref name="MishraRay2016" /><ref name="Dhaky1961" /><ref name=":0" /> There is also Vishnu temple (No. V). It had ornamented doorway but has no detailed sculptural ornamentation.<ref name="MishraRay2016"/><ref name="Dhaky1961"/>

The ''kund'' is collapsed on the northern side. There are four shrines with small porches and idols in the each corner of the ''kund''. They are dedicated to [[saptamatrika]]s, [[Vishnu]], [[Ganesha]] and Goddesses.<ref name="panchayat">{{cite web | title=સાબરકાંઠા જીલ્લા પંચાયત - જિલ્લા વિષે - જોવા લાયક સ્થળો - રોડાના મંદિરો :રોડા હિંમતનગર | website=panchayat | url=https://sabarkanthadp.gujarat.gov.in/sabarkantha/roda-himtnager.htm | language=gu | access-date=8 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="Livingston2002">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KoVCliqcmIIC&pg=PA207|title=Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India|author=Morna Livingston|date=April 2002|publisher=Princeton Architectural Press|isbn=978-1-56898-324-0|pages=28–33}}</ref> It is an earlier example of such ''kund''.<ref name=":0" />

==Dating==
There is no dated inscription in these temples. These temples belonged to late eighth to ninth century (post-[[Maitraka]] period).<ref name="Vadodara Circle 2017"/> Based on style of temples and similarity with other temples, they are built during the rule of either [[Gurjara-Pratihara]]s or [[Rashtrakuta]]s during the two centuries long period of [[Tripartite Struggle|tripartite struggle for control of the region]]. There is an idol of Shiva-Parvati found near the site (now in Baroda Museum) which had an inscription dated [[Samvat]] 1104 (1048 CE). So it is assumed that the construction may have continued at the site for about two centuries. The nearby Nagrani Vav (stepwell) has an inscription of Samvat 1474 (1418 CE).<ref name="Inamdar1926"/><ref name="MishraRay2016"/><ref name="Dhaky1961"/><ref name="Arts 2004">{{cite web | last=Arts | first=History & | title=Roda group of Temples | website=History & Arts | date=24 February 2004 | url=https://historyandarts.blogspot.com/2007/01/roda-group-of-temples.html | access-date=8 May 2017}}</ref>

==Preservation==
{{GeoGroup}}
{{Commons category}}
The site is inscribed as the Monument of National Importance (N-GJ-176) and is maintained by Vadodara Circle of [[Archeological Survey of India]].<ref name="Vadodara Circle 2017">{{cite web | title=Group of Temples | website=Vadodara Circle | date=31 March 2017 | url=http://www.asivadodaracircle.in/sites/monuments/group-of-temples | access-date=8 May 2017}}</ref> Nearby Nagrani stepwell is the State Protected Monument (S-GJ-361) maintained by the Archeology Department of Government of Gujarat.

{| class="wikitable"
!Temple No.
!Name
!Coordinates
|-
|
|Ladushah Kund
|{{coord|23.659032|N|73.083052|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=Ladushah Kund}}
|-
|No. I
|Shiva temple
|{{coord|23.659959|N|73.079749|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=I. Shiva temple}}
|-
|No. II
|Pakshi temple (Bird temple)
|{{coord|23.660060|N|73.0798291|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=II. Pakshi temple}}
|-
|No. III
|Shiva temple
|{{coord|23.658944|N|73.0828719|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=III. Shiva temple}}
|-
|No. IV
|Only base of the temple
|{{coord|23.659008|N|73.082854|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=IV. Lower part of temple}}
|-
|No. V
|Vishnu Temple
|{{coord|23.659052|N|73.082860|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=V. Vishnu temple}}
|-
|No. VI
|Navagraha temple
|{{coord|23.65826|N|73.08302|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=VI. Navagraha temple}}
|-
|No. VII
|Ganesh/Shiva temple
|{{coord|23.65705|N|73.08212|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=VII. Ganesh temple}}
|-
|
|Nagrani Vav (stepwell)
|{{coord|23.664303|N|73.096359|E|display=inline|type:landmark|name=VII. Ganesh temple}}
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://jitumisra.com/2015/11/10/magical-roda-where-the-foundation-was-laid-for-gujarats-classical-architecture/ Magical Roda – Where the foundation was laid for Gujarat’s classical architecture (with images)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324024133/http://jitumisra.com/2015/11/10/magical-roda-where-the-foundation-was-laid-for-gujarats-classical-architecture/ |date=24 March 2016 }}
{{Hindu temples in Gujarat}}

[[Category:8th-century Hindu temples]]
[[Category:Shiva temples in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Sabarkantha district]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Gujarat]]
[[Category:8th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:Monuments of National Importance in Gujarat]]

Indian civil servant

2026-02-21T22:30:57Z

BrookEjw0071: basic rework formatting for accuracy and cleaned formatting for consistency

{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
'''Indian civil servants''' includes five principal sub-categories of officials:

*Administrators of the native states of India
*Administrators of [[British India]] who came as servants of the [[East India Company]] before the formation of the ICS in 1853
*Members of the former [[Indian Civil Service]] (ICS) as well as the superior central and nationalised services in British India, who joined the civil service after 1853.<ref name=babu4>Potter, David C. *India's Political Administrators: From ICS to IAS*. Oxford University Press, 1996.</ref>
**[[Dewan]]s of the former [[Indian Princely States]]
*Employees of the [[Central Civil Services (India)|Central Civil Services]] of the present [[Government of India]], and respective Indian state governments including the
** [[Indian Administrative Service]]
** [[Indian Forest Service]]
** [[Indian Police Service]]
* Technocrats and Academic Administrators who have held official positions of the Government of India and the respective state governments of the Indian Union.<ref name=babu2>Jain, R. B. *Contemporary Issues in Indian Administration*. Vishal Publishing Co., 2003.</ref><ref name=babu3>Arora, Ramesh K., and Rajni Goyal. *Indian Public Administration: Institutions and Issues*. New Age International, 2007.</ref>

For lists of civil servants of respective cadres see:

*[[List of Chief Secretaries of Rajasthan]]

==In popular culture==
Since early 20th-century, Indian civil servants are colloquially called "[[Babu (title)|babus]]",<ref>{{cite news| title = Yet to start work, Natgrid CEO highest paid babu| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Yet-to-start-work-Natgrid-CEO-highest-paid-babu/articleshow/15610191.cms?referral=PM |date=23 August 2012| accessdate = 2014-09-17 | newspaper = The Times of India}}</ref> while Indian bureaucracy is called "babudom", as in the "rule of babus", especially in Indian media.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1818/18181170.htm
|title=A barbed look at babudom: Will the typically British humour of Yes Minister work if transplanted to an Indian setting? Viewers of a Hindi satellite channel have a chance to find out.
|date=1–14 September 2001
|author=Anand Parthasarathy
|magazine=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]], India's National Magazine from the publishers of The Hindu
|quote=Bureaucracy knows no bounds...
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = PM Modi tightens screws, gives babudom a new rush hour | url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/PM-Modi-tightens-screws-gives-babudom-a-new-rush-hour/articleshow/41482792.cms |date=2 September 2014| accessdate = 2014-09-17 | newspaper = The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Babu|work=Collins English Dictionary| url = http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/babudom
| accessdate = 2014-09-17 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[:Category:Indian civil servants]]

== References ==
<references />

{{Indian civil servants}}

{{Set index article}}

[[Category:Indian civil servants]]

Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission

2026-01-26T08:10:14Z

BrookEjw0071: starting details.

{{short description|Indian state government agency}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission
| native_name = हिमाचल प्रदेश लोक सेवा आयोग
| native_name_a = HPPSC
| native_name_r =
| type = [[Constitutional body]]
| seal =
| seal_caption =
| logo = File:Himachal PradeshPublic Service CommissionLogo.png
| logo_caption =
| image =
| image_caption =
| formed = {{start date and age|df=yes|1971|04|08}}
| preceding1 =
| preceding2 =
| dissolved =
| superseding1 =
| superseding2 = 
| jurisdiction = [[Government of Himachal Pradesh]]
| headquarters = Circular Rd, Nigam Vihar, Chotta Shimla, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
| coordinates =
| motto =
| employees =
| budget =
| minister1_name =
| minister1_pfo =
| minister2_name =
| minister2_pfo = 
| deputyminister1_name =
| deputyminister1_pfo =
| chief1_name = Capt. Rameshwar Singh Thakur, IPS (Retd.)

| chief1_position = ({{small|Chairman}})<ref name="Team 2017">{{cite web | last=Team | first=Amar Ujala Digital | title=मेजर जनरल राणा होंगे लोक सेवा आयोग के चेयरमैन, अधिसूचना जारी | website=Amar Ujala | date=2017-05-09 | url=https://www.amarujala.com/shimla/major-general-dharamvir-singh-rana-appointed-as-hppsc-chairman | language=hi | access-date=2020-02-14}}</ref> 
Devinder Kumar Rattan, IAS
({{small|Secretary}})
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position =
| chief3_name =
| chief3_position =
| public_protector =
| deputy =
| parent_department =
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| child1_agency =
| keydocument1 = 
| website = {{URL|hppsc.hp.gov.in/}}
| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| footnotes =
| embed =
}}
The '''Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission''' ('''HPPSC''')<ref name="UPSC 2017">{{cite web | title=State Public Service Commissions | website=UPSC | date=2017-06-29 | url=https://www.upsc.gov.in/external-links/state-public-service-commissions | access-date=2020-02-13}}</ref> is a [[government agency]] of the state of [[Himachal Pradesh]], India, established on 8 April 1971 under the provisions of the [[Constitution of India]]. It is responsible for the recruitment of candidates for various government jobs under the [[Government of Himachal Pradesh]] through [[competitive examination]]s.<ref name="Kumar 2020">{{cite web | last=Kumar | first=Manish | title=HPPSC Combined Competitive Exam 2019 Recruitment Notification Released for 26 Vacancies @hppsc.hp.gov.in/ | website=Jagranjosh.com | date=2020-01-22 | url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/articles/hp-combined-competitive-exam-recruitment-notification-and-application-1579663543-1 | access-date=2020-02-14}}</ref><ref name="News18 2012">{{cite web | title=Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission (HPPSC) | website=News18 | date=2012-07-16 | url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/himachal-pradesh-public-service-commission-hppsc-488063.html | access-date=2020-02-14}}</ref><ref name="Home Page - Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission, Government of Himachal">{{cite web | title=-PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION | website=Home Page - Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission, Government of Himachal | url=http://www.hppsc.hp.gov.in/hppsc/content/Index/?qlid=1011&Ls_is=1013&lngid=1 | access-date=2020-02-14}}</ref>

==History==
The foundation of HPPSC is rooted in a November 1 , 1966 request by the state governor to the [[President of India]] to establish a recruiting body for the [[Himachal Pradesh]] state. It was originally established under the provisions of Act, 318 of [[Constitution of India]] which authorized the state government to form state public service commission.<ref name="Home Page - Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission, Government of Himachal"/>

==Functions and responsibilities==
As amended in Article 320 of the Constitution of India, the State Public Service Commission is authorised to perform the following functions:<ref name="Indian Kanoon">{{cite web | title=Article 320(1) in The Constitution Of India 1949 | website=Indian Kanoon | url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1168774/ | access-date=2020-02-14}}</ref>
*To conduct examinations for appointments to the services in its respective state.
*If [[Union Public Service Commission]] requested by two or more state commissions in assisting framing, or operating schemes of joint recruitment for any service for which candidates possessing special qualifications are required.
*To make appointments to state civil services.
*To promote and transfer from one service to another and to check the suitability of candidates for such decisions.<ref name="Indian Kanoon1">{{cite web | title=Article 320 in The Constitution Of India 1949 | website=Indian Kanoon | url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1723820/ | access-date=2020-02-14}}</ref><ref name="HomePage - Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission, Government of Himachal">{{cite web | title=-PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSION | website=Home Page - Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission, Government of Himachal | url=http://www.hppsc.hp.gov.in/hppsc/content/Index/?qlid=15&Ls_is=50&lngid=1 | access-date=2020-02-14}}</ref>
*Its main function is taking recruitments in Class-I and Class-II officers.<ref name="HPPSC Shimla">{{cite web | title=HPPSC | website=Snow Study Himachal| url=https://snowstudy.in/hppsc-himachal-pradesh-public-service-commission-shimla-and-when-it-was-established/ | access-date=2026-01-26}}</ref>

==Commission profile==
HPPSC consists of various members and a chairman that are appointed or removed by the state governor. Their term of service is set to fixed period which starts from the date of appointment.<ref name="Home Page - Himachal Pradesh Public Service Commission, Government of Himachal"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Designation
|-
| Capt. Rameshwar Singh Thakur, IPS(Retd.)|| Chairman
|-
| Col.Rajesh Kumar Sharma(Retd.) || Member
|-
| Dr. Pavnesh Kumar, IFS(Retd.) || Member
|-
|Rakhil Kahlaon,IAS(Retd.)
|Member
|-
|Prof. Mamta Mokta
|Member
|}

==See also==

* [[Public service commissions in India|List of Public service commissions in India]]

==References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Standardized tests in India}}
{{Public Service Commissions in India}}
{{Public Services of India}}
{{Indian military academies and colleges}}

[[Category:Government of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:1971 establishments in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:State public service commissions of India]]

Association for Democratic Reforms v. Union of India

2026-01-22T18:03:58Z

BrookEjw0071: New

{{Short description|2024 case about Electoral Bonds Scheme}}
{{Infobox court case
| name = Association for Democratic Reforms v. Union of India
| Litigants = [[Association for Democratic Reforms]], [[Common Cause]], [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| court = [[Supreme Court of India]]
| image = Emblem of the Supreme Court of India 2025.svg
| full name = Association for Democratic Reforms and Ors. v. Union of India and Ors
| date_decided = 15 February 2024
| citations = 2024 INSC 113
| opinions = The Supreme Court struck down the Electoral Bonds Scheme of 2018 as unconstitutional, citing violations of voters’ right to information and democratic transparency.
| judges = [[D. Y. Chandrachud]] (CJI), [[Sanjiv Khanna]], [[B. R. Gavai]], [[J.B. Pardiwala]], [[Manoj Misra]]
| keywords = Electoral Bonds Scheme, Political Funding, Right to Information, Article 19(1)(a), Transparency
| docket = Writ Petition (C) No. 880 of 2017
}}

'''''Association for Democratic Reforms v. Union of India'''''., 2024 INSC 113, also known as '''Electoral Bonds case''', was a landmark judgement by the Supreme Court of India that struck down the [[Electoral bonds|Electoral Bonds Scheme]] of 2018 finding it unconstitutional and in violation of the voters' right to information enshrined in Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitutionality of the Electoral Bond Scheme |url=https://www.scobserver.in/cases/association-for-democratic-reforms-electoral-bonds-case-background/ |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Supreme Court Observer |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=V.Venkatesan |date=2024-02-16 |title=Supreme Court’s decision to declare electoral bonds unconstitutional is a monumental defense of democracy |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/columns/supreme-courts-decision-to-declare-electoral-bonds-unconstitutional-is-a-monumental-defense-of-democracy/article67852053.ece |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Frontline |language=en}}</ref> The court also struck down amendments to Section 182 of the Companies Act, 2013<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joseph |first=Avinash Amarnath,Zubin |date=2024-06-07 |title=Electoral Bonds Case: How going back is the way forward |url=https://www.barandbench.com/view-point/electoral-bonds-case-how-going-back-is-the-way-forward |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news |language=en}}</ref> which regulates contributions to political parties by companies as well as amendments made to the Income Tax Act and the Representation of People Act which had made the donations anonymous.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Roy |first=Debayan |date=2024-02-15 |title=Supreme Court strikes down Electoral Bonds scheme |url=https://www.barandbench.com/news/supreme-court-strikes-down-electoral-bonds-scheme |access-date=2025-08-11 |website=Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news |language=en}}</ref>

The judgement was delivered by a five-judge constitution bench led by Chief Justice Chandrachud with Justices Sanjiv Khanna, B.R. Gavai, J.B. Pardiwala, and Manoj Misra.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* Full text of ''Association for Democratic Reforms v Union of India''., 2024 INSC 113, can be found at: [https://indiankanoon.org/doc/121499464/ India Kanoon]

{{SCI-cases}}

{{SC-India-stub}}
[[Category:2024 in Indian law]]
[[Category:Supreme Court of India cases in 2024]]
[[Category:Indian constitutional case law]]

Sarauti

2026-01-20T22:27:35Z

BrookEjw0071: stub - done

{{Multiple issues|
{{Orphan|date=August 2016}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2015}}
}}


{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sarauti
| settlement_type = Village
| pushpin_map = India Bihar#India
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bihar, India
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = arwal
[[Bihar]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Arwal district|Arwal]]
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|Pin Code]]
| postal_code = 804402
}}
'''Sarauti''' is the district headquarters of the [[Arwal district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Bihar]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Coverage Status Of Habitations With Population Coverage > 0 and < 100% (as of 1 April 2009)|url=http://indiawater.gov.in/IMISWeb/Reports/rws/rpt_CoverageHabitationStatusDistrictWiseLink.aspx?DistrictId=0617&DistrictName=ARWAL&StateName=BIHAR&Flag=2}}</ref>

==Geography==
Sarauti is located on the bank of [[Son River]].

==History==
{{Unsourced section|date=December 2023}}
Sarauti is one of the village in Arwal Block in Arwal district of [[Bihar]]. The total population of the village is 3,088. The literacy rate is 55.45%. The female literacy rate is 39.36%. The male literacy rate is 69.71%.

The number of households in Sarauti is 515. Female to male ratio of Sarauti is 92.04%. Female to male ratio of the village is less than state's female to male ratio 91.93%. The literacy rate of the village is 55.45% compared to the literacy rate of state 47%. The female literacy rate is 39.36% compared to male literacy rate of 69.71%.

The total working population is 68.2% of the total population. 68.89% of the men are working population . 67.42% of the women are working population. The main working population is 44.31% of the total population. 52.78% of the men are main working population. 34.76% of the women are main working population. While the marginal working population is 23.89% of the total population. 16.11% of the men are marginal working population. 32.66% of the women are marginal working population. The total non-working population is 31.8% of the total population. 31.11% of the men are non-working population. 32.58% of the women are non-working population.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Bihar}}

[[Category:Villages in Arwal district]]

{{Arwal-geo-stub}}

Bombay Stock Exchange

2026-01-17T11:41:35Z

BrookEjw0071:

{{Short description|Indian stock exchange in Mumbai}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox exchange
|name = BSE Limited
|alt_name =
|logo = BSE_logo.svg
|logo_caption =
|image = BSE building at Dalal Street.JPG
|type = [[Stock exchange]]
|city = [[Mumbai]], Maharashtra
|country = India
|founder = [[Premchand Roychand]] of [[BSE Ltd]]
|foundation = {{Start date and age|1875|07|9|df=yes}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=India|first=BSE|title=Corporate profile|url=https://www.bseindia.com/downloads/Corporate_Profile.pdf|access-date=8 August 2020|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925041127/https://www.bseindia.com/downloads/Corporate_Profile.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|key_people = {{ubl|[[Subhasis Chaudhuri]] ([[chairman]])<ref>{{cite news |title=SEBI approves Subhasis Chaudhuri's appointment as BSE governing board chairman - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/market/stocks/sebi-approves-subhasis-chaudhuris-appointment-as-chairman-bse-governing-board-19513376.htm |access-date=4 December 2024 |work=[[CNBC TV18]] |date=22 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{ubl|Sundararaman Ramamurthy ([[Managing Director|MD]] and [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]])<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.bseindia.com/static/about/boardofdirectors_new.aspx |title= bse bod |access-date= 11 January 2023 |archive-date= 11 January 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230111193659/https://www.bseindia.com/static/about/boardofdirectors_new.aspx |url-status= live }}</ref>}}
|currency = [[Indian rupee]] ({{INR}})
|listings = 5,647<ref>{{cite web |title=All India Market Capitalisation {{!}} BSE Listed stocks Market Capitalisation |url=https://www.bseindia.com/markets/equity/EQReports/allindiamktcap.aspx |publisher=BSE |access-date=2 October 2024}}</ref>
|mcap = {{nowrap|{{INRConvert|461|lc|lk=r|year=2025}}}} (27 June 2025)<ref>{{cite web |title=All India Market Capitalisation {{!}} BSE Listed stocks Market Capitalisation |url=https://www.bseindia.com/markets/equity/EQReports/allindiamktcap.aspx |publisher=BSE |access-date=20 May 2025}}</ref>
|indexes = {{ubl|[[BSE SENSEX]] | BSE 100 | BSE 500 |BSE MidCap| BSE SmallCap<ref>{{cite news |title=BSE relaunches Sensex, Bankex derivative contracts |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/bse-relaunches-sensex-bankex-derivative-contracts/articleshow/100244324.cms |work=The Economic Times |date=15 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref>}}
|homepage =
|footnotes =
|image_caption= Corporate headquarters in Mumbai
|module = {{Infobox company|embed=yes|
|traded_as = {{NSE|BSE}}
|ISIN = {{ISIN|sl=n|pl=y|INE118H01017}}
|revenue = {{up}} {{INRconvert|3236|c}} (2025)
|profit = {{up}} {{INRconvert|1322|c}} (2025)
|footnotes = Financials {{as of|2025|03|31|lc=y|df=yes}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Investor Presentation FY25 |url=https://www.bseindia.com/downloads1/8f3a3685-8a16-47e3-a373-8b8702c946bc.pdf |publisher=BSE |access-date=25 June 2025}}</ref>
}}
|coordinates={{coord|18.929681|N|72.833589|E|region:IN-MH_type:landmark}}}}

'''BSE Limited''', also known as the '''Bombay Stock Exchange''' ('''BSE'''), is an Indian [[stock exchange]] based in [[Mumbai]]. Established in 1875, it is the oldest stock exchange in Asia, and also the tenth oldest in the world. It is the [[List of stock exchanges|6th largest stock exchange]] in the world by total [[market capitalisation]], exceeding $5 trillion in May 2024.<ref name="WFE">{{cite web|url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/home/index.php/monthly-reports-tool|title=Monthly Reports - World Federation of Exchanges|publisher=WFE|access-date=21 May 2018|archive-date=11 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111193701/https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="bseindia.com">{{cite web |title=BSE-Introduction |url=http://www.bseindia.com/static/about/introduction.aspx?expandable=0 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131201340/http://www.bseindia.com/static/about/introduction.aspx?expandable=0 |archive-date=31 January 2018 |access-date=31 January 2018 |website=bseindia.com}}</ref><ref name="Rawal2015">{{cite book |author=Priya Rawal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLsoCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |title=Indian Stock Market and Investors Strategy |date=16 April 2015 |publisher=Priya Rawal |isbn=978-1-5053-5668-7 |pages=12– |access-date=23 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111193659/https://books.google.com/books?id=xLsoCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=10 September 2020 |title=10 Oldest Stock Exchanges in the World |url=https://www.oldest.org/technology/stock-exchanges/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304212435/https://www.oldest.org/technology/stock-exchanges/ |archive-date=4 March 2021}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Bombay Stock Exchange logo.svg|thumb|Bombay Stock Exchange logo used until June 2023]]
Bombay Stock Exchange was founded by a [[Jain]] businessman [[Premchand Roychand]] in 1875.<ref>{{cite news |title=BSE may set another record, become an official tourist spot |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/mumbai/2017/oct/06/bse-may-set-another-record-become-an-official-tourist-spot-1667426.html |access-date=4 November 2021 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India]] |date=6 October 2017 |archive-date=4 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104151832/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/mumbai/2017/oct/06/bse-may-set-another-record-become-an-official-tourist-spot-1667426.html |url-status=live }}</ref> While BSE Limited is now synonymous with [[Dalal Street]], it was not always so. In the 1850s, four [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] and one [[Parsis|Parsi]] stockbroker gathered together under a [[banyan]] tree in front of Bombay (now Mumbai) Town Hall, where Horniman Circle is now situated.<ref name="bseindia.com" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289504506|title=The Profile of the Bombay Stock Exchange Limited}}</ref> A decade later, the brokers moved their location to under the banyan trees at the junction of Meadows Street and what was then called Esplanade Road, now MG Road. With a rapid increase in the number of brokers, they had to shift places repeatedly. At last, in 1874, the brokers found a permanent location, the one that they could call their own. The brokers group became an official organisation known as "The Native Share & Stock Brokers Association" in 1875.<ref>{{cite web |title=The History of Bombay Stock Exchange | date=11 September 2014 | via=[[YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oDkiJcRWvRQ| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/oDkiJcRWvRQ| archive-date=2021-10-30}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In 1956, the BSE became the first stock exchange to be recognised by the [[Second Nehru ministry|Indian Government]] under the Securities Contracts Regulation Act.<ref name="q723">{{cite book | last=Pradhan | first=Rudra Prakash | title=Forecasting Financial Markets in India | publisher=Allied Publishers | date=2009 | isbn=978-81-8424-426-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_8eoSMaD8cC&pg=PA54&dq | page=54}}</ref>

The BSE is also a Partner Exchange of the [[Sustainable Stock Exchanges Initiative|United Nations Sustainable Stock Exchange initiative]], joining in September 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) commits to promoting sustainability|url=http://unctad.org/en/pages/newsdetails.aspx?OriginalVersionID=310&Sitemap_x0020_Taxonomy=ISAR%20-%20Corporate%20Transparency%20-%20Accounting;#6;|work=UNCTAD| date=28 September 2012 |access-date=2016-04-29|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402104057/http://unctad.org/en/pages/newsdetails.aspx?OriginalVersionID=310&Sitemap_x0020_Taxonomy=ISAR%20-%20Corporate%20Transparency%20-%20Accounting;#6;|url-status=live}}</ref>

BSE established the [[India International Exchange]] (India INX) on 30th December 2016. India INX, based out of [[GIFT City]], is the first international stock exchange of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiainx.com/static/about.aspx|title=India INX|website=indiainx.com|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-date=18 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018051133/http://www.indiainx.com/static/about.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

BSE became the first stock exchange in the country to launch commodity derivatives contract in gold and silver in October 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/bse-launches-commodity-derivative-contracts-in-gold-silver/article25095987.ece|title=India thehindubusinessline|website=Business Line|date=October 2018 |access-date=25 October 2018|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727013230/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/markets/bse-launches-commodity-derivative-contracts-in-gold-silver/article25095987.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

BSE was [[demutualised]] and corporatised on 19 May 2007, pursuant to the ''BSE (Corporatisation and Demutualisation) Scheme, 2005'' notified by [[Securities and Exchange Board of India|SEBI]].<ref>{{cite news |title=BSE demutualisation complete |newspaper=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/bse-demutualisation-complete-107051901004_1.html |access-date=27 November 2022 |date=14 June 2013 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127070222/https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/bse-demutualisation-complete-107051901004_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Order in respect of BSE (Corporatisation and Demutualisation) Scheme, 2005 |url=https://www.sebi.gov.in/enforcement/orders/may-2005/order-in-respect-of-bse-corporatisation-and-demutualisation-scheme-2005_10748.html |website=sebi.gov.in |access-date=27 November 2022 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127070229/https://www.sebi.gov.in/enforcement/orders/may-2005/order-in-respect-of-bse-corporatisation-and-demutualisation-scheme-2005_10748.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

BSE Limited listed on the [[National Stock Exchange of India|National Stock Exchange]] (NSE) on 3 February 2017 under the [[ticker symbol]] of "BSE".<ref>{{cite web |title=BSE to list on NSE on 3 February |url=https://www.livemint.com/Money/YkU9l96zXEAC2FiRGXZpYJ/BSE-to-list-on-NSE-on-3-February.html |website=Livemint |access-date=27 November 2022 |date=29 January 2017 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127070222/https://www.livemint.com/Money/YkU9l96zXEAC2FiRGXZpYJ/BSE-to-list-on-NSE-on-3-February.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Manu Balachandran |title=142 years after taking roots under a banyan, Asia's oldest stock exchange hits the capital market today |url=https://qz.com/india/886214/bse-ipo-142-years-after-taking-roots-under-a-banyan-asias-oldest-stock-exchange-hits-the-capital-market-today |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|access-date=27 November 2022 |date=22 January 2017 |archive-date=27 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127070222/https://qz.com/india/886214/bse-ipo-142-years-after-taking-roots-under-a-banyan-asias-oldest-stock-exchange-hits-the-capital-market-today |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn-la|SEBI Regulation 45(1) of Securities Contracts (Regulation) (Stock Exchanges and Clearing Corporations) Regulations, 2018 prohibits self-listing of a stock exchange in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Securities Contracts (Regulation) (Stock Exchanges and Clearing Corporations) Regulations, 2018 [Last amended on June 04, 2019] |url=https://www.sebi.gov.in/legal/regulations/oct-2018/securities-contracts-regulation-stock-exchanges-and-clearing-corporations-regulations-2018-last-amended-on-june-04-2019-_40623.html |website=sebi.gov.in |access-date=27 November 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111193729/https://www.sebi.gov.in/legal/regulations/oct-2018/securities-contracts-regulation-stock-exchanges-and-clearing-corporations-regulations-2018-last-amended-on-june-04-2019-_40623.html |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

==Criticism and controversies==
{{See also|1992 Indian stock market scam}}
BSE has witnessed several high-profile market manipulation scandals.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/how-indias-trading-queen-and-mystery-guru-engulfed-nse-in-scandal/articleshow/90343226.cms?from=mdr | title=How India's trading queen and mystery guru engulfed NSE in scandal | newspaper=The Economic Times }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/the-fall-of-nse-corruption-or-hubris/articleshow/69154289.cms | title=The fall of NSE: Corruption or hubris? | newspaper=The Economic Times | last1=Rangan | first1=MC Govardhana }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-53153120101125 | title=BSE Sensex drops as corruption scandal weighs | work=Reuters | date=25 November 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/corporate/story/sebi-penalises-bse-nse-for-laxity-in-karvy-fraud-case-329647-2022-04-13 | title=SEBI penalises BSE, NSE for 'laxity' in Karvy fraud case | date=13 April 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/trading-queen-and-mystery-guru-strange-tale-engulfs-nse-in-scandal-122032100123_1.html | title=Trading 'queen' and mystery guru: Strange tale engulfs NSE in scandal | newspaper=Business Standard India | date=21 March 2022 }}</ref> At times, the [[Securities and Exchange Board of India]] (SEBI) has barred several individuals and entities from trading on the exchanges for [[insider trading]] and [[Market manipulation|stock manipulation]], especially in [[Market liquidity|illiquid]] [[small cap company|small-caps]] and [[penny stocks]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sreedhar |first1=Vidya |title=Rs 144 crore wrongful profit! Sebi finds stock manipulation in 5 smallcaps |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/sebi-bars-135-entities-from-market-on-alleged-share-manipulation-in-5-smallcaps/articleshow/101167757.cms |website=The Economic Times |access-date=24 August 2023 |date=21 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sebi ban pinches penny stocks |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/sebi-ban-pinches-penny-stocks-105102601049_1.html |access-date=24 August 2023 |work=Business Standard}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=SEBI Cracks Down on Misuse of Penny Stocks |url=https://thewire.in/business/penny-stocks-bogus-claims-sebi |access-date=24 August 2023 |work=The Wire}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=I-T Department, SEBI begin crackdown on penny stock firms in PMO-led push |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/markets/i-t-department-sebi-begin-crackdown-on-penny-stock-firms-in-pmo-led-push-2442315.html |access-date=24 August 2023 |work=Moneycontrol |date=20 November 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

The BSE faced criticism during the early 2000s for delayed technology upgrades, which contributed to its competitor NSE gaining market dominance in [[electronic trading]]. In 2013, market participants raised concerns over alleged preferential access to BSE's trading systems, prompting calls for improved transparency and oversight, though no regulatory action followed.<ref>{{cite news |title=Preferential access? A look into how NSE got ahead in tech race |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/preferential-access-a-look-into-how-nse-got-ahead-in-tech-race-117021000058_1.html |work=Business Standard |date=10 February 2017 |access-date=14 June 2025}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|small=yes}}
* [[Economy of India]]
* [[List of stock exchanges]]
* [[National Stock Exchange of India]]
* [[Stock market crashes in India]]
* [[Mutual funds in India]]
* [[Muhurat trading]]
* [[Clause 49]]
* [[Securities and Exchange Board of India]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist|2}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|title=BSE: Journey of an Aspiring Nation|author=Kochhar, S.|isbn=978-8-1929-1725-2|year=2015|publisher=Skoch Media}}
* {{cite book|title=Efficiency of BSE Sectoral Indices in India: A Study with Special Reference to Bombay Stock Exchange Ltd in India|author=Ramkumar, R.R. and Selvam, M.|isbn=978-3-6592-1130-0|year=2014|publisher=Lap Lambert Academic Publishing GmbH KG}}
* {{cite book|title=Stock Market Volatility in India|author=Kaur, H.|isbn=978-8-1762-9361-7|year=2002|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications }}
* {{cite book|title=The Scam: Who Won, who Lost, who Got Away|author=Basu, D. and Dalal, S.|isbn=978-8-1859-4410-4|lccn=93902443|year=1993|publisher=UBS Publishers' Distributors}}
* {{cite book|title=Indian Stock Market: An Empirical Analysis of Informational Efficiency|author=Hiremath, G.S.| isbn=978-8-1322-1590-5|lccn=2013946889|year=2013|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer India]]}}
* {{cite book|title=Rethinking the BSE Crisis: A Study of Scientific Reasoning under Uncertainty|author=Cummings, L.|
isbn=978-9-4017-8491-7|year=2014|publisher=Springer Netherlands }}
* Razdan, A. Scaling in the bombay stock exchange index. Pramana - J Phys 58, 537–544 (2002). {{doi|10.1007/s12043-002-0063-y}}
* Goel, A., Tripathi, V. and Agarwal, M. (2021), "Market microstructure: a comparative study of Bombay stock exchange and national stock exchange", Journal of Advances in Management Research, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 414–442. {{doi|10.1108/JAMR-06-2020-0109}}
* Krishnamurti, Chandrasekhar and Eleswarapu, Venkat R., Liquidity, Stock Returns and Ownership Structure - An Empirical Study of the Bombay Stock Exchange (March 31, 1994). [[IIM Bangalore]] Research Paper No. 65, Available at {{SSRN|2181543}} or {{doi|10.2139/ssrn.2181543}}
* Sumon Kumar Bhaumik. “Stock Index Futures in India: Does the Market Justify Its Use?” [[Economic and Political Weekly]], vol. 32, no. 41, 1997, pp. 2608–11. {{JSTOR|4405950}}. Retrieved 13 Feb. 2024.
* Ganeshaiah, K. N. “Has the Behaviour of the Stock Market Been Affected by the Scam? — A Statistical Analysis.” [[Current Science]], vol. 63, no. 7, 1992, pp. 345–47. {{JSTOR|24095453}}. Retrieved 13 Feb. 2024.
* {{cite book|title=Bulls, Bears and Other Beasts (5th Anniversary Edition): A Story of the Indian Stock Market|author=Nair, S.|isbn=978-9-3907-4257-8|year=2021|publisher=Pan Macmillan}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Bombay Stock Exchange}}
* {{official website|http://www.bseindia.com/}}

{{Stock exchanges in India}}
{{Navboxes
|title= Articles related to Bombay Stock Exchange
|list1=
{{Financial services in India}}
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}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|18.9298|N|72.8334|E|region:IN-MH|display=title|name=Bombay Stock Exchange}}

[[Category:Bombay Stock Exchange| ]]
[[Category:Financial services companies established in 1875]]
[[Category:Stock exchanges in India]]
[[Category:Financial services companies based in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1875]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India]]
[[Category:2017 initial public offerings]]

Dhond Assembly constituency

2026-01-06T00:20:39Z

BrookEjw0071: Article...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Dhond
| type= SLA
| state = Maharashtra
| established = 1962
| abolished = 1972<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title=Archive Delimitation Orders |access-date=25 December 2024|publisher=Election Commission of India |website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>
| electors = 83,036
| mla = Jagdale Ushadevi Krishrao
| party = {{Party index link|Indian National Congress}}
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year = [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation =
}}

'''Dhond Assembly constituency '''was an assembly constituency in the [[India]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || Vithal Ramchandra Pawar || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || P. J. Tatyaba
|-
| [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Jagdale Ushadevi Krishrao
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 1972===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhond<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519183024/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Jagdale Ushadevi Krishrao |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 21,465 |percentage = 49.83% |change={{increase}}7.85 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Takawane Rajaram Bajirao |party=Independent politician |votes = 10,028 |percentage = 23.28% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Divekar Eknath Sitaram |party=Independent politician |votes = 5,709 |percentage = 13.25% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Bhalerao Anant Krishnaji |party=Republican Party of India |votes = 1,999 |percentage = 4.64% |change={{decrease}}2.59 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Ramchandra G. Khandale |party=Republican Party of India (Khobragade) |votes = 1,232 |percentage = 2.86% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Kale Nivrutti Dagadoba |party=Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 966 |percentage = 2.24% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Pansare Laxman Gopal |party=Independent politician |votes = 353 |percentage = 0.82% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 11,437 |percentage = 26.55% |change= {{decrease}}6.23 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 43,076 |percentage = 50.28% |change= {{increase}}4.77 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 83,036 |ref = |change= {{increase}}16.47 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{increase}}7.85 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1967===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhond<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926233227/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2018|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=P. J. Tatyaba |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 14,099 |percentage = 41.98% |change={{decrease}}14.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=R. B. Takawane |party=Independent politician |votes = 3,090 |percentage = 9.20% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=S. P. Shankar |party=Independent politician |votes = 2,882 |percentage = 8.58% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=P. N. Tatiyaba |party=Independent politician |votes = 2,681 |percentage = 7.98% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=K. R. Genuji |party=Republican Party of India |votes = 2,427 |percentage = 7.23% |change={{decrease}}7.89 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=J. A. Jotiyajirao |party=Independent politician |votes = 2,378 |percentage = 7.08% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=R. G. Khandale |party=Sanghata Socialist Party |votes = 2,213 |percentage = 6.59% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 11,009 |percentage = 32.78% |change= {{decrease}}8.92 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 33,582 |percentage = 42.85% |change= {{increase}}12.71 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 71,293 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.13 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}14.83 }}
{{Election box end}}

===Assembly Election 1962===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Dhond<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117085627/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate=Vithal Ramchandra Pawar |party=Indian National Congress |votes = 12,884 |percentage = 56.82% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Maruti Bandu Sawant |party=Republican Party of India |votes = 3,428 |percentage = 15.12% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Santram Krishna Bhalerao |party=Independent politician |votes = 2,059 |percentage = 9.08% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Keshav Dadgu Shelar |party=Independent politician |votes = 932 |percentage = 4.11% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Sambhaji Bandu Londhe |party=Independent politician |votes = 773 |percentage = 3.41% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Dnyanadeo Tukaram Sonawane |party=Independent politician |votes = 515 |percentage = 2.27% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate=Krishna Dadu Kharat |party=Independent politician |votes = 258 |percentage = 1.14% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 9,456 |percentage = 41.70% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 22,676 |percentage = 31.98% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 65,935 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}

{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]

{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

Shabnam Shakil

2026-01-05T22:15:23Z

BrookEjw0071: details

{{Short description|Indian cricketer (born 2007)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Shabnam Shakil
| female = true
| country = India
| fullname = Shabnam Mohammad Shakil
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|2007|6|17|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Visakhapatnam]], Andhra Pradesh, India
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium]]
| role = [[Bowling (cricket)|Bowler]]

| onetest =
| testdebutdate =
| testdebutyear =
| testdebutagainst =
| testcap =
| lasttestdate =
| lasttestyear =
| lasttestagainst =

| oneodi =
| odidebutdate =
| odidebutyear =
| odidebutagainst =
| odicap =
| lastodidate =
| lastodiyear =
| lastodiagainst =

| oneT20I =
| T20Idebutdate =
| T20Idebutyear =
| T20Idebutagainst =
| T20Icap =
| lastT20Idate =
| lastT20Iyear =
| lastT20Iagainst =

| club1 = {{nowrap|[[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]]}}
| year1 = {{nowrap|2022/23–present}}
| club2 = {{nowrap|[[Gujarat Giants (WPL)|Gujarat Giants]]}}
| year2 = 2024
| club3 = [[South Zone women's cricket team|South Zone]]
| year3 = 2024

| columns = 3

| column1 = [[First-class cricket|WFC]]
| matches1 = 3
| runs1 = 30
| bat avg1 = 10.00
| 100s/50s1 = 0/0
| top score1 = 16
| deliveries1 = 150
| wickets1 = 2
| bowl avg1 = 51.50
| fivefor1 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 1/21
| catches/stumpings1 = 0/–

| column2 = [[List A cricket|WLA]]
| matches2 = 11
| runs2 = 131
| bat avg2 = 21.83
| 100s/50s2 = 0/1
| top score2 = 50[[not out|*]]
| deliveries2 = 422
| wickets2 = 8
| bowl avg2 = 37.37
| fivefor2 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| best bowling2 = 2/14
| catches/stumpings2 = 4/–

| column3 = [[Women's Twenty20|WT20]]
| matches3 = 11
| runs3 = 13
| bat avg3 = 4.33
| 100s/50s3 = 0/0
| top score3 = 12[[not out|*]]
| deliveries3 = 217
| wickets3 = 8
| bowl avg3 = 27.37
| fivefor3 = 0
| tenfor3 = 0
| best bowling3 = 3/11
| catches/stumpings3 = 1/–
| date = 6 August
| year = 2025
| source = https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/2597/2597084/2597084.html CricketArchive

| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport|Women's [[cricket]]}}
{{MedalCountry |{{IND}} }}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Under-19 Women's T20 World Cup|U19 World Cup]]}}
{{Medal|W|[[2023 Under-19 Women's T20 World Cup|2023 South Africa]]|}}
{{Medal|W|[[2025 Under-19 Women's T20 World Cup|2025 Malaysia]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Under-19 Women's T20 Asia Cup|U19 Asia Cup]]}}
{{Medal|W|[[2024 ACC Under-19 Women's T20 Asia Cup|2024 Malaysia]]|}}
}}

'''Shabnam Shakil''' (born 17 June 2007) is an Indian [[cricket]]er who currently plays for [[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]] and [[Gujarat Giants (WPL)|Gujarat Giants]]. She plays as a right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium-fast]] [[Bowling (cricket)|bowler]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1346683.html |title=Mannat Kashyap |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/2597/2597084/2597084.html |title=Player profile: Mannat Kashyap |work=CricketArchive |access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://femalecricket.com/wpl-2024/38004-who-is-shabnam-shakil-bio-stats-gujarat-giants-player.html |title=Who is Shabnam Shakil {{!}} Bio {{!}} Stats {{!}} Gujarat Giants Player |work=Female Cricket |date=22 February 2024 |access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref> She was part of the [[India women's national under-19 cricket team|India]] team that won the inaugural [[2023 Under-19 Women's T20 World Cup|Under-19 Women's T20 World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=India U19 Women's squad for ICC World Cup and SA series announced |url=https://www.bcci.tv/articles/2022/news/55555953/india-u19-women-s-squad-for-icc-world-cup-and-sa-series-announced |access-date=22 June 2024 |work=Board of Control for Cricket in India}}</ref>

==Domestic career==
In December 2023, she was signed by [[Gujarat Giants (WPL)|Gujarat Giants]] at the [[Women's Premier League (cricket)|Women's Premier League]] auction, for the [[2024 Women's Premier League (cricket)|2024 season]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/live-blog/women-s-premier-league-2024-auction-live-blog-1411991 |title=Bid-by-bid updates - 2024 WPL auction |work=ESPNcricinfo |date=9 December 2023 |access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/womens-cricket/wpl/shabnam-shakil-gujarat-giants-womens-premier-league-wpl-wickets-pacer-career-analysis-childhood-potential-news/article67944173.ece |title=WPL 2024: Meet Shabnam Shakil - Gujarat Giants' teenage pace assassin who's here to stay |work=Sportstar |access-date=22 June 2024 |date=12 March 2024}}</ref> She became the youngest player to play in [[Women's Premier League (cricket)|WPL]] at the age of 16.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.india.com/sports/wpl-2024-at-16-gujarat-giants-shabnam-shakil-becomes-youngest-to-play-in-womens-premier-league-6771453/ |title=WPL 2024: At 16, Gujarat Giants' Shabnam Shakil Becomes Youngest To Play In Women's Premier League |work=India.com |access-date=22 June 2024 |date=7 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://femalecricket.com/wpl-2024/38658-my-first-delivery-in-wpl-is-something-i-will-always-remember-says-shabnam-shakil.html |title="My first delivery in WPL is something I will always remember", says Shabnam Shakil |work=Female Cricket |access-date=22 June 2024 |date=7 March 2024}}</ref> She took 3 wickets for 11 runs against [[UP Warriorz]] and the Giants won the game by 8 runs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/cricket/wpl-2024-gujarat-giants-shabnam-shakil-16-year-old-shows-glimpses-of-immense-potential-8814341.html |title=WPL 2024: 16-year-old Shabnam Shakil Shows Glimpses of Her Immense Potential |work=News18 |access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref>

==International career==
In November 2022, she was selected to the [[India women's national under-19 cricket team|India women's under-19 team]] for a five-match T20 series against the [[New Zealand women's national under-19 cricket team|New Zealand women's under-19 team]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sehrawat named India U-19 Women's captain for New Zealand T20s |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/shweta-sehrawat-named-india-u-19-women-s-captain-for-t20-series-against-new-zealand-1345621 |access-date=22 June 2024 |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> In December 2022, she was selected to the under-19 team for the [[2023 Under-19 Women's T20 World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shafali Verma to lead India at Under-19 Women's T20 World Cup, Richa Ghosh also picked |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/shafali-verma-to-lead-india-at-under-19-womens-world-cup-richa-ghosh-also-picked-1348179 |access-date=22 June 2024 |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>

In June 2024, Shakil was added to India’s ODI, T20I and Test squads for their series [[South Africa women's cricket team in India in 2024|against South Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2024 |title=Shabnam Shakil added to Team India's squad |url=https://www.bcci.tv/bccilink/articles/9ovBSXHz |access-date=22 June 2024 |website=Board of Control for Cricket in India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/womens-cricket/india-vs-south-africa-women-series-shabnam-shakil-added-to-ind-squad-v-south-africa-odi-t20-test-full-team-list/article68311670.ece |title=Pacer Shabnam Shakil added to India's squads vs South Africa Women for all three formats |work=Sportstar |date=20 June 2024 |access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/shabnam-shakil-added-to-india-women-squad-across-formats-against-south-africa/articleshow/111140529.cms |title=Shabnam Shakil Added To India Women Squad Across Formats Against South Africa |work=The Times of India |date=20 June 2024 |access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=1346683}}

{{Gujarat Giants WPL squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shakil, Shabnam}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2007 births]]
[[Category:People from Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Andhra women cricketers]]
[[Category:Indian women cricketers]]
[[Category:Gujarat Giants (WPL) cricketers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]

Mohit Rathee

2026-01-02T15:34:47Z

BrookEjw0071: done...

{{Short description|Indian cricketer}}
{{use Indian English|date=April 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Mohit Rathee
| image =
| fullname =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1999|01|13|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Rohtak]], [[Haryana]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = Right-arm [[leg spin|leg-break]]
| role = [[All-rounder]]

| club1 = [[Services cricket team|Services]]
| year1 = 2022–present
| club2 = [[Punjab Kings]]
| year2 = 2023

| columns = 2
| column1 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| matches1 = 4
| runs1 = 138
| bat avg1 = 17.25
| 100s/50s1 = 0/1
| top score1 = 69
| deliveries1 = 697
| wickets1 = 9
| bowl avg1 = 44.77
| fivefor1 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 3/94
| catches/stumpings1 = 3/–

| column2 = [[Twenty20 cricket|T20]]
| matches2 = 13
| runs2 = 100
| bat avg2 = 14.28
| 100s/50s2 = 0/0
| top score2 = 34
| deliveries2 = 268
| wickets2 = 9
| bowl avg2 = 39.22
| fivefor2 = 0
| tenfor2 = –
| best bowling2 = 2/16
| catches/stumpings2 = 4/–
| date = 20 March 2025
| source = https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/mohit-rathee-1349361 ESPNcricinfo
}}

'''Mohit Rathee''' (born 13 January 1999) is an Indian cricketer. He is an [[all-rounder]] who bats right-handed and bowls [[leg spin]]. He plays for [[Services cricket team|Services]] in domestic cricket, and has appeared for [[Punjab Kings]] in the [[Indian Premier League]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/mohit-rathee-1349361 |title=Mohit Rathee |access-date=7 April 2023}}</ref>

== Early life and style of play ==
Rathi was born on 13 January 1999, in [[Rohtak, Haryana]]. He is known for his consistency in line and length and his handy [[Batting order (cricket)|tail-end]] contributions with the bat.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Kshitij |date=2023-01-13 |title=IPL 2023: 3 PBKS players who might be benched throughout the season |url=https://www.crictracker.com/cricket-appeal/ipl-2023-3-pbks-players-who-might-be-benched-throughout-the-season/ |access-date=2023-04-23 |website=CricTracker |language=en}}</ref>

==Career==
He made his professional and [[First-class cricket|first-class]] debut for [[Services cricket team|Services]] against [[Jharkhand cricket team|Jharkhand]] in [[2022–23 Ranji Trophy]], on 27 December 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jharkhand vs Services, Elite, Group C, Jamshedpur, December 27 - 30, 2022, Ranji Trophy |work=ESPNcricinfo |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1333240.html |access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref> He claimed a [[half century]] in his debut match, and scored 138 runs along with taking nine wickets in his debut first-class season.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date= |title=TATA IPL 2023: Five uncapped Punjab Kings players to watch out for |url=https://www.punjabkingsipl.in/features/ipl-2023-five-uncapped-punjab-kings-players-to-watch-out-for |access-date=2023-04-23 |website=Punjab Kings |language=en}}</ref>

In February 2023, he was bought by [[Punjab Kings]] for the [[2023 Indian Premier League]], for Rs. 20 Lakh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.punjabkingsipl.in/players/100577-mohit-rathee-profile|title=Mohit Rathee|access-date=23 April 2023}}</ref> The franchise named him among the five uncapped players to watch out for in IPL 2023.<ref name=":0" /> He made his [[Twenty20]] debut for Punjab Kings on 9 April 2022, against [[Sunrisers Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/indian-premier-league-2023-1345038/sunrisers-hyderabad-vs-punjab-kings-14th-match-1359488/full-scorecard|title=Mohit Rathee makes his Twenty20, and IPL debut for Punjab Kings|access-date=10 April 2023 |work=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref> In his debut match, he was involved in an unbeaten 55-run partnership with [[Shikhar Dhawan]], the highest stand for the 10th wicket in IPL history.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2023-04-10 |title=IPL 2023: Meet Mohit Rathee Who Dismissed Arjun Tendulkar, Stitched Record 10th-Wicket Stand |url=https://news.abplive.com/sports/ipl/mohit-rathee-pbks-debutant-who-is-mohit-rathee-who-dismissed-arjun-tendulkar-1594535 |access-date=2023-04-23 |website=ABP News |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rathee, Mohit}}
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1999 births]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Haryana]]
[[Category:Services cricketers]]
[[Category:Punjab Kings cricketers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Rohtak]]
{{India-cricket-bio-stub}}

Enchanted Valley Carnival

2025-12-13T12:11:25Z

BrookEjw0071: Stub...

'''Enchanted Valley Festival''' (EVC) is India's largest music annual festival that brings different music genres from electronic and techno to pop and indie together.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/industry/media/entertainment/universal-enters-india-live-music-festival-scene-buys-50-per-cent-in-enchanted-valley-carnival/articleshow/48896534.cms?intenttarget=no|title=Universal enters India live music festival scene, buys 50 per cent in Enchanted Valley Carnival|last=Sachin|first=Dave|date=September 11, 2015|website=The Economic Times|access-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Gozoop wins digital marketing mandate for Enchanted Valley Carnival |publisher=Adgully|year=2016}}</ref> It is held in [[Aamby Valley City]], [[India]], for three days.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/enchanted-valley-carnival-2016-will-mesmerize-you-with-extensive-line-up-116120900973_1.html |title=Enchanted Valley Carnival 2016 will mesmerize you with extensive line-up|last=ANI|date=December 9, 2016 |website=Business Standard|access-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://rollingstoneindia.com/enchanted-valley-carnival-launches-this-december/|title=Enchanted Valley Carnival Launches This December|last=Mahindru|first=Megha|date=October 21, 2013|website=Rolling Stone India|access-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref> EVC's first edition was in 2013.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== Characteristics ==
EVC is an Indian music festival that brings different music genres to the same platform.<ref name=":0" /> It is the first festival in Asia to be held on an airstrip, introduced to the Indian audiences in 2013.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.giglifeasia.com/event/enchanted-valley-carnival-2016/|title=Enchanted Valley Carnival 2016|website=Gig Life Asia|access-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref> EVC's location is in Aamby Valley, Lonavala, between Pune and Mumbai, in India.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=http://rollingstoneindia.com/review-enchanted-valley-carnival/|title=Review: Enchanted Valley Carnival|last=Muttoo|first=Ambika|date=December 10, 2013|website=Rolling Stone India|access-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref> The two day carnival also includes an after party line up with 2 stages and a special 'Silent Party.'<ref name=":2" /> The after party also has a lineup of artists like the main festival.<ref name=":6" />

The festival has 5 different stages, each where a specific genre of music is played. It lines up more than 50 top artists in total.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> EVC takes place in December and hosts artists from India and abroad.<ref name=":3" /> The festival offers varied genres like pop, Bollywood, electronic dance music, techno, fusion and Indie, along with other experimental music.<ref name=":1" />

EVC combines both music and professional adventure sports activities such as all-terrain vehicle riding, [[bungee jumping]], [[zorbing]], [[rock climbing]], [[rappelling]], 4x4 jungle safari, [[zipline]], [[hot air balloon]]ing and [[water sports]] such as speed boats/jet skis, [[kayaks]], [[pirate ships]], tribal boats, pontoon boats, floating volleyball and [[basketball]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

== History ==
EVC is India's biggest music festival and has been held in Aamby Valley every year in December since 2013.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> A large number of artists have performed in EVC, from Indian artists such as [[Farhan Akhtar]] and [[Arijit Singh]], Ankur Sood, [[Badshah (rapper)|Badshah]], [[Juggy D]], DJ Chetas, DASU, [[Papon (Assamese singer)|Papon]], [[Shilpi Sharma (DJ)|Shilpi Sharma]] and [[Ami Mishra]], to international artists like Bullzeye, Dj Rae, [[Steve Aoki]], [[Flo Rida]], [[Alan Walker (music producer)|Alan Walker]], [[Tiësto]], Fatoboy Slim, [[David Guetta]], [[Martin Garrix]], [[Taio Cruz]] and [[Bassjackers]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.festivalsherpa.com/absolut-enchanted-valley-carnival-here-cannot-miss/|title=Absolut Enchanted Valley Carnival Is Almost Here And You Cannot Miss It|last=Desa|first=Risa|date=December 8, 2016|website=Festival Sherpa|access-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref><ref name=":6" />

== Organization ==
The festival is organized by Twisted Entertainment and [[Universal Music India]], a subsidiary of [[Universal Music Group]], each owning 50 per cent stake.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=The Hindu Business Line: Universal Music acquires 50% in Enchanted Valley Carnival|publisher=Newstex|year=2015|location=United States}}</ref> [[Devraj Sanyal]], managing director and chief executive officer, [[South Asia]], is the current CEO of EVC.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" /> It is sponsored by [[Absolute Vodka]], and Gozoop is in charge of [[digital marketing]] in Enchanted Valley Carnival.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" /> Different facilities can be found inside the festival like ATM machines, charging stations for electronic devices, parking lots, lost-and-found, food and beverages.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=http://evc.co.in/accommodations|title=Accommodations|website=EVC|access-date=April 25, 2017|archive-date=November 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122025535/http://evc.co.in/accommodations|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Camping ===
EVC Pune offers tent accommodations at the venue, named the "Enchanted Village."<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> It allows the participants to stay at the festival venue in tents for the three-day long weekend.<ref name=":0" /> The regular tents allow from two to four people; the luxury tent is for four people. They also let people bring their own tent, with no maximum capacity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://evc.co.in/services-facility|title=Services & facilities|website=EVC|access-date=April 25, 2017}}</ref>

=== 'Culinarium' ===
In 2015, EVC introduced a set of food stands called the ‘Culinarium.’<ref name=":4" /> It offers street and gourmet cuisines, also pop up restaurants that were created to taste various dishes.<ref name=":2" />

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Music festivals in India]]

Atpadi

2025-11-28T19:23:13Z

BrookEjw0071: add content additionally

{{Short description|Town in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Atpadi
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Town and Tehsil
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India
| coordinates = {{coord|17.25|N|74.57|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Sangli district|Sangli]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| leader_title =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 20791
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 415301
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 912343
| registration_plate = MH 10
| website =
}}

'''Atpadi''' is an administrative town of the [[Atpadi Taluka]] of [[Sangli district|Sangli District]] in the Indian [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]]. Atpadi is located north-east of Sangli District and shares borders with the adjacent [[Solapur district|Solapur]] and [[Satara district|Satara]] Districts. The town has a [[Tehsil|taluka]] administrative office (that is, a [[Panchayat samiti]] local government body), a courthouse, a police station, a government-run primary hospital, various schools and colleges and a theater. Atpadi's economy is based on the cultivation and sale of agricultural products, with [[pomegranate]]s and cotton constituting the core of the industry. The town is also home to the Manganga Sahakari Sugar factory, a Pomegranate auction center and various small scale industries in fields such as manufacturing, processing, servicing and repairs.<ref>{{cite web|title=District - Sangli |url=http://mdmu.maharashtra.gov.in/pages/dmp/sangliShow.php |work=mdmu.maharashtra.gov.in |publisher=Relief & Rehabilitation Department (India) |accessdate=29 March 2012 |format=Web page |year=2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208213237/http://mdmu.maharashtra.gov.in/pages/dmp/sangliShow.php |archivedate=8 December 2011 }}</ref>

The town can also lay claim to a literary connection, with four prominent [[Marathi literature|Marathi]] authors originating from Atpadi.

==History==
The history of Atpadi before the 15th/16th century is not documented. Some editions of the [[Puranas|Stahala Purana]] mention the town Atpade (अटपडे), but the date of the writing is undocumented. In historic times, Atpadi was part of the Manank yadav kingdom of Mandesh, ruled from the nearby village of Devapur. In the 16th century Atapdi was part of the [[Adilshahi]] kingdom of [[Adil Shahi dynasty|Bijapur]]. Later in the 19th century it became part of the princely state of [[Aundh State|Aundh]] as well as a palace city, hence it was called Atpadi Mahal. After Indian independence and the merging of [[Aundh State|Aundh]] into the [[Republic of India]], Atpadi was in [[Khanapur]] [[Taluka]] in the [[Satara district]] till the new district [[Sangli]] was formed. After the formation of the new district, Atpadi was separated from Khanapur Taluka and made an administrative division ([[Tehsil|Taluka]]). Prominent Marathi writers like the late [[Gajanan Digambar Madgulkar|G.D.Madgulkar]] (गदिमा), the late [[Vyankatesh Digambar Madgulkar|Vyankatesh Madgulkar]], the late [[Shankar Rao Kharat]], the late [[Nagnath S. Inamdar|N.S. Inamdar]], the late [[Arun Kamble]] and the former petroleum minister of India, [[Ram Naik]] were from Atpadi.

==Geography==

===Town===
Atpadi is located at Latitude: 17° 25' 0 N, Longitude: 74° 57' 0 E with a population of approximately 25000. The only language used in the town is [[Marathi language|Marathi]]. The northern area of Atpadi has government administration office, a Government Hospital, Courthouse, Police station, Electricity Board office, colleges and newly formed colonies. Major developments of the new Atpadi area is on the north side of town while the south side of town is old and more populated. the southern part serves as a commercial center and as the downtown area of Atpadi. It has the [[Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation|MSRTC]] bus stand, and the old government hospital. The old Atpadi town has a market place for the weekly bazaar (vegetable, fruit, cattle market), a designated road for shops known as [[Peth (Atpadi)|Peth]]. The residential areas in old town is dominated by families from the caste/with the surname Galli.
*Different galis are named as Wani Galli, Brahman Galli, Navhi Galli, Kosthi Galli, Kasar Galli, Deshmukh Galli, Kumbhar Galli, Parit Galli. Other newly formed residential colonies are Choundeshwari colony, Vidya Nagar, Sathe Nagar, Phule Nagar, Vithal Sampat nagar.

===Surrounding area and villages===
Atpadi is surrounded by small farming hamlets from all directions of town known as 'Waadi'. These places hold houses of farmers further grouped into communities. They lack commercial markets or higher education schools. The surrounding areas depend on the Atpadi town for trading agricultural produce and for education. Their proximity to the town area, the expansion of the town with a growing population, infrastructural needs and well connected roads are making surrounding areas become part of the town.
*[[Bhingewadi]]: Bhingewadi is a small Grampanchat Village located 3 kilometers to the north-west of the Atpadi Town. Bhingewadi is populated mostly by farmers whose surname is Bhinge, thus the name Bhingewadi. Bhingewadi is a small village of 2000 people with much farmland. Wheat, Jowar, Bajara, and pomegranate are the main produce from the farmlands. It is adjacent to [[Swatantrapur]].
*[[Bombewadi]]: Located on the East Side of Atpadi City
*Awalai: Situated in between Dinghachi village and Atpadi slightly near to village Nimbawade.
*Deshmukhwaadi: Situated to the east of Atpadi
*Yamaji Patalachi Wadi: Located on the Atpadi-Sangola road
*Mapate Mala: Located on the Atpad-Nimbawade road to the north-west
*Sonarsiddhnagar: Located on the Atpadi-Kouthuli road. It has the industrial colony of Manganga Sugar Factory.
*[[Kouthuli]]: Located near Manganga river and Manganga Sugar Factory.
*[[Swatantrapur]]: Located between Atpadi lake and Bhingewadi. It is a free custodian colony built in 1939. The Hindi cinema, 'Do ankhe baraah haath' is based in Swatantrapur.
*Location of Atpadi with respect to surrounding area and other major towns.
*[[Nimbavade]]: located between Atpadi and [[Zare]]
*[[Anusewadi]]: located between Atpadi and Nimbavade. The way goes from Atpadi Police Station to Nimbavade through crossing the small village Anusewadi. The large shepherd community in this village tend flocks of sheep and goats.

===Season===
Summer, monsoon rain and winter are the main three seasons year-round. The region falls under the rain-shadow area resulting in less rain.
{{climate chart
|Atpadi
|0|0|0
|0|0|34
|0|0|0
|0|0|0
|0|0|0
|0|0|0
|0|0|50
|0|0|140
|0|0|140
|0|0|97
|0|0|0
|0|0|3
| source = 1984 Rainfall data from Department of Agriculture of Maharashtra
| float = right
| clear = right
}}

====Water resources====
The only source for drinking water in Atpadi is a lake which is located 3 km away from town.
The Shuk Odha (stream) and Manganga River are near to Atpadi. Generally both of them are active only during the monsoon season. Various water canals were projected into the Atpadi Taluka under Khrishna Khore Vikas Mahamandal's scheme named [[Tembhu]].

===Forest area===
Atpadi has a forest office near [[Swatantrapur]]. Dubai Kuran (डबई कुरण) is a reserved forest area. It has a plantation of [[Babool]] trees. Initially this area was created as grazing ground for cattle in summer time. Cattle grazing is no longer allowed as it is a reserved forest area. Wild animals like wolf, jackal, porcupine, fox, Asian palm civet and wild hares can be seen here.<ref>{{cite news |title=सांगली : लांडग्यांसाठी आटपाडीतील डुबई कुराणाचा संरक्षित वन्य क्षेत्रामध्ये समावेश |url=https://www.loksatta.com/maharashtra/inclusion-dubai-area-in-atpadi-sangli-protected-forest-area-for-wolf-tmb-01-3144540/ |access-date=22 September 2022 |work=[[Loksatta]] |date=22 September 2022 |language=mr}}</ref>

==Political and judiciary system==
The Atpadi town has a [[nagar panchayat]] for the administration of the town. In election which was held in May 2018 Vrushali Patil was elected by people as a sarpanch for next five years who is wife of famous personality of Atpadi taluka ADV. Dhananjay Patil. She is owner of Sharadha medicals. while the [[Panchayat Samiti]] is to administer the entire [[Tehsil|Taluka]].
Atpadi is part of the [[Atpadi-Khanapur constituency]] of [[Vidhan Sabha]] and the [[Maharashtra State]] [[Sangli (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sangli constituency]] of [[Loksabha]]. The Atpadi Magistrate's Court oversees criminal proceedings while the Civil Court is presided over by the Junior Division of the court. The Atpadi Police station maintains law and order.
The old building of Atpadi Grampanchayat was renovated though the original design of the building remained unchanged.

[[Late Annasaheb Lengare]] was the elected MLA from [[Atpadi-Kavathemhankal Constituency]]. When Atpadi was separated from [[Kavathemhankal]] and joined to [[Khanapur]] then after in 1995 Rajendra Deshmukh was elected as a MLA from [[Atpadi-Khanapur constituency]]. Nowadays [[Gopichand Padalkar]] is a member of [[Maharashtra Legislative Council]]. He got elected to the [[Legislative Council]] by MLA's (unopposed) on 14 May 2020.

==Industry==
Atpadi's industry is based on agriculture and dairy products as well as secondary industries. Industries are located around the Atpadi town. Industries have created jobs and business for people living around Atpadi. The sugar factory is the largest of all industries in Atpadi. A program called Khadi gramodyog was started by the Government of India to promote rural employment for woman.
*Sugar Factory: Manganga Sugar Factory
*Cotton Mill: Babasaheb Deshmukh Shetkari Sahakari Sutgirani
*Dairy milk: Packaged milk under the brand "Family No. 1" (previously 'Sakaal')
*Domestic industry of woolen blankets {{small|(Gongade/Kambal घोंगडे /कंबळ)}}
*Khadi Gramodyog

==Travel and entertainment==
Atpadi is connected by road and falls on the state highway between [[Solapur]] and [[Karad]]. It can be accessed from Solapur, Sangli, Kolhapur, Karad, Pune and Mumbai and adjacent towns through state transport buses as well as private buses. Atpadi has a [[MSRTC]][https://msrtc.maharashtra.gov.in/index.php] bus stand and depot. The MSRTC bus is a preferred mode of transport by most people. Atpadi has a few lodges and a number of hotels and road-side joints. Siddhanath Chitrmandir is the only functioning cinema/theater, offering Marathi and [[Hindi]] movies. Shreeram Talkies, a pavilion based cinema screen became defunct in the 1990s.

===What to see===
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*Swatantrapur: Free custodian colony
*Atpadi Lake (Atpadi Pazar Talav / Atpadi Tale)
*Rajewadi talav
*Sonarshiddh Temple
*Siddhnath temple, Kharsundi
*Ram Mandir, Karagani
*Kalleshwar Madhir & Uttreshwar mandhir, Atpadi
*Shukachari Hills in Hivtad: Place of ancient sage Shukmuni ([[Śuka]]), son of [[Vyas]]
{{div col end}}
*Jakai Devi Mandir near Manewadi - Beautiful temple surrounded by hills and situated near lake
*Bhupalgad

==Education==
Atpadi has schools and colleges. Bachelor's degrees are offered in Science, Arts, Commerce, Education and Engineering.
*Colleges:Shrimant Babasaheb Deshmukh Mahavidyalaya Atpadi.
#[https://web.archive.org/web/20160509213146/http://www.sbdmatpadi.com/ Atpadi] (Arts, Science and Commerce),
#Kala Vidnyan Mahavidyalaya affiliated to [[Shivaji University]], Kolhapur.
#Abasaheb Khebudkar Junior college of science, Atpadi
*Schools :
#Shree Bhavani High School, Atpadi
#S.V.D.D. Girl's High School, Atpadi
#Rajaram Bapu Highschool, Atpadi. All high schools are affiliated to the SSC/HSC board, Kolhapur.

'''Professional courses:'''
#Industrial Training Institute, Atpadi (ITI college); Various D.Ed. Colleges and Agriculture Diploma College, Bhingewadi.
#[https://web.archive.org/web/20100813192758/http://www.spatp.org/ Sriram society's Engineering and Diploma college]
#[https://web.archive.org/web/20110728045936/http://sresatpadi.org/ D.Ed and B.Ed college]
A.k.jr college of science, atpadi

== Medical Service ==
Government Primary Hospital is major medical facility in Atpadi, supported by various private clinics, hospitals and laboratories.

==Art and culture==

===Literature===
Atpadi has produced four presidents of [[Marathi Sahitya Sammelan]]. The author and poet, Adhunik Walmiki, popularly known as ''GaDiMa (गदिमा)'' and [[Gajanan Digambar Madgulkar|G. D. Madgulkar]] are from the nearby village, Madgule. His younger brother, [[Venkatesh Madgulkar]] as well as [[Shankar Rao Kharat]] and [[Nagnath S. Inamdar|N. S. Inamdar]] are three other authors from Atpadi. The late Prof. [[Arun Kamble]], a prominent Marathi writer, was born in Atpadi Taluka. The Marathi book, 'Mandeshi Manase' (People of Mandesh), written by Venkatesh Madgulkar, is based on characters in Atpadi and is set in Atpadi and its surrounding areas. The autobiography of Shankar Rao Kharat Taral-Antaral has a detailed chapter on Atpadi before the independence of India.
*MaanDarshan: A magazine published from Atpadi.
*Vyatha Pinjryatil Pakhranchya: [[Kavi Shriram Anuse]] who is the Mandeshi poet.
*Punha Ek Navi Disha: [[Author]] [[Nitinraje Anuse]] whose full name is [[Nitin Machhindra Anuse]]. He's a first Person in Nimbavade Panchkroshi who joined Indian Navy as a Defence Person. He was a Instructor and just retired from Indian Navy with 15 years of Glorious Service towards the Nation.

===Folk dance, songs and sports===
Folk dance and songs, known as 'Gaji' and 'Dhangari Owi' respectively, are hallmarks of the Maandesh culture. Rural sports like soil wrestling and Kabaddi are held annually at various annual fairs. Modern sports like cricket and volleyball are other popular sports.
Namdev Wadare, a Shivchhatrapati State award-winning wrestler started a wrestling institute in Atpadi where the western style of wrestling is taught.

==Agriculture and cattle==
*Agriculture: Jowar, maize, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, bajari and pomegranate are the main agricultural produce in Atpadi. Pomegranate plantations are quite new and modern irrigation techniques, like drip irrigation, have helped local farmers to grow pomegranate fields. Being an export product to Middle-East and Arab nations, pomegranate has given higher yields to farmers than traditional crop-based farming. The low monsoon rainfall is advantageous to farmers as the pomegranate is a desert tree.
*[[Khillari bull]] ('''Atpadi Mahal''')- The breed is well adapted to the tropical and drought prone conditions present in this part of the world and are favoured by the local farming community due to their ability to handle the hardships of farming pretty well.
*Buffalo, sheep and goat are also raised.
*Sheti Pariwar Kalyan Sanstha, Atpadi in Maharashtra faces drought and lacks irrigation facilities, making goat and sheep farming popular for economic sustainability. Traditional goat farming methods were time-consuming, leading to youth migration. In 1975, Shri. Narayanrao Deshpande founded 'Sheti Pariwar Kalyan Sanstha' for agricultural development and experimented with stall-fed goat farming, successfully developing the Osmanabadi breed. They also grew specific fodder trees for goats on dry and waste land, now taught through training programs. 'Sheti Pariwar' is now known for training in stall-fed goat rearing, breed development, and new agricultural methodologies.

==Temples and festivals==
The Atpadi town as well as the Atpadi Taluka has various temples. Uttareshwar is a patron god of the Atpadi town and a 15‑day fair is held in Atpadi for Uttareshwar. The pulling of a wooden chariot by men is one of the rituals of the fair. [[Kharsundi]], a place in the Atpadi Taluka, is the highest seat of Lord Siddhanath. Apart from the Hindu temples, Atpadi has a [[Mosque]]. Atpadi has a unique temple dedicated to [[Yoga]] and [[suryanamaskar]] called 'Suryopasana Mandir', though this is not a religious place. Suryopasana Mandir serves as a community hall for people who wish to practice yoga and exercise suryanamaskar.

[[File:Kalleshwar atpadi.JPG|thumb|right|South Door of Kalleshwar Mandir, Atpadi]]
''' List of temples in Atpadi'''

#Nath Baba (Bhingewadi Road)
#Jotiba (Bhingewadi Road)
#[[Sai (Hinduism)|Sai]] Mandir (Bhingewadi Road)
# AAI Saheb mandir ( wife of Saint Gondavalekar maharaj)- (Brahmin Galli)
#[[Vitthal]] Mandir (Near ST Stand)
#Kalleshwar (Center)
#Vitthal Mandir (Near the Post Office)
#Ram mandir (Brahman Galli)
#[[Dattatreya|Datta]] mandir (Brahman Galli)
#Ramnath Buwa mandir (Peth)
#Uttareshwar (bajar Patangan, Patron god of Atpadi.
#Kala [[Hanuman|Maruti]] (bajar Patangan)
#[[Khandoba]] (bajar Patangan)
#Yellama (bajar Patangan)
#Math (Wani Galli)
#Laandaa Maruti (Prakashwadi)
#Tambada Maruti (Deshmukh Galli)
#Vetal (Prakashwadi)
#Parmeshwar Mandir (Shukra Odha)
#Sonarsiddha Mandir (Sonarsiddhwadi)
#Narsoba Mandir located at various places in town. (Five in all)
#[[Ganesh]] Mandir (Ambabai Odha)
#Ambabai mandir (Ambabai Odha)
#Tulajapurche Thanake (Karkhana Road)
#Choundeshwari Mandir
26. Mayakka Mandir (Sathe chowk)
[[File:kharsundi siddhanath.JPG|thumb|right|Priests offering prayers to Siddhanath, Kharsundi]]

'''List of other temples from Atpadi taluka'''
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
#Siddhanath Mandir – [[Kharsundi]], Seat of Lord Siddhanath, Avtar of Lord Shiva
#[[Biroba]] Mandir – [[Anusewadi]]
#[[Duloba]] Mandir – [[Nimbavade]]
#Lakhmeshwar (Shivaling worshipped by Lakshman, Brother of Shriram during RAMAYAN period, that's why known as Lakhmeshwar) And Shriram Mandir – Karagani
#Shukachari Cave – [[Shukachari]]
#JakaiDevi Mandir – Nelkaranji, Place of the wife of Lord Siddhanath
#Jotiba Mandir – Madgule
#Khandoba Mandir – Madgule
#Marimata Mandir – Avalai
#Siddhanath Mandir – Shetphale
#Bhaktabai Mandir – Shetphale
#Jogeshwari Mandir – Shetphale.
#[[Masoba]] Mandir – Banpuri
#BhavaniTemple – [[Dighanchi]]
#Hanuman Mandir – Pimpri Budruk
#sidhatnath Mandir- Pimpri Budruk, believed to be a place for curing snake bites
#Jotirling Mandir – Tadawale
#Ganesh Mandir - (Patrewadi) 14 May
#Vithoba Mandir Balewadi (Yamgarvasti)
#Hanuman Mandir Balewadi
#Shri Nath Baba Mandir - Jambhulani (Suraj Ukse)
{{div col end}}
N
===Festivals===
Diwali, the main festival of Hindus, other festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi and the Muslim festival, Muharram, are celebrated publicly. Apart from religious festivals, a town fair devoted to the patron god of Atpadi, Uttareshwar, is held after Diwali for 3 days.
*Uttareshwar jatra – Atpadi. Major fair of the area starting from Kartik Pornima and lasting the next 15 days.
*Gnyaneshwer Parayan Sohala-Tadavale 2 May per year
*
*Akhand Harinam Saptha (Jotiba Mandir) – Madgule. Held every April
*Paravarcha Melava (G. D. Madgulkar Janma divas 1 October) - Shetphale.
*Ashtami Yatra – Shetphale. Chaitra Vadya Ashtami
*Khandoba Jatra – Madgule
*Yallama devi yatra, Jotiba yatra - GOMEWADI
*Marimi Aai Yatra – Tadawale
*Marimata Jatra – Avalai
*Paush yatra – Kharsundi. This festival is famous for its khillari cattle trade in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra.
*Chaitra yatra – Kharsundi (Saasan/Shaasan Kaathi)
*Jakai yatra – Nelkaranji
*Masoba Jatra – Banpuri. This festival starts from [[Gautamiputra Satakarni|Shalivahan Shak]], the Hindu new year (Gudhipadava), and lasts for 5 days.
*Hanuman Jatra Festival – Pimpri Budruk
*Hanuman Sidhanath jatra at Shuknagar. (Hivtad)
*Hari nam saptaha Balewadi
*[[Mahalakshmi Temple Bombewadi]]

===Other villages in Atpadi Taluka===
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090411033213/http://offerings.nic.in/directory/adminreps/viewpansum.asp?selstate=4549&parenttype=B&ptype=V&button1=Submit Complete List of grampanchat villages in Atpadi taluka can be found here.]

===Distance from major cities===
*Sangli - 90 km
*Kolhapur - 135 km
*Pune - 240 km
*Hyderabad - 450 km
*Solapur - 120 km
*Pandharpur - 60 km
*Karad - 100 km
*Satara - 120 km
*Mumbai-400 km
*Nagpur-777 km

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100813192758/http://www.spatp.org/ Sriram society's Engineering and Diploma college]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110624160802/http://atpadiedusoc.org/ Atpadi Education Society]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080604230057/http://www.pomegranateindia.org/associates.htm Maharashtra Pomegranate Growers research Association]
{{Geographic Location
| Centre = Atpadi
| North = [[Dighanchi]], Karad-Pandharpur Road, MS Highway 76
| Northeast = [[Pandharpur]] of [[Solapur]] District
| East = [[Sangola]] of [[Solapur]] District
| Southeast =
| South = [[Bhingewadi]], Atpadi-Sangli Road, MS Highway 76
| Southwest = [[Tasgaon]]
| West = [[Kharsundi]]
| Northwest = [[Mhaswad]] of [[Satara District]]
}}
{{Sangli district topics}}

[[Category:Villages in Sangli district]]

Geography of Arunachal Pradesh

2025-10-20T16:50:28Z

BrookEjw0071: quick update

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox place geography
|name=Arunachal Pradesh
|image=Arunachal Pradesh topo map.png
|region=[[Northeast India]]
|km area=83,743{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 1, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 24}}
|percent water=1.91
|borders=Bhutan, China, Burma, Assam, Nagaland
|highest point=[[Kangto]], {{Convert|7060|m|ft}}
|lowest point=~{{Convert|50|m|ft}}{{Sfnp|AP State Action Plan|2011|pp=12}}
|natural resources=Hydro-power
[[Forest cover]]: 79.63% (2019){{sfnp|ISFR Vol 1, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 24}}
*Very Dense Forest = 25%
*Mod. Dense Forest = 36%
*Open Forest = 18%
}}
[[File:Boleng AirView1.jpg|thumb|265x265px|[[Boleng]], Siang district]]
'''[[Arunachal Pradesh]]''' is primarily a hilly tract nestled in the foothills of the [[Himalayas]] in [[northeast India]]. It is spread over an area of {{convert|83743|sqkm|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|others=Hosted by: G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development. Sponsored by: Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, Govt of India|title=Arunachal Pradesh: Physiography, At a glance|url=http://gbpihedenvis.nic.in/Arunachal_glance.html|access-date=2021-06-23|website=gbpihedenvis.nic.in|publisher=ENVIS Centre on Himalayan Ecology}}</ref> 98% of the geographical area is land out of which 80% is forest cover;{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 1, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 24}} 2% is water.{{sfnp|Space Applications Centre, ISRO|2009|loc=pg. 19}} River systems in the region, including those from the higher Himalayas and [[Patkoi]] and [[Arakan Mountains|Arakan Ranges]], eventually drain into the [[Brahmaputra River]].{{Sfn|Sharma|Shukla|1992|p=6–7}}

Elevation ranges from mountains that are above {{Convert|7000|m|feet}},{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=5}} to the towns in the plains with an elevation of less than {{Convert|300|m|feet}}.{{sfnp|State Profile of Arunachal Pradesh, Branch MSME Itanagar|2013|loc=pg. 41}} Arunachal shares international borders with [[Bhutan]], [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]] ([[China]]) and [[Burma|Burma (Myanmar)]]. Internally, Arunachal borders the states of [[Assam]] and [[Nagaland]]. Arunachal is called the "orchid state of India"<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 June 2018|title=4 Reasons Why Arunachal Pradesh is a Natural Wonderland|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/68025/4-reasons-arunachal-pradesh-natural-wonderland|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Outlook India Traveller|language=en|quote=We may as well call Arunachal a flowery paradise. Arunachal is also called Orchid State of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-03|title=Launching IUCN Red-listing Process for Orchids in Arunachal Pradesh, India|url=https://www.iucn.org/news/india/202012/launching-iucn-red-listing-process-orchids-arunachal-pradesh-india|access-date=2021-06-23|website=IUCN|language=en|quote=The biodiversity rich North-East States in India are endowed with over 870 species in 159 genera constituting over 73% of the total Orchid species reported from India. Arunachal Pradesh has the highest number of orchid species (around 622 species) reported from the state. Arunachal Pradesh has also been termed as ‘Orchid Paradise of India’ because of the maximum concentration of orchid species (about 40% of the country) in the State.}}</ref> and "dawn-lit mountain/Land of Dawn/Land of Dawn-Lit Mountains".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bolingbroke-Kent|first=Antonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvIZDQAAQBAJ|title=Land of the Dawn-lit Mountains|date=2017-06-15|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4711-5657-1|language=en}}</ref>{{sfnp|Arunachal Pradesh: Human Development Report|2005|loc=pg. 3}}

== Area and borders ==
Arunachal Pradesh is located in [[northeast India]], bordering Bhutan, Tibet (China) and Myanmar internationally.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Border Area Development Programme in Arunachal Pradesh|url=http://arunachalplan.gov.in/html/docs/7_Status_of_BADP.pdf|access-date=31 July 2021|publisher=Department of Planning, Government of Arunachal Pradesh|archive-date=31 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731123355/http://arunachalplan.gov.in/html/docs/7_Status_of_BADP.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The border with Bhutan is {{convert|160|km|abbr=on}}, the China border is {{convert|1080|km|abbr=on}}, and the Myanmar border is {{convert|440|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":4" /> Internal borders includes the [[Assam]]-Arunachal Pradesh border {{convert|804.1|km|abbr=on}},<ref>{{Cite web|title=Boundaries of Assam. Inter-State Border Areas.|url=https://dbpd.assam.gov.in/portlets/boundaries-of-assam|access-date=31 July 2021|website=Directorate Of Border Protection And Development, Border Protection And Development, Government Of Assam|quote=Length of Inter-state Boundary (Source–SOI) ... [...] Assam-Arunachal Pradesh – 804.1 Km}}</ref> while the border with [[Nagaland]] is {{convert|55|km|abbr=on}}.

The territory covers {{convert|83743|sqkm|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":0" /> 98% of the geographical area is land.{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 1, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 24}} Most of this land state is hilly terrain, with flat land covering about {{convert|4450|sqkm|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":4" /> Water covers 2% of the area.{{sfnp|Space Applications Centre, ISRO|2009|loc=pg. 19}} It is the 14th largest among the [[List of states and union territories of India by area|states and union territories of India by area]].<ref name="pib">{{cite web|title=Area of Indian states|url=http://www.ap.gov.in/Other_Docs/COMPARATIVE_STATISTICS_(STATES).pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126011218/http://www.ap.gov.in/Other_Docs/COMPARATIVE_STATISTICS_(STATES).pdf|archive-date=26 November 2013|access-date=31 July 2021|publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh|page=598}}</ref>

== Physical geography ==

=== Topography and relief ===

Relief range varies between plains that are a few hundred meters in height and mountains above {{Convert|7000|m|feet}}.{{Sfn|Sharma|Shukla|1992|p=6-7}} The elevation of the towns of [[Naharlagun]], [[Pasighat]] and [[Tezu]] in the south are 290 m, 155 m and 210 m respectively,{{sfnp|State Profile of Arunachal Pradesh, Branch MSME Itanagar|2013|loc=pg. 41}} while [[Kangto]], [[Nyegyi Kansang|Nyegi Kangsang]] and the [[Gori Chen|Gorichen]] group of mountains are some of the highest peaks in this region of the [[Himalayas]].{{Sfn|Sharma|Shukla|1992|p=7}} The southern borders of Arunachal Pradesh are encompassed by the [[Sivalik Hills|Shivalik ranges]] which merge into plains.{{Sfn|Sharma|Shukla|1992|p=6-7}} The hills and mountains have associated features such as valleys and intermontane plateaus, that is plateaus between mountains.{{Sfn|Sharma|Shukla|1992|p=6-7}}

{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|28.072|94.504}}
| zoom = 7
| width = 650
| height = 300
| float = right
| caption = Passes and mountains in Arunachal, or on or close to its borders.<ref>{{Cite map |author = OpenStreetMap contributors |author-link = OpenStreetMap |date = 4 July 2021 |map = Arunachal Pradesh |map-url = https://www.openstreetmap.org/#map=7/27.411/93.208 |title = OpenStreetMap |access-date = 4 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=State Map of Arunachal Pradesh (1:750000; 2 centimeters= 15 kilometers) |url=https://surveyofindia.gov.in/files/Arunachal_Pradesh.pdf |publisher=[[Survey of India]], Government of India |access-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421225911/http://surveyofindia.gov.in/files/Arunachal_Pradesh_1.pdf |archive-date=21 April 2015 |date=2013 |quote=Published under Dr Swarna Subba Rao, Surveyor General of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Frank Ludlow |author1-link=Frank Ludlow |title=Eastern Himalaya 1940 |url=https://www.claudearpi.net/maps |website=claudearpi.net |access-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112005243/https://www.claudearpi.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/1940-Eastern-Himalaya-by-Ludlow-from-HJ-v12-s.pdf |archive-date=12 January 2021 |quote=Map prepared by Frank Ludlow during his visit to NEFA}}</ref><ref>*{{Citation|last=U.S. Army Map Service|title=NG 46-2 Towang. Tile of the Map India and Pakistan 1:250,000. Series U502|date=1955|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_India_and_Pakistan_1-250,000_Tile_NG_46-2_Towang.jpg|access-date=2021-07-06|author-link=U.S. Army Map Service}}
*{{Citation|last=U.S. Army Map Service|title=NH 46-15 Kyimdong Dzong12. Tile of the Map India and Pakistan 1:250,000. Series U502|date=1955|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_India_and_Pakistan_1-250,000_Tile_NH_46-15_Kyimdong_Dzong.jpg|access-date=2021-07-05}}
*{{Citation|last=U.S. Army Map Service|title=NH 46-12 Namcha Barwa. Tile of the Map China 1:250,000. Series L500|date=1954|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Txu-oclc-10552568-nh46-12.jpg|access-date=2021-07-05}}
*{{Citation|last=U.S. Army Map Service|title=NH 47-9 Su-Tun. Tile of the Map China 1:250,000. Series L500|date=1954|url=http://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/china/txu-oclc-10552568-nh47-9.jpg|access-date=2021-07-05}}
*{{Citation|last=U.S. Army Map Service|title=NH 47-13 Li-Ma. Tile of the Map China 1:250,000. Series L500|date=1954|url=http://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/china/txu-oclc-10552568-nh47-13.jpg|access-date=2021-07-05}}
*{{Citation|last=U.S. Army Map Service|title=NG 47-1 Putao. Tile of the Map Burma 1:250,000. Series U542|date=1955|url=http://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/burma/txu-oclc-6924198-ng47-1.jpg|access-date=2021-07-05}}
*{{Citation|last=U.S. Army Map Service|title=NG 46-8 Sibsagar. Tile of the Map Burma 1:250,000. Series U542|date=1955|url=https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/burma/txu-oclc-6924198-ng46-8.jpg|access-date=2021-07-06}}</ref>
Legend： 
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|1}}: [[Gori Chen]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|2}}: [[Kangto]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|3}}: [[Bum La Pass]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|4}}: Yonggyap La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|5}}: [[Nyegyi Kansang]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|6}}: [[Diphu Pass]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|7}}: [[Sela Pass]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|8}}: Dzo La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|9}}: Chubumbu La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|10}}: Gyoa La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|11}}: Lo La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|12}}: Shagam La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|13}}: Tama La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|14}}: Tapgyu La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|15}}: Chupung La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|16}}: Kashong La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|17}}: Andra La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|18}}: Zhabu La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|19}}: Kaya La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|20}}: [[Pangsau Pass]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|21}}: Kumjawng Pass
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|22}}: Chaukan Pass
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|23}}: Hpungan Pass
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|24}}: Dafla Range High Point
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|25}}: Dapha Bum
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|26}}: Pakhain Range High Point
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|27}}: Tulung La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|28}}: Chumo
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|29}}: Lusha Pass
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|30}}: Kangri Karpo La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|31}}: Adjamkho La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|32}}: Tsang Khang La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|33}}: [[Glei Dakhru]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|34}}: [[Mayodia Pass]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|35}}: [[Kepang La]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|36}}: Siang Pass
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|37}}: Aguia La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|38}}: [[Hadigra Dakhru]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|39}}: [[Milakatong La]]
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|40}}: Chera La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|41}}: Tse La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|42}}: Poshing La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|43}}: Shoka La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|44}}: Tunga La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|45}}: Vorjing Peak
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|46}}: Lamdo La
[[File:DeepPink pog.svg|5px]]{{color|blue|47}}: Tsangdhar

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| mark-sizeD = 5

| label = 1
| mark-coord = {{coord|27.79515|92.387707}}
| label-pos = top
| mark-title = Gori Chen
| mark-image =
| mark-description = Gori Chen
| label-size = 9

| mark-coord1 = {{coord|27.865|92.5325}}
| mark-title1 = Kangto
| mark-description1 = Kangto
| label1 = 2
| label-pos1 = bottom
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| mark-coord2 = {{coord|27.7232796|91.8915823}}
| mark-title2 = Bum La
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| label2 = 3
| label-pos2 = left
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| mark-coord3 = {{coord| 29.2155392|95.7042680}}
| mark-title3 = Yonggyap La
| mark-description3 = Yonggyap La
| label3 = 4
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| mark-coord4 = {{coord|27.936667|92.666667}}
| mark-title4 = Nyegyi Kansang
| mark-description4 = Nyegyi Kansang
| label4 = 5
| label-pos4 = right
| label-size4 = 9

| mark-coord5 = {{coord|28.15|97.333333}}
| mark-title5 = Diphu Pass
| mark-description5 = Diphu Pass
| label5 = 6
| label-pos5 = right
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| mark-coord6 = {{coord|27.504808|92.104698}}
| mark-title6 = Sela Pass
| mark-description6 = Sela Pass
| label6 = 7
| label-pos6 = right
| label-size6 = 9

| mark-coord7 = {{coord|28.6886973|93.5009888}}
| mark-title7 = Dzo La
| mark-description7 = Dzo La
| label7 = 8
| label-pos7 = left
| label-size7 = 9

| mark-coord8 = {{coord| 28.6793846|93.6624820}}
| mark-title8 = Chubumbu La
| mark-description8 = Chubumbu La
| label8 = 9
| label-pos8 = top
| label-size8 = 9

| mark-coord9 = {{coord| 28.7193768|93.7768052}}
| mark-title9 = Gyoa La
| mark-description9 = Gyoa La
| label9 = 10
| label-pos9 = top
| label-size9 = 9

| mark-coord10 = {{coord| 28.7497379|93.8176587}}
| mark-title10 = Lo La
| mark-description10 = Lo La
| label10 = 11
| label-pos10 = bottom
| label-size10 = 9

| mark-coord11 = {{coord|28.5905124|93.2462130}}
| mark-title11 = Shagam La
| mark-description11 = Shagam La
| label11= 12
| label-pos11 = right
| label-size11 = 9

| mark-coord12 = {{coord|28.5602022|93.2146506}}
| mark-title12 = Tama La
| mark-description12 = Tama La
| label12= 13
| label-pos12 = left
| label-size12 = 9

| mark-coord13 = {{coord|28.5022976|93.1808365}}
| mark-title13 = Tapgyu La
| mark-description13 = Tapgyu La
| label13= 14
| label-pos13 = right
| label-size13 = 9

| mark-coord14 = {{coord|28.3139044|93.0667345}}
| mark-title14 = Chupung La
| mark-description14 = Chupung La
| label14= 15
| label-pos14 = right
| label-size14 = 9

| mark-coord15 = {{coord|28.2985556|93.0191791}}
| mark-title15 = Kashong La
| mark-description15 = Kashong La
| label15= 16
| label-pos15 = top
| label-size15 = 9

| mark-coord16 = {{coord|29.1856604|95.5647377}}
| mark-title16 = Andra La
| mark-description16 = Andra La
| label16= 17
| label-pos16 = bottom
| label-size16 = 9

| mark-coord17 = {{coord|29.1918097|95.4404433}}
| mark-title17 = Zhabu La
| mark-description17 = Zhabu La
| label17=18
| label-pos17 = top
| label-size17 = 9

| mark-coord18 = {{coord|28.8069256|96.5797805}}
| mark-title18 = Kaya la
| mark-description18 = Kaya la
| label18=19
| label-pos18 = left
| label-size18 = 9

| mark-coord19 = {{coord|27.2476893|96.1544252}}
| mark-title19 = Pangsau Pass
| mark-description19 = Pangsau Pass
| label19=20
| label-pos19 = top
| label-size19 = 9

| mark-coord20 = {{coord|27.8011130|97.1425208}}
| mark-title20 = Kumjawng Pass
| mark-description20 =Kumjawng Pass
| label20=21
| label-pos20 = top
| label-size20 = 9

| mark-coord21 = {{coord|27.1178629|97.1746370}}
| mark-title21 = Chaukan Pass
| mark-description21 =Chaukan Pass
| label21=22
| label-pos21 = right
| label-size21 = 9

| mark-coord22 = {{coord|27.4690910|96.9289169}}
| mark-title22 = Hpungan Pass
| mark-description22 =Hpungan Pass
| label22=23
| label-pos22 = left
| label-size22 = 9

| mark-coord23 = {{coord|27.5544165|93.3298928}}
| mark-title23 = Dafla Range High Point
| mark-description23 =Dafla Range High Point
| label23=24
| label-pos23 = right
| label-size23 = 9

| mark-coord24 = {{coord|27.6608317|96.6824904}}
| mark-title24 = Dapha Bum
| mark-description24 =Dapha Bum
| label24=25
| label-pos24 = right
| label-size24 = 9

| mark-coord25 = {{coord|26.816|95.523}}
| mark-title25 = Pakhain Range High Point
| mark-description25 =Pakhain Range High Point
| label25=26
| label-pos25 = top
| label-size25= 9

| mark-coord26 = {{coord|27.8858164|92.2689598}}
| mark-title26 = Tulung La
| mark-description26 =Tulung La
| label26=27
| label-pos26 = left
| label-size26= 9

| mark-coord27 = {{coord|27.909963|92.62562}}
| mark-title27 = Chumo
| mark-description27 =Chumo
| label27=28
| label-pos27 = bottom
| label-size27= 9

| mark-coord28 = {{coord|29.3033160|94.6535682}}
| mark-title28 = Lusha Pass
| mark-description28 =Lusha Pass
| label28=29
| label-pos28 = left
| label-size28= 9

| mark-coord29 = {{coord|29.1053062|95.2214729}}
| mark-title29 = Kangri Karpo La
| mark-description29 =Kangri Karpo La
| label29=30
| label-pos29 = bottom
| label-size29= 9

| mark-coord30 = {{coord|29.3428280|96.1388682}}
| mark-title30 = Adjamkho La
| mark-description30 =Adjamkho La
| label30=31
| label-pos30 = right
| label-size30= 9

| mark-coord31 = {{coord|29.1703746|96.3183402}}
| mark-title31 = Tsang Khang La
| mark-description31 =Tsang Khang La
| label31=32
| label-pos31 = top
| label-size31= 9

| mark-coord32 = {{coord|28.4927375|96.8393970}}
| mark-title32 = Glai-takru Pass
| mark-description32 =Glai-takru Pass
| label32=33
| label-pos32 = right
| label-size32= 9

| mark-coord33 = {{coord|26.89746643|92.16775821}}
| mark-title33 = 275m
| mark-description33 =275m
| label33=275m
| label-pos33 = right
| label-size33= 9
| mark-size33 = 0
| label-color33 = black

| mark-coord34 = {{coord|26.95956248|92.30313136}}
| mark-title34 = 580m
| mark-description34 =580m
| label34=580m
| label-pos34 = right
| label-size34= 9
| mark-size34 = 0
| label-color34 = black

| mark-coord35 = {{coord|28.233611|95.91}}
| mark-title35 = Mayodia Pass
| mark-description35 =Mayodia Pass
| label35=34
| label-pos35 = right
| label-size35= 9

| mark-coord36 = {{coord|29.1530720|94.9780626}}
| mark-title36 = Kepang La
| mark-description36 =Kepang La
| label36=35
| label-pos36 = bottom
| label-size36= 9

| mark-coord37 = {{coord|29.1307154|95.0988277}}
| mark-title37 = Siang Pass
| mark-description37 =Siang Pass
| label37=36
| label-pos37 = top
| label-size37= 9

| mark-coord38 = {{coord|29.1865451|96.3021881}}
| mark-title38 = Aguia La
| mark-description38 =Aguia La
| label38=37
| label-pos38 = right
| label-size38= 9

| mark-coord39 = {{coord|28.5582125|96.7567124}}
| mark-title39 = Hadigra Dakhru
| mark-description39 =Hadigra Dakhru
| label39=38
| label-pos39 = right
| label-size39= 9

| mark-coord40 = {{coord|27.6969291|91.9584630}}
| mark-title40 = Milakatong La
| mark-description40 =Milakatong La
| label40=39
| label-pos40 = bottom
| label-size40= 9

| mark-coord41 = {{coord|27.676600|92.228122}}
| mark-title41 = Chera La
| mark-description41 =Chera La
| label41=40
| label-pos41 = top
| label-size41= 9

| mark-coord42 = {{coord|27.653750|92.367444}}
| mark-title42 = Tse La
| mark-description42 =Tse La
| label42=41
| label-pos42 = right
| label-size42= 9

| mark-coord43 = {{coord|27.551083|92.372592}}
| mark-title43 = Poshing La
| mark-description43 =Poshing La
| label43=42
| label-pos43 = right
| label-size43= 9

| mark-coord44 = {{coord|29.1279214|94.2617033}}
| mark-title44 = Shoka La
| mark-description44 =Shoka La
| label44=43
| label-pos44 = left
| label-size44= 9

| mark-coord45 = {{coord|28.9672122|94.2316807}}
| mark-title45 = Tunga Pass
| mark-description45 =Tunga Pass
| label45=44
| label-pos45 = left
| label-size45= 9

| mark-coord46 = {{coord|28.5254541|94.1004861}}
| mark-title46 = Vorjing Peak
| mark-description46 =Vorjing Peak
| label46=45
| label-pos46 = left
| label-size46= 9

| mark-coord47 = {{coord|29.2347497|94.5502820}}
| mark-title47 = Lamdo La
| mark-description47 =Lamdo La, Lamba La
| label47=46
| label-pos47 = left
| label-size47= 9

| mark-coord48 = {{coord|27.8070063|91.6435675}}
| mark-title48 = Tsangdhar
| mark-description48 =Tsangdhar
| label48=47
| label-pos48 = left
| label-size48= 9
}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Major Mountains and their Peaks
!''Mountain'' name
! Peak
!Coordinates
!Refs
|-
|[[Kangto]] #
|{{Convert|7089|m|feet}}
|{{Coord|27.865|92.532}}
|{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=5}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kangtö|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=12848|access-date=2021-07-04|website=Peakbagger.com}}</ref>
|-
|[[Nyegyi Kansang]] #
|{{Convert|7047|m|feet}}
|{{Coord|27.936|92.666}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nyegyi Kansang|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=12846|access-date=2021-07-04|website=Peakbagger.com}}</ref>
|-
|Chumo #
|{{Convert|6890|m|feet}}
|{{Coord|27.909|92.625}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chumo|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=35158|access-date=2021-07-04|website=Peakbagger.com}}</ref>
|-
|Tapka Shiri # **
|{{Convert|6565|m|feet}}
|{{Coord|28.176|92.767}}
|{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=5}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Takpa Shiri|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=35161|access-date=2021-07-04|website=Peakbagger.com}}</ref>
|-
|[[Gori Chen]]
|{{Convert|6530|m|feet}}
|{{Coord|27.795|92.387}}
|<ref>{{Citation|last=U.S. Army Map Service, Corps of Engineers|title=NG 46-2 Towang. Tile of the Map India and Pakistan 1:250,000. Series U502, U.S. Army Map Service, 1955|date=1955|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_India_and_Pakistan_1-250,000_Tile_NG_46-2_Towang.jpg|publication-date=1961|access-date=2021-07-04}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Bailey|first=Frederick Marshman|title=North-East Frontier of India (Arunachal Pradesh) and eastern Tibet, exploration in 1913 by Morshead and Bailey|date=1913|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1913_North-Eastern_Frontier_and_Tibet_by_Morshead_and_Bailey_from_RE_Journal_1921.jpg|access-date=2021-07-04}}</ref>
|-
|Shalundi
|{{Convert|4810|m|feet}}
|
|{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=5}}
|-
|Dapha Bum
|{{Convert|4578|m|feet}}
|{{Coord|27.660|96.699}}
|{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=5}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dapha Bum|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=12907|access-date=2021-07-04|website=Peakbagger.com}}</ref>
|-
|Komdi
|{{Convert|4185|m|feet}}
|
|{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=5}}
|-
|Vorjing
|{{Convert|3991|m|feet}}
|{{Coord|28.525|94.100}}
|{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=5}}
|-
|Ladu
|{{Convert|3041|m|feet}}
|
|{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=5}}
|-
| colspan="4" |# Mountain (as compared to the peak) is located in both India and China
** This is not [[Dakpa Sheri]], {{Convert|5,735|m|feet}}<ref name=":2" />
|}
[[File:Sunrise in the Himalayas (11096205714).jpg|thumb|[[Gori Chen|Gorichen]] group]]
[[File:Madhuri Lake.jpg|thumb|[[Sangetsar Tso]]]]

Parts of the [[Lohit district]], [[Changlang district]] and [[Tirap district]] are covered by the [[Patkai]] hills. The hills extend towards [[Nagaland]], and form a natural boundary between India and Burma.<ref>{{Cite book|date=1980|orig-year=|editor-last=Choudhury|editor-first=S. Dutta|title=Tirap District, Arunachal Pradesh, Gazetteer of India.|url=https://www.arunachalpradesh.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Tirap-District-Gazetteer.pdf|access-date=1 August 2021|website=Government of Arunachal Pradesh|publisher=R.N. Bagchi, Director of Information and Public Relations, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, Shillong|pages=3, 226|isbn=9788190658713}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=April 2017|title=North East India: People, History and Culture|url=https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/publication/otherpublications/tinei101.pdf|access-date=1 August 2021|website=National Council of Educational Research and Training|page=10}}</ref>

[[Namcha Barwa Himal]] range extends into India up to [[Siyom River]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=H. Adams|date=1985|title=Classification of the Himalaya|url=https://c498469.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/1985/109_carter_himalaya_aaj1985.pdf|journal=American Alpine Journal|pages=111|access-date=1 August 2021}}</ref>

Major hills found in this region include:{{Sfn|Sharma|Shukla|1992|p=6}}
* Aka Hills
* [[Daphla Hills]]
* Miri Hills
* [[Abor Hills]]
* [[Mishmi Hills]]
* [[Patkai Hills]]

{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|28.072|94.504}}
| zoom = 7
| width = 650
| height = 300
| float = center
| caption = Hills<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-02-01|title=A composite rupture model for the great 1950 Assam earthquake across the cusp of the East Himalayan Syntaxis|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|language=en|volume=531|at=Figure 1, 2 and 3|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2019.115928|issn=0012-821X|last1=Coudurier-Curveur|first1=A.|last2=Tapponnier|first2=P.|last3=Okal|first3=E.|last4=Van Der Woerd|first4=J.|last5=Kali|first5=E.|last6=Choudhury|first6=S.|last7=Baruah|first7=S.|last8=Etchebes|first8=M.|last9=Karakaş|first9=Ç.|bibcode=2020E&PSL.53115928C|s2cid=210142365|doi-access=free|hdl=10356/136999|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>Páll-Gergely, Barna & Fehér, Zoltán & Hunyadi, András & Asami, Takahiro. (2015). Revision of the genus Pseudopomatias and its relatives (Gastropoda: Cyclophoroidea: Pupinidae). pp. 8. Zootaxa. 3937. 1-49. 10.11646/zootaxa.3937.1.1.</ref> and altitudes of selected towns in the state.{{sfnp|State Profile of Arunachal Pradesh, Branch MSME Itanagar|2013|loc=pg. 41}}
| fullscreen-option = no

| label-sizeD = 10
| label-colorD = blue
| mark-sizeD = 5

| label = Mishmi Hills
| mark-coord = {{coord|28.7327|95.9742}}
| label-pos = right
| mark-size = 0
| mark-title = Mishmi Hills
| mark-image =
| mark-description = Mishmi Hills
| label-size = 14
|label-color = green
|label-angle = 45

| label1 = Arbor Hills
| mark-coord1 = {{coord|28.5423|94.8457}}
| label-pos1 = right
| mark-size1 = 0
| mark-title1 = Arbor Hills
| mark-image1 =
| mark-description1 = Arbor Hills
| label-size1 = 14
|label-color1 = green
|label-angle1 = 25

| label2 = Miri Hills
| mark-coord2 = {{coord|28.4356|94.0479}}
| label-pos2 = right
| mark-size2 = 0
| mark-title2 = Miri Hills
| mark-image2 =
| mark-description2 = Miri Hills
| label-size2 = 14
|label-color2 = green
|label-angle2 = 25

| label3 = Dafla Hills
| mark-coord3 = {{coord|27.8007|93.0302}}
| label-pos3 = right
| mark-size3 = 0
| mark-title3 = Dafla Hills
| mark-image3 =
| mark-description3 = Dafla Hills
| label-size3 = 14
|label-color3 = green
|label-angle3 = 25

| label4 = Patkai Bum
| mark-coord4 = {{coord|27.2094|95.8464}}
| label-pos4 = right
| mark-size4 = 0
| mark-title4 = Patkai Bum
| mark-image4 =
| mark-description4 = Patkai Bum
| label-size4 = 14
|label-color4 = green
|label-angle4 = -20

| label5 = Naga Hills
| mark-coord5 = {{coord|26.9146|95.0060}}
| label-pos5 = right
| mark-size5 = 0
| mark-title5 = Naga Hills
| mark-image5 =
| mark-description5 = Naga Hills
| label-size5 = 12
|label-color5 = green
|label-angle5 = -20

| mark-coord6 = {{coord|27.5879186|91.8637330}}
| mark-title6 = Tawang
| mark-description6 =Tawang
| mark-size6 = 0
| labela6=Tawang
| labelb6=3025m
| label-pos6 = top
| label-size6= 9
| label-color6 = grey
| label-angle6 = 0
| label-offset-y6=10

| mark-coord7 = {{coord|27.566389|93.831389}}
| mark-title7 = Ziro
| mark-description7 =Ziro
| mark-size7 = 0
| labela7=Ziro
| labelb7=1572m
| label-pos7 = top
| label-size7= 9
| label-color7 = grey
| label-angle7 = 0
| label-offset-y7=10

| mark-coord8 = {{coord|27.35|93.045556}}
| mark-title8 = Seppa
| mark-description8 =Seppa
| mark-size8 = 0
| labela8=Seppa
| labelb8=363m
| label-pos8 = top
| label-size8= 9
| label-color8 = grey
| label-angle8 = 0
| label-offset-y8=10

| mark-coord9 = {{coord|27.103029|93.700848}}
| mark-title9 = Naharlagun
| mark-description9 =Naharlagun
| mark-size9 = 0
| labela9=Naharlagun
| labelb9=290m
| label-pos9 = top
| label-size9= 9
| label-color9 =grey
| label-angle9 = 0
| label-offset-y9=10

| mark-coord10 = {{coord|27.916667|93.35}}
| mark-title10 = Koloriang
| mark-description10 =Koloriang
| mark-size10 = 0
| labela10=Koloriang
| labelb10=1004m
| label-pos10 = top
| label-size10= 9
| label-color10 = grey
| label-angle10 = 0
| label-offset-y10=10

| mark-coord11 = {{coord|27.986111|94.220833}}
| mark-title11 = Daporijo
| mark-description11 =Daporijo
| mark-size11 = 0
| labela11=Daporijo
| labelb11=500m
| label-pos11 = top
| label-size11= 9
| label-color11 = grey
| label-angle11 = 0
| label-offset-y11=10

| mark-coord12 = {{coord|28.17|94.77}}
| mark-title12 = Aalo
| mark-description12 =Aalo
| mark-size12 = 0
| labela12=Aalo
| labelb12=300m
| label-pos12 = top
| label-size12= 9
| label-color12 = grey
| label-angle12 = 0
| label-offset-y12=10

| mark-coord13 = {{coord|28.07|95.33}}
| mark-title13 = Pasighat
| mark-description13 =Pasighat
| mark-size13 = 0
| labela13=Pasighat
| labelb13=155m
| label-pos13 = top
| label-size13= 9
| label-color13 = grey
| label-angle13 = 0
| label-offset-y13=10

| mark-coord14 = {{coord|28.61037|95.047531}}
| mark-title14 = Yingkiong
| mark-description14 =Yingkiong
| mark-size14 = 0
| labela14=Yingkiong
| labelb14=500m
| label-pos14 = top
| label-size14= 9
| label-color14 = grey
| label-angle14 = 0
| label-offset-y14=10

| mark-coord15 = {{coord|28.798056|95.903611}}
| mark-title15 = Anini
| mark-description15 =Anini
| mark-size15 = 0
| labela15=Anini
| labelb15=1968m
| label-pos15 = top
| label-size15= 9
| label-color15 = grey
| label-angle15 = 0
| label-offset-y15=10

| mark-coord16 = {{coord|28.142778|95.842778}}
| mark-title16 =Roing
| mark-description16 =Roing
| mark-size16 = 0
| labela16=Roing
| labelb16=390m
| label-pos16 = top
| label-size16= 9
| label-color16 = grey
| label-angle16 = 0
| label-offset-y16=10

| mark-coord17 = {{coord|27.92|96.17}}
| mark-title17 = Tezu
| mark-description17 =Tezu
| mark-size17 = 0
| labela17=Tezu
| labelb17=210m
| label-pos17 = top
| label-size17= 9
| label-color17 = grey
| label-angle17 = 0
| label-offset-y17=10

| mark-coord18 = {{coord|28.062885|96.548023}}
| mark-title18 = Hayuliang
| mark-description18 =Hayuliang
| mark-size18 = 0
| labela18=Hayuliang
| labelb18=750m
| label-pos18 = top
| label-size18= 9
| label-color18 = grey
| label-angle18 = 0
| label-offset-y18=10

| mark-coord19 = {{coord|27.12|95.71}}
| mark-title19 = Changlang
| mark-description19 =Changlang
| mark-size19= 0
| labela19=Changlang
| labelb19=580m
| label-pos19 = top
| label-size19= 9
| label-color19 = grey
| label-angle19 = 0
| label-offset-y19=10

| mark-coord20 = {{coord|27.02|95.57}}
| mark-title20 = Khonsa
| mark-description20 =Khonsa
| mark-size20 = 0
| labela20=Khonsa
| labelb20=1278m
| label-pos20 = top
| label-size20= 9
| label-color20 = grey
| label-angle20 = 0
| label-offset-y20=20

| mark-coord21 = {{coord|27.25|92.4}}
| mark-title21 = Bomdila
| mark-description21 =Bomdila
| mark-size21 = 0
| labela21=Bomdila
| labelb21=2415m
| label-pos21 = top
| label-size21= 9
| label-color21 = grey
| label-angle21 = 0
| label-offset-y21=20
}}

=== Drainage and river systems ===
Water/wetland cover is {{Convert|154609|ha|km2}} or 1.91% of the total area.{{sfnp|Space Applications Centre, ISRO|2009|loc=pg. 19}} Out of this, 86% of wetlands are rivers.{{sfnp|Space Applications Centre, ISRO|2009|loc=pg. 19}} Lohit district and Dibang Valley district have the highest number of wetlands in the state.{{sfnp|Space Applications Centre, ISRO|2009|loc=pg. 19}} [[File:Lohit river, Arunachal Pradesh, India.jpg|thumb|[[Lohit River]]]]
[[File:Bong bong falls.jpg|thumb|[[Nuranang Falls]]]]
The major river systems are (from west to east clockwise):{{Sfn|Singh|2005|p=6}}{{Sfn|Sharma|Shukla|1992|p=8–10}}

* [[Kameng River|Kameng]]
* [[Subansiri River|Subansiri]]
* [[Brahmaputra River|Siang]]
* [[Dibang River|Dibang]]
* [[Lohit River|Lohit]]

All of these are fed by snow from the Himalayas and numerous rivers and rivulets and eventually flow into Siang/Brahmaputra. [[Abrasion (geology)|Abrasion]] by the rivers which flow through the mountains has created a broad valley, which is a major feature of the geography of the state.
[[File:River Siyom, Aalo, Arunachal Pradesh.jpg|thumb|[[Siyom River|River Siyom]]]]

Other rivers include [[Tawang Chu]], [[Dikrong River|Dikrong]], [[Ranganadi River|Ranga]], Kamala/Kamla, Kamplang, [[Siyom River|Siyum]], [[Dihing River|Dihing]]/ Noadihing and [[Tirap River|Tirap]].{{Sfn|Singh|Abujam|Das|2019|p=1}} [[File:Arunachal rivers and basins.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|Major rivers in Arunachal and their basins]]
<gallery caption="Four major river basins of the state">
File:Kameng River Basin.png|Kameng River Basin
File:Subansiri River Basin.jpg|Subansiri River basin
File:Dibang River Basin.png|Dibang River basin
File:Lohit River Basin.png|Lohit River basin
</gallery>

== Biodiversity ==

=== Eco-regions and forest types ===
Arunachal consists of a number of eco-regions. At the lowest elevations, at Arunachal Pradesh's border with [[Assam]], are the [[Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests]]. Much of the state, including the Himalayan foothills and the [[Patkai]] hills, are home to [[Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests]]. Towards the northern border with Tibet, with increasing elevation, come a mixture of [[Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests|Eastern]] and [[Northeastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests]] followed by [[Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]].{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}<gallery widths="140" heights="140" caption="Ecoregions">
File:Ecoregion IM0401.png|[[Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests]]
File:Ecoregion IM0501.png|[[Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests]]
File:Ecoregion PA0514.png|[[Northeastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests]]
File:Ecoregion IM0105.svg|[[Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests]]
File:Ecoregion PA1003.png|[[Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]]
</gallery>

Climatically, the forests can be categorised as [[Tropical forests]], [[laurel forest|subtropical forests]], [[temperate forest]], subalpine [[coniferous forest]], alpine and secondary forests.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Bharali|first1=Sanjeeb|last2=Khan|first2=Mohamed Latif|date=2011|title=Climate change and its impact on biodiversity; some management options for mitigation in Arunachal Pradesh|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24079121|journal=Current Science|volume=101|issue=7|pages=855–860|jstor=24079121|issn=0011-3891}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Arunachal Pradesh Geography|url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/arunachal-pradesh/geography.html|work=mapsofindia.com|accessdate=16 May 2015}}</ref> At the lowest elevations, densely forested areas are seen with the trees ranging from [[seasonal tropical forest]] to [[Broadleaf forest|broadleaf]] and semi-alpine [[coniferous]] forests. Alpine shrubs and meadows follow, ultimately leading to ice-clad peaks.
[[File:Evergreen forest 1.jpg|thumb|400x400px|Evergreen forest of Pakke, Aurnachal Pradesh.]]
The [[Forest Research Institute (India)|Forest Research Institute of India's]] ''India State of Forest Report 2019'' lists area under different forest types in the state.{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 18}} The major forest types as a percentage of the forest cover area are:

* East Himalayan Sub-Tropical Wet Hill Forest = 24.35%{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 18}}
* East Himalayan Wet Temperate Forest = 22.92%{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 18}}
* East Himalayan Sub-Alpine Birch/Fir Forest = 13.46%{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 18}}
* Alpine Pastures = 6.73%{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 18}}
* Sub-Himalayan Light Alluvial Semi-Evergreen Forest = 6.60%{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 18}}
* Others = Remaining{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 18}}

Forest cover varies from 54% in [[Tawang district]] to 92% in [[Papum Pare district]].{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 15}} There are 110 species of trees.{{sfnp|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019|loc=pg. 18}}

Protected areas include the [[Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve]], [[Namdapha National Park]], [[Mouling National Park]], and 11 wildlife sanctuaries and reserves including elephant reserves, tiger reserves and an orchid sanctuary,{{efn|[[D'Ering Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Itanagar Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kameng Elephant Reserve]], [[Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Pakke Tiger Reserve]], [[Talle Valley Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Dibang Wildlife Sanctuary]] and [[Sessa Orchid Sanctuary]]}} covering about 12% of the geographical area of the state.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rina|first=Tongam|date=31 December 2019|title=Arunachal registers decline in forest cover for second year in a row|url=https://arunachaltimes.in/index.php/2019/12/31/arunachal-registers-decline-in-forest-cover-for-second-year-in-a-row/|access-date=2021-07-05|website=The Arunachal Times}}</ref>

=== Flora and fauna ===
Flora and fauna in the state includes over 4000 species of flowering plants,{{sfnp|Zoological Survey of India|2006|loc=pg. 6}} 600 bird species, 200 fish species,{{Sfn|Singh|Abujam|Das|2019|p=2}} 42 amphibian species, 85 terrestrial mammals and a wide number of insects, butterflies and reptiles.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Arunachal Pradesh at a Glance|url=http://arunachalpradesh.gov.in/rural/html/glance.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102013421/http://arunachalpradesh.gov.in:80/rural/html/glance.htm|archive-date=2 January 2017|work=arunachalpradesh.gov.in|accessdate=16 May 2015}}</ref> [[Orchids]], [[fern]], [[bamboo]], [[Cane (grass)|cane]], [[rhododendrons]], [[oak]], hedychiums, and various medicinal plants form a diverse range of the state's green cover. Among the crops grow are rice, nigros, maize, millet, wheat, pulses, sugarcane, ginger, and oilseeds. Arunachal is also ideal for horticulture and fruit orchards. Its major industries are rice mills, fruit preservation and processing units, and handloom handicrafts Apart from them, the forests of Arunachal are also home to a large number of people belonging to the different tribes. These tribal people, aloof from urbanization, dwell in these forests where the various forest-based products form a part of their livelihood. Right from the south of the state where the altitude is low we get to see a variety of trees like teak, sal, gutjan, more.<gallery>
File:Strobilanthus, Namdapha.jpg|The Strobilanthus flower at the [[Namdapha National Park]]
File:Austen's Brown Hornbill.jpg|Hornbills at the [[Namdapha National Park]]
File:Male Azure saphire in Arunachal Pradesh AJTJ.jpg|Male azure sapphire
File:Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe, Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1891 200 (1891) (40297843010).jpg|''[[Renanthera imschootiana]]''
File:Eaglenest-forests.jpg|View of [[Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary|Eaglenest forest canopy]]
</gallery>

== Climatic conditions ==
[[File:Sela lake,Arunachal Pradesh.jpg|thumb|264x264px|Sela]]
As per the [[Köppen–Geiger climate classification system]], the most prevalent climate types in the state are [[humid subtropical climate]] and [[monsoon]]-influenced humid subtropical climate.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Climate Arunachal Pradesh: Temperature, climate graph|url=https://en.climate-data.org/asia/india/arunachal-pradesh-783/|access-date=2021-06-23|website=en.climate-data.org}}</ref> Other climates include [[subtropical highland climate]], monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate and monsoon-influenced [[subarctic climate]].<ref name=":3" />

The regions in the lower belts of the state experience hot and humid climates, with a maximum temperature in the foothills reaching up to 40 °C (during the summer). The average temperature in this region in winter ranges from 15° to 21 °C while that during the monsoon season remains between 22° and 30 °C.{{Sfn|Mizuno|Tenpa|2015|p=3}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Par Monthly Climate Averages, Arunachal Pradesh, IN|url=https://www.worldweatheronline.com/par-weather/arunachal-pradesh/in.aspx|access-date=2021-06-23|website=WorldWeatherOnline.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arunachal Pradesh|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/search/search.php3?query=Arunachal+Pradesh|access-date=2021-06-23|website=Weatherbase}}</ref>

Arunachal Pradesh experiences heavy rainfall during May to September. The average rainfall recorded in Arunachal Pradesh is 300 centimeters, varying between 80 centimeters and 450 centimeters.{{Sfn|Sharma|Shukla|1992|p=12}}

== Human geography ==

=== Demographics ===
{{Main|Demographics of Arunachal Pradesh}}

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|List of districts of Arunachal Pradesh|List of constituencies of the Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly}}
{{Arunachal Pradesh districts}}

== See also ==
* [[Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve]]

== References ==
;Notes
{{notelist}}
;References
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
;Books
*{{Cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4LZN5ewzQ8AC|title=Geography and Development of Hill Areas: A Case Study of Arunachal Pradesh|last2=Shukla|first2=Surya Pal|publisher=Mittal Publications|year=1992|isbn=9788170993834|via=Google Books}}
*{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Ravi S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMFaIKNBcwgC|title=Paths of Development in Arunachal Pradesh|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2005|isbn=9788172111830}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Mizuno|first1=Kazuharu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_bLCQAAQBAJ|title=Himalayan Nature and Tibetan Buddhist Culture in Arunachal Pradesh, India: A Study of Monpa|last2=Tenpa|first2=Lobsang|publisher=Springer|year=2015|isbn=9784431554929|via=Google Books}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Achom Darshan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4dqDwAAQBAJ|title=Biodiversity of Fishes in Arunachal Himalaya|last2=Abujam|first2=Santoshkumar|last3=Das|first3=D.N.|publisher=Academic Press, Elsevier|year=2019|isbn=978-0-12-815837-1}}

;Government
*{{Citation|title=India State of Forest Report 2019|url=https://fsi.nic.in/isfr19/vol1/chapter2.pdf|volume=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308032232/https://fsi.nic.in/isfr19/vol1/chapter2.pdf|edition=16|publisher=[[Forest Survey of India]]. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Government of India.|isbn=9788194101802|ref={{sfnref|ISFR Vol 1, Forest Survey of India|2019}}|archive-date=8 March 2021}}
*{{Citation|title=India State of Forest Report 2019|volume=2|edition=16|publisher=[[Forest Survey of India]]. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Government of India.|isbn=9788194101802|ref={{sfnref|ISFR Vol 2, Forest Survey of India|2019}}|url=https://fsi.nic.in/isfr-volume-ii?pgID=isfr-volume-ii|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704134335/https://fsi.nic.in/isfr19/vol2/isfr-2019-vol-ii-arunachal-pradesh.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2021|chapter=11.2 Arunachal Pradesh|chapter-url=https://fsi.nic.in/isfr19/vol2/isfr-2019-vol-ii-arunachal-pradesh.pdf}}
*{{Citation|title=National Wetland Atlas: Arunachal Pradesh|url=https://vedas.sac.gov.in/vedas/downloads/atlas/Wetlands/NWIA_ArunachalPradesh_Atlas.pdf|pages=98|postscript=. (This is a PDF Size:59.00MB)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728225903/http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/NWIA_ArunachalPradesh_Atlas.pdf|publisher=SAC/RESA/AFEG/NWIA/ATLAS/06/2009, Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad, India|ref={{sfnref|Space Applications Centre, ISRO|2009}}|archive-date=28 July 2013}}
*{{Cite book|last=|url=http://faunaofindia.nic.in/PDFVolumes/sfs/054/index.pdf|title=Fauna of Arunachal Pradesh Part-1|work=State Fauna Series 13|publisher=Published by the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata|year=2006|isbn=81-8171-086-X|editor-last=Director (Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata)|ref={{sfnref|Zoological Survey of India|2006}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620204459/http://faunaofindia.nic.in/PDFVolumes/sfs/054/index.pdf|archive-date=20 June 2017}}
*{{Citation|title=Arunachal Pradesh State Action Plan on Climate Change. Consortium: INRM, IIMA, IISc.|date=March 2011|url=http://www.apclimatechange.in/Publication/publish_doc/Arunachal-Pradesh-SAPCC_-_AUGUST-2017.pdf|ref={{sfnref|AP State Action Plan|2011}}}}
*{{Citation|title=State Profile of Arunachal Pradesh|date=2013–2014|url=http://dcmsme.gov.in/old/dips/state_wise_dips/STATE_PROFILE_OF_ARUNACHAL__PRADESH,_2015_14316.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731100602/http://dcmsme.gov.in/old/dips/state_wise_dips/STATE_PROFILE_OF_ARUNACHAL__PRADESH,_2015_14316.pdf|others=Branch MSME-Development Institute. Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh.|publisher=Development Commissioner. Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises. Government of India.|ref={{sfnref|State Profile of Arunachal Pradesh, Branch MSME Itanagar|2013}}|archive-date=31 July 2021}}
*{{Citation|title=Arunachal Pradesh: Human Development Report 2005|url=http://niti.gov.in/planningcommission.gov.in/docs/plans/stateplan/sdr_pdf/shdr_ap05.pdf|others=Prepared by Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh. Planning Commission, NITI Aayog.|publisher=Department of Planning, Government of Arunachal Pradesh.|ref={{sfnref|Arunachal Pradesh: Human Development Report|2005}}}}
{{Commons category|Geography of Arunachal Pradesh}}
{{Arunachal Pradesh}}
{{Northeast India}}
{{Geography of India by state or territory}}
{{Geography of India}}

[[Category:Geography of Arunachal Pradesh| ]]

Arshad Shaik

2025-10-19T11:47:39Z

BrookEjw0071: put up the details needs work!

{{Short description|Indian para cyclist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}

{{MedalTableTop}}
{{MedalSport|Men's [[para-cycling]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Para Cycling Championships|Asian Track Championships]]}}
{{MedalGold|2024 New Delhi|1 km time trial C2}}
{{MedalGold|2024 New Delhi|Scratch C2}}
{{MedalGold|2024 New Delhi|Omnium C2}}
{{MedalGold|2024 New Delhi|Individual pursuit C2}}
{{MedalBottom}}
'''Arshad Shaik''' (Born 2 June 1993)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arshad Shaik |url=https://www.paralympic.org/en/paris-2024-paralympics/athlete/arshad-shaik_2497007 |access-date=2024-09-07 |work=[[Paris 2024 Paralympics]]}} ([https://olympics.com/en/paris-2024-paralympics/athlete/arshad-shaik_2497007 alternate link], [https://paris2024.rtve.es/es/paris-2024-paralimpicos/atleta/arshad-shaik_2497007 alternate link 2])</ref> is an Indian para cyclist from [[Andhra Pradesh]]. He qualified to represent India at the [[India at the 2024 Summer Paralympics|2024 Summer Paralympics]] at [[Paris]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Paul |first=Sanjay Samuel |date=2024-06-13 |title=Two para cyclists from Hyderabad to represent India at Paralympic Games 2024 |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/two-para-cyclists-from-hyderabad-to-represent-india-at-paralympic-games-2024-898833 |access-date=2024-08-13 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tomar |first=Ajay |date=2024-04-21 |title=Two para-cyclists from India break into top-5 of world rankings |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2024/Apr/21/two-para-cyclists-from-india-break-into-top-5-of-world-rankings |access-date=2024-08-13 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-21 |title=Meet 2 Para Cyclists Who Will Represent India In Paris 2024 Summer Paralympic Games |url=https://www.news18.com/sports/meet-2-para-cyclists-who-will-represent-india-in-paris-2024-summer-paralympic-games-8939645.html |access-date=2024-08-13 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref> In the [[Cycling at the 2024 Summer Paralympics – Men's road time trial C2|Men's road time trial C2]], he finished 11th at the Paris Paralympics with a time of 25:20.11 and finished 30th<ref>{{cite web |title=2024-Paralympic Games Updates : Day 10 |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/paralympic-games-2024/paris-2024-paralympic-games-live-updates-day-10-september-7-athletics-javelin-throw-canoe-swimming-cycling-paralympics-updates-6510365 |publisher=NDTV}}</ref> in the men's 1000m time trial C1-3 events. He will also take part in men's time trial C2 and men's road race C1-3.

==Life==

Shaik is from [[Nandyal]], in the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh. He met with an auto rickshaw accident in 2004 and his leg was amputated. He is a product of [[Hyderabad]]-based Aditya Mehta Foundation.<ref name=":0" /> The para athletes from the foundation met the chief minister [[A.Revanth Reddy|A. Revanth Reddy]] and briefed him about the preparations for the Paralympics.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-07-02 |title=Para athletes call on Chief Minister |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/para-athletes-call-on-chief-minister/article68360279.ece |access-date=2024-08-13 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shaik, Arshad}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Paralympic cyclists]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Telugu people]]
[[Category:Cyclists at the 2024 Summer Paralympics]]

{{India-cycling-bio-stub}}

Kochi-Muziris Biennale 2018

2025-10-17T17:25:49Z

BrookEjw0071: starting new page.

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox recurring event
| name = Kochi-Muziris Biennale 2018
| native_name = കൊച്ചി-മുസിരിസ് ബിനാലെ 2018
| native_name_lang = ml
| logo = |logo_caption=Logo of the upcoming Kochi-Muziris Biennale 2018
| logo_size = 200px
| founded = 2012
| begins = 12 December 2018
| ends = 29 March 2019
| genre = International Art Exhibition ([[Contemporary art]])
|people = [[Anita Dube]] (Curator) [[Bose Krishnamachari]] (co-founder and president of KBF)
| attendance = 600,000 (2016-17)<ref name="attendance">{{cite news|title=LuLu Financial Group's Adeeb Ahamed pledges Rs 1 crore to 2018 Kochi-Muziris Biennale|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/kerala/lulu-financial-groups-adeeb-ahamed-pledges-rs-1-crore-to-2018-kochi-muziris-biennale-5290294/|publisher=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=3 August 2018}}</ref>
| location = [[Kochi]], India
| website = {{URL|http://www.kochimuzirisbiennale.org}}
}}
[[File:Kochi-Muziris_Biennale_Logo_2018.jpg | thumb|right | alt=Logo of 4th Kochi-Muziris Biennale of the year 2018 | Logo of 4th Kochi-Muziris Biennale of the year 2018]]
The '''Kochi-Muziris Biennale 2018''' was the fourth edition of the [[Kochi-Muziris Biennale]], an [[International Exhibition|international exhibition]] of [[contemporary art]] held in [[Kochi]], [[Kerala]]. Curated by [[Anita Dube]], it commenced on 12 December 2018 and concluded on 29 March 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asianetnews.com/news/kochi-muziris-biennale-begins-on-december-12|title=കൊച്ചി-മുസിരിസ് ബിനാലെ നാലാം പതിപ്പിൽ പങ്കെടുക്കുന്ന പ്രമുഖർ ഇവരൊക്കെ|work=Asianet news |access-date=2018-07-23|language=ml}}</ref> Similar to previous editions, the main venues included Aspinwall House, Pepper House, Kasi Art Café, Cabral Yard, and David Hall.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asianetnews.com/news/kochi-muziris-biennale-under-government-control|title=കൊച്ചി മുസ്സരിസ് ബിനാലെ ഇനി സർക്കാർ നിയന്ത്രണത്തിൽ; ആസ്പിൻവാൾ സ്ഥിരം വേദി|work=Asianet news|access-date=2018-07-23|language=ml}}</ref> The event was inaugurated by the [[Chief Minister of Kerala]], [[Pinarayi Vijayan]]. The Kochi-Muziris Biennale is organised by the Kochi Biennale Foundation with support from the [[Government of Kerala]].

The curatorial theme for this edition was ''Possibilities for a Non-Alienated Life.''

==History==
In May 2010, [[Mumbai]]-based [[contemporary artists]] of [[Kerala]] origin, [[Bose Krishnamachari]] and [[Riyaz Komu]], were approached by the then Minister for Culture of Kerala, [[M.A. Baby]], to initiate an international art project in the state. Subsequently, the [[Kochi Biennale Foundation]] was established in 2010.

The first Kochi-Muziris Biennale commenced on 12 December 2012. It featured 88 artists from 30 countries, site-specific works, and a sustained educational programme over a period of three months. Subsequent editions were held in 2014 and 2016.

==Features==
===Art room for children===
An art room was established by the Kochi Biennale Foundation as part of the ''Art by Children'' project, aimed at nurturing artistic talent among children.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/ernakulam/news/kochi-muziris-biennale-2018-art-room-for-childrens--1.3397528 |title=കൊച്ചി-മുസിരിസ് ബിനാലെയിൽ കുട്ടികൾക്കായുള്ള ആർട്ട് റൂം തുറന്നു {{!}} Kochi muziris biennale 2018 Art room for Children's |website=www.mathrubhumi.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216223010/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/ernakulam/news/kochi-muziris-biennale-2018-art-room-for-childrens--1.3397528 |archive-date=2018-12-16}}</ref>

===Biennale guided tours===
In addition to providing a short guide and wall texts, the Kochi Biennale Foundation organised free public tours as well as reserved guided walks.<ref>{{cite web |title=Biennale Guided Tours |url=http://www.kochimuzirisbiennale.org/biennale-guided-tours/ |website=Kochi-Muziris Biennale 2018 |publisher=Kochi Biennale Foundation |accessdate=29 December 2018 |date=27 December 2018}}</ref>

==List of artists==
A total of 94 projects by 138 artists from 32 countries were exhibited in the biennale.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/ernakulam/news/kochi-1.2884040|title=കൊച്ചി ബിനാലെ നാലാം ലക്കം: ആർട്ടിസ്റ്റുകളുടെ ആദ്യ പട്ടിക പുറത്തിറക്കി|work=Mathrubhumi|access-date=2018-07-23|archive-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228035445/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/ernakulam/news/kochi-1.2884040|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=ബിനാലെ നാലാംലക്കം : 90 കലാകാരന്മാരുടെ പട്ടികയായി |url=http://www.deshabhimani.com/news/kerala/kochi-biennale/764073 |accessdate=27 December 2018 |publisher=Deshabhimani}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Artist
! Country
|-
| [[Aernout Mik]]
|| [[Netherlands]]
|-
| [[Afrah Shafiq]]
|| [[India]]
|-
| [[Ajay Desai]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|| [[Akram Zaatari]]
|| [[Lebanon]]
|-
|| [[Anjali Monteiro]] and [[K. P. Jayasankar]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Anoli Perera]]
|| [[Sri Lanka]]
|-
|[[Arunkumar. H. G]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Anju Dodiya]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Annu Palakunnathu Matthew]]
|| [[India]] / [[United States]]
|-
|[[Araya Rasdjarmrearnsook]]
|| [[Thailand]]
|-
|[[Arya krishnan]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Bapi Das]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Barthélémy Toguo]]
|| [[Cameroon]]
|-
|[[Bracha Ettinger]]
|| [[Israel]]
|-
|[[Brook Andrew]]
|| [[Australia]]
|-
|[[B. V. Suresh]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Celia-Yunior]]
|| [[Cuba]]
|-
|[[Chandan Gomes]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Chitra Ganesh]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Chittaprosad]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Cyrus Kabiru]]
|| [[Kenya]]
|-
|[[Dennis Muraguri]]
|| [[Kenya]]
|-
|[[Domenec]]
|| [[Spain]]
|-
|[[E. B. Itso]]
|| [[Denmark]]
|-
|[[Edible Archives]] (artist collective)
|| [[India]] (edible-art collective)
|-
|[[Valie Export]]
|| [[Austria]]
|-
|[[Goshka Macuga]]
|| [[Poland]]
|-
|[[Guerrilla Girls]]
|| [[United States]]
|-
|[[Hassan Khan (artist)|Hassan Khan]] and [[Andeel]]
|| [[Egypt]]
|-
|[[Heri Dono]]
|| [[Indonesia]]
|-
|[[Ines Doujak]] and [[John Barker (writer)|John Barker]]
|| [[Austria]] / [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|[[Jitish Kallat]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Julie Gough]]
|| [[Australia]]
|-
|[[Jun Nguyen-Hatsushiba]]
|| [[Japan]] / [[Vietnam]]
|-
|[[Juul Kraijer]]
|| [[Netherlands]]
|-
|[[K P Krishnakumar]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Kausik Mukhopadhyay]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Kibuuka Mukisa Oscar]]
|| [[Uganda]]
|-
|[[Leandro Feal]]
|| [[Cuba]]
|-
|[[Lubna Chowdhary]]
|| [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|[[Madhvi Parekh]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Marlene Dumas]]
|| [[Netherlands]]
|-
|[[Martha Rosler]]
|| [[United States]]
|-
|[[Marzia Farhana]]
|| [[Bangladesh]]
|-
|[[Mireille Kassar]]
|| [[France]] / [[Lebanon]]
|-
|Mochu and Suvani Suri
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Monica Mayer]]
|| [[Mexico]]
|-
|[[Mrinalini Mukherjee]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Nathan Coley]]
|| [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|[[Nilima Sheikh]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Oorali]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|The Otolith Group
|| [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|[[Pangrok Sulap]]
|| [[Malaysia]]
|-
|[[Prabhakar Pachpute]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Priya Ravish Mehra]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Probir Gupta]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Radenko Milak]]
|| [[Bosnia Hercegovina]]
|-
|[[Rana Hamadeh]]
|| [[Netherlands]] / [[Lebanon]]
|-
|[[Rania Stephan]]
|| [[Lebanon]]
|-
|[[Rehana Zaman]]
|| [[Pakistan]]
|-
|[[Rina Banerjee]]
|| [[United States]] / [[India]]
|-
|[[Rula Halawani]]
|| [[Palestine]]
|-
|[[Santha KV]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Santu Mofokeng]]
|| [[South Africa]]
|-
|P. R. Satheesh
|| [[India]]
|-
|Shambhavi
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Shilpa Gupta]]
||[[India]]
|-
|[[Shirin Neshat]]
|| [[Iran]] / [[United States]]
|-
|[[Shubigi Rao]]
|| [[Singapore]]
|-
|Sister Library
|| [[India]]
|-
|Song Dong
|| [[China]]
|-
|[[Sonia Khurana]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Srinagar Biennale]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Sue Williamson]]
|| [[South Africa]]
|-
|Sunil Gupta and Charan Singh
|| [[India]] / [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|[[Sunil Janah]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Tabita Rezaire]]
|| [[France]] [[French Guiana]] [[South Africa]]
|-
|[[Tania Bruguera]]
|| [[Cuba]]
|-
|[[Tania Candiani]]
|| [[Mexico]]
|-
|[[Tejal Shah]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Temsuyanger Longkumer]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Thomas Hirschhorn]]
|| [[Switzerland]]
|-
|[[Vanessa Baird]]
|| [[Norway]]
|-
|[[Veda Thozhur Kolleri]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Vicky Roy]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Vinu VV]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Vipin Dhanurdharan]]
|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Vivian Caccuri]]
|| [[Brazil]]
|-
|Subhash Singh Vyam and Durgabai Vyam|| [[India]]
|-
|[[Walid Raad]]
|| [[Lebanon]]
|-
|[[William Kentridge]]
|| [[South Africa]]
|-
|[[Young-Hae Chang Heavy Industries]]
|| [[South Korea]]
|-
|[[Zanele Muholi]]
|| [[South Africa]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Kochi-Muziris Biennale|Kochi Muziris Biennale]]
*[[Anita Dube]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*{{URL|kochimuzirisbiennale.org|Official website}}

[[Category:Kochi-Muziris Biennale]]
[[Category:Art biennials]]
[[Category:2018 in India]]
[[Category:2019 in India]]
[[Category:2010s in Kerala]]

Radhe Radhe

2025-10-08T01:36:08Z

BrookEjw0071: fix structure based on references and corrected details for clarity

{{Short description|Greeting associated with Goddess Radha, often used in the Braj region of India}}
{{Italic title}}
{{other uses|Radhe Radhe (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
[[File:Statues of Sri Radha Krishna Temple, Varanasi IRCTC 2017 (12).jpg|thumb| ''[[Murti]]'' of [[Radha]] at [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]] [[Varanasi]]]]
'''''Radhe Radhe''''', ({{langx|bra|राधे राधे }}, {{IAST3|Rādhe Rādhe}}), also spelled '''''Radhey Radhey''''', is a [[Braj Bhasha]] expression used as a greeting and salutation in the [[Braj]] region of [[India]]. The greeting is associated with the Hindu goddess [[Radha]], who is the consort of [[Krishna]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Notes|date=2007-01-01|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004154858.i-433.49|work=Time and Time Again|pages=403–428|publisher=BRILL|doi=10.1163/ej.9789004154858.i-433.49|isbn=9789047419167|access-date=2021-09-02|last1=Fraser |first1=J.T. |url-access=subscription}}</ref> She is worshiped as the queen of the Braj region, which includes [[Vrindavan]], [[Barsana]], [[Gokul]], [[Nandgaon, Uttar Pradesh|Nandgaon]], [[Mathura]], [[Govardhan]] and [[Bhandirvan, Vrindavan|Bhandirvan]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brooks|first=Charles R.|title=Divine Passions|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520309753-011/html|chapter=TEN. Hare Krishna, Radhe Shyam|date=1990-12-31|pages=262–286|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-30975-3|language=en|doi=10.1525/9780520309753-011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Gokhale|first1=Namita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWJ7DwAAQBAJ&dq=Radhe+Radhe+greetings&pg=PT7|title=Finding Radha: The Quest for Love|last2=Lal|first2=Malashri|date=2018-12-10|publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited|isbn=978-93-5305-361-1|language=en}}</ref>

== Influence ==
[[File:Vrindavan20.jpg|thumb|upright|Radha Naam painted on trees of [[Vrindavan]]]]
Along with other common greetings like ''[[Jai Shri Krishna]]'', ''[[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]]'' and ''[[Radha Krishna|Radhe Krishna]]'', ''Radhe Radhe'' is also one of the most used greetings among the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] community. '''''Jai Shri Radhe''''' is a variant of ''Radhe Radhe'' often used in temples, which means "Glories to Radha".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Goyal|first=Anuradha|date=2019-08-26|title=Namaste! Learn 20 More Ways To Greet In India - Surprised?|url=https://www.inditales.com/namaste-ways-to-greet-in-india/|access-date=2021-09-02|website=Inditales|language=en-US}}</ref>

It is common to see the phrase ''Radhe Radhe'' written on the walls of houses, on the trunks of trees and printed on the clothes of priests and devotees in the Braj region.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lynch|first=Owen M.|title=Divine Passions|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520309753-002/html|chapter=ONE. The Social Construction of Emotion in India|date=1990-12-31|pages=3–34|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-30975-3|language=en|doi=10.1525/9780520309753-002}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
"Radhe Radhe" is a song performed by Amit Gupta for the 2019 Bollywood movie ''[[Dream Girl (2019 film)|Dream Girl]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dream Girl Song Radhe Radhe : Ayushmann Khurrana And Nushrat Bharucha Bring Festive Vibes|url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/dream-girl-song-radhe-radhe-ayushmann-khurrana-and-nushrat-bharucha-bring-festive-vibes-2085209|access-date=2021-09-02|website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Jai Shri Krishna]]
* [[Jai Shri Ram]]
* [[Jai Siya Ram]]
* [[Radha]]
* [[Radha Krishna]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu chants]]
[[Category:Slogans]]
[[Category:Hinduism and society]]
[[Category:Krishna]]
[[Category:Vaishnavism]]
[[Category:Hindi words and phrases]]

Shivana River

2025-09-28T14:42:15Z

BrookEjw0071: brief improved information per standard format as per guidelines

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Shivana River
| native_name = {{native name|mr|शिवना नदी}}
| native_name_lang =
| name_other =
| name_etymology =

| image = Shivana River (2).jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = Shivana River
| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map =
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption=

| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[India]]
| subdivision_type2 = State
| subdivision_name2 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type3 = Region
| subdivision_name3 = [[Marathwada]]
| subdivision_type4 = District
| subdivision_name4 = [[Shambhaji Nagar district, Maharashtra|Shambhaji Nagar]]
| subdivision_type5 = City
| subdivision_name5 = [[Kannad]]

| length =
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max =
| discharge1_location=
| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg =
| discharge1_max =

| source1 = Ajanta Range
| source1_location = [[Gautala Autramghat Sanctuary|Gautala Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Shambhali Nagar district, Maharashtra|Shambhali Nagar]], [[Marathwada]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|20|33|N|75|19|E|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation = {{convert|838|m|abbr=on}}
| mouth = [[Godavari River]]
| mouth_location = [[Jayakwadi Dam|NathSagar Reservoir]], [[Shambhali Nagar district, Maharashtra|Shambhali Nagar]], [[Marathwada]], [[Maharashtra]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|19|10|N|72|02|E|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation = {{convert|351|m|abbr=on}}
| progression =
| river_system =
| basin_size =
| tributaries_left =
| tributaries_right =
| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra =
}}

'''Shivana River''' is a minor but important tributary of the [[Godavari]], lying entirely within [[Aurangabad district, Maharashtra|Aurangabad district]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aurangabad.nic.in/newsite/geography.htm |title=Aurangabad |publisher=[[National Informatics Centre]] |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104090439/http://aurangabad.nic.in/newsite/geography.htm |archive-date=4 January 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Maharashtra]]. It rises in the [[Kannad]] taluka,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mrsac.gov.in/sites/default/files/TH_ABD_Kannad.pdf
|title=Village Map, Taluka Kannad
|publisher=Maharashtra Remote Sensing Applications Centre
|access-date=2015-10-13
}}</ref> from the south-western slope of the Ajanta Hills which also holds the origin to another major tributary [[Purna River (tributary of Godavari)|Purna]].

== Origin ==
The river collects streams draining the [[Gautala Autramghat Sanctuary|Gautala Wildlife Sanctuary]] from the southern slopes of the Ajanta Hills.

== Course ==
From the point of origin flows southeast for a short course till the town Kannad. Here the river is interrupted by presence of the [[Ambadi Dam]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Ambadi_Dam_D01388
|title=Ambadi Dam D01388
|publisher=WRIS-Water Resources Information of India
|access-date=2015-10-13
}}</ref> The reservoir thus formed provides a water resource used for human consumption and is rich in fish diversity.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}
From [[Kannad]], the river flows in a south-eastern direction and is impounded by another dam known as the [[Shivana Takli Dam]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://india-wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Shivana_Takli_Dam_D03058
|title=Shivana Takli Dam D03058
|publisher=WRIS-Water Resources Information of India
|access-date=2015-10-13
}}</ref>
Upon reaching Jambarkheda, the river changes its course to flow south wards until Kate Pimpalgaon where it resumes the south-eastern course, ideal of most rivers of the [[Deccan Plateau]].
The river ends itself by merging seamlessly into the back waters of the NathSagar Reservoir formed by the [[Jayakwadi Dam]] on the river [[Godavari]].It goes through Mandsaur district and touch the statue of Pashupatinath god in rainy season.

== Dams ==
*[[Ambadi Dam]]
*[[Shivana Takli Dam]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Godavari basin}}
{{Hydrography of Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Rivers of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Godavari River]]

List of Odia films of 1972

2025-09-15T05:46:56Z

BrookEjw0071: starting...

{{Short description|none}}
{{Ollywood films}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
A list of films produced by the [[Ollywood]] film industry based in [[Bhubaneshwar]] and [[Cuttack]] in 1972:

==A-Z==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Title !! Director !! Cast !! Genre !! Notes !! Source !![[Central Board of Film Certification|CBFC]]
|-
| {{Year header}} | '''[[1972 in film|1972]]'''
|-
|''[[Dharitri]]''||[[Nitai Palit]] ||[[Shriram Panda]], [[Prashanta Nanda]], [[Dhir Biswal]], [[Sandhya (Oriya actress)|Sandhya]]|| ||won 2nd [[Odisha State Film Awards|Odisha state film awards]] for Best film and best director || {{Citation needed|date=June 2024}} || U
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Indian film list}}
{{1972 films}}

[[Category:Lists of Odia films by year|1972]]
[[Category:Lists of 1972 films by language|Ollywood]]
[[Category:1972 in Indian cinema|Films, Ollywood]]
[[Category:1970s in Orissa]]

Satyaputra

2025-09-13T12:36:39Z

BrookEjw0071: Redirect article

#REDIRECT [[Athiyaman (Sathiyaputhra)]]

Kuzhur Narayana Marar

2025-09-12T13:20:55Z

BrookEjw0071: starting new article

{{short description|Indian musician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kuzhur Narayana Marar
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1925|5|25}}
| birth_place = Kuzhur, [[Thrissur]], Kerala, India
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2011|8|11|1925|5|25}}
| death_place = [[Ernakulam]]
| occupation = Musician, percussionist
| awards = [[Padmabhushan]] Pallavur Appu Marar Puraskaram [[Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Academy Award]] Panchvadya Kulapathi
}}

'''Kuzhur Narayana Marar''' (25 May 1925 – 11 August 2011) was an Indian musician, considered to be one of the masters of [[Panchavadyam]]. He was awarded [[Padmabhushan]] by Government of India for his contributions to the propagation of Panchavadyam in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archive.india.gov.in/myindia/padmabhushan_awards_list1.php?start=40 |title=Padma Bhushan Awardees - Padma Awards - My India, My Pride - Know India: National Portal of India |access-date=3 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140504000300/http://archive.india.gov.in/myindia/padmabhushan_awards_list1.php?start=40 |archive-date=4 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> He is the first Panchavadyam exponent to receive Padmabhushan award.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140529090458/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/article184510.ece?service=print Titan of Thimila – Kuzhoor Narayana Marar]</ref>

==Biography==
Narayana Marar was born in [[Kuzhur]], a tiny hamlet near [[Mala, Kerala|Mala]] in [[Thrissur district]] in Kerala to Manikyamangalam Vadakkini Kochupilla Kurup and Kuzhur Neduparambath Kunjipilla Amma on 25 May 1925. He started learning Panchavadyam at the early age of five under the tutelage of his father.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140504003458/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article482760.ece Percussionist Acharya Kuzhur Narayana Marar dead – The New Indian Express]</ref> Later he learned ''Keli'' from Eravipurath Appu Marar, [[Thimila]] from Perumpilli Kesava Marar and [[Thayambaka]] from Manikyamangalam Narayana Marar.

Narayan Marar died at the age of 86 on 11 August 2011.<ref>[https://in.news.yahoo.com/percussionist-acharya-kuzhur-narayana-marar-dead-062618812.html Percussionist Acharya Kuzhur Narayana Marar dead – Yahoo News India]</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Panchavadyam Cherpulasseri,Kerala.jpg|thumb|Panchavadyam Cherpulasseri Ayyappan Kaavu, Kerala, India]]
Narayana Marar along with his two elder brothers, Kuttappa Marar and Chandran Marar were called ''Kuzhur triumvirate''.<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/percussion-maestro-kuzhur-narayana-marar-passes-away/article2346971.ece Percussion maestro Kuzhur Narayana Marar passes away – The Hindu]</ref> They together created a new style in Panchavadyam rendition and were a regular presence at the [[Pooram]] festivals of Kerala. Narayana Marar started participating in [[Thrissur Pooram]] from the age of 19 and was a regular till retired at the age of 60.

==Awards==
* Pallavur Appu Marar Puraskaram - 2005
* [[Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi Award]] - 1991<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.keralaculture.org/keraleeya-vadyangal-a-ksna/470|title=Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi Award: Keraleeya Vadyangal|publisher=Department of Cultural Affairs, Government of Kerala|access-date=26 February 2023}}</ref>
* Panchvadya Kulapathi Puraskaram

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://gspaul.com/article53.html Profile]
* [http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/percussion-maestro-kuzhur-narayana-marar-passes-away/article2346971.ece in The Hindu Daily]
* [http://www.mala.co.in/news/master-percussionist-acharya-kuzhur-narayana-marar-dead Profile]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140503232255/http://www.yuvog.com/play/Arts/Kuzhur_Narayana_Marar Felicitation Video]
* [http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2005091601220300.htm&date=2005/09/16/&prd=fr& Profile in The Hindu daily]
* {{YouTube|bdY17yW-NAM|Amritha TV Documentary}}

{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 2010–19}}
{{Padma Award winners of Kerala}}
{{Music of Kerala}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Marar, Kuzhur Narayana}}
[[Category:1925 births]]
[[Category:2011 deaths]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in arts]]
[[Category:Indian percussionists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian musicians]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademi Award]]

Mangpawrha

2025-08-29T10:00:25Z

BrookEjw0071: created redirect

#REDIRECT [[Mângpawrha]]

Renu Gora

2025-08-18T20:50:49Z

BrookEjw0071: done

{{short description|Indian boxer}}
{{BLP one source|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{MedalBox|sport=Women's [[amateur boxing]]|country={{IND}}|medals=
{{MedalComp|[[AIBA World Boxing Championships|World Championships]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2006 Women's World Amateur Boxing Championships|2006 New Delhi]]|Light heavyweight}}
{{MedalComp|[[Asian Amateur Boxing Championships|Asian Championships]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2008 Asian Women's Amateur Boxing Championships|2008 Guwahati]]|Middleweight}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2003 Asian Women's Amateur Boxing Championships|2003 Hisar]]|Heavyweight}}
}}

'''Renu Gora''' is an Indian amateur [[Boxer (boxing)|boxer]] from [[Haryana]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/kalpana-excels-marykom-fails/story-g96jpqqBSzt4UecG4YuwwI.html|title=Kalpana excels, Marykom fails
|website=Hindustan Times|date=28 September 2008}}</ref>

Gora fought in the 80 kg category and won Bronze medal in [[2006 Women's World Amateur Boxing Championships]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibnlive.com/news/india/boxer-serves-tea-g-s-sandhu-on-serving-tea-320856.html|title=Ex-boxing champ found serving tea in sports institute|work=IBNLive}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Renu}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian women boxers]]
[[Category:Light-heavyweight boxers]]
[[Category:Boxers from Haryana]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Haryana]]
[[Category:IBA Women's World Boxing Championships medalists]]

{{India-boxing-bio-stub}}

Thalaghattapura metro station

2025-08-15T17:45:19Z

BrookEjw0071:

{{Short description|Namma Metro's Green Line metro station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Thalaghattapura
| other_name = Paramount Gardens
| style = Namma Metro
| type = {{Namma Metro Infobox station line|line=Green}}
| image = Thalaghattapura metro station (2025).jpg
| caption = A Green Line Namma Metro train at this metro station leading towards [[Silk Institute metro station|Silk Institute]] (southbound) or towards [[Madavara metro station|Madavara]] (northbound)
| address = 15/3, Kanakapura Rd, Paramount Gardens, Talaghattapura, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560062
| coordinates = {{coord|12.871678475719564|77.5387583624092|type:railwaystation_region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| owned = [[Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd]] (BMRCL)
| operator = [[Namma Metro]]
| architect = Nagarjuna Construction Company (NCC)
| lines = {{rcb|Namma Metro|Green|croute}}
| platforms = [[Side platform]] 
Platform-1 → {{stl|Namma Metro|Madavara}} Platform-2 → {{stl|Namma Metro|Silk Institute}}
| tracks = 2
| structure = [[Elevated]], [[Double-track railway|double track]]
| levels = 2
| accessible = Yes {{access icon}}
| status = Staffed
| code = TGTP
| opened = {{start date and age|2021|January|21|df=yes}}<ref name=FE1>{{cite news|title=Bengaluru's Namma Metro stretch from Yelachenahalli to Silk Institute launched; open for public from today|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/infrastructure/bengalurus-namma-metro-stretch-from-yelachenahalli-to-silk-institute-launched-open-for-public-from-today/2171414/|newspaper=Financial Express|first=Devanjana|last=Nag|date=15 January 2021|access-date=28 November 2022}}</ref>
| electrified = 750 [[Volt|V]] [[Direct current|DC]] [[third rail]]
| services = {{adjacent stations|system=Namma Metro|line=Green |left=Vajarahalli |right=Silk Institute|to-left=Madavara}}
| route_map = {{BMR Green Line}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #{{rail color|Namma Metro|Green}}
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''Thalaghattapura''' is an elevated metro station on the North-South corridor of the [[Green Line (Namma Metro)|Green Line]] of [[Namma Metro]] in [[Bengaluru]], India.<ref name=FE1 /><ref>{{Cite web|author=Christin Mathew Philip|date=16 Jan 2021|title=Bengaluru: 5,000 take Yelachenahalli- Silk Institute Metro line on Day 1 {{!}} Bengaluru News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/bengaluru-5000-take-yelachenahalli-silk-institute-metro-line-on-day-1/articleshow/80297392.cms|access-date=2021-09-01|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> This station was opened on 21 January 2021 to the public. The station was inaugurated along with five other stations, as a part of the [[Green Line (Namma Metro)|Green Line]] extension.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Namma Metro's 6 Km Yelachenahalli To Silk Institute Stretch Flagged-off|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/namma-metros-6-km-yelachenahalli-to-silk-institute-stretch-flagged-off-6347911.html|access-date=2021-09-01|website=Moneycontrol|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Christin Mathew Philip|date=13 Jan 2021|title=Bengaluru: Namma Metro's Sankranti gift brings cheer to Kanakapura Road residents {{!}} Bengaluru News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/bengaluru-namma-metros-sankranti-gift-brings-cheer-to-kanakapura-residents/articleshow/80247079.cms|access-date=2021-09-01|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

== Station layout ==
{{stack|{{Routemap
| title = Thalaghattapura track layout
| title color = white
| title-bg = #{{rail color|Namma Metro|Green}}
| legend = track
| collapsible = no
| map = vCONTgfa
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Namma Metro|Vajarahalli}}
*'''P1'''\cPLT\vSTR\cPLT\*'''P2'''
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to {{stl|Namma Metro|Silk Institute}}
vCONTgfe
| bottom = <div style="width:23.5em;text-align:center">Station with two tracks and two side platforms</div>
}}}}
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;border-top:solid 1px gray;" width=30 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85 valign=top|Street level
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500 valign=top|Exit/entrance
|-
|valign=top|'''L1'''
|valign=top|Mezzanine
|valign=top|Fare control, station agent, Metro Card vending machines, crossover 
|-
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=30 rowspan=4 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85|'''Platform 2''' '''Southbound'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|Towards → {{stl|Namma Metro|Silk Institute}}
|-
|'''Platform 1''' '''Northbound'''
|Towards ← {{stl|Namma Metro|Madavara}} '''Next station:''' {{stl|Namma Metro|Vajarahalli}}
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" colspan=2 align=center|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=30 rowspan=2 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=85|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|
|-
|}

==Entry/exits==
There are two entry/exit points – A and B. Commuters can use either for their travel.

* Entry/exit point A: towards post office side
* Entry/exit point B: towards SJS Enterprises Pvt. Ltd. side

== See also ==
* [[Bengaluru]]
* [[Green Line (Namma Metro)|Green Line]]
* [[List of Namma Metro stations]]
* [[Transport in Karnataka]]
* [[List of metro systems]]
* [[Rapid transit in India|List of rapid transit systems in India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikivoyage|Bangalore}}
* [https://english.bmrc.co.in Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (Official site)]
* [http://www.urbanrail.net ''UrbanRail.Net''] – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.]

{{Karnataka-railstation-stub}}
[[Category:Namma Metro stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2021]]

{{Namma Metro|green line=yes}}
{{Karnataka-railstation-stub}}

Dabangg 2 (soundtrack)

2025-07-20T15:37:25Z

BrookEjw0071: Article...

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox album
| name = Dabangg 2
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Sajid–Wajid]]
| cover = Dabangg 2 album cover.jpg
| released = 9 November 2012
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| language = Hindi
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| prev_title = [[Son of Sardaar]]
| prev_year = 2012
| next_title = [[Rangrezz]]
| next_year = 2013
}}

'''''Dabangg 2''''' ({{Translation|Fearless 2}}) is the [[soundtrack]] to the 2012 film of the [[Dabangg 2|same name]]. Directed by [[Arbaaz Khan]], the film is produced by himself and [[Malaika Arora]] under [[Arbaaz Khan Productions]] and Stellar Films. Khan's elder brother [[Salman Khan]] starred in the lead role.

The soundtrack album featured eight songs. The songs are composed by [[Sajid–Wajid]] while the lyrics were written by [[Jalees Sherwani]], Irfan Kamal, and [[Sameer Anjaan]]. The full soundtrack album was released on 9 November 2012.

== Production ==
{{Quote box
| quote = "This soundtrack is more current and has a lot more aggression. Some of the songs feature hilarious lyrics and we're sure people will like them."

- In an interview with ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', composer [[Sajid–Wajid|Sajid Khan]] on the album.<ref name="HT"/>
| align = right
| width = 40%
}}
The duo [[Sajid–Wajid]] composed the songs while the lyrics were written by [[Jalees Sherwani]], Irfan Kamal, and [[Sameer Anjaan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/472171/dabangg-2-soundtrack-released|title=Dabangg 2 soundtrack released|date=28 November 2012|website=The Express Tribune|access-date=2 October 2024|archive-date=25 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225223522/http://tribune.com.pk/story/472171/dabangg-2-soundtrack-released/|url-status=live}}</ref> Sajid Khan said that they started planning the sequel's music while they working on ''[[Dabangg]]''.<ref name="HT">{{Cite news |date=2012-11-17 |title=Hit song of the week: Dagabaaz re (Dabangg 2) |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/music/hit-song-of-the-week-dagabaaz-re-dabangg-2/story-QHVW8ds1EBC9BS6pwWb8AJ.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125081930/https://www.hindustantimes.com/music/hit-song-of-the-week-dagabaaz-re-dabangg-2/story-QHVW8ds1EBC9BS6pwWb8AJ.html |archive-date=25 January 2025 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=en |access-date=30 September 2024 }}</ref> So they recruited most of the singers from the predecessor.<ref name="HT"/>

"Pandeyji Seeti" appears to be inspired by the song "Chalat Musafir" from the film ''[[Teesri Kasam]]'' (1966), which in turn was inspired by a [[Music of Bihar|Bihari folk song]], and added little sample of previous song "[[Munni Badnaam Hui]]", which this song "Pandeyji Seeti", became sequel of this song<ref>{{cite news |title=Badrinath Ki Dulhaniya title song inspired ! |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-badrinath-ki-dulhaniya-title-song-inspired-2316693 |access-date=18 April 2019 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |date=9 February 2017}}</ref> In turn, "Pandeyji Seeti" itself appears to have inspired the song "Badri Ki Dulhania" in the film ''[[Badrinath Ki Dulhania]]'' (2017).<ref>{{cite news |title='Badrinath Ki Dulhania' trailer a mashup of old and new songs |url=http://www.radioandmusic.com/entertainment/editorial/news/170202-badrinath-ki-dulhania-trailer-mashup-old-and |access-date=18 April 2019 |work=RadioAndMusic.com |date=2 February 2017}}</ref> The song "Fevicol Se" was sung by same singer Mamta Sharma.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/it-s-serious-shabana-azmi-slams-kareena-s-dabangg-item-number-fevicol-se/story-JWt2GkOxs4D6ThZp5fu5MM.html |title=It's serious: Shabana Azmi slams Kareena's Dabangg song Fevicol se |work=Hindustan Times |date=10 March 2016 |language=en |access-date=7 November 2018 |archive-date=8 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108065517/https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/it-s-serious-shabana-azmi-slams-kareena-s-dabangg-item-number-fevicol-se/story-JWt2GkOxs4D6ThZp5fu5MM.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/110817/girls-are-no-cinderellas.html%5D%3C/ref%3E%3Cref%3E%5Bhttp://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-11-21/news-interviews/35256972_1_kareena-kapoor-dabangg-manish-malhotra |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108031329/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/110817/girls-are-no-cinderellas.html%5d%3c/ref%3e%3cref%3e%5bhttp://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-11-21/news-interviews/35256972_1_kareena-kapoor-dabangg-manish-malhotra |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 November 2018 |title=Girls are no Cinderellas |language=en |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=7 November 2018}}</ref>

== Track listing ==
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Dagabaaz Re
| extra1 = [[Rahat Fateh Ali Khan]], [[Shreya Ghoshal]], [[Shadaab Faridi]]
| lyrics1 = [[Sameer Anjaan]]
| length1 = 4:47
| title2 = PandeyJee Seeti
| extra2 = Mamta Sharma, Wajid, Shreya Ghoshal
| lyrics2 = Sajid-Wajid, Ashraf Ali
| length2 = 3:38
| title3 = Fevicol Se
| extra3 = Wajid, [[Mamta Sharma]]
| lyrics3 = [[Sajid–Wajid]], Ashraf Ali
| length3 = 4:49
| title4 = Saanson Ne
| extra4 = [[Sonu Nigam]], [[Tulsi Kumar]]
| lyrics4 = Irfan Kamal
| length4 = 4:49
| title5 = Dabangg Reloaded
| extra5 = [[Sukhwinder Singh]]
| lyrics5 = Jalees Sherwani
| length5 = 4.05
| title6 = PandeyJee Seeti
| note6 = Remix
| extra6 = Mamta Sharma, Wajid, Shreya Ghoshal
| lyrics6 = Jalees Sherwani
| length6 = 4:29
| title7 = Fevicol Se
| note7 = Remix
| extra7 = [[Mamta Sharma]], Wajid
| lyrics7 = Sajid-Wajid, Ashraf Ali
| length7 = 4:17
| title8 = Dabangg Reloaded
| note8 = Remix
| extra8 = Sukhwinder Singh
| lyrics8 = Irfan Kamal
| length8 = 4:04
| title9 =
| extra9 =
| lyrics9 =
| length9 =
| all_writing =
| title10 =
| length10 =
| title11 =
| length11 =
| title12 =
| length12 =
| title13 =
| length13 =
| title14 =
| length14 =
| title15 =
| length15 =
| title16 =
| length16 =
| title17 =
| length17 =
| title18 =
| length18 =
| title19 =
| length19 =
| title20 =
| length20 =
| total_length =
}}

== Reception ==
Joginder Tuteja of ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' rated the music with 4/5 stars.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/dabangg-2/songs/music-critic-review/|title=Dabangg 2 Music Review - Bollywood Hungama|first=Bollywood|last=Hungama|date=21 December 2012|access-date=30 September 2024|archive-date=10 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210005705/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/dabangg-2/songs/music-critic-review/|url-status=live}}</ref> Jaspreet Pandohar of ''[[BBC]]'' wrote "As bold and brash as its original, Dabangg 2's mammoth sound secures both Khan and Sajid-Wajid's place as premier hit makers in modern Bollywood history."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/qhvh/|title=BBC - Music - Review of Sajid-Wajid - Dabangg 2|first=Jaspreet|last=Pandohar|website=www.bbc.co.uk|access-date=2024-09-30|archive-date=2023-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213115349/https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/qhvh/|url-status=live}}</ref> A critic of ''[[Filmfare]]'' wrote "In a bid to assure that the film becomes a hit, the composers have done injustice to their music. If only they were more Dabangg."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmfare.com/reviews/review-dabangg-2s-music-is-a-take-off-on-the-original-1748.html|title=Review: Dabangg 2's music is a take off on the original | Filmfare.com|website=www.filmfare.com}}</ref>

Anand Vaishnav of ''[[India Times]]'' wrote "Dabangg 2’s music has been composed, keeping in mind the setting and theme of the film. And there are more than obvious references to the prequel’s blockbuster soundtrack. But that unfortunately is also its biggest undoing.
Even from a mass-appeal point of view, the score offers no surprises and despite some genuinely-catchy tunes like Fevicol Re and Saanson Ne, the overall result is a tad underwhelming. Sajid-Wajid may have stuck to the brief and followed a successful template, but in the bargain, they end up getting trapped in a loop of predictability. Salman Khan's star-power will ensure decent success for most of the tracks - But for an album from the Dabangg franchise, the score is far from fearless, and plays it a little too safe."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatimes.com/bollywood/music-review-dabangg-2_-47676.html|title=MUSIC REVIEW: Dabangg 2|date=November 20, 2012|website=Indiatimes}}</ref>

== Accolades ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Distributor
! Date aired
! Category
! Recipient
! Result
!Ref.
|-
| rowspan="4" | [[Screen Awards]]
| rowspan="4" | [[19th Screen Awards|12 January 2013]]
| Best Music
| Sajid-Wajid
| rowspan="4" {{nom}}
| rowspan="4" |<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/4359 |title=Nominations: 19th Annual Colors Screen Awards |date=2 January 2013 |work=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=1 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105020213/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/4359 |archive-date=5 January 2013 |agency=Bollywood Hungama News Network}}</ref>
|-
| Best Playback Singer (Female)
| Mamta Sharma ("Fevicol", ''Dabangg 2'')
|-
| Best Lyrics
| Sameer Anjaan ("Dagabaaz re", ''Dabangg 2'')
|-
| Best Choreography
| [[Chinni Prakash]] ("Pandeyji seeti bajaaye", ''Dabangg 2'') Farah Khan ("Fevicol", ''Dabangg 2'')
|-
| rowspan="3" | [[Mirchi Music Awards]]
| rowspan="3" | [[5th Mirchi Music Awards|3 March 2013]]
| [[Mirchi Music Award for Song of The Year|Song of The Year]]
| "Dagabaaz Re"
| rowspan="3" {{nom}}
| rowspan="3" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.radiomirchi.com/mma2012/hindi/nomination.html|title=Nominations - Mirchi Music Award Hindi 2012|website=www.radiomirchi.com|access-date=2018-04-27|archive-date=2014-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202174112/http://www.radiomirchi.com/mma2012/hindi/nomination.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Mirchi Music Award for Lyricist of The Year|Lyricist of The Year]]
| [[Sameer Anjaan]] ("Dagabaaz Re")
|-
| Raag-Inspired Song of the Year
| "Dagabaaz Re"
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Dabangg}}
{{T-Series}}

[[Category:Hindi film soundtracks]]
[[Category:2012 soundtrack albums]]
[[Category:Filmi soundtracks]]
[[Category:T-Series (company) soundtracks]]
[[Category:Action film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Comedy film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Soundtracks by Indian artists]]

Raval Yogi

2025-07-05T07:57:06Z

BrookEjw0071: new

'''Raval''' (also known as Ravaldev, Jogi, Yogi or '''Raval Yogi''') are an ancient Hindu community, known as Shiva vansh (descendants of Shiva) mostly found in [[Gujarat]], with a population over {{Lakh|35}} and [[Rajasthan]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=People of India: Gujarat |volume=XXII |author=Gopal Krishna |editor=K. S. Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWrTs5yt1DkC&pg=PA1194 |year=2003 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7991-106-8 |pages=1194–1197 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=S. P. Agrawal |author2=J. C. Aggarwal |title=Educational and Social Uplift of Backward Classes: At what Cost and How? : Mandal Commission and After |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COcwoYRCYhcC&pg=PA227 |year=1991 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7022-339-9 |page=227 }}</ref>

Raval Jogi/Yogi are believed to be one of the oldest of the Ravaldev group. They are spread throughout [[Gujarat]].<ref name=":0" />

== History and origin==
{{unreferenced-section|date=December 2018}}
A legend about Raval Yogi's origin says that lord [[Shiva]] (Shankar) once had to go to [[Mount Kailash]] for meditation. He had to leave [[Devi Parvathi|Devi Parvati]], the wife of Shiva, behind. Parvati requested Shiva to appoint a person to look after her in his absence. Shiva immediately prepared an idol out of dirt and sweat of his body and named him Raval Yogi to look after his consort Parvati.

Being impressed by the services of Raval Yogi, Shiva presented him an akshaypatra (a divine pot) to get rid of hunger. Raval Yogi once accepted food from [[Pandavas]]. Shiva became angry and cursed him, saying that he would not get anything in future from the akshaypatra and would have to beg for food.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu communities]]

Konnagar Municipality

2025-06-27T21:06:33Z

BrookEjw0071: cleaned up information and corrected details after review

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Konnagar Municipality
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| coa_pic =
| coa_res = 300px
| coa_alt = Logo of Konnagar Municipality
| coa_caption = Coat of Arms
| house_type = [[Municipal corporation (India)|Municipality]]
| foundation = {{start date and age|1944}}
| disbanded =
| preceded_by =
| succeeded_by =
| leader1_type = Chairman
| leader1 = Swapan Kumar Das
| party1 = [[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
| leader2_type = Vice Chairman
| leader2 = Goutam Das
| party2 = [[Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
| seats = 20
| structure1 = India Konnagar, West Bengal Municipality 2022.svg
| structure1_res = 250px
| political_groups1 =
'''Government (17)'''
*{{colorbox|#20C646}} [[Trinamool Congress|AITC]] (17)
'''Opposition (2)'''
*{{colorbox|{{party color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}}} [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] (1)
*{{colorbox|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}} [[Indian National Congress|INC]] (1)
'''Others (1)'''
*{{colorbox|#B2B2B2}} [[Independent politician|IND]] (1)
| session_room =
| session_res = 300px
| meeting_place =
| last_election1 = 2022
| next_election1 = 2027
| motto =
| website = {{URL|www.konnagarmunicipality.org}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Konnagar Municipality''' is the civic body that governs [[Konnagar]] and its surrounding areas in [[Srirampore subdivision]] of [[Hooghly district]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]].

==History==
[[File:House of Abanindranath Tagore in Konnagar 28.jpg|left|thumb|Nrishinha Das Basu, Founder and first Chairman of the Municipality]]
Konnagar Municipality was established in 1944. Nrishinha Das Basu was the founder and first Chairman of the Municipality. Sib Chandra Deb contributed tirelessly towards the development of Konnagar. After independence, a large number of displaced persons from East Pakistan settled in Konnagar.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.konnagarmunicipality.org/Default.aspx?PageId=65 | title = Konnagar Municipality | publisher = Konnagar Municipality | access-date = 4 July 2017}}</ref>

==Geography==
Konnagar Municipality covers an area of 4.67 sq km and has a total population of 76,152 (2011).<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.wbdma.gov.in/HTM/MUNI_municipality.htm | title = Konnagar Municipality | publisher = Department of Municipal Affairs | work = Urban Local Bodies | access-date = 4 July 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180928223458/http://wbdma.gov.in/HTM/MUNI_municipality.htm | archive-date = 28 September 2018 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

In 1981, 27.09% of the total population formed main workers and 72.91% were non-workers in Konnagar Municipality and 49.26% of the total main workers were industrial workers. This may be interpreted as follows: although industrial activities are prominent in the municipal areas of the region, the major portion of the population is [[Commuting|commuters]] and migrants find employment in the area.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/68558/14/14_chapter%205.pdf | title = Chapter V Industrial set up of the study area | work = Table 16, page 232, Table 17, Page 233, Table 18, Page 236 | publisher = Shodhganga | access-date = 4 July 2017}}</ref>

==Healthcare==
Konnagar Matri Sadan O Sishu Mangal Pratisthan, with 43 beds, is located in the Konnagar Municipality area.<ref name=medical>{{cite web | url = https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/ | title = Health & Family Welfare Department | work = Health Statistics | publisher = Government of West Bengal | access-date = 15 July 2017 | archive-date = 28 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211028134305/https://qphs.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-99a499ee367f0c1530476c81086270c8 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==List of councillors==
(2022-present)
* Swapan Kumar Das - [[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]] (Chairman)
* Goutam Das - [[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]] (Deputy Chairman)
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! style="width:120px" | Ward
! style="width:180px" | Name
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| 1
| Monalisa Nag
| {{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|2
|Suchitra Das
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|3
|K. Baby
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|4
|Goutam Das
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|5
|Asit Chakraborty
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|6
|Anjali Banerjee
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|7
|Sk. Abdul Gaffar
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|-
|8
|Sukanta Chakraborty
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|9
|Madhumita Das
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|10
|Tanmoy Deb
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|11
|Swapan Kumar Das
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|12
|Jonaki Bag
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|13
|Arunagshu Majumdar
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|14
|Soutir Chatterjee
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|15
|Soma Mitra
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|16
|Subhasis Chowdhury
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|17
|Biswarup Chakraborty
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|18
|Rina Pandey
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|19
|Chandan Mondal
|{{Full party name with color|All India Trinamool Congress}}
|-
|20
|Bablu Paul
|{{Full party name with color|Independent}}
|}

==Elections==
In 2022 municipal election once again [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]] got the majority and formed the Konnagar municipality Board.

In the 2015 municipal elections for Konnagar Municipality [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]] won 11 seats, [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI (M)]] 4 seats and [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] 5 seats.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://wbsec.gov.in/(S(ok51ajaejr1ty3qg43xq0kf1))/Municipal/FinalResult_All_Mun.aspx |title = Municipal General Election Results | work= Results of Municipal General Elections 2015 |publisher= West Bengal State Election Commission | access-date = 4 July 2017 }}</ref>

In the 2010 municipal elections for Konnagar Municipality [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]] won 10 seats, [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI (M)]] 7 seats and [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] won 3 seats.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://wbsec.gov.in/(S(x5feom55drnpkn55tfuthm55))/Municipal/Detailed_Mun_Yearwise.aspx |title = Municipal General Election Results | work= Results of Municipal General Elections yearwise |publisher= West Bengal State Election Commission | access-date = 11 July 2017 }}</ref>

About the 2010 municipal elections, [[The Guardian]] wrote, "Today's municipal elections are unlike any for decades: the Communists, who have held West Bengal's main towns almost without a break since the 1970s, are facing disaster… This time defeat is likely to be definitive and could signal the beginning of the end for the Communist Party of India-Marxist (CPIM)."<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/west-bengal-elections-communists | title = India's Communist party faces defeat in West Bengal heartland. | work = The Guardian, International Edition, 30 May 2010 | date = 29 May 2010 | access-date = 14 July 2017 | last1 = Burke | first1 = Jason }}</ref>

In the 2005 municipal elections for Konnagar Municipality, [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI (M)]] won 12 seats, [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] 3 seats, [[All India Trinamool Congress|Trinamool Congress]] 2 seats and others 2 seats.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://hooghly.nic.in/Municpal_elec/Result_glance.htm | title = Municipal General Elections 2005 | work= District Hooghly | publisher = Hooghly district administration |access-date = 19 July 2017}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Hooghly topics}}
{{Hooghly District}}

{{coord missing|West Bengal}}

[[Category:Municipalities of West Bengal]]

Fifth Veda

2025-05-29T17:17:20Z

BrookEjw0071: basic cleaned up page for accuracy also and added references for accuracy

{{Short description|Text which lies outside the four canonical Vedas}}
{{Redirect|Panchama Veda|the film|Panchama Veda (film)}}
The notion of a '''fifth Veda''' ([[Sanskrit]]: ''{{IAST|pañcama veda}}''), that is, of a text which lies outside the four canonical [[Vedas]], but nonetheless has the status of a Veda, is one that has been advanced in a number of post-Vedic Hindu texts, in order to accord a particular text or texts and their doctrines with the timelessness and authority that [[Hinduism]] associates with the Vedas.<ref name="smith1987">{{cite journal | last = Smith | first = Brian K. | title = Exorcising the Transcendent: Strategies for Defining Hinduism and Religion | journal = History of Religions | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | pages =32–55 |date=August 1987 | doi = 10.1086/463098 | jstor=1062532
| s2cid = 161100582 }} at p. 46.</ref> The idea is an ancient one, appearing for the first time in the [[Upanishads]], but has over the centuries since then also been applied to more recent Sanskrit and vernacular texts.

== Sanskrit texts: the "Panchama Veda" ==

The earliest reference to a fifth Veda is found in the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] (7.1.2),<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lidova |first=Natalia R. |date=Autumn 1997|title= Review of: The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation and Ritual by Vasuda Narayanan| journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=681–684 |jstor=1465662|doi=10.1093/jaarel/65.3.681 }} at p. 684</ref> which applies the term to the "histories" ([[Itihasa]]-[[Purana]], "ancient traditions") of its day,
:''{{IAST|itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ}}''

This reference to ''itihasa-purana'' is used by the [[Mahabharata]], which belongs to the class of [[Indian epic poetry|epic literature]] called "itihasa", to refer to itself as the fifth Veda.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Fitzgerald | first = James | title = India's Fifth Veda: The Mahabharata's Presentation of Itself | journal = Journal of South Asian Literature | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages =125–140 | year = 1985 }}</ref> Relying also on its attribution to [[Vyasa]], the legendary compiler of the Vedas, the Mahabharata declares itself a new Veda for a new era, intended for all people, and which is the equal of, and in some ways superior to, the four canonical Vedas.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Sullivan | first = Bruce M. | title = The Religious Authority of the Mahābhārata: Vyāsa and Brahmā in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Religion | volume = 62 | issue = 2 | pages =377–401 |date=October 1994 | doi = 10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377 | jstor=1465271
}} at p. 385.</ref> The other major Hindu epic, the [[Ramayana]], also makes a claim to be the fifth Veda. But, since the Mahabharata itself contains an abbreviated version of Ramayana, so the Mahabharata itself is considered as the fifth Veda.<ref name="smith1987" />

Similar claims are made in the [[Puranas]], which claim to be the fifth Veda together with the itihasas, frequently referring to themselves as the "Itihasa-Purana-Veda".<ref name="Holdrege2000">{{Cite book | first = Barbara A. | last = Holdrege | editor-last = Katz | editor-first = Steven T. | contribution = Mystical Cognition and Canonical Authority: The Devotional Mysticism of the Bhagavata Purana | title = Mysticism and Sacred Scripture | url = https://archive.org/details/mysticismsacreds00katz | url-access = limited | year = 2000 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/mysticismsacreds00katz/page/n194 184]–209 | place = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-509703-0}} at pp. 193-196.</ref> The [[Bhagavata Purana]] elaborates on the Chandogya Upanishad's statement concerning the fifth, by stating that after the four Vedas emerged from each of [[Brahma]]'s four mouths, the fifth Veda - ''itihasapurana'' - emerged from his fifth mouth<ref name="smith1987"/> or all his mouths.<ref>Bhagavata Purana, 3.12.37-3.12.39.</ref> It then declares itself supreme over all other puranas, on the grounds that it was Vyasa's crowning achievement.<ref name="Holdrege2000" /> Similarly, the [[Skanda Purana|Skandapurana]], too, suggests that the puranas are the Fifth Veda, thus giving itself scriptural authority.<ref name="smith1987"/><ref>Skandapurana [http://is1.mum.edu/vedicreserve/puranas/skanda_purana/skanda_purana_05avanti_03reva.pdf 5.3.1.18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171408/http://is1.mum.edu/vedicreserve/puranas/skanda_purana/skanda_purana_05avanti_03reva.pdf |date=2016-03-03 }}: ''{{IAST|purāṇaṃ pañcamoveda iti brahmānuśasanaṃ}}''</ref>

The नाट्यशास्त्र [[Natya Shastra]], a text dealing with performative theory, also applies to itself the label of "Fifth Veda" (1.4) although strictly speaking, it is a branch of the [[Gandharvaveda]], an [[upaveda]] of the [[Samaveda]] ([[Monier-Williams]]). The Natyashastra says that it was formulated by Brahma, incorporating elements of the other four Vedas,<ref>{{cite journal | last = Ley | first = Graham | title = Aristotle's Poetics, Bharatamuni's Natyasastra, and Zeami's Treatises: Theory as Discourse | journal = Asian Theatre Journal | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages =191–214 | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1353/atj.2000.0020 | url = https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10036/48013/1/Aristotle%27s%20Poetics.pdf | hdl = 10036/48013 | s2cid = 163154226 | hdl-access = free }} at pp. 194-195.</ref> the idea being that the dramatic or musical performance of sacred stories, which, through the events they related, symbolised divine processes, could draw individuals to holier thoughts.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Bahm | first = Archie J. | title = Comparative Aesthetics | journal = The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages =109–119 | year = 1965 | doi = 10.2307/428253 | publisher = The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 24, No. 1 | jstor = 428253}} at p. 110.</ref> Other works that have been characterised as the "Fifth Veda" include, texts on [[ayurveda]] (Veda concerning the maintenance of "life"), a system of traditional South Asian medicine.<ref name = "Larson1987">{{cite journal |last=Larson |first=Gerald James |date=July 1987 |title=Ayurveda and the Hindu Philosophical Systems |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=245–259 |doi=10.2307/1398518 |publisher=Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 3 |jstor=1398518}}</ref>

== Non-Sanskrit texts ==

Several non-Sanskrit texts have also had the status of Veda assigned to them. An example is the [[Ramcharitmanas]], a 17th-century retelling of the story of the Ramayana in [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], which is often called the "Fifth Veda" and is viewed by devotees as equalling or superseding the four canonical Vedas in authority and sanctity as the text for the [[Kali Yuga]].<ref>{{Cite book | first = Ramdas | last = Lamb | editor-last = Richman | editor-first = Paula | contribution = Personalizing the Ramayan: Ramnamis and Their Use of the Ramcaritmanas | title = Many Ramayanas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia | year = 1991 | pages = 235–251 | place = Berkeley | publisher = University of California Press | isbn = 978-0-520-07589-4}} at pp. 237-238.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Lutgendorf | first = Philip | title = The Power of Sacred Story: Ramayana Recitation in Contemporary North India | journal = Ritual and Power| volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages =115–147 | year = 1990}}.</ref>

Several [[Tamil language|Tamil]] texts have been assigned the status of being a new Veda by the adherents, who usually term the text in question the "Tamil Veda" or "Dravida Veda".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyo.in/variety/tamil-veda-tamil-marai-thirukkural-thevaram-divya-prabandham/story/1/17210.html|title=What is Tamil Veda?}}</ref> The [[Kural]] is traditionally praised with several epithets and alternative titles, including "the Tamil Veda" and "the Divine Book."<ref>{{cite book |last=Zvelebil |first=Kamil |title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA155 |access-date=7 March 2018|year=1973 |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden|isbn=9004035915 }}</ref>{{Rp|156}}<ref>{{cite journal | last =Cutler | first =Norman | title =Interpreting Thirukkural: the role of commentary in the creation of a text | journal =The Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume =112 | issue =4 | pages =549–566 | year =1992 | jstor= 604470 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/604470| ref={{sfnRef|Cutler, 1992}}| doi =10.2307/604470 | url-access =subscription }}</ref> The [[Tamil people|Tamil]] [[Vaishnavite]] ''[[bhakti]]'' community of the [[Alvars]] conferred this status on the [[Tiruvaymoli]]<ref>{{cite journal | last = Clooney | first = Francis X. | title = Extending the Canon: Some Implications of a Hindu Argument about Scripture | journal = The Harvard Theological Review | volume = 85| issue = 2 | pages =197–215 |date=April 1992| doi = 10.1017/S0017816000028856 }}.</ref> (and, later, the [[Divya Prabandham]] in general), a claim which was also accepted in secular works such as the [[Lilatilakam]], a 14th-century grammar of Kerala [[Manipravalam]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Freeman | first = Rich | title = Rubies and Coral: The Lapidary Crafting of Language in Kerala | journal = The Journal of Asian Studies | volume = 57| issue = 1 | pages =38–65 |date=February 1998 | doi = 10.2307/2659023 | publisher = The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 57, No. 1 | jstor = 2659023| doi-access = free }} at p. 57.</ref> As with the Natyashastra,<ref>The similarity between the vedicisation of the Tiruvaymozhi and earlier moves to declare Sanskrit texts as the "Fifth Veda" is pointed out in {{cite journal |last=Lidova |first=Natalia R. |date=Autumn 1997|title= Review of: The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation and Ritual by Vasuda Narayanan| journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=681–684 |jstor=1465662|doi=10.1093/jaarel/65.3.681 }} at pp. 683-684.</ref> authors seeking to confer the status of a Veda on the Tiruvaymoli argued that unlike the canonical Vedic texts reserved for the Brahmins, this new Tamil Veda was accessible to all classes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Narayanan |first=Vasudha |title=The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual |year=1994 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |series=Studies in Comparative Religion |page=[https://archive.org/details/vernacularvedare00nara/page/26 26] |isbn=0-87249-965-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/vernacularvedare00nara/page/26 }}</ref> Similarly, the Tamil [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] community conferred upon the hymns of the [[Tevaram]] the status of a Tamil Veda, a claim which several of the poets themselves made.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Peterson | first = Indira V. | title = Singing of a Place: Pilgrimage as Metaphor and Motif in the Tēvāram Songs of the Tamil Śaivite Saints | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 102 | issue = 1 | pages =69–90 | year = 1982 | doi = 10.2307/601112 | publisher = Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 102, No. 1 | jstor = 601112}} at p. 77.</ref> Tamil Shaivites saw the designation "Tamil Veda" as making the Tevaram an alternative to the Sanskrit Veda, whereas Vaishnavites saw their equivalently designated texts as being a parallel track, rather than an alternative.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cutler | first1 = Norman | title = Tamil Bhakti in Translation | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume = 111 | issue = 4 | pages =768–775 | year = 1991 | doi = 10.2307/603406 | last2 = Peterson | first2 = Indira Viswanathan | last3 = Piḷḷāṉ | last4 = Carman | first4 = John | last5 = Narayanan | first5 = Vasudha | last6 = Pillan | publisher = Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 111, No. 4 | jstor = 603406}} at p. 770.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Upaveda]]
* [[Jataveda]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Bhakti movement]]

Tipu Sultan Fort

2025-05-16T23:58:40Z

BrookEjw0071: new

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Short description|Historical fort in Srirangapatna, India}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
| name = Tipu Sultan's Fort
| partof = [[Karnataka]]
| location = [[Srirangapatna]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]
| image = [[File:Srirangapatnam Fort 5.JPG|250px]]
| caption =
| map_type = India Karnataka
| map_size = 270
| map_caption =
| type = [[Fort]]s
| coordinates = {{coord|12.425|76.676|type:landmark|display=inline}}
| code =
| built =
| builder =
| materials =
| height =
| used =
| demolished =
| condition =
| open_to_public =
| controlledby = Bangalore Circle of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| garrison =
| current_commander =
| commanders =
| occupants =
| battles =
| events =
| image2 =
| caption2 =
}}

'''Tipu Sultan's Fort''' is a historical fort located in [[Srirangapatna]], the historical capital city of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] in present-day [[South India]]n state of [[Karnataka]]. Built by the [[Timmanna Nayaka]] in 1454, the fort was modified by King Haider Ali & King Tipu Sultan and fully fortified in the late 18th century with the help of French architects. King Tipu Sultan wanted to protect it against British invaders associated with the [[East India Company]].

Rivers protect the fort on three sides. The river [[Kaveri]] borders the fort in one direction; in the West and Northern directions it is protected by the river Cauvery. The fort contained Lal Mahal and King Tipu Sultan's palace, which were demolished when the British captured it in 1799. There are seven outlets and two dungeons.

Several structures and elements are maintained as protected monuments under the Bangalore Circle of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]]: Colonel Bailey's Dungeon; Daria Daulat Bagh; Gumbaj containing tomb of King Tipu Sultan; Juma Masjid (Masjid-E-Ala); Obelisk monuments, and Fort walls near the breach the spot where King Tipu Sultan's Body was found; the Sri Kanthirava statue in Narasimha Temple; Sri Ranganatha Svami Temple; and Thomas Inman's Dungeon.

==History==
[[File:Colonel Bailey's Dungeon Srirangapatna.JPG |250px|thumb|Colonel Bailey's Dungeon|left]]
The fort is believed to have been built in 1454 CE by [[Timmanna Nayaka]], a ruler of the [[Vijayanagar Empire]].<ref name=fort>{{cite book|title=Forts of India|last=Verma|first=Amrit|year=1985|publisher=The Director of Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|location=New Delhi|pages=91–3|isbn=81-230-1002-8}}</ref> The fort was in the hands of the Empire until 1495, when the Wodeyars overpowered the Vijayanagar rulers. The fort subsequently changed hands among the competing Nawab of Arcot, Peshwas and the [[Marathas]].<ref name=Verma/>

The Wodeyars moved their capital from Mysore to Srirangapatna and established the fort as the seat of the empire. The region and the fort were changed during the rule of Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673 to 1704), but the three subsequent rulers did not affect it. During the rule of Krishnaraja Wodeyar (1734–66), the kingdom became a strong military force; it was controlled by military general [[Hyder Ali]].<ref name=Tovey>{{cite book|title=Cor Blimey! Where 'Ave You Come From?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lM3-DLEkZFcC&q=srirangapatna+fort&pg=PT29|pages=29–32|last=Tovey|first=Winifred |date = 14 February 2013|isbn=9780956535948|publisher=M-Y Books Distribution}}</ref> During 1757 [[King Hyder Ali]] had to cede the fort to the invading Marathas for 32 lakh rupees, but he regained it later.<ref name=fort/>

During 1782, King Tipu Sultan, the son of King Hyder Ali, took control of the fort and added fortifications. King Tipu Sultan's territory was invaded many times by British forces. King Tipu Sultan had an alliance with the French and appealed by letter to [[Napoleon]] for aid. After several unsuccessful attempts, British forces of the [[East India Company]], under the command of Colonel [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]], attacked on 4 May 1799. The forces had 2,494 British soldiers and 1,882 Indian troops. The soldiers waited in trenches until mid-day before advancing across the river, as that was the period of rest for the fort watchmen. Colonel Beatson wrote an account of the offensive in his manuscripts.<ref name=Tovey/>

After King Tipu Sultan was martyred in the battle, the English officials signed a treaty with the Wodeyar queen.<ref name=Verma>{{cite book|title=Forts of India|last=Verma|first=Amrit|publisher=The Director, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|pages=91–93|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-230-1002-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Splendours of Royal Mysore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aFmtr4MdLQC&q=srirangapatna+fort&pg=PT85|page=54|publisher=Rupa Publications|isbn=9788129115355|last=Sampath|first=Vikram|year = 2008}}</ref> Richard Colley Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley of Norragh, was in charge. Later known as Mornington, he was [[Governor-General of India]] (1798 and 1805). This battle is considered one of the turning points in the colonization strategy of the [[East India Company]].<ref name=British/>

==Architecture==
{{multiple image
|image1=Gopura and prakara of Sri Ranganathaswamy temple on the island of Srirangapatna near Mysore in India.jpg
|width1=3072
|height1=2304
| total_width =400
|footer=Image of Sriranganthaswamy and Jumma Masjid inside the fort
|image2=Bangalore-Srirangapatna-Jama-Masjid.jpg
|width2=5152
|height2=3864
}}
The fort is protected in the West and Northern directions by river Cauvery. The fort had Lal Mahal and King Tipu Sultan's palace, which were demolished during the British capture of 1799. There are seven outlets and two dungeons.<ref>{{cite book|title=Progress of tourism in Mandya District – problems & prospects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8bk1BgAAQBAJ&q=srirangapatna+fort&pg=PA18|page=18|last=Dr. K.|first=Puttaraju|isbn=9781304731708}}</ref> The [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangapatna|Ranganathaswamy Temple]], located inside the fort is believed to have been built by [[Ramanuja]], the proponent of Vaishnadvaita philosophy with the grants from [[Vishnuvardhana]], the 12th century [[Hoysala]] king.<ref name="Thompson 1990, p. 2">[[fort|Thompson 1990]], p. 2</ref> The temple is found in the open grounds on the western side of the fort. The other temple, the Narasimhaswamy temple, is located on the other side of the open ground. The northern part of the fort houses the dungeons, where European prisoners are believed to have been confined. King Tipu Sultan's palace is located opposite to the main entrance of the Ranganathaswami temple.<ref name="Thompson 1990, p. 2"/> [[Masjid-i-Ala|Juma mosque]], built by King Tipu Sultan in Indo-Islamic architecture is one of the major mosques inside the fort.<ref>{{cite web|title=Srirangapatna|url=http://mandya.nic.in/tourism.htm|publisher=Mandya district administration|access-date=3 December 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Juma Masjidh of Tippu.jpg|thumb|Tippu Mosque, Srirangapatnam]]

==Legacy==
The sword and the ring of King Tipu Sultan are maintained in the [[British Museum]] and believed to have been taken at the battle by Hon. [[Arthur Henry Cole]], son of the [[William Cole, 1st Earl of Enniskillen|Earl of Enniskillen]].<ref name=British>{{cite web|title=Ring and sword of King Tipu Sultan|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/asia/r/ring_and_sword_of_tipu_sultan.aspx|publisher=British Museum|access-date=24 June 2015}}</ref> Colonel Bailey's Dungeon, Daria Daulat Bagh, Gumbaj containing tomb of King Tipu Sultan, Juma Masjid (Masjid-E-Ala), Obelisk monuments and Fort walls near the breach, spot where King Tipu Sultan's Body was found, Sri Kanthirava statue in Narasimha Temple, Sri Ranganatha Svami Temple and Thomas Inman's Dungeon are maintained as protected monuments under the Bangalore Circle of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]].<ref name="monument">{{cite web |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_alphalist_karnataka_bangalore.asp|title=Alphabetical List of Monuments - Karnataka -Bangalore, Bangalore Circle, Karnataka|work=Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India|publisher=Indira Gandhi National Center for the Arts|access-date=21 December 2013}}</ref>

==Image Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Armoury house.jpg|Armory
File:Bathghat on Kaveri.jpg|Bathing Ghat
File:A Minaret of Jama Masjid (Masjid-i-Ala) against deep Blue coloured sky.jpg|A Minaret of Jama Masjid (Masjid-i-Ala) against deep Blue coloured sky
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{reflist|20em}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|title=The last siege of Seringapatam|last=Thompson|first=Rev. E. W.|publisher=Wesleyan Mission|location=Mysore City|orig-year=1923|ref=fort|isbn=8120606027|year=1990}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|Srirangapatna Fort}}

{{coord|12.425|76.676|type:landmark_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Forts in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1454]]
[[Category:1454 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:15th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Mandya district]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Mandya district]]
[[Category:Srirangapatna]]

Taruana

2025-05-09T20:41:42Z

BrookEjw0071: new

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement

| name = Taruana
| native_name =
| image_caption =
| image_map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Village Taruana
| pushpin_map = India Haryana#India
| coordinates = {{coord|29.824859|75.011387|display=inline}}
| established_date = Around 1400
| population_total = 2573
| population_as_of = 2011
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| blank1_name_sec2 = Sex Ratio
| blank1_info_sec2 = 933
| type = Village
| blank2_name_sec2 = Child Sex Ratio (0-6 yrs)
| blank2_info_sec2 = 830
| blank3_name_sec2 = Official language
| blank3_info_sec2 = [[Hindi]]
| blank4_name_sec2 = Current Sarpanch
| blank4_info_sec2 = Kamaljeet Kaur Sidhu w/o Jaspal Singh Sidhu
| blank5_name_sec2 = Nearest City
| blank5_info_sec2 = [[Kalanwali]]
| blank6_name_sec2 = District
| blank6_info_sec2 = [[Sirsa district|Sirsa]]
}}{{More citations needed|date=May 2025}}
'''Taruana''' is a village near [[Kalanwali]] in [[Sirsa district]], [[Haryana]], India.<ref>{{cite web |date=2011 |title=Primary Census Abstract Data Tables – India: Final Population Totals |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711042331/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42554/download/46180/2011-IndiaStateDistSbDistVill-0000.xlsx |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=27 April 2025 |website=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India}}</ref>

== History ==

There is no documented history on Taruana, but according to oral history, it was founded by Sardar Taru Singh Sidhu, who named it Taruana.

==Transport facility==

===Bus facility===
As the village is on MDR 101A road (Kalanwali to Rori), transport, including by bus, is easily accessible. Kalanwali is just {{Convert|3|km|abbr = on}} away from Taruana and from Kalanwali Bus Stand one can easily get busses for long routes. On the other hand, [[Sirsa, Haryana|Sirsa]] (District HQ) is also just {{Convert|30|km|abbr = on}} away. By bus it takes only one hour to reach [[Sirsa, Haryana|Sirsa]].

===Train facility===
Since no train track crosses the village, there is no train station within the village, but from Kalanwali, there is easy access to trains.

==Education==
The village has good educational facilities. For primary education, there are two schools: one for girls and other for boys. For higher education, the village has a government high school that provides education up to secondary level.

Schooling had previously gone up to eighth class, but was extended up to tenth blass in 2003. The 2003–2004 batch was the first ninth-class batch in the school.


Higher education has always been a problem for not only Taruana, but also all the villages in this area, for girls since 2019. An all-girls' college is being founded in Taruana. After 12th class, students have to travel long distances for their education. Boys manage but it becomes very difficult for girls to travel 50 km daily, making it hard for them to pursue higher education in the area.

==Religion==
Most of the natives of this village are Sikhs, although there are also few Brahmans. A Gurudwara Sahib is located at the north end of the village. People go to Gurudwara Sahib every morning to be a part of the morning [[Ardās|Ardas]]. Apart from Gurudwara Sahib, there is a Dera of Baba Sarabh Dyal Ji. Baba Sarabh Dyal Ji was a famous saint.

==Jatt Sikh Gotras==
The village primarily has three [[gotra]]s i.e. [[Sidhu]], [[Dhaliwal (surname)|Dhaliwal]] and [[Mann (surname)|Mann]].
80 percent of [[Jats]] are Sidhus, while the rest are Dhaliwals and Manns. There are two to three houses of Bhullar gotra also.

==Medical facility==
Taruana does not have any [[Dispensary|dispensaries]] or hospitals.

==Post office==
Taruana has a post office, which was established in 1993. Since then, it has served the villagers under the control of BPM Gurmail Singh Sidhu.

Apart from basic mail services, the post office also provides other services like bill payment, saving accounts, and fixed deposits.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in Sirsa district]]

National Highway 160 (India)

2025-02-28T19:00:54Z

BrookEjw0071: new

{{Short description|National highway in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2017}}

{{infobox road
|country = IND
|type = NH
|route = 160
|length_km = 680
| ahn = {{Jct|country=IND|AH|47}}
| map = {{Maplink|frame=yes|frame-width=290|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=line|stroke-width=3
|title=National Highway 160|text= Map of National Highway '''160''' in red}}
| map_custom = yes
|direction =
|direction_a = North
|terminus_a = [[Thane]]
|destinations =
|direction_b = South
|terminus_b = [[Sankeshwar]]
|junction =
|states = [[Maharashtra]], [[Karnataka]]
|spur_type = NH
|spur_of = 60
|previous_type = NH
|previous_route = 60
|next_route = 48
|next_type = NH
}}

'''National Highway 160''', commonly referred to as '''NH 160''' is a [[National Highway (India)|national highway]] in [[India]].<ref name="renumber">{{cite web|url=http://dorth.gov.in/writereaddata/sublinkimages/finaldoc6143316640.pdf|title=Rationalisation of Numbering Systems of National Highways|publisher=[[Department of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=3 April 2012|location=New Delhi|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201124738/http://dorth.gov.in/writereaddata/sublinkimages/finaldoc6143316640.pdf|archive-date=1 February 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is a [[Spur route|spur]] road of [[National Highway 60 (India)|National Highway 60]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2011/E_574_2012_016.pdf|title=New Numbering of National Highways notification - Government of India|website=[[The Gazette of India]]|access-date=8 Oct 2018}}</ref> NH-160 traverses the states of [[Maharashtra]] and [[Karnataka]] in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=2924|title=State-wise length of National Highways (NH) in India as on 30.06.2017|website=[[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=8 Oct 2018}}</ref>

== Route ==
;Maharashtra
[[Thane]] - [[Nashik]] -
[[Sinnar]] - [[Shirdi]] - [[Ahmednagar]] - [[Daund]] - Kurkumbh - [[Baramati]] - [[Phaltan]] - Dahiwadi - [[Mayani]] - [[Vita, Maharashtra|Vita]] - [[Tasgaon]] - [[Miraj]] - Karnataka border.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2017/173465.pdf|title=New highways notification dated January, 2017 - New route for NH-160|website=[[The Gazette of India]] - [[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=8 Oct 2018}}</ref>
;Karnataka
Maharashtra border -[[Kagwad]]- [[Chikodi]] - [[Sankeshwar]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2017/173465.pdf|title=New highways notification dated January, 2017 - New route for NH-160|website=[[The Gazette of India]] - [[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=8 Oct 2018}}</ref>

== Junctions ==
{{RJL|date=November 2021}}

: {{jct|NH|48|country=IND}} Terminal Near Thane.

: {{jct|NH|60|country=IND}} Terminal Near Sinnar.

: {{jct|NH|160D|country=IND}} near Kolhar.

: {{jct|NH|160C|country=IND}} near Rahuri.

: {{jct|NH|61|country=IND}} near Ahmadnagar.

: {{jct|NH|65|country=IND}} near Kurkumbh.

: {{jct|NH|548C|country=IND}} near Dahiwadi.

: {{jct|SH|143|country=IND}} near Mayani.

: {{jct|NH|166E|country=IND}} near Vita.

: {{jct|NH|266|country=IND}} near Tasgaon.

: {{jct|NH|166|country=IND}} near Miraj - [[Sangli]].

: {{jct|NH|166H|country=IND}} near Miraj - Sangli.

: {{jct|NH|548B|country=IND}} near [[Kagwad]].

: {{jct|NH|48|country=IND}} Terminal near Sankeshwar - Gotur.
<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== See also ==
* [[Mumbai Nashik Expressway]]
* [[List of national highways in India]]
* [[List of national highways in India by state]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/11582504 NH 160 on OpenStreetMap]

{{Indian Highways Network}}
{{IND NH60 sr}}

[[Category:National highways of India]]
[[Category:National highways in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:National highways in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Transport in Nashik]]
[[Category:Transport in Thane]]

Chakunda Urf Milki

2025-02-17T06:23:20Z

BrookEjw0071: Pg...

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name =Chakunda urf milki

| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type =Gram Panchayat
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Bihar#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bihar, India
| coordinates = {{coord|25|44|01.1|N|85|17|48.5|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Bihar]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[vaishali district|vaishali]]
| subdivision_type3
=Assembly Constituency
| subdivision_name3
=[[Hajipur (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|hajipur assembly constituency (AC.123)]]<ref>[http://ceobihar.nic.in/map/include/AC123.pdf The Chief Electoral Officer of Bihar official, Hajipur pdf]</ref>
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| parts_type = [[Taluka]]s
| parts =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-BR]]
| footnotes =
}}
'''Chakunda urf milki''' is a Gram panchayat in hajipur, [[vaishali district]], [[bihar]].

Chakunda Urf Milki is surrounded by Rajapakar Block towards East, Sonepur Block towards west, Bidupur Block towards East, Bhagwanpur Block towards North .

==Geography==
This panchayat is located at {{coord|25|44|01.1|N|85|17|48.5|E|type:panchayat}}

==Panchayat office==
samudayik bhawan chakunda urf milki (समुदाियक भवन chakunda urf milki )<ref>[http://biharprd.bih.nic.in/Docs/GP_OFFICE/Vaishali.pdf Panchayati Raj Department, Government of Bihar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103183509/http://biharprd.bih.nic.in/Docs/GP_OFFICE/Vaishali.pdf |date=3 November 2014 }} page number 7</ref>

==Nearest city or town==
[[Hajipur]] ('''Distance 15 km''')<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/(S(3ird4ricndfyzx45tkdber3h))/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/View_data/Village_Profile.aspx village profile census government official website ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108114001/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Village_Directory/View_data/Village_Profile.aspx |date=8 January 2008 }} State - Bihar, District- vaishali, Sub District - Hajipur</ref>

patna (Distance 22 km)

==Nearest major road highway or river==
roadway (milki rd)<ref>[http://vaishali.bih.nic.in/vaishali%20MAP.jpg Map - vaishali district official government website ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104113148/http://vaishali.bih.nic.in/vaishali%20MAP.jpg |date=4 November 2014 }} file type: image/jpeg, size:13.9 MB</ref>

NH31

NH922

Ganges in the nearest river .

==compass==
<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ceobihar.nic.in/map/include/AC123.pdf |title=The Chief Electoral Officer of Bihar official, Hajipur pdf |access-date=3 November 2014 |archive-date=9 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509091000/http://ceobihar.nic.in/map/include/AC123.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{Geographic location
|Centre =chakunda urf milki
|North =
|Northeast =
|East =
|Southeast =[[dayalpur panchayat]]
|South =
|Southwest =[[panapur langa]]
|West =
|Northwest =
}}

==Villages in panchayat==
There are villages in this panchayat<ref>[http://panchayatdirectory.gov.in/adminreps/viewGPmapcvills.asp?gpcode=99311&rlbtype=V Reports of National Panchayat Directory Ministry of Panchayati Raj Government of India List of Census Villages mapped for CHAKUNDA Gram Panchayat, HAJIPUR, VAISHALI, BIHAR ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103224252/http://panchayatdirectory.gov.in/adminreps/viewGPmapcvills.asp?gpcode=99311&rlbtype=V |date=3 November 2014 }} Report printed on 26/09/2014 National Panchayat Portal, Panchayat Informatics Division</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!s.n
!villages
|-
| 1||Chak Said Kari
|-
| 2||Kansara
|-
| 3||Basauli
|-
| 4||Chak Khunda urf Milki
|-
| 5||Chak Khunda urf Milik Chak
|-
| 6||Bejha
|-
| 7||Loawan urf Loma
|-
| 8||Bishunpur Ram
|-
| 9||Sopha
|-
| 10||Gumti
|-
| 11|| Az Rakbe Gumti
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{panchayat of Hajipur block}}
{{Tirhut Division}}

[[Category:Gram panchayats in Bihar]]
[[Category:Villages in Vaishali district]]
[[Category:Vaishali district]]
[[Category:Hajipur]]