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Parichay: Nayee Zindagi Kay Sapno Ka

2026-04-29T16:41:07Z

Brandon81T: new some data w/ infobox

{{short description|Indian drama television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Parichaycolors.jpg
| alt_name = Parichay
| genre = Soap opera
| creator = [[Balaji Telefilms]]
| writer = '''Dialogues''' Dheeraj Sarna
| story = {{unbulleted list|R M Joshi|Binita Desai|Anil Nagpal|Vikas Tiwari|Jayesh D. Patil}}
| screenplay = {{unbulleted list|R M Joshi|Binita Desai|Anil Nagpal|Vikas Tiwari|Vandana Tiwari}}
| director = Mujammil Desai, Ajay Kumar
| creative_director = {{unbulleted list|Doris Dey|Tasneem Mehta|Mona Arora|Chloe Ferns|Madhura Rapsang}}
| starring = [[#Cast|See below]]
| theme_music_composer = Lalit Sen
| open_theme =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 417<ref>{{cite web|url=http://colors.in.com/in/videos/parichay-nayee-zindagi-kay-sapno-ka/parichay-full-episode-417-march-16th-2013-31070.html|title=Parichay episodes|publisher=Parichay|date=16 March 2013|access-date=16 July 2014}}{{dead link|date=April 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
| producer = [[Ekta Kapoor]] [[Shobha Kapoor]]
| editor = {{unbulleted list|Vikash Sharma|Vishal Sharma|Sandeep Bhatt}}
| cinematography = Suhas Shirodkar & Rajan Singh
| location = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = 20 minutes
| company = [[Balaji Telefilms]]
| channel = [[Colors TV]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2011|08|09}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=yes|2013|03|16}}
}}
'''''Parichay – Nayee Zindagi Kay Sapno Ka''''' ({{Translation|'' Introduction of Dreams of new life''}}), simply known as '''''Parichay''''', is an Indian soap opera that aired on [[Colors TV]] from 9 August 2011 to 16 March 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/television/new-fiction-show-parichay-on-colors/article_5e4f1ea6-cfe1-5669-80f8-6e0416c67a13.html |title=Colors launches new fiction show Parichay produced by Balaji Telefilms |access-date=28 August 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200718112620/https://www.indiawest.com/entertainment/television/new-fiction-show-parichay-on-colors/article_5e4f1ea6-cfe1-5669-80f8-6e0416c67a13.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The show is produced by [[Ekta Kapoor]] and [[Shobha Kapoor]] under their banner [[Balaji Telefilms]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=BestMediaInfo |first=Info |title=Parichay of Samir Soni as Kunal Chopra on Colors |url=https://bestmediainfo.com/2011/08/parichay-of-samir-soni-as-kunal-chopra-on-colors/ |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=bestmediainfo.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Plot==
Kunal Chopra lives in an apartment with his parents and his siblings, Gaurav, Anand and Raveena. Once a career-oriented and successful lawyer, Kunal has lost his zest at life and considers himself a failure, resulting in him not doing anything and Gaurav becoming the sole breadwinner. Kunal joins a law firm under Advocate D.K. Thakral but refuses to take up a case given by Thakral on moral grounds, leading him to be fired. Kunal later joins a construction company but is also fired due to Thakral's actions. On the other hand, Siddhi Malik is living with her brother Kapil and sister Khushboo. Ten years later, Anand graduates from law school. Siddhi and Anand fall in love and are set to marry. However, a day before the marriage, the Chopra family learns about the demise of Anand in a bomb blast. Kunal marries her to make his grieving mother happy, breaking his already deteriorating relationship with Thakral's daughter, Richa. He later finds his life changing for the better through Siddhi's arrival. Later, Kunal has Raveena married to Vikram, the brother of Gaurav's wife, Seema, despite Raveena being in a relationship with Richa's brother, Rohit.

Kunal and Siddhi consummate their marriage, however, Kunal, thinking that the act of consummation was one-sided, figures that Siddhi is not happy in the marriage and still harbors feelings for Anand, and files for divorce, shattering Siddhi, who finds herself in love with him. Seema encourages Siddhi to make Kunal realize his love for her. Meanwhile, Richa, conspiring to separate the couple, falsely accuses Kunal of raping her at a party, leading to which Kunal, initially fighting the case himself, is forced to transfer the case to Siddhi. Siddhi is then kidnapped by Rohit and injured in the process, but manages to win the case. She and Kunal later confess their love for each other during a family trip to [[Ujjain]]. Siddhi is then revealed to be pregnant. Meanwhile, Kunal catches Gaurav in an affair and banishes him from the family.

After an argument in which Siddhi leaves Kunal, she unknowingly crashes into Rohit in an accident with her car. Richa and her father blame Siddhi for his death, while Kunal decides to prove her innocence. Thakral, however, manages to trap Kunal, and he is sent to jail. Rohit is later revealed to be alive. Siddhi, Vikram, and Raveena get hold of him, but Richa, swearing revenge on Siddhi, kills her own brother, who testified against her earlier in Kunal's rape case. Richa strikes a deal with Siddhi, who agrees to sign the divorce papers and behave rudely towards the Chopra family. Siddhi accuses Kunal in the court of murder, but Richa proves him innocent and Siddhi as the culprit. Siddhi is incarcerated, and a heartbroken Kunal promises to never interfere in her life again. While in jail, she meets Sulekha Diwan and delivers male twins. Richa steals the first twin and convinces Kunal that Siddhi wanted to kill him. Upon discovering this, Siddhi asks Sulekha to give the second baby to the Chopra family. Sulekha initially complies, but when she learns that Kunal is planning to marry Richa, she returns the baby to Siddhi. Kunal ultimately decides not to marry Richa.

9 years later, Siddhi, who is released, thinks that Kunal is happy with Richa, so she decides to move on, goes through a makeover, and is shown to be living with Sulekha and her son, Abhay Diwan. Kunal, now losing trust in everything, was back to drinking, gambling, and fighting. The twins, both named Anand (after the Chopras' deceased younger son), grow up. The elder Anand Chopra lives with Kunal, while the younger Anand Diwan lives with Siddhi and is raised as a spoilt brat. Anand Chopra, tired of seeing Kunal in a dire state, convinces him to fight a case. On the day of hearing, Kunal spots Siddhi after nine years. The elder Anand is selected for a dance competition, and Kunal sells his gold medal that he earned from a law school to pay for the fees. During the competition, the elder Anand meets his younger brother. After the competition, Siddhi and Kunal come face to face. Both end up working in Abhay's firm, in which Kunal is forced to work under her. Siddhi later realizes that Kunal and Richa are not married. Meanwhile, the two Anands realize that they are both twins and vow to reunite their parents. Abhay sends Siddhi on a trip to Bangalore to solve some legal issues, during which Kunal and Siddhi come close to each other. Kunal and Siddhi decide to start a new life with their children, but Kunal sees Siddhi marrying Abhay and decides to avoid her. Abhay files for custody of the kids, and Thakral fights his case, while Kunal fights for his children. In the court, Siddhi speaks favorably of Kunal, angering Abhay. Kunal sees Abhay strangling Siddhi, but she tells him not to interfere in her personal matters. Afterwards, the court declares Abhay and Siddhi's marriage invalid, as Kunal and Siddhi haven't divorced yet, and orders them to live under one roof for six months. The twins try their best to bring their parents together, but to no avail. Siddhi tells Kunal that she married Abhay as he would threaten her with killing the younger Anand. However, Kunal refuses to believe this. Meanwhile, during a trip to the mall, some robbers attack it and keep Siddhi at gunpoint. Kunal saves her, but in the process, they shoot the younger Anand. Abhay pays for his operation and reminds Kunal that he is a loser. Kunal pledges to change his life. Afterwards, he and the twins learn that Siddhi is injured in a blast, but are unable to find her. Kunal later discovers that Abhay kidnapped Siddhi and has him arrested. Kunal and Siddhi reunite, and the show ends with the Chopra family recovering their mansion.

==Cast==
===Main===
*[[Samir Soni]] as Kunal Chopra:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sameer Soni is passionate about Balaji's Parichay |url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/tv/tv-news/sameer-soni-passionate-about-balajis-parichay-120302 |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=www.tellychakkar.com |language=en}}</ref>
**Siddhi's husband, twins Anand's father, Veena and Raj's eldest son, Anand, Gaurav and Raveena's eldest brother
*[[Keerti Nagpure]] as Siddhi Kunal Chopra:
**Kunal's wife, twins Anand's mother, Kapil and Shilpa's sister

===Recurring===
*Apurva Jyotir<ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/How-Ekta-Kapoor-found-her-twins/articleshow/15362828.cms Ekta Kapoor finds identical twins for her TV Show 'Parichay']</ref> as Anand Chopra: Siddhi and Kunal's twin son
*Anmol Jyotir as Anand Chopra, Siddhi and Kunal's twin son
*[[Ayaz Khan]] as Gaurav Chopra, Kunal's younger brother, Seema's husband, Anokhi and Ishani's father
*[[Arti Singh]] as Seema Gaurav Chopra née Garewal, Vikram's elder sister, Gaurav's wife, Anokhi and Ishani's mother
*[[Prerna Wanvari]] as Raveena Vikram Garewal née Chopra, Kunal's younger sister, Vikram's wife
*[[Tapeshwari Sharma]] as Anokhi Chopra, Seema and Gaurav's elder daughter
*[[Megha Israni]] as Young Anokhi Chopra
*Richa Srivastava as Ishani Chopra, Seema and Gaurav's younger daughter
*[[Saurabh Raj Jain]] as Anand Chopra, Kunal's second younger brother, Siddhi's ex-fiancé/lover (deceased)
*[[Vivek Mishra]] as Raj Chopra: Veena's husband, Kunal, Gaurav, Anand and Raveena's father
*[[Alka Amin]] as Veena Chopra, Raj's wife, Kunal, Gaurav, Anand and Raveena's mother
*Deepak Sandhu as Vikram Garewal: Seema's younger brother, Raveena's husband
*Amit Singh Thakur as Sudhanshu Garewal: Seema and Vikram's father
*[[Madhurima Tuli]]/[[Mona Vasu]]/[[Sonia Singh]] as Richa Thakral: Kunal's ex-girlfriend/fiancée
*Abhay Bhargava as Advocate D.K. Thakral: Kunal's employer, Richa and Rohit's father
*[[Karam Rajpal]] as Rohit Thakral: Richa's younger brother, Raveena's former lover
*[[Aruna Irani]] as Sulekha Diwan
*[[Mahip Marwaha]] as Lalit Dhawan
*[[Mahesh Shetty]] as Abhay Diwan
*Khushboo Shroff as Shilpa Malik: Siddhi's younger sister
*Mukesh Solanki as Kapil Malik: Siddhi's elder brother
*[[Nitin Sahrawat]] as Super Star Aman Kumar
*[[Gautam Rode]] as Vineet Saxena: Richa's ex-fiancé
*[[Mohit Sehgal]] as Aarav: Siddhi's friend
*[[Sidharth Shukla]] as Shiv
*[[Drashti Dhami]] as Madhu
*[[Tejasswi Prakash]] as Dhara

==Production==
In early January 2013, lead Keerti Nagpure suffered facial injuries in an accident and could not shoot for the series for a few days.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Parichay to go off air?|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Parichay-to-go-off-air/articleshow/17982916.cms|website=The Times of India|date=11 January 2013 }}</ref> However, in late January 2013, she returned.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Parichay to end in March on Colors|url=https://www.bizasialive.com/parichay-to-end-on-colors-in-march/|website=Biz Asia|date=18 February 2013 }}</ref>

The show ended on 15 March 2013 due to decreased TRP after the time change from 9:30pm to 10:30pm (IST).<ref>{{Cite web|title=It is a good change for me: Samir Soni|url=https://m.hindustantimes.com/tv/it-is-a-good-change-for-me-samir-soni/story-aoLySEOt6Dk4BdDnHtzFAJ.html|website=Hindustan Times|date=6 May 2013 }}</ref>

==Awards==
*[[Indian Telly Awards|11th Indian Telly Awards]] – Best Actor in a Lead Role – [[Samir Soni]]<ref name="11th-Telly-Awards">{{cite web|url=http://tellyawards.indiantelevision.com/y2k11/poll/winners.php#PO14|title=Samir Soni wins Best Actor (Popular) at 11th Indian Telly Awards for Parichay|access-date=17 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702115232/http://tellyawards.indiantelevision.com/y2k11/poll/winners.php#PO14|archive-date=2 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[Gold Awards|5th Boroplus Gold Awards]] – Best Actor (Critics)'' – [[Samir Soni]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title="Samir Soni wins Best Actor (Critics) at Gold Awards,2012 for Parichay" |url=http://careermasti.com/5th-boroplus-gold-awards-2012-photos-videos-winners-list-9502/ |access-date=2024-10-25 |website=careermasti.com}}</ref>
*[[Indian Television Academy Awards|12th Indian Television Academy Awards]] – ''Best Actor (Popular)'' – [[Samir Soni]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiantelevisionacademy.com/site/awards_hhita_details_new.php?year=2012|title=Samir Soni wins Best Actor at ITA 2012 for Parichay|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021114031/http://www.indiantelevisionacademy.com/site/awards_hhita_details_new.php?year=2012|archive-date=21 October 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://archive.today/20130217232301/http://www.colorstv.in/shows/show-details/parichay-65/ Official webpage at Colorstv.in]

{{Colors Programmes}}
{{Balaji Telefilms}}

[[Category:Balaji Telefilms television series]]
[[Category:Indian reality television series]]
[[Category:Colors TV original programming]]
[[Category:2011 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2013 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:Indian television soap operas]]

Chella Ayyavu

2026-04-22T19:13:24Z

Brandon81T: creating new data basic info...

{{Short description|Indian film director}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Chella Ayyavu
| image =
| caption =
| birth_place =
| other_names =
| birth_date =
| occupation = Director, Screenwriter
| spouse =
| children =
| relatives =
| yearsactive = 2016–present
}}
'''Chella Ayyavu''' is an Indian film director and [[screenwriter]] who works in the [[Tamil cinema|Tamil film industry]]. He is known for his collaborations with [[Vishnu Vishal]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Vishnu Vishal reunites with director Chella Ayyavu for a new film|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Jan/23/vishnu-vishal-reunites-with-directorchella-ayyavu-for-a-new-film-51470.html|website=New Indian Express}}</ref>

==Early life==
Before being an independent director and film writer, he has worked as an assistant director for the feature film ''[[Velainu Vandhutta Vellaikaaran]]'' and scripted it with director [[Ezhil]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/interviews/2018/Dec/19/silukuvarpatti-singam-cop-comedy-9292.html|title=Silukuvarpatti Singam: Cop comedy|first=K.|last=Sudha|date=19 December 2018|website=Cinema Express}}</ref>

==Filmography==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Title
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Silukkuvarupatti Singam]]''
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Gatta Kusthi]]''<ref>{{Cite news|title='Gatta Kusthi' movie review: Vishnu Vishal-Aishwarya Lekshmi's film is mad fun, when it doesn't ramble on gender politics|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/gatta-kusthi-movie-review-vishnu-vishal-aishwarya-lekshmis-film-is-mad-fun-when-it-doesnt-ramble-on-gender-politics/article66213920.ece|website=The Hindu}}</ref>
|-
| 2026 || ''[[Gatta Kusthi 2]]''
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|10346015}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Tamil film directors]]
[[Category:Tamil screenwriters]]

List of aerial victories during the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971

2026-04-20T21:42:20Z

Brandon81T:

{{short description|None}}

{{more citations needed|date=May 2021}}
[[File:PAF Sabre being shot down in combat by an IAF Gnat in September 1965.jpg|thumb|PAF Sabre being shot down in combat by an IAF Gnat in September 1965]]
[[File:Flight Lieutenant Salim Baig Gun Cam.jpg|thumb|Indian [[Folland Gnat|Gnat]] being shot down by a PAF F-86F of the [[No. 26 Squadron (Pakistan Air Force)|No. 26 Squadron]] over [[Srinagar]]]]
The '''[[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971]]''' was a military confrontation between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] that occurred during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in [[East Pakistan]] and West Pakistan from 3 December 1971 to the [[Pakistani Instrument of Surrender|Fall of Dacca]] ([[Dhaka]]) on 16 December 1971. The war saw intense use of aerial assets by both sides and proved to be instrumental in the Indian victory in East Pakistan ([[Bangladesh]]).

The following lists contains aerial victories credited to both Indian as well as Pakistani pilots.
== List of Notations Used ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Abbreviation
!Full form
|-
|IAF
|Indian Air Force
|-
|PAF
|Pakistan Air Force
|-
|Fg Offer
|Flying Officer
|-
|Flt Lt
|Flying Lieutenant
|-
|Wg Cdr
|Wing Commander
|-
|Gp Capt
|Group Captain
|}

== Eastern sector (Bangladesh) ==
Probable or Unconfirmed kills are in ''italics'' text
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Pilot
!Pilot's Squadron
!Country
!Date
!Aircraft Type
!Victim Pilot
!Victim Pilot's Squadron
!Victim Aircraft
!Remarks
|-
|Flt Lt [[M. A. Ganapathy]]
|[[No. 22 Squadron IAF]]
|[[India]]
|22 Nov [[Battle of Boyra]]
|[[Folland Gnat]]
|Fg Offr Khail Ahmad
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|[[Canadair Sabre]] Mk6
|Fg Offr Ahmad taken [[Prisoner of war|POW]], Ganapathy awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Group Captain Donald Lazarus 10516 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/9464|access-date=2024-06-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref>
|-
|[[Flying officer|Fg Offr]] Donald Lazarus
|[[No. 22 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|22 Nov [[Battle of Boyra]]
|Folland Gnat
|[[Flight Lieutenant|Flt. Lt.]] [[Pervaiz Mehdi Qureshi]]
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
|Flt Lt Qureshi taken POW, Lazarus awarded [[Vir Chakra]]
<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Group Captain Donald Lazarus 10516 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/10516|access-date=2024-06-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Flight lieutenant|Flt Lt]] Roy Andrew Massey''
|[[No. 22 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|22 Nov [[Battle of Boyra]]
|Folland Gnat
|Wg Cdr Afzal Chaudhry
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
|Chaudhary awarded [[Sitara-e-Jurat]], his Sabre was severely damaged, but PAF claims that he returned to base, however Massey's wingman saw Chaudhary bail out. Massey awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Wing Commander Roy Andrew Massey at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/8428|access-date=2024-06-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref>
|-
|[[Wing commander|Wg Cdr]] Narinder Chatrath
|[[No. 17 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Wg Cdr Muhammed Ahmed
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
|Ahmed posthumously awarded [[Sitara-i-Juraat]] (<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Air Commodore Narinder Chatrath 3959 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/3959|access-date=2021-04-25|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Heroes|url=https://www.pafmuseum.com.pk/heroes/|access-date=2021-04-26|website=Pakistan Air Force Museum|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|''Flt Lt Jayendra Sukrut Raj''
|[[No. 4 Squadron IAF]]
| India
|4th Dec
|[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21|MiG-21]]
|Unidentified Pilot
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
| The last unaccountable F86 was probably shot down by Sukurut Raj
|-
|''Flt Lt [[Vinod Neb|Vinod Kumar Neb]]''
|[[No. 17 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|Hawker Hunter
|Flt Lt Saeed Afzal Khan
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
|Khan KIA.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Indian Combat Pilots|url=https://jaganpvs.tripod.com/indpilots.htm|access-date=2021-05-06|website=jaganpvs.tripod.com}}</ref>
|-
|Fg Offr Harish Masand
|[[No. 37 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|Hawker Hunter
|Flt Lt Saeed Afzal
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
|Flt Lt Saeed Afzal bailed out KIA<ref name=":1" /> Masand awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Air Marshal Harish Masand 11272 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/11272|access-date=2024-06-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
|-
|Wg Cdr Ramaswamy Sundaresan
|[[No. 14 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|Hawker Hunter
|Fg Offr Sahibzada Sajjad Noor
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
|Sundersan awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Jagan|first=PVS|title=Eagles Over Bangladesh|publisher=HarperCollinsIN|year=2013|isbn=978-93-5136-163-3|pages=147–149}}</ref>
|-
|[[Squadron leader|Sqn Ldr]] [[Dilawar Hussain (air marshal)|Dilawar Hussain]]
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|4th Dec
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
|Flt Lt Kenneth Charles Tremenheere
|[[No. 14 Squadron IAF]]
|Hawker Hunter
|Tremenhere S.D at Tejgaon and taken POW <ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Group Captain Kenneth Charles Tremenheere 10482 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/10482|access-date=2021-04-26|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name=":0" />
|-
|Flt Lt Saeed Afzal Khan
|[[No. 14 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|4th Dec
|Canadair Sabre Mk6
|Sqn Ldr Kanwal Deep Mehra
|[[No. 14 Squadron IAF]]
|Hawker Hunter
|Khan awarded [[Sitara-i-Juraat]]; bailed out but MIA, Mehra S.D at Tejgaon but bailed out.
|}

== Western sector ==
Probable Kills or Unconfirmed kills are in ''italics'' text;
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Pilot
!Pilot's Squadron
!Country
!Date
!Aircraft Type
!Victim Pilot
!Victim Pilot's Squadron
!Victim Aircraft Type
!Remarks
|-
|Flt Lt Javed Latif
|[[No. 23 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|4th Dec
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6C]]
|Flt Lt Harvinder Singh
|[[No. 222 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Sukhoi Su-7|Sukhoi Su7]]
|Singh MIA<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Flight Lieutenant Harvinder Singh 9441 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/9441|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Latif awarded [[Tamgha-e-Jurat]]
|-
|Fg Off Qazi Javed
|[[No. 25 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|4th Dec [[PAF Base Murid]]
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6C]]
|Fg Off Vidyadhar Shankarrao Chati
|[[No. 27 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Chati bailed out and taken POW<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pillarisetti|first=Jagan|title=Indian Air Losses of the 1971 War (Unofficial List)|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/1288-indian-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-unofficial-list.html|access-date=2021-04-28|website=www.bharat-rakshak.com|language=en-gb|archive-date=2017-11-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115083213/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/1288-indian-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-unofficial-list.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Wing Commander Vidyadhar Shankarrao Chati 10504 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/10504|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref>
|-
|Fg Off Salim Beg Mirza
|[[No. 26 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|4th Dec [[PAF Base Peshawar]]
|[[F-86]]F
|Flt Lt Kotteiezath Puthiyavettil Muralidharan
|[[No. 20 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Murlidharan KIA<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Flying Officer Kotteiezath Puthiyavettil Muralidharan 10575 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/10575|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Pakistani Combat Pilots|url=https://jaganpvs.tripod.com/pakpilots.htm|access-date=2021-05-06|website=jaganpvs.tripod.com}}</ref>
|-
|Flt Lt Mujahid Salik
|[[No. 15 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|4th Dec [[PAF Base Murid]]
|[[F-86]]F
|Fg Off Sudhir Tyagi
|[[No. 27 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Tyagi posthumously awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Flying Officer Sudhir Tyagi 10871 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/10871|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref name="honourpoint.in">{{Cite web|title=Flying Officer Sudhir Tyagi VrC {{!}} Honourpoint|url=https://www.honourpoint.in/profile/flying-officer-sudhir-tyagi-vrc/|access-date=2021-04-28|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|Fg Off Naeem Atta
|[[No. 5 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|4th Dec
|[[Dassault Mirage III]]
|Flt Lt L Moses Sasoon;
Flt Lt Ram Metharam Advani
|
|[[English Electric Canberra]]
|Sasoon and Advani KIA<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indian Air Force Aircraft Data [www.bharat-rakshak.com]|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/Aircraft/IF-916|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref>
|-
|Wng Cdr [[Cecil Vivian Parker]]
|[[No. 20 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[F-86]]E
|
|-
|Wng Cdr [[Cecil Vivian Parker]]
|[[No. 20 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Flt Lt Nayyar Iqbal
|[[No. 17 Squadron PAF]]
|[[F-86]]E
|Iqbal KIA. According to Pakistani accounts and sources, the aircraft suffered an accidental [[flameout]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/airforce/squadrons/sqdr17.html |website=PakDef.info |title=No. 17 Squadron (Archived) |date=26 December 2008 |access-date=14 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081226215716/http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/airforce/squadrons/sqdr17.html |archive-date=26 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Parker awarded [[Maha Vir Chakra]]
|-
|Fg Off Sudhir Tyagi
|[[No. 27 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|F-86E/Mirage III
|Tyagi awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Flying officer Sudhir Tyagi|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/10871|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref> Kill at [[PAF Base Murid]].
|-
|''Flt Lt Charan Singh Dhillon''
|[[No. 108 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[North American F-86 Sabre|F86]]E
|Dhillon awarded [[Vayu Sena Medal]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Squadron Leader Charan Singh Dhillon|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/8376|access-date=27 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|''Wg Cdr Johnny Greene''
|[[No. 2 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|4th Dec
|[[Folland Gnat]] F.1
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[Dassault Mirage III]]/[[Lockheed F-104 Starfighter]]
|Intercepted and photographed while chasing a F-104 Starfighter over Ferozepur and prevented it from damaging the radar installations<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harry|first=B|title=IAF COMBAT KILLS - 1971 INDO-PAK AIR WAR|url=https://www.orbat.info/cimh/iaf/IAF_1971_kills_rev1.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Air Marshal Johnny Greene (1929-2013)|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/personnel/tributes/johnny-greene/|access-date=27 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Sqn Ldr Krishen Kumar Bakshi
|[[No. 220 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|05 Dec
|[[HAL HF-24 Marut|HAL HF24 Mk1]]
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[F-86]]E
|Bakshi awarded [[Vir Chakra]], aviation historians claim the unidentified Pakistani pilot was Fg Off Hamid Khawaja<ref>{{Cite web|title=Service Record for Air Commodore Krishen Kumar Bakshi 5012 F(P) at Bharat Rakshak.com|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/5012|access-date=2021-04-28|website=Bharat Rakshak|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Indian Aviation: HAL HF-24 Marut, the first Indian Jet Fighter|url=https://www.team-bhp.com/forum/commercial-vehicles/159928-indian-aviation-hal-hf-24-marut-first-indian-jet-fighter.html|access-date=2021-09-11|website=Team-BHP.com|language=en}}</ref> Naya Chor, [[Sindh]] and Dhoran, [[Kumbhalgarh]], area.
|-
|Fg Off Safdar
|
|Pakistan [[PAF Base Sakesar]]
|05 Dec
|[[Dassault Mirage III]]
|Sqn Ldr Jal Maniksha Mistry
|[[No. 20 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Hawker Hunter]] 56A
|Mistry posthumously awarded [[Vir Chakra]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=
Indian Air Losses of the 1971 War (Unofficial List)|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/indian-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-unofficial-list/|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Squadron Leader Jal Maniksha Mistry|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/5006|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Flt Lt Shahid Raza
|[[No. 25 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|05 Dec
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6C]]
|Fg Off Kishan Lakhimal Malkani
|
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Malkani posthumously awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=
Indian Air Losses of the 1971 War (Unofficial List)|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/indian-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-unofficial-list/|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Flying Officer Kishan Lakhimal Malkani|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/10576|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Wing Cdr Saad A Hatmi
|[[No. 25 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|05 Dec [[PAF Base Sakesar]]
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6C]]
|Flt Lt Gurmit Singh Rai
|[[No. 27 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Rai bailed out<ref>{{Cite web|title=Squadron Leader Gurmit Singh Rai |url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/4921|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref> [[Sakesar]] area.
|-
|''Unidentified Pilot''
|
|Pakistan
|05 Dec
|[[F-86]]
|Unidentified Pilot(s)
|
|[[Aérospatiale Alouette III|Alloutte III]]
|Alloutte pilots safely bailed out
|-
|Flight Lieutenant Salimuddin
|[[No. 5 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan [[Battle of Chumb]]
|06 Dec
|[[Dassault Mirage III]]
|Flt Lt Vijay Kumar Wahi
|[[No. 101 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Sukhoi Su-7]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pakistan Air Force Mirages during the 1971 Air War|url=https://defence.pk/threads/pakistan-air-force-mirages-during-the-1971-air-war.43385/|access-date=25 June 2024}}</ref> Wahi posthumously awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Flight Lieutenant Vijay Kumar Wahi|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/10114|access-date=25 June 2024}}</ref> Jammu Sector
|-
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|India
|07 Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Fg Off later Air Vice Marshal Hamid Khawaja
|[[No. 15 Squadron PAF]]
|[[F-86]]E
|Pilot crashed while chasing Hunter, acc. to the PAF.
|-
|[[Cecil Chaudhry|Flt Lt Cecil Choudhary]]
|[[No. 5 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|07 Dec
|[[F-86]]
|Fg Off Adhi Rustamji Gandhi
|[[No. 7 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Sukhoi Su-7]]
|<ref name=":2" />
|-
|Fg Off Atiq Sufi
|[[No. 11 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|07 Dec Samba
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6C]]
|Sqn Ldr Jiwa Singh
|
|[[Sukhoi Su-7]]
|Singh KIA
|-
|Wg Cdr M H Hashmi
|[[No. 23 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|08 Dec
|[[F-86]]E
|Flt Lt Ramesh Gulabrao Kadam
|
|[[Sukhoi Su-7]] BMK
|Kadam KIA<ref>{{Cite web|title=Flight Lieutenant Ramesh Gulabrao Kadam|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/8404|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref> PAF Risalewala.
|-
|Flt Lt Ramesh Gulabrao Kadam
|[[Tactics and Air Combat Development Establishment|TACDE]]
|India
|08 Dec PAF
|[[Sukhoi Su-7]] BMK
|Flt Lt A J Siddiqui
|[[No. 23 Squadron PAF]]
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6C]]
|F/L A J Siddqui is claimed by the PAF to have been shot while chasing Kadam's formation. The pilots of both sides were KIA.<ref name=":1" />
|-
|''Unidentified pilot''
|
|India
|09 Dec
|[[MiG-21]]FL
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[Dassault Mirage III]] EP
|2 K-13 AAMs were launched and a proximity hit recorded. Target disappeared from radar. Listed as 'Probable'
|-
|Sqn Ldr [[Ravinder Nath Bhardwaj]]
|[[No. 20 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|10 Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Sqn Ldr Aslam Chaudhry
|[[No. 26 Squadron PAF]]
|[[F-86]]E
| Chaudhry posthumously awarded [[Sitara-i-Jurat]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Missing in Action|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/409961-missing-in-action|access-date=2021-05-30|website=www.thenews.com.pk|language=en}}</ref> Bhardwaj awarded [[Maha Vir Chakra]]
|-
|Wg Cdr Arif Iqbal
|[[No. 9 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|10 Dec
|[[Lockheed F-104 Starfighter|F-104A]]
|Lt Cdr Ashok Roy (Pt)
Lt H S Sirohi (Obs)
Acmn O Vijayan (TG)
|
|[[Bréguet 1050 Alizé|Bréguet Br.1050 Alizé]]
|Roy, Sirohi and Vijayan KIA <ref>{{Cite web|title=
Indian Air Losses of the 1971 War (Unofficial List)|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/indian-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-unofficial-list/|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Wg Cdr Bhukhari
|
|Pakistan
|11 Dec
|[[F-86]]
|Flt Lt Krishna Kumar Mohan
|
|[[Sukhoi Su-7]]
|Mohan KIA<ref>{{Cite web|title=Flight Lieutenant Krishna Kumar Mohan|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/8757|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=
Indian Air Losses of the 1971 War (Unofficial List)|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/indian-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-unofficial-list/|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref> Shakargarh (Location)
|-
|Flt. Lt.Bharat Bhushan Soni
|[[No. 47 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|12th Dec
|[[MiG-21]]
|[[Mervyn Middlecoat|Wg Cdr Mervyn L Middlecoat]]<ref name=":1" />
|[[No. 9 Squadron PAF]]
|[[Lockheed F-104A Starfighter]]
|Flt Lt Soni awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wng Cdr Bharat Bhushan Soni|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/9392|access-date=28 June 2024}}</ref> had spotted Middlecoat bail out and had rushed a rescue team from the nearest IAF station.<ref name=":1" /> However the rescue team found no trace of Middlecoat. He had ejected over shark infested waters, it was highly unlikely that he survived.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Vir Chakra (VrC), Awardee: Flt Lt Surinder Singh Malhotra, VrC @ TWDI|url=http://twdi.in/node/4137|access-date=2021-05-01|website=twdi.in}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Chattopadhyay|first=R.|title=Sukhoi-7 BMK - A whale of a fighter|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/aircraft/past/1306-sukhoi-7.html|access-date=2021-05-01|website=www.bharat-rakshak.com|language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Wing Commander Mervyn L Middlecoat Shaheed {{!}} Lawrence College Ghora Gali|url=https://lawrencecollege.edu.pk/wing-commander-mervyn-middlecoat/|access-date=2021-05-01|language=en-GB}}</ref> Middlecoat posthumously awarded [[Sitara-e-Jurat]]<ref>{{Cite web|title =Heroes|url=https://www.pafmuseum.com.pk/heroes/|access-date=28 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Sqn Ldr Viney Kapila
|
|India
|12th Dec
|[[MiG-21]]FL
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[Lockheed F-104 Starfighter|F-104A]]/[[F-86]]E
|F-104A mentioned in official records, Kapila awarded [[Vir Chakra]]
|-
|Flt Lt Surinder Singh Malhotra
|
|India
|12
Dec
|[[Sukhoi Su-7]] BMK
|Flt Lt Ejazuddin
|[[No. 23 Squadron PAF]]
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6C]]
|Although initially PAF did not credit the kill but later accepted the loss of one F-6 over the general area of dogfight<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Pillarisetti|first=Jagan|title=Pakistani Air Losses of the 1971 War (Official List)|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/1289-pakistani-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-official-list.html|access-date=2021-05-06|website=www.bharat-rakshak.com|language=en-gb|archive-date=2021-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506205742/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/1289-pakistani-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-official-list.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> Malhotra awarded [[Vir Chakra]]
|-
|Sqn Ldr Farokh Jehangir Mehta
|
|India
|13th Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Fg Off Nasim Nisar Ali Baig
|[[No. 19 Squadron PAF]]
|[[F-86]]
|Beg KIA awarded [[Tamgha-i-Jurat]]<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=CITATION OF PAF SHAHEEDS - 4|url=http://www.defencejournal.com/sept98/citation_paf4.htm|access-date=2021-05-30|website=www.defencejournal.com}}</ref> Mehta awarded [[Vir Chakra]]
|-
|Flt Lt Kukke Sreekantasastry Suresh
|
|India
|13th Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[F-86]]
| Suresh awarded [[Vir Chakra]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wing Commander Kukke Sreekantasastry Suresh|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/6742|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Flt Lt Salim Baig Mirza
|[[No. 26 Squadron PAF]]
|Pakistan
|14 Dec Srinagar Airfield
|[[F-86]]
|[[Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon|Fg Off Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon]]
|[[No. 18 Squadron IAF]]
|[[Folland Gnat]]
|Sekhon awarded [[Param Vir Chakra]] posthumously in 6:1 fight<ref name=PVC>{{citation|url=http://twdi.in/node/1073|access-date=1 September 2014|title=Param Vir Chakra (PVC) Awardee: Fg Offr Nirmaljit Singh Sekhon, PVC |publisher=The War Decorated India & Trust}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Air Battles – December 1971 – My experiences|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/salim-beg-mirza/|access-date=22 June 2024}}</ref> Mirza awarded [[Sitara-e-Jurat]]
|-
|Sqn Ldr S Gauhar
|
|Pakistan
|14 Dec
|[[F-86]]
|Capt P K Gaur
|
|[[HAL Krishak]]
|Observation Aircraft belonging to [[Indian Army]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Captain Pradip Kumar Gour MVC {{!}} Honourpoint|url=https://www.honourpoint.in/profile/captain-pradip-kumar-gaur-mvc/|access-date=2021-05-30|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|Wg Cdr M N Singh
Sqn Ldr F J Mehta

(Shared)
|[[No. 122 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|15 Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]] T.66
(Two-seater)
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[F-86]]
|Maneuver kill. Target flew into the ground.<ref name=":3" />
|-
|Flt Lt Samar Bikram Shah
|
|India
|16 Dec
|[[Mig-21]]FL
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6C]]
|F-6 Wreckage found by Indian Army <ref>Shah awarded [[Vir Chakra]]{{Cite web|title=Flight Lieutenant Samar Bikram Shah|url=https://www.bharat-rakshak.com/indianairforce/database/9413|access-date=28 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Flt Lt [[Virendera Singh Pathania]]
|[[No. 18 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|16 Dec
|[[Folland Gnat]]
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|[[North American F-86 Sabre]]
|Unconfirmed Kill<ref>{{Cite web|title= Last dogfight over Srinagar 16 December 1971 No 18 Sqn 50yearsGnat|url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/archives/gnat50/?p=469|first=David|last=Greene|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref>
|-
|Flt Lt Maqsood Amir
|
|Pakistan
|17 Dec
|[[F-86]]
|Flt Lt Tejwant Singh
|
|[[Mig-21]]
|Singh bailed out became POW <ref>{{Cite web|title=THE PROUD HISTORY OF PAKISTAN AIR FORCE AGAINST INDIAN AIR FORCE|url=https://thefoji.com/pakistan-air-force-vs-indian-air-force/|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref> Amir awarded [[Tamgha-i-Jurat]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=It is the man behind the gun|url=https://pafcombat.tripod.com/great-ab/it-is-the-man-behind-the-gun.html|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Flt Lt Niraj Kukreja
|[[No. 29 Squadron IAF]]
|India
|17 Dec
|[[MiG-21]]FL
|Flt Lt Samad Ali Changezi
|[[No. 9 Squadron PAF]]
|[[Lockheed F-104 Starfighter|F-104A]]
|<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5" /> Changezi posthumously awarded [[Sitara-e-Jurat]], Kukeraja awarded Vir Chakra<ref>{{Cite web|title=Air Warriors|url=https://jaganpvs.tripod.com/aw_01.htm|access-date=28 June 2024}}</ref>
|-
|Unidentified Pilot
|
|India
|17 Dec
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|Unidentified Pilot(s)
|
|2x [[Cessna O-1 Bird Dog|Cessna 0-1]]
|Confirmed by PAF chronicler, John Fricker's, records<ref>"Two PAA artillery -spotting and reconnaissance Cessna O -1s were blasted out of the sky during the 1971 war by the 30mm ADEN cannon of marauding Indian Hawker Hunters over the battlefield", John Fricker, Pakistan's Army Aviation, AIR INTERNATIONAL</ref>
|}

== List of aircraft mentioned ==

=== India ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Aircraft
!Country of origin
|-
|[[Aérospatiale Alouette III]]
|{{Flag|France}}
|-
|[[Bréguet 1050 Alizé]]
|{{Flag|France}}
|-
|[[English Electric Canberra]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
|[[Folland Gnat]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
|[[Hawker Hunter]]
|{{Flag|United Kingdom}}
|-
|[[HAL HF-24 Marut]]
|{{Flag|India}}
|-
|[[HAL Krishak]]
|{{Flag|India}}
|-
|[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21FL]]
|{{Flag|USSR}}
|-
|[[Sukhoi Su-7BMK]]
|{{Flag|USSR}}
|}
=== Pakistan ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Aircraft
!Country of origin
|-
|[[Canadair Sabre]]
|{{Flag|Canada}}
|-
|[[Cessna O-1 Bird Dog]]
|{{Flag|USA}}
|-
|[[Dassault Mirage III]]
|{{Flag|France}}
|-
|[[Lockheed F-104A Starfighter]]
|{{Flag|USA}}
|-
|[[North American F-86 Sabre]]
|{{Flag|USA}}
|-
|[[Shenyang J-6|Shenyang F6]]
|{{Flag|China}}
|}

== See also ==

* [[Battle of Boyra|Battle Of Boyra]]
* [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971]]
*[[East Pakistan Air Operations (1971)]]
*[[Operation Chengiz Khan]]
*[[Operation Cactus-Lilly|Operation Cactus-Lily]]

== References ==

=== Sources ===

* Jagan, PVS; Chopra, Samir; (2013), ''Eagles Over Bangladesh,'' HarperCollinsIN, ISBN 978-93-5136-163-3
* [https://theprint.in/opinion/boyra-boys-under-3-minute-air-battle-with-pakistan-drew-first-blood-for-india-in-1971/324696/ "Boyra Boys & under-3 minute air battle"], ''Anshuman Mainkar, ThePrint, 22 Nov 2019''
* [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/1289-pakistani-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-official-list.html "Pakistani Air Losses of the 1971 War (Official List)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506205742/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/1289-pakistani-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-official-list.html |date=2021-05-06 }} ''Bharat-Rakshak.com''
* [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/1288-indian-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-unofficial-list.html "Indian Air Losses of the 1971 War (Unofficial List)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115083213/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/history/1971war/1288-indian-air-losses-of-the-1971-war-unofficial-list.html |date=2017-11-15 }}''Bharat-Rakshak.com''
*[http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Database/Accidents/listing.php?qyear=1971&qacid=50&qt=YR "IAF, IA and IN Aircraft Losses Database"] ''Bharat-Rakshak.com''
*[https://www.orbat.info/cimh/iaf/IAF_1971_kills_rev1.pdf "IAF COMBAT KILLS - 1971 INDO-PAK AIR WAR"] ''Orbat,info''
*[https://www.pafmuseum.com.pk/heroes/ "1971 GALLANTRY AWARDS PAF"] ''Heroes - Pakistan Air Force Museum''

=== Citations ===
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aerial victories during the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971, List of}}
[[Category:Lists of aerial victories|Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]
[[Category:Military operations of the India–Pakistan war of 1971]]
[[Category:Aerial operations and battles of India–Pakistan wars and conflicts]]
[[Category:India history-related lists]]
[[Category:Pakistan history-related lists]]
[[Category:Pakistan military-related lists]]

Manoj Parab

2026-04-20T01:59:42Z

Brandon81T: added a info!

{{Short description|Indian politician and activist (born 1985)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Manoj Parab
| image = Manoj Parab in 2017 (cropped).jpg
| caption = Parab during the [[Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal|MWDT]] protest in 2017
| birth_name = Tukaram Bharat Parab
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1985|8|18|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Pirna, Goa]], India
| office1 = [[Party chief]] of [[Revolutionary Goans Party]]
| term_start1 = 24 November 2021<ref name="registration">{{Cite web|title=Contribution Report of Revolutionary Goans Party|url= https://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public//pdf/report/October/1760615501.pdf|website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| predecessor1 = ''Office established''
| successor1 =
| office2 = [[Party chair|President]] of [[Revolutionary Goans Party]]
| term_start2 = 10 March 2022
| predecessor2 = [[Viresh Borkar]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rgpofficial.org/team/|title=Meet the visionary minds behind Revolutionary Goan Party|date=12 July 2023|access-date=28 November 2023|archive-date=31 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731084257/https://rgpofficial.org/team/|url-status=live|website=RGP Official}}</ref>
| successor2 =
| party = [[Revolutionary Goans Party]] (since 2021)
| other_party = [[Aam Aadmi Party]] (2016–2017)
| alma_mater = [[Goa University]] ([[MSc]])
| occupation = {{hlist|Politician|geologist|businessman|activist}}
| spouse = {{marriage|Veena Parab|2022}}
| signature = Manoj Parab signature.svg
| website = {{URL|facebook.com/ManojParabOfficial}}
| module = {{Listen
| embed = yes
| filename = Konkani-voicemanoj-parabrevolutionary-goansgowind-gawdekonkani-voice-Ringtone.ogg
| title = Manoj Parab's voice
| description = Parab talking about Art and Culture Minister [[Govind Gaude]], in response to the latter's video. Recorded 22 March 2020
}}
}}

'''Tukaram Bharat "Manoj" Parab''' (born 18 August 1985) is an Indian politician, activist,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kamat |first=Prakash |date=2017-12-30 |title=Opposition to Parrikar's letter grows |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/opposition-to-parrikars-letter-grows/article22336078.ece |access-date=2023-11-28 |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=2023-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128124304/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/opposition-to-parrikars-letter-grows/article22336078.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> and former [[geologist]] who serves as the [[party chief]] and [[party chair|president]] of the [[Revolutionary Goans Party]] (RGP), a [[non-governmental organization]] he founded in March 2017, which received recognition as a [[political party]] from the [[Election Commission of India]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Finally, EC recognises RG as political party |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/%EF%BB%BFfinally-ec-recognises-rg-as-political-party/78650.html |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en |archive-date=2023-06-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608182750/https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/%EF%BB%BFfinally-ec-recognises-rg-as-political-party/78650.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Prior to forming the [[NGO]], Parab joined the [[Aam Aadmi Party]] as a member in February 2016, ahead of the [[2017 Goa Legislative Assembly election]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Krishna |date=2022-03-12 |title=Manoj Parab's Revolutionary Goans rides local sentiment to win third highest vote share in Goa |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/assembly-elections/goa/manoj-parabs-revolutionary-goans-rides-local-sentiment-to-win-third-highest-vote-share-in-goa/articleshow/90175610.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-11-28 |issn=0013-0389 |archive-date=2022-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510100239/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/elections/assembly-elections/goa/manoj-parabs-revolutionary-goans-rides-local-sentiment-to-win-third-highest-vote-share-in-goa/articleshow/90175610.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref> He subsequently left to form the Revolutionary Goans (RG) on 3 March 2017, along with seven founding members,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-14 |title=Politics of Revolutionary Goans Party | work=The Navhind Times |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2022/03/14/opinions/opinion/politics-of-revolutionary-goans-party/ |access-date=2023-11-28 |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129072012/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2022/03/14/opinions/opinion/politics-of-revolutionary-goans-party/ |url-status=live }}</ref> including [[Viresh Borkar]] and Vishvesh Naik, whom he had met during his involvement with the Aam Aadmi Party.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-03-19 |title=Inspired by freedom fighter grandfather, Viresh Borkar chose revolutionary path |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/inspired-by-freedom-fighter-grandfather-viresh-borkar-chose-revolutionary-path/articleshow/90313648.cms |access-date=2023-11-28 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=2023-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813124345/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/inspired-by-freedom-fighter-grandfather-viresh-borkar-chose-revolutionary-path/articleshow/90313648.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Early life==
Tukaram Bharat Parab<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 April 2024 |title=Candidate details |url=https://affidavit.eci.gov.in/show-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 |access-date=9 March 2026 |website=Election Commission of India}}</ref> was born on 18 August 1985 in [[Pirna, Goa]] to Bharat and Chandralekha Parab.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=NORTH GOA RGP LS CANDIDATE: MANOJ PARAB |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/%EF%BB%BFnorth-goa-rgp-ls-candidate-manoj-parab/111628.html |access-date=2024-04-03 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en |archive-date=2024-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403004540/https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/%EF%BB%BFnorth-goa-rgp-ls-candidate-manoj-parab/111628.html |url-status=live }}</ref> His father, Bharat, was a [[tabla]] craftsman and repairer, as well as a businessman.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Nagvenkar |first=Mayabhushan |date=18 February 2022 |title=Shifting The Goalposts: A Young Politician's Battle To Save Goa And Its Way Of Life |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/national/shifting-the-goalposts-a-young-politician-s-battle-to-save-goa-and-its-way-of-life-magazine-182813 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921200538/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/national/shifting-the-goalposts-a-young-politician-s-battle-to-save-goa-and-its-way-of-life-magazine-182813 |archive-date=21 September 2023 |access-date=28 November 2023 |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]}}</ref> Parab completed his early education at a [[Catholic school]] before pursuing further studies. In 2008, he completed his [[Master of Science]] degree in [[Geology]] from [[Goa University]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Phadke |first=Manasi |date=2022-03-18 |title=We are fire, but not 'Raj Thackeray': The Revolutionary Goans who outdid AAP, TMC in state poll |url=https://theprint.in/politics/we-are-fire-but-not-raj-thackeray-the-revolutionary-goans-who-outdid-aap-tmc-in-state-poll/876581/ |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329064147/https://theprint.in/politics/we-are-fire-but-not-raj-thackeray-the-revolutionary-goans-who-outdid-aap-tmc-in-state-poll/876581/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following his graduation, Parab joined various local mining companies as a [[geologist]], including [[Timblo Drydocks Private Limited|Timblo]], Salgaocars, and [[Vedanta Resources]]. However, seeking improved remuneration, Parab decided to relocate away from Goa. Consequently, he found employment on [[Oil platform|offshore oil rigs]] located in [[Mumbai]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

==Political career==
===2022 Goa Legislative Assembly election===
On 14 January 2022, Parab was designated the [[Chief Minister of Goa|chief ministerial candidate]] for the [[2022 Goa Legislative Assembly election]]. He contested the election from two constituencies, [[Valpoi Assembly constituency|Valpoi]] and [[Tivim Assembly constituency|Tivim]]. Parab stated that his decision to contest from Tivim was motivated by two factors: firstly, it held personal significance as his place of upbringing and his ancestral village, and secondly, he expressed concerns about the actions of the [[Bhartiya Janata Party]] (BJP), which he believed were having a detrimental impact on the state of [[Goa]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Franco |first=Velanie |date=2022-01-14 |title=Manoj Parab declared RG's chief minister candidate |url=https://www.gomantaktimes.com/news/elections-2022/manoj-parab-declared-rgs-chief-minister-candidate |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Gomantak Times |language=en |archive-date=2022-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123014536/https://www.gomantaktimes.com/news/elections-2022/manoj-parab-declared-rgs-chief-minister-candidate |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Manoj Parab alongwith Reginaldo and Claude Alvares.jpg|thumb|Parab along with legislator [[Aleixo Lourenco|Reginaldo]], activist [[Viriato Fernandes]], and environmentalist [[Claude Alvares]] at the 2017 [[Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal|MWDT]] protest]]

Parab's electoral campaigns in both the constituencies were unsuccessful. In Tivim, he secured the third position, losing to the two-term BJP candidate [[Nilkanth Halarnkar]] by a margin of 4,363 votes. Similarly, in Valpoi, he obtained the second position but lost to the five-term BJP candidate [[Vishwajit Rane]] by a margin of 8,085 votes.<ref name="results2022">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14168-goa-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 17 May 2022}}</ref>

===Post Assembly election (2022–present)===
[[File:Manoj Parab in 2020.jpg|thumb|Parab during a public meeting, 2020]]

Following the election, Parab outlined the strategic objectives of his party to enhance its presence by [[Next Goa Legislative Assembly election|2027]]. He sought the mentorship of individuals from diverse backgrounds.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-03-13 |title=RG eyes 2027, aims to contest all polls in Goa |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/rg-eyes-2027-aims-to-contest-all-polls-in-goa/articleshow/90176584.cms |access-date=2026-03-09 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In the run-up to the 2022 Goa [[village panchayat]] elections, Parab articulated the need for contesting elections at the grassroots level to combat systemic issues and eradicate corruption at the village level. He refuted allegations of being responsible for [[Spoiler effect|vote division]] in the assembly election, asserting that he merely provided voters with additional choices. Parab indicated his intention to address the issue of [[Goan]] identity through [[Viresh Borkar]] in the assembly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 July 2022 |title=RGP sounds the bugle for panchayat polls |url=https://navhindtimes.in/2022/07/10/goanews/rgp-sounds-the-bugle-for-panchayat-polls/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203123206/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2022/07/10/goanews/rgp-sounds-the-bugle-for-panchayat-polls/ |archive-date=3 December 2023 |access-date=3 December 2023 |website=[[The Navhind Times]] |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

In October 2022, Parab accused the [[Goa Congress]] of being affiliated with the BJP after Olencio Simoes, a leader from the Goa Congress, stated that the Congress party had lost ten seats in the Assembly elections due to the Revolutionary Goans Party.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hub |first=Goa News |date=2022-10-06 |title=Revolutionary Goans is not for sale: Manoj Parab reacts to Cong offer |url=https://goanewshub.com/revolutionary-goans-is-not-for-sale-manoj-parab-reacts-to-cong-offer/ |access-date=2026-03-09 |website=Goa News Hub |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hub |first=Goa News |date=2022-10-06 |title=“Congress is ready for alliance with Revolutionary Goans” |url=https://goanewshub.com/congress-is-ready-for-alliance-with-revolutionary-goans/ |access-date=2026-03-09 |website=Goa News Hub |language=en-US}}</ref> The same month, Parab made an announcement to engage with leaders from regional parties across the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IT WILL BE BJP V/S RGP IN 2027: MANOJ PARAB |url=https://www.prudentmedia.in/politics/it-will-be-bjp-vs-rgp-in-2027-manoj-parab/23613.html |access-date=2026-03-09 |website=www.prudentmedia.in |language=en}}</ref> He emphasized his party's commitment to its ideology and expressed his intention to reintroduce the [[Revolutionary Goans Party#Person of Goan Origin Bill 2019|POGO Bill]] in the state legislative assembly after it was deemed unconstitutional by the [[Government of Goa]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Govt dumps POGO bill after Law Dept terms it as unconstitutional |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/govt-dumps-pogo-bill-after-law-dept-terms-it-as-unconstitutional/86837.html |access-date=2026-03-09 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en}}</ref> Parab held meetings with Maharashtra Chief Minister [[Eknath Shinde]] and [[Maharashtra Navnirman Sena]] (MNS) president [[Raj Thackeray]] in [[Mumbai]] to gain knowledge of their party policies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2022 |title=We are committed to bring back POGO Bill: Parab |url=https://navhindtimes.in/2022/10/30/goanews/we-are-committed-to-bring-back-pogo-bill-parab/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110204500/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2022/10/30/goanews/we-are-committed-to-bring-back-pogo-bill-parab/ |archive-date=10 November 2022 |access-date=2 December 2023 |website=The Navhind Times}}</ref>

==Personal life==
In a 2022 interview with ''[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]'', Parab recounted his personal experience, highlighting the challenges faced by many [[Goans]] when it comes to property ownership. He mentioned that he and his family lived in [[Colvale]] on a rental basis for around 20–25 years before relocating to [[Bicholim]], where they purchased their own apartment.<ref name=":0" />

On 9 December 2022, Parab married Veena Parab,<ref>{{Cite web |title=GAME ON! RGP MAKES BOLD ENTRY INTO POLL FRAY |url=https://www.thegoan.net/goa-news/game-on-rgp-makes-bold-entry-into-poll-fray/112445.html |access-date=2026-03-08 |website=The Goan EveryDay |language=en}}</ref> a [[homemaker]], in a private ceremony.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Tukaram Bharat Parab(Revolutionary Goans Party):Constituency- VALPOI(NORTH GOA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/goa2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=176 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815123607/https://myneta.info/goa2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=176 |archive-date=2022-08-15 |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=myneta.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Parab |first=Manoj |date=9 December 2022 |title=We only have love and gratitude in our hearts for everything that has led us to this point... |url=https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=pfbid02jxzwK5cp9r2Sb1q9LbFFGSqBgtotAw8faXymq5njBwUY6cafTwxbmjK8fAnKSjBGl&id=100013256192556&mibextid=CDWPTG |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=Facebook |language=en |archive-date=2023-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129130438/https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=pfbid02jxzwK5cp9r2Sb1q9LbFFGSqBgtotAw8faXymq5njBwUY6cafTwxbmjK8fAnKSjBGl&id=100013256192556&mibextid=CDWPTG |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Assessments==
In 2022, [[political analyst]] Prakash Kamat expressed reservations about some of Parab's ideologies, suggesting that they may not align with the [[Constitution of India|constitutional principles]]. Kamat highlighted Parab's [[Revolutionary Goans Party#Person of Goan Origin Bill 2019|POGO Bill]], which advocates granting exclusive rights to [[Goans]]. He further added, that Parab has managed to generate enthusiasm among the people, as evidenced by his significant vote share in the [[2022 Goa Legislative Assembly election]]. This has led to discussions for Parab to be taken seriously as a political figure.<ref name=":3" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parab, Manoj}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1985 births]]
[[Category:Politicians from Goa]]
[[Category:Activists from Goa]]
[[Category:Indian civil rights activists]]
[[Category:Indian human rights activists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian politicians]]
[[Category:Indian anti-corruption activists]]
[[Category:People from North Goa district]]
[[Category:Former members of Aam Aadmi Party]]

Kumud Verma

2026-04-19T23:34:20Z

Brandon81T: Created initial post more to come

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Kumud Verma
| image =
| caption =
| office = Member of the [[Bihar Legislative Council]]
| term_start = 29 June 2020
| term_end =
| constituency = Elected by Legislative Assembly
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_place =
| birth_date = 13 August 1967
| spouse =
| party = [[Janata Dal (United)|JDU]]
| alma_mater = [[Magadh University]]
| profession = Politician
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Kumud Verma''' is an Indian politician from [[Bihar]]. She is serving as a member of the [[Bihar Legislative Council]] since 29 June 2020. She is a member of the [[Janata Dal (United)]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dr. Kumud Verma (Winner) ELECTED FROM BIHAR LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY - Affidavit Information of Candidate|url=https://myneta.info/biharmlc/candidate.php?candidate_id=309|access-date=2025-08-31|website=myneta.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=डॉ. कुमुद वर्मा - माननीय सदस्य , बिहार विधान परिषद्|url=https://vidhanparishad.bihar.gov.in/profile/34|access-date=2025-08-31|website=vidhanparishad.bihar.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Bihar: All 9 MLC candidates elected unopposed; JDU, RJD bag 3 seats each|url=https://www.businessworld.in/article/bihar-all-9-mlc-candidates-elected-unopposed-jdu-rjd-bag-3-seats-each-292409|date=2020-06-29|access-date=2025-08-31|publisher=BW Businessworld}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Janata Dal (United) politicians]]
[[Category:Members of the Bihar Legislative Council]]

Garhwa Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:17:22Z

Brandon81T: creating some stub w/ refs...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Jharkhand legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| reservation = None
| name = Garhwa
| map_image = Garhwa constituency map.svg
| state = [[Jharkhand]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Palamu Lok Sabha constituency|Palamu]]
| district = [[Garhwa district|Garhwa]]
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| mla = [[Satyendra Nath Tiwari]]
| party = [[Bhartiya Janta Party]]
| established = 2000
| electors = {{formatnum:366065}}
| constituency_no = 80
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
'''Garhwa Assembly constituency''' is one of the 81 [[Vidhan Sabha]] (Legislative Assembly) constituencies of [[Jharkhand]] [[States and territories of India|state]] in eastern [[India]].<ref name="ceo">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|pages=173–4}}</ref>

==Overview==
Garhwa (constituency number 80) is one of the two [[Jharkhand Vidhan Sabha]] constituencies in [[Garhwa district]]. It is one of the Assembly segments of the [[Palamu (Lok Sabha constituency)|Palamu Lok Sabha constituency]] along with 5 other segments, namely, [[Bhawanathpur Assembly constituency|Bhawanathpur]] in this district and [[Daltonganj Assembly constituency|Daltonganj]], [[Bishrampur Assembly constituency|Bishrampur]], [[Chhatarpur (Jharkhand Assembly constituency)|Chhatarpur]] and [[Hussainabad Assembly constituency|Hussainabad]] in [[Palamu district]].<ref name="ceo"/>

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Name
! colspan=2|Party
|-
! colspan=4|[[Bihar Legislative Assembly]]
|-
| colspan="4" |{{center|''Before 1957: see Hussainabad cum Garhwa constituency''}}
|-
|[[1957 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|Rajeshwari Saroj Das
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1962 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Gopi Nath Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}
|-
|[[1967 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|L. Prasad
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1969 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|Gopi Nath Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
|[[1972 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|Awadh Kishore Tiwari
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1977 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Vinod N. Dixit
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Yugal Kishore Pandey
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1985 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|rowspan="2"|Gopi Nath Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1990 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
|-
|[[1995 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|rowspan="2"|Girinath Singh
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
! colspan=4|[[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]]
|-
| [[2005 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2005]]
|Girinath Singh
| {{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[2009 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
|rowspan=2 | [[Satyendra Nath Tiwari]]
|{{Full party name with color|Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik)}}
|-
| [[2014 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[2019 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
|[[Mithilesh Kumar Thakur]]
|{{Full party name with color|Jharkhand Mukti Morcha}}
|-
| [[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|[[Satyendra Nath Tiwari]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly election 2024===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2024 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Garhwa<ref>{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=Jharkhand Assembly Election Results 2024 - Seats won by JMM |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/partywisewinresult-852S27.htm |access-date=24 November 2024 |date=24 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124045445/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2024/partywisewinresult-852S27.htm |archive-date=24 November 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Satyendra Nath Tiwari]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,33,109 |percentage=45.40% |change={{increase}}10.74 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Mithilesh Kumar Thakur]] |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=1,16,356 |percentage=39.68% |change={{decrease}}4.78 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Girinath Singh |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=8,096 |percentage=2.76% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ajay Kumar Choudhary |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=7,722 |percentage=2.63% |change={{decrease}}1.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rabindra Kumar Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=4,502 |percentage=1.54% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Payare Pal |party=Independent politician |votes=4,092 |percentage=1.40% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Law Kumar Singh |party=Azad Samaj Party (Kanshi Ram) |votes=3,202 |percentage=1.09% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=937 |percentage=0.32% |change={{decrease}}0.08 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=16,753 |percentage=5.71% |change= {{decrease}}4.09 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=2,93,209 |percentage=69.88% |change= {{increase}}4.33 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 4,19,614 |ref = |change= {{increase}}14.63 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |swing= {{increase}}0.93 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2019===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2019 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Garhwa<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/11813-jharkhand-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Jharkhand Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=9 February 2022 |date=6 February 2020}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Mithilesh Kumar Thakur]] |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=1,06,681 |percentage=44.46% |change={{increase}}21.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Satyendra Nath Tiwari |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=83,159 |percentage=34.66% |change={{decrease}}2.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Birendra Prasad |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=10,638 |percentage=4.43% |change={{increase}}1.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Mandip Mallah |party=All India Trinamool Congress |votes=7,368 |percentage=3.07% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Md. Najibuddin Khan |party=All India Majlis-E-Ittehadul Muslimeen |votes=6,231 |percentage=2.60% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Suraj Prasad Gupta |party=Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik) |votes=5,852 |percentage=2.44% |change={{increase}}1.08 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Bihari Vishwakarma |party=Independent politician |votes=5,339 |percentage=2.23% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=953 |percentage=0.40% |change={{decrease}}0.14 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=23,522 |percentage=9.80% |change= {{decrease}}0.88 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=2,39,930 |percentage=65.54% |change= {{decrease}}2.27 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 3,66,065 |ref = |change= {{increase}}21.94 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{increase}}7.52 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2014===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2014 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Garhwa<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3787-jharkhand-2014/ |title=Jharkhand General Legislative Election 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Satyendra Nath Tiwari |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=75,196 |percentage=36.94% |change={{increase}}28.15 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Girinath Singh |party=Rashtriya Janata Dal |votes=53,441 |percentage=26.25% |change={{decrease}}0.68 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Mithilesh Kumar Thakur]] |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=47,579 |percentage=23.37% |change={{increase}}13.92 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Md. Rostam Ali Ansari |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=6,902 |percentage=3.39% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Virendra Sav |party=Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik) |votes=2,771 |percentage=1.36% |change={{decrease}}32.28 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Babanu Singh |party=Independent politician |votes=2,580 |percentage=1.27% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Virendra Choudhary |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) Liberation |votes=1,839 |percentage=0.90% |change={{decrease}}3.65 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=1,100 |percentage=0.54% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=21,755 |percentage=10.69% |change= {{increase}}3.98 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=2,03,562 |percentage=67.81% |change= {{increase}}7.58 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 3,00,191 |ref = |change= {{increase}}20.53 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik) |swing= {{increase}}3.30 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2009===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2009 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Garhwa<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3786-jharkhand-2009/ |title=Jharkhand 2009 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |date=20 August 2018 |access-date= 23 May 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Satyendra Nath Tiwari |party=Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik) |votes=50,474 |percentage=33.64% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Girinath Singh |party=Rashtriya Janata Dal |votes=40,412 |percentage=26.94% |change={{increase}}4.23 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Mithilesh Kumar Thakur]] |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=14,180 |percentage=9.45% |change={{decrease}}0.09 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Alakh Nath Pandey |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=13,191 |percentage=8.79% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kali Charan Mahto |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) Liberation |votes=6,830 |percentage=4.55% |change={{increase}}1.95 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anil Kumar Sah |party=All Jharkhand Students Union |votes=6,665 |percentage=4.44% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rajesh Kumar (Garhwa) |party=Navjawan Sangharsh Morcha |votes=2,298 |percentage=1.53% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=10,062 |percentage=6.71% |change= {{increase}}1.07 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,50,022 |percentage=60.24% |change= {{decrease}}4.33 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,49,060 |ref = |change= {{increase}}6.21 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik) |loser=Rashtriya Janata Dal |swing= {{increase}}10.94 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2005===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2005 Jharkhand Legislative Assembly election]]: Garhwa<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3785-jharkhand-2005/ |title=Jharkhand General Legislative Election 2005 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Girinath Singh |party=Rashtriya Janata Dal |votes=34,374 |percentage=22.71% |change={{decrease}}21.98 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sairaj Ahmed Ansari |party=Janata Dal (United) |votes=25,841 |percentage=17.07% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anil Sao |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=18,225 |percentage=12.04% |change={{increase}}3.99 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Tulsi Singh |party=Jharkhand Mukti Morcha |votes=14,439 |percentage=9.54% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Amarit Sukla |party=Indian National Congress |votes=13,392 |percentage=8.85% |change={{increase}}5.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Charitra Choudhary |party=Rashtriya Samanta Dal |votes=6,088 |percentage=4.02% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jitendra Kumar Chandrabansi |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist Leninist) Liberation |votes=3,938 |percentage=2.60% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=8,533 |percentage=5.64% |change= {{decrease}}6.40 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,51,390 |percentage=64.56% |change= {{increase}}10.90 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 2,34,487 |ref = |change= {{increase}}24.30 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Rashtriya Janata Dal |loser=Rashtriya Janata Dal |swing= {{decrease}}21.98 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly election 2000===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Garhwa<ref>{{cite web|url = https://ceobihar.nic.in/BiharElection/Statistical%20Report/2000.pdf |title = Statistical Report on General Election, 2000 to the Legislative Assembly of Bihar |access-date = 16 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005142035/https://ceobihar.nic.in/BiharElection/Statistical%20Report/2000.pdf |archive-date= 5 October 2023 |website=ceobihar.nic.in |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Bihar}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Girinath Singh |party=Rashtriya Janata Dal |votes=45,239 |percentage=44.69% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shyam Narayan Dubey |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=33,057 |percentage=32.65% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ahmad Ali |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=8,146 |percentage=8.05% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ram Charitra Choudhary |party=Samajwadi Party |votes=4,559 |percentage=4.50% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Samsuddin Ansari |party=Indian National Congress |votes=3,309 |percentage=3.27% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Baliwant Pandey |party=Independent politician |votes=3,244 |percentage=3.20% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Ganesh Singh |party=Communist Party of India |votes=1,838 |percentage=1.82% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=12,182 |percentage=12.03% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,01,232 |percentage=54.67% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,88,639 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Rashtriya Janata Dal |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Garhwa]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Jharkhand}}
{{coord|24.16|83.80|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Garhwa district]]
[[Category:Politics of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:2000 establishments in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2000]]

Dungarpur Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T04:33:15Z

Brandon81T: creating basic page more to come...

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Rajasthan State, India}}{{expand list|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Dungarpur
| map_image = Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan-158-Dungarpur.svg
| state = [[Rajasthan]]
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 158
| district = [[Dungarpur district|Dungarpur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Banswara Lok Sabha constituency|Banswara]]
| established = 1972
| reservation = ST
| mla = [[Ganesh Ghogra]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| electors = {{formatnum:263301}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/eci-backend/public/all_files/full-statistical-reports/rajasthan/2023/Detailed_Results.pdf |title=State Election,2023 to the legislative assembly of Rajasthan |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 12 February 2021 |url-access=limited}}</ref>{{update after|2029|1}}
}}
'''Dungarpur Assembly constituency''' is one of the 200 [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Rajasthan]] state in [[India]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3931-delimitation-of-parliamentary-assembly-constituencies-order-2008/ |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary & Assembly Constituencies Order - 2008 |website=Election Commission of India |date=26 November 2008 |accessdate= 12 February 2021}}</ref><ref name=ceomap>{{cite web |url=https://ceorajasthan.nic.in/map/RAJASTHAN_ACS_MAP/RAJASTHAN_ACS_MAP.pdf |title=New Assembly Constituencies |website=ceorajasthan.nic.in |date=25 January 2006| access-date=12 February 2021}}</ref>

It is part of [[Dungarpur district|Dungarpur]] district and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]]. As of 2023, it is represented by [[Ganesh Ghogra]] of the [[Indian National Congress]] party.{{update after|2029|1}}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[2003 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
| [[Nathu Ram Ahari]]<ref name=election2003>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3403-rajasthan-2003/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election 2003 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=14 January 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2008 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
| [[Lal Shanker Gatiya]]<ref name=election2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3407-rajasthan-2008/|title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election 2008 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=22 December 2021}}</ref>
|-
|[[2013 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
| [[Devendra Katara]]<ref name=election2013>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3411-rajasthan-2013/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election 2013 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
| rowspan=2|[[Ganesh Ghogra]]<ref name=election2018/>
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|-
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Dungarpur<ref name="election2023"/>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Ganesh Ghogra
|votes = {{formatnum:69338}}
|percentage = 35.79
|change = -10.55
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharat Adivasi Party
|candidate = Kantilal Roat
|votes = {{formatnum:50285}}
|percentage = 25.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Banshilal Katara
|votes = {{formatnum:45602}}
|percentage = 23.54
|change = -5.67
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Devram Roat
|votes = {{formatnum:16165}}
|percentage = 8.34
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Devendra Katara
|votes = {{formatnum:2348}}
|percentage = 1.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Gotamlal
|votes = {{formatnum:2318}}
|percentage = 1.2
|change = -3.49
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4266}}
|percentage = 2.2
|change = -0.7
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:19053}}
|percentage = 9.84
|change = -7.29
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:193756}}
|percentage = 73.59
|change = +2.51
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|Rajasthan Legislative Assembly Election, 2018]]: Dungarpur<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9645-statistical-data-of-rajasthan-la-2018/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan LA 2018 |website=Election Commission of India |date= |accessdate= 12 February 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Ganesh Ghogra]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:75482}}
|percentage = 46.34
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Madhavlal Varahat
|votes = {{formatnum:47584}}
|percentage = 29.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Tribal Party
|candidate = Velaram
|votes = {{formatnum:13004}}
|percentage = 7.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Devendra Katara
|votes = {{formatnum:8633}}
|percentage = 5.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Gotamlal
|votes = {{formatnum:7644}}
|percentage = 4.69
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Amrutlal
|votes = {{formatnum:3464}}
|percentage = 2.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Hindustan Congress Party
|candidate = Maya
|votes = {{formatnum:2367}}
|percentage = 1.45
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4720}}
|percentage = 2.9
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:27898}}
|percentage = 17.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:162898}}
|percentage = 71.08
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Dungarpur district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan}}

{{coord|23.85|73.72|display=title}}

[[Category:Dungarpur district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Politics of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1972]]
[[Category:1972 establishments in Rajasthan]]

Brahmavar Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:20:31Z

Brandon81T: creating a info w/ refs

{{Short description|Former Assembly constituency in Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Brahmavar
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| district = [[Udupi district|Udupi]]
| division = [[Mysore division|Mysore]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Udupi Lok Sabha constituency|Udupi]]
| constituency_no = 147
| established = 1951
| reservation = None
| abolished = 2008
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| latest_election_year = [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| electors =
}}
'''Brahmavar Assembly constituency''' was one of the constituencies in [[Karnataka]] state assembly in India until 2008 when it was made defunct. It was part of [[Udupi Lok Sabha constituency]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#ABDADC" | [[1952 Madras State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || S. S. Kolkabail || {{Full party name with color|Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || Shetty Jagajjeevandas || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || S. D. Samrajya
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || [[Sowkoor Jayaprakash Shetty]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Jayaprakash S. Kolkebail || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1978]] || Ananda Kunda Hegde || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
| [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1983]] || B. B. Shetty || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || rowspan="2" | P. Basavaraj || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|-
| [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1994]] || rowspan="3" | [[K. Jayaprakash Hegde]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
| [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1999]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2004 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006204912/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[K. Jayaprakash Hegde]] |party = Independent politician |votes = 39,521 |percentage = 40.23% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pramod Madawaraj |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 27,348 |percentage = 27.84% |change = {{decrease}}4.68 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kota Srinivas Poojari |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 25,590 |percentage = 26.05% |change = {{decrease}}2.21 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Althar Niranjan Hegde |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 2,363 |percentage = 2.41% |change = {{increase}}1.32 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sudhakar Shetty |party = Kannada Nadu Party |votes = 2,067 |percentage = 2.10% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ramesh Hegde |party = Janata Party |votes = 1,352 |percentage = 1.38% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,173 |percentage = 12.39% |change = {{increase}}6.79 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 98,288 |percentage = 66.39% |change = {{decrease}}0.57 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 98,241}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 148,036 |ref = |change = {{increase}}10.83 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Independent politician |swing = {{increase}}2.11 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006053217/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[K. Jayaprakash Hegde]] |party = Independent politician |votes = 32,429 |percentage = 38.12% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sarala B. Kanchan |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 27,666 |percentage = 32.52% |change = {{increase}}1.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shirinivas Poojary |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 24,043 |percentage = 28.26% |change = {{increase}}8.79 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dayananda Shetty Kenjoor |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 928 |percentage = 1.09% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,763 |percentage = 5.60% |change = {{decrease}}9.84 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 89,445 |percentage = 66.96% |change = {{decrease}}1.54 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 85,066}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 4,357 |percentage = 4.87% |change = {{increase}}3.75 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 133,573 |ref = |change = {{increase}}8.51 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Independent politician |loser = Janata Dal |swing = {{decrease}}8.22 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1994 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1994 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006211324/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[K. Jayaprakash Hegde]] |party = Janata Dal |votes = 38,633 |percentage = 46.34% |change = {{increase}}0.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = P. Basavaraj |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 25,757 |percentage = 30.89% |change = {{decrease}}20.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. Jagajeevandas Shetty |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 16,232 |percentage = 19.47% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Jayarama Shetty. H. G |party = Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee |votes = 2,510 |percentage = 3.01% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,876 |percentage = 15.44% |change = {{increase}}9.48 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 84,319 |percentage = 68.50% |change = {{increase}}0.63 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 83,375}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 944 |percentage = 1.12% |change = {{decrease}}2.95 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 123,093 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}0.63 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Dal |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}5.38 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1989 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1989 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007070737/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = P. Basavaraj |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 41,709 |percentage = 51.72% |change = {{decrease}}1.73 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. Jayaprakash Hegde |party = Janata Dal |votes = 36,902 |percentage = 45.76% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Masthar. B. Kushala Shetty |party = Janata Party |votes = 1,031 |percentage = 1.28% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Balakrishna. N. Shetty |party = Independent politician |votes = 998 |percentage = 1.24% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,807 |percentage = 5.96% |change = {{decrease}}5.83 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 84,065 |percentage = 67.87% |change = {{decrease}}1.02 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 80,640}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 3,425 |percentage = 4.07% |change = {{increase}}3.34 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 123,868 |ref = |change = {{increase}}31.80 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}1.73 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006143216/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = P. Basavaraj |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 34,354 |percentage = 53.45% |change = {{increase}}7.36 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. Jayaprakash Hegde |party = Janata Party |votes = 26,776 |percentage = 41.66% |change = {{increase}}35.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mabukala Krishna Kini |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 3,141 |percentage = 4.89% |change = {{decrease}}42.86 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 7,578 |percentage = 11.79% |change = {{increase}}10.13 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 64,743 |percentage = 68.89% |change = {{decrease}}0.03 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 64,271}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 472 |percentage = 0.73% |change = {{decrease}}1.07 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 93,981 |ref = |change = {{increase}}10.42 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}5.70 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1983 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007124742/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = B. B. Shetty |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 27,504 |percentage = 47.75% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = P. Basavaraj |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 26,550 |percentage = 46.09% |change = {{increase}}42.87 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sudher Kanchan |party = Janata Party |votes = 3,551 |percentage = 6.16% |change = {{decrease}}38.26 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 954 |percentage = 1.66% |change = {{decrease}}3.20 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 58,662 |percentage = 68.92% |change = {{decrease}}6.27 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 57,605}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,057 |percentage = 1.80% |change = {{decrease}}0.27 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 85,110 |ref = |change = {{increase}}6.42 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress (I) |swing = {{decrease}}1.53 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007164123/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Ananda Kunda Hegde |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 29,021 |percentage = 49.28% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = V. S. Acharya |party = Janata Party |votes = 26,158 |percentage = 44.42% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. Kushala Shetty |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 1,899 |percentage = 3.22% |change = {{decrease}}55.06 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Nadur Seetharama |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,807 |percentage = 3.07% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,863 |percentage = 4.86% |change = {{decrease}}33.02 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 60,131 |percentage = 75.19% |change = {{increase}}10.57 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 58,885}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,246 |percentage = 2.07% |change = {{increase}}2.07 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 79,972 |ref = |change = {{increase}}30.97 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress (I) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}9.00 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006074555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Jayaprakash S. Kolkebail |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 22,421 |percentage = 58.28% |change = {{increase}}30.65 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. M. Hegde |party = Indian National Congress (Organisation) |votes = 7,846 |percentage = 20.39% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. Mahabaleshwara Adiga |party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 6,360 |percentage = 16.53% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Perody Vittal Shetty |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,845 |percentage = 4.80% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 14,575 |percentage = 37.88% |change = {{increase}}2.62 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 39,458 |percentage = 64.62% |change = {{decrease}}4.03 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 38,472}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 61,063 |ref = |change = {{increase}}10.34 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Independent politician |swing = {{decrease}}4.61 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006083645/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Sowkoor Jayaprakash Shetty]] |party = Independent politician |votes = 22,551 |percentage = 62.89% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = F. X. D. Pinto |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 9,909 |percentage = 27.63% |change = {{decrease}}25.84 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. S. Lewis |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 2,180 |percentage = 6.08% |change = {{decrease}}19.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = P. Halambi |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,217 |percentage = 3.39% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,642 |percentage = 35.26% |change = {{increase}}7.11 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 37,993 |percentage = 68.65% |change = {{increase}}11.14 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 35,857}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 55,342 |ref = |change = {{increase}}8.57 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}9.42 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006093153/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = S. D. Samrajya |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 14,601 |percentage = 53.47% |change = {{decrease}}8.46 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sheenappa Shetty |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 6,915 |percentage = 25.32% |change = {{decrease}}12.75 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. Mahabaleshwara Adiga |party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 5,790 |percentage = 21.20% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 7,686 |percentage = 28.15% |change = {{increase}}4.29 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 29,314 |percentage = 57.51% |change = {{increase}}3.67 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 27,306}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 50,972 |ref = |change = {{increase}}0.18 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}8.46 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111195053/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Shetty Jagajjeevandas |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 16,964 |percentage = 61.93% |change = {{increase}}13.69 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sheenappa Shetty |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 10,429 |percentage = 38.07% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 6,535 |percentage = 23.86% |change = {{increase}}20.33 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 27,393 |percentage = 53.84% |change = {{decrease}}13.99 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 27,393}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 50,882 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}21.37 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |swing = {{increase}}10.17 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Madras State Legislative Assembly election]] : Brahmavar <ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India| title=Statistical Report on General Election 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras| url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf| access-date=2014-10-14|archive-date=27 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201450/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = S. S. Kolkabail |party = Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |votes = 22,719 |percentage = 51.76% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shetty Jagjeevandoss |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 21,171 |percentage = 48.24% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,548 |percentage = 3.53% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 43,890 |percentage = 67.83% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 43,890}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 64,709 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of the Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Karnataka}}

{{Coord|13.425581|74.756359|region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Hassan district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Mysore State]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2008]]
[[Category:2008 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Politics of Karnataka]]

Gujarat Chamber of Commerce & Industry

2026-04-14T03:14:07Z

Brandon81T: creating initial stub basic info

{{Short description|None}}
{{Orphan|date=August 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox organization
| logo =
| key_people =Pathik Patwari <ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/gcci-poll-process-begins-lobbying-starts/articleshow/92138792.cms | title=Gcci Poll Process Begins, Lobbying Starts | Ahmedabad News - Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ahmedabadmirror.com/new-prez-vp-take-charge-at-gcci/81837796.html | title=New prez, VP take charge at GCCI }}</ref> President
Ajay Patel <ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/with-no-contest-ajay-patel-to-be-senior-vp-of-gcci/articleshow/92292876.cms | title=With No Contest, Ajay Patel to be Senior Vp of Gcci | Ahmedabad News - Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=18 June 2022 }}</ref> SR. Vice President 
Yogesh Parikh <ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/with-no-contest-ajay-patel-to-be-senior-vp-of-gcci/articleshow/92292876.cms | title=With No Contest, Ajay Patel to be Senior Vp of Gcci | Ahmedabad News - Times of India | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=18 June 2022 }}</ref> Vice President 
Anil Jain <ref name=TOI1>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/anil-jain-made-secretary-of-gcci/articleshow/92777781.cms | title=Anil Jain Made Secretary of Gcci | newspaper=[[The Times of India]] | date=10 July 2022 | accessdate=25 March 2023}}</ref> Secretary 
Dilip Padhya <ref name=TOI1 /> Secretary (Regional) 
Apurva Shah <ref name=TOI1 /> Treasurer
| footnotes =
| name = Gujarat Chamber of Commerce & Industry (GCCI)
| founded = 1949
| founder = Late Shri [[Kasturbhai Lalbhai]] & Late Shri [[Amritlal Hargovinddas]]
| location = [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
| origins =
| region_served =
| focus = Growth of Gujarat through Industrialisation and Trade promotion
| method =
| revenue =
| endowment =
| num_employees =
| owner =
| website = {{URL|https://www.gujaratchamber.org/}}
| tax_exempt =
| dissolved =
}}

'''Gujarat Chamber of Commerce & Industry''' was founded in 1949 by pioneers of industrial Gujarat [[Kasturbhai Lalbhai]] and [[Amritlal Hargovinddas]]. With 4000 direct members which include over 200 Trade and Industry Associations and leading Chambers of Commerce of the Gujarat State.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Profile {{!}} Gujarat Chamber of Commerce & Industry {{!}} GCCI |url=https://www.gujaratchamber.org/profile.php |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=www.gujaratchamber.org}}</ref> Pathik Patwari is the current president.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|https://www.gujaratchamber.org}}

[[Category:Organisations based in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Ahmedabad]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gujarat Chamber of Commerce and Industry}}

Bengaluru South district

2026-04-12T04:37:48Z

Brandon81T:

{{About|the district|its eponymous headquarters|Ramanagara}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bengaluru South District
| other_name =
| settlement_type = District of Karnataka
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
|size = 250
|photo1a = Chunchifalls.jpg
|photo1b = Mekedaatu river stream.jpg
|photo2a = National Public School Channapatna.jpg
|photo2b = (Savandurga) 160618-43 (1).jpg
|photo3a = Revanasiddeshwara temple.jpg
}}
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Clockwise from top-left: [[Arkavathi River|Chunchi Falls]], [[Kaveri]] at [[Mekedatu]], [[Kanva Reservoir]], [[Revanasiddeshwara Betta]], National Public School in [[Channapatna]]
| nickname =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-point = none
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Karnataka
| coordinates = {{coord|12.71|N|75.28|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Seal of Karnataka.svg|Emblem of Karnataka}} [[Karnataka]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Ramanagara]]
| parts_type = [[Taluka]]s
| parts = [[Ramanagara]], [[Channapattana]], [[Kanakapura]], [[Magadi]], [[Harohalli]]
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| leader_title = [[District Collector|Deputy Commissioner]] & District Magistrate
| leader_name = Yeshwanth V. Gurukar, IAS<ref>https://bengalurusouth.nic.in/en/who-is-who-new/</ref>
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 3516
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 1,082,636
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 562117, 562159, 562160, 562112
| area_code =
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = KA 42
| website = {{URL|https://bengalurusouth.nic.in/}}
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| leader_name2 = Srinivas Gowda, IPS <ref>https://ramanagarapolice.karnataka.gov.in/60/previous-sps/en</ref>
| leader_name3 = [[D. K. Shivakumar]]
| leader_title2 = [[Superintendent of Police (India)|Superintendent of Police]] (SP)
| leader_title3 = District incharge Minister
| official_name = Bengaluru South district
}}

'''Bengaluru South district''' is one of the [[List of districts of Karnataka|31]] [[Districts of Karnataka|districts]] of [[Karnataka]] state in southern [[India]]. [[Ramanagara]] City is the administrative headquarters of this district. The district is part of [[Bengaluru–Mysore Infrastructure Corridor|Bengaluru Mysore Infrastructure Corridor]].

==History==
Ramanagara district was carved out of the erstwhile [[Bangalore Rural district]] on 23 August 2007,<ref name="hindu">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/08/24/stories/2007082458260400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024161145/http://www.hindu.com/2007/08/24/stories/2007082458260400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 October 2008|title=Ramanagar district will be made the best: Kumaraswamy|date=24 August 2007|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=6 August 2010}}</ref> comprising [[Ramanagara]], [[Channapatna]], [[Harohalli]], [[Kanakapura]] and [[Magadi]] [[taluks]]. To date, it has given highest number of Chief Ministers for Karnataka of any of the state's districts, namely [[Kengal Hanumanthaiah]], [[H. D. Deve Gowda|HD Devegowda]], [[H. D. Kumaraswamy|HD Kumaraswamy]] and [[Ramakrishna Hegde]].

In 2020 there was a proposal to rename the district to "New Bengaluru district".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prajavani.net/district/ramanagara/ramanagara-nava-bengaluru-name-change-695681.html|title=ರಾಮನಗರ ಬದಲಿಗೆ 'ನವ ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು'ಹೆಸರು ಮತ್ತೆ ಮುನ್ನೆಲೆಗೆ: ವ್ಯಾಪಕ ಚರ್ಚೆ|website=Prajavani|language=kn}}</ref> In July 2024, the [[Government of Karnataka]] voted to rename the district to Bengaluru South district,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/karnataka-government-clears-proposal-to-rename-ramanagara-district-as-bengaluru-south-district/article68449429.ece|title=Karnataka Cabinet renames Ramanagara district as Bengaluru South district|newspaper=The Hindu |date=26 July 2024|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref> and said that the Revenue Department would begin the process of renaming the district.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |last1=Adnal |first1=Madhuri |date=26 July 2024 |title=Bengaluru South District: Karnataka Renames Ramanagara District, Revenue Dept To Begin Process |url=https://www.oneindia.com/bengaluru/bengaluru-south-district-karnataka-renames-ramanagara-district-revenue-dept-to-begin-process-3889229.html |work=One India News |access-date=28 July 2024}}</ref> As of January 2025, the federal [[Home Ministry (India)|Home Ministry]] have yet to approve on district renaming.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/final-call-on-bengaluru-south-renaming-rests-with-centre/articleshow/117276362.cms | first=Sridhar | last=Vivan | date=16 January 2025 | title=Final call on Bengaluru South renaming rests with Centre | publisher=[[Bangalore Mirror]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250116022511/https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/final-call-on-bengaluru-south-renaming-rests-with-centre/articleshow/117276362.cms | archive-date=16 January 2025 | url-status=live}}</ref> Bengaluru South district was renamed from the erstwhile Ramanagara district on 23-05-2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karnataka Cabinet Decides to Rename Ramanagara District as Bengaluru South |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/karnataka-cabinet-decides-to-rename-ramanagara-district-as-bengaluru-south-3552630 |access-date=2025-06-16 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[Image:RamanagaramMap.jpg|thumb|left|Map of the region]]
Ramanagara is approximately 50 km southwest of [[Bangalore]]. The district shares borders with the districts of [[Bangalore Urban district|Bangalore Urban]] in the east, [[Bangalore Rural district|Bangalore Rural]] in the North-east, [[Tumakuru district|Tumakuru]] in the North-west, [[Mandya district|Mandya]] in the west and [[Chamarajanagar district|Chamarajanagara]] in the south-west and [[Krishnagiri district]] of [[Tamil Nadu|Tamilnadu]] state in the south. It has an average elevation of 747 metres (2450 feet).

Channapatna Taluk and parts of Kanakapura Taluk are similar to demographics of Neighbouring [[Mandya district]] whereas parts of Magadi taluk are much closer to [[Tumakuru district|Tumakuru District]]. Also Kanakapura and Harohalli Taluks share border with [[Anchetty]] and [[Denkanikottai|Denkakote]] Talukas of Tamilnadu so few parts here we can find different slang of kannada being used.

Ramanagara is famous for the huge rocky outcroppings. The popular places for rock climbing are; [[Savandurga]] which is 31 km away from [[Ramanagara]], Ramadevarabetta located within the city, [[Revanasiddeshwara betta|Sri Revana Siddeshwara (SRS) betta]] which is 15.1 km away from [[Ramanagara]], Thenginkaibetta near to SRS betta and Kabbaladurga which is 35 km away from [[Ramanagara]].

This region has several tall granitic hills which are famous for many short [[rock climbing|rock climbs]], typically 1 to 2 pitches in length. Grades vary from 5.8 American to 5.11 American. It is home to some of the world's oldest [[granite]] outcrops. Some of the interesting climbs are on the ''Wanakkal wall'' ("Gabbar ki asli pasand", "Labor pain"), on the ''Rainbow wall'' ("UIAA", "Kalia"), on ''Anna-Thamma'' ("Darkness at dawn", "Black Diamond", the name ''Anna-Thama'' means 'elder-brother-younger-brother' in [[Kannada]]).

[[Image:Ramdevarabetta.jpg|thumb|Ramdevarabetta showing the cave entrances made for the film [[A Passage to India (film)]]|left]]

Another well-known hill is ''Ramadevarabetta''. Along with [[Savandurga]] this was one of the shooting locations for [[David Lean]]'s ''[[A Passage to India (film)|A Passage to India]]''. Small door like grottoes was made in the rock to resemble caves.<ref>[http://www.mapability.com/travel/p2i/marabar_3.html A Passage to India - locations] Accessed December 2006</ref> It was also in this region that the path-breaking Hindi movie, [[Sholay]], was shot.

Other famous hills in the region include the Revanasideshwara hill and Handigundi. [[Bilikal Rangaswamy Betta]] is a popular tourist spot in the district.

These hills have been threatened by quarrying and also plans to carve these hills into statues. The region is covered in scrub forest and is home to threatened bird species such as the [[yellow-throated bulbul]] and [[long-billed vulture]]s.<ref>Subramanya, S. and Naveein, O. C. 2006. Breeding of Long-billed Vulture ''Gyps indicus'' at Ramanagara hills, Karnataka, India. Indian Birds 2(2):32 [http://www.indianbirds.in/download/IB.2.2.VulturesRamnag.pdf Full text] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070728054934/http://www.indianbirds.in/download/IB.2.2.VulturesRamnag.pdf|date=28 July 2007}}</ref> The hill is today one of the few locations in south India where long-billed vultures nest. The region is also home to numerous [[sloth bear]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Declare Handigundi forest area as sloth-bear sanctuary|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jun182005/city2014532005617.asp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070419103448/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jun182005/city2014532005617.asp|archive-date=19 April 2007|access-date=26 November 2007}}</ref>

===Closepet granites===
[[Image:SouthIndiaGeology.svg|thumb|Distribution of the Closepet granites|left]]
The Closepet granites are a major geological feature of this region and are from the Lower Proterozoic era. This belt of rocks extends in the north-south direction in 50  km belt. This belt has younger potassic granites and is believed to separate two distinct crustal blocks of Archaean age. The block to the west has low-grade granite-greenstone belts with iron-manganese ores and to the east are younger gneiss of granitic and granodioritic composition with gold-bearing schist belts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dae.gov.in/amd/regions/sr.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225165714/http://www.dae.gov.in/amd/regions/sr.htm|url-status=dead|title=Atomic minerals directorate|archivedate=25 December 2007}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{historical populations|11=1901|12=2,62,843|13=1911|14=2,88,219|15=1921|16=3,11,945|17=1931|18=3,67,516|19=1941|20=4,15,233|21=1951|22=5,15,413|23=1961|24=5,98,301|25=1971|26=6,83,221|27=1981|28=8,43,509|29=1991|30=9,55,669|31=2001|32=10,30,546|33=2011|34=10,82,636|percentages=pagr|footnote=source:<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901]</ref>|align=none|cols=2}}

{{bar box
|title=Religions in Ramanagara district (2011)<ref name="religion">{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: Karnataka |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11378/download/14491/DDW29C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Karnataka|Hinduism]]|darkorange|88.60}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|10.56}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Karnataka|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|0.59}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.25}}
}}

According to the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]] Ramanagara district has a [[Demographics of India|population]] of 1,082,636,<ref name=districtcensus>{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=District Census Handbook: Ramanagara |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/630/download/2168/DH_2011_2930_PART_A_DCHB_RAMANAGARA.pdf |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> roughly equal to the nation of [[Cyprus]]<ref name="cia">{{cite web | author = US Directorate of Intelligence | title = Country Comparison:Population | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004507/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 13 June 2007 | access-date = 1 October 2011 | quote = Cyprus 1,120,489 July 2011 est.}}</ref> or the US state of [[Rhode Island]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php|title=2010 Resident Population Data|publisher=U. S. Census Bureau|access-date=30 September 2011| quote =Rhode Island 1,052,567}}</ref> This gives it a ranking of 421st in India (out of a total of [[Districts of India|640]]).<ref name=districtcensus/> The district has a population density of {{convert| 303 |PD/sqkm|PD/sqmi}}.<ref name=districtcensus/> Its [[Family planning in India|population growth rate]] over the decade 2001-2011 was 5.06%.<ref name=districtcensus/> Ramanagaram has a [[sex ratio]] of 976 [[Women in India|females]] for every 1000 males,<ref name=districtcensus/> and a [[Literacy in India|literacy rate]] of 69.2%. 24.73% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 18.83% and 2.12% of the population respectively.<ref name=districtcensus/>

{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Ramanagara district (2011)<ref name="languages"/>
|label1 = [[Kannada]] |value1 = 83.49 |color1 = darkslateblue
|label2 = [[Urdu]] |value2 = 10.51 |color2 = green
|label3 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]] |value3 = 2.21 |color3 = steelblue
|label4 = [[Lambadi]] |value4 = 1.32 |color4 = khaki
|label5 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] |value5 = 1.08 |color5 = royalblue
|label6 = Others |value6 = 1.39 |color6 = grey
}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 83.49% of the population spoke [[Kannada]], 10.51% [[Urdu]], 2.21% [[Telugu language|Telugu]], 1.32% [[Lambadi]] and 1.08% [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as their first language.<ref name="languages">{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Karnataka |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10208/download/13320/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2900.XLSX |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==Villages==



{{Div col}}
*[[Abbanakuppe, Bangalore Rural|Abbanakuppe]]
*[[Abbur, Bangalore Rural|Abburu]]
*[[Achalu (Kanakapura)]]
*[[Kodamballi]]
*[[Hucchayyanadoddi]](Kodamballi)
*[[Kabbalu]]
*[[Gudi Saraguru|Saraguru]]
*[[Iggaluru]]
*[[Agrahara Valagerehalli]]
*[[Hunasanahalli|Hunasanahalli, Channapatna]]
*[[Akkur, Channapatna|Akkur]], [[Channapatna]]
*[[Akkur, Ramanagaram|Akkur]], Ramanagara
*[[Nagavara]]
*[[Bevooru]]
*[[Kengal]]
*[[Bidadi]]
*[[Doddalahalli]]
*J. [[J Byadarahalli|Byadarahalli]]
*[[Byrapatna]]
*[[Chakkere]]
*[[Kodihalli, Kanakapura|Kodihalli]]
*[[Neraluru]]
*[[Gowdagere]]
*[[Kudur]]
*[[Mallur, Karnataka|Maluru]]
*[[Manchanabele]]
*[[Megalapalya]]
*[[Mayasandra, Magadi|Mayasandra]]
*[[Sathanur, Kanakapura|Sathanur]], [[Kanakapura]]
*[[Sathanur, Magadi]]
*[[Singarajipura]]
*[[Thadikavagilu]]{{Div col end}}
*[[Kolliganahalli]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
{{commons category|Bengaluru South district}}
* [https://ramanagara.nic.in/ Official website]

{{Karnataka topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramanagar District}}
[[Category:Ramanagara district| ]]
[[Category:Districts of Karnataka]]
[[Category:2007 establishments in Karnataka]]

Sanskrit and Vedic learning in Mithila

2026-04-04T14:23:22Z

Brandon81T: made a stub

{{Short description|Study and transmission of Vedic texts and traditions in Mithila}}
[[Sanskrit and Vedic learning]], also called Vedic studies,<ref name="Gupta_2017"/> started in [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] with the expansion of [[Vedic period|Vedic]] and Brahmanic culture eastwards along the Ganges plain.{{sfnp|Scharfe|2002|p=189–191}} From the 12th/13th to 15th century CE, Mithila was an important centre of [[Nyaya]] Shastra and logical sciences.{{sfnp|Scharfe|2002|p=189–191}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|Diaconescu|Kulkarni|2013|p=98}}
[[File:Gautama-Rishi.jpg|thumb|Symbolic image of Gautama Rishi, the founder of Nyaya Shastra]]
[[File:Entrance of the Uchchaith Bhagawati Mandir Complex.jpg|thumb|A statue (at the entrance of the [[Uchhaith|Uchchaith Bhagawati Mandir]] complex near Benipatti town) depicting the Vedic tradition in Mithila.]]

==Nomenclature==
Some scholars have used the term "university" to describe the tradition of Sanskrit and Vedic learning in Mithila.{{efn-la|University: * R.K. Mukherjee, ''Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist)'', chapter 24 * Bishwambhar Jha, ''Education in early Mithila: A reappraisal'': "The whole of Mithila converted into a great university" J.L. Mehta, ''Advanced study in the history of medieval India'', has used the phrase "University of Mithila" for denoting the tradition of learning in Mithila.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mehta |first=J. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Vol_Iii_Medieval_Indian_Society_And_Cult.html?id=0fmtjbaQPzMC#v=onepage&q=University%20of%20Mithila&f=false |title=Vol. Iii: Medieval Indian Society And Culture |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-0432-9 |language=en}}</ref> * ''Mahamahopadhya'' Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana, ''A History of Indian Logic'', describes the learning tradition of Mithila (12th -16th century CE) as 'The University of Mithila'.}}

== History ==
[[File:Yajnavalkya and Janaka.jpg|thumb|[[Yajnavalkya]] teaches [[Brahman|Brahma Vidya]] to King [[Janaka]] in [[Yajnavalkya Ashram|his ashram]] in Mithila]]

The [[Ramayana]] refers to the [[court of King Janaka]] in Mithila, attracting scholars and philosophers.{{sfnp|Chaudhury|1964|p=566-568}} In the text [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]], there is reference of the famous scholarly [[Yajna]] known as [[Bahudakshina Yajna]], in which [[Brahmin]] scholars from different parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]] participated for [[Shastrartha]] at the court of King Janaka.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2015-02-23 |title=Yajnavalkya and Asvala [Section I] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brihadaranyaka-upanishad/d/doc118302.html |access-date=2024-11-15 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Yajnavalkya.jpg|thumb|Memorial Statue of [[Yajnavalkya]] at the entrance of the [[Uchhaith|Uchchaith Bhagawati Mandir]] near the [[Benipatti]] town in the [[Madhubani district]] of the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]] of [[Bihar]] in [[India]].]]
[[File:Gargi Vachaknavi.jpg|thumb|Memorial Statue of Gargi Vachaknavi at the Uchchaith Bhagawati Mandir]]

In ancient times, some villages in Mithila were designated as the seat of specific branches of Vedas. The seat of learning [[Rigveda|Rigaveda]] was at [[Riga Gaon|Riga village]] and similarly that of [[Yajurveda]] was [[Jajuara]] village. The seat for learning [[Atharvaveda]] was at [[Athri|Athari]] village.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=Vijayakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Cultural_Heritage_of_Mithila.html?id=8FBuAAAAMAAJ#Riga |title=Cultural Heritage of Mithila |date=1979 |publisher=Mithila Prakasana |pages=138 |language=en}}</ref> Similarly, [[Sankorth]] village was the seat of [[Samaveda]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=पाण्डेय |first=शिववंश |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE.html?id=DRMrAAAAMAAJ#%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6 |title="सारस्वत-सुषमा": अक्षर पुरुष आचार्य पण्डित आद्याचरण झा-अभिनन्दन ग्रन्थः |last2=झा |first2=शशिनाथ |last3=झा |first3=सतीशचन्द्र |date=1997 |publisher=Suśīla Kumāra Jhā |pages=181 |language=hi}}</ref> The scholars of each villages were specialised according to the designated branches of Vedas in their villages. In the later period, the Maithil Brahmins divided into two major divisions. They were [[Chhandog]] and [[Vajasaneyi Brahmin|Vajasaneyi]]. The Chhandog Brahmins also known as ''Samavedic'' Brahmins are the followers of Chhandog Samhita founded by the sage [[Gautama Maharishi|Gautama Rishi]] and similarly Vajasaneyi Brahmins also known as ''Yajurvedic'' Brahmins are the followers of Vajasaneyi Samhita founded by the sage [[Yajnavalkya]]. During the [[Gupta]] period Mithila was a center for disputes between Buddhists, Jains and Brahmins, with prominent [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimamsa]] authors writing defenses of Vedic ritual.<ref name="Gupta_2017"/> Education took place through "Tols, Pathshāla and Chatušpathi or Chaupari,"<ref name="Gupta_2017">Pritam Kumar Gupta, [https://ijassonline.in/HTML_Papers/International%20Journal%20of%20Advances%20in%20Social%20Sciences__PID__2017-5-4-9.html Ideology, Identity and Pragmatism: Formation of the Medieval Mithila], Int. J. Ad. Social Sciences. 2017; 5(4):231-236</ref> with [[Gurukula|students living at the house of their teacher]].

The Turkic conquests had little impact in Mithila, leaving it as "an isolated outpost and centre of Brahmanic and Sanskrit scholarship," where "Hindu scholars were able to protect the purity of their ideals and traditions."{{sfnp|Rorabacher|2016}}

After the independence of India, the ''Maharaja'' [[Kameshwar Singh]] of the Raj Darbhanga in Mithila, established a research institute called as [[Mithila Sanskrit Shodh Sansthan]] (Mithila Sanskrit Research Institute) in the year 1951 to preserve the cultural heritage of the tradition of Sanskrit and Vedic learning in Mithila. It was inaugurated by the first president [[Rajendra Prasad|Dr Rajendra Prasad]] of India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-04 |title=मिथिला संस्कृत शोध संस्थान की लौटेगी पुरानी गरिमा |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/darbhanga/story-revival-of-mithila-sanskrit-research-institute-bihar-budget-announcement-brings-hope-201770145991088.html |access-date=2026-02-18 |website=www.livehindustan.com |language=hi}}</ref>

== School of Nyaya ==
{{Main|Nyaya}}
[[Nyaya]] is one of the six schools of [[Indian philosophy]], known for its studies on logic. The foundational text are the [[Nyāya Sūtras]], traditionally attributed to the Vedic sage Akshapada Gautama at his [[Gautam Ashram]] in Mithila, but possibly composed by multiple authors between 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gautama Muni |url=https://archive.org/details/NyayaSutra |title=Nyaya Sutra}}</ref> A scholar specialised in the subject of Nyaya philosophy was called as [[Naiyayika]]. There was a specialised village for the seat of ''Nyaya Pradhan'' (translates to "head of Naiyayika") in Mithila. The village was known as ''Tarkik Gram'', presently it is called as ''Targaon''.<ref name=":0" />

[[Vāchaspati Misra|Vachaspati Mishra]] (9th c. CE) was a well-known Vedic scholar and teacher, who wrote ''Nyāyasucinibandha'' on Nyāya-sūtras, ''Nyāyakānika'' which is an [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]] work on science of reasoning, ''Tattvasamikṣa'' and ''Nyāya-vārttika-tātparyaṭīkā'' which is a sub commentary on the Nyāya-sūtras. The place where he lived and taught is known as ''[[Vachaspati Mishra Dih]]'' located at Thadi village in the [[Madhubani district]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |title=Perspectives of reality: an introduction to the philosophy of Hinduism |date=2002 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-94-3 |location=Brighton Portland, Or}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norman |first=K. R. |date=October 1988 |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Sāmkhya: A Dualistic Tradition in Indian Philosophy. Edited by Gerald James Larson and Ram Shankar Bhattacharya. Princeton University Press: Princeton, New Jersey, 1987. Pp. xiv, 674. £47.10. |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/s0026749x0001578x |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=869–870 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x0001578x |issn=0026-749X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jhā |first=Sahadeva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-EYAAAAIAAJ |title=Vācaspati Miśra |date=1984 |publisher=Maithilī Akādamī |language=hi}}</ref>

Later in the 10th century CE, [[Udayana]]charya founded [[Nyayakusumanjali]] which reconciled the views of the two independent schools Nyaya and [[Vaisheshika]] of the Indian philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sri Udayanacharya |url=https://archive.org/details/nyayakusumanjali_201404 |title=Nyaya Kusumanjali (with four Commentaries) |date=2014-04-21}}</ref> The location of his academy where he taught his disciples is presently known as [[Udayanacharya Dih]] in [[Samastipur district]] of the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]]. Nyayakusumanjali became the root for the foundation of the new version of Logic known [[Navya-Nyāya|Navya Nyaya]].

In 13th -14th century CE, Navya Nyaya school was founded by [[Gaṅgeśa|Gangesha Upadhyaya]]. He wrote [[Tattvachintamani]] which was the authoritative text in the Navya Nyaya school of the Indian philosophy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2013-04-03 |title=Tattvacintamani, Tattvacintāmaṇi, Tattva-cintamani: 5 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/tattvacintamani#nyaya |access-date=2024-12-08 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> During the period of 14th century CE, the other eminent [[Naiyayika]] was [[Ayachi Mishra]]. He taught his disciples free of cost. His academy was located in the [[Sarisav Pahi]] village of the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]]. The remains of the site of his academy is presently known as [[Ayachi Mishra Dih]]. He also taught his own son [[Sankara Mishra]]. His son Sankara Mishra also became a great scholar of [[Nyaya|Nyaya Shastra]].

In the 14th-15th century CE, [[Pakshadhara Mishra]] was an eminent [[Naiyayika]] and the head teacher of Nyaya Shastra in Mithila. He was a court member at the court of King [[Bhairavasimha|Bhairava Singh]] of the [[Oiniwar dynasty|Oiniwar Dynasty]] in Mithila.{{sfn|Choudhary|1988|p=101}} His academy was situated at [[Bhaur Gram|Bhaur]] near the Sarisav Pahi village. His notable pupils were [[Vasudeva Sarvabhauma]] and [[Raghunatha Siromani]]. They came from [[Nadia district|Nadia]] in [[Bengal]] to Mithila for learning Nyaya philosophy with the teacher Pakshadhara Mishra.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kochhar |first=Rajesh |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Sanskrit_and_the_British_Empire.html?id=sto6EAAAQBAJ#v=snippet&q=pakshadhara%20mishra&f=false |title=Sanskrit and the British Empire |date=2021-09-02 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-43553-5 |language=en}}</ref>

Late mediaeval Eastern schools of Brahmins were focused on Nyaya Shastra and logical sciences, in contrast to the Vedanta of southern Brahmins from the Vijayanagara cultural area.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|Diaconescu|Kulkarni|2013|p=98}} According to Vidyabhusana, the science of logic developed out of ''[[Vedic Parishad|parishad]]'', councils of learned Brahmins.{{sfnp|Vidyabhusana|1920|p=22}} The Mithila school of Nyaya was an Indian school of [[Nyaya]] philosophy, which flourished from the 12th-13th to the 15th century in Mithila.{{sfnp|Sharma|Sharma|1996|p=20}}{{sfnp|Chaudhury|1964|p=567}}

During the mediaeval period, ''[[Shalaka Pariksha]]'' and ''[[Shadyantra Pariksha]]'' were the examinations conducted for graduation from the institution.{{Sfnp|Mukherjee|1951|pp=597-598}} [[Mahesha Thakura]], the founder of [[Raj Darbhanga|Darbhanga Raj]], later introduced ''[[Dhaut Pariksha]].{{Sfnp|Choudhary|1988|p=91}}'' Students were not allowed to take any piece of written information with them after finishing their studies, to keep a monopoly on the study of Logic.''{{Sfnp|Thakur|1956|pp=379-381}}''

In the late 20th century, the tradition of Sanskrit and Vedic learning in Mithila continued by the establishment of the modern formal university known as [[Kameshwar Singh Darbhanga Sanskrit University]] at the campus of the royal palace called [[Anand Bagh Palace]] of the [[Raj Darbhanga|Darbhanga Raj]]. Presently it is a state university in the state of [[Bihar]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-12-29 |title='Sanskrit has never been dead' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/sanskrit-has-never-been-dead/articleshow/3905767.cms |access-date=2025-04-18 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kameshwar Singh Darbhanga Sanskrit University |url=https://ksdsu.edu.in/home.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331120436/https://ksdsu.edu.in/home.htm |archive-date=2023-03-31 |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=ksdsu.edu.in |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Sanskrit University Building at Darbhanga donated by the Maharajadhiraj.jpg|thumb|Sanskrit University Building at Darbhanga donated by the Darbhanga Maharajadhiraj.]]

== School of Sankhya ==
{{Main|Samkhya}}
[[File:Statue of Kapila.jpg|thumb|Memorial Statue of the sage Kapila (founder of Samkhya philosophy) at the entrance gate of the Uchchaith Bhagawati Mandir Complex]]
[[Samkhya|Sāṃkhya]] is one of the six schools in the [[Indian philosophy]] attributed to the Vedic sage ''Maharshi'' [[Kapila]]. His academic and residential location is known [[Kapil Ashram|Kapila Ashram]] in Mithila. It is located at the [[Kapileshwar Temple, Bihar|Kapileshwar Sthan Mandir]] in the Madhubani district of Bihar in India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chaudhary P. C. Roy |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.206891 |title=Bihar District Gazetteers Darbhanga |date=1964}}</ref> According to legend it is believed that the [[Videha]] [[Janaka|King Janaka]] came to the ashram of the Vedic sage Kapila in Mithila to learn Samkhya philosophy from the sage. The tradition of Samkhya school was later carried by the sage [[Asuri (Samkhya)|Asuri]] and further it was transmitted to the sage [[Panchashikha]]. After that Panchashikha taught it to the King [[Janadeva Janaka]] and later to the King [[Dharmadhwaja Janaka]] in Mithila.<ref>{{Cite book |last=P C Ray |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283205 |title=The Mahabharata Of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyara 1891 |date=1891}}</ref> In the medieval period, [[Vāchaspati Misra|Vachaspati Mishra]] was an eminent philosopher of the text Samkhya Shastra.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2021-06-15 |title=Observations and Conclusion [Chapter 5] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/essay/contribution-of-vachaspati-mishra-to-samkhya-system/d/doc627970.html |access-date=2025-04-19 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Kapila.jpg|thumb|Artistic image: The Vedic sage Maharshi Kapila]]
[[File:Janaka, king of Mithila and father of Sita (cropped).jpg|thumb|Portrait of Janaka, c. 1803-1804 CE]]

== School of Vaisheshika ==
{{Main|Vaisheshika}}
[[Vaisheshika]] is one of the six schools in the Indian philosophy attributed to the Vedic sage Maharshi [[Kaṇāda|Kannada]]. In the 15th century CE, the Indian philosopher [[Sankara Mishra]] was a famous scholar of the Vaisheshika Shastra. He wrote a commentary text on the [[Vaiśeṣika Sūtra|Vaisheshika Sutras]] of the Maharshi Kannada. The commentary text is known as [[Upaskara]]. It is an authentic preserved text on the original Vaisheshika Sutras. He learnt the philosophy of Vaisheshika from his own father [[Ayachi Mishra]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2024-08-20 |title=3. Authors of Vaisheshika (g): Sankara Misra (1462 A.D.) |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/essay/nyaya-vaisheshika-critical-and-historical-study/d/doc1455895.html |access-date=2025-04-19 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dasgupta |first=Surendranath |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_History_of_Indian_Philosophy_Volume_1.html?id=b_3Xz7q4vW8C#v=onepage&q=Upaskara&f=false |title=A History of Indian Philosophy: Volume 1 |last2=Dasgupta |date=1922 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-04778-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goel |first=Aruna |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Indian_Philosophy.html?id=4WvuAAAAIAAJ#Upaskara |title=Indian Philosophy: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and Modern Science |date=1984 |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-0-86590-279-4 |language=en}}</ref>

== School of Panji ==
[[File:Saurath Sabha-25.jpg|thumb|Genealogical Records in Mithila]]
Since 14 century CE, Mithila has a systematic record of the genealogical datas of the Maithil Brahmins and Maithil Kayastha in the region. It is known as [[Panjis|Panji]]. The registrar of the Panji system is known as ''Panjikar''. The eligibility criteria for becoming Panjikar was passing the [[Dhauta Pariksha|Dhaut Pariksha]] in Mithila. There was a 10 years course for Panjikar, taught at the court of the kingdom in Mithila. In the region of the kingdom, the institute of Panji was established in the 14 villages by the Karnat king [[Harisimhadeva|Harsimhadeva]] in Mithila. At these locations a large campus of mango groves known as ''Sabha Gachhi'' were also built, where a large number of Maithil Brahmins gathered for selecting their future sons in law for their daughters. These institutions at these 14 villages were maintaining and keeping records of the genealogy of the [[Maithil Vivah]] in the region. Among the 14 Sabha Gachhis, the [[Saurath Sabha]] was most popular and still alive ceremonially.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-05-28 |title=Saurath Sabha inaugurated amid dwindling relevance |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/saurath-sabha-inaugurated-amid-dwindling-relevance/articleshow/121470174.cms |access-date=2025-12-22 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=संरक्षण के अभाव में सड़ रहे सात पुश्तों वाले अभिलेख, पंजीकारों की संख्या लगातार हो रही कम - The records of seven hundred years old are getting worse In absence of protection |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/muzaffarpur-the-records-of-seven-hundred-years-old-are-getting-worse-in-absence-of-protection-18909317.html |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |date=2007 |title=Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004157194}}
* {{Citation |last1=Bronkhorst |first1=Johannes |last2=Diaconescu |first2=Bogdan |last3=Kulkarni |first3=Malhar |year=2013 |chapter=The Arrival of Navya-Nyaya Techniques in Varanasi |editor-last1=Pandikattu |editor-first1=Kuruvilla |editor-last2=Pichalakkattu |editor-first2=Binoy |title=An Indian Ending. Rediscovering the Grandeur of Indian Heritage for a Sustainable Future. Essays in Honour of Professor Dr. John Vattanky SJ On Completing Eighty Years |publisher=Serial Publishers |location=Delhi}}

* {{Citation |last=Chaudhury |first=P.C. Roy |year=1964 |title=Bihar District Gazetteers: Darbhanga |publisher=Superintendent Secretariat Press |url=http://www.indianculture.gov.in/bihar-district-gazetteers-darbhanga}}

* {{Citation |last=Dalal |first=Roshen |year=2014 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |publisher=Penguin Books}}

* {{Citation |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |year=2008 |title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

* {{Citation |last=Jha |first=Bishwambhar |year=2010 |title=Education in Early Mithila: A Reappraisal |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=71 |pages=160–164}}

* {{cite book |last=Olivelle |first=Patrick |year=1998 |title=The Early Upanisads |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195124354}}

* {{Citation |last=Rorabacher |first=J. Albert |year=2016 |title=Bihar and Mithila. The Historical Roots of Backwardness |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}

* {{Citation |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |year=2010 |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{Cite book |last=Scharfe |first=Hartmut |url=https://library.mibckerala.org/lms_frame/eBook/Scharfe%20-%20Education%20in%20Ancient%20India%20(Brill).pdf |title=Education in Ancient India |publisher=Brill |year=2002 |isbn=90-04-12556-6 |volume=16th |location=Netherlands |pages=189–191 |language=English |chapter=Chapter 10}}
* {{Citation |last1=Sharma |first1=Ram Nath |last2=Sharma |first2=Rajendra Kumar |year=1996 |title=History of Education in India}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Singh |year=2021 |title=A HISTORICAL STUDY OF LIBRARIES OF MEDIEVAL INDIA |journal=International Journal of Scientific & Innovative Research Studies |volume=9 |via=CSIRS |url=https://www.csirs.org.in/uploads/paper_pdf/a-historical-study-of-libraries-of-medieval-india.pdf}}

* {{Cite book |last=Vidyabhusana |first=Mahamahopadhyaya Satis Chandra |date=1920 |title=A History of Indian Logic (Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools) |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |others=Library Genesis |language=English |url=http://archive.org/details/historyindianlog00vidy}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vidyabhusana |first=Satis Chandra |date=1988 |title=A History of Indian Logic: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Schools |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-0565-1 |language=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0lG85RD9YZoC&q=university+of+ancient+mithila}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Radha Kumud |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.7590/page/n683/mode/2up |title=Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1951 |edition=2nd |pages=597–598 |chapter=XXIV. Universities |orig-date=1947}}
* {{Cite book |last=Choudhary |first=Indra Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCQaAAAAIAAJ |title=Some Aspects of Social Life of Medieval Mithila, 1350-1750 A.D.: With a Special Reference to Contemporary Literatures |publisher=Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute |year=1988 |pages=91 |quote="In Mithila we get references to altogether three types of examinations during the period under review : (i) Shalaka Pariksha, (ii) Dhout Pariksha, and (iii) Shadyantra Pariksha."}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thakur |first=Upendra |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.505783/page/379/mode/2up |title=History of Mithila (Circa 3000 B.C.-1556 A.D.) |publisher=Mithila Institute |year=1956 |location=Darbhanga |pages=379–381}}
* {{Cite magazine |date=September 1907 |title=The University of Nadia. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rq45AQAAIAAJ&dq=Mithila&pg=PA70 |magazine=The Dawn and Dawn Society's Magazine |page=70}}{{refend}}

[[Category:Ancient universities of the Indian subcontinent]]
[[Category:Philosophers of Mithila]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian literature]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian culture]]
[[Category:Hindu educational institutions]]

Alliance Française de Madras

2026-03-30T03:19:21Z

Brandon81T: improved content per standard format further and updated info after review

{{Short description|Franco-Indian non-profit association in Chennai, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Alliance Française of Madras ''L'Alliance Française de Madras''
| logo = Alliancefrancaiselogo.png
| logo_size = 180px
| type = French cultural and language center
| founded_date = 10 August 1953
| founder =
| location = 24, College Road, [[Nungambakkam]], [[Chennai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| origins = Le Groupe Français (1948)
| leader_title3 = Secretary
| leader_name3 = Aswin Suren
| key_people = '''Deputy Director / Course Director''': Gisèle Pio
| area_served = [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| product = French [[Culture of France|cultural]] and [[French language|language]] education
| focus =
| headquarters = Chennai
| method =
| revenue =
| endowment =
| num_volunteers =
| num_employees =
| num_members =
| subsid =
| owner =
| leader_title = Director
| leader_name = Patricia Théry-Hart
| leader_title2 = President
| leader_name2 = Durgaprasad TK
| Non-profit_slogan =
| dissolved =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Alliance Française of Madras''' ([[French language|French]]: L'Alliance Française de Madras) is an Indo-French cultural centre and non-profit association in [[Chennai]], [[India]], that works to promote the cultural relations between India and [[France]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] and also with a mission to teach the [[French language]] to the people in the region. It was established in the year 1953.

==History==
The city's relations with France date back to the 18th century.<ref name="TH_Espace24"/> In 1948, a French Group, consisting mostly of Indian citizens, was formed to spread the [[French language]] and [[French culture|culture]]. Four years later, on 10 August 1953, the group officially joined the Alliance Française network, registered under the Indian Societies Act XXI of 1860.

In 1991, the Translation Cell of Alliance Française of Madras was founded.

In December 2022, a new building with the gallery "Espace 24" was opened in the premises to house the centre for cultural research and studies.<ref name="TH_Espace24">{{cite news
| last =
| first =
| title =Alliance Française of Madras gets a new building
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| pages =
| language =
| publisher = Kasturi & Sons
| date = 19 December 2022
| url = https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/alliance-fran%C3%A7aise-of-madras-gets-a-new-building/article66282382.ece
| access-date = 27 January 2023}}</ref> The building has classrooms and event spaces and hosts art and cultural exhibitions.<ref name="TH_Espace24"/>

==Institution==
Alliance Française of Madras is part of the network of the 14 [[Alliance Française|Alliances Françaises]] in India, under the jurisdiction of the Embassy of France in [[New Delhi]] and of the larger network of [[Alliance française|Alliances Françaises]] in 136 countries around the world, which themselves come under the Fondation Alliance Française in [[Paris]].

The Alliance Française of Madras is situated in College Road, [[Nungambakkam]]. It is governed by an Executive Committee consisting of a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, and three Executive Members. The premises covers more than {{convert|2,600|m2}} and includes a garden, parking spaces and the main building. The building occupies {{convert|1,700|m2}} spread over three floors. There are classrooms, an exhibition gallery, a library-cum-multimedia centre, an auditorium and a cafeteria (''La Cantine''). The library-cum-multimedia centre situated at the entrance covers 130 sq m and was renovated in 2008. It has four rooms. It is open on all days except Sundays. The Edouard Michelin Auditorium, which can accommodate 180 persons, is used for film projections, plays, lectures and discussions.

About 3,000 students enroll at the Alliance Française of Madras every year to learn French.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Kannan
| first = Uma
| title = Job seekers interested in learning foreign languages
| newspaper = Deccan Chronicle
| location = Chennai
| publisher = Deccan Chronicle
| date = 3 May 2012
| url = http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/cities/chennai/job-seekers-interested-learning-foreign-languages-104
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120504110038/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/cities/chennai/job-seekers-interested-learning-foreign-languages-104
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 4 May 2012
| access-date = 4 May 2012}}</ref>
The Alliance française de Madras is only centre in Tamil Nadu to offer DELF and DALF examinations, as well as French language assessment of CCIP (Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Paris) such as TEF and DFP.

The Alliance Française of Madras also has branches outside Chennai, in [[Coimbatore]] and [[Trichy]].<ref>{{cite news
| title = Alliance Française of Madras opens branch in Trichy
| location = Tiruchi
| date = 26 March 2010
| url = http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/26/stories/2010032659400200.htm
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100331032000/http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/26/stories/2010032659400200.htm
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 31 March 2010
| newspaper = [[The Hindu]]
| access-date = 4 May 2012}}</ref>

==Publication==
''Prélude'' (Prelude) is a monthly programme published by the Alliance Française of Madras. It provides information about the cultural events and the language courses scheduled for the next two months. The 16-page newsletter in color is made available only to the members of the Alliance, although it is distributed during events at the Alliance or given to occasional visitors.

==References==
{{Portal|India}}
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* Homepage of [https://madras.afindia.org/ Alliance Française de Madras]
*Homepage of [https://afindia.org/learn-french/ Alliance Française in India]

{{Chennai topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Alliance Francaise de Madras}}
[[Category:Cultural centres in Chennai]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Chennai]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Chennai]]
[[Category:1953 establishments in Madras State]]
[[Category:Alliance Française]]
[[Category:France–India relations]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1953]]

Sankardev

2026-03-29T19:30:21Z

Brandon81T: slightly expanded content as per guidelines for accuracy

{{short description|Indian polymath (1449–1568)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| name = Sankardev
| native_name = The [[Jagat Guru]]
| image = Sankaradeva.jpg
| alt = Sankardeva
| caption = Imaginary portrait of Srimanta Sankardev by [[Bishnu Prasad Rabha]]<ref>This portrait, created by [[Bishnu Rabha]] in the 20th-century, is generally accepted as the "official" portrait of Sankardev, whose likeness in pictorial form is not available from any extant form {{cite news |title=Portrait of a poet as an artist |author=A Staff Reporter |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1031014/asp/northeast/story_2457557.asp |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=14 October 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031101083706/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1031014/asp/northeast/story_2457557.asp |access-date=8 May 2013|archive-date=1 November 2003 }}</ref>
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| birth_date = 1449
| birth_place = [[Bordowa Than|Bordowa]], old name is Alipukhuri, Tembuani<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhuyan |first=Jogendra Nath |title=মহাপুৰুষ শ্ৰীমন্ত শংকৰদেৱ |trans-title=Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardev |year=1980 |publisher=Jogendra Nath Bhuyan |location=Guwahati |language=as |pages=18-22 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.452732/page/n1/mode/2up}}</ref>
[[Nagaon district]], [[Assam]], [[India]])
| birth_name = 
| death_date = {{death year and age|1568|1449}}<ref>"His eventful career came to an end on Thursday, the 7th or the 21st Bhadra (September), the 2nd day of the bright half of the lunar month, 1490 Saka/1569 AD; and his last physical remains were consigned to fire on the banks of the small river, Toroca." {{harvcol|Neog|1980|pp=120–121}}</ref><ref>{{harvtxt|Burman|1999|p=56}}</ref>
| death_place = Bheladonga (Today [[Cooch Behar]], [[West Bengal]], India)
| successor = [[Madhavdev]]
| philosophy = [[Ekasarana Dharma#Worshipful God and salvation|Ekasarana]]
| honors = Venerated as ''Mahapurusha''
| founder = [[Ekasarana Dharma]]
| literary_works = 
| footnotes =
| father = Kusumbar Siromani Bhuyan<ref>{{cite journal |title=Golap Saikia, Srimanta Sankardev, the Pioneer of the Socio-Religious Reform Movement of Medieval Assam |pages=44 |url=http://www.socialresearchfoundation.com/upoadreserchpapers/5/34/150419060954english.pdf}}</ref>
| mother = Satyasandhya
}}
{{quote box|width=22em|title=Quotation|quote=Do, therefore, regard all and everything as though they were God Himself!? Seek not to know the caste of a [[Brahmin|Brahmana]] nor of a [[Chandala]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kirttana Ghosa – Translations|url=http://atributetosankaradeva.org/kirttana_selecns.htm|access-date=27 October 2012}}</ref> }}
'''Srimanta Sankardev'''<ref>The name is spelt variously as '''''Sankardev''''', '''''Sankardeva''''' and '''''Sankaradeva'''''. Further discussion may be seen at [[Talk:Sankardev|relevant talk page]].</ref> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|r|ɪ|ˌ|m|æ|n|t|ə| |ˈ|s|æ|n|k|ə(r)|ˌ|d|eɪ|v}}, {{IPA|as|sɹimɔntɔ xɔŋkɔɹdeβ}}; 1449–1568) was a 15th–16th century [[Assamese people|Assamese]] [[polymath]]; a saint-scholar, poet, playwright, dancer, actor, musician, artist social-religious reformer and a figure of importance in the cultural and religious history of the [[Bhakti movement]] in [[Assam]]. He is credited with building on past cultural relics and devising new forms of music ([[Borgeet]]), theatrical performance ([[Ankia Naat]], [[Bhaona]]), dance ([[Sattriya]]), literary language ([[Brajavali]]). Besides, he has left a literary oeuvre of trans-created scriptures ([[Bhagavat of Sankardev]]), poetry and theological works written in Sanskrit, Assamese and [[Brajavali]]. The [[Bhagavatism|Bhagavatic]] religious movement he started, [[Ekasarana Dharma]] and also called Neo-Vaishnavite movement,<ref>{{cite web|title=Sankardev's Religion – Mahāpurusism|url=http://www.atributetosankaradeva.org/mahapurusiya.htm|access-date=27 October 2012}}</ref> influenced two medieval kingdoms – [[Koch Kingdom|Koch]] and the [[Ahom kingdom]] – and the assembly of devotees he initiated evolved over time into monastic centers called [[Sattra]]s, which continue to be important socio-religious institutions in Assam and to a lesser extent in [[North Bengal]].

His literary and artistic contributions are living traditions in Assam today. The religion he preached is practised by a large population, and [[Sattra]]s (monasteries) that he and his followers established continue to flourish and sustain his legacy.

After the death of Sankardev, [[Madhavdev]] incorporated narrations of his life in prayer services, a practice that his disciples followed, and in due course of time, a large body of biographical literature arose.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=2}}</ref> These are generally classed in two groups: early (those by Daityari Thakur, Bhusan Dwija, Ramananda Dwija and Vaikuntha Dwija) and late (''Guruvarnana'' by Aniruddha Das, the more than one anonymous ''Katha-guru-carits'', ''Bardowa-carit'', ''Sankardev caritra'' from Barpeta, the ''Saru-svarga-khanda'' and ''Bar-svarga-khanda'' by Sarvabhauma).<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=3}}</ref> The authorship of the biography credited to Ramcaran Thakur, Daityari Thakur's father, is doubted, and it is generally dated to the 17th century and classed with the late biographies.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|pp=22–24}}</ref>

In general, all biographies consider Sankardev as an incarnation of Vishnu, including that by Daityari Thakur, the earliest. The late biographies differ from the early group on the count that they ascribe supernatural feats to Sankardev, and describe miraculous events; and there is a tendency to read some events of the Bhagavata into his life.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=4}}</ref>
The biographies are full of contradictions; even though the earlier ones are considered more accurate, not all that they claim is true. Daityari Thakur's biography, the earliest one, claims Sankardev met with Chaitanya, which is now not accepted to be true.<ref>{{harv|Sarma|1990|p=38}}</ref>

==Biography==


===Early life: Bordowa===
[[File:Partha Pratim Bora Photography.jpg|thumb|Kirtan Ghar in the birthplace of Simanta Sankardev. ]]
{{Sankardev's Family Tree}}
Sankardev, then named Sankaravara,<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=101}}</ref> was born into the Shiromani (chief) ''[[Bhuyan chieftains|Baro-Bhuyans]]'' family at [[Bordowa Than|Bordowa]] (Alipukhuri, Tembuani) in present-day [[Nagaon]] district in c1449.<ref>The traditional date of Sankardev's birth, generally considered correct, is in the month of Ashwin-Kartika (October) 1449 {{harv|Neog|1980|p=98}}</ref> Though some authors have expressed doubt that Sankardev could have lived that long, 1449 is generally accepted.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=101}}</ref> The Baro-Bhuyans were independent landlords in Assam, and Sankardev belonged to the Kayastha (Kalita) family. His family members, including parents Kusumvar Bhuyan and Satyasandhya Devi, were [[Sakta]]s. Sankardev lost his father to smallpox when he was about 7 years old,<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=101f}}</ref> and his mother died either soon after his birth, or soon after his father's death;<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=67}}</ref> and he was raised by his grandmother Khersuti.

He began attending Mahendra Kandali's ''tol'' or ''chatrasaal'' (school) at the age of 12 and soon wrote his first verses ''[[karatala-kamala]]''. 
The complete poem was written before he was taught the vowels, except, of course, the first one, and is often cited as an example of the early flowering of his poetic genius. He stayed at the ''tol'' during his teens, and studied grammar and Indian scriptures.<ref name="Harv102">{{harv|Neog|1980|p=102}}</ref> He practised ''[[yoga]]'' (which he gave up later) and was physically very able,<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|pp=102–103}}</ref> and according to legend, he could swim across the [[Brahmaputra]] while it was in spate. It is generally believed that he wrote his first work, ''Harishchandra upakhyan'', while at the ''tol''.<ref name="Harv102" /> Mahendra Kandali changed his name to 'Sankardev' while he was at school.<ref name="Harv102" />

====Bhuyan ''shiromaniship''====
Sankardev soon mastered the major scriptures and thereafter left the ''tol'' in his late teens (c1465) to attend to his responsibilities as the Shiromani Bhuyan. He came to be known as the ''Dekagiri'' among his subjects and admirers. As Alipukhuri had become crowded, he moved his household from Alipukhuri to Bordowa. He married his first wife, Suryavati when he was in his early 20s and a daughter, Manu, was born about three years later, but his wife died about nine months after that.<ref>{{harv|Barman|1999|p=19}}</ref>

====First pilgrimage====
It is possible that the death of his wife increased his already existing spiritual inclination, and he left for a twelve-year-long pilgrimage, sometime after his daughter was married to Hari, a Bhuyan scion. He handed over the maintenance of his household to his son-in-law Hari; the Bhuyan Shiromaniship to his grand uncles Jayanta and Madhav; and began his journey in 1481. He was accompanied by seventeen others, including his friend and associate Ramaram and his teacher Mahendra Kandali.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=103}}</ref> At this point of time, he was 32. The pilgrimage took him to [[Puri]], [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]], [[Dwarka|Dwaraka]], [[Vrindavan]], [[Gaya, India|Gaya]], [[Rameswaram]], [[Ayodhya]], [[Sitakunda]] and almost all the other major seats of the Vaishnavite religion in India. He seems to have spent many years at Jagannath-kshetra at Puri, where he read and explained the Brahma Purana to the priests and lay people.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=104}}</ref> At Badrikashram in 1488, he composed his first ''[[borgeet]]''—''mana meri ram charanahi lagu''—in [[Brajavali]].<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=179}}</ref> According to Katha Gurucharit, the first Borgeet was "Rama meri hridaya pankaje baise" and he composed it in 1481 at the very outset of the pilgrimage at a place called Rowmari.<ref>{{harv|Borkakoti|2006|p=92}}</ref> He returned home to Alipukhuri after 12 years (his family had moved back from Bordowa in his absence). During his pilgrimage, he became a part of a pan-Indian Bhakti movement and helped it blossom.

====''Shiromaniship'' refusal====
On his return from his pilgrimage (c1493), Sankardev refused to take back the Shiromaniship, though on the insistence of his elders, he took responsibility of a hundred families (''gomastha''), but he soon handed over the responsibility to his son-in-law Hari. On his grandmother's insistence, he married Kalindi at the age of 54. Finally, he moved back to Bordowa and constructed a temple (''devagriha'') in c1498,<ref>After five years, Sankara had a temple built for him a little away from the abode of householder" {{harv|Neog|1980|p=69}}</ref> possibly a thatched house, built on the original site of his father's house where he could meet with people, discuss religious matters and hold prayers, and preach. He wrote ''Bhakti pradipa'' and ''Rukmini harana''. Soon after, he received a copy of the [[Bhagavata Purana]] from Jagadisa Mishra of [[Mithila (ancient)|Mithila]], with Sridhara Swami's [[monism|monistic]] commentary "Bhavartha-dipika". Mishra recited and explained the entire Bhagavata in the presence of Sankardev, and this event is considered critical in the development of Ekasarana.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=107}}</ref> Datyari, an early biographer of Sankardev, writes: Sankardev listened with rapt attention to the exposition by Jagadish Mishra and realised that the ''Bhagavata'' was a scripture without parallel, a scripture that determined Krishna as the only God, ''naam'' as the real dharma, and ''aikantika-sarana'' and ''sat-sanga'' as the indispensable elements of the faith."<ref>{{harv|Sarma|1999|p=12}}</ref> He also began composing the ''Kirtana ghosha''.

====''Cihna-yatra''====
After his exposure to the detailed Bhagavata Purana and Sridhara Swami's commentary ''Bhavartha-dipika'', Sankardev produced a dance-drama called ''Cihna yatra'', for which he painted the ''[[Vaikuntha|Sapta vaikuntha]]'' (seven heavens), guided the making of musical instruments and played the instruments himself.<ref>The early biographers are silent on ''Cihna-yatra''. ''Katha-guru-carita'' and ''Borduwa-carita'', both late biographies, say ''Cihna-yatra'' was performed after Sankardev's first pilgrimage; only Ramcaran says Sankardev arranged it when he was 19 years old, which is unlikely according to [[Maheswar Neog]]. {{harv|Neog|1980|p=107}}</ref><ref>But Bhuban Chandra Bhuyan, Dr. Sanjib Kumar Borkakoti etc. have opined that Cihna yatra was enacted before the pilgrimage, to be precise in 1468 AD.{{harv|Borkakoti|2005|p=17}}</ref> According to other biographers, Sankardev produced ''Maha-nata'' in the presence of Jagdish Mishra in the temple he had constructed at Alipukhuri.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=108}}</ref>

According to Neog, this was the point when Sankardev decided to preach a new religion. Some of the first to be initiated into this religion were the wife of Jayanta-dalai, a leper named Hariram (later Tulasiram), Ramaram, his associate and Mahendra Kandali, his ''tol'' teacher.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980| p=108 109}}</ref> The 13 years at Alipukhuri were the period during which he reflected on Vaishnavism and on the form that would suit the spiritual and ethical needs of the people. Ananta Kandali, a profound scholar of Sanskrit, became his disciple during this time; he translated the latter part of Canto X of the Bhagavata Purana after consulting Sankardev.

From Alipukhuri, Sankardev moved back to Bordowa in 1509 and built a ''thaan''. Some authors claim that this ''than'' had all the major features of a sattra (central ''kirtanghar'', ''sari-hati'' etc.),<ref>{{harv|Borkakoti|2006|p=23}}</ref> whereas many others assert that these features did not exist during Sankardev's time.<ref>"It is not known from biographical or contemporary literature of the period whether the sattra of Sankardev besides containing the prayer-hall and the shrine did contain the system of ''sari-hati'' like that of later-day sattras". {{harv|Sarma|1966|p=105}}</ref><ref>"It may be recalled (Daityari, Katha-guru-carit) that in Sankardev's days, the daily sittings...were held in the open or under shades of trees" {{harv|Neog|1980|p=312}}</ref> This ''than'' was abandoned and more than a hundred years later in the middle of the 17th-century, Sankardev's granddaughter-in-law, Kanaklata, established it again.<ref>{{harv|Sarma|1966|p=93}}</ref>

====Literary works in the Baro-Bhuyan territories====
# Non-''Bhagavata'' group
#* ''Harishcandra-Upakhyana''
#* ''Bhakti-pradip''
#* ''[[Kirtan Ghoxa|Kirtan-ghosa]]'' (''Uresa-varnana'')
# Non-''Bhagavata'' mixed with ''Bhagavata'' elements, not influenced by Sridhara Swami
#* ''Rukmini-harana-kavya''
# Lyrics
#* ''[[Borgeet]]''
# ''Bhagavata'' tales, not from Book X
#* ''Ajamilopakhyan'' (Book VI)
#* ''Amrta-manthan'' (Book VIII)
#* ''[[Kirtan Ghoxa|Kirtan-ghosa]]'' (''Ajamilopakhyan'', ''Prahlada-caritra'', ''Harmohana'',
#* Sections ii–vi<ref>{{harv|Noeg|1980|p=160}}</ref><ref>{{harv|Barman|1999|p=120}}</ref>

===Ahom kingdom===

====Gangmau====
[[Biswa Singha]] began his activities to remove the Bhuyans from power in the western part of the Brahmaputra valley in 1509. Furthermore, the Bhuyans in the Bordowa area picked up a quarrel with their [[Dimasa Kingdom|Kachari]] neighbours, and when attacked, Sankardev advised the Bhuyans to move, which brought to an end the independence of this group of Bhuyans.<ref name="Harv69">{{harv|Neog|1980|p=69}}</ref> Sankardev and his associates first crossed the Brahmaputra river in 1516–17 and settled first at Singari and finally at Routa; and when Viswa Singha advanced towards Routa, Sankardev moved to Gangmau in the [[Ahom kingdom]] in 1527.<ref>[Neog, Maheswar, ''Śaṅkaradeva and his times'', p. 68]</ref><ref name="Harv69" /> At Gangmau, they stayed for five years, where Sankardev's eldest son Ramananda was born. At Gangmau, he wrote the drama ''Patniprasad''. He lived alone at a place named Gajalasuti out of dissatisfaction with some relative. He penned the play there.

====Dhuwahat====
While at Gangmau, the [[Koch dynasty|Koch]] king [[Biswa Singha]] attacked the [[Ahom kingdom|Ahoms]]. The Bhuyans fought for the Ahoms, and the Koch king was defeated. Due to the unsettled situation at Gangmau, Shankardeva next moved to Dhuwahat, near Ahatguri in present-day [[Majuli]], washed away by the Brahmaputra in 1913. The Bhuyans were settled here by the Ahoms with land and estate,<ref>"Ere long, the inroads of the Bhutanese and the Koches compelled them to shift their residence to Dhuwahat-Belaguri, where the Ahom monarch settled them with land and estate." {{harv|Sarma|1966|p=13}}</ref> Hari, Sankardev's son-in-law, became a [[Saikia]], and his cousin Jagatananda, grandson of J, received a title 'Ramarai'.<ref>{{harv|Barman|1999|p=37}}</ref> At Dhuwahat, he met his spiritual successor Madhavdev. [[Madhavdev]], a sakta, got into a religious altercation with his brother-in-law, Ramadas, who had recently converted to Vaishnavism. Ramadas took him to Sankardev, who, after a long debate, convinced him of the power and the efficacy of ''Ekasarana''. The acquisition of Madhavdev, with his talent in poetry, singing and dedication to his new-found religion and guru, was a significant event in the ''Ekasarana'' history. At Dhuwahat, he managed to attract wider attention and popularity, and he initiated many others into his religion.

The popularity of Ekasarana and the conversion of people alarmed the priestly Brahmins,<ref>{{harv|Sarma|1966|p=13}}</ref> who reacted with anger and hostility. Sankardev tried to diffuse their hostility—by meeting with them at the house of his relative Budha-Khan<ref name="Harv111">{{harv|Neog|1980|p=111}}</ref> and asking his Brahmin antagonists to install a wooden idol of Jagannath, called Madan-Mohan, at his religious seat. (Sankardev left this idol hanging on a tree when he took flight from Dhuwahat, and it was rescued years later by Vamshigopaldev and installed at Deberapar-sattra).<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=376}}</ref><ref>The wooden idol was carved by one Korola Bhadai, and his invitation to the priests was conveyed by his brahmin associate Ramaram {{harv|Barman|1999|p=37}}</ref> The Brahmins finally complained to the Ahom king, [[Suhungmung]] (1497–1539), who summoned Sankardev to his court for a debate with them. Sankardev was able to convince the king that he was not a religious rebel and a threat to the social order, and the charges against him were dropped.<ref name="Harv111" /> The hostility, nevertheless, continued.<ref>{{harv|Neog|1980|p=112}}</ref>

=====''Flight from Dhuwahat''=====
Though the positions of the Bhuyans in the Ahom kingdom began comfortably—with Sankardev's son-in-law, Hari, becoming a [[Paik system|Paik]] officer and Ramrai, his cousin, becoming a royal official—the relationship gradually deteriorated. After the death of Viswasingha, who was inimical to the Bhuyans, and the rise of Naranarayan (1540), the Koch-Bhuyan relationship improved somewhat.<ref>"Prataprai Gabharu-Khan, who had escaped to Gauda when Viswasingha attacked them, returned to Kamrup and made a sort of alliance with Naranarayan" {{harv|Neog|1980|p=112}}</ref> Sometime in the 1540s during the reign of [[Suklenmung]] (1539–1552), a royal officer visited the region for an elephant capturing expedition. Hari did not make himself available, and an elephant escaped through a barrier managed by the Bhuyans. The officer took grave offence at this dereliction of duty and arrested Hari as well as Madhavdev. At [[Garhgaon]], Hari was executed and Madhavdev interned for about a year.<ref>{{harv|Barman|1999|p=38}}</ref> According to Daityari, taking advantage of the Koch advance against the Ahoms (1546–1547), Sankardev and his followers escaped from the Ahom kingdom as they fell behind the vanguard of the Koch army setting up their garrison in [[Narayanpur, Assam|Narayanpur]] further to the east.<ref>The year of Sankardev's escape is generally taken as 1546, first suggested by Bezbaroa {{harv|Neog|1980|p=113}}. Others suggest 1540 {{harv|Borkakoti|2012|p=26}}.</ref>

====Literary works in the Ahom kingdom====
# Arguments against those antagonistic to ''bhakti''
#* ''Kirtan-ghosa'' (''Pasanda-mardana'', ''Namaparadha'')
#* ''(Vipra)-patni-prasad'' (Ankia Naat)
# Tales from Krishna's early life
#* ''Kirtan-ghosa'' (''sisu-lila'', ''rasa-krida'', ''kamsavadha'', ''gopi-uddhava-samvada'', ''kujir vancha-purana'', ''akrurar vancha-purana'')
# ''[[Borgeet]]s''

===Koch kingdom===

====Sunpora====
Sankardev and his followers reached Kapalabari in the Koch kingdom in the later part of 1540 and put up there. But the water was very alkaline there. Several members, including Madhavdev's mother, Manorama, died there. So after staying for some time at Kapalabari, Sankardev and his group moved to Sunpora in 1541.<ref>{{harv|Borkakoti|2012|p=27}}</ref> At Sunpora Sankardev initiated Bhavananda, a rich trader who had extensive business interests in the [[Garo Hills]] and Bhutan Hills besides Kamarupa. The trader, Narayana Das, settled at Janiya near [[Barpeta]] and took to agriculture. A man of the world otherwise, he soon flourished and became a provider to Sankardev and his devotees. He came to be known popularly as Thakur Ata.

====Patbausi====
After moving around, Sankardev settled at Patbausi near Barpeta in the [[Koch Kingdom]] and constructed a ''Kirtanghar'' (house of prayer). Some of the people he initiated here are Chakrapani Dwija and Sarvabhaum Bhattacharya, Brahmins; Govinda, a [[Garo people|Garo]]; Jayaram, a [[Bhutia]]; Madhai, a [[Pnar people|Jaintia]]; Jatiram, an ascetic; and Murari, a [[Koch people|Koch]]. [[Damodardev]], a Brahmin, was initiated by Sankardev. Damodardev was entrusted by Sankardev to initiate Brahmin disciples. A Sattra was also constructed for him at Patbausi itself. Later, R. Damodardev became the founder of the Brahma Sanghati sect of Sankardev's religion.

Among Sankardev's literary works, he completed his rendering of the Bhagavata Purana and wrote other independent works. He continued composing the Kirtan Ghosha, further translated the first canto of the [[Ramayana]] (''Adi Kanda'') and instructed Madhavdev to translate the last canto (''Uttara Kanda''), portions that were left undone by the 14th-century poet [[Madhav Kandali]]. He wrote four plays: ''Rukmini harana'', ''Parijata harana'', ''Keligopala'' and ''Kalidamana''. Another play written at Patbausi, ''Kansa Vadha'', is lost. At Patbausi, he had lent his ''Bargeets'' numbering around 240 to Kamala Gayan. But unfortunately, Gayan's house was gutted and most of the ''Bargeets'' were lost. Since that incident Sankardev stopped composing ''Bargeets''. Of the 240, 34 remain today.

====Second Pilgrimage====
Sankardev once again left for a pilgrimage in 1550 with a large party of 117 disciples that included Madhavdev, Ramrai, Ramaram, Thakur Ata and others. Thakur Ata had to return after just one day's journey. Madhavdev had to take the entire responsibility of logistics. He, on the request of Sankardev's wife Kalindi, urged him to return from Puri and not proceed to Vrindavana. Sankardev and the group returned to Patbausi within six months in 1551.

====Koch capital and Bheladanga====
On receiving repeated complaints that Sankardev was corrupting the minds of the people by spreading a new religion [[Nara Narayan]], the Koch king, ordered Sankardev's arrest, and Sankardev went into hiding.<ref>{{harv|Barman|1999|p=49}} The complainant was Vidyvagisha Chakravarty, though Kanthabhushan, the royal priest who was Ramarama's son-in-law, protested. Not finding Sankardev, Thakur Ata and Gokulcand were arrested instead and tortured.</ref> [[Chilarai]]— the general of the Koch army, half-brother of the king and married to Kamalapriya, the daughter of Sankardev's cousin Ramarai— then convinced the king to give Sankardev a hearing instead.<ref>{{harv|Barman|1999|p=50}}</ref>

For the audience with Nara Narayan, as he moved up the steps to the court, Sankardev sang his Sanskrit ''totaka'' hymn, composed extempore, to Lord Krishna, ''madhu daanava daarana deva varam''

and as he sat down, he sang a ''[[borgeet]]'', ''narayana kahe bhakati karu tera'', playing on the name of the king. At the debate with the court pundits that followed, Sankardev was able to refute all allegations against him. The king declared him free and honoured him with a seat close to the throne. Sankardev began to attend Naranarayana's court regularly and received the freedom to propagate his teachings.

Chilarai was instrumental in keeping Sankardev safe and supporting his work. Many of Sankardev's literary and dramatic works were completed in his domain with his patronage and protection. Sankardev acknowledged his appreciation in his play '[[Ram Vijaya]]'.

Sankardev shuttled between [[Cooch Behar State|Koch Behar]], the capital, and Patbausi, his seat. He was often hosted by Chilarai, and on his request, agreed to have the images of the childhood days of Krishna at Vrindavan woven on cloth. He engaged the weavers of Tantikuchi, near Barpeta, to weave a forty-yard-long tapestry panel. Sankaradeva provided the designs to be woven, chose the various colours of thread to be used, and supervised the weaving. It took about a year to complete and, deriving its name from its theme, came to be known as the [[Vrindavani vastra]]. It was presented to [[Chilarai]] and Naranarayan. A section of this cloth is preserved now in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[London]].

Chandsai, a Muslim tailor serving the Koch king, became a disciple of Sankardev at Kochbehar. When Sankardev returned to Patbausi some time later, Chandsai too came with the saint. Sankardev frequented the capital for more than 20 years and enjoyed unstinted royal patronage for the first time.

====End====
He made arrangements with Madhavdev and Thakur Ata and gave them various instructions at Patbausi and left the place for the last time. He set up his home at Bheladonga in Kochbehar. During his stay at Kochbehar, Maharaja Naranarayana expressed his wish to be initiated. Sankardev was reluctant to convert a king and declined to do so. (According to one of the biographers, Ramcharan Thakur) A painful [[boil]]; a ''visha phohara'' – had appeared in some part of his body, and this led to the death of the Saint. Thus, in 1568, after leading a most eventful life dedicated to enlightening humanity the ''Mahapurusha'' died, after four months of his last stay at Bheladonga–, aged 120.

====Literary works in the Koch kingdom====
# ''Bhagavata'' tales, not from Book X
#* ''Bali-chalana'' (Book VIII)
#* ''Anadi-patana'' (Book III, ''Vamana-purana'')
# ''Bhagavata'' tales from Books X, XI, XIII
#* ''Kirtan-ghosa'' (''Jarasandha yudha'', ''Kalayavana badha'', ''Mucukunda-stuti'', ''Syamanta-haran'', ''Naradar-krishna-darsan'', ''Vipra-putra-anayana'', ''Daivakir-putra-anayana'', ''Veda-stuti'', ''Lilamala'', ''Rukminir-prem-kalah'', ''Bhrigu-pariksha'', ''srikrishnar-vaikuntha-prayana'', ''Chaturvimsati-avatar-varnana'', ''Tatparya'')
# ''[[Gunamala]]''
#* Section i<ref>"The ''Bardowa-carit'' and, depending on it, Lakshminath Bezbaroa (in his ''Sankaradeva'') hold that five sections of the work (that is the whole book, without the first section) were composed much earlier, and that it was presented to one Satananda or Devidas at Gangmau" {{harv|Neog|1980|p=182}}</ref>
# Renderings of Bhagavata Purana
#* Bhagavata X (''Adi'')
#* Bhagavata XI (with material from Books I and III)
#* Bhagavata XII
#* Bhagavata I
#* Bhagavata II
#* Bhagavata IX (lost)
#* ''Kurukshetra'' (Book X, Uttarardha)
#* ''Nimi-nava-siddha-samvada''
# From Ramayana
#* Ramayana, ''Uttara-kanda''
# Lyrics
#* Borgeets
#* Totaya
#*[[Bhotima]]
# Doctrinal treatise
#* ''Bhakti-ratnakar''
# Drama (Ankia Naat)
#* ''Kali-daman''
#* ''Keli-gopal''
#* ''Rukmini-haran''
#* ''Parijat-haran''
#* ''Ram-vijay''
# Visual Art
#* ''[[Vrindavani vastra]]'' – parts of this work are preserved in London.

{{Srimanta_Sankardev_Timeline_graphical_timeline}}

==''Ekasarana''==
{{main|Ekasarana Dharma}}
{{Vaishnavism}}
Sankardev preached devotion (''bhakti'') to Krishna consisting primarily in the singing (''kirtan'') and listening to (''sravan'') of his deeds and activities. ''Ekasarana'' follows the ''dasya'' attitude (''bhava'') of worship in which the devotee considers himself to be a servant of God. In contrast to other Vaishnava schools, [[Radha]] is not worshiped along with Krishna.

The people who practice his religion are referred to variously as ''Mahapurushia'', ''Sarania'' and ''Sankari''.

Srimanta Sankardev started a system of initiation (''Sarana'') into his religion. He caused a social revolution by fighting against the caste discrimination prevailing at that time. He initiated people of all [[caste]]s and religions, including Muslims. After initiation, the devotee is expected to adhere to the religious tenets of ''Ekasarana'' consisting in worship to one God, Krishna, and offering devotion to him, forsaking all forms of Vedic rites.

Though he himself married twice, had children and led the life of a householder, his disciple [[Madhavdev]] did not. Some of his followers today follow celibate life (''kevaliya bhakat'') in the Vaishnavite monasteries – the ''sattras''.

Sankardev's famous debate with Madhavdev, who was a staunch sakta (devotee of Shakti) earlier, and Madhavdev's subsequent induction into Ekasarana, is often cited as the single most epoch-making event in the history of the neo-Vaishnavite movement in Assam. Madhavdev, an equally multi-talented person, became his celebrated disciple.

==Literary works==
Sankardev produced a large body of work. Though there were others before him who wrote in the language of the common man – Madhav Kandali who translated the [[Ramayana]] into [[Assamese language|Assamese]] in the 14th century – This was the first ramayana to be written in a modern Indian language – [[Harihara Vipra]] and [[Hema Saraswati]], it was Sankardev who opened the floodgates and inspired others like Madhavdev to carry on where he left off.

His language is lucid, his verses lilting, and he infused ''bhakti'' into everything he wrote. His magnum opus is his ''[[Kirtan Ghoxa|Kirtana-ghosha]]'', a work so popular that even today it is found in many household in Assam. It contains narrative verses glorifying Krishna meant for community singing. It is a ''bhakti kayva'' par excellence, written in a lively and simple language, it has "stories and songs for amusement [for children], it delights the young with true poetic beauty and elderly people find here religious instruction and wisdom".

For most of his works, he used the [[Assamese language]] of the period so the lay person could read and understand them. But for dramatic effect in his songs and dramas he used [[Brajavali]].

Other literary works include the rendering of eight books of the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' including the ''Adi Dasama'' (Book X), ''[[Harishchandra]]-upakhyana'' (his first work), ''Bhakti-pradip'', the ''Nimi-navasiddha-samvada'' (conversation between King Nimi and the nine Siddhas), ''Bhakti-ratnakara'' (Sanskrit verses, mostly from the Bhagavata, compiled into a book), ''Anadi-patana'' (having as its theme the creation of the universe and allied cosmological matters), [[Gunamala]] and many plays like ''Rukmini haran'', ''Patni prasad'', ''Keli gopal'', ''Kurukshetra yatra'' and ''Srirama vijaya''. There was thus a flowering of Bhakti literature during his long life of 120 years.

===Poetic works (''kavya'')===
* ''Kirtana-ghosha''
* ''Harischandra-upakhyana''
* ''Rukmini-harana''
* ''Parijat-haran''
* ''Kaliya-daman''
* ''Ram-vijay''
* ''Ajamilopakhyana''
* ''Bali-chalana''
* ''Kurukshetra-yatra''
* ''Gopi-uddhava-samvada''
* ''Amrita-manthana''
* ''Krishna-prayana-pandava-niryana''
* ''Kamajaya''

===Bhakti Theory===
* ''Bhakati-pradipa''
* ''Anadi-patana''
* ''Nimi-navasiddha-samvada''
* ''Bhakti Ratnakara'' (in Sanskrit)
* ''[[Gunamala]]''

===Transliteration===
* ''[[Bhagavat of Sankardeva|Bhagavata]]'' (Book VI, VIII, I, II, VII, X, XI, XII, IX, X(partial, XI(partial) & XII)
* ''[[Ramayana]]'' (''Uttarakanda'', supplemental to [[Madhav Kandali]]'s [[Saptakanda Ramayana]])
His translation of the ''Bhagavata'' is a transcreation, because he translates not just the words but the idiom and the physiognomy too. He has adapted the original text to the local land and people and importantly for the purpose of bhakti. Portions of the original were left out or elaborated where appropriate. For example, he suppressed the portions that revile the lowers caste of ''[[Shudra|sudra]]'' and ''[[Jalia Kaibarta|kaivarta]]s'', and extols them elsewhere.

===Drama (''Ankia Nat'')===
* ''Cihna Yatra'' (lost)
* ''Patni-prasada''
* ''Janma-jatra'' (lost)
* ''Kangsa-badha'' (lost)
* ''Parijata-harana''
* ''Kali-damana''
* ''Rukmini-harana''
* ''Keli-gopala''
* ''Srirama-vijaya''
[[File:Narrative Curtain Depicting Avatars of Vishnu (Vrindavani vastra) LACMA AC1995.94.1.jpg|thumb|''Vrindavani vastra'' (fragment), circa 1570, at [[LACMA]]|upright]]

Sankardev was the fountainhead of the ''[[Ankiya naat]]'', a form of one-act play. His ''Cihna Yatra'' is regarded as one of the first open-air theatrical performances in the world. ''Cihna yatra'' was probably a dance drama and no text of that show is available today. Innovations like the presence of a ''Sutradhara'' (narrator) on the stage, use of masks etc., were used later in the plays of [[Bertolt Brecht]] and other eminent playwrights.

These cultural traditions still form an integral part of the [[Culture of Assam|heritage of the Assamese people]].

===Songs===
* ''[[Borgeet]]'' (composed 240, but only 34 exist now)
* ''[[Bhotima]]''
** ''Deva Bhotima'' – panegyrics to God
** ''Naat Bhotima'' – for use in dramas
** ''Raj Bhotima'' – panegyrics to king [[Nara Narayan]]

He was a musician; all his creations were orienting to the Vishanav religion and one set of them is called 'Holy Songs', which are known even today as 'Borgeet' (or Bargit or Bargeet) in Assam.

The ''Borgeets'' (literally: great songs) are devotional songs, set to music and sung in various ''[[raga]]'' styles. These styles are slightly different from either the [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]] or the [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] styles.<ref>{{cite web|author=Bipuljyoti Saikia |url=http://www.bipuljyoti.in/music/bargeet.html |title=Sangeet – Songs of Devotion |publisher=Bipuljyoti.in |access-date=29 May 2013}}</ref> The songs themselves are written in the '[[Brajavali]]' language.

===Dance===
[[Sattriya dance]], that Sankardev first conceived and developed and which was later preserved for centuries by the ''sattras'', is now among the [[Indian classical dance|classical dance forms of India]]. Certain devout Sankarite call this form Sankari dance.

===Visual Art===
* ''Sapta vaikuntha'' – part of the ''Cihna yatra'' production, does not exist today.
* ''[[Vrindavani vastra]]'' – parts of this work are preserved in London.
The famous ''Vrindavani Vastra''—the cloth of Vrindavan—a 120 x 60 [[cubit]]s tapestry depicted the [[lilas of Krishna|''lilas'' of Lord Krishna]] at [[Vrindavan]] through richly woven and embroidered designs on silk.<ref>{{Harvcol|Crill|1992}}</ref> A specimen, believed to be a part of this work, is at the Association pour l'Etude et la Documentation des Textiles d'Asie collection at Paris (inv. no. 3222).
The ''vastra'', commissioned by Koch king Naranarayana, was woven by 12 master weavers in [[Barpeta]] under the supervision of Sankardev over a period of six-month and completed towards the end of 1554.<ref>{{harv|Borkakoti|2005|pp=222–224}}</ref> This textile art depicted the life and deeds of lord Krishna, who is worshipped in Eka Sarana Nama Dharma. The cloth was housed in the royal court of Kochbehar after the saint presented it to the king; but it disappeared at some point. It is believed that parts of this cloth made its way to [[Tibet]] and from there to its present place.

==Avirbhav Kshetra==
[[Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardev Avirbhav Kshetra]] is a cultural, spiritual, and heritage complex located at Batadrava near [[Bordowa Than]] in [[Nagaon district]], in the Indian state of [[Assam]]. It has been developed around the birthplace<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bordowa Satra Nagaon Assam - Must Visit Tourist Attractions in Assam |url=https://www.tourmyindia.com/states/assam/bordowa-satra.html |access-date=2026-01-07 |website=www.tourmyindia.com}}</ref> of the medieval Assamese saint and reformer Srimanta Sankardev, commemorating his life, teachings, and contributions to Assamese society through religion, arts, and culture.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sankardev's Religion – Mahāpurusism|url=http://www.atributetosankaradeva.org/mahapurusiya.htm|access-date=7 January 2026}}</ref> The site was officially inaugurated on 29 December 2025 by [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Union Home Minister]] [[Amit Shah]] after an extensive redevelopment project aimed at transforming it into a major cultural and spiritual destination.<ref>{{cite web|title= Shah inaugurates ₹227 crore redeveloped birthplace of Srimanta Sankardeva |date=29 December 2025|url= https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/assam/shah-inaugurates-227-crore-redeveloped-birthplace-of-srimanta-sankardeva/article70449056.ece |website= The Hindu |access-date=7 January 2026}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Satra (Ekasarana Dharma)|Sattra]]
* [[Borgeet]]
* [[Madhavdev]]
* [[Dihanaam]]
* [[Ankia Naat]]
*[[Vrindavani vastra]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Citation
| last = Barman
| first = Sivnath
| title = An Unsung Colossus: An Introduction to the Life and Works of Sankardev
| publisher = [[Forum for Sankaradeva Studies]] / [[North Eastern Hill University]] Institutional Repository
| year = 1999
| location = Guwahati
| chapter = Introduction
| chapter-url = http://dspace.nehu.ac.in/handle/1/3297
}}
*{{Citation
| last = Bhuyan
| first = Abhijit
| title = Sankardev and Neo-Vaishnavism in Assam
| url = http://www.indianfolklore.org/journals/index.php/ishani/article/view/379
| journal = Ishani
| volume = II(3)
| date = 15 May 2008
| access-date = 14 August 2009
| archive-date = 26 July 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110726175033/http://www.indianfolklore.org/journals/index.php/ishani/article/view/379
| url-status = dead
}}
*{{Citation
| last = Borkakoti
| first = Sanjib Kumar
| title = Purnanga Katha Gurucharita
| publisher = Bani Mandir
| year = 2007
| location = Guwahati
}}
*{{Citation
| last = Borkakoti
| first = Sanjib Kumar
| title = Unique Contributions of Srimanta Sankaradeva in Religion and Culture
| publisher = [[Srimanta Sankaradeva Sangha]]
| year = 2006
| location = Nagaon
}}
* Vaishnav Santa Srimanta Sankaradeva – translation: Rajibaksha Rakshit. Kaziranga. The only Bengali book available in market on Sankaradeva
*{{Citation
| last = Crill
| first = Rosemary
| title = Vrindavani Vastra: Figured Silks from Assam
| journal = Hali
| volume = 14
| pages = 76–83
| year = 1992
| issue=2}}
* {{cite book |surname=Neog |given=Maheswar |author-link=Maheshwar Neog |title=Early History of the Vaiṣṇava Faith and Movement in Assam: Śaṅkaradeva and His Times |year=1980 |url={{Google books|DcReZM-rI0MC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |place=Delhi }}
*{{cite book
| last = Sarma
| first = S N
| title = The Neo-Vaishnavite Movement and the Satra Institution of Assam
| publisher = [[Gauhati University]]
| year = 1966
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Sarma
| first = Anjali
| title = Among the Luminaries in Assam: A Study of Assamese Biography
| publisher = Mittal Publications
| year = 1990
}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author=University of Gauhati|title=Dr. B. Kakati Commemoration Volume|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nucxAAAAIAAJ|access-date=30 May 2013|year=1953}}
* {{cite book|author=K.M. George|title=Modern Indian Literature: An Anthology. Plays and prose|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eTXougCB-NMC&pg=PA38|access-date=30 May 2013|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-7201-783-5|pages=38–}}
* {{cite book|author=Sanjoy Hazarika|title=Strangers in the Mist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PuWN7c81X5gC&pg=PA43|access-date=30 May 2013|year=1995|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-024052-8|pages=43–}}
* {{cite book|title=Indian Philosophy & Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s_hDAAAAIAAJ|access-date=30 May 2013|year=1965}}
* {{cite book|author=Jyoti Prasad Rajkhowa | title=Sankaradeva, His Life, Preachings, and Practices: A Historical Biography |year=2003| isbn=9350674254 }}

== External links ==
{{wikisourcelang|as|লিখক:শ্ৰীমন্ত শংকৰদেৱ}}
{{Commons category|Sankardev}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* [http://www.atributetosankaradeva.org/ atributetosankaradeva.org] – The Religion, philosophy, Literature, Art, Culture (and more) of Mahapurusha Srimanta Sankardev.
* [http://www.hindubooks.org/temples/assam/satras-I/index.htm The Sattras of Assam] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124034406/http://www.hindubooks.org/temples/assam/satras-I/index.htm |date=24 January 2010 }}) – by BK Barua and HV Sreenivasa Murthy, pages from hindubooks.org

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sankardev, Srimanta}}
[[Category:1449 births]]
[[Category:1568 deaths]]
[[Category:Ekasarana Dharma]]
[[Category:Hindu revivalists]]
[[Category:People from Nagaon district]]
[[Category:Bhakti movement]]
[[Category:Assamese-language poets]]
[[Category:Assamese-language dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian male songwriters]]
[[Category:Indian songwriters]]
[[Category:Poets from Assam]]
[[Category:Kayastha]]
[[Category:15th-century Indian musicians]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian musicians]]
[[Category:15th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Musicians from Assam]]
[[Category:Indian Hindu saints]]
[[Category:15th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:16th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Assam]]
[[Category:Writers from Assam]]

Spider-Man (Pavitr Prabhakar)

2026-03-29T14:48:52Z

Brandon81T: further correct information for clarity additionally and improved wording per sources

{{Short description|Marvel Comics superhero}}
{{Infobox comics character
| character_name = Pavitr Prabhakar {{small|Spider-Man}}
| image = Spider-Man (Pavitr Prabhakar).png
| converted = y
| caption = Spider-Man (Pavitr Prabhakar) taken from the cover of ''[[Spider-Man: India]]'' #2 (February 2005) Art by [[Jeevan Kang|Jeevan J. Kang]].
| alter_ego = Pavitr Prabhakar
| publisher = [[Marvel Comics]]
| debut = ''[[Spider-Man: India]]'' #1 (2004)<ref name=K>{{cite web | url=https://www.marvel.com/comics/issue/86/spider-man_india_2004_1 | title=Spider-Man: India (2004) #1 | Comic Issues | Marvel }}</ref><ref name=Kundan>{{cite web | url=https://readcomiconline.li/Comic/Spider-Man-India/Issue-1?id=62205 | title=Spider-Man: India (2004) Issue #1 - Read Spider-Man: India (2004) Issue #1 comic online in high quality }}</ref>
| creators = {{Plainlist|
* [[Jeevan Kang|Jeevan J. Kang]]
* Suresh Seetharaman
* [[Sharad Devarajan]]}}
| species = [[Mutation|Human mutate]]
| alliances =
| cat =
| subcat = Marvel Comics
| hero = y
| sortkey = Spider-Man
| powers =
Superhuman strength, speed, agility, reflexes, durability, and balance
* Ability to cling to solid surfaces
* Expert [[hand to hand combat|hand-to-hand combatant]]
* Acrobatics
| supports = *Meera Jain ''(Indian alternate version of [[Mary Jane Watson]])''
*Uncle Bhim ''(Indian alternate universe of [[Uncle Ben]])''
*Aunt Maya ''(Indian alternate version of [[Aunt May]])''
| IOM_partners = {{Plainlist|
* [[Gwen Stacy#Spider-Verse|Gayatri Singh]] (girlfriend)
* [[George Stacy#Inspector Singh|Inspector Singh]] (police chief)
* [[Gwen Stacy (Spider-Verse)|Spider-Woman]]
* [[Miles Morales (Spider-Verse)|Miles Morales]]
* [[Peter B. Parker (Spider-Verse)|Spider-Man]]
* [[Spider-Punk]]
* [[Peni Parker|SP//dr]]
* [[Spider-Ham]]
* [[Spider-Man Noir]]
}}
| homeworld = [[Mumbai]]/[[Manhattan|Mumbattan]], [[India]]
}}
'''Spider-Man''' is a superhero appearing in [[American comic book]]s published by [[Marvel Comics]] in collaboration with [[Gotham Entertainment Group|Gotham Entertainment]]. Pavitr Prabhakar is an Indian [[Alternative versions of Spider-Man|alternate version]] of [[Spider-Man]] who lives in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Jeevan Kang |title=Spider-Man: India |publisher=[[Marvel Comics]] |edition=1 |pages=1, 5 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Who is Spider-Man India in Across the Spider-Verse? Pavitr Prabhakar explained |url=https://www.wionews.com/entertainment/hollywood/news-who-is-spider-man-india-in-across-the-spider-verse-pavitr-prabhakar-explained-598127 |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=WION |date=30 May 2023 |language=en-us}}</ref>

In the [[Marvel Comics universe]], Spider-Man lives on Earth-50101. His secret identity is Pavitr Prabhakar, a shy high school student living with his Aunt Maya and Uncle Bhim in [[Mumbai]]. He has several supporting characters, such as [[Mary Jane Watson|Meera Jain]], [[Flash Thompson]], [[Norman Osborn|Nalin Oberoi]], and [[Doctor Octopus]]. Pavitr moved to Mumbai from a small village. Despite financial struggles, his uncle was determined for him to receive a good education at the Heritage International School, one of the top schools in Mumbai.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

Pavitr was often bullied in school for being from a village and wearing a [[dhoti]]. A [[Yogi]] gives him the magical powers of a spider, which he uses to fight Nalin Oberoi, an evil businessman searching for a powerful, magical amulet. In his quest, Oberoi destroys Pavitr's village, killing everyone. As Spider-Man, Pavitr defeats Oberoi and hands him over to the police.<ref>{{Cite book |title=[[Spider-Man: India]] #1, #2, #3 and #4 |publisher=[[Marvel Comics]] |date=2004–2005 |edition=1 |location=[[New York City|New York]], USA |language=English |issue=1, 2, 3, 4}}</ref>

Pavitr "Pav" Prabhakar / Spider-Man India made his cinematic debut in the 2023 animated feature film ''[[Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse]]'', voiced by [[Karan Soni]] in [[English language|English]]. He is depicted as a member of [[Miguel O'Hara]]'s Spider-Society.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Atal |first=Raj |date=2023-05-19 |title=Who Is Indian Spiderman Pavitr Prabhakar? Comic Origin, Powers & Abilities, And Weakness Explained |url=https://superheromaniac.com/indian-spiderman-pavitr-prabhakar-origin/ |access-date=2023-06-02 |website=Superhero Maniac |language=en-US}}</ref> He is set to reappear in the film's sequel, ''[[Spider-Man: Beyond the Spider-Verse]]''.

==Publishing history==
Pavitr Prabhakar first appeared in ''[[Spider-Man: India]]'' #1 (January 2005).<ref name="India">''Spider-Man: India'' #1-4</ref><ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4271120 "Spider-Man, Swinging Through India"]. [[NPR]]. January 6, 2005</ref><ref>Overdorf, Jason. [http://www.newsweek.com/2004/07/25/a-multicultural-web.html# "A Multicultural Web"]. ''[[Newsweek International]]''. July 25, 2004</ref><ref>Sandhu, Sukhdev. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081122070733/http://newyorkmetro.com/nymetro/arts/comics/9600/ "World Wide Web"]. ''[[New York Magazine]]''. May 21, 2005</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/3836797.stm "Spider-Man Gets Indian Makeover"]. [[BBC News]]. June 24, 2004</ref> Marvel created this Indian version in collaboration with the [[Gotham Entertainment Group]], with Debdatta Das as a co-creator.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-05-26 |title='We had Spider-Man celebrate Diwali, swing from Gateway of India' |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/art-culture/sharad-devarajan-co-creating-the-indian-spider-man-and-building-a-comic-book-empire-to-inspire-the-world-101685113274045.html |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

==Fictional character biography==
Pavitr Prabhakar, an Indian boy from a remote village, moves to [[Mumbai]] with the encouragement of his aunt Maya and Uncle Bhim after receiving a partial scholarship to attend Heritage International School, a prestigious academy. At school, he is frequently bullied for his rural background. His uncle urges him to endure the challenges and stay in school, believing in his potential. A popular girl, Meera Jain, befriends him after they bond over their shared experience of moving to the city from a small village.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Meanwhile, a local [[Boss (crime)|crime lord]] named Nalin Oberoi uses an amulet to perform an ancient ritual, becoming possessed by a [[demon]] intent on opening a gate for other demons to invade Earth. While being chased by bullies, Pavitr encounters an ancient [[yogi]] who grants him the powers of a [[spider]] to combat the evil threatening the world. Pavitr dons the iconic Spider-Man costume and tests his new abilities, such as creating webs and clinging to walls. While exploring his powers, Pavitr witnesses a woman being attacked but dismisses it, thinking the police will intervene. Unbeknownst to him, his uncle attempts to help the woman and is fatally injured. Hearing his uncle's cry, Pavitr rushes to the scene, but it's too late. Overcome with grief, he confronts the attackers, nearly killing them before regaining control. He then realises that with great power comes great responsibility, and vows to use his abilities to protect others.<ref name="India" />

Nalin Oberoi briefly reverts to human form and transforms a mild-mannered [[Physician|doctor]] into a demon with four magical tentacles (the Indian version of [[Doctor Octopus]]), sending him to kill Spider-Man as instructed by the demon voices. "Doc Ock" fails, and Spider-Man makes his public debut as a hero. However, the newspapers label him a threat.<ref name="India"/>

Oberoi kidnaps Pavitr's aunt and takes her to a refinery outside Mumbai. There, he betrays Doctor Octopus, blasting him into the ocean. Spider-Man arrives to fight Oberoi, who has also kidnapped Meera. Oberoi drops both Maya and Meera from the top of the refinery. Spider-Man dives to save his aunt but fails to rescue Meera, who is saved by Doctor Octopus. Pavitr reveals his identity to Meera and asks her to take his aunt to safety.<ref name="India"/>

Oberoi finally eliminates Doctor Octopus and touches Spider-Man with the amulet. A [[Venom (character)|Venom]]-like creature emerges from the amulet, attempting to lure Spider-Man to the dark side. Pavitr remembers his uncle's words about responsibility and rejects the evil, shattering the link between Oberoi and the demons, turning Oberoi human again. Spider-Man throws the amulet into the ocean, and Oberoi is sent to a mental institution.<ref name="India"/>

Peace returns to Mumbai. Pavitr begins a romance with Meera and is seen celebrating [[Diwali]] with his aunt. The story concludes with a quote from the [[Bhagavad Gita]], hinting that the Venom-Demon is alive.<ref name="India"/>

===''Spider-Verse''===
During the ''[[Spider-Verse]]'' storyline, which featured Spider-Men from various alternate realities, Pavitr Prabhakar fought a mysterious new villain named [[Karn (comics)|Karn]], whom he mistook for a demon. [[The Superior Spider-Man]] ([[Doctor Octopus]]' mind in Peter Parker's body) saved him and recruited him into his army of Spiders.<ref>''The Superior Spider-Man'' #32</ref> In the second volume of ''Spider-Verse'', set during the ''[[Secret Wars (2015 comic book)|Secret Wars]]'' event, Pavitr found himself in the domain of [[Battleworld]] called Arachnia, where he teamed up with [[Spider-Gwen]], [[Spider-Ham]], [[Spider-Man Noir]], [[Spider-UK]], and [[Anya Corazon]], although none of them remembered their previous encounter during the original ''Spider-Verse''. {{Citation needed|date= June 2024}}

Following the conclusion of ''Secret Wars,'' the team of six Spiders that formed during the event was renamed and featured in a new ongoing series called ''Web Warriors'', a name coined by Peter Parker from the ''[[Ultimate Spider-Man (TV series)|Ultimate Spider-Man]]'' TV series during the original ''Spider-Verse''.<ref name="bleedingcool.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bleedingcool.com/2015/06/29/spider-gwen-stars-in-web-warriors-launched-by-mike-costa-and-david-baldeon-marveloctober/|title = Spider-Gwen Stars in Web Warriors Launched by Mike Costa and David Baldeon #MarvelOctober (UPDATE)|date = 29 June 2015}}</ref>

===''Spider-Geddon''===
During the ''[[Spider-Geddon]]'' storyline, Pavitr, along with Spider-Girl, [[Spider-Punk]], Spider-UK, and [[Master Weaver]], has been monitoring Earth-3145. They discover that the Inheritors have become malnourished since their last appearance.<ref>''Spider-Geddon'' #0. Marvel Comics.</ref>

==In other media==
===Film===
[[File:Spider-Man (Pavitr Prabhakar) Film Character.jpeg|thumb|right|upright|Pavitr Prabhakar as he appears in ''Across the Spider-Verse''.]]
* Pavitr "Pav" Prabhakar / Spider-Man India appears in ''[[Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse]]'' (2023), voiced by [[Karan Soni]]. This version is a member of [[Miguel O'Hara]]'s Spider Society and a friend of [[Spider-Punk]] and [[Gwen Stacy (Spider-Verse)|Spider-Woman]]. He lives in Mumbattan, an Indian city based on Mumbai and [[Manhattan]], and is dating [[George Stacy#Film|Inspector Singh]]'s daughter, [[Gwen Stacy#Spider-Verse|Gayatri]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Polo |first1=Susana |last2=Patches |first2=Matt |last3=McWhertor |first3=Michael |date=2022-12-13 |title=Every new Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse character, explained |url=https://www.polygon.com/23505869/spider-man-across-spiderverse-characters-cast |access-date=2022-12-13 |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |language=en-US|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20221213214905/https://www.polygon.com/23505869/spider-man-across-spiderverse-characters-cast|archive-date=2022-12-13}}</ref> His fighting style is inspired by the Indian martial art [[kalaripayattu]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Did you know Indian Spider-Man Pavitr Prabhakar's signature moves were inspired from Kalaripayattu? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/english/hollywood/news/did-you-know-indian-spider-man-pavitr-prabhakars-signature-moves-were-inspired-from-kalaripayattu/articleshow/100794323.cms |website=The Times of India |date=6 June 2023}}</ref>
** Pavitr was also voiced in [[Hindi]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] by cricketer [[Shubman Gill]].
** Pavitr Prabhakar is set to return in the upcoming sequel ''[[Spider-Man: Beyond the Spider-Verse]]'' (2027).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-09 |title=Karan Soni: Deadpool and Spider-Man have a special relationship in the comics; it will be used at some point - EXCLUSIVE |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/english/hollywood/news/karan-soni-deadpool-and-spider-man-have-such-a-special-relationship-in-the-comics-it-will-be-used-at-some-point-exclusive/articleshow/112409405.cms |access-date=2024-08-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

===Video games===
* Pavitr Prabhakar appears as an unlockable playable character in ''[[Spider-Man Unlimited (video game)|Spider-Man Unlimited]]''.
* Pavitr Prabhakar appears as an unlockable playable character in ''[[Marvel Strike Force]]''.<ref name="Strike Force">{{cite web |last1=Hashimoto |first1=Marika |title=The Spider-Society Arrives on 'MARVEL Strike Force' to Save the Multiverse |url=https://www.marvel.com/articles/games/marvel-strike-force-spider-society-spider-man-across-the-spider-verse |website=[[Marvel.com]] |access-date=May 18, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511035733/https://www.marvel.com/articles/games/marvel-strike-force-spider-society-spider-man-across-the-spider-verse |archive-date=May 11, 2024 |date=April 19, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Reception==
James Whitbrook of [[io9]] ranked Pavitr fourteenth among the greatest alternate versions of Spider-Man, stating that he "shares much in common with the general Spider-Man legacy, but he's probably the best example of a foreign Spider-Man Marvel's ever attempted." Ryan Linch of ''[[Screen Rant]]'' ranked Pavitr tenth, noting that the character "has some really clever deviations from his American counterparts, but still retains everything that makes Spider-Man great."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Whitbrook|first1=James|title=The Greatest Spider-Men of All Time, Ranked|url=https://io9.gizmodo.com/the-greatest-spider-men-of-all-time-ranked-1796693647|website=[[io9]]|date=7 July 2017 |access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=11 Best Alternate Versions of Spider-Man|url=https://screenrant.com/marvel-spider-man-civil-war-best-alternate-versions/|website=[[Screen Rant]]|access-date=4 January 2018|date=26 April 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Spider-Man characters}}

[[Category:Alternative versions of Spider-Man]]
[[Category:Comics characters introduced in 2004]]
[[Category:Fictional characters with precognition]]
[[Category:Hindu superheroes]]
[[Category:Indian superheroes]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics characters with spider powers]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics male superheroes]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics mutates]]
[[Category:Spider-Man characters]]

Caribbean

2026-03-27T02:03:27Z

Brandon81T: quick corrected formatting per sources and updated info per standard format

{{Short description|Islands and coastal region surrounded by the Caribbean Sea}}
{{About|the group of islands|the body of water surrounding them|Caribbean Sea|the Indigenous inhabitants of the Caribbean or people of Caribbean descent|Caribbean people|other uses}}
{{Infobox continent
|title = Caribbean
|image = Central America and the Caribbean Shaded Relief Map.png
|image_size = 290
|image_caption = Map of the Caribbean region of the [[Americas]]
|area = {{convert|239,681|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
|population = {{UN_Population|Caribbean}}{{UN_Population|ref}}
|density = {{convert|151.5|/km2|abbr=on}}
|GDP_nominal =
|GDP_per_capita =
|ethnic_groups = [[Afro-Caribbean]] [[Indo-Caribbean]] [[White Caribbean people|White-Caribbean]] [[Multiracial#Caribbean|Mixed-Caribbean]] [[Asian Caribbean people|Asian-Caribbean]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean|Indigenous Caribbean]]
|religions = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;
|{{Tree list}}
* 73.5% [[Christianity]]
** 52.3% [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
** 20.2% [[Protestantism]]
** 1.0% other [[Christians|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
|20.6% [[Irreligion|no religion]]
|2.5% [[folk religion]]s
|2.1% [[Hinduism]]
|1.3% others<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/jrd/9/1-2/article-p91_2.xml|title=Religions by Continent|journal=Journal of Religion and Demography|last1=Johnson|first1=Todd M.|last2=Crossing|first2=Peter F.|volume=9|date=14 October 2022|issue=1–2|pages=91–110|doi=10.1163/2589742x-bja10013|url-access=subscription}}</ref>}}
|demonym = [[Caribbean people|Caribbean]], [[West Indian]]
|countries = {{Collapsible list
| title = [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the West Indies#Sovereign states|16]]
| {{Flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
| {{Flag|Bahamas}}
| {{Flag|Barbados}}
| {{Flag|Belize}}
| {{Flag|Cuba}}
| {{Flag|Dominica}}
| {{Flag|Dominican Republic}}
| {{Flag|Grenada}}
| {{Flag|Guyana}}
| {{Flag|Haiti}}
| {{Flag|Jamaica}}
| {{Flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
| {{Flag|Saint Lucia}}
| {{Flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
| {{Flag|Suriname}}
| {{Flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
}}
|dependencies = [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Caribbean#Dependent territories|List]]
|languages = {{Plainlist|
* [[Caribbean English|English]]
* [[Caribbean Spanish|Spanish]]
* [[French language|French]]
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
* [[French-based creole languages|French Creoles]]
* [[English-based creole languages|English Creoles]]
* [[Dutch-based creole languages|Dutch Creoles]]
* [[Spanish-based creole languages|Spanish Creoles]]
* [[Papiamento]]
* [[Caribbean Hindustani]]
* [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Indigenous languages]]}}
|time = [[UTC−05:00]] to [[UTC−04:00]]
|internet = [[List of Internet top-level domains|Multiple]]
|calling_code = [[List of country calling codes|Multiple]]
|cities = {{Collapsible list | title = [[List of metropolitan areas in the West Indies|Largest Cities]] |[[Santo Domingo]]|[[Port-au-Prince]]|[[Port of Spain]]|[[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]]|[[Havana]]|[[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]]|[[Santiago de los Caballeros]]|[[Santiago de Cuba]]|[[Willemstad]]|[[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]|[[Punta Cana]]|[[Cap-Haïtien]]|[[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]]|[[Paramaribo]]|[[Chetumal]]|[[Spanish Town]]|[[Porlamar]]|[[Cayenne]]|[[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]]|[[Bridgetown]]|[[San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago|San Fernando]]|[[Belize City]]}}
|m49 = <code>029</code> – Caribbean <code>419</code> <code>003</code> – [[North America]] [[Latin America and the Caribbean]] <code>019</code> – [[Americas]] <code>001</code> – [[World]]
}}

The '''Caribbean'''{{efn|Pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ær|ɪ|ˈ|b|iː|ən|,_|k|ə|ˈ|r|ɪ|b|i|ən}} {{respell|KARR|ih|BEE|ən|,_|kə|RIB|ee|ən}}, {{IPAc-en|local|ˈ|k|ær|ɪ|b|i|æ|n}} {{respell|KARR|ih|bee|an}};<ref name=dce/> {{langx|es|el Caribe}}; {{langx|fr|les Caraïbes}}; {{langx|nl|de Caraïben}}.}} is a region in the middle of the [[Americas]] centered around the [[Caribbean Sea]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]], mostly overlapping with the [[West Indies]]. Bordered by [[North America]] to the north and also the west through [[Central America]], and [[South America]] to the south, it comprises numerous [[List of Caribbean islands|islands]], cays, islets, reefs, and banks.

It includes the [[Lucayan Archipelago]], [[Greater Antilles]], and [[Lesser Antilles]] of the [[West Indies]]; the [[Quintana Roo]] [[Municipalities of Quintana Roo#Municipalities|islands]] and [[Districts of Belize#List|Belizean]] [[List of islands of Belize|islands]] of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]; and the [[Bay Islands Department#Islands|Bay Islands]], [[Miskito Cays]], [[Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina|Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina]], [[Corn Islands]], and [[San Blas Islands]] of Central America. It also includes the coastal areas on the [[Mainland|continental mainland]] of the Americas bordering the region from the Yucatán Peninsula in North America through Central America to the [[The Guianas|Guianas]] in South America.<ref>{{Cite book|pages= 483–528|title= A Population History of North America|publisher = Cambridge University Press|date= 2000|isbn =978-0-521-49666-7|last=Engerman|first=Stanley L.|editor-last=Haines|editor-first=Michael R.|chapter=A Population History of the Caribbean|oclc=41118518|editor-last2=Steckel|editor-first2=Richard Hall}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Understanding the contemporary Caribbean|last=|first=|publisher=Lynne Rienner|year=2003|isbn=978-1588266637|editor-last=Hillman|editor-first=Richard S.|location=London, UK|pages=|oclc=300280211|editor-last2=D'Agostino|editor-first2=Thomas J.}}</ref>

{{CSS image crop
|Image = Atlantic continents at night by VIIRS.jpg
|bSize = 690
|cWidth = 250
|cHeight = 240
|oTop = 440
|oLeft = 0
|Location =
|Description = Caribbean as seen from [[Outer space|space]] at night, 2012
|Align=Left}}

== Overview ==
[[File:West Indies - Island Groups.svg|thumb|250px|Island groups comprising the [[West Indies]] in the Caribbean|left]]Situated largely on the [[Caribbean plate]], the region has thousands of islands, [[islet]]s, [[reef]]s, and [[cay]]s.<ref name="brief">{{cite book
| first=Jan
| last=Rogoziński
| year=1999
| title=A Brief History of the Caribbean
| edition=Revised
| publisher=Facts on File, Inc.
| location=New York
| pages=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofca00rogo_0/page/3 3–4]
| isbn=0-8160-3811-2
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofca00rogo_0/page/3|via=Internet Archive|access-date=15 July 2024}}</ref> [[Island arc]]s delineate the northern and eastern edges of the [[Caribbean Sea]]:<ref name="brief" /> the [[Greater Antilles]] in the north and the [[Lesser Antilles]], which includes the [[Leeward Islands]], [[Windward Islands]], and the [[Leeward Antilles]], to the east and south. The nearby northwestern [[Lucayan Archipelago]], comprising [[The Bahamas]] and the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], and the island of [[Barbados]] in the Lesser Antilles, are considered to be a part of the Caribbean despite not bordering the Caribbean Sea. All the islands in the [[Antilles]], including the Lucayan Archipelago, form the [[West Indies]], a term often interchangeable with the ''Caribbean''. The [[Bermuda|archipelago of Bermuda]] is not part of the Caribbean, as it lies in the [[Sargasso Sea]] to the north, but it is an associate member of the [[Caribbean Community]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Bermuda Government after General Election of October 1 2020 |url=http://bermuda-online.org/bdagovt.htm |access-date=2024-10-17 |website=bermuda-online.org}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Jacobs |first=Stevenson |date=2003-07-03 |title=Premier signs Caricom deal |url=https://www.royalgazette.com/article/20030703/NEWS/307039988 |access-date=2024-10-17 |website=royalgazette.com}}</ref>

[[File:Map of the Territorial Waters in the Caribbean.png|thumb|250px|[[Exclusive economic zone]]s (EEZ) in the Caribbean, with [[Exclusive economic zone#United States|American]] zones in blue, [[Exclusive economic zone#United Kingdom|British]] in pink, [[Exclusive economic zone#France|French]] in purple, [[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Dutch]] in orange, and [[Exclusive economic zone#Ecuador|Ecuadorian]] in green|left]]

On the continental [[mainland]] of the [[Americas]], the Caribbean coasts of [[Mexico]], Central America, and South America, including the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] of Mexico, [[Bay Islands Department]] of [[Honduras]], the [[Mosquito Coast|Mosquitia]] region, [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]] and [[Barranquilla]] in [[Colombia]], [[Maracaibo]] and [[Cumaná]] in [[Venezuela]], are considered part of the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Higman|first1=B. W.|title=A Concise History of the Caribbean|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521043489|page=xi}}</ref> As with the coastal areas of the mainland, [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], and [[French Guiana]], even if they do not border the Caribbean Sea, are often completely included within the Caribbean due to their strong [[political geography|political]] and [[cultural geography|cultural]] ties with the region.

Geopolitically, the [[list of Caribbean islands|islands of the Caribbean]] are often regarded as a subregion of [[North America]], though sometimes they are included in [[Middle America (Americas)|Middle America]], or regarded as its own subregion as the ''Caribbean''.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418612/North-America "North America"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503170221/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418612/North-America |date=3 May 2015}}. ''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''; "associated with the continent is Greenland, the largest island in the world, and such offshore groups as the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Queen Charlotte Islands, and the Aleutian Islands", but also "North America is bounded ... on the south by the Caribbean Sea", and "according to some authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the narrows of [[Tehuantepec]]".</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070612212614/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html ''The World: Geographic Overview''], The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency; "North America is commonly understood to include the island of Greenland, the isles of the Caribbean, and to extend south all the way to the Isthmus of Panama"</ref> The Caribbean is sometimes considered alongside Central America as a region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-09 |title=UNESCO LAC {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/portals-and-platforms/goap/key-organizations/latin-america-and-the-caribbean/unesco-lac/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409031034/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/portals-and-platforms/goap/key-organizations/latin-america-and-the-caribbean/unesco-lac/ |archive-date=2022-04-09 |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=UNESCO}}</ref>
[[File:ECHO Caribbean Basemap A3 Landscape v2.png|thumb|250x250px|Political map of Caribbean]]
Generally, the Caribbean region is organized into 33 [[polity|political entities]], including 13 [[sovereign state]]s, 12 [[dependent territory|dependencies]], 7 [[Territory#Overseas territory|overseas territories]], and various [[Territorial dispute|disputed territories]]. From 15 December 1954 to 10 October 2010, there was a territory known as the [[Netherlands Antilles]] composed of five islands, all of which were [[Kingdom of the Netherlands|Dutch]] dependencies.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2010/04/29/the-joy-of-six The Netherlands Antilles: The joy of six], ''The Economist'', 29 April 2010</ref> From 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962, there was also a short-lived political union called the British [[West Indies Federation]] composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies.

The modern Caribbean is one of the most ethnically diverse regions on the planet, as a result of [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]] by the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish]], [[British colonization of the Americas|English]], [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch]], and [[French colonization of the Americas|French]]; the [[Atlantic slave trade]] from [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]; [[indentured servitude]] from the [[Indian subcontinent]] and East Asia; as well as modern immigration from around the world.

==Etymology and pronunciation==
The region takes its name from the [[Kalinago|Caribs]], an Amerindian ethnic group historically present in the [[Lesser Antilles]] and parts of adjacent South America that the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonists]] named the region after at the time of the [[European colonization of the Americas|European conquest of the Americas]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9020323/Carib |title=Carib |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=20 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430031852/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/95780/Carib |archive-date=30 April 2008 |quote=inhabited the Lesser Antilles and parts of the neighbouring South American coast at the time of the Spanish conquest. |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Barzey |first=Ursula Petula |date=2023-07-11 |title=10 Facts About The Caribbean Region You May Not Know |url=https://www.caribbeanandco.com/facts-about-the-caribbean-region/ |access-date=2025-10-17 |website=Caribbean & Co. |language=en-US}}</ref>

The two most prevalent pronunciations of "Caribbean" outside the Caribbean are {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ær|ɪ|ˈ|b|iː|ə|n}} ({{respell|KARR|ə|BEE|ən}}), with the primary [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] on the third [[syllable]], and {{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|r|ɪ|b|i|ə|n}} ({{respell|kə|RIB|ee|ən}}), with the stress on the second. Most authorities of the last century preferred the stress on the third syllable.<ref>Elster, Charles Harrington. "Caribbean", from [https://books.google.com/books?id=YtojrMr0Ft4C&dq=caribbean+pronunciation&pg=PA78 ''The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317023751/https://books.google.com/books?id=YtojrMr0Ft4C&dq=caribbean+pronunciation&pg=PA78 |date=17 March 2023}}. p.78. (2d ed. 2005)</ref> This is the older of the two pronunciations, but the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years.<ref>In the early 20th century, only the pronunciation with the primary stress on the third syllable was considered correct, according to [[Frank Horace Vizetelly]], ''A Desk-Book of Twenty-five Thousand Words Frequently Mispronounced'' (Funk and Wagnalls, 1917), p. 233.</ref>{{when?|date=June 2025}} It has been suggested that speakers of [[British English]] prefer {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ær|ɪ|ˈ|b|iː|ə|n}} ({{respell|KARR|ə|BEE|ən}}) while [[North American English|North American speakers]] more typically use {{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|r|ɪ|b|i|ə|n}} ({{respell|kə|RIB|ee|ən}}),<ref>{{cite book |last1= Ladefoged |first1= Peter |last2= Johnson |first2=Keith |title= A Course in Phonetics |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FjLc1XtqJUUC&pg=PA86|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-4282-3126-9|pages=86–}}</ref> but major American dictionaries and other sources list the stress on the third syllable as more common in [[American English]] too.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infoplease.com/dictionary/caribbean|title=Caribbean: Meaning and Definition of | Infoplease|website=www.infoplease.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Caribbean|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Caribbean|first=HarperCollins|last=Publishers|website=www.ahdictionary.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Caribbean|title=Definition of CARIBBEAN|website=www.merriam-webster.com}}</ref><ref>See, e.g., Elster, ''supra''.</ref> According to the American version of Oxford Online Dictionaries, the stress on the second syllable is becoming more common in UK English and is increasingly considered "by some" to be more up to date and more "correct".<ref name=oed>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160926223357/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Caribbean Oxford Online Dictionaries]</ref>

The Oxford Online Dictionaries claim the stress on the second syllable is the most common pronunciation in the Caribbean itself, but according to the ''[[Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage]]'', the most common pronunciation in [[Caribbean English]] stresses the first syllable instead, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ær|ɪ|b|i|æ|n}} ({{respell|KARR|ih|bee|an}}).<ref name=dce>{{cite book|last1=Allsopp|first1=Richard |last2=Allsopp|first2=Jeannette |title=Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmvSk13sIc0C&q=%22analogy+of+European%22|year=2003|publisher=University of the West Indies Press|isbn=978-976-640-145-0|page=136–}}</ref><ref name=oed/>
{{Clear}}

==Definition==
[[File:Caribbean general map.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the Caribbean]]
The word ''Caribbean'' has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can [[Greater Caribbean|also be expanded]] to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to Africa, [[slavery]], [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonisation]] and the [[plantation system]].
* The [[United Nations geoscheme for the Americas]] presents the Caribbean as a distinct region within the [[Americas]].
* Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea. To the north, the region is bordered by the [[Gulf of Mexico]], the [[Straits of Florida]] and the Northern [[Atlantic Ocean]], which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the [[continent]] of [[South America]].
{{Clear}}

==History==
{{main|History of the Caribbean}}

[[File:Languages of the Caribbean.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Pre-Columbian languages of the West Indies. [[Ciboney Taíno]], [[Classic Taíno]], and [[Iñeri language|Iñeri]] were Arawakan, [[Karina language|Karina]] and [[Yao language (Trinidad)|Yao]] were Cariban. [[Macorix language|Macorix]], [[Ciguayo language|Ciguayo]] and [[Guanahatabey language|Guanahatabey]] are unclassified.]]
The oldest evidence of humans in the Caribbean is in southern [[Trinidad]] at [[Banwari Trace]], where remains have been found from 7,000 years ago. These pre-ceramic sites, which belong to the Archaic (pre-ceramic) age, have been termed [[Ortoiroid]]. The earliest archaeological evidence of human settlement in [[Hispaniola]] dates to about 3600 BC, but the reliability of these finds is questioned. Consistent dates of 3100 BC appear in [[Cuba]]. The earliest dates in the [[Lesser Antilles]] are from 2000 BC in [[Antigua]]. A lack of pre-ceramic sites in the [[Windward Islands]] and differences in technology suggest that these Archaic settlers may have Central American origins. Whether an Ortoiroid colonization of the islands took place is uncertain, but there is little evidence of one.

[[DNA]] studies changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. According to ''[[National Geographic]]'', "studies confirm that a wave of pottery-making farmers—known as Ceramic Age people—set out in canoes from the northeastern coast of South America starting some 2,500 years ago and island-hopped across the Caribbean. They were not, however, the first colonizers. On many islands they encountered a foraging people who arrived some 6,000 or 7,000 years ago ... The ceramicists, who are related to today's [[Arawak language|Arawak]]-speaking peoples, supplanted the earlier foraging inhabitants—presumably through disease or violence—as they settled new islands."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lawler |first1=Andrew |title=Invaders nearly wiped out Caribbean's first people long before Spanish came, DNA reveals |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/12/invaders-nearly-wiped-out-caribbeans-first-people-long-before-spanish-came-dna-reveals/ |work=National Geographic |date=23 December 2020 |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=30 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130021113/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/12/invaders-nearly-wiped-out-caribbeans-first-people-long-before-spanish-came-dna-reveals/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Between 400 BC and 200 BC, the first ceramic-using agriculturalists, the [[Saladoid culture]], entered Trinidad from South America. They expanded up the Orinoco River to Trinidad, and then spread rapidly up the islands of the Caribbean. Some time after 250 AD another group, the Barancoid, entered Trinidad. The Barancoid society collapsed along the Orinoco around 650 AD and another group, the Arauquinoid, expanded into these areas and up the Caribbean chain. Around 1300 AD a new group, the Mayoid, entered Trinidad and remained the dominant culture until Spanish settlement.

At the time of the European discovery of most of the islands of the Caribbean, three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the [[Taíno]] in the [[Greater Antilles]], [[The Bahamas]] and the [[Leeward Islands]]; the [[Kalinago|Island Caribs]] and [[Galibi]] in the Windward Islands; and the [[Ciboney]] in western Cuba. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied [[Puerto Rico]] and part of Hispaniola; Western Taínos, who occupied the Bahamian archipelago, Cuba, [[Jamaica]], and part of Hispaniola; and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the northern [[Lesser Antilles]]. The southern Lesser Antilles, including [[Martinique]] and [[Trinidad]], were inhabited by both [[Kalinago language|Carib-speaking]] and Arawak-speaking groups.

=== European contact ===
{{see also|Slavery in the British and French Caribbean|Encomienda#Deaths, disease, and accusations of ethnocide or genocide}}
Soon after [[Christopher Columbus]] came to the Caribbean including Hispaniola and Martinica, both Portuguese and Spanish explorers began claiming territories in Central and South America. These early colonies brought gold to Europe; most specifically England, the Netherlands, and France. These nations hoped to establish profitable colonies in the Caribbean. Colonial rivalries made the Caribbean a cockpit for European wars for centuries.

Columbus, and the early colonists of Hispaniola, treated the indigenous peoples brutally, even enslaving children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beazley |first1=C. Raymond |last2=Olson |first2=Julius E. |last3=Bourne |first3=Edward Gaylord |date=April 1907 |title=The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, 985-1503 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1832434 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=654 |doi=10.2307/1832434 |jstor=1832434 |issn=0002-8762|hdl=2027/loc.ark:/13960/t7mp5d39r |hdl-access=free|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 1512, after pressure from Dominican friars, the [[Laws of Burgos]] were introduced by the Spanish Crown to better protect the rights of the New World natives. The Spanish used a form of slavery called the ''[[Encomienda]]'', where slaves would be awarded to the conquistadors, who were charged with protecting and converting their slaves. This had a devastating impact on the population,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Livi-Bacci |first=Massimo |date=June 2006 |title=The Depopulation of Hispanic America after the Conquest |journal=Population and Development Review |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=199–232 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2006.00116.x |issn=0098-7921 |doi-access=free}}</ref> so starting in 1503, slaves from Africa were imported to the colony. [[Jamaica]] was ceded to [[England]] by [[Spain]] while both [[Martinique|Martinica]] and the western third of [[Hispaniola]] were ceded to [[France]].

While early slave traders were Portuguese and Spanish, known as the First Atlantic System, by the 17th century the trade became dominated by British, French, and Dutch merchants. This was known as the Second Atlantic System. 5 million African slaves would be taken to the Caribbean, and around half would be traded to the British Caribbean islands. Slavery was abolished first in the Dutch Empire in 1814. Spain abolished slavery in its empire in 1811, with the exceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo. Slavery was not abolished in Cuba until 1886.<ref>{{Cite web |title=End of Slavery in Cuba |url=http://www.historyofcuba.com/history/race/EndSlave.htm |access-date=19 December 2022 |website=historyofcuba.com |archive-date=19 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219185222/http://www.historyofcuba.com/history/race/EndSlave.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> Britain [[Slave Trade Act 1807|abolished the slave trade in 1807]], and [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|slavery proper in 1833]]. France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.[[File:The Battle of the Saints, 12 April 1782 RMG BHC0444.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of the Saintes]] between British and French fleets in 1782, by [[Nicholas Pocock]]]]

The Caribbean was known for [[piracy in the Caribbean|pirates]], especially between 1640 and 1680. The term "[[buccaneer]]" is often used to describe a pirate operating in this region. The Caribbean region was war-torn throughout much of its colonial history, but the wars were often based in Europe, with only minor battles fought in the Caribbean. Some wars, however, were born of political turmoil in the Caribbean itself.

In 1791, [[Haitian Revolution|a slave rebellion]] in the French colony of Saint-Domingue led to the establishment in 1804 of [[Haiti]], the first republic in the Caribbean. Neighboring Santo Domingo (now [[Dominican Republic]]) would attain its independence on three separate occasions in 1821, 1844 and 1865. Cuba became independent in 1898 following American intervention in the [[Cuban War of Independence|War of Independence]] during the [[Spanish–American War|Spanish-American war]]. Following the war, Spain's last colony in the Americas, [[Puerto Rico]], became an unincorporated territory of the United States.

==== Decolonisation and modern period ====
Between the 1960s and '80s, most of the British holdings in the Caribbean achieved political independence, starting with [[Jamaica Independence Act 1962|Jamaica in 1962]], then [[Trinidad and Tobago Independence Act 1962|Trinidad and Tobago]] (1962), [[Guyana]] (1966), [[Barbados Independence Act 1966|Barbados]] (1966), [[The Bahamas]] (1973), [[Grenada]] (1974), [[Dominica]] (1978), [[Saint Lucia|St. Lucia]] (1979), [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|St. Vincent and the Grenadines]] (1979), [[Belize]] (1981) [[Antigua and Barbuda]] (1981), and [[Saint Kitts and Nevis|St. Kitts and Nevis]] (1983). In case of the Netherlands, the Netherlands Antilles received autonomy status within the Kingdom in 1954, with Aruba receiving its own in 1986 and Curaçao and St. Maarten in 2010. Presently, the United States, Britain, France and the Netherlands still have some [[History of the Caribbean#Islands currently under colonial administration|Caribbean possessions]].

The decline of the export industries meant a need to diversify the economies of the Caribbean territories. [[Tourism in the Caribbean|The tourism industry]] started developing in the early 20th century, rapidly developing in the 1960s when regular international flights made vacations affordable and is now a $50 billion industry. Another industry that developed in the early 20th century was [[Offshore bank|offshore banking and financial services]], particularly in The Bahamas and the [[Cayman Islands]], as the proximity of the Caribbean islands to North America made them an attractive location for branches of foreign banks seeking to avail themselves of less complicated regulations and lower tax rates.

===US interventions===
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2024}}
{{see also|Foreign interventions by the United States|American imperialism}}
The [[United States]] has conducted military operations in the Caribbean for at least 100 years.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dosal|first=Paul|title=THE CARIBBEAN WAR. The United States in the Caribbean, 1898–1998|url=http://www.cercles.com/n5/dosal.pdf|publisher=University of South Florida|access-date=22 June 2023|archive-date=7 August 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040807185729/http://www.cercles.com/n5/dosal.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The U.S. [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base|occupies]] the [[Guantanamo Bay]] area of [[Cuba]] as well.

Since the [[Monroe Doctrine]], the United States gained a major influence on most Caribbean nations. In the early part of the 20th century this influence was extended by participation in the [[Banana Wars]]. Victory in the Spanish–American War and the signing of the [[Platt Amendment]] in 1901 ensured that the United States would have the right to interfere in Cuban political and economic affairs, militarily if necessary. After the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959, relations deteriorated rapidly leading to the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], and successive US attempts to destabilize the island, based upon [[Cold War]] fears of the [[Soviet]] threat. The US invaded and occupied Hispaniola for 19 years (1915–34), subsequently dominating the Haitian economy through aid and loan repayments. The US invaded Haiti again [[Operation Uphold Democracy|in 1994]]. After the [[2004 Haitian coup d'état]], the US were accused by [[CARICOM]] of arranging it to remove elected Haitian leader Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In 1965, 23,000 US troops were sent to the Dominican Republic to quash a local uprising against military rule (see [[Dominican Civil War]]). President Lyndon Johnson had ordered the invasion to stem what he deemed to be a "Communist threat". However, the mission appeared ambiguous and was roundly condemned throughout the hemisphere as a return to [[gunboat diplomacy]]. In 1983, the US [[United States invasion of Grenada|invaded Grenada]] to remove populist left-wing leader Maurice Bishop. The US maintains a naval military base in Cuba at [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base|Guantanamo Bay]]. The base is one of five unified commands whose "area of responsibility" is [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America|South]] Americas and the Caribbean. The command is headquartered in Miami, Florida.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Attack near Playa Giron. April 19, 1961. - panoramio.jpg|Counter-attack by [[Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces]] supported by [[T-34]] tanks near Playa Giron during the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], 19 April 1961.
File:DR1965-5 (8161964889).jpg|A [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] heavy machine gunner monitors a position along the international neutral corridor in Santo Domingo, 1965.
File:BTR-60PB Urgent Fury.jpg|A Soviet-made [[BTR-60]] armored personnel carrier seized by US forces during [[Operation Urgent Fury]] (1983)
File:US Army helicopters on forward flight deck of USS Eisenhower (CVN-69) off Haiti in 1994.JPEG|US Army [[Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk]], [[Bell AH-1 Cobra]] and [[Bell OH-58 Kiowa]] helicopters on deck of the US Navy aircraft carrier {{USS|Dwight D. Eisenhower}} off Haiti, 1994.
</gallery>

==Geography==
[[File:Tectonic plates Caribbean.png|thumb|right|{{legend|#FAD4AF|The [[Caribbean plate]] is the reason islands exist here. On the north, [[obduction]] has scraped rocks onto the [[North American plate]] (such as [[Geology of Cuba|in western Cuba]]). On the east, the [[Lesser Antilles subduction zone]] produces [[volcanism]] and an [[island arc]]. Complex interactions with the [[South American plate]] has created islands along the southern boundary. [[Coral island]]s are found in [[Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina|insular Colombia]] near the east coast of Central America.}}]]
The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include [[Aruba]] (which has minor volcanic features), [[Curaçao]], [[Barbados]], [[Bonaire]], the [[Cayman Islands]], [[Saint Croix]], [[The Bahamas]], and [[Antigua]]. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of [[Saint Martin (island)|Saint Martin]], [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Jamaica]], [[Dominica]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saba (island)|Saba]], [[Sint Eustatius]], [[Saint Kitts]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands|Saint Thomas]], [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|Saint John]], [[Tortola]], [[Grenada]], [[Saint Vincent (Antilles)|Saint Vincent]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Martinique]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]].

Definitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. As part of the [[Puerto Rico Bank]] and the [[Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands microplate]], the Virgin Islands are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.

[[File:Caribbean Sea Gulf of Mexico shaded relief bathymetry land map 2.png|left|thumb|270x270px|[[Topography]] and [[bathymetry]] in the Caribbean with a 100 [[Metre|m]] (328 ft) depth contour, delimiting [[Continental shelf|shallow]] [[Seabed#Topography|underwater landforms]], including the [[Bahama Banks|Bahamas]], [[Puerto Rico Bank|Puerto Rico]], and [[Rosalind Bank|Rosalind]] [[Ocean bank|banks]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Caribbean Bathymetry 200m GEBCO contour 2020 |url=https://caribbeanscienceatlas.tnc.org/datasets/TNC::caribbean-bathymetry-200m-gebco-contour-2020/explore?location=15.738900,-65.885664,5.68 |access-date=2025-01-17 |website=caribbeanscienceatlas.tnc.org |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=GEBCO Gazetteer |url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/gazetteer/view/home |access-date=2025-01-17 |website=ngdc.noaa.gov |language=en}}</ref>]]

The waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and [[coral reef]] formations. The [[Puerto Rico Trench]], located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html| title=Puerto Rico Trench 2003: Cruise Summary Results| author=ten Brink, Uri| publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration| access-date=21 February 2008| archive-date=24 July 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724090028/http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html| url-status=live}}</ref>

The region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the [[Panama Canal]] connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.

===Climate===
[[File:Johny Cay.jpg|thumb|left|Tropical monsoon climate in [[San Andrés (island)|San Andrés island]], Caribbean, [[Colombia]].]]
[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_v2_Caribbean_1991–2020.svg|thumb|left|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate]] map of the islands of the Caribbean.]]
The climate of the area is [[tropical]], varying from [[tropical rainforest climate|tropical rainforest]] in some areas to [[tropical monsoon climate|tropical monsoon]] and [[tropical savanna climate|tropical savanna]] in others. There are also some locations that are [[arid]] climates with considerable drought in some years, and the peaks of mountains tend to have cooler [[temperate climate]]s.

Rainfall varies with elevation, size and water currents, such as the cool upwellings that keep the [[ABC islands (Lesser Antilles)|ABC islands]] arid. Warm, moist [[trade winds]] blow consistently from the east, creating both rain forest and semi arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from [[Costa Rica]] north to [[Belize]], as well as the [[Dominican Republic]] and [[Puerto Rico]], while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in [[Cuba]], northern [[Colombia]] and [[Venezuela]], and southern [[Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán, Mexico]]. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including [[Aruba]] and [[Curaçao]], as well as the northwestern tip of Yucatán.

While the region generally is sunny much of the year, the wet season from May through November sees more frequent cloud cover (both broken and overcast), while the dry season from December through April is more often clear to mostly sunny. Seasonal rainfall is divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the latter six months of the year being wetter than the first half. The air temperature is hot much of the year, varying from 25 to 33 C (77 F to 90 F) between the wet and dry seasons. Seasonally, monthly mean temperatures vary from only about 5 C (7 F) in the northern most regions, to less than 3 C in the southernmost areas of the Caribbean.

Hurricane season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean. [[Hurricanes]] that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of [[Grenada]] and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean. A great example being recent events of [[Hurricane Irma]] devastating the island of Saint Martin during the 2017 hurricane season.

Sea surface temperatures change little annually, normally running from 30 °C (87 °F) in the warmest months to 26 °C (76 °F) in the coolest months. The air temperature is warm year round, in the 70s, 80s and 90s, and only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about a 10–20 degrees difference on the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like The Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.

'''Aruba: Latitude 12°N'''
{{Weather box
| location = Oranjestad, Aruba (1981–2010, extremes 1951–2010)
| metric first=Yes
| single line = yes
| collapsed = yes
|Jan record high C = 32.5
|Feb record high C = 33.0
|Mar record high C = 33.9
|Apr record high C = 34.4
|May record high C = 34.9
|Jun record high C = 35.2
|Jul record high C = 35.3
|Aug record high C = 36.1
|Sep record high C = 36.5
|Oct record high C = 35.4
|Nov record high C = 35.0
|Dec record high C = 34.8
|year record high C =
|Jan high C = 30.0
|Feb high C = 30.4
|Mar high C = 30.9
|Apr high C = 31.5
|May high C = 32.0
|Jun high C = 32.2
|Jul high C = 32.0
|Aug high C = 32.6
|Sep high C = 32.7
|Oct high C = 32.1
|Nov high C = 31.3
|Dec high C = 30.4
|year high C = 31.5
|Jan mean C = 26.7
|Feb mean C = 26.8
|Mar mean C = 27.2
|Apr mean C = 27.9
|May mean C = 28.5
|Jun mean C = 28.7
|Jul mean C = 28.6
|Aug mean C = 29.1
|Sep mean C = 29.2
|Oct mean C = 28.7
|Nov mean C = 28.1
|Dec mean C = 27.2
|year mean C = 28.1
|Jan low C = 24.5
|Feb low C = 24.7
|Mar low C = 25.0
|Apr low C = 25.8
|May low C = 26.5
|Jun low C = 26.7
|Jul low C = 26.4
|Aug low C = 26.8
|Sep low C = 26.9
|Oct low C = 26.4
|Nov low C = 25.8
|Dec low C = 25.0
|year low C = 25.9
|Jan record low C = 21.3
|Feb record low C = 20.6
|Mar record low C = 21.4
|Apr record low C = 21.5
|May record low C = 21.8
|Jun record low C = 22.7
|Jul record low C = 21.2
|Aug record low C = 21.3
|Sep record low C = 22.1
|Oct record low C = 21.9
|Nov record low C = 22.0
|Dec record low C = 20.5
|year record low C =
|Jan precipitation mm = 39.3
|Feb precipitation mm = 20.6
|Mar precipitation mm = 8.7
|Apr precipitation mm = 11.6
|May precipitation mm = 16.3
|Jun precipitation mm = 18.7
|Jul precipitation mm = 31.7
|Aug precipitation mm = 25.8
|Sep precipitation mm = 45.5
|Oct precipitation mm = 77.8
|Nov precipitation mm = 94.0
|Dec precipitation mm = 81.8
|source 1 = DEPARTAMENTO METEOROLOGICO ARUBA,<ref name=climate>{{cite web
|url= http://www.meteo.aw/files/Download/climatnormals19812010.pdf
|publisher= Departamento Meteorologico Aruba
|title= Summary Climatological Normals 1981–2010
|access-date= 15 October 2012
|archive-date= 9 September 2020
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200909213542/http://www.meteo.aw/files/Download/climatnormals19812010.pdf
|url-status= live
}}</ref> (extremes)<ref name=extremes>{{cite web
|url= http://www.meteo.aw/climate.php
|publisher= Departamento Meteorologico Aruba
|title= Climate Data Aruba
|access-date= 15 October 2012
|archive-date= 9 December 2020
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201209090235/http://www.meteo.aw/climate.php
|url-status= live
}}</ref>
| date=February 2011
}}

'''Puerto Rico: Latitude 18°N'''
{{Weather box
|metric first=Yes
|location = San Juan, Puerto Rico
|single line = Y
|collapsed = yes
|Jan record high F = 92
|Feb record high F = 96
|Mar record high F = 96
|Apr record high F = 97
|May record high F = 96
|Jun record high F = 97
|Jul record high F = 95
|Aug record high F = 95
|Sep record high F = 97
|Oct record high F = 97
|Nov record high F = 98
|Dec record high F = 96
|year record high F= 94
|Jan high F = 83
|Feb high F = 84
|Mar high F = 85
|Apr high F = 86
|May high F = 87
|Jun high F = 89
|Jul high F = 88
|Aug high F = 88
|Sep high F = 89
|Oct high F = 88
|Nov high F = 86
|Dec high F = 84
|year high F=
|Jan low F = 72
|Feb low F = 72
|Mar low F = 73
|Apr low F = 74
|May low F = 76
|Jun low F = 78
|Jul low F = 78
|Aug low F = 78
|Sep low F = 78
|Oct low F = 77
|Nov low F = 75
|Dec low F = 73
|year low F=
|Jan record low F = 61
|Feb record low F = 62
|Mar record low F = 60
|Apr record low F = 64
|May record low F = 64
|Jun record low F = 66
|Jul record low F = 69
|Aug record low F = 68
|Sep record low F = 69
|Oct record low F = 67
|Nov record low F = 65
|Dec record low F = 62
|year record low F= 61
|Jan precipitation mm = 95
|Feb precipitation mm = 60
|Mar precipitation mm = 49
|Apr precipitation mm = 118
|May precipitation mm = 150
|Jun precipitation mm = 112
|Jul precipitation mm = 128
|Aug precipitation mm = 138
|Sep precipitation mm = 146
|Oct precipitation mm = 142
|Nov precipitation mm = 161
|Dec precipitation mm = 126
|year precipitation mm= 1431
|source 1 = The National Weather Service<ref name="weather1">{{cite web |url=http://www.weather.com/weather/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/USPR0060?from=month_bottomnav_undeclared |title=Average Weather for Mayaguez, PR – Temperature and Precipitation |publisher=Weather.com |date= |access-date=7 June 2012 |archive-date=6 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190206081045/https://weather.com/weather/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/USPR0060?from=month_bottomnav_undeclared |url-status=live}}</ref>
|date=June 2012
}}

'''Cuba: at Latitude 22°N'''
{{clear}}
{{Weather box
|location = Havana
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
|collapsed = yes
|Jan record high C = 32.5
|Feb record high C = 33.0
|Mar record high C = 35.9
|Apr record high C = 36.4
|May record high C = 36.9
|Jun record high C = 37.2
|Jul record high C = 38.0
|Aug record high C = 36.1
|Sep record high C = 37.5
|Oct record high C = 35.4
|Nov record high C = 35.0
|Dec record high C = 34.8
|year record high C =
|Jan high C = 25.8
|Feb high C = 26.1
|Mar high C = 27.6
|Apr high C = 28.6
|May high C = 29.8
|Jun high C = 30.5
|Jul high C = 31.3
|Aug high C = 31.6
|Sep high C = 31.0
|Oct high C = 29.2
|Nov high C = 27.7
|Dec high C = 26.5
|year high C = 28.8
|Jan mean C = 22.2
|Feb mean C = 22.4
|Mar mean C = 23.7
|Apr mean C = 24.8
|May mean C = 26.1
|Jun mean C = 27.0
|Jul mean C = 27.6
|Aug mean C = 27.9
|Sep mean C = 27.4
|Oct mean C = 26.1
|Nov mean C = 24.5
|Dec mean C = 23.0
|year mean C = 25.2
|Jan low C = 18.6
|Feb low C = 18.6
|Mar low C = 19.7
|Apr low C = 20.9
|May low C = 22.4
|Jun low C = 23.4
|Jul low C = 23.8
|Aug low C = 24.1
|Sep low C = 23.8
|Oct low C = 23.0
|Nov low C = 21.3
|Dec low C = 19.5
|year low C = 21.6
|Jan record low C = 5.1
|Feb record low C = 5.6
|Mar record low C = 5.4
|Apr record low C = 11.5
|May record low C = 16.8
|Jun record low C = 19.7
|Jul record low C = 18.2
|Aug record low C = 19.3
|Sep record low C = 19.1
|Oct record low C = 11.9
|Nov record low C = 10.0
|Dec record low C = 7.5
|year record low C =
|Jan rain mm = 64.4
|Feb rain mm = 68.6
|Mar rain mm = 46.2
|Apr rain mm = 53.7
|May rain mm = 98.0
|Jun rain mm = 182.3
|Jul rain mm = 105.6
|Aug rain mm = 99.6
|Sep rain mm = 144.4
|Oct rain mm = 180.5
|Nov rain mm = 88.3
|Dec rain mm = 57.6
|source 1 = [[World Meteorological Organisation]] ([[United Nations|UN]]),<ref name= WMO >{{cite web
|url=http://worldweather.wmo.int/131/c00280.htm
|title=World Weather Information Service – Havana
|access-date=26 June 2010
|publisher=Cuban Institute of Meteorology
|date=June 2011
|archive-date=9 December 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209090111/http://worldweather.wmo.int/131/c00280.htm
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Climate-Charts.com<ref name = "Relative Humidity" >{{cite web
|url = http://www.climate-charts.com/Locations/c/CU78325.php
|title = Casa Blanca, Habana, Cuba: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data
|access-date = 26 June 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110623233609/http://www.climate-charts.com/Locations/c/CU78325.php
|archive-date = 23 June 2011
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
|date=August 2010
}}
[[File:Tobacco field cuba1.jpg|thumb|A field in [[Pinar del Rio]] planted with [[Cuba]]n tobacco]]
[[File:Jayuya.jpg|thumb|[[Puerto Rico]]'s south shore, from the [[Cordillera Central (Puerto Rico)|Cordillera Central]] in [[Jayuya, Puerto Rico|Jayuya]]]]
[[File:Grand Anse Beach Grenada.jpg|thumb|right|Grand Anse beach, St. George's, [[Grenada]]]]
[[File:Guadeloupe (Le cimetière de Gourbeyre).jpg|thumb|A church cemetery perched in the mountains of [[Guadeloupe]]]]
[[File:Stkitts-view-lookingatsea.jpg|thumb|A view of [[Nevis]] island from the southeastern peninsula of [[Saint Kitts]]]]

===Island groups===
'''[[Lucayan Archipelago]]'''{{efn|The [[Lucayan Archipelago]] is excluded from some definitions of "Caribbean" and instead classified as [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]; this is primarily a geological rather than cultural or environmental distinction.}}
* {{flag|The Bahamas}}
* {{flag|Turks and Caicos Islands}} (United Kingdom)
'''[[Greater Antilles]]'''
* {{flag|Cayman Islands}} (United Kingdom)
* {{flag|Cuba}}
* {{flag|Jamaica}}
* [[Hispaniola]]
** {{flag|Haiti}}
** {{flag|Dominican Republic}}
* {{flag|Puerto Rico}} ([[commonwealth (U.S. insular area)|U.S. Commonwealth]])
** [[Spanish Virgin Islands]]
* {{flagicon|United States}} [[Navassa Island]]
'''[[Lesser Antilles]]'''
* '''[[Leeward Islands]]'''
** {{flag|United States Virgin Islands}} (U.S.)
*** [[Saint Croix]]
*** [[Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands|Saint Thomas]]
*** [[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|Saint John]]
*** [[Water Island, U.S. Virgin Islands|Water Island]]
** {{flag|British Virgin Islands}} (United Kingdom)
*** [[Tortola]]
*** [[Virgin Gorda]]
*** [[Anegada]]
*** [[Jost Van Dyke]]
** {{flag|Anguilla}} (United Kingdom)
** [[Saint Martin (island)|Saint Martin]], politically divided between
*** {{flag|Saint Martin}} (France)
*** {{flag|Sint Maarten}} ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands]])
** {{flag|Saint Barthélemy}} ([[French Antilles]], France)
** {{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
*** [[Antigua]]
*** [[Barbuda]]
*** [[Redonda]]
** {{flag|Saba}} ([[Caribbean Netherlands]], Netherlands)
** {{flag|Sint Eustatius}} ([[Caribbean Netherlands]], Netherlands)
** {{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
*** [[Saint Kitts]]
*** [[Nevis]]
** {{flag|Montserrat}} (United Kingdom)
** {{flag|Guadeloupe}} ([[French Antilles]], France) including
*** [[Les Saintes]]
*** [[Marie-Galante]]
*** [[La Désirade]]
* '''[[Windward Islands]]'''
** {{flag|Dominica}}
** {{flag|Martinique}} ([[French Antilles]], France)
** {{flag|Saint Lucia}}
** {{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
*** [[Saint Vincent (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)|Saint Vincent]]
*** [[The Grenadines]]
** {{flag|Barbados}}
** {{flag|Grenada}}
*** [[Grenada]]
*** [[Carriacou and Petite Martinique]]
** {{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
*** [[Tobago]]
*** [[Trinidad]]
* '''[[Leeward Antilles]]'''
** {{flag|Aruba}} ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands]])
** {{flag|Curaçao}} ([[Kingdom of the Netherlands]])
** {{flag|Bonaire}} ([[Caribbean Netherlands]], Netherlands)

===Historical groupings===
{{Main|History of the Caribbean}}

[[File:Spanish Caribbean Islands in the American Viceroyalties 1600.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Spanish Caribbean Islands in the American Viceroyalties 1600]]
[[File:Political Evolution of Central America and the Caribbean 1700 and on.gif|thumb|Political evolution of Central America and the Caribbean from 1700 to present]]
[[File:Political Evolution of Central America and the Caribbean 1784 na.png|thumb|right|The mostly Spanish-controlled Caribbean in the 18th century]]
[[File:Caribbean spanish names.PNG|thumb|right|The mostly Spanish-controlled Caribbean in the 16th century]]
All islands at some point were, and a few still are, [[colony|colonies]] of European nations; a few are [[Dependent territory|overseas or dependent territories]]:
* '''[[British West Indies]]/[[Anglophone Caribbean]]''' – [[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[The Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Bay Islands Department|Bay Islands]], [[Guyana]], [[Belize]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Dominica]], [[Grenada]], [[Jamaica]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saint Croix]] (briefly), [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Surinam (English colony)|Suriname]] (until 1667), [[Trinidad and Tobago]] (from 1797) and the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
* '''[[Danish West Indies]]''' – Possession of [[Denmark-Norway]] before [[Norwegian Constitution|1814]], then [[Denmark]], present-day [[United States Virgin Islands]]
* '''[[Dutch West Indies]]''' – [[Aruba]], [[Bonaire]], [[Curaçao]], [[Saba (island)|Saba]], [[Sint Eustatius]], [[Sint Maarten]], [[Suriname]], [[Bay Islands Department|Bay Islands]] (briefly), [[Saint Croix]] (briefly), [[Tobago]], and [[Virgin Islands]]
* '''[[French West Indies]]''' – [[Anguilla]] (briefly), [[Antigua and Barbuda]] (briefly), [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]] (briefly), [[Grenada]], [[Haiti]] (formerly [[Saint-Domingue]]), [[Montserrat]] (briefly), [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Sint Eustatius]] (briefly), [[Sint Maarten]], [[St. Kitts]] (briefly), [[Tobago]] (briefly), [[Saint Croix]], the current French [[Département d'outre-mer|overseas ''départements'']] of [[French Guiana]], [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]] (including [[Marie-Galante]], [[La Désirade]] and [[Les Saintes]]), the current French [[Collectivité d'outre-mer|overseas collectivities]] of [[Saint Barthélemy]] and [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint Martin]]
* '''[[Portugal|Portuguese West Indies]]''' – present-day [[Barbados]], known as ''{{lang|pt|Os Barbados}}'' in the 16th century when the Portuguese claimed the island en route to Brazil. The Portuguese left Barbados abandoned years before the British arrived.
* '''[[Spanish West Indies]]''' – [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]] (present-day [[Dominican Republic]]), [[Martinique|Martinica]] (until 1635 to France), [[Haiti]] (until 1659, lost to France), [[Puerto Rico]], [[Jamaica]] (until 1655, lost to Great Britain), the [[Cayman Islands]] (until 1670 to Great Britain) [[Trinidad]] (until 1797, lost to Great Britain) and [[Bay Islands Department|Bay Islands]] (until 1643, lost to Great Britain), coastal islands of [[Central America]] (except Belize), and some Caribbean coastal islands of [[Panama]], [[Colombia]], [[Mexico]], and [[Venezuela]].
* '''[[Swedish West Indies]]''' – present-day French [[Saint-Barthélemy]], [[Guadeloupe]] (briefly) and [[Tobago]] (briefly).
* '''[[Courland colonization of the Americas|Courlander West Indies]]''' – [[Tobago]] (until 1691)

The British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a [[West Indies Federation]] between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint [[cricket]] team that competes in [[Test cricket|Test matches]], [[One Day International]]s and [[Twenty20 International]]s. The [[West Indian cricket team]] includes the South American nation of [[Guyana]], the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.

In addition, these countries share the [[University of the West Indies]] as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in The Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.

===Continental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands===
{{Colbegin}}
* '''{{BLZ}}'''
** [[Ambergris Caye]]
** [[Caye Caulker]]
** [[Glover's Reef]]
** [[Hick's Cayes]]
** [[Lighthouse Reef]]
** [[St. George's Caye]]
** [[Tobacco Caye]]
** [[Turneffe Atoll]]
* '''{{COL}}'''
** [[Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina]]
*** [[Bajo Nuevo Bank]]
*** [[Crab Cay]]
*** [[Quita Sueño Bank]]
*** [[Roncador Bank]]
*** [[Roncador Cay]]
*** [[San Andrés (island)]]
*** [[Santa Catalina Island (Colombia)]]
*** [[Serrana Bank]]
*** [[Serranilla Bank]]
** [[Rosario Islands]]
* '''{{CRI}}'''
** [[Brava, Costa Rica|Brava Island, Costa Rica]]
** [[Isla Calero]]
** [[Uvita Island]]
* '''{{GTM}}'''
** [[Izabal Department|Izabal]]
*** [[Livingston, Guatemala|Livingston]]
*** [[Puerto Barrios]]
* '''{{HON}}'''
** [[Islas de la Bahía]]
*** [[Cayos Cochinos]]
*** [[Guanaja]]
*** [[Roatán]]
*** [[Swan Islands, Honduras|Swan Islands]]
*** [[Útila]]
*** [[Cayos Cochinos]]
*** [[Cayo Gorda]]
** [[Bobel Cay]]
* '''{{NIC}}'''
** [[Corn Islands]]
** [[Miskito Cays]]
** [[Pearl Cays]]
*** [[Calala Island]]
** [[Rama Cay]]
* '''{{PAN}}'''
** Archipelago off [[Guna Yala]] coast (including the [[San Blas Islands]])
** [[Bocas del Toro Archipelago]] (approximately 300 islands)
** [[Galeta Island (Panama)]]
** [[Isla Grande]]
** [[Soledad Miria]]
*** [[Cayos Limones]]
* '''{{MEX}}'''
** [[Quintana Roo]]
*** [[Banco Chinchorro]]
*** [[Cozumel]]
*** [[Isla Mujeres Municipality|Isla Blanca]]
*** [[Isla Contoy]]
*** [[Isla Holbox]]
*** [[Isla Mujeres]]
* '''{{VEN}}'''
** [[Blanquilla Island]]
** [[Coche Island]]
** [[Cubagua|Cubagua Island]]
** [[Isla Aves]]
** [[Islas Los Frailes]]
** [[Isla Margarita]]
** [[La Orchila]]
** [[La Sola Island]]
** [[La Tortuga Island]]
** [[Las Aves archipelago]]
** [[Los Hermanos Archipelago]]
** [[Los Monjes Archipelago]]
** [[Los Roques archipelago]]
** [[Los Testigos Islands]]
** [[Patos Island (Venezuela)|Patos Island]]
{{colend}}
[[File:Clear water of Cayo de Agua - Agua cristalina de Cayo de Agua.JPG|thumb|Cayo de Agua, [[Los Roques Archipelago]], Venezuela]]
[[File:Palancar Beach aerial Cozumel Mexico (21398553341).jpg|thumb|right|Palancar Beach in [[Cozumel Island]], Mexico]]
[[File:Guanaja Honduras.jpg|thumb|Guanaja Island, Bay Islands, Honduras]]

===Biodiversity===
The Caribbean islands have one of the most diverse eco systems in the world. The animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of [[Conservation International]]'s [[biodiversity hotspot]]s because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane [[cloud forests]], to [[tropical rainforest]], to [[cactus]] [[scrubland]]s. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs<ref>{{cite book|first1=Mark|last1=Spalding|first2=Corinna|last2=Ravilious|first3=Edmund Peter|last3=Green|title=World Atlas of Coral Reefs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LUI2fLpxIRwC|access-date=25 June 2012|date=10 September 2001|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23255-6}}</ref> along with extensive seagrass meadows,<ref>Littler, D. and Littler, M. (2000) ''Caribbean Reef Plants''. OffShore Graphics, Inc., {{ISBN|0967890101}}.</ref> both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering the island and continental coasts of the region.

For the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations.<ref>Minter, D.W., Rodríguez Hernández, M. and Mena Portales, J. (2001) ''Fungi of the Caribbean. An annotated checklist''. PDMS Publishing, {{ISBN|0-9540169-0-4}}.</ref> That checklist includes more than 11,250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kirk, P. M. |author2=Ainsworth, Geoffrey Clough |title=Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IFD4_VFRDdUC|year=2008|publisher=CABI|isbn=978-0-85199-826-8}}</ref> Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cubafung/eng/endelist.htm |title=Fungi of Cuba – potential endemics |publisher=cybertruffle.org.uk |access-date=9 July 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927173309/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cubafung/eng/endelist.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> for [[Puerto Rico]], the number is 789 species;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/puerfung/eng/endelist.htm |title=Fungi of Puerto Rico – potential endemics |publisher=cybertruffle.org.uk |access-date=9 July 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927173352/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/puerfung/eng/endelist.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> for the [[Dominican Republic]], the number is 699 species;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/dorefung/eng/endelist.htm |title=Fungi of the Dominican Republic – potential endemics |publisher=cybertruffle.org.uk |access-date=9 July 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927173420/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/dorefung/eng/endelist.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/trinfung/eng/endelist.htm |title=Fungi of Trinidad & Tobago – potential endemics |publisher=cybertruffle.org.uk |access-date=9 July 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927173130/http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/trinfung/eng/endelist.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

Many of the [[ecosystem]]s of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by [[deforestation]], pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of [[Tyto pollens|giant]] [[Ornimegalonyx|owls]] and [[Megalocnus|dwarf ground sloths]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thegreatstory.org/charts/NA-extinctions.html |title=North American Extinctions v. World |publisher=The Great Story |access-date=23 August 2010 |archive-date=27 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927060621/http://www.thegreatstory.org/charts/NA-extinctions.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the [[Puerto Rican amazon]], two species of [[solenodon]] (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the [[Cuban crocodile]].
{{wide image|Isla Saona.jpg|750px| align-cap=center| [[Saona Island]], Dominican Republic}}

The region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and from 500 to 700 species of reef-associated fishes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coral-reef-info.com/caribbean-coral-reefs.html|title=Caribbean Coral Reefs|work=coral-reef-info.com|date=9 November 2020|access-date=29 October 2010|archive-date=8 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708192816/http://www.coral-reef-info.com/caribbean-coral-reefs.html|url-status=live}}</ref> have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1152509 |title=Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification |journal=Science |year=2007|last1=Hoegh-Guldberg|first1=O.|last2=Mumby|first2=P. J.|last3=Hooten|first3=A. J.|last4=Steneck|first4=R. S.|last5=Greenfield|first5=P.|last6=Gomez|first6=E.|last7=Harvell|first7=C. D.|last8=Sale|first8=P. F.|last9=Edwards|first9=A. J.|last10=Caldeira |first10=K. |last11=Knowlton |first11=N. |last12=Eakin |first12=C. M. |last13=Iglesias-Prieto |first13=R. |last14=Muthiga |first14=N. |last15=Bradbury |first15=R. H. |last16=Dubi |first16=A. |last17=Hatziolos |first17=M. E. |volume=318|issue=5857|pages=1737–42|pmid=18079392|bibcode=2007Sci...318.1737H |display-authors=8 |citeseerx=10.1.1.702.1733 |s2cid=12607336}}</ref> According to a [[UNEP]] report, the Caribbean coral reefs might go extinct in next 20 years due to human population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caribbean coral reefs may disappear within 20 years: Report|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/caribbean-coral-reefs-may-disappear-within-20-years-report/|work=IANS|publisher=news.biharprabha.com|access-date=3 July 2014|archive-date=16 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140816191151/http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/07/caribbean-coral-reefs-may-disappear-within-20-years-report/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Some Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. [[Tobacco]] was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by [[sugarcane]] production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. [[Cuba]] and [[Barbados]] were historically the largest producers of [[sugar]]. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for [[agriculture]], for example [[Dominica]], which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern [[Lesser Antilles]], [[Aruba]], [[Bonaire]] and [[Curaçao]], are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have [[salt]] pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rogoziński|first=Jan|title=A Brief History of the Caribbean|publisher=Penguin|year=2000|isbn=978-0-452-28193-6|page=65}}</ref>

The natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in [[eco-tourism]]. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rogoziński|first=Jan|title=A Brief History of the Caribbean|publisher=Penguin|year=2000|isbn=978-0-452-28193-6|page=356}}</ref>

===Plants and animals===
{{see also|List of invasive marine fish in Florida{{!}}List of invasive marine fish in the Caribbean}}
<gallery>
File:Epiphytes (Dominica).jpg|alt=Epiphytes (bromeliads, climbing palms) in the rainforest of Dominica.|Epiphytes (bromeliads, climbing palms) in the [[rainforest]] of [[Dominica]]
File:Jumping frog.jpg|A green and black poison frog, ''[[Dendrobates auratus]]''
File:Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Guadeloupe.jpg|alt=Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Guadeloupe.|''[[Caesalpinia pulcherrima]]'', [[Guadeloupe]]
File:Costus speciosus Guadeloupe.JPG|alt=Costus speciosus, a marsh plant, Guadeloupe.|''[[Costus speciosus]]'', a marsh plant, [[Guadeloupe]]
File:Ocypode quadrata (Martinique).jpg|alt=An Atlantic ghost crab (Ocypode quadrata) in Martinique.|An [[Atlantic ghost crab]] (''Ocypode quadrata'') in [[Martinique]]
File:Calebassier.jpg|alt=Crescentia cujete, or calabash fruit, Martinique.|''[[Crescentia cujete]]'', or calabash fruit, [[Martinique]]
File:Thalassoma bifasciatum (Bluehead Wrasse) juvenile yellow stage over Bispira brunnea (Social Feather Duster Worms).jpg|alt=Thalassoma bifasciatum (bluehead wrasse fish), over Bispira brunnea (social feather duster worms).|''[[Thalassoma bifasciatum]]'' (bluehead wrasse fish), over ''[[Bispira brunnea]]'' (social feather duster worms)
File:Stenopus hispidus (Banded cleaner shrimp).jpg|alt=Two Stenopus hispidus (banded cleaner shrimp) on a Xestospongia muta (giant barrel sponge).|Two ''[[Stenopus hispidus]]'' (banded cleaner shrimp) on a ''[[Xestospongia muta]]'' (giant barrel sponge)
File:Cyphoma signata (Fingerprint Cowry) pair.jpg|alt=A pair of Cyphoma signatum (fingerprint cowry), off coastal Haiti.|A pair of ''[[Cyphoma signatum]]'' (fingerprint cowry), off coastal [[Haiti]]
File:Extinctbirds1907 P18 Amazona martinicana0317.png|The [[Martinique amazon]] (''Amazona martinicana''), an extinct species of parrot in the family Psittacidae
File:Anastrepha suspensa 5193019.jpg|alt=Anastrepha suspensa, a Caribbean fruit fly|''[[Anastrepha suspensa]]'', a Caribbean fruit fly
File:Hemidactylus mabouia (Dominica).jpg|alt=Hemidactylus mabouia, a tropical gecko, in Dominica|''[[Hemidactylus mabouia]]'', a tropical gecko in [[Dominica]]
</gallery>

==Politics==
===Regionalism===
[[File:Flag of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).svg|thumb|Flag of the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM)]]]]
Caribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens.<ref>Gowricharn, Ruben. ''Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion'', Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006. p. 5 {{ISBN|0-7391-1167-1}}</ref> The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, [[Regionalism (international relations)|regionalism]] serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the [[Caribbean Basin]] was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community ([[CARICOM]])<ref>Hillman, p. 150</ref> which is located in Guyana.

Certain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from socialist systems towards more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a "blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways".<ref>Hillman, p. 165</ref> The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.

The influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. "Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action".<ref name=serbin>{{cite journal|author=Serbin, Andres|title=Towards an Association of Caribbean States: Raising Some Awkward Questions|journal=Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs|year=1994|pages=61–90|volume=36|issue=4|jstor=166319|doi=10.2307/166319|s2cid=158660832}}</ref> These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.<ref name=serbin />

Furthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years, the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. "With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean."<ref>Hillman, p. 123</ref> The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.

Following the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and [[European Union]]'s allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other. {{clarify|date=December 2011}}

====United States–European Union trade dispute====
{{See also|Lomé Convention}}
The [[Lomé Convention]], which allowed [[banana]] exports from the former colonies of the [[ACP countries|Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states]] (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply, came into effect in 1976.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2001/April/The_US-EU_Banana_Agreement.html |title=The U.S.-EU Banana Agreement |website=USTR |date=2001 |access-date=23 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506012800/http://www.ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2001/April/The_US-EU_Banana_Agreement.html |archive-date=6 May 2009}} See also: {{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/webarchive/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fcaribbean%2Fnews%2Fstory%2F2008%2F05%2F080516_sanders190508.shtml |first1=Ronald |last1=Sanders |title=Dominica: Poverty and Potential |publisher=BBC |date=16 May 2008 |access-date=6 December 2008 |archive-date=5 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205172045/http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2008/05/080516_sanders190508.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1999, the United States under President [[Bill Clinton]] launched a challenge in the [[World Trade Organization]] against the European Union over Europe's preferential program, known as The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states have been partially dismantled and replaced by the [[Cotonou Agreement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1196354821.32/ |title=WTO rules against EU banana import practices |access-date=23 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416002704/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1196354821.32/ |archive-date=16 April 2009 |website= eubusiness.com |date=29 November 2007}}</ref>

During the US/EU dispute, the United States threatened to impose large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/293114.stm |title=No truce in banana war |work=BBC News |date=8 March 1999 |access-date=23 August 2010 |archive-date=2 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202124003/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/293114.stm |url-status=live}}</ref>

Farmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/11/world/clinton-in-caribbean-no-bananas-today.html Clinton In Caribbean: No Bananas Today], 11 May 1997, ''The New York Times''.</ref> Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/296008.stm |title=World: Americas St Vincent hit by banana war |work=BBC News |date=13 March 1999 |access-date=23 August 2010 |archive-date=2 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202123858/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/296008.stm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/webarchive/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fcaribbean%2Fnews%2Fstory%2F2005%2F01%2F050117_ukparliament-concern.shtml |title=Concern for Caribbean farmers |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=7 January 2005 |access-date=23 August 2010 |archive-date=2 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202103940/http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2005/01/050117_ukparliament-concern.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== African Union relations ====
Many Caribbean nations have sought to deepen ties with the continent of [[Africa]]. The African Union-bloc has referred to the Caribbean as the potential "Sixth Region" of the [[African Union]].<ref>[https://www.thestateofafricandiaspora.com/headquarters/ African Union 6th Region Diaspora Headquarters to be established in Accompong, Jamaica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311035309/https://thestateofafricandiaspora.com/headquarters/ |date=11 March 2023}}, 24 January 2018.</ref> Some Caribbean states have already moved to join Africa institutions including Barbados, Grenada, Guyana, and The Bahamas which have all become members of the African Export Import Bank.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cbc.bb/cbctest/news/local-news/barbados-inks-mou-with-african-export-import-bank/ |title=Barbados inks MOU with African Export-Import Bank |date=30 September 2021 |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717182615/https://www.cbc.bb/cbctest/news/local-news/barbados-inks-mou-with-african-export-import-bank/ |url-status=live}}</ref> And the Caribbean Development Bank signing a cooperation strategic partnership agreement with the African Development Bank (AfDB)<ref>[https://www.businessamlive.com/afdb-cdb-move-to-deepen-africa-caribbean-cooperation-sign-mou/ AfDB, CDB move to deepen Africa, Caribbean cooperation, sign MoU] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625194438/https://www.businessamlive.com/afdb-cdb-move-to-deepen-africa-caribbean-cooperation-sign-mou/ |date=25 June 2022}}, 18 June 2022</ref> At present Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana, and Suriname are at various stages of establishing direct air flights with Africa to boost person-to-person links and boost trade between both regions.

The first inter-regional Africa-Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Summit took place in September 2021. In August 2023 the African Union's [[African Export–Import Bank]] officially opened its first Caribbean Community office in Barbados beginning the process of integrating willing Caribbean states as the 6th region of the African Union.[https://guardian.ng/business-services/afreximbank-opens-caribbean-office-in-barbados/ AFREXIMBANK opens Caribbean office in Barbados] [https://www.thestkittsnevisobserver.com/caricom-office-of-afreximbank-bank-open-for-business-in-barbados-with-us1-5-billion-line-of-credit-now-available-to-caricom-states/ CARICOM Office Of Afreximbank Bank Open For Business In Barbados With US$1.5 Billion Line Of Credit Now Available To CARICOM States.]

====Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and Association of Caribbean States====
Caribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the [[Caribbean Financial Action Task Force]] and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry. One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the [[Caribbean Basin]] has been the [[Association of Caribbean States]] (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.

====Bolivarian Alliance====
The President of [[Venezuela]], [[Hugo Chavez]] launched an economic group called the [[Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas]] (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined.

==List of countries and territories==
{{Main|List of Caribbean islands}}

{{See also|Caribbean South America|West Indies}}
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="border:1px solid #aaa;"
|- style="background:#ececec;"
! class="unsortable" style="width:20px" | [[Flag]]
! Country or territory<ref name="spp">{{cite web |url=http://www.spp.gov/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618182224/http://www.spp.gov/ |archive-date=18 June 2008|title=SPP Background |publisher=Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America |work=CommerceConnect.gov |access-date=14 November 2010}}</ref><ref name="epa">{{cite web |url= http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm |title= Ecoregions of North America |publisher= [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] |access-date= 30 May 2011 |archive-date= 14 May 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514012048/http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm |url-status= dead}}</ref><ref name=About.com>{{cite web |url=http://geography.about.com/library/faq/blqzamericas.htm |title=What's the difference between North, Latin, Central, Middle, South, Spanish and Anglo America? |website=About.com |access-date=21 February 2023 |archive-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410093459/http://geography.about.com/library/faq/blqzamericas.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>
! [[Sovereignty]]
! Status
! [[List of countries by area|Area]] (km2)<ref>Unless otherwise noted, land area figures are taken from {{Cite book | section-url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2008/Table03.pdf | title=Demographic Yearbook | section=Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density | publisher=United Nations Statistics Division | year=2008 | access-date=14 October 2010 | archive-date=25 December 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225215827/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2008/Table03.pdf%0A | url-status=live}}</ref>
! [[List of countries by population|Population]] ({{UN_Population|Year}} est.){{UN_Population|ref}}
! [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density|Density]] (people per km2)
! Capital
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Anguilla}}
| [[Anguilla]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[British Overseas Territories|Overseas territory]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|91}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Anguilla}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 164.8
| [[The Valley, Anguilla|The Valley]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Antigua and Barbuda}}
| [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
| Independent
| [[Commonwealth Realm|Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|442}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Antigua and Barbuda}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 199.1
| [[St. John's, Antigua and Barbuda|St. John's]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Aruba}}
| [[Aruba]]
| [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]
| Constituent kingdom
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|180}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Aruba}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 594.4
| [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|The Bahamas}}
| [[The Bahamas]]<ref>Since the [[Lucayan Archipelago]] is located in the Atlantic Ocean rather than [[Caribbean Sea]], the [[The Bahamas|Bahamas]] are part of the [[West Indies]] but are not technically part of the Caribbean, although the United Nations groups them with the Caribbean.</ref>
| Independent
| [[Commonwealth Realm|Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|13943}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Bahamas}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 24.5
| [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Barbados}}
| [[Barbados]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|430}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|287,025}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 595.3
| [[Bridgetown]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Honduras}}
| [[Bay Islands Department]]
| [[Honduras]]
| [[Departments of Honduras|Department]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|229}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|110,000}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 480
| [[Coxen Hole]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Belize}}
| Coastal areas of [[Belize]]
| Independent
| [[Commonwealth Realm|Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|22,966}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Belize}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 17.79
| [[Belmopan]]
|-
|{{flagicon|Bermuda}}
|[[Bermuda]]{{Efn|Bermuda is an associate member of the Caribbean Community.}}<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
|[[United Kingdom]]
|[[British Overseas Territories|Overseas territory]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|53.2}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|63,913}}{{Efn|2019 estimate}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|1,338}}
|[[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]]
|-

| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Bonaire}}
| [[Bonaire]]
| [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]
| [[Public body (Netherlands)|Special Municipality]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|294}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|20104}}<ref name="nethant"/>
| style="text-align:right;"| 41.1
| [[Kralendijk]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|British Virgin Islands}}
| [[British Virgin Islands]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[British Overseas Territories|Overseas territory]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|151}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|British Virgin Islands}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 152.3
| [[Road Town]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Cayman Islands}}
| [[Cayman Islands]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[British Overseas Territories|Overseas territory]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|264}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Cayman Islands}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 212.1
| [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Cuba}}
| [[Cuba]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|109886}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Cuba}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 102.0
| [[Havana]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Curaçao}}
| [[Curaçao]]
| [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]
| Constituent kingdom
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|444}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Curaçao}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 317.1
| [[Willemstad]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Dominica}}
| [[Dominica]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|751}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Dominica}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 89.2
| [[Roseau]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Dominican Republic}}
|[[Dominican Republic]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|48671}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Dominican Republic}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 207.3
| [[Santo Domingo]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Federal Dependencies of Venezuela}}
| [[Federal Dependencies of Venezuela]]
| [[Venezuela]]
| [[States of Venezuela|Dependency]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|342}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|2,155}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.3
| [[Gran Roque]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|French Guiana|local}}
| Coastal areas of [[French Guiana]]
| [[France]]
| [[Overseas department]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|83,846}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|French Guiana}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.6
| [[Cayenne]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Grenada}}
| [[Grenada]]
| Independent
| [[Commonwealth Realm|Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|344}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Grenada}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 302.3
| [[St. George's, Grenada|St. George's]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Guadeloupe|local}}
| [[Guadeloupe]]
| [[France]]
| [[Overseas department]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|1628}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Guadeloupe}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 246.7
| [[Basse-Terre]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Guyana}}
| Coastal areas of [[Guyana]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|214,970}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Guyana}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.502
| [[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Haiti}}
| [[Haiti]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|27750}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Haiti}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 361.5
| [[Port-au-Prince]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Jamaica}}
| [[Jamaica]]
| Independent
| [[Commonwealth Realm|Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|10991}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Jamaica}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 247.4
| [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" |{{flagicon|Costa Rica}}
|[[Limón Province]]
|[[Costa Rica]]
|Republic
| style="text-align: right;" |9,176.96
| style="text-align: right;" |469,797
| style="text-align: right;" |51.19
|[[Limón]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Martinique}}
| [[Martinique]]
| [[France]]
| [[Overseas department]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|1128}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Martinique}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 352.6
| [[Fort-de-France]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Montserrat}}
| [[Montserrat]]
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[British Overseas Territories|Overseas territory]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|102}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Montserrat}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 58.8
| [[Plymouth, Montserrat|Plymouth]] ([[Brades, Montserrat|Brades]])<ref>Because of ongoing activity of the [[Soufriere Hills volcano]] beginning in July 1995, much of Plymouth was destroyed and government offices were relocated to Brades. Plymouth remains the ''de jure'' capital.</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center" |
| [[Navassa Island]]
| [[United States]]/[[Haiti]]
| Territory (uninhabited)
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|5}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|0}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 0.0
| n/a
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Nicaragua}}
| [[North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region]]
| Nicaragua
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|33,105.98}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|563,088}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 17.01
| [[Puerto Cabezas]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Nueva Esparta}}
| [[Nueva Esparta]]
| Venezuela
| Dependency
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|1,151}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|491,610}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 427.5
| [[La Asunción]]
|-
| {{flag icon|Panama}}
| Coastal areas of [[Panama]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|8409.3}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|4,351,267}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 150
| [[Panama City]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Puerto Rico}}
| [[Puerto Rico]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)|Commonwealth]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|9100}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Puerto Rico}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 448.9
| [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Quintana Roo}}
| [[Quintana Roo]]
| [[Mexico]]
| [[List of states of Mexico|State]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|44,705.2}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|1,857,985}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 42
| [[Chetumal]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Saba}}
| [[Saba (island)|Saba]]
| [[Netherlands]]
| [[Public body (Netherlands)|Special municipality]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|13}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|1537}}<ref name="nethant">Population estimates are taken from the {{cite web |author=Central Bureau of Statistics Netherlands Antilles |title=Statistical information: Population |url=http://www.cbs.an/population/population_b2.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501150627/http://www.cbs.an/population/population_b2.asp |archive-date=1 May 2010 |access-date=14 October 2010 |publisher=Government of the Netherlands Antilles}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 118.2
| [[The Bottom]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|San Andrés y Providencia}}
| [[Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina|San Andrés and Providencia]]
| [[Colombia]]
| [[Departments of Colombia|Department]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|52.5}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|75167}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|1431}}
| [[San Andrés, San Andrés y Providencia|San Andrés]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Saint Barthélemy|local}}
| [[Saint Barthélemy]]
| [[France]]
| [[Overseas collectivity]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|21}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|7448}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 354.7
| [[Gustavia, Saint Barthélemy|Gustavia]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
| [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
| Independent
| [[Commonwealth Realm|Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|261}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 199.2
| [[Basseterre]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Saint Lucia}}
| [[Saint Lucia]]
| Independent
| [[Commonwealth Realm|Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|539}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Saint Lucia}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 319.1
| [[Castries]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Saint Martin}}
| [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint Martin]]
| [[France]]
| [[Overseas collectivity]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|54}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|29820}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 552.2
| [[Marigot, St. Martin|Marigot]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
| [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
| Independent
| [[Commonwealth Realm|Constitutional monarchy]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|389}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 280.2
| [[Kingstown]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Sint Eustatius}}
| [[Sint Eustatius]]
| [[Netherlands]]
| [[Public body (Netherlands)|Special municipality]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|21}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|2739}}<ref name="nethant"/>
| style="text-align:right;"| 130.4
| [[Oranjestad, Sint Eustatius|Oranjestad]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Sint Maarten}}
| [[Sint Maarten]]
| [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]
| Constituent kingdom
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|34}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Sint Maarten (Dutch part)}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|1176.7}}
| [[Philipsburg, Sint Maarten|Philipsburg]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Nicaragua}}
| [[South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region]]
| Nicaragua
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|27,260.02}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|434,270}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 15.93
| [[Bluefields]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Suriname}}
| Coastal areas of [[Suriname]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|163,821}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Suriname}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.9
| [[Paramaribo]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Trinidad and Tobago}}
| [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
| Independent
| Republic
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|5,128}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Trinidad and Tobago}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 271.2
| [[Port of Spain]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|Turks and Caicos Islands}}
| [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]<ref>Since the [[Lucayan Archipelago]] is located in the Atlantic Ocean rather than [[Caribbean Sea]], the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] are part of the [[West Indies]] but are not technically part of the Caribbean, although the United Nations groups them with the Caribbean.</ref>
| [[United Kingdom]]
| [[British Overseas Territories|Overseas territory]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|948}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|Turks and Caicos Islands}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 34.8
| [[Cockburn Town]]
|-
| style="text-align:center" | {{flagicon|United States Virgin Islands}}
| [[United States Virgin Islands]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Territories of the United States|Territory]]
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|347}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|{{UN_Population|United States Virgin Islands}}}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 317.0
| [[Charlotte Amalie, United States Virgin Islands|Charlotte Amalie]]
|- style=" font-weight:bold; " class="sortbottom"
! colspan="4" | Total
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|235897}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 44,636,789
| style="text-align:right;"| 189.4
|
|}

==Demographics==
===Life expectancy===
{{Main|List of countries in the Americas by life expectancy}}

[[Life expectancy]] in some countries of the Caribbean in 2023, according to estimation of the [[World Bank Group]]:<ref name="wbg_total">{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, total|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN|publisher=The World Bank Group|date=15 April 2025|access-date=28 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, male|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.MA.IN|publisher=The World Bank Group|date=15 April 2025|access-date=28 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, female|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.FE.IN|publisher=The World Bank Group|date=15 April 2025|access-date=28 April 2025}}</ref>

{{static row numbers}}{{mw-datatable}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-datatable static-row-numbers sort-under sticky-table-head sticky-table-col1 col1left col2center col3center col4center col5center col6center col8center col10center col12center col14center col16center" style=text-align:right;
|+ {{sro|World Bank Group (2023)}}
|- class="sortbottom static-row-header"
! rowspan=2 style="vertical-align:middle;"|Countries and territories
! colspan=4|2023
! colspan=11 style="border-left-width:2px;"|Historical data
! rowspan=2 style="border-left-width:2px; text-align:middle;"|{{nobr|recovery from}} [[COVID-19]]: 2019→2023
|- class="sortbottom static-row-header"
! style="vertical-align:middle;" class=sticky-table-none|All
! style="vertical-align:middle;"|Male
! style="vertical-align:middle;"|Female
! style="vertical-align:middle;"|{{tooltip|Sex gap|Difference in life expectancy for female and male}}
! style="border-left-width:2px; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:1em;"|2014
! style="text-align:left;"|{{tooltip|2014 →2019|Change of life expectancy from 2014 to 2019}}
! style="vertical-align:middle;"|2019
! style="text-align:left;"|2019 →2020
! style="vertical-align:middle;"|2020
! style="text-align:left;"|2020 →2021
! style="vertical-align:middle;"|2021
! style="text-align:left;"|2021 →2022
! style="vertical-align:middle;"|2022
! style="text-align:left;"|2022 →2023
! style="vertical-align:middle;"|2023
|-
| {{flaglist|Puerto Rico}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 81.69 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 78.03 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 85.24 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 7.21 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 80.04 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.40 || 81.44 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −1.43 || 80.01 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.24 || 79.77 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.34 || 79.43 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 2.26 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 81.69 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.25
|-
| {{flaglist|Virgin Islands (U.S.)}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 80.52 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 77.30 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 83.90 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 6.60 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 78.87 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.80 || 79.67 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.15 || 79.82 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.25 || 80.07 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.25 || 80.32 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.20 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 80.52 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.85
|-
| {{flaglist|Cayman Islands}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 80.36 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 77.98 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 82.87 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 4.89 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 77.86 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.19 || 79.05 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.18 || 79.23 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.07 || 79.30 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.68 || 79.98 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.37 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 80.36 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 1.31
|-
| {{flaglist|Saint Martin}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 80.22 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 76.77 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 83.84 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 7.07 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 79.73 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.35 || 80.08 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.01 || 80.08 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.12 || 80.21 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.03 || 80.24 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.01 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 80.22 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.15
|-
| {{flaglist|Cuba}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 78.08 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 75.67 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 80.52 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 4.85 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 77.83 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.41 || 77.41 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.01 || 77.41 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −4.21 || 73.20 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 4.43 || 77.63 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.46 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 78.08 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.67
|-
| {{flaglist|Turks and Caicos Islands}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 78.01 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 75.83 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 80.30 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 4.47 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 77.21 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.48 || 77.69 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.19 || 77.50 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.27 || 77.23 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.68 || 77.92 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.09 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 78.01 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.32
|-
| {{flaglist|Antigua and Barbuda}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 77.60 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 74.55 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 80.29 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 5.74 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 76.91 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.26 || 77.17 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.01 || 77.16 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.04 || 77.20 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.29 || 77.48 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.11 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 77.60 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.43
|-
| {{flaglist|British Virgin Islands}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 77.28 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 74.53 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 80.05 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 5.52 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 76.53 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.32 || 76.84 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.05 || 76.89 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −1.60 || 75.30 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.88 || 77.18 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.10 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 77.28 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.43
|-
| {{flaglist|Curaçao}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 76.80 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 72.46 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 80.82 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 8.37 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 76.38 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.11 || 76.49 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.01 || 76.50 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.81 || 75.69 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.04 || 76.73 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.07 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 76.80 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.31
|-
| {{flaglist|Sint Maarten}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 76.37 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 73.70 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 79.53 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 5.83 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 75.73 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.05 || 75.68 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.68 || 75.00 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.50 || 74.50 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.68 || 76.18 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.19 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 76.37 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.69
|-
| {{flaglist|Aruba}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 76.35 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 73.70 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 78.78 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 5.08 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 75.26 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.76 || 76.02 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.61 || 75.41 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −1.75 || 73.66 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 2.57 || 76.23 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.13 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 76.35 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.33
|-
| {{flaglist|Barbados}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 76.18 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 73.63 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 78.61 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 4.98 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 75.93 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.57 || 76.50 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.15 || 76.65 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.07 || 76.58 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.90 || 75.68 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.50 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 76.18 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:crimson;"| −0.32
|-
| {{flaglist|Grenada}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 75.20 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 72.36 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 78.36 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 5.99 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 75.05 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.07 || 74.97 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.05 || 75.02 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.50 || 74.52 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.63 || 75.15 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.05 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 75.20 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.23
|-
| {{flaglist|Bahamas}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 74.55 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 70.91 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 78.19 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 7.28 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 74.03 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −2.62 || 71.41 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.59 || 72.99 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −2.24 || 70.75 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 3.74 || 74.49 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.06 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 74.55 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 3.14
|-
| {{flaglist|Dominican Republic}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 73.72 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 70.53 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 76.97 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 6.44 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 73.14 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.03 || 73.11 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.48 || 72.64 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.88 || 71.76 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 2.45 || 74.21 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.49 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 73.72 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.61
|-
| {{flaglist|Trinidad and Tobago}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 73.49 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 70.38 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 76.68 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 6.31 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 72.90 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.06 || 72.84 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.19 || 72.64 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −1.53 || 71.11 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 2.22 || 73.33 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.16 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 73.49 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.65
|-class=static-row-header
|style="text-align:center;"| '''World''' ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| '''73.33''' ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| '''70.95''' ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| '''75.84''' ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| '''4.89''' ||style="border-left-width:2px;padding-left:1em;"| '''71.78''' ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| '''1.09''' || '''72.87''' ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| '''−0.68''' || '''72.18''' ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| '''−0.97''' || '''71.22''' ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| '''1.75''' || '''72.97''' ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| '''0.36''' ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| '''73.33''' ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| '''0.46'''
|-
|style="padding-left:35px;"|Caribbean small states ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 73.03 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 69.82 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 76.36 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 6.54 ||style="border-left-width:2px;padding-left:1em;"| 71.26 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.56 || 71.82 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.19 || 71.63 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −2.23 || 69.40 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 3.21 || 72.61 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.42 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 73.03 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 1.22
|-
| {{flaglist|St. Lucia}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 72.70 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 69.31 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 76.30 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 6.99 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 72.68 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.43 || 72.25 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.06 || 72.31 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −3.19 || 69.12 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 3.55 || 72.67 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.03 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 72.70 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.45
|-
| {{flaglist|St. Kitts and Nevis}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 72.14 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 68.57 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 76.02 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 7.45 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 71.23 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.31 || 71.54 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.36 || 71.18 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −1.91 || 69.27 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.04 || 70.31 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.83 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 72.14 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.60
|-
| {{flaglist|Jamaica}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 71.48 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 68.97 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 73.99 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 5.02 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 72.36 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.83 || 71.53 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.08 || 71.45 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −2.37 || 69.08 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 2.40 || 71.48 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgray;"| 0.00 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 71.48 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:crimson;"| −0.05
|-
| {{flaglist|St. Vincent and the Grenadines}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 71.23 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 68.66 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 74.31 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 5.65 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 70.36 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.64 || 70.99 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −1.39 || 69.61 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.47 || 69.13 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 2.06 || 71.19 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.04 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 71.23 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.24
|-
| {{flaglist|Dominica}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 71.13 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 68.21 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 74.55 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 6.33 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 71.19 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.12 || 71.31 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.04 || 71.27 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −1.44 || 69.83 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.25 || 71.08 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.05 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 71.13 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:crimson;"| −0.17
|-
| {{flaglist|Haiti}} ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 64.94 ||style="background:#eaf3ff;"| 61.73 ||style="background:#fee7f6;"| 68.30 ||style="background:#fff8dc;"| 6.57 ||style="border-left-width:2px; padding-left:1em;"| 62.97 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.36 || 64.33 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −0.55 || 63.77 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:crimson;"| −1.16 || 62.61 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 1.34 || 63.95 ||style="background:#fffae0;color:darkgreen;"| 0.99 ||style="background:#e0ffd8;"| 64.94 ||style="background:#fffae0;border-left-width:2px;color:darkgreen;"| 0.61
|}

{{Multiple image|total_width = 750
| align = center
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = Life expectancy map -Caribbean -2019 -with names.png
| image2 = Life expectancy map -Caribbean -2020 -with names.png
| image3 = Life expectancy map -Caribbean -2021 -with names.png
| footer_align = center
| footer = Change in life expectancy in the Caribbean from 2019 to 2021<ref name="wbg_total" />
}}

===Indigenous groups===
{{main|Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean}}
* [[Arawak peoples]]
** [[Igneri]]
** [[Taíno people|Taíno]]
* [[Caquetio people]]
* [[Ciboney]]
* [[Neo-Taíno nations#Ciguayo|Ciguayo]]
* [[Garifuna people|Garifuna]]
* [[Kalina people|Kalina]]
* [[Island Caribs|Kalinago]]
* [[Lucayan people|Lucayan]]
* [[Neo-Taíno nations#Macorix|Macorix]]
* [[Raizal]]

[[File:Agostino Brunias - Linen Market, Dominica - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|A linen market in [[Dominica]] in the 1770s]]
[[File:Agostino Brunias. Free Women of Color with Their Children and Servants in a Landscape, ca. 1770-1796.jpg|thumb|Agostino Brunias. ''Free Women of Color with Their Children and Servants in a Landscape'', [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
[[File:East Indian Coolies in Trinidad - Project Gutenberg eText 16035.jpg|thumb|[[Indo-Trinidadian and Tobagonian|Asian Indians]] in the late nineteenth century singing and dancing in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]]]
[[File:Matanzas street scene 2011-07-21 Flickr.jpg|thumb|Street scene, [[Matanzas]], Cuba]]
At the time of [[European colonization of the Americas|European contact]], the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the [[Taíno]] of the [[Greater Antilles]] and northern [[Lesser Antilles]], the [[Island Caribs]] of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the [[Guanajatabey]] of western Cuba and the [[Ciguayo]] of eastern Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity)<ref>{{Cite book |first = Joseph Patrick |last = Byrne |title = Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5Pvi-ksuKFIC |publisher = ABC-CLIO |year = 2008 |page = 413 |isbn = 978-0-313-34102-1}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> led to a decline in the Amerindian population.<ref>Engerman, p. 486</ref><ref>[http://countrystudies.us/caribbean-islands/8.htm The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622222104/http://countrystudies.us/caribbean-islands/8.htm |date=22 June 2011}}, ''U.S. Library of Congress''</ref> such as the [[Kongo people|Kongo]], [[Igbo people|Igbo]], [[Akan people|Akan]], [[Fon people|Fon]] and [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] as well as military prisoners from [[Ireland]], who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in [[England]].{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} Immigrants from [[Great Britain|Britain]], [[Italy]], [[France]], [[Spain]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]] and [[Denmark]] also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups.<ref>Engerman, pp. 488–492</ref>

The population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800.<ref>Engerman, Figure 11.1</ref> Immigrants from [[India]], [[China]], [[Indonesia]], and other countries arrived in the mid-19th century as indentured servants.<ref>Engerman, pp. 501–502</ref> After the ending of the [[Atlantic slave trade]], the population increased naturally.<ref>Engerman, pp. 504, 511</ref> The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.<ref name=p2000>Table A.2, [http://gisweb.ciat.cgiar.org/population/download/report.pdf Database documentation], Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Population Database, version 3, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, 2005. Accessed on line 20 February 2008.</ref>

In [[Haiti]] and most of the [[French Caribbean|French]], [[Anglophone Caribbean|Anglophone]] and [[Dutch West Indies|Dutch Caribbean]], the population is predominantly of [[Afro-Caribbean|African]] origin; on many of the islands/nations there are also significant populations of mixed racial origin (including [[Mulatto]]-[[Creole peoples|Creole]], [[Dougla]], [[Mestizo]], [[Quadroon]], [[Cholo]], [[Castizo]], [[Criollo people|Criollo]], [[Zambo]], [[Pardo]], [[Chindian]], [[Cocoa panyols]], and Eurasian). On the [[Cayman Islands]], [[Aruba]] and [[Belize]] [[Multiracial people|mixed-race]] people form the majority of the population. There are also populations of European ancestry; [[English people|English]], [[French people|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Italian people|Italian]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and [[Spaniards|Spanish]] ancestry. [[Asians]], especially those of [[Chinese Caribbean|Chinese]], [[Indo-Caribbean|Indian]] descent, and [[Javanese people|Javanese]] [[Indonesian people|Indonesians]], form a significant minority in parts of the region. [[Indo-Caribbean|Indians]] form a plurality of the population in [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Guyana]], and [[Suriname]]. Most of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.

The [[Spanish Caribbean|Spanish-speaking Caribbean]] populations are primarily of [[White Latin American|European]], African, or racially mixed origins. [[Cubans|Cuba]] has a European majority, along with a significant population of African ancestry. Puerto Rico has a mixed race majority with a mixture of European-African-Native American (tri-racial), and a large White and West African (black) minority. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed-race population, primarily descended from Europeans, [[West African]]s, and Amerindians.
[[File:Revellers Wine at Trinidad Carnival.jpg|thumb|upright|Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago]]

The majority of [[Jamaica]] is of West African origin, in addition to a significant population of mixed racial background, and has minorities of [[Chinese people|Chinese]], Europeans, [[Indian people|Indians]], Indigenous, [[Jews]], and [[Arab]]s. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured laborers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or brown. Similar populations can be found in the [[Caricom]] states of [[Belize]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. [[Trinidad and Tobago]] has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrivals of [[Afro-Trinidadian|Africans]], [[Indo-Trinidadian|Indians]], [[Chinese Trinidadian|Chinese]], [[Arabs]] and [[White Trinidadian|Europeans]] along with the [[Amerindians|native indigenous Amerindians]] population. This multi-racial mix of the Caribbean has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include [[Mulatto]]-[[Creole peoples|Creole]], [[Mestizo]], [[Pardo]], [[Zambo]], [[Dougla]], [[Chindian]], [[Afro-Asians]], Eurasian and [[Cocoa panyols]].

===Language===
{{Main|Languages of the Caribbean}}

[[Caribbean Spanish|Spanish]] (64%), [[French language|French]] (25%), [[Caribbean English|English]] (14%), [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Haitian Creole]], and [[Papiamento]] are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region. However, virtually every Caribbean country has a distinct [[creole language]] or dialect that often serves as its [[vernacular language]]. Most of these do not enjoy official status, with the aforementioned Haitian Creole and Papiamento being notable exceptions. Other languages such as [[Caribbean Hindustani]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Arabic]], [[Hmong language|Hmong]], [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian languages]], other [[African languages]], other [[Languages of Europe|European languages]], and other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] like [[Telugu language|Telugu]] can also be found.

===Religion===
{{See also|:Category:Religion in the Caribbean{{!}}Religion in the Caribbean}}
[[File:Kathedrale Havanna 001.jpg|thumb|[[Havana Cathedral]] (Catholic) in [[Cuba]] completed in 1777]]
[[File:TnT PoS Cathedral of the Holy Trinity (back view).jpg|thumb|[[Holy Trinity Cathedral, Port of Spain|Holy Trinity Cathedral]], an [[Anglican]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[cathedral]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]]]
[[File:Waterloo Temple, Trinidad.jpg|thumb|[[Temple in the Sea]], a [[Hindu]] [[mandir]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]]]
[[File:TnT St. Joseph Mohammed Ali Jinnah Memorial Mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] Memorial Masjid, a [[Muslim]] [[mosque|masjid]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]]]]
[[File:KITLV - 12680 - Dutch Israelite synagogue in Paramaribo - circa 1890.tif|thumb|A [[Jewish]] [[synagogue]] in [[Suriname]]]]

[[File:Haitian vodou altar to Petwo, Rada, and Gede spirits; November 5, 2010..jpg|thumb|A [[Haitian Vodou]] altar]]
[[Christianity]] is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%).<ref>[http://www.gordonconwell.com/netcommunity/CSGCResources/ChristianityinitsGlobalContext.pdf Christianity in its Global Context] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815184022/http://www.gordonconwell.com/netcommunity/CSGCResources/ChristianityinitsGlobalContext.pdf |date=2013-08-15}}</ref> Other religions in the region are [[Hinduism in the West Indies|Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], [[Rastafari]], [[Buddhism]], [[Chinese folk religion]] (incl. [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]]), [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]], [[Jainism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Kebatinan]], [[Traditional African religions]], [[Yoruba religion|Yoruba]] (incl. [[Trinidad Orisha]]), [[Afro-American religions]], (incl. [[Santería]], [[Palo (religion)|Palo]], [[Umbanda]], [[Brujería]], [[Hoodoo (folk magic)|Hoodoo]], [[Candomblé]], [[Quimbanda]], [[Orisha]], Xangô de Recife, Xangô do Nordeste, Comfa, [[Espiritismo]], [[Santo Daime]], [[Obeah]], [[Abakuá]], [[Kumina]], [[Winti]], Sanse, [[Cuban Vodú]], [[Dominican Vudú]], [[Louisiana Voodoo]], [[Haitian Vodou]], and [[West African Vodun|Vodun]]).

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of the Caribbean}}

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Caribbean cuisine}}

==== Favourite or national dishes ====
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2018}}
[[File:FOOD Doubles 2.jpg|thumb|[[Doubles (food)|Doubles]], one of the national dishes of [[Trinidad and Tobago]]]]
[[File:Arroz con gandules.jpg|thumb|[[Arroz con gandules]], one of the national dishes of [[Puerto Rico]]]]
* [[Anguilla]] – rice, peas and fish
* [[Antigua and Barbuda cuisine|Antigua and Barbuda]] – [[fungee]] and [[Guyana pepperpot|pepperpot]]
* [[The Bahamas]] – [[Guava duff]], Conch Salad, Peas n' Rice, and [[conch fritter]]s
* [[Barbados]] – [[Cou-cou]] and [[flying fish]]
* [[Belize]] – rice and beans, stew chicken with potato salad; white rice, stew beans and fry fish with cole slaw
* [[British Virgin Islands]] – fish and [[fungee]]
* [[Cayman Islands]] – turtle stew, turtle steak, [[grouper]], conch stew, Cayman-style beef with rice and beans, cassava cake
* [[Colombian cuisine|Colombian]] Caribbean – rice with coconut milk, [[arroz con pollo]], [[sancocho]], [[Arab cuisine]] (due to the large Arab population)
* [[Cuban cuisine|Cuba]] – [[platillo Moros y Cristianos]], [[ropa vieja]], [[lechon]], [[plantain (cooking)|maduros]], [[ajiaco]]
* [[Dominica cuisine|Dominica]] – [[mountain chicken]], rice and peas, dumplings, saltfish, dashin, bakes (fried dumplings), coconut confiture, curry goat, cassava [[farine]], oxtail
* [[Dominican Republic cuisine|Dominican Republic]] – [[arroz con pollo]] with stewed red [[kidney bean]]s, [[pan fry|pan fried]] or [[braised]] beef, salad/ ensalada de coditos, [[empanadas]], [[Mangú (dish)|mangú]], sancocho
* [[Grenadan cuisine|Grenada]] – [[oil down]], Roti and rice & chicken
* [[Guyana]] – [[roti]] and [[curry]], [[Guyana pepperpot|pepperpot]], cook-up rice, metemgee, [[pholourie]]
* [[Haitian cuisine|Haiti]] – griot (fried pork) served with du riz a pois or diri ak pwa ([[rice and beans]])
* [[Jamaican cuisine|Jamaica]] – [[ackee and saltfish]], [[callaloo]], [[jerk chicken]], [[curry chicken]]
* [[Montserrat]] – [[Goat water]]
* [[Puerto Rican cuisine|Puerto Rico]] – yellow rice with green [[pigeon pea]]s, saltfish stew, roasted pork shoulder, Puerto Rican style pasteles (root vegetable meat patties), chicken fricassée, [[pasteles]], [[mofongo]], tripe soup, [[tostones]], [[alcapurria]], codfish fritters, coconut custard, rice pudding, guava turnovers, Mallorca bread
* [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] – [[goat water]], coconut dumplings, spicy [[plantain (cooking)|plantain]], [[saltfish]], [[breadfruit]]
* [[Saint Lucian cuisine|Saint Lucia]] – [[callaloo]], [[dal]] [[roti]], [[dried and salted cod]], green [[banana]]s, [[rice and beans]]
* [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] – roasted [[breadfruit]] and fried jackfish
* [[Suriname]] – brown beans and rice, [[roti]] and [[curry]], [[peanut soup]], battered [[fried plantain]] with [[peanut sauce]], [[nasi goreng]], moksi-alesi, [[Vada (food)|bara]], [[Pom (dish)|pom]]
* [[Trinidad and Tobago cuisine|Trinidad and Tobago]] – [[doubles (food)|doubles]], [[curry]] with [[roti]] or [[dal bhat]], [[aloo pie]], [[Pholourie|phulourie]], [[callaloo]], [[Bake and Shark|bake and shark]], curry crab and dumpling
* [[United States Virgin Islands]] – stewed goat, oxtail or beef, seafood, [[callaloo]], [[cou-cou|fungee]]
* [[Venezuelan cuisine|Venezuela]] Caribbean – fried fish with salad and rise, [[tostones]], [[sancocho]], [[patacon]], [[Pabellón criollo|pabellon]]

===Major sights and landmarks in the region===
* Harrisons Cave in [[Barbados]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guide |first=Barbados org Travel |title=Harrison's Cave, Barbados - The Ultimate Island Attraction |url=https://barbados.org/hcave.htm |access-date=2025-12-08 |website=barbados.org}}</ref> - a natural cave complex
* Dunns Falls in [[Jamaica]] - a famous water feature near [[Ocho Rios]]
* The old city centers of [[Santo Domingo]] ([[Dominican Republic]]), [[Willemstad]] ([[Curaçao]]), and [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] ([[Puerto Rico]])
* [[Sint Maarten|St. Maarten]]'s [[Princess Juliana International Airport|airport]] for landings over Maho Beach<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAHO - The 'Airplane Beach' - Sint Maarten Airport |url=https://www.visitstmaarten.com/beaches/maho-beach/ |access-date=2025-12-08 |website=St. Maarten / St. Martin |language=en}}</ref>
* The naturally occurring, strikingly pointed Piton peaks in [[Saint Lucia|St. Lucia]]

=== Sport ===
{{Excerpt|Sport in the Caribbean|Sport|paragraphs=1-4}}

===Regional institutions===
Here are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:
* [[African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States]]
* [[Association of Caribbean States]] (ACS), Trinidad and Tobago
* Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago
* Caribbean Association of National Telecommunication Organizations (CANTO), Trinidad and Tobago<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canto.org/ |title=CANTO Caribbean portal |publisher=Canto.org |access-date=6 December 2008 |archive-date=20 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120232235/http://www.canto.org/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM), Guyana
* [[Caribbean Development Bank]] (CDB), Barbados
* [[Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency]] (CDERA), Barbados
* Caribbean Educators Network<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caribbeaneducatorsnetwork.com/ |title=Caribbean Educators Network |publisher=CEN |access-date=6 December 2008 |archive-date=14 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414112803/http://www.caribbeaneducatorsnetwork.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Caribbean Electric Utility Services Corporation (CARILEC), Saint Lucia<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.carilec.com/ |title=Carilec |publisher=Carilec.com |access-date=6 December 2008 |archive-date=3 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203120114/http://www.carilec.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Caribbean Environment Programme]] (CEP), UN Environment Programme–administered [[United Nations Environment Programme#The Regional Seas Programme|Regional Seas Programme]], secretariat located in Kingston, Jamaica<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unep.org/cep/who-we-are|title=Who we are|website=The Caribbean Environment Programme and Cartagena Convention Secretariat|publisher=United Nations Environment Programme|access-date=8 July 2024}}</ref>
* [[Caribbean Examinations Council]] (CXC), Barbados and Jamaica
* [[Caribbean Financial Action Task Force]] (CFATF), Trinidad and Tobago
* [[Caribbean Food Crops Society]], Puerto Rico
* [[Caribbean Football Union]] (CFU), Jamaica
* Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association (CHTA), Florida and Puerto Rico<ref>{{cite web|title=About Us|url=http://www.caribbeanhotelassociation.com/AboutCHTA.php|publisher=Caribbean Hotel & Tourism Association|access-date=17 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402111250/http://www.caribbeanhotelassociation.com/AboutCHTA.php|archive-date=2 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Caribbean Initiative]] (Initiative of the IUCN)
* [[Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness]] (CPEC), Saint Lucia
* Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme (CREP), Barbados<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crepnet.net |title=Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme |publisher=Crepnet.net |access-date=6 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611084623/http://www.crepnet.net/ |archive-date=11 June 2008}}</ref>
* Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM), Belize<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.caricom-fisheries.com/ |title=Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism |publisher=Caricom-fisheries.com |access-date=6 December 2008 |archive-date=24 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024022036/http://www.caricom-fisheries.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery (CRNM), Barbados and Dominican Republic<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crnm.org/ |title=Official website of the RNM |publisher=Crnm.org |access-date=6 December 2008 |archive-date=22 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422053457/http://www.crnm.org/ |url-status=usurped}}</ref>
* Caribbean Telecommunications Union (CTU), Trinidad and Tobago
* [[Caribbean Tourism Organization]] (CTO), Barbados
* [[Community of Latin American and Caribbean States]] (CELAC)
* [[Foundation for the Development of Caribbean Children]], Barbados
* [[Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre]] (LACNIC), Brazil and [[Uruguay]]
* [[Latin American Economic System|Latin American and the Caribbean Economic System]], Venezuela
* [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS), Saint Lucia
* [[United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean]] (ECLAC), [[Chile]] and Trinidad and Tobago
* [[University of the West Indies]], Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, and Antigua & Barbuda.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uwi.edu/ |title=University of the West Indies |publisher=Uwi.edu |access-date=6 December 2008 |archive-date=4 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204114142/http://www.uwi.edu/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, the fourth campus, the Open Campus was formed in June 2008 as a result of an amalgamation of the Board for Non-Campus Countries and Distance Education, Schools of Continuing Studies, the UWI Distance Education Centres and Tertiary Level Units. The Open Campus has 42 physical sites in 16 Anglophone Caribbean countries.
* [[West Indies Cricket Board]], Antigua and Barbuda<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.windiescricket.com/ |title=West Indies Cricket Board WICB Official Website |publisher=Windiescricket.com |access-date=6 December 2008 |archive-date=3 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103005917/http://windiescricket.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
* The Caribbean World <ref>https://thecaribbeanworld.com/</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Caribbean|Geography|Islands|North America}}
{{div col|colwidth=26em}}
* [[African diaspora]]
* [[Anchor coinage]]
* [[British African-Caribbean people]]
* [[Caribbean people]]
* [[Climate change in the Caribbean]]
* [[CONCACAF]]
* [[Council on Hemispheric Affairs]]
* [[Economy of the Caribbean]]
* [[South Asian diaspora]]
** [[Indo-Caribbean]]
*** [[Indo-Caribbean diaspora]]
* [[List of Caribbean music genres]]
* [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Caribbean]]
* [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin]]
* [[Piracy in the Caribbean]]
* [[Politics of the Caribbean]]
* [[Democracy in the Caribbean]]
* [[Tourism in Latin America and the Caribbean]]

'''Geography:'''
* [[Americas (terminology)]]
* [[List of archipelagos by number of islands]]
* [[List of Caribbean islands]]
* [[List of indigenous names of Eastern Caribbean islands]]
* [[List of mountain peaks of the Caribbean]]
* [[List of Ultras of the Caribbean]]
* [[Middle America (Americas)]]
* [[Latin America and the Caribbean]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
* Engerman, Stanley L. "A Population History of the Caribbean", pp. 483–528 in ''A Population History of North America'' Michael R. Haines and Richard Hall Steckel (Eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-521-49666-7}}.
* Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J. D'agostino, eds. ''Understanding the Contemporary Caribbean'', London: Lynne Rienner, 2003 {{ISBN|1-58826-663-X}}.

== Further reading ==
* Develtere, Patrick R. 1994. "Co-operation and development: With special reference to the experience of the Commonwealth Caribbean" ACCO, {{ISBN|90-334-3181-5}}
* Gowricharn, Ruben, ed. ''Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion''. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-7391-1167-3}}
* Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. ''Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean''. Kingston: [[University of West Indies]] Press, 2003. {{ISBN|976-640-135-7}}
* Heuman, Gad. ''Brief Histories: The Caribbean''. London: Hodder Arnold, 2006. {{ISBN|9780340763636}}
* de Kadt, Emanuel, (editor). ''Patterns of foreign influence in the Caribbean'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1972. {{ISBN|0-19-214988-1}}
* Knight, Franklin W. and Colin A. Palmer, eds. ''The Modern Caribbean'' (The University of North Carolina Press, 1989). {{ISBN|0-8078-1825-9}}
* Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. ''A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny''. Addison-Wesley Publishing. {{ISBN|0-201-52396-5}}
* Langley, Lester D. ''The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century''. London: [[University of Georgia Press]], 4th edition, 1989. {{ISBN|0-8203-1153-7}}
* Maingot, Anthony P. ''The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship''. Westview Press, 1994. {{ISBN|0-8133-2242-1}}
* Palmié, Stephan, and Francisco A. Scarano, eds. ''The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples'' (University of Chicago Press; 2011); 660 pp.; writings on the region since the pre-Columbian era. {{ISBN|978-0-226-64506-3}}
* Ramnarine, Tina K. ''Beautiful Cosmos: Performance and Belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora''. London: Pluto Press, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-7453-1767-0}}
* Rowntree, Lester, Martin Lewis, Marie Price, William Wyckoff. ''Diversity Amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development'', Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall, 4th edition, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-13-600554-4}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Caribbean}}
* {{commons category-inline|Caribbean}}

{{Caribbean topic}}
{{Caribbean topics}}
{{Regions of the world}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|14|31|32|N|75|49|06|W|display=title|type:waterbody_source:dewiki_scale:15000000}}

[[Category:Caribbean| ]]

Vikram Dev

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox royalty
|name = Vikram Dev
|image = Maharaja Vikram Dev.jpg
|caption = Vikram Dev
|succession = Raja of Jeypore
|reign = 1758–1781
|predecessor = Lal Krishna Dev
|successor = Ram Chandra Dev II
|birth_date = 20 December 1701
|birth_place = [[Purunagarh|Fort Purnagadh]], Jeypore
|death_date ={{death date and age|1781|7|1|1701|12|20|df=yes}}
|death_place = Jeypore
|spouse = Lalitamani Patta Devi
|issue = Ram Chandra Dev II
|dynasty =
|father = Raghunath Krishna Dev
|mother = Rukmani Devi
|religion = [[Hinduism]]
|regent = Jagannath Patro{{sfn|Datt|Senapati|Sahu|2016|p=49}}
|reg-type = Ministers
}}

'''Vikram Dev I''' or '''Vikram Dev''' was the ruler of [[Jeypore Estate|Jeypore]] from 1758 to 1781. He succeeded his brother Lal Krishna Dev. He retransferred the capital from Narayanapatna to Jeypore which had been deserted from the time of Balaram Dev in 1711. In the last years of his reign, the kingdom was demoted to a zamindari after they were defeated by the British.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Tara |last1=Datt|last2=Senapati|first2=Nilamani|last3=Sahu|first3=Nabin Kumar|url=https://koraput.odisha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-07/Koraput%20Gazetteer%20New.pdf|title=Odisha District Gazetteers: Koraput|publisher=Gopabandhu Academy of Administration|year=2016|location=Bhubaneshwar|page=48 }}</ref>

== Reign ==
He married Lalitamani Devi, the granddaughter of Raja Udaya Singh of Kalahandi and consolidated his friendship with the ruler of that state. Vikram Dev had a strong army and he stationed a troop of 4000 to guard between Jeypore and Narayanpatna. The French, who led an expedition through Malkangiri, were driven out by his army and he also successfully hurled back the Marathas, who once marched as far as Umarkot.{{sfn|Datt|Senapati|Sahu|2016|p=49}}

In 1768 Vijayarama Raju II, the ruler of [[Vizianagaram (Pusapati dynasty)|Vizianagaram]] claimed the Jeypore territory under an alleged grant in 1752 by Salabatjung, the then Subedar of the Deccan. It was during the course of this disturbance that the British first asserted their authority over Jeypore by sending a body of troops. By 15 January 1775 they took possession of Rayagada and by the last week of February they besieged the fort of Jeypore and defeated the Maratha troops who rushed in to help.{{sfn|Datt|Senapati|Sahu|2016|p=49-50}}

=== Conquest of Kotpad ===
In 1777, Raja Daryao Deo of Bastar was ousted by his brother Raja Ajmer Singh and the former absconded to Jeypore seeking shelter in the fort of Vikram Dev. Essentially, Raja Daryao was accompanied by Vikram Dev to the capital of Bastar with one hundred cavalry, one hundred swordsmen, twelve thousand infantry, twenty canons and fifteen war elephants and was further joined by thousands of rebel soldiers. The defense of Ajgar Singh collapsed in a day and Daryao Deo was reinstalled on the throne of Bastar. The tract of [[Kotpad]] was presented to Vikram Dev for his services.<ref>{{cite book |last=Joshi |first=G. M. |title=Tribal Bastar and the British Administration |url={{Google books|ZuhHAAAAMAAJ|page=28|keywords=|text=Kotpad|plainurl=yes}} |page=28 |place=Delhi |year=1990 |publisher=Indus Publishing Company |isbn=978-8185182377 }}</ref>

== Death ==
Vikram Dev died in 1781 and was succeeded by Ram Chandra Dev II.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dev, Vikram}}
[[Category:1701 births]]
[[Category:1781 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian maharajas]]

Vasool

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#REDIRECT [[List of Tamil films of 2008#July–September]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

Anglo-Indian people

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Brandon81T: enhance layout per sources

{{Short description|Ethnic group or cultural group identification}}
{{About|an Indian minority community of partial British origin|Indian people of British origin|Britons in India|British people of Indian origin|British Indians|other uses|British Indian (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2022}}
{{redirect|Anglo-Indian|other uses|Anglo-Indian (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Anglo-Indians
| image = Mother and daughter in India 1920.jpg
| caption = Anglo-Indian lady and girl in {{circa|1920}} ([[British Raj]] era)
| population = 500,000<ref name="Moore 1996">{{cite journal |last=Moore |first=Gloria J. |title=A Brief History of the Anglo-Indians |journal=International Journal of Anglo-Indian Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |year=1996 |url=https://international-journal-of-anglo-indian-studies.org/index.php/IJAIS/article/view/78}}</ref>
| region1 = {{flag|India}}
| pop1 = {{plainlist|
*300,000-400,000 (1996)<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ann |last=Lobo |title=Anglo-Indian Schools and Anglo-Indian Educational Disadvantage, Part 2 |journal=International Journal of Anglo-Indian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |year=1996 |url=https://international-journal-of-anglo-indian-studies.org/index.php/IJAIS/article/view/82}}</ref>
*125,000-150,000 (2023)<ref name=profile>{{cite web | url=https://minorityrights.org/communities/anglo-indians/ | title=Anglo-Indians in India |year=2023|publisher=Minority Rights Group}}</ref><ref name=andrews>Andrews, Robyn & Raj, Merin Simi. (2021). Anglo-Indian identity: past and present, in India and the diaspora. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>}}
| region2 = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| pop2 = 86,000<ref>Blair Williams, ''Anglo Indians'', CTR, 2002, p.189</ref>
| region3 = {{flag|Australia}}
| pop3 = 22,000
| region4 = {{flag|Canada}}
| pop4 = 22,000
| region5 = {{flag|Bangladesh}}
| pop5 = 2,100<ref>https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/10327/BG</ref>
| region6 = {{flag|United States}}
| pop6 = 20,000
| region7 = {{flag|Myanmar}}
| pop7 = 19,200<ref name="escholarshare.drake.edu"/>
| region8 = {{flag|New Zealand}}
| pop8 = 15,861
| region9 = {{flag|Malaysia}}
| pop9 = 10,310
| region10 = {{flag|Singapore}}
| pop10 = 4,800
| region11 = {{flag|Pakistan}}
| pop11 = <1,500<ref name=Fisher-2007/>
| languages = [[English language|English]] ([[British English|British]]{{·}}[[Indian English|Indian]]) [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi]]{{·}}[[Urdu]]) Many other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]]
| religions = '''Majority:''' [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]] [[Christianity]] ([[Protestantism|Protestant]]{{·}}[[Catholic Church|Catholic]])
 '''Minority:''' [[File:Om.svg|15px]] [[Hinduism]]{{·}}[[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]] [[Islam]]{{·}}[[File:Khanda.svg|15px]] [[Sikhism]]
| related = [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]], [[Scottish-Indian]]s, [[Irish Indians]], [[Burgher people|Burghers]], [[Kristang people]], [[Indo people]], [[Eurasians in Singapore|Singaporean Eurasians]], [[Macanese people]], [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan people]], [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian people]], [[British people]], [[Indian diaspora]]
}}

'''Anglo-Indian people''' are a distinct [[minority group|minority community]] in India with at least partial [[British People|British]] ancestry.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd ed. (1989)</ref><ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Anglo-Indian "Anglo-Indian"], ''[[Reference.com|Dictionary.com]]''.</ref><ref name="OED">{{cite web|title=Anglo-Indian|work=Oxford Dictionary Online|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Anglo-Indian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114061339/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Anglo-Indian|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 November 2011|access-date=2012-01-30}}</ref> Post-[[British Raj]], "Anglo-Indian" has also encompassed other European and Indian ancestries. Anglo-Indians' first language is usually [[English language|English]]. Prior to 1911, various designations like "Eurasian" or "Indo-Briton" were used to describe this community. Nowadays, Anglo-Indian refers primarily to individuals with mixed British and Indian ancestry<ref name="OED"></ref> after the departure of a substantial number of Britons following [[Indian independence movement|independence]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=The British Withdrawal from India |journal=Royal United Services Institution. Journal |date=August 1948 |volume=93 |issue=571 |pages=355–357 |doi=10.1080/03071844809423389 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maria |first=Misra |date=1999-04-29 |title=Business, Race, and Politics in British India, c. 1850–1960 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/32994 |journal=OUP Academic |language=en |doi=10.1093/acprof:o|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 }}</ref>

The [[All India Anglo-Indian Association]], founded in 1926, has long represented the interests of this ethnic group; it holds that Anglo-Indians are unique in that they are [[Christianity in India|Christians]], speak [[Indian English|English]] as their mother tongue, and have a historical link to both the [[British Isles]] and the [[Indian sub-continent]].<ref name="Andrews2013">{{cite book|last=Andrews|first=Robyn|title=Christmas in Calcutta: Anglo-Indian Stories and Essays|date=2013|publisher=SAGE Publishing India|isbn=978-81-321-1814-5}}</ref>

During the period of [[Colonial India|British rule in India]], people of mixed British and Indian descent typically originated from children born to unions between British fathers and Indian mothers from the 17th century onwards.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}} This new ethnic group formed a small yet significant portion of the population and became well represented in certain administrative roles. As Anglo-Indians were mostly isolated from both British and Indian society, their documented numbers dwindled from roughly 300,000 [[Indian Independence Act 1947|at the time of independence in 1947]] to about 125,000–150,000 in modern-day India. During much of the time that [[British Raj|Britain ruled India]] (the [[British Raj|Raj]]), British-Indian relationships faced stigma, which meant that the ethnicity of some Anglo-Indians was undocumented or identified incorrectly. As such, many have adapted to local communities in India or emigrated to the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[South Africa]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref name="Minority Rights Group">{{cite web | title=Anglo-Indians in India | website=Minority Rights Group | date=2024-04-12 | url=https://minorityrights.org/communities/anglo-indians/ | access-date=2026-02-19}}</ref>

Similar communities can also be seen in other parts of the world, although in smaller numbers, such as [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]] in Myanmar and [[Burgher people|Burghers]] in Sri Lanka.<ref name="Ferdinands">{{cite book|last=Ferdinands|first=Rodney|title=Proud & Prejudiced: the story of the Burghers of Sri Lanka|publisher=R. Ferdinands|location=Melbourne|year=1995|isbn=0-646-25592-4|pages=2–32|url=http://www.ferdinandus.com/Proudandprejudiced/P&P.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322163919/http://www.ferdinandus.com/Proudandprejudiced/P%26P.pdf|archive-date=22 March 2015}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Anglo-Indian Population in India from 1951 to 2011<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census of India 2011 – Official Website |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/ |access-date=31 December 2024 |publisher=Census India}}</ref>
<ref>Rao, M.S.A. "Anglo-Indian Communities and their Social Assimilation in India", 2003.</ref>
<ref>Fernandes, Clifford. "The Anglo-Indian Experience: From Colonial to Post-Colonial India", 1995.</ref>
<ref>Jaffrelot, Christophe. "The India-Pakistan Conflict: An Overview", 2002.</ref>
|-
! Year !! Population
|-
| 1951 || {{Decrease}}296,364
|-
| 1961 || {{Decrease}}227,267
|-
| 1971 || {{Decrease}}173,128
|-
| 1981 || {{Decrease}}145,340
|-
| 1991 || {{Decrease}}106,270
|-
| 2001 || {{Decrease}}78,512
|-
| 2011 || {{Decrease}}56,394
|}
Due to Indian distrust of the Anglo-Indians' pro-British attitudes and Western-oriented culture, the population of the Anglo-Indian community has decreased due to emigration to the west or integration into the broader Indian community.<ref name="Minority Rights Group"></ref> In 2023, Clive Van Buerle of the All-India Anglo-Indian Association governing body estimated, based on membership, that there were approximately 350,000-400,000 Anglo-Indians in India.<ref name=":1" />

==History==
The first use of "Anglo-Indian" was to describe all [[British people|Britons]] who lived in India. People of mixed British and Indian descent were referred to as "Eurasians". "Anglo-Indians" now primarily refer to the latter group,<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite web|title=Eurasian|publisher=[[Dictionary.com]]|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Eurasian|access-date=2009-01-13|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081208085457/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/eurasian|archive-date= 8 December 2008|url-status= dead}}</ref>. The community originated soon after 1639 when the British East India Company established a settlement in Madras. The community identified itself with and was accepted by the British until 1791, when Anglo-Indians were excluded from positions of authority in the civil, military and marine services in the East India Company. During the Indian rebellion of 1857, Anglo-Indians sided with the British and consequently received favoured treatment from the British government in preference to other Indians, serving in large numbers in the strategic services of the railways, the postal and telegraph services, and customs. In 1919, the Anglo-Indian community was given one reserved seat in the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi. The English-speaking Anglo-Indians identified themselves with the British against the nationalist Congress Party.

===Creation===
During the [[East India Company]]'s [[Company rule in India|rule in India]] in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, it was common for British officers and soldiers to take local wives and start families, owing to an initial lack of British women in India.<ref>{{citation|title=Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857|first=Michael Herbert|last=Fisher|year=2006|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=81-7824-154-4|pages=111–9, 129–30, 140, 154–6, 160–8}}</ref><ref name=Fisher-2007>{{citation|title=Excluding and Including 'Natives of India': Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain|first=Michael H.|last=Fisher|journal=[[Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East]]|volume=27|issue=2|year=2007|pages=303–314 [304–5]|doi=10.1215/1089201x-2007-007|s2cid=146613125 }}</ref> Looking at the records of [[Will and testament|wills]] from the early 1780s, a third of all British men in India named their Indian wives and children as their inheritors. By the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers, but fewer than 2,000 British officials present in India but by then the [[Suez Canal]] was opened and many British women came to India in quick transit.<ref name=Fisher-2007/>

Before the British Raj, the Company, with some reluctance, endorsed a policy of local marriage for its soldiers. The board of directors wrote in 1688 to its Council at [[Fort St. George]]: "Induce by all meanes you can invent our Souldiers (sic) to marry with the Native women, because it will be impossible to get ordinary young women, as we have before directed, to pay their own passages, although Gentlewomen sufficient do offer themselves." Until 1741, a special payment was made to each soldier who had his child baptised as a [[Protestantism|Protestant]]. The concern in London was that if the soldiers at Fort St. George lived with or married the many [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] women there the children would be brought up as [[Roman Catholics]] rather than Protestants. The Company's officials on the ground were less worried about the religious issue, but more concerned that soldiers should be married "to prevent wickedness". Married soldiers with family ties were thought more likely to be better behaved than bachelors.

The British military population in India grew rapidly from a few hundred soldiers in the mid-18th century to 18,000 in the Royal and Company armies of 1790, though this figure includes native Indian sepoys, who made up the vast majority of the military during the company rule and crown rule in India. During this time the records of cohabitation and last testaments show that at least a third of all British men in India married an Indian woman or left their inheritance to their Anglo-Indian children. There were also many second generation British officers who were born and raised in India, such as Lieutenant-Colonel [[James Achilles Kirkpatrick|James Kirkpatrick]] who was born in Madras in 1764, wore Mughal style clothing, and spoke Tamil as a first language.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=William. |first=Dalrymple |title=White Mughals : love and betrayal in eighteenth-century India |date=2011 |publisher=CNIB |isbn=978-0-616-60849-4 |oclc=1012165963 }}</ref> Left with a strong affinity for the cultural practices of their childhood homeland, many although nominally Christian would adopt local Hindu and Muslim customs such as shunning pork, beef, and even becoming vegetarians. Kirkpatrick would even go on to converting to Islam in order to marry a [[Sayyid]]a noblewoman named Khair-un-Nissa in 1800, having two children together, and assimilating into the Hyderabadi elite. Other officials such as [[William Fraser (British India civil servant)|William Fraser]] would similarly assimilate themselves into local Indian culture, even patronizing artists and poets such as [[Ghalib]], and going on to have dozens of children with many women, both Hindu and Muslim. Notable children of these unions such as [[James Skinner (East India Company officer)|James Skinner]], also named Sikandar Sahib, the son of a Scottish Company officer and an Indian noblewoman of the [[Bhojpuri region|Bhojpur region]], would go on to serve prominent roles in the [[Maratha Army]] and later [[Bengal Army]] where he raised his own regiment called [[1st Horse (Skinner's Horse)|Skinner's Horse]].<ref name=":0" />

Many children were born to unofficial partnerships: 54% of the children baptised at [[St. John's Church, Kolkata|St. John's, Calcutta]] between 1767 and 1782 were Anglo-Indian and illegitimate.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} British women of good social standing were scarce; in 1785 surgeon John Stewart wrote to his brother from [[Cawnpore]]: "Many of the women here are mere adventuresses from Milliners shops on [[Ludgate Hill]] and some even from [[Covent Garden]] and [[Drury Lane|Old Drury]] [well known areas of prostitution in late 18th century London]. They possess neither sentiment nor education, and are so intoxicated by their sudden elevation, that a sensible man can only regard them with indignation and outrage."

The reforming zeal of Governor-General [[Lord Cornwallis]] had ensured that by the 1780s, the opportunities for Company servants to make a fortune through trade had gone forever. Most had to live on their Company salaries and few could afford to support a wife. Company officers were paid less than their counterparts in the British Army and promotion might take twice as long, perhaps 25 years to reach the rank of Major in the Company compared to between 12 and 17 years in the Royal Army; and in the [[Bengal]] Army in 1784, there were only four Colonels amongst 931 officers. Few young officers in either army managed to avoid debt. It might have cost approximately £50 a year (Rs 24 to Rs 40 a month) to provide for the wants of an Indian companion and her attendants, compared with £600 to support a British wife with any degree of public style.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}} 83 of 217 wills in Bengal between 1780 and 1785 contained bequests either to Indian companions or their natural children, who were the offspring of high and low in British society, and gentlemen of wealth often left substantial bequests and annuities to their Indian partners and children. When Major Thomas Naylor in 1782 bequeathed to his companion Muckmul Patna Rs 4000, a bungalow and a garden at [[Berhampore]], a hackery, bullocks, her jewels, clothes, and all their male and female slaves, he treated her as he might a wife. Where they could, gentlemen sent their Anglo-Indian daughters to the ladies' seminaries in Presidency towns and to England to be 'finished'; and when they returned, they were married off to fellow officers. Some daughters of senior officers became substantial heiresses whose wealth was a marked marital attraction, but many more daughters of impoverished officers, raised in military orphanages after the deaths of their fathers, hoped only to find a suitable husband at the monthly public dances. Save in very few cases, when British men returned home, the Indian companion and any children stayed in India: British soldiers were not permitted to bring them, and many officers and civil servants feared the social and cultural consequences.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hawes |first=Christopher |date=1996 |title=Poor Relations: The Making of a Eurasian Community in British India 1773-1833 |publisher=Curzon Press |pages=3–11 |isbn=0-7007-0425-6}}</ref>

===Neglect===
Originally, under Regulation VIII of 1813, Anglo-Indians were excluded from the British legal system and in Bengal became subject to the rule of [[Sharia|Islamic law]] outside [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], and yet found themselves without any caste or status amongst those who were to judge them. This coincided with the Company officially allowing Christian missionaries into India; and evangelical organisations and popular writers of the time like [[Mary Sherwood]] routinely blamed the alleged moral shortcomings or personality defects of the growing Anglo-Indian population upon the Indian mother rather than the European father. There was growing disapproval of marriages amongst the Company elite and Anglo-Indian women. The public dances for the female wards of the Upper Military Academy, Calcutta, which had been attended so eagerly fifty years earlier had been discontinued by the 1830s. Public argument against marriages to Indian and Anglo-Indian women skirted the question of race and focused on their social consequences: they did not mix well in British society, lacked education, were reluctant to leave India when their men retired, and - probably most important of all - would handicap the career of an ambitious husband. By 1830, the proportion of illegitimate births registered in the Bengal Presidency had fallen to 10%, and British wills in Bengal in 1830-2 record less than one in four bequests to Indian women and their children compared with almost two in five fifty years earlier. For all the social disapproval, however, officers and Company servants continued to marry Anglo-Indian girls, and it was thought that in Calcutta alone there were more than 500 marriageable Anglo-Indian girls in the 1820s, compared to 250 Englishwomen in the whole of Bengal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hawes |first=Christopher |date=1996 |title=Poor Relations: The Making of a Eurasian Community in British India 1773-1833 |publisher=Curzon Press |pages=15–19 |isbn=0-7007-0425-6}}</ref>

In 1821, a pamphlet entitled "Thoughts on how to better the condition of Indo-Britons" by a "Practical Reformer", was written to promote the removal of prejudices existing in the minds of young Eurasians against engaging in trades. This was followed up by another pamphlet, entitled "An Appeal on behalf of Indo-Britons". Prominent Eurasians in Calcutta formed the "East Indian Committee" with a view to send a petition to the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]] for the redress of their grievances. John William Ricketts, a pioneer in the Eurasian cause, volunteered to proceed to England. His mission was successful, and on his return to India, by way of [[Madras]], he received a standing ovation from his countrymen in that presidency; and was afterwards warmly welcomed in Calcutta, where a report of his mission was read at a public meeting held in the Calcutta Town Hall. In April 1834, in obedience to an Act of Parliament passed in August 1833, the Indian government was forced to grant government jobs to Anglo-Indians.<ref name=autogenerated3/>

As British women began arriving in India in large numbers around the early to mid-19th century, mostly as family members of officers and soldiers, British men became less likely to marry Indian women. Intermarriage declined after the events of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Rebellion of 1857]],<ref>{{citation|title=Vanishing Women: Magic, Film, and Feminism|first=Karen Redrobe|last=Beckman|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|year=2003|isbn=0-8223-3074-1|pages=31–3}}</ref> after which several [[anti-miscegenation laws]] were implemented.<ref>{{citation|title=Converting Women|first=Eliza F.|last=Kent|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] US|year=2004|isbn=0-19-516507-1|pages=85–6}}</ref><ref>{{citation|doi=10.1353/dia.1996.0005|title=Review Essay: Colonial Figures and Postcolonial Reading|first=Suvir|last=Kaul|journal=[[Diacritics (journal)|Diacritics]]|volume=26|issue=1|year=1996|pages=74–89 [83–9]|s2cid=144798987}}</ref> As a result, Eurasians were neglected by both the British and Indian populations in India.

===Consolidation===
Over generations, Anglo-Indians intermarried with other Anglo-Indians to form a community that developed a culture of its own. [[Anglo-Indian cuisine|Their cuisine]], dress, speech (use of English as their [[mother tongue]]), and religion ([[Christianity]]) all served to further separate them from the native population. A number of factors fostered a strong sense of community among Anglo-Indians. Their English language school system, their strongly Anglo-influenced culture, and their Christian beliefs in particular helped bind them together.<ref name=autogenerated3>Maher, James, Reginald. (2007). These Are The Anglo Indians . London: Simon Wallenberg Press. (An Anglo Indian Heritage Book)</ref>

They formed social clubs and associations to run functions, including regular dances on occasions such as [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]].<ref name=autogenerated2 /> Indeed, their Christmas [[Ball (dance)|balls]], held in most major cities, still form a distinctive part of [[Christianity in India|Indian Christian]] culture.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bangalore/Anglo-Indians-mark-Christmas-with-charity/articleshow/3892370.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811090246/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-12-26/bangalore/27908605_1_anglo-indians-army-officer-charity | url-status=live | archive-date=11 August 2011 |location=India | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Anglo-Indians mark Christmas with charity | date=26 December 2008}}</ref>

Over time Anglo-Indians were specifically recruited into the Customs and Excise, Post and Telegraphs, Forestry Department, the railways and teaching professions – but they were employed in many other fields as well.

The Anglo-Indian community also had a role as go-betweens in the introduction of Western musical styles, harmonies and instruments in post-Independence India. During the colonial era, genres including [[ragtime]] and [[jazz]] were played by bands for the social elites, and these bands often contained Anglo-Indian members.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.equinoxpub.com/journals/index.php/JAZZ/article/view/11365|title=Jazz and race in colonial India: The role of Anglo-Indian musicians in the diffusion of jazz in Calcutta : Dorin : Jazz Research Journal|website=Equinoxpub.com|access-date=30 August 2017|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924001835/http://www.equinoxpub.com/journals/index.php/JAZZ/article/view/11365|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Independence and choices===
[[File:A male Anglo-Indian being washed, dressed and attended by fi Wellcome V0019936.jpg|thumb|A male Anglo-Indian being washed, dressed and attended.]]
Around the time of the [[Indian independence movement]], the [[All-India Anglo-Indian Association]] was [[Opposition to the partition of India|opposed to the partition of India]]; its then president [[Frank Anthony]] criticized the colonial authorities for "racial discrimination in matters of pay and allowances, and for failing to acknowledge the sterling military and civil contributions made by Anglo-Indians to the Raj".<ref name="Anthony1969">{{cite book |author=[[Frank Anthony]] |title=Britain's Betrayal in India: The Story of the Anglo-Indian Community |date=1969 |publisher=Allied Publishers |page=157 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Mansingh">{{cite book |last1=Mansingh |first1=Surjit |title=Historical Dictionary of India |date=2006 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6502-0 |page=61 |language=en |quote=Anthony was vocally critical of the British Raj in India for its racial discrimination in matters of pay and allowances, and for failing to acknowledge the sterling military and civil contributions made by Anglo-Indians to the Raj. Anthony vociferously opposed Partition and fought for the best interests of his community as Indians, not Britishers.}}</ref>

Their position at the time of independence of India was difficult. Given their English ancestry, many felt a loyalty to a British "home" that most had never seen and where they would gain little social acceptance. ''[[Bhowani Junction]]'' touches on the identity crisis faced by the Anglo-Indian community during the independence movement of the 20th century. They felt insecure in an India that put a premium on participation in the independence movement as a prerequisite for important government positions.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

Many Anglo-Indians left the country in 1947, hoping to make a new life in the United Kingdom or elsewhere in the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]], such as [[Australia]] or [[Canada]]. The exodus continued through the 1950s and 1960s and by the late 1990s most had left with many of the remaining Anglo-Indians still aspiring to leave.<ref>Anthony, Frank. Britain's Betrayal in India: The Story of the Anglo Indian Community. Second Edition. London: The Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007 Pages 144–146, 92.</ref>

Like the [[Parsi people|Parsi]] community, the Anglo-Indians were essentially urban dwellers. Unlike the Parsis, the mass migrations saw more of the better educated and financially secure Anglo-Indians depart for other Commonwealth nations.<ref name=autogenerated2 />

===21st century cultural resurgence===

There has been a resurgence in celebrating Anglo-Indian culture in the twenty-first century, in the form of [[International Anglo-Indian Reunion]]s and in publishing books. There have been nine reunions, with the latest being held in 2015 in [[Kolkata]].

Several narratives and novels have been published recently. ''The Leopard's Call: An Anglo-Indian Love Story'' (2005) by Reginald Shires, tells of the life of two teachers at the small Bengali town of [[Falakata]], down from [[Bhutan]]; ''At the Age for Love: A Novel of Bangalore during World War II'' (2006) is by the same author. ''In the Shadow of Crows'' (2009)<ref>{{cite web|author=David Charles Manners |url=http://www.davidcharlesmanners.com/ |title=In the Shadow of Crows |publisher=Signal Books |access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> by David Charles Manners, is the critically acclaimed true account of a young Englishman's unexpected discovery of his Anglo-Indian relations in the [[Darjeeling]] district. ''The Hammarskjold Killing'' (2007) by William Higham, is a novel in which a London-born Anglo-Indian heroine is caught up in a terrorist crisis in Sri Lanka. Keith St Clair Butler wrote 'The Secret Vindaloo' (2014, reprint 2016) which used the signature dish of Vindaloo as a deep metaphor for the explorations of his family and community. The book received critical acclaim<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.textjournal.com.au/april15/hecq_rev.htm|title = Review of Keith St Clair Butler, the Secret Vindaloo TEXT Vol 19 No 1}}</ref> The narrative received grants from The Literature Board of Australia and The Victorian Premier's Department of the Arts.

==Christian religious practice==
Anglo-Indians are adherents of [[Christianity]].<ref name="Andrews">{{cite book |last1=Andrews |first1=Robyn |title=Christmas in Calcutta: Anglo-Indian Stories and Essays |date=2013 |publisher=SAGE Publications India |isbn=978-81-321-1881-7 |pages=67–68, 76 |language=en |quote=...that 'all Anglo-Indians are Christian, but not all Christians are Anglo-Indians'.}}</ref> Along with their British heritage and English language, the Christian faith of Anglo-Indians is a major factor that distinguishes them from other ethnic groups.<ref name="Ratti2013">{{cite book |last1=Ratti |first1=Manav |title=The Postsecular Imagination: Postcolonialism, Religion, and Literature |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-09689-2 |page=73 |language=en |quote=The Anglo-Indian community in India insists on its minority identity: its biological connection to the British, English as its native language, and its Christian faith.}}</ref> As such, Anglo-Indians have "been well-represented in all tiers of the churches, from cardinals, archbishops, bishops, priests and ministers, and fill a number of educational roles."<ref name="Andrews"/>

==Present communities==
[[Constitution of India|India constitutionally]] guarantees the rights of communities and religious and linguistic minorities, and thus permits Anglo-Indians to maintain their own schools and to use English as the medium of instruction. In order to encourage the integration of the community into the larger society, the government stipulates that a certain percentage of the student body come from other Indian communities.

In a 2013 [[BBC News]] feature on Anglo-Indians, journalist Kris Griffiths wrote: "It has been noted in recent years that the number of Anglo-Indians who have succeeded in certain fields is remarkably disproportionate to the community's size. For example, in the music industry there are [[Engelbert Humperdinck (singer)|Engelbert Humperdinck]] (born [[Madras]]), [[Peter Sarstedt]] ([[Delhi]]) and [[Cliff Richard]] ([[Lucknow]]). The looser definition of Anglo-Indian (any mixed British-Indian parentage) encompasses the likes of cricketer [[Nasser Hussain]], footballer [[Michael Chopra]] and actor [[Ben Kingsley]]."<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-20857969 |title=Anglo-Indians: Is their culture dying out? |first=Kris |last=Griffiths |work=BBC News |date=4 January 2013 |access-date=19 March 2015}}</ref>

[[Air Vice-Marshal]] [[Maurice Barker]] was India's first Anglo-Indian Air Marshal. At least seven other Anglo-Indians subsequently reached that post, a notable achievement for a small community. A number of others have been decorated for military achievements. Air Marshal [[Malcolm Wollen]] is often considered the man who won India's 1971 war fighting alongside [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sumgenius.com.au/anglo_indians_in_the_air_force.htm |title=Anglo-Indians in the Indian Air Force |publisher=Sumgenius.com.au |access-date=2010-10-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110215213717/http://sumgenius.com.au/anglo_indians_in_the_air_force.htm |archive-date=15 February 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Anglo-Indians made similarly significant contributions to the Indian Navy and Army.<ref>Anthony, Frank. Britain's Betrayal in India: The Story of the Anglo Indian Community. Second Edition. London: The Simon Wallenberg Press.</ref>

One of the most respected matriculation qualifications in India, the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]], was started and built by some of the Anglo-Indian community's best known educationalists, including [[Frank Anthony]], who served as its president, and [[A.E.T. Barrow]], its secretary for the better part of half a century. Most Anglo-Indians, even those without much formal education, find that gaining employment in schools is fairly easy because of their fluency in English.

[[Norman Pritchard]] became India's first ever Olympic medallist, winning two silver medals at the [[1900 Olympic Games]] in Paris, France. In [[cricket]] [[Roger Binny]] was the leading wicket-taker during the Indian cricket team's [[1983 Cricket World Cup|1983 World Cup]] triumph. [[Wilson Jones (billiards player)|Wilson Jones]] was India's first ever World Professional Billiards Champion.

Today, there are estimated to be 350,000-400,000 Anglo-Indians living in India,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-02-20 |title=The young Anglo-Indians retracing their European roots |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-64495467 |access-date=2024-05-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> most of whom are based in the cities of [[Kolkata]], [[Chennai]], [[Bangalore]], [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Hyderabad]], [[Ratlam]], [[Kochi]], [[Pune]], [[Kollam]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2019/12/13/kerala-anglo-indian-community-ernakulam-kollam-kannur.html |title=In Kerala Anglo-Indians are 100,000 strong, not minuscule 124! |newspaper=Onmanorama |publisher=On Manorama |date=13 December 2019 |access-date=13 December 2019}}</ref> [[Secunderabad]], [[Mysuru]], [[Mangaluru]], [[Kolar Gold Fields]], [[Kanpur]], [[Lucknow]], [[Agra]], [[Varanasi]], [[Madurai]], [[Coimbatore]], [[Pothanur]], [[Tiruchirapalli]], [[The Nilgiris district|The Nilgiris]], and a few in [[Hospet]] and [[Hatti Gold Mines]]. Anglo-Indians also live in [[Goa]] and in [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]]. Significant populations also reside in the towns of [[Alappuzha]], [[Kozhikode]], and [[Cannanore]] ([[Kannur]]) in [[Kerala]]; [[Jamalpur, Bihar|Jamalpur]] in [[Bihar]]; [[Dehradun]] in [[Uttarakhand|Uttarkhand]]; [[Ranchi]], [[McCluskieganj]], and [[Dhanbad]] in [[Jharkhand|Jharkand]]; [[Asansol]], [[Kharagpur]], and [[Kalimpong]] in [[West Bengal]]; and [[Khordha|Khurda]] and [[Cuttack]] in [[Odisha]]. However, the Anglo-Indian population has dwindled over the years with most people migrating abroad or to other parts of the country.<ref name="escholarshare.drake.edu">{{cite journal |first1=Roy Dean |last1=Wright |first2=Susan W. |last2=Wright |title=The Anglo-Indian Community in Contemporary India |url=http://escholarshare.drake.edu/bitstream/handle/2092/237/Wright%23237.pdf?sequence=1 |journal=Midwest Quarterly |volume=XII |issue=Winter, 1971 |pages=175–185 |access-date=19 March 2015 }}</ref> [[Tangasseri]] in [[Kollam]] city is the only place in [[Kerala]] State where Anglo-Indian tradition is maintained. However, almost all the colonial structures there have disappeared, except the [[Tangasseri Lighthouse]] built by the British in 1902.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article422686.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402215024/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article422686.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 April 2015 |title=Death knell for Buckingham canal at Thangasseri |publisher=The New Indian Express |access-date=20 March 2015}}</ref>

Most of the Anglo-Indians overseas are concentrated in Britain, [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[United States]], and [[New Zealand]], while some have settled in European countries like [[Switzerland]], [[Germany]], and [[France]]. According to the Anglo-Indians who have settled in Australia, integration for the most part has not been difficult.<ref>The Anglo-Indian Australian Story: My Experience, Zelma Phillips 2004</ref> The community in Burma frequently intermarried with the local [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]] community but both communities suffered from adverse discrimination since Burma's military took over the government in 1962, with most having now left the country to settle overseas.

==Political status==
{{Main|Anglo-Indian reserved seats in the Lok Sabha}}

Article 366(2) of the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] defines Anglo-Indian as:<ref>[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a035833a480e4514802565530037bf7e?OpenDocument "Treaty Bodies Database – Document – State Party Report"] United Nations Human Rights Website. 29 April 1996.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/255331/ |title=Article 366(2) in The Constitution of India 1949|access-date=2012-08-15}}</ref>

<blockquote>(2) an Anglo Indian means a person whose father or any of whose other male progenitors in the male line is or was of European descent but who is domiciled within the territory of India and is or was born within such territory of parents habitually resident therein and not established there for temporary purposes only;</blockquote>

Between 1952 and 2020, the Anglo-Indian community was the only community in India that had its own representatives nominated to the [[Lok Sabha]] ([[lower house]]) in [[Parliament of India]]. These two members were nominated by the [[President of India]] on the advice of the [[Government of India]]. This right was secured from [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] by [[Frank Anthony]], the first and longtime president of the [[All India Anglo-Indian Association]]. The community was represented by two members. This was done because the community had no native state of its own.

Fourteen states out of [[States and union territories of India|twenty-eight states]] in India; [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Telangana]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]] and [[West Bengal]] also had a nominated Anglo-Indian member each in their respective [[State Legislative Assembly (India)|State Legislative Assemblies]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

In January 2020, the Anglo-Indian reserved seats in the Parliament and [[State Legislative Assembly (India)|State Legislatures]] of India were basically abolished by the [[One Hundred and Fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India|104th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livelaw.in/news-updates/constitution-104th-amendment-act-to-come-into-force-151919|title=Anglo Indian Representation To Lok Sabha, State Assemblies Done Away; SC-ST Reservation Extended For 10 Years: Constitution (104th Amendment) Act To Come Into Force On 25th Jan|website=www.livelaw.in|date=23 January 2020|access-date=25 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/government/anglo-indian-mps.html|title=Anglo Indian Members of Parliament (MPs) of India - Powers, Salary, Eligibility, Term|website=www.elections.in}}</ref>

==Other populations==
Historically, the term ''Anglo-Indian'' was also used in common parlance in the British Government and England during the colonial era to refer to those people (such as [[Rudyard Kipling]], or the hunter-naturalist [[Jim Corbett]]), who were of British descent but were born and raised in India, usually because their parents were serving in armed forces or one of the British-run administrations, such as its main government;<ref name=autogenerated2>Stark, Herbert Alick. Hostages To India: OR The Life Story of the Anglo Indian Race. Third Edition. London: The Simon Wallenberg Press: Vol 2: Anglo Indian Heritage Books</ref> "Anglo-Indian", in this sense, was a geographically-specific subset of overseas or non-domiciled British. The label Anglo-Indian, especially in modern usage, usually only refers to individuals with mixed Indian and British ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-08 |title=Anglo-Indian {{!}} People, Language, Food {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anglo-Indian |access-date=2023-10-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> However, Indian nationals with full British ancestry such as [[J. B. S. Haldane]]<ref>{{cite book | last=Clark | first=Ronald W. | title=J. B. s: The Life and Work of J. B. S Haldane | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc | publication-place=London | date=2013 | isbn=1-4482-0078-4 | page=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=Pictorial Press | title=J.B.S. HALDANE (1892-1964) Anglo-Indian scientist specialising in genetics, mathematics, evolutionary biology Stock Photo | website=Alamy | date=2020-08-16 | url=https://www.alamy.com/jbs-haldane-1892-1964-anglo-indian-scientist-specialising-in-genetics-mathematics-evolutionary-biology-image369065579.html | access-date=2026-02-19}}</ref> and [[Stanley Henry Prater|S. H. Prater]]<ref>Ali, Salim. 1960. "Stanley Henry Prater." ''Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society'', '''57'''(3):637-642.</ref> are sometimes referred to as Anglo-Indian as well, continuing the previous usage. There are many mixed Indians from other European countries during the colonial era. For example, the definition rarely embraces the descendants of the Indians from the old [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colonies]] of both the [[Coromandel Coast|Coromandel]] and [[Malabar Coast]]s, who joined the [[East India Company]] as mercenaries and brought their families with them.<ref>See Stark, ''op. cit.''</ref> The definition has many extensions, for example, [[Luso-Indian]] (mixed [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and Indian) of [[Goa]] and [[Kochi]], people of Indo-French descent, and Indo-Dutch descent.

Indians have encountered Europeans since their earliest civilization. They have been a continuous element in the sub-continent. Their presence is not to be considered Anglo-Indian. Similarly, Indians who mixed with Europeans after the British Raj are also not to be considered Anglo-Indian.<ref name=Fisher-2007/><ref>Dover, Cedric. ''Cimmerii or Eurasians and Their Future: An Anglo Indian Heritage Book''. London: Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007. Pages 62–63</ref>

==Population in other countries==
===Bangladesh===
There is a significant population of Anglo-Indians in [[Bangladesh]].<ref>Anton Williams, Jake Peterson, Alexsander Stevenova, Jennifer Michealson's New Survey(2016) of Bangladesh Population Research:"There are almost 20,000 Anglo-Indians living in Bangladesh."(''The Natives of India''). The Comparative Studies about Bangladesh. Retrieved 18 February 2016.</ref> Anglo-Indians have been present in Bangladesh since the colonial period. Their population decreased to 4,000 in 1947 during the [[Partition of India]]. Most of them migrated to the United Kingdom, United States, Australia, [[New Zealand]] and Canada. In 1970, however, almost 9,000 Anglo-Indians had come from India. During the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]], almost 1,500 Anglo-Indians died. After the independence of Bangladesh, during 1974–1976 almost 2,800 Anglo-Indians arrived in Bangladesh from India. In 1980, there were 3,750 reported births of Anglo-Indian children in Bangladesh. By 1993, there were 10,371 Anglo-Indians living in Bangladesh. The Anglo-Indian population in the country reached 20,000 in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indobangladesh.com/ |title=สล็อต xo 678 |access-date=11 June 2022 |archive-date=30 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130152439/https://indobangladesh.com/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

==List of Anglo-Indians==
{{Main|Category:Anglo-Indian people}}

==See also==
{{Portal|India|United Kingdom|Asia}}

===Similar communities===
* [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]]
* [[Luk khrueng]]
* [[Hāfu]]
* From the [[Dutch Empire]]
** [[Burgher people]], similar group in Sri Lanka
** [[Indo people]], similar group in the [[Dutch East Indies]]
** [[Coloureds]] and [[Indian South Africans]], similar group in present day [[South Africa]]
* From the [[Spanish Empire]]
** [[Spanish Filipino]], similar group in [[Spanish East Indies]]
** [[Mestizo]] in Latin America
* From the [[Portuguese Empire]]:
** [[Luso-Asians]]
** [[Luso-Indian]]s
** [[Macanese people]]
** [[Kristang people]] in [[Malacca]], [[Malaysia]]
** [[Bayingyi people]] in [[Myanmar]] (Burma)
* From the [[French colonial empire|French Empire]]:
** [[Métis in Canada]]
** [[Louisiana Creole people]]

===Ethnic groups in Britain===
* [[British Asian]]
* [[British Indian]]
* [[British Pakistanis]]
* [[British Bangladeshis]]
* [[British Mixed-Race]]

===Related topics===
* [[Families In British India Society]] (FIBIS)
* [[Christianity in India]]
* [[Indian diaspora]]

===Other===
* [[India–United Kingdom relations]]
* [[Romani people in the United Kingdom]]

=== Further reading ===
* Sanyal, Tushar Kanti. (2007). ''Anglo-Indians of Kolkata : a study of their social alienation.'' Kolkata: Prova Prakashani. {{ISBN|8186964924}}
* Sen, Sudarshana. (2017). ''Anglo-Indian women in transition: pride, prejudice and predicament.'' Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|9811046549}}
* Andrews, Robyn & Raj, Merin Simi. (2021). ''Anglo-Indian identity: past and present, in India and the diaspora.'' Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|3030644588}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* [[Frank Anthony|Anthony, Frank]] (1969). ''Britain's Betrayal in India: The Story Of The Anglo-Indian Community'' Simon Wallenberg Press, Amazon Books.
* [[Pat Chapman (food writer)|Chapman, Pat]] (1998). ''Taste of the Raj,'' [[Hodder & Stoughton]], London – {{ISBN|0-340-68035-0}} (1997)
* Dady, Dorothy S. (2007). ''Scattered Seeds: The Diaspora of the Anglo-Indians'' Pagoda Press
* Deefholts, Margaret (2003). ''Haunting India: Fiction, Poems, Travel Tales and Memoirs'' CTR books
* Deefholts, Margaret and Staub, Sylvia W., eds. (2004). ''Voices on the Verandah: An anthology of Anglo-Indian Poetry and Prose'' CTR books
* Deefholts, Margaret and Deefholts, Glen, eds. ''The Way We Were: Anglo-Indian Chronicles'' CTR books
* Deefholts, Margaret and Deefholts, Susan ''Women of Anglo-India: Tales and Memoirs'' CTR books
* Dyer, Sylvia (2011). ''The Spell of the Flying Foxes'' {{ISBN|0143065343}}, [https://www.amazon.com/Spell-Flying-Foxes-Sylvia-Dyer-ebook/dp/B00EVT3V9S/ref=tmm_kin_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&sr=8-1&qid=1384049924 Amazon Kindle Edition]
* Gabb, Alfred (2000). ''1600–1947 Anglo-Indian Legacy'' Beryl Pogson Books
* {{cite book|last1=Hawes|first1=Christopher J.|title=Poor Relations: The Making of a Eurasian Community in British India, 1773–1833|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=London}}
* Lumb, Lionel and Veldhuizen, Deb, eds. ''The Way We Are: An Anglo-Indian Mosaic'' CTR books
* Lumb, Lionel, ed. ''More Voices on the Verandah: An Anglo-Indian Anthology'' CTR books
* Lyons, Mary Esther (2005). ''Unwanted! Memoirs of an Anglo-Indian Daughter...'' Spectrum Publications
* Maher, Reginald (1962). ''These Are The Anglo-Indians'' – (An Anglo-Indian Heritage Book) Simon Wallenberg Press
* Moore, Gloria Jean (1986). ''The Anglo-Indian Vision''
* Phillips, Z ''The Anglo-Indian Australian Story: My Experience. A collection of Anglo-Indian Migration Heritage Stories''
* Stark, Herbert Alick ([1926] 2022). ''Hostages To India: Or The Life Story of the Anglo Indian Race'' Simon Wallenberg Press.
* Thomas, Noel, ed. ''Footprints On The Track: Anglo-Indian Railway Memories''
* Thorpe, Owen (2007). ''Paper Boats in the Monsoon: Life in the Lost World of Anglo-India'' Trafford Publishing
* White, Bridget ''The Best of Anglo-Indian Cuisine – A Legacy'', ''Flavours of the Past'', ''Anglo-Indian Delicacies'', ''The Anglo-Indian Festive Hamper'', ''A Collection of Anglo-Indian Roasts, Casseroles and Bakes''
* Williams, Blair R. (2002). ''Anglo-Indians: Vanishing Remnants of a Bygone Era'' CTR books
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081227160600/http://www.scatteredseeds.co.uk/htmls/anglo-indian.html Scattered Seeds: The Diaspora of the Anglo-Indians... an exploration through history, identity and photography]

{{British diaspora}}
{{Kollam |state=collapsed}}
{{Immigration to India}}
{{Indian diaspora}}
{{West Bengal}}{{Multiethnicity}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Anglo-Indian people|*]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Culture of Kollam]]
[[Category:Diasporas in India]]
[[Category:Europeans in India]]
[[Category:Multiracial affairs in Asia]]
[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]
[[Category:Social groups of Haryana]]
[[Category:Social groups of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Social groups of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:British India]]

Kashmir

2026-03-22T19:57:58Z

Brandon81T: slightly adjusted structure for consistency and added references

{{Short description|Region in South Asia}}
{{Other uses|Kashmir (disambiguation)|Kasmir (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Kashmar}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2025}}
[[File:Kashmir region. LOC 2003626427 - showing sub-regions administered by different countries.jpg|thumb|268x268px|Political map of the Kashmir region, showing the [[Pir Panjal Range]] and the [[Kashmir Valley]] or Vale of Kashmir]]
'''Kashmir''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|ʃ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|KASH|meer}} or {{IPAc-en|k|æ|ʃ|ˈ|m|ɪər}} {{respell|kash|MEER}}) is the [[Northwestern Indian subcontinent|northernmost geographical region]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the [[Kashmir Valley]] between the [[Great Himalayas]] and the [[Pir Panjal Range]]. The term has since also come to encompass a larger area that formerly comprised the [[princely state]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], and includes the Indian-administered territories of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]], the Pakistani-administered territories of [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], and the Chinese-administered territories of [[Aksai Chin]] and the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]].<ref name="britannica-intro">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|url-status=live}} Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. It is bounded by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east (both parts of China), by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south, by Pakistan to the west, and by Afghanistan to the northwest. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, ... The southern and southeastern portions constitute the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian- and Pakistani-administered portions are divided by a "line of control" agreed to in 1972, although neither country recognizes it as an international boundary. In addition, China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region)."</ref><ref name="bbc-intro">{{cite news|title=Kashmir territories profile|work=BBC News |date=4 January 2012 |access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11693674|archive-date=16 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150716152335/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11693674|url-status=live}} Quote: "The Himalayan region of Kashmir has been a flashpoint between India and Pakistan for over six decades. Since India's partition and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the nuclear-armed neighbours have fought three wars over the Muslim-majority territory, which both claim in full but control in part. Today it remains one of the most militarised zones in the world. China administers parts of the territory."</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Kashmir profile—timeline|work=BBC News|date=5 January 2012 |access-date=16 July 2016|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-16069078|quote= '''1950s'''—China gradually occupies eastern Kashmir (Aksai Chin). '''1962'''—China defeats India in a short war for control of Aksai Chin. '''1963'''—Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract of Kashmir to China.|archive-date=22 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722065125/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-16069078|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Pahalgam Valley.jpg|thumb|The [[Lidder Valley|Lidder river Valley]] near [[Pahalgam]]]]
[[File:Nanga parbat, Pakistan by gul791.jpg|thumb|[[Nanga Parbat]] in [[Diamer District|Diamer]], the ninth-highest mountain on Earth, is the western anchor of the Himalayas]]
In 1819, the [[Sikh Empire]], under [[Ranjit Singh]], annexed the Kashmir valley.<ref name=imp-gazet-history/> In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]], and upon the purchase of the region from the [[British Empire|British]] under the [[Treaty of Amritsar (1846)|Treaty of Amritsar]], the Raja of [[Jammu]], [[Gulab Singh]], became the new ruler of Jammu and Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the ''paramountcy'' (or tutelage)<ref name=sneddon-paramountcy-tutelage>{{citation|last=Sneddon|first=Christopher|title=Independent Kashmir: An incomplete aspiration|year=2021|publisher=Manchester University Press|pages=12–13|quote=Paramountcy was the 'vague and undefined' feudatory system whereby the British, as the suzerain power, dominated and controlled India's princely rulers. ... These 'loyal collaborators of the Raj' were 'afforded [British] protection in exchange for helpful behavior in a relationship of tutelage, called paramountcy'.}}</ref><ref name=ganguly-hagerty-2005-paramountcy>{{citation|last1=Ganguly|first1=Sumit|last2=Hagerty|first2=Devin T.| title=Fearful Symmetry: India-Pakistan Crises in the Shadow of Nuclear Weapons|isbn=0-295-98525-9|year=2005|location=Seattle and New Delhi|publisher=University of Washington Press, and Oxford University Press|page=22|quote=... the problem of the 'princely states'. These states had accepted the tutelage of the British Crown under the terms of the doctrine of 'paramountcy' under which they acknowledged the Crown as the 'paramount' authority in the subcontinent.}}</ref> of the [[The Crown|British Crown]], lasted until the [[Partition of India]] in 1947, when the former princely state of the [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]] became a [[Kashmir#Kashmir dispute|disputed territory]], now administered by three countries: [[China]], [[India]], and [[Pakistan]].<ref name=britannica-intro/><ref name=americana>{{citation|chapter=Kashmir|title=Encyclopedia Americana|publisher=Scholastic Library Publishing|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7172-0139-6|page=328|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117135716/https://books.google.com/books?id=l_cWAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA328|url-status=live}} C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester Quote: "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947";</ref><ref name="Osmanczyk2003">{{citation|last1=Osmańczyk|first1=Edmund Jan|title=Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-93922-5 |pages=1191–|access-date=18 December 2021|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=fSIMXHMdfkkC&pg=PA1191|url-status=live}} Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China."</ref><ref name=bbc-intro/>

== Etymology ==
The word ''Kashmir'' is thought to have been derived from [[Sanskrit]] and was referred to as ''{{IAST|káśmīra}}''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:2152.soas |title=A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages |publisher=Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu |access-date=29 May 2015 |archive-date=5 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205161051/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:2152.soas }}</ref> A popular local etymology of ''Kashmir'' is that it is land desiccated from water.<ref name="Snedden2015">{{citation|last=Snedden|first=Christopher|title=Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-1-84904-342-7|pages=22–|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=s5KMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22|url-status=live}}</ref>

An alternative etymology derives the name from the name of the [[Vedic age|Vedic]] sage [[Kashyapa]] who is believed to have settled people in this land. Accordingly, ''Kashmir'' would be derived from either ''kashyapa-mir'' (Kashyapa's Lake) or ''kashyapa-meru'' (Kashyapa's Mountain).<ref name="Snedden2015"/>

The word has been referenced to in a [[Hindu]] scripture [[mantra]] worshipping the Hindu goddess [[Saraswati|Sharada]] and is mentioned to have resided in the land of ''kashmira'', or which might have been a reference to the [[Sharada Peeth]].

The [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] called the region ''Kasperia'', which has been identified with ''Kaspapyros'' of [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] ([[:wikt:apud|apud]] [[Stephanus of Byzantium]]) and ''Kaspatyros'' of [[Herodotus]] (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by [[Ptolemy]]'s ''Kaspeiria''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KScrDwAAQBAJ&q=kashmir+Ptolemy%27s+Kaspeiria.&pg=PT284|title=Who Killed Kasheer?|last=Khan|first=Ruhail|date=6 July 2017|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-1-947283-10-7|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140437/https://books.google.com/books?id=KScrDwAAQBAJ&q=kashmir+Ptolemy%27s+Kaspeiria.&pg=PT284|url-status=live}}</ref> The earliest text which directly mentions the name ''Kashmir'' is in ''[[Ashtadhyayi]]'' written by the Sanskrit grammarian [[Pāṇini]] during the 5th century BC. Pāṇini called the people of Kashmir ''Kashmirikas''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lJI9avHstYC&pg=PA64 |title=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods |last=Kumāra |first=Braja Bihārī |date=2007 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-457-8 |page=64 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=-lJI9avHstYC&pg=PA64 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kashur">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb-QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |title=Kashur The Kashmiri Speaking People |last=Raina |first=Mohini Qasba |date=13 November 2014 |publisher=Partridge Publishing Singapore |isbn=978-1-4828-9945-0 |page=11 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bb-QBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&pg=PA59 |title=Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society |last=Kaw |first=M. K. |date=2004 |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-81-7648-537-1 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140438/https://books.google.com/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some other early references to Kashmir can also be found in [[Mahabharata]] in [[Sabha Parva]] and in puranas like [[Matsya Purana]], [[Vayu Purana]], [[Padma Purana]] and [[Vishnu Purana]] and [[Vishnudharmottara Purana]].<ref name="Patanjali">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfF1pTv0PgkC&pg=PA2 |title=Cultural Heritage of Kashmiri Pandits |last1=Toshakhānī |first1=Śaśiśekhara |last2=Warikoo |first2=Kulbhushan |date=2009 |publisher=Pentagon Press |isbn=978-81-8274-398-4 |pages=2–3 |language=en |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140439/https://books.google.com/books?id=GfF1pTv0PgkC&pg=PA2 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Xuanzang|Huientsang]], the [[Buddhist]] scholar and Chinese traveller, called Kashmir ''kia-shi-milo'', while some other Chinese accounts referred to Kashmir as ''ki-pin'' (or Chipin or Jipin) and ''ache-pin''.<ref name="Kashur"/>

''Cashmeer'' is an archaic spelling of modern Kashmir, and in some countries{{which|date=August 2019}} it is still spelled this way. Kashmir is called ''Cachemire'' in French, ''Cachemira'' in Spanish, ''Caxemira'' in Portuguese, ''Caixmir'' in Catalan, ''Casmiria'' in Latin, ''Cașmir'' in Romanian, and ''Cashmir'' in [[Occitan language|Occitan]].

In the [[Kashmiri language]], Kashmir itself is known as ''Kasheer''.<ref>P. iv 'Kashmir Today' by Government, 1998</ref>

===Terminology===

The [[Government of India]] and Indian sources refer to the territory under Pakistan control as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" ("POK").<ref name="Snedden 2013 p.2-3">{{cite book |first=Christopher |last=Snedden |author-link=Christopher Snedden |title=Kashmir: The Unwritten History |publisher=HarperCollins India |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-5029-898-5 |pages=2–3}}</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-enigma-of-terminology/article5621801.ece The enigma of terminology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016082903/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/the-enigma-of-terminology/article5621801.ece |date=16 October 2015 }}, The Hindu, 27 January 2014.</ref> The Government of Pakistan and Pakistani sources refer to the portion of Kashmir administered by India as "Indian-occupied Kashmir" ("IOK") or "Indian-held Kashmir" (IHK);<ref>{{cite web |first= Ali |last= Zain |url= http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/pakistani-flag-hoisted-pro-freedom-slogans-chanted-in-indian-occupied-kashmir-567/ |title= Pakistani flag hoisted, pro-freedom slogans chanted in Indian Occupied Kashmir – Daily Pakistan Global |publisher= En.dailypakistan.com.pk |date= 13 September 2015 |access-date= 17 November 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151118114311/http://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/pakistani-flag-hoisted-pro-freedom-slogans-chanted-in-indian-occupied-kashmir-567/ |archive-date= 18 November 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://dunyanews.tv/index.php/en/World/298421-Pakistani-flag-hoisted-once-again-in-Indian-Occupi |title= Pakistani flag hoisted once again in Indian Occupied Kashmir |website=Dunya News |date= 11 September 2015 |access-date=17 November 2015}}</ref> The terms "Pakistan-administered Kashmir" and "India-administered Kashmir" are often used by neutral sources for the parts of the Kashmir region controlled by each country.<ref>South Asia: fourth report of session 2006–07 by Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: Foreign Affairs Committee page 37</ref>

== History ==
{{For|a history of the region including the pre-19th century period|History of Kashmir|History of Gilgit-Baltistan|History of Ladakh}}
[[File:Kashmir sculpture of grey chlorite of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi.jpg|180px|thumb|6th century Kashmir sculpture of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi.]]
In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of [[Hinduism]] and later of [[Buddhism]]. During the 7th–14th centuries, the region was ruled by a series of Hindu dynasties,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=9 May 2022|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|archive-date=13 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813203817/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kashmir-region-Indian-subcontinent|url-status=live}} Quote: "A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled Kashmir until 1346, when it came under Muslim rule."</ref> and [[Kashmir Shaivism]] arose.<ref>Basham, A. L. (2005) ''The wonder that was India'', Picador. Pp. 572. {{ISBN|0-330-43909-X}}, p. 110.</ref> In 1320, [[Rinchan|Rinchan Shah]] became the first [[Muslims|Muslim]] ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the [[Kashmir Sultanate]].<ref name=imp-gazet-history>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.</ref> The region was part of the [[Mughal Empire]] from 1586 to 1751,<ref name=":1">{{citation|last=Puri|first=Balraj|title=5000 Years of Kashmir|date=June 2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5EWo7eszcbgC&q=end+of+muslim+rule+in+kashmir&pg=PA45|number=6|quote=It was emperor Akbar who brought an end to indigenous Kashmiri Muslim rule that had lasted 250 years. The watershed in Kashmiri history is not the beginning of the Muslim rule as is regarded in the rest of the subcontinent but the changeover from Kashmiri rule to a non-Kashmiri rule.|author-link=Balraj Puri|newspaper=Epilogue|volume=3|access-date=31 December 2016|pages=43–45|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140439/https://books.google.com/books?id=5EWo7eszcbgC&q=end+of+muslim+rule+in+kashmir&pg=PA45|url-status=live}}</ref> and thereafter, until 1820, of the Afghan [[Durrani Empire]].<ref name=imp-gazet-history/>

=== Sikh rule ===
In 1819, the [[Kashmir Valley]] passed from the control of the [[Durrani Empire]] of [[Afghanistan]] to the conquering armies of the [[Sikh Empire|Sikhs]] under [[Ranjit Singh]] of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]],<ref name="imperialgazet-gulabsingh">''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. "Kashmir: History". pp. 94–95.</ref> thus ending four centuries of [[Muslim]] rule under the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] and the [[Durrani Empire|Afghan]] regime. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers.<ref name=schofield_p5-6>{{Harvnb|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=5–6}}</ref> However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive,<ref name=madan2008-p15>{{Harvnb|Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat|2008|p=15}}</ref> protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41>{{Harvnb|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|pp=39–41}}</ref> The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws,<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter,<ref name=schofield_p5-6/> closing down the [[Jamia Masjid, Srinagar|Jamia Masjid]] in Srinagar,<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> and banning the [[Adhan|a''dhan'']], the public Muslim call to prayer.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs.<ref name=schofield_p5-6/><ref name=":3">{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620003316/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |title=Kashmir|last1=Amin|first1=Tahir|last2=Schofield |first2=Victoria|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |quote=During both Sikh and Dogra rule, heavy taxation, forced work without wages (begār), discriminatory laws, and rural indebtedness were widespread among the largely illiterate Muslim population.}}</ref> High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated.<ref name=schofield_p5-6/> Many Kashmiri peasants migrated to the plains of the Punjab.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dlBjzE-1ML8C&q=kashmir+muslims+famine+punjab&pg=PA40 40]}}: "Kashmiri histories emphasize the wretchedness of life for the common Kashmiri during Sikh rule. According to these, the peasantry became mired in poverty and migrations of Kashmiri peasants to the plains of the Punjab reached high proportions. Several European travelers' accounts from the period testify to and provide evidence for such assertions."</ref> However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers;<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh Empire.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/> During this time [[Kashmir shawl]]s became known worldwide, attracting many buyers, especially in the West.<ref name=zutshi_p39-41/>

The [[Deva dynasty of Jammu|state of Jammu]], which had been on the ascendant after the decline of the Mughal Empire, came under the sway of the Sikhs in 1770. Further in 1808, it was fully conquered by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh, then a youngster in the House of Jammu, enrolled in the Sikh troops and, by distinguishing himself in campaigns, gradually rose in power and influence. In 1822, he was anointed as the Raja of Jammu.{{sfn|Panikkar|1930|p=10–11, 14–34}} Along with his able general [[Zorawar Singh Kahluria]], he conquered and subdued [[Rajouri district|Rajouri]] (1821), [[Kishtwar district|Kishtwar]] (1821), Suru valley and [[Kargil district|Kargil]] (1835), [[Leh district|Ladakh]] (1834–1840), and [[Baltistan]] (1840), thereby surrounding the [[Kashmir Valley]]. He became a wealthy and influential noble in the Sikh court.{{sfn|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|pp=6–7}}

==Kashmir dispute==
=== Princely state ===
{{Main|Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)}}
[[File:Maharajah Gulab Singh (1792-1857) seated holding a sword against a bolster on a terrace.webp|thumb|[[Gulab Singh]], the first [[Dogra dynasty|Maharaja]] of the princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], which he established, together with the [[East India Company]], in 1846.]]
[[File:NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg|thumb|1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in red.]]

In 1845, the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] broke out. According to ''[[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]]:''

<blockquote>Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the [[battle of Sobraon]] (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of [[Henry Lawrence (Indian Army officer)|Sir Henry Lawrence]]. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the [[History of Lahore|State of Lahore]] (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for one crore indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of the Indus and the west of the Ravi i.e. the Vale of Kashmir.<ref name=imperialgazet-gulabsingh/></blockquote>

Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constituted between 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities:<ref name=bowers>Bowers, Paul. 2004. [http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf "Kashmir." Research Paper 4/28] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326182755/http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2004/rp04-028.pdf |date=26 March 2009 }}, International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom.</ref> to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] and its inhabitants practised [[Tibetan Buddhism|Buddhism]]; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. In the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly [[Kashmiri Muslims|Muslim]]—mostly [[Sunni Muslim|Sunni]]; however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the [[brahmin]] [[Kashmiri Pandits]]. To the northeast, sparsely populated [[Baltistan]] had a population ethnically related to that of Ladakh, but which practised [[Shia Islam]]. To the north, also sparsely populated, the [[Gilgit Agency]] was an area of diverse, mostly ''Shia'' groups, and, to the west, the [[History of Poonch District|Punch]] was populated mostly by Muslims of a different ethnicity than that of the Kashmir valley.<ref name=bowers/> After the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of [[British Raj|direct rule]] by Great Britain, the [[princely state]] of Kashmir came under the [[suzerainty]] of the [[The Crown|British Crown]].

In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registered a Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu population of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists and Sikhs comprising the remaining 3%.<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17>{{Harvnb|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003|pp=15–17}}</ref> That same year, [[Prem Nath Bazaz]], a [[Kashmiri Pandit]] journalist, wrote: "The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ... Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee [Hindu] landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of official corruption is borne by the Muslim masses."<ref>Quoted in {{Harvnb|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003|pp=15–17}}</ref> Under Hindu rule, Muslims faced hefty taxation and discrimination in the legal system and were forced into labour without any wages.<ref>{{citation |last1=Amin |first1=Tahir |last2=Schofield |first2=Victoria |chapter=Kashmir |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |year=2009 |chapter-url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620003316/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0433 |url-status=live }}</ref> Conditions in the princely state caused a significant migration of people from the Kashmir Valley to the Punjab of British India.<ref name="Bose2013">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=reiwAAAAQBAJ |title=Transforming India |date=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72820-2 |page=211 |author=Sumantra Bose |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=reiwAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> For almost a century, until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruled over a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry.<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17/><ref name=talbot-singh-p54>{{Harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=54}}</ref> Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to landlords and moneylenders, having no education besides, nor awareness of rights,<ref name=bose-sumantra-2005-p15-17/> the Muslim peasants had no political representation until the 1930s.<ref name=talbot-singh-p54/>

===1947 and 1948===
{{Further|Kashmir conflict|Timeline of the Kashmir conflict|1947 Poonch Rebellion|Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947 Jammu massacres|1947 Mirpur massacre}}
[[File:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|thumb|The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian Empire]]

Ranbir Singh's grandson [[Hari Singh]], who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent [[Partition of India|partition]] of the British [[British India|Indian Empire]] into the newly independent [[Dominion of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. According to [[Burton Stein]]'s ''History of India'', <blockquote>Kashmir was neither as large nor as old an independent state as [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]; it had been created rather off-handedly by the British after the first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a reward to a former official who had sided with the British. The Himalayan kingdom was connected to India through a district of the Punjab, but its population was 77 percent Muslim, and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the maharaja would accede to Pakistan when the British paramountcy ended on 14–15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead, the Maharaja appealed to [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Mountbatten]]<ref>Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of India.</ref> for assistance, and the [[Governor-General of India|governor-general]] agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.<ref name=stein>Stein, Burton. 2010. ''A History of India''. Oxford University Press. 432 pages. {{ISBN|978-1-4051-9509-6}}. Page 358.</ref></blockquote>

In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices. However, since the [[plebiscite]] demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,<ref name=stein/> and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]] and [[Kargil War|1999]].

{{anchor|Current status and political divisions}}
===Current status and political divisions===
[[File:Kashmir map.svg|thumb|The disputed territory of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir divided between: 
{{legend|#D8FFC7|[[Pakistan]]}} 
{{legend|#DBE4FF|[[India]]}} 
{{legend|#FFFACF|[[China]]}} 
]]
India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which comprises [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]], while Pakistan controls a third of the region, divided into two provinces, [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]. [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]] are administered by [[India]] as [[union territory|union territories]]. They formed a single state until 5 August 2019, when the state was bifurcated, and its [[Revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir|limited autonomy]] was revoked.<ref>{{cite news|title=Article 370: What happened with Kashmir and why it matters|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=6 August 2019|access-date=30 November 2020|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029201641/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'':

<blockquote>Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition, and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was sparsely populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in India-administered territory, with its former outlets via the [[Jhelum Valley (Kashmir)|Jhelum valley]] route blocked.<ref name="britannica-kashmir" /><ref name=britannica-intro/></blockquote>

The eastern region of the former princely state of Kashmir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began in the late 19th century and continues into the 21st century. Although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan, and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and China's official position has not changed following the [[Chinese Communist Revolution|communist revolution of 1949]] that established the People's Republic of China. By the mid-1950s, the [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese army]] had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.<ref name="britannica-kashmir">Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 March 2007, from [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214222 Encyclopædia Britannica Online]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113042440/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-214222 |date=13 January 2008 }}</ref>

<blockquote>By 1956–57, they had completed a military road through the [[Aksai Chin]] area to provide better communication between [[Xinjiang]] and western [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]]. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the [[Sino-Indian War]] of October 1962.<ref name="britannica-kashmir" /></blockquote>
[[File:Border_of_Azad_Kashmir_And_Indian_state_of_Jammu_and_Kashmir.jpg|thumb|A white border painted on a suspended bridge delineates [[Azad Kashmir]] from [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]]]
The region is divided among three countries in a [[Kashmir conflict|territorial dispute]]: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Azad Jammu Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and the People's Republic of [[China]] controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the [[Siachen Glacier]] area, including the [[Saltoro Mountains|Saltoro Ridge]] passes, while Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls {{cvt|101338|km2|sqmi}} of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls {{cvt|85846|km2|sqmi}}, and the People's Republic of China controls the remaining {{cvt|37555|km2|sqmi|0}}.

Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie south and west of the [[Pir Panjal range]], and are under the control of India and Pakistan, respectively. These are populous regions. Gilgit-Baltistan, formerly known as the ''Northern Areas'', is a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the [[Karakoram]], the western [[Himalayas]], the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]], and the [[Hindu Kush]] ranges. With its administrative centre in the town of [[Gilgit]], the Northern Areas cover an area of {{convert|72,971|km2}} and have an estimated population approaching 1 million (10 [[lakh]]s).

Ladakh is between the [[Kunlun Mountains|Kunlun]] mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south.<ref name="Ladakh">{{Citation |title=Ladakh: The Land and the People |last=Jina |first=Prem Singh |year=1996 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-057-6 }}</ref> Capital towns of the region are [[Leh]] and [[Kargil]]. It is under Indian administration and was part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir until 2019. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] and Tibetan descent.<ref name="Ladakh" /> Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude [[desert]] of salt that reaches altitudes up to {{convert|5000|m|ft}}. Geographically part of the [[Tibetan Plateau]], Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, with no permanent settlements.

Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region, excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]] established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing [[line of control]] established by the United Nations. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire.

==Geography==
[[File:Kashmir top.jpg|thumb|[[Topographic map]] of Kashmir]]
[[File:Approaching_K2_Base_Camp.jpg|thumb|[[K2]], a peak in the [[Karakoram]] range, is the [[List of highest mountains on Earth|second-highest mountain in the world]]]]
The Kashmir region lies between latitudes [[32nd parallel north|32°]] and [[36th parallel north|36° N]], and longitudes [[74th meridian east|74°]] and [[80th meridian east|80° E]]. It has an area of {{cvt|68000|mi2|km2}}.<ref name=drew>{{Cite book|last=[[Frederick Drew|Drew Frederic]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_fVlAAAAcAAJ|title=Jummoo and Kashmir Territories |date=1875 |publisher=Stanford|pages=3–6|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=_fVlAAAAcAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> It is bordered to the north and east by China (Xinjiang and Tibet), to the northwest by [[Afghanistan]] (Wakhan Corridor), to the west by [[Pakistan]] (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab) and to the south by [[India]] (Himachal Pradesh and Punjab).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tamang|first=Jyoti Prakash |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EimHj9veADgC&pg=PA2|title=Himalayan Fermented Foods: Microbiology, Nutrition, and Ethnic Values |date=17 August 2009|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-9325-4|access-date=28 December 2022|archive-date=28 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228103212/https://books.google.com/books?id=EimHj9veADgC&pg=PA2|url-status=live}}</ref>

The topography of Kashmir is mostly mountainous. It is traversed mainly by the [[Western Himalaya]]s. The Himalayas terminate in the western boundary of Kashmir at [[Nanga Parbat]]. Kashmir is traversed by three rivers, namely the [[Indus River|Indus]], the [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], and the [[Chenab River|Chenab]]. These river basins divide the region into three valleys separated by high mountain ranges. The Indus valley forms the north and north-eastern portion of the region, which includes bare and desolate areas of [[Baltistan]] and Ladakh. The upper portion of the Jhelum valley forms the proper Vale of Kashmir, surrounded by high mountain ranges. The [[Chenab valley]] forms the southern portion of the Kashmir region, with its denuded hills towards the south. It includes almost all of the [[Jammu Division|Jammu region]]. High altitude lakes are frequent at high elevations. Lower down in the Vale of Kashmir, there are many freshwater lakes and large areas of swamplands, which include [[Wular Lake]], [[Dal Lake]], and [[Hokersar]] near [[Srinagar]].<ref name=flowers>{{Cite book|last=B. O. Coventry|title=Wild flowers of Kashmir |publisher=Raithby, Lawrence & Co.|place=London|year=1923 |url=http://archive.org/details/WildFlowersOfKashmir}}</ref>

[[File:Kashmir map (UN).png|left|thumb|300px|Simplified [[UN]] map of Kashmir and its surrounding area and rivers]]
To the north and northeast, beyond the Great Himalayas, the region is traversed by the [[Karakoram]] mountains. To the northwest lies the Hindu Kush mountain range. The upper Indus River separates the Himalayas from the Karakoram.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Western Himalayas {{!}} mountains, Asia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Himalayas |access-date=29 October 2020 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228233852/https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Himalayas|url-status=live}}</ref> The Karakoram is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The [[Siachen Glacier]] at {{cvt|76|km|mi}} and the [[Biafo Glacier]] at {{cvt|63|km|mi}} rank as the world's second and third longest glaciers outside the polar regions. Karakoram is home to four [[eight-thousander]] mountain peaks, with [[K2]], the second-highest peak in the world at {{cvt|8611|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-longest-non-polar-glaciers-in-the-world.html|title=Longest non polar glaciers in the world|website=Worldatlas|date=25 April 2017|access-date=27 October 2020|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031015000/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-longest-non-polar-glaciers-in-the-world.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=17 December 2013|title=The Eight-Thousanders |url=https://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/8000MeterPeaks|access-date=27 October 2020|url-status=live |website=www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov |archive-date=3 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170503184334/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/8000MeterPeaks/}}</ref>

The Indus River system forms the [[drainage basin]] of the Kashmir region. The river enters the region in Ladakh at its southeastern corner from the [[Tibetan Plateau]], and flows northwest to run a course through the entire Ladakh and Gilgit-Baltistan. Almost all the rivers originating in this region are part of the Indus River system.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indus River {{!}} Definition, Length, Map, History, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River|access-date=27 October 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=7 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507163743/https://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River|url-status=live}}</ref> After reaching the end of the Great Himalayan range, the Indus turns a corner and flows southwest into the Punjab plains. The Jhelum and Chenab rivers also follow a course roughly parallel to this, and join the Indus River in southern Punjab plains in Pakistan.

The geographical features of the Kashmir region differ considerably from one part to another. The lowest part of the region consists of the plains of Jammu at the southwestern corner, which continue into the plains of Punjab at an elevation of below 1000 feet. Mountains begin at 2000 feet, then raise to 3000–4000 feet in the "Outer Hills", a rugged country with ridges and long narrow valleys. Next within the tract lie the Middle Mountains, which are 8000–10,000 feet in height with ramifying valleys. Adjacent to these hills are the lofty [[Great Himalayas|Great Himalayan]] ranges (14000–15000 feet), which divide the drainage of the [[Chenab River|Chenab]] and [[Jehlum River|Jehlum]] from that of the Indus. Beyond this range lies a wide tract of mountainous country of 17000–22000 feet in Ladakh and [[Baltistan]].<ref name=drew/>{{Clarify|reason=It is unclear how all these ranges relate to the geography; where is the Kashmir Valley in this system?|date=April 2021}}

===Climate===
{{climate chart
| Srinagar
| −1.9|7.1| 60.9
| −0.7 | 10.5|82.3
|4.3|15.5| 104.6
| 7.9 | 20.6 | 89.7
| 11.2|24.7| 62
| 15.0 | 28.5| 46.3
| 18.4| 30.0|58.5
| 17.8| 29.7| 68.1
| 13.1 | 27.6|37.8
|6.2| 23.0|23.3
| 1.2| 15.9| 28.3
| −1.6| 9.9| 54
| float = right
| source = WMO<ref name = WMO>{{cite web
| url = https://www.data.jma.go.jp/tcc/tcc/products/climate/normal/parts/NrmMonth_e.php?stn=42027
| title = Climatological Information for Srinagar, India
| publisher = [[World Meteorological Organization]]
| access-date = 24 September 2025
}}</ref> }}
Kashmir has a different climate for every region owing to the significant variation in altitude. The temperatures range from the subtropical heat of the Punjab summer to the intensity of the cold, which keeps the perpetual snow on the mountains. Jammu Division, excluding the upper parts of the Chenab Valley, features a humid subtropical climate. The Vale of Kashmir has a moderate climate. The [[Astore Valley]] and some parts of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] feature a semi-Tibetan climate. While the other parts of Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh have a Tibetan climate, which is considered an almost rainless climate.<ref name=drew/><ref>{{Cite book|last=[[Aurel Stein|Stein M. A.]]|url=http://archive.org/details/anceintgeographyofkashmirsteinm.a._667_j|title=Ancient Geography Of Kashmir|date=1899|publisher=Kamala Dara|pages=257–269}}</ref>

The southwestern Kashmir, which includes much of the Jammu province and Muzaffarabad, falls within the reach of the Indian monsoon. The Pir Panjal Range acts as an effective barrier and blocks these monsoon tracts from reaching the main Kashmir Valley and the Himalayan slopes. These areas of the region receive much of their precipitation from the wind currents of the Arabian Sea. The Himalayan slope and the Pir Panjal witness greatest snow melting from March until June. These variations in snow melt and rainfall have led to destructive inundations of the main valley. One instance of such Kashmir flood of a larger proportion is recorded in the 12th-century book ''[[Rajatarangini]]''. A single cloudburst in July 1935 caused the upper Jhelum river level to rise 11 feet.<ref>{{Cite book|author2=[[T. T. Paterson]]|author=[[Helmut de Terra]]|url=http://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3233|title=Studies on the ice age in India and associated human cultures|publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1939}}</ref> The [[2014 India–Pakistan floods|2014 Kashmir floods]] inundated the Kashmir city of Srinagar and submerged hundreds of other villages.<ref>{{Cite news|date=7 September 2014|title=India Pakistan floods: Kashmir city of Srinagar inundated|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29100226|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111183926/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29100226|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Flora and fauna==
Kashmir has a recorded forest area of {{convert|20230|km2|mi2}} along with some [[Deosai National Park|national parks]] and [[Hemis National Park|reserves]]. The forests vary according to the climatic conditions and the altitude. Kashmir forests range from the [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|subtropical deciduous forests]] in the foothills of Jammu and [[Muzaffarabad]], to the [[temperate forest]]s throughout the Vale of Kashmir and to the [[Alpine tundra|alpine grasslands]] and high altitude meadows in Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dar|first1=Ghulam Hassan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyPTDwAAQBAJ|title=Biodiversity of the Himalaya: Jammu and Kashmir State|last2=Khuroo|first2=Anzar A.|date=26 February 2020|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-981-329-174-4|pages=193–200|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyPTDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Bari Naik|first=Abdul|title=Tourism Potential in Ecological Zones and Future Prospects of Tourism: in Kashmir Valley |date=22 April 2016|publisher=LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing (22 April 2016)|isbn=978-3-659-87862-6|page=48}}</ref>
The Kashmir region has four well-defined zones of vegetation in the tree growth, due to the elevation difference. The subtropical forests up to 1500 m are known as the Phulai (''Acacia modesta'') and Olive (Olea cuspid ata) Zone. There occur semi-deciduous species of ''[[Shorea robusta]]'', ''[[Senegalia catechu]]'', ''[[Dalbergia sissoo]]'', ''[[Albizia lebbeck]]'', ''[[Garuga pinnata]]'', ''[[Terminalia bellirica]]'', and ''[[Tilia tomentosa]],'' as well as ''[[Pinus roxburghii]]'' are found at higher elevations. The temperate zone between (1,500–3,500 m) is referred as the Chir Pine (Finns longifolia). This zone is dominated by [[oak]]s (''Quercus'' spp.) and ''[[Rhododendron]]'' spp. The Blue Pine (Finns excelsa) Zone alongside ''[[Cedrus deodara]]'', ''[[Abies pindrow]]'', and ''[[Picea smithiana]]'' occurs at elevations between 2,800 and 3,500 m. The Birch (Betula utilis) Zone has Herbaceous genera of [[Anemone]], [[Geranium]], [[Iris (plant)|Iris]], [[Gagea|Lloydia]], [[Potentilla]], and [[Primula]] interspersed with dry dwarf alpine scrubs of [[Berberis]], [[Cotoneaster]], [[Juniper]]us, and [[Rhododendron]], which are prevalent in alpine grasslands at 3,500 m and above.<ref name=flowers/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Manish|first1=Kumar|last2=Pandit |first2=Maharaj K. |date=7 November 2018|title=Geophysical upheavals and evolutionary diversification of plant species in the Himalaya|journal=PeerJ |volume=6|article-number=e5919 |doi=10.7717/peerj.5919|issn=2167-8359|pmc=6228543 |pmid=30425898|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Kashmir is often referred to as a beauty spot for the medicinal and herbaceous flora in the Himalayas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaul|first=S. N. |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.509480 |title=Forest Products Of Jumma and Kashmir|date=1928 |publisher=Kashmir Pratap Stream Press, Srinagar|page=vii}}</ref> There are hundreds of different species of wild flowers recorded in the alpine meadows of the region.<ref name=flowers/> The [[Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Botanical Garden|botanical garden]] and the [[Indira Gandhi Memorial Tulip Garden|tulip garden]]s of Srinagar, built in the [[Zabarwan]]s, grow 300 breeds of flora and 60 varieties of tulips, respectively. The latter is considered Asia's largest Tulip Garden.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Experts |first=Arihant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NhrzDwAAQBAJ&q=300+flora|title=Know Your State Jammu and Kashmir|date=4 June 2019 |publisher=Arihant Publications India limited|isbn=978-93-131-6916-1|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140440/https://books.google.com/books?id=NhrzDwAAQBAJ&q=300+flora|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Around the world, tulips turn hillsides into colorful patchwork quilts |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/04/18/around-the-world-tulips-turn-hillsides-into-colorful-patchwork-quilts/|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=2 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102031353/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2017/04/18/around-the-world-tulips-turn-hillsides-into-colorful-patchwork-quilts/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Kashmir region is home to several rare animal species, many of which are protected by sanctuaries and reserves. The [[Dachigam National Park]] in the Valley is home to the last viable population of [[Kashmir stag]] ''(Hangul)'' and the largest population of [[Asian black bear|black bear]] in Asia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jkwildlife.com/pdf/pub/final_management_plan_DNP_06082011.pdf |title=MANAGEMENT PLAN (2011–2016) DACHIGAM NATIONAL PARK|publisher=jkwildlife.com|access-date=30 October 2020|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122030329/http://www.jkwildlife.com/pdf/pub/final_management_plan_DNP_06082011.pdf}}</ref> In Gilgit-Baltistan, the [[Deosai National Park]] is designated to protect the largest population of [[Himalayan brown bear]]s in the western Himalayas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nawaz |first1=Muhammad Ali |last2=Swenson |first2=Jon E. |last3=Zakaria |first3=Vaqar |title=Pragmatic management increases a flagship species, the Himalayan brown bears, in Pakistan's Deosai National Park |journal=Biological Conservation |date=September 2008 |volume=141 |issue=9 |pages=2230–2241 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2008.06.012 |bibcode=2008BCons.141.2230N }}</ref> [[Snow leopard]]s are found in high density in the [[Hemis National Park]] in Ladakh.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cCTPP2xUUpkC&q=hemis+national+park+snow+leopards&pg=PA4|title=Making a Difference: Dossier on Community Engagement on Nature Based Tourism in India|publisher=EQUATIONS|language=en|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117140441/https://books.google.com/books?id=cCTPP2xUUpkC&q=hemis+national+park+snow+leopards&pg=PA4|url-status=live}}</ref> The region is home to [[musk deer]], [[markhor]], [[leopard cat]], [[jungle cat]], [[red fox]], [[jackal]], [[Himalayan wolf]], [[serow]], [[marten|Himalayan yellow-throated marten]], [[marmot|long-tailed marmot]], [[Indian crested porcupine]], [[Himalayan mouse-hare]], [[langur]], and [[Siberian weasel|Himalayan weasel]]. At least 711 bird species are recorded in the valley alone with 31 classified as globally threatened species.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jammu and Kashmir bird checklist – Avibase – Bird Checklists of the World|url=https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=INwhjk&list=howardmoore|access-date=20 October 2020|website=avibase.bsc-eoc.org|archive-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022004158/https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/checklist.jsp?region=INwhjk&list=howardmoore|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Walter R. (Walter Roper) |url=http://archive.org/details/valleyofkashmir00lawr|title=The valley of Kashmír|date=1895|place=London|publisher=H. Frowde |pages=106–160}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed">
Horses grazing at Trunkol meadow, Jammu and Kashmir, India (crop).jpg|Horses grazing at a Himalayan meadow below the [[Gangabal Lake]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
Snow leopard in Ladakh.webm|[[Snow Leopard]] with prey filmed in the [[Hemis National Park]] of [[Ladakh]]
Himalayan bulbul (Pycnonotus leucogenys) near Mehmood Gali in Pakistan-administered Jammu.jpg|A [[Himalayan bulbul]] eating berries near Mehmood Gali, [[Azad Jammu and Kashmir|AJK]]
Yellow & Orange flowers at Deosai National Park Pakistan.JPG|Wildflowers in the [[Deosai National Park]] of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]
</gallery>

==Demographics==
=== Colonial era ===
In the 1901 Census of the British [[British Raj|Indian Empire]], the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) were Muslims, 689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and 35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) others).

The Hindus resided mostly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 60% of the population.<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir>''Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15''. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.</ref> In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e.'','' 5.24%), and in the frontier ''wazarats'' of Ladhakh and Gilgit, only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> In the 1901 Census, the total population of the Kashmir Valley was recorded at 1,157,394, with the Muslim population standing at 1,083,766, representing 93.6% of the total population, and the Hindu population 60,641.<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/> Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "[[Brahmin|Brahmans]] (186,000), the [[Rajput]]s (167,000), the [[Khatri|Khattris]] (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."<ref name=imperialgazetteerkashmir/>

In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) were Hindus, 31,658 (1%) were Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) were Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which, as a result of the Second World War, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh population was 55,000 (1.39%).<ref name=brush>{{cite journal |last1=Brush |first1=J. E. |year=1949 |title=The Distribution of Religious Communities in India |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=39 |issue=2| pages=81–98 |doi=10.1080/00045604909351998 |issn = 0004-5608 }}</ref>

The [[Kashmiri Pandits]], the only Hindus of the Kashmir valley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5% of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valley to other parts of India in the 1950s,{{sfn|Zutshi, Languages of Belonging|2004|p=318|ps=: Since a majority of the landlords were Hindu, the (land) reforms (of 1950) led to a mass exodus of Hindus from the state. ... The unsettled nature of Kashmir's accession to India, coupled with the threat of economic and social decline in the face of the land reforms, led to increasing insecurity among the Hindus in Jammu, and among Kashmiri Pandits, 20 per cent of whom had emigrated from the Valley by 1950.}} underwent a complete [[Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus|exodus]] in the 1990s due to the [[Kashmir insurgency]]. According to numerous authors, approximately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit population of 140,000 left the valley during that decade.{{sfn|Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir|1997|p=71}}{{sfn|Rai, Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects|2004|p=286}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=274|ps=: The Hindu Pandits, a small but influential elite community who had secured a favourable position, first under the maharajas, and then under the successive Congress regimes, and proponents of a distinctive Kashmiri culture that linked them to India, felt under siege as the uprising gathered force. Of a population of some 140,000, perhaps 100,000 Pandits fled the state after 1990; their cause was quickly taken up by the Hindu right.}} Other authors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus, ranging from the entire population of over 150 thousand,{{sfn|Malik, Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, International Dispute|2005|p=318}} to 190 thousand of a total Pandit population of 200 thousand (200,000),{{sfn|Madan, Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kashimiriyat|2008|p=25}} to a number as high as 300 thousand (300,000).<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Asia :: India — The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov|date=14 February 2022|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|access-date=24 January 2021|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Population of Jammu & Kashmir Princely State by Province (1901–1941)
! rowspan="2" |[[Census in British India|Census Year]]
! colspan="2" |Jammu Province
! colspan="2" |Kashmir Province
! colspan="2" |Frontier Regions
! colspan="2" |Jammu & Kashmir Princely State
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! 1901<ref name="Census1901"/>
| 1,521,307
| {{Percentage | 1521307 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 1,157,394
| {{Percentage | 1157394 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 226,877
| {{Percentage | 226877 | 2905578 | 2 }}
! 2,905,578
! {{Percentage | 2905578 | 2905578 | 2 }}
|-
! 1911<ref name="Census1911"/>
| 1,597,865
| {{Percentage | 1597865 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 1,295,201
| {{Percentage | 1295201 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 265,060
| {{Percentage | 265060 | 3158126 | 2 }}
! 3,158,126
! {{Percentage | 3158126 | 3158126 | 2 }}
|-
! 1921<ref name="Census1921"/>
| 1,640,259
| {{Percentage | 1640259 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 1,407,086
| {{Percentage | 1407086 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 273,173
| {{Percentage | 273173 | 3320518 | 2 }}
! 3,320,518
! {{Percentage | 3320518 | 3320518 | 2 }}
|-
! 1931<ref name="Census1931"/>
| 1,788,441
| {{Percentage | 1788441 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 1,569,218
| {{Percentage | 1569218 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 288,584
| {{Percentage | 288584 | 3646243 | 2 }}
! 3,646,243
! {{Percentage | 3646243 | 3646243 | 2 }}
|-
! 1941<ref name="Census1941"/>
| 1,981,433
| {{Percentage | 1981433 | 4021616 | 2 }}
| 1,728,705
| {{Percentage | 1728705 | 4021616 | 2 }}
| 311,478
| {{Percentage | 311478 | 4021616 | 2 }}
! 4,021,616
! {{Percentage | 4021616 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Jammu & Kashmir Princely State ([[British Raj|British India]] era)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite report |jstor=saoa.crl.25366883 |title=Census of India 1901. Vol. 23A, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables |year=1901 |page=20 }}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite report |jstor=saoa.crl.25394111 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 20, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables |year=1911 |page=17}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite report |jstor=saoa.crl.25430177 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 22, Kashmir. Pt. 2, Tables |year=1921 |page=15}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite report |jstor=saoa.crl.25797120 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 24, Jammu & Kashmir State. Pt. 2, Imperial & state tables |year=1931 |page=267}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite report |jstor=saoa.crl.28215644 |title=Census of India, 1941. Vol. 22, Jammu & Kashmir |year=1941 |pages=337–352 |author1=India Census Commissioner |volume=22 }}</ref>
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 2,154,695
| {{Percentage | 2154695 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 2,398,320
| {{Percentage | 2398320 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 2,548,514
| {{Percentage | 2548514 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 2,817,636
| {{Percentage | 2817636 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 3,101,247
| {{Percentage | 3101247 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| 689,073
| {{Percentage | 689073 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 690,390
| {{Percentage | 690390 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 692,641
| {{Percentage | 692641 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 736,222
| {{Percentage | 736222 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 809,165
| {{Percentage | 809165 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 35,047
| {{Percentage | 35047 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 36,512
| {{Percentage | 36512 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 37,685
| {{Percentage | 37685 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 38,724
| {{Percentage | 38724 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 40,696
| {{Percentage | 40696 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 25,828
| {{Percentage | 25828 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 31,553
| {{Percentage | 31553 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 39,507
| {{Percentage | 39507 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 50,662
| {{Percentage | 50662 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 65,903
| {{Percentage | 65903 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 442
| {{Percentage | 442 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 345
| {{Percentage | 345 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 529
| {{Percentage | 529 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 597
| {{Percentage | 597 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 910
| {{Percentage | 910 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 422
| {{Percentage | 422 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 975
| {{Percentage | 975 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 1,634
| {{Percentage | 1634 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 2,263
| {{Percentage | 2263 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 3,509
| {{Percentage | 3509 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 11
| {{Percentage | 11 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 31
| {{Percentage | 31 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 7
| {{Percentage | 7 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 29
| {{Percentage | 29 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Tribal religions in India|Tribal]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 134
| {{Percentage | 134 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 51
| {{Percentage | 51 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 10
| {{Percentage | 10 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! Others
| 60
| {{Percentage | 60 | 2905578 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 3158126 | 2 }}
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 3320518 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 3646243 | 2 }}
| 95
| {{Percentage | 95 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 2,905,578
! {{Percentage | 2905578 | 2905578 | 2 }}
! 3,158,126
! {{Percentage | 3158126 | 3158126 | 2 }}
! 3,320,518
! {{Percentage | 3320518 | 3320518 | 2 }}
! 3,646,243
! {{Percentage | 3646243 | 3646243 | 2 }}
! 4,021,616
! {{Percentage | 4021616 | 4021616 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="11" | {{small|Note: The Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir includes the contemporary administrative divisions of [[Jammu division|Jammu]], [[Kashmir division|Kashmir]], [[Ladakh]], [[Azad Kashmir]], and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]].}}
|}

=== Modern era ===
People in Jammu speak Hindi, Punjabi and Dogri, the Kashmir Valley people speak Kashmiri, and people in the sparsely inhabited Ladakh speak Tibetan and Balti.<ref name=britannica-intro/>

The population of India-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh combined is 12,541,302;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geohive.com/cntry/in-01.aspx |title=India, Jammu and Kashmir population statistics |publisher=GeoHive |access-date=29 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419221846/http://www.geohive.com/cntry/in-01.aspx |archive-date=19 April 2015 }}</ref> that of Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir is 4,045,366; and that of Gilgit-Baltistan is 1,492,924.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2017 |title=Census 2017: AJK population rises to over 4m |url=https://nation.com.pk/27-Aug-2017/census-2017-ajk-population-rises-to-over-4m |access-date=26 November 2022 |website=The Nation |language=en |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140054/https://nation.com.pk/27-Aug-2017/census-2017-ajk-population-rises-to-over-4m |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gilgit-Baltistan: Districts & Places – Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/pakistan/cities/gilgitbaltistan/ |access-date=26 November 2022 |website=www.citypopulation.de |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920172116/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/pakistan/cities/gilgitbaltistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Administered by !! Area !! Population !! % [[Muslim]] !! % [[Hinduism|Hindu]] !! % [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] !! % other
|-
| rowspan="3"| {{IND}}
|[[Kashmir Valley]]
|~4 million (4 million)
|95%
|4%
|–
|–
|-
|[[Jammu Division|Jammu]]
|~3 million (3 million)
|30%
|66%
|–
|4%
|-
|[[Ladakh]]
|~0.25 million (250,000)
|46%
|12%
|40%
|2%
|-
| rowspan="2"| {{PAK}}
|[[Azad Kashmir]]
|~4 million (4 million)
|100%
|–
|–
|–
|-
|[[Gilgit-Baltistan]]
|~2 million (2 million)
|99%
|–
|–
|–
|-
| rowspan="2"| {{CHN}}
|[[Aksai Chin]]
|–
|–
|–
|–
|–
|-
|[[Trans-Karakoram Tract|Trans-Karakoram]]
|–
|–
|–
|–
|–
|-
| colspan ="7" |
*Statistics from the [[BBC]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The future of Kashmir? |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/south_asia/03/kashmir_future/html |website=[[BBC]] |access-date=24 April 2025}}</ref>
|}

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg|A Muslim shawl-making family shown in ''Cashmere shawl manufactory'', 1867, chromolithograph, William Simpson
File:KashmirPundit1895BritishLibrary.jpg|A group of Pandits, or Brahmin priests, in Kashmir, photographed by an unknown photographer in the 1890s
File:Kashmir Ladakh women in local costume.jpg|[[Brokpa]] women from [[Kargil town|Kargil]], northern [[Ladakh]], in local costumes
</gallery>

==Economy==
{{Further|Azad Kashmir#Economy|Jammu and Kashmir (state)#Economy}}

Kashmir's economy is centred around [[agriculture]]. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its [[temperate climate]], it is suited for crops like [[asparagus]], artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, [[peach]]es, and cherries. The chief trees are [[Cedrus deodara|deodar]], firs and [[pine]]s, [[Platanus orientalis|chinar]] or plane, maple, birch and [[walnut]], apple, cherry.

Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when [[Cashmere wool]] was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at [[knitting]] and making [[Pashmina]] [[shawl]]s, silk carpets, rugs, [[kurta]]s, and pottery. [[Saffron]], too, is grown in Kashmir. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, [[papier-mâché]], wood-carving, and the weaving of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the [[2005 Kashmir earthquake]] which, as of 8 October 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-administered territory of Azad Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in the India-administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir.

{{Wide image|Srinagar pano.jpg|800px|Srinagar, the largest city of Kashmir|center}}

===Transport===
Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharatonline.com/kashmir/travel-tips/local-transport.html |title=Local Transport in Kashmir – Means of Transportation Kashmir – Mode of Transportation Kashmir India |publisher=Bharatonline.com |access-date=3 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=17 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517211236/http://www.bharatonline.com/kashmir/travel-tips/local-transport.html}}</ref> Kashmir has a {{cvt|135|km|0}} long modern [[Jammu–Baramulla line|railway]] line that started in October 2009, and was last extended in 2013 and connects Baramulla, in the western part of Kashmir, to Srinagar and [[Banihal]]. It is expected to link Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction of the railway line from [[Katra, Jammu and Kashmir|Katra]] to Banihal is completed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baapar.com/blog/how-to-reach-kashmir-by-train-air-bus/ |title=How to Reach Kashmir by Train, Air, Bus? |publisher=Baapar.com |access-date=22 January 2016 |archive-date=8 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308230308/http://www.baapar.com/blog/how-to-reach-kashmir-by-train-air-bus/}}</ref>

==In culture==
{{see also|Kashmiri handicrafts}}
[[File:KASHMIR DURBAR CARPET NORTH INDIA.png|thumb|Large Kashmir Durbar Carpet (detail), 2021 photo. "Durbar", in this context, means [[Royal family|Royal]] or Chiefly.]]
Irish poet [[Thomas Moore]]'s 1817 romantic poem ''[[Lalla Rookh]]'' is credited with having made Kashmir (spelt ''Cashmere'' in the poem) "a household term in [[Anglophone]] societies", conveying the idea that it was a kind of [[paradise]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Arts and South Asia|publisher=Harvard South Asia Institute|date=12 May 2017|page=45|chapter=At the threshold of paradise: Kashmir in Mughal Persian poetry|first=Sunil|last=Sharma|work=Issuu |url=https://issuu.com/harvardsai/docs/sai_arts_final|access-date=30 January 2021|archive-date=10 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410050659/https://issuu.com/harvardsai/docs/sai_arts_final|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[1941 Census of Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[Human rights abuses in Kashmir]]
* [[Kashmiris]]
* [[List of territorial disputes]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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{{refend}}

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{{Refend}}

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* Knight, William, Henry. 1863. ''Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere and Thibet''. Richard Bentley, London. Reprint 1998: Asian Educational Services, New Delhi.
* [[Hans Köchler|Köchler, Hans]]. [http://i-p-o.org/Koechler-Kashmir_Discourse-European_Parliament-April2008.htm ''The Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik. Reflections on a Negotiated Settlement''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402012239/http://i-p-o.org/Koechler-Kashmir_Discourse-European_Parliament-April2008.htm |date=2 April 2010 }}. Keynote speech delivered at the "Global Discourse on Kashmir 2008." European Parliament, Brussels, 1 April 2008.
* [[William Moorcroft (explorer)|Moorcroft, William]] and [[Trebeck, George]]. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
* Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). ''The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c''. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown – but the 16th edition was published in 1938).
* Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. ''Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī–A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr'', 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979.
* Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward 1917. ''Kashmir''. A. & C. Black, London.
* Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. "Kashmir and the Convergence of Time, Space and Destiny", 2004; {{ISBN|0-945747-00-4}}. First published as a four-part series, March 2002 – April 2003, in 'Prakash', a review of the Jagat Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Charitable Foundation. [http://www.patrizianorellibachelet.com/Kashmir.html Kashmir and the Convergence of Time Space and Destiny by Patrizia Norelli Bachelet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928141452/http://www.patrizianorellibachelet.com/Kashmir.html |date=28 September 2007 }}
* Muhammad Ayub. ''An Army; Its Role & Rule (A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947–1999)''. Pittsburgh: Rosedog Books, 2005. {{ISBN|0-8059-9594-3}}.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080514065929/http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/unmogip/ United Nations Military Observers Group in Kashmir]

{{Regions and administrative territories of Kashmir}}
{{Territorial disputes in East, South, and Southeast Asia}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|34.5|N|76.5|E|scale:3000000|display=title}}

[[Category:Kashmir| ]]
[[Category:Disputed territories in Asia]]
[[Category:Historical regions of Asia]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where Kashmiri is an official language]]
[[Category:Regions of Asia]]

E. V. V. Satyanarayana

2026-03-20T20:14:19Z

Brandon81T: update citations additionally and updated info to improve readability

{{Short description|Indian film director (1956–2011)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Family name hatnote|Edara|lang=Telugu}}
{{Infobox person
| name = E. V. V. Satyanarayana
| image =
| caption =
| native_name =
| birth_name = Eedara Veera Venkata Satyanarayana
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1956|06|10}}
| birth_place = [[West Godavari district|Korumamidi]], [[Andhra State]], [[India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2011|01|21|1956|06|10}}<ref name="Obituary">{{Cite web|url=http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/movietidbits/evvsatyanarayan_jan212010.php|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124232201/http://www.telugucinema.com/c/publish/movietidbits/evvsatyanarayan_jan212010.php|url-status=dead|title=EVV is no more!, Obituary at Telugu Cinema.com|archivedate=24 January 2011}}</ref>
| death_place = [[Hyderabad]], [[Telangana]], [[India]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Film director|producer|Screenwriter}}
| years_active = 1982 - 2011
| spouse =
| children = 2, [[Aryan Rajesh]] [[Allari Naresh]]
}}

'''Eedara Veera Venkata Satyanarayana''' (born 10 June 1956 {{endash}} 21 January 2011) was an Indian film director, screenwriter and producer.<ref name="Obituary" /> He directed a total of 51 films in [[Telugu films]] and introduced many actors to [[Telugu cinema]]. He was well known for making [[Comedy film|comedy]] and [[melodrama]] films. In 2000, he established his own [[production company]], [[E. V. V. Cinema]]. He died in 2011.

==Biography==
{{Moresources | section|date=April 2024}}
===Early life===
Satyanarayana was born on 10 June 1956 in Korumamidi village of [[West Godavari district]] in present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]], India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Film director EVV passes away|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2011/jan/22/film-director-evv-passes-away-221230.html|access-date=2021-05-07|website=The New Indian Express|date=16 May 2012|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507075216/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2011/jan/22/film-director-evv-passes-away-221230.html|url-status=live}}</ref> His parents were Venkat Rao and Venkata Ratnam.

===Film career ===
E. V. V. faced many hardships during his early days in Chennai. His passion for films, relentless approach, persistence, and determination to make it big in the industry attracted the attention of noted producer Navatha Krishnam Raju, with whose help he joined [[Devadas Kanakala]] as an assistant director for the film ''[[O Inti Bhagavatam]]''. Later, he worked under director [[Jandhyala (filmmaker)|Jandhyala]] for about 8 years and made 22 films like ''[[Nalugu Stambhalata (film)|Nalugu Stambhalata]]'' (1982), ''[[Rendu Jella Seetha]]'' (1983), ''[[Nelavanka (film)|Nelavanka]]'' (1983), ''[[Rendu Rella Aaru]]'' (1985), ''[[Aha Naa Pellanta (1987 film)|Aha Naa Pellanta]]'' (1987) and ''[[Hai Hai Nayaka]]'' (1989). He also worked as co-director for the movie ''[[Indrudu Chandrudu]]''.

Satyanarayana's directorial debut, ''[[Chevilo Puvvu]]'', was a major flop. He was so depressed that he contemplated leaving the film industry.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/can-you-imagine-a-climax-with-only-comedians-evv-can-telugu-news-262502 |title=Can you imagine a climax with only comedians? - EVV can! |work=Indiaglitz |date=June 10, 2020 |access-date=12 July 2024 |archive-date=12 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241212102832/https://www.indiaglitz.com/can-you-imagine-a-climax-with-only-comedians-evv-can-telugu-news-262502 |url-status=live }}</ref> His destiny changed when producer [[D. Ramanaidu]] gave him a chance to direct ''[[Prema Khaidi]]'', which screened successfully in all centers. He followed the path of his teacher, Jandhyala, and made successful comedy movies. His first movie in the comedy genre was ''[[Appula Appa Rao]]'', followed by ''[[Aa Okkati Adakku]]'' and ''[[Jamba Lakidi Pamba (1992 film)|Jamba Lakidi Pamba]]''. He also directed family sentiment films, most prominent among them the 1994 super hit film ''[[Aame]]'', starring [[Meka Srikanth|Srikanth]] and [[Ooha]]. He also directed movies like ''[[Hello Brother (1994 film)|Hello Brother]]'', ''[[Alluda Majaka]]'', ''[[Intlo Illalu Vantintlo Priyuralu]]'', ''[[Goppinti Alludu]]'', and ''[[Varasudu]]'', and the Hindi movie ''[[Sooryavansham]]'', which starred Amitabh Bachchan and Soundarya.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bharatmovies.com/director/evv-satyanarayana-movies.htm |title=EVV Satyanarayana Movies |website=Bharat Movies |access-date=20 April 2016 |archive-date=24 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424023519/http://www.bharatmovies.com/director/evv-satyanarayana-movies.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> He also directed critically acclaimed movies like ''[[Thaali (1997 film)|Thaali]]'', ''[[Kanyadanam (1998 film)|Kanyadanam]]'' and ''[[Ammo! Okato Tareekhu]]''.{{Citation needed|date= May 2022}}

===Death===
E. V. V. Satyanarayana died on 21 January 2011, following multiple complications from chemotherapy for throat cancer, which led to sepsis and cardiac arrest.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/regional/popular-telugu-film-director-e-v-v-satyanarayana-passes-away-618204 |title=Popular Telugu film director E V V Satyanarayana passes away |date=22 January 2011 |website=NDTV Movies |publisher=Press Trust of India |access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref>

===Awards===
Satyanarayana was presented a [[Nandi Awards|Nandi Award]] in 1994 for the film ''Aame''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ns1.tollywoodtimes.com/en/profiles/info/EVVSatyanarayana/da529ic1qi |title=EVV's Award |work=Tollywood Times.com |access-date=1 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828220744/http://ns1.tollywoodtimes.com/en/profiles/info/EVVSatyanarayana/da529ic1qi |archive-date=28 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Filmography==
* ''All films are in Telugu, unless otherwise noted.''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title
!Director
!Writer
!Producer
!Notes
|-
| 1982 || ''[[Nalugu Stambhalata (film)|Nalugu Stambhalata]]'' || {{partial|Associate}} || {{No}} || {{No}} ||
|-
| 1983 || ''[[Rendu Jella Seetha]]'' || {{partial|Assistant}} || {{No}} || {{No}} ||
|-
| rowspan = "2" |1986 ||''[[Rendu Rella Aaru]]'' || {{partial|Assistant}} || {{No}} || {{No}} ||
|-
|''[[Seetharama Kalyanam (1986 film)|Seetharama Kalyanam]]'' || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || As an actor
|-
| 1987 || ''[[Aha Naa Pellanta (1987 film)|Aha Naa Pellanta]]'' || {{partial|Associate}} || {{No}} || {{No}} ||
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1989 || ''Hai Hai Nayaka'' || {{partial|Associate}} || {{No}} || {{No}} ||
|-
|''[[Indrudu Chandrudu]]''|| {{partial|Associate}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || Also actor
|-
| rowspan="2" |1990 || ''Chevilo Puvvu''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Prema Khaidi]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |1992 || ''[[Seetharatnam Gari Abbayi]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Appula Appa Rao]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Aa Okkati Adakku]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''420''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |1993 ||''[[Varasudu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Hindi film ''[[Phool Aur Kaante]]''
|-
|''[[Evandi Aavida Vachindi]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Alibaba Ara Dozen Dongalu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Abbaigaru]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Tamil film ''[[Enga Chinna Rasa]]''
|-
| ''[[Jamba Lakidi Pamba (1992 film)|Jamba Lakidi Pamba]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1994
| ''[[Hello Brother (1994 film)|Hello Brother]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|Inspired from ''[[Twin Dragons]]''
|-
| ''[[Aame]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |1995 || ''[[Aayanaki Iddaru]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Hindi film ''[[Aaina (1993 film)|Aaina]]''
|-
| ''Maga Rayudu''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Alluda Majaka]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |1996 || ''Telugu Veera Levara''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Intlo Illalu Vantintlo Priyuralu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Tamil film ''[[Thaikulame Thaikulame]]''
|-
| ''[[Adirindi Alludu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Tamil film ''[[Idhu Namma Aalu (1988 film)|Idhu Namma Aalu]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 11, 1996 |title=మద్యనిషేధం రద్దుకు వత్తిడి? |url=http://www.zaminryot.com/pdf/1996/Oct/11-oct-1996.pdf |access-date=2023-08-31 |website=www.zaminryot.com |language=te}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Akkada Ammayi Ikkada Abbayi]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Hindi film ''[[Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak]]''
|-
| rowspan="5" |1997
| ''[[Chilakkottudu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Malayalam film ''[[Boeing Boeing (1985 film)|Boeing Boeing]]''
|-
| ''[[Thaali (1997 film)|Thaali]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Vedevadandi Babu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Tamil film ''[[Ullathai Allitha]]''
|-
| ''[[Maa Nannaki Pelli]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screen adaptation}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Nenu Premisthunnanu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Malayalam film ''[[Aniyathipraavu]]''
|-
| rowspan="3" |1998 || ''[[Maavidaakulu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Aavida Maa Aavide]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Kanyadanam (1998 film)|Kanyadanam]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |1999 ||''Neti Gandhi''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Sooryavansham]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Hindi film Remake of Tamil film ''[[Suryavamsam (1997 film)|Suryavamsam]]''
|-
|''[[Pilla Nachindi]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2000 || ''[[Chala Bagundi]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| ''[[Goppinti Alludu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Hindi film ''[[Hero No. 1]]''
|-
| ''[[Ammo! Okato Tareekhu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2001 || ''[[Maa Aavida Meeda Ottu Mee Aavida Chala Manchidi]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| ''[[Veedekkadi Mogudandi?]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Thank You Subba Rao]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2002 || ''[[Hai (film)|Hai]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Thotti Gang]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|Based on ''[[Saving Silverman]]''
|-
| rowspan="2" |2003 || ''[[Aadanthe Ado Type]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|Remake of Tamil film ''[[Mounam Pesiyadhe]]''
|-
| ''[[Maa Alludu Very Good]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="1" |2004 || ''[[Aaruguru Pativratalu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2005 || ''[[Evadi Gola Vaadidhi]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Nuvvante Naakishtam]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| rowspan="1" |2006 || ''[[Kithakithalu]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2007 || ''[[Athili Sattibabu LKG]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| ''[[Pellaindi Kaani]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2009 || ''[[Bendu Apparao RMP]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Fitting Master]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|{{Yes}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2010 || ''Buridi''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| ''[[Kathi Kantha Rao]]''
|{{Yes}}
|{{partial|Screenplay}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0004466}}
*[http://www.cineherald.com/PhotoGallery/Evv-satyanarayana/index.html E V V Satyanarayana Photo Gallery – Telugu Cinema Director] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926155408/http://www.cineherald.com/PhotoGallery/Evv-satyanarayana/index.html |date=26 September 2011 }}

{{E. V. V. Satyanarayana}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Satyanarayana, E. V. V.}}
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:2011 deaths]]
[[Category:Telugu film producers]]
[[Category:Telugu film directors]]
[[Category:Deaths from oral cancer in India]]
[[Category:Film people from West Godavari district]]
[[Category:Telugu screenwriters]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Film directors from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian male screenwriters]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Indian male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Film producers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]

Kapurthala district

2026-03-20T15:20:01Z

Brandon81T: Enhanced article with new information

{{About|the district|its eponymous headquarters|Kapurthala}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kapurthala district
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of Punjab, India|District]] of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| image_skyline = Kapurthala Sainik School.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Kapurthala Sainik School, former palace of the [[Kapurthala State|Maharajas of Kapurthala]]
| nickname =
| image_map = Kapurthala in Punjab (India).svg
| image_map1 =
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Punjab
| coordinates = {{coord|31|22|46|N|75|23|05|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Emblem of Punjab (India) on a white background (1).png}} [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for = [[Nawab Kapur Singh]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Kapurthala]]
| leader_name1 = D P S Kharbanda IAS
| leader_title1 = Deputy commissioner
| leader_name2 =
| leader_title2 =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 1633
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 815,168
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes = {{cref|‡}}
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = PB-09
| blank1_name_sec1 = Literacy
| blank1_info_sec1 = 80.20%
| website = {{URL|http://www.kapurthala.gov.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Kapurthala District''' is a district of the state of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in northern India. The city of [[Kapurthala]] is the district's headquarters.

Kapurthala District is one of the smallest districts of Punjab in terms of both area and population, with 815,168 people by the 2011 census. The district is divided into two noncontiguous parts—the main Kapurthala-[[Sultanpur Lodhi]] portion and the [[Phagwara]] [[tehsil]].<ref>[https://kapurthala.gov.in/demography/ Demography of kapurthala state gov.in]</ref>

The Kapurthala-Sultanpur Lodhi part lies between north latitude 31° 07' and 31° 22' and east longitude 75° 36'. In the north it is bound by [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]], and [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]] districts, in the west by the [[Beas River]] and Amritsar district, and in south by the [[Sutlej River]], [[Jalandhar district]], and Hoshiaripur district.

Phagwara tehsil lies between north latitude 31° 22' and east longitude 75° 40' and 75° 55'. Phagwara lies on the National Highway No 1, and the tehsil is much more industrially developed than the remainder of Kapurthala District. Phagwara is situated at a distance of {{convert|19|km|mi}} southeast of Jalandhar, and the tehsil is bounded on two sides by Jalandhar District whereas north by Hoshiarpur district and east by S B S Nagar District.

The district has three subdivisions/[[tehsils]]: Kapurthala, Phagwara, and Sultanpur Lodhi. The total area of the district is {{cvt|1633|km}} of which {{cvt|909.09|km2}} is in Kapurthala tehsil, {{cvt|304.05|km2}} is in Phagwara tehsil and {{cvt|451.0|km2}} is in Sultanpur Lodhi tehsil. The economy of the district is still predominantly agricultural.

==Demographics==
[[File:Photograph of rural life in Kapurthala in 1927, a true-colour photograph taken by Albert Kahn.jpg|thumb|Photograph of rural life in [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]] in 1927, a [[Color photography|true-colour]] photograph taken by [[Albert Kahn (banker)|Albert Kahn]]]]

According to the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]] Kapurthala district has a [[Demographics of India|population]] of 815,168,<ref name="districtcensus">{{cite web |title=District Census Hand Book – Kapurthala |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/1000/download/3014/DH_2011_0302_PART_A_DCHB_KAPURTHALA.pdf |website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> roughly equal to the nation of [[Comoros]]<ref name="cia">{{cite web | author = US Directorate of Intelligence | title = Country Comparison:Population | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004507/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 13 June 2007 | access-date = 2011-10-01 | quote = Comoros 794,683 July 2011 est.
}}</ref> or the US state of [[South Dakota]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php
|title=2010 Resident Population Data
|publisher=U. S. Census Bureau
|access-date=2011-09-30
|quote=South Dakota 814,180
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118011236/http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php
|archive-date=18 November 2011
}}</ref> This gives it a ranking of 481st in India (out of a total of [[List of districts in India|640]]).<ref name="districtcensus" /> The district has a population density of {{convert| 501 |PD/sqkm|PD/sqmi}}.<ref name="districtcensus" /> Its [[Family planning in India|population growth rate]] over the decade 2001-2011 was 8.37%.<ref name="districtcensus" /> Kapurthala has a [[sex ratio]] of 912 [[Women in India|females]] for every 1000 males, and a [[Literacy in India|literacy rate]] of 80.2%. Scheduled Castes made up 33.94% of the population.<ref name="districtcensus" />

{{historical populations|21=1951|22=295071|23=1961|24=343778|25=1971|26=429514|27=1981|28=545249|29=1991|30=646647|31=2001|32=754521|33=2011|34=815168|percentages=pagr|footnote=source:<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html Decadal Variation In Population Since 1901]</ref>|align=middle}}

===Gender===
The table below shows the sex ratio of Kapurthala district through decades.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+Sex ratio of Kapurthala district<ref>{{cite web |title=District-wise Decadal Sex ratio in Punjab |url=https://punjab.data.gov.in/catalog/district-wise-decadal-sex-ratio-punjab |website=Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India |date=21 January 2022 |access-date=20 November 2023}}</ref>
!Census year!!Ratio
|-
|2011||912
|-
|2001||887
|-
|1991||896
|-
|1981||898
|-
|1971||889
|-
|1961||886
|-
|1951||880
|}

The table below shows the child sex ratio of children below the age of 6 years in the rural and urban areas of Kapurthala district.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+Child sex ratio of children below the age of 6 years in Kapurthala district<ref>{{cite web | url=https://punjab.data.gov.in/catalog/district-wise-rural-and-urban-child-population-0-6-years-and-their-sex-ratio-punjab | title=Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India | date=21 January 2022 }}</ref>
!Year!!Urban!!Rural
|-
|2011||896||859
|-
|2001||792||782
|}

===Religions===
{{bar box
|title=Religion in Kapurthala district (2011)<ref name="religion"/>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Sikhism]]|darkkhaki|55.66}}
{{bar percent|[[Punjabi Hindus|Hinduism]]|darkorange|41.23}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Punjab, India|Islam]]|green|1.25}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|yellow|0.82}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Punjab, India|Christianity]]|blue|0.66}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.38}}
|float=right
}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Religion in tehsils of Kapurthala district (2011)<ref name="religion" />
!Tehsil
!Sikhism (%)
!Hinduism (%)
!Islam (%)
!Others (%)
|-
|Bhulath
| align="right" style="background:darkkhaki" |78.10
| align="right" |18.88
| align="right" |0.86
|2.16
|-
|Kapurthala
| align="right" style="background:darkkhaki" |60.88
| align="right" |36.72
| align="right" |1.44
|0.96
|-
|Sultanpur Lodhi
| align="right" style="background:darkkhaki" |75.83
| align="right" |23.17
| align="right" |0.33
|0.67
|-
|Phagwara
| align="right" |29.05
| align="right" style="background:darkorange;color:white" |65.80
| align="right" |1.6
|3.55
|}

Sikhs are the majority in Kapurthala district, and dominate rural areas. Hindus are the majority in urban areas.<ref name="religion">{{cite web |title=Table C-01 Population by Religious Community: Punjab |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11389/download/14502/DDW03C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

The table below shows the population of different religions in absolute numbers in the urban and rural areas of Kapurthala district.

{|class="wikitable sort"
|+Absolute numbers of different religious groups in Kapurthala district<ref>{{cite web | url=https://punjab.data.gov.in/catalog/district-wise-population-religion-punjab | title=Open Government Data (OGD) Platform India | date=21 January 2022 }}</ref>
!Religion!!Urban (2011)!!Rural (2011)!!Urban (2001)!!Rural (2001)!!Urban (1991)!!Rural (1991)
|-
|Hindu||183,623||152,501||150,751||135,687||106,614||104,987
|-
|Sikh||89,331||364,361||89,421||359,233||55,075||263,070
|-
|Muslim||3,965||6,225||2,461||3,947||573||2,156
|-
|Christian||1,900||3,545||1,406||2,947||566||1,302
|-
|Other religions||3,643||6,074||2,488||6,180||590||316
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Kapurthala District ([[British Punjab province]] era)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1881<ref name="Census1881A">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057656 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057656 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. I. |year=1881 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881B">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057657 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057657 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. II. |year=1881 |pages=14 }}</ref><ref name="Census1881C">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25057658 |jstor=saoa.crl.25057658 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=Census of India, 1881 Report on the Census of the Panjáb Taken on the 17th of February 1881, vol. III. |year=1881 |pages=14 }}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1891<ref name="Census1891">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25318669 |jstor=saoa.crl.25318669 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=The Punjab and its feudatories, part II--Imperial Tables and Supplementary Returns for the British Territory |year=1891 |pages=14}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1901<ref name="Census1901">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25363739 |jstor=saoa.crl.25363739 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1901. [Vol. 17A]. Imperial tables, I-VIII, X-XV, XVII and XVIII for the Punjab, with the native states under the political control of the Punjab Government, and for the North-west Frontier Province. |year=1901 |pages=34}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1911<ref name="Census1911">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25393788 |jstor=saoa.crl.25393788 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1911. Vol. 14, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1911 |pages=27}}</ref><ref name="Census1911B">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.62718 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census Of India 1911 Punjab Vol XIV Part II |year=1911 |pages=27 |author=Kaul, Harikishan}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1921<ref name="Census1921">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25430165 |jstor=saoa.crl.25430165 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1921. Vol. 15, Punjab and Delhi. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1921 |pages=29}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1931<ref name="Census1931">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25793242 |jstor=saoa.crl.25793242 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India 1931. Vol. 17, Punjab. Pt. 2, Tables. |year=1931 |pages=277}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215541 |jstor=saoa.crl.28215541 |access-date=30 March 2024 |title=Census of India, 1941. Vol. 6, Punjab |year=1941 |pages=42 |author1=India Census Commissioner |volume=6 }}</ref>
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
! [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 142,974
| {{Percentage | 142974 | 252617 | 2 }}
| 170,557
| {{Percentage | 170557 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 178,326
| {{Percentage | 178326 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 152,117
| {{Percentage | 152117 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 160,457
| {{Percentage | 160457 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 179,251
| {{Percentage | 179251 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 213,754
| {{Percentage | 213754 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|1931-1941: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| 82,900
| {{Percentage | 82900 | 252617 | 2 }}
| 89,463
| {{Percentage | 89463 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 93,652
| {{Percentage | 93652 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 61,426
| {{Percentage | 61426 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 58,412
| {{Percentage | 58412 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 64,319
| {{Percentage | 64319 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 61,546
| {{Percentage | 61546 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 26,493
| {{Percentage | 26493 | 252617 | 2 }}
| 39,493
| {{Percentage | 39493 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 42,101
| {{Percentage | 42101 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 54,275
| {{Percentage | 54275 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 64,074
| {{Percentage | 64074 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 72,177
| {{Percentage | 72177 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 88,350
| {{Percentage | 88350 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain_Prateek_Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 214
| {{Percentage | 214 | 252617 | 2 }}
| 169
| {{Percentage | 169 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 226
| {{Percentage | 226 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 205
| {{Percentage | 205 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 228
| {{Percentage | 228 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 27
| {{Percentage | 27 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 380
| {{Percentage | 380 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 35
| {{Percentage | 35 | 252617 | 2 }}
| 8
| {{Percentage | 8 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 39
| {{Percentage | 39 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 107
| {{Percentage | 107 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 1,100
| {{Percentage | 1100 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 983
| {{Percentage | 983 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 1,667
| {{Percentage | 1667 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma_Wheel_(2).svg|15px]]
| 1
| {{Percentage | 1 | 252617 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 252617 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 4
| {{Percentage | 4 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 3
| {{Percentage | 3 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 4
| {{Percentage | 4 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 6
| {{Percentage | 6 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! [[Judaism]] [[File:Star_of_David.svg|15px]]
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! Others
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 252617 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 299690 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 314351 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 268133 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 284275 | 2 }}
| 0
| {{Percentage | 0 | 316757 | 2 }}
| 12,677
| {{Percentage | 12677 | 378380 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 252,617
! {{Percentage | 252617 | 252617 | 2 }}
! 299,690
! {{Percentage | 299690 | 299690 | 2 }}
! 314,351
! {{Percentage | 314351 | 314351 | 2 }}
! 268,133
! {{Percentage | 268133 | 268133 | 2 }}
! 284,275
! {{Percentage | 284275 | 284275 | 2 }}
! 316,757
! {{Percentage | 316757 | 316757 | 2 }}
! 378,380
! {{Percentage | 378380 | 378380 | 2 }}
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan="15" | {{small|Note1: [[British Punjab province]] era district borders are not an exact match in the present-day due to various bifurcations to district borders — which since created new districts — throughout the historic [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province region]] during the post-independence era that have taken into account population increases. Note2: [[British Punjab province]] era figures are for [[Kapurthala State]].}}
|}

=== Language ===
{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Kapurthala district (2011)<ref name="languages"/>
|label1 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] |value1 = 91.20 |color1 = pink
|label2 = [[Hindi]] |value2 = 7.23 |color2 = orange
|label3 = Others |value3 = 1.57 |color3 = grey
|thumb=left}}

At the time of the 2011 census, 91.20% of the population spoke [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and 7.23% [[Hindi]] as their first language.<ref name="languages">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Punjab |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10219/download/13331/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-0300.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==Economy==
The income of [[Municipalities]] and [[Municipal corporations]] in Kapurthala district from municipal rates and taxes in the year 2018 was 459,777 thousand rupees.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://punjab.data.gov.in/resource/district-wise-income-municipalitiescorporations-punjab-municipal-rates-and-taxes-punjab | title = District-wise Income of Municipalities/Corporations in Punjab from Municipal Rates and Taxes in Punjab from 1968 to 2018 (As on March) | date = 8 July 2020 | access-date = 1 October 2024 }}</ref>

In 2010–11, there were 4,305 registered Micro and Small Enterprise (MSE) units in Kapurthala district, which provided employment to 22,678 people. There were 5 registered Medium and Large industrial units, which provided employment to 17,000 people.<ref>[https://dcmsme.gov.in/old/dips/Kapurthala.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwigw_v4we6FAxX49DgGHbjoDGwQFnoECGUQAQ&usg=AOvVaw19qEJBplRwWyUuEUzgHhQD "Brief Industrial Profile of Kapurthala District"], MSME Development Institute, Government of India, Ministry of MSME, Table 3.2.</ref> In February 2023, Kapurthala district was declared second best across Punjab in giving timely approval to new industries and promoting investment by creating good environment for the establishment of new commercial industrial units.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 February 2023 |title=Kapurthala 2nd best in timely approvals for new industries |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/jalandhar/kapurthala-2nd-best-in-timely-approvals-for-new-industries-483273/ |website=The Tribune}}</ref>

==Health==
According to the National Blindness and Visual Survey India 2015–19, 11.53% people in Kapurthala district above the age of 50 were [[visually impaired]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1808234|title=Measures Taken to Control Blindness Cases - Annexure-I|date=22 March 2022|publisher=Ministry of Health and Family Welfare|website=pib.gov.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120143341/https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1808234|archive-date=20 January 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> In April 2023, Parhar hospital in [[Phagwara]] became the first hospital in Punjab to get advanced technology for [[Robot-assisted surgery|Robot Joint Replacement Surgeries]].<ref>[https://www.punjabnewsexpress.com/national/news/parhar-hospital-becomes-punjabs-first-fully-automatic-robotic-surgery-center-192903 "Parhar Hospital becomes Punjab's first fully automatic robotic surgery center"] – Punjab News Express, by
Ashok Kaura, 21 December 2022.</ref>

The table below shows the data from the district nutrition profile of children below the age of 5 years, in Kapurthala, as of year 2020.

{| class = "wikitable sortable"
|+ District nutrition profile of children under 5 years of age in Kapurthala, year 2020
<ref name="ebrary">{{cite web|url=https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/api/collection/p15738coll2/id/131901/download|title=District Nutrition Profile - Kapurthala, Punjab|publisher=Poshan|website=ebrary.ifpri.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211042249/https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/api/collection/p15738coll2/id/131901/download|archive-date=11 December 2023|url-status=dead}}</ref>
!Indicators!!Number of children (<5 years)!! Percent (2020)!! Percent (2016)
|-
|Stunted||13,534||28%||35%
|-
|Wasted||4,931||10%||23%
|-
|Severely wasted||1,328||3%||11%
|-
|Underweight||9,973||21%||27%
|-
|Overweight/obesity||1,313||3%||1%
|-
|Anemia||32,889||76%||61%
|-
|Total children||48,111||||
|}

The table below shows the district nutrition profile of Kapurthala of women between the ages of 15 and 49 years, as of year 2020.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+District nutritional profile of Kapurthala of women of 15–49 years, in 2020<ref name="ebrary"/>
!Indicators!!Number of women (15–49 years)!! Percent (2020)!!Percent (2016)
|-
|Underweight (BMI <18.5&nbsp;kg/m^2)||31,663||16%||11%
|-
|Overweight/obesity||76,581||39%||24%
|-
|Hypertension||50,788||26%||12%
|-
|Diabetes||29,369||15%||NA
|-
|Anemia (non-preg)||123,249||63%||43%
|-
|Anemia (preg)||6,298||58%||27%
|-
|Total women (preg)||10,907||||
|-
|Total women||194,368||||
|}

The table below shows the current use of family planning methods by currently married women between the ages of 15 and 49 years, in Kapurthala district.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+Family planning methods used by women between the ages of 15 and 49 years, in Kapurthala district<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rchiips.org/nfhs/FCTS/PB/PB_FactSheet_36_Kapurthala.pdf|title=National Familty Health Survey - 4, 2015-16 - District Fact Sheet - Kapurthala, Punjab|publisher=Ministry of Health and Family Welfare|website=rchiips.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503115939/http://rchiips.org/nfhs/FCTS/PB/PB_FactSheet_36_Kapurthala.pdf|archive-date=3 May 2024|url-status=dead}}</ref>
!Method!!Total (2019–21)!! Total (2015–16)!!Urban (2015–16)!!Rural (2015–16)
|-
|Female sterilization||22.1%||40.4%||37.8%||41.9%
|-
|Male sterilization||0.8%||0.7%||1.4%||0.3%
|-
|IUD/PPIUD||1.6%||4.3%||6.0%||3.4%
|-
|Pill||1.6%||1.9%||1.9%||1.9%
|-
|Condom||20.5%||17.6%||20.6%||15.9%
|-
|Any modern method||47.2%|| 65.0%||67.6%||63.5%
|-
|Any method||61.0%||70.0%||71.7%||69.1%
|-
|Total unmet need||13.4%||8.2%||7.8%||8.5%
|-
|Unmet need for spacing||4.4%||1.5%||2.0%||1.2%
|}

The table below shows the number of road accidents and people affected in Kapurthala district by year.

{| class = "wikitable sortable"
|+Road accidents and people affected in Kapurthala district by year<ref>{{cite web | url =https://punjab.data.gov.in/catalog/road-accidents-punjab | title = Road Accidents in Punjab | website = punjab.data.gov.in | date = 21 January 2022 | access-date = 1 October 2024 }}</ref>
!Year!!Accidents!!Killed!!Injured!!Vehicles Involved
|-
|2022||136||118||62||185
|-
|2021||134||102||38||148
|-
|2020||144||121||65||122
|-
|2019||213||184||81||158
|}

== Politics ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! No.
! Constituency
! Name of MLA
! colspan="2" | Party
!Bench
|-
!26
|[[Bholath Assembly constituency|Bholath]]
| [[Sukhpal Singh Khaira]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Opposition
|-
!27
|[[Kapurthala Assembly constituency|Kapurthala]]
| [[Rana Gurjeet Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Opposition
|-
!28
|[[Sultanpur Lodhi Assembly constituency|Sultanpur Lodhi]]
| [[Rana Inder Pratap Singh]]
| {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|Opposition
|-
!29
|[[Phagwara Assembly constituency|Phagwara]] (SC)
|Balwinder Singh Dhaliwal
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|Opposition
|}

==Notable people==
*[[Kartar Singh Thind]], a [[botanist]]
*[[Purshottam Das Jalota]], a classical and devotional music singer, best known for his [[bhajans]] and receiver of [[Padam Shri]] award

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Kapurthala district}}
*{{Official website|http://www.kapurthala.gov.in}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Kapurthala district (West)
|North = [[Gurdaspur district]]
|Northeast = [[Hoshiarpur district]]
|East =
|Southeast = [[Jalandhar district]]
|South =
|Southwest = [[Firozpur district]]
|West = [[Taran Taran district]]
|Northwest = [[Amritsar district]]
}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Kapurthala district (East)
|North =
|Northeast = [[Hoshiarpur district]]
|East =
|Southeast = [[Shahid Bhagat Singh Nagar district]]
|South =
|Southwest =
|West = [[Jalandhar district]]
|Northwest =
}}

{{Kapurthala district}}
{{Punjab (India)}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Kapurthala district| ]]
[[Category:Districts of Punjab, India]]

Madiga

2026-03-19T21:34:59Z

Brandon81T: added page further to improve readability

{{Short description|Caste in South India}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox caste|caste_name=Madiga|image=Manda Krishna Madiga.jpg|caption=Madiga community members at a [[Madiga Reservation Porata Samiti]] meeting|religions=[[Hinduism]], [[Christianity]]|languages=[[Telugu language|Telugu]]{{*}}[[Kannada]]{{*}}[[Tamil language|Tamil]]|populated_states=[[Andhra Pradesh]]{{*}}[[Telangana]]{{*}}[[Karnataka]]{{*}}[[Tamilnadu]]{{*}}[[Maharastra]]|population=7.66 million|classification=[[Scheduled caste]]|country={{flag|India}}|region=[[South India]]}}

'''Madiga''' is a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] caste from [[South India|southern India]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ilaiah|first=Kancha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UYhlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT51|title=Post-Hindu India: A Discourse in Dalit-Bahujan, Socio-Spiritual and Scientific Revolution|year=2009|publisher=SAGE Publishing India|isbn=978-93-5280-197-8|language=en|page=51}}</ref> They mainly live in the states of [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]] and [[Karnataka]], with a small minority in [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite news |work=The Hindu |title=Social ostracising of Scheduled Castes still rampant in society |date=16 October 2018 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/social-ostracising-of-scheduled-castes-still-rampant-in-society/article25231466.ece |access-date=2019-05-09}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-life/starring-madiga-and-dappu/article28672823.ece|last=Madhav|first=K. V. S.|date=2004-09-09|work=The Hindu|title=Starring Madiga and dappu... |access-date=2020-07-06}}</ref> Madigas are historically associated with the work of [[Tanning (leather)|tannery]], [[Leather crafting|leatherwork]] and small handicrafts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gundimeda|first=Sambaiah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WqXbCgAAQBAJ&dq=madiga+traditional+work&pg=PT330|title=Dalit Politics in Contemporary India|date=2015-10-14|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-38104-4|language=en}}</ref> Today, most are agricultural labourers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Still|first=Clarinda|date=2009-04-01|title=From Militant Rejection to Pragmatic Consensus: Caste among Madigas in Andhra Pradesh|journal=Journal of South Asian Development|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=7–23|doi=10.1177/097317410900400102|s2cid=154301741|issn=0973-1741}}</ref> They are categorized as a [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Caste]] by the [[Government of India]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Jammanna |first1=Akepogu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kOa2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 |title=Dalits' Struggle for Social Justice in Andhra Pradesh (1956-2008): From Relays to Vacuum Tubes |last2=Sudhakar |first2=Pasala |date=2016-12-14 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-4496-3 |pages=222 |language=en}}</ref> Within the Madiga community, there are various sub-castes<ref>{{Cite web |title=ఎస్సీ రిజర్వేషన్ వర్గీకరణ పోరాటానికి విరసం మద్దతు |url=http://avaninews.com/article.php?page=807 |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=avaninews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ఎమ్మార్పీఎస్ కు విరసం మద్దతు : వర్గీకరణ న్యాయబద్దమంటూ లేఖ |date=9 August 2016 |url=https://telugu.oneindia.com/news/telangana/virasam-press-note-on-sc-classification-182140.html}}</ref> include Bindla, Chindu, Dakkali, Mashti, Sangaris<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-09-05 |title=అట్టడుగు ఆక్రందనలు వినాలి! |url=https://www.sakshi.com/news/opinion/no-development-in-who-are-depending-on-the-scheduled-casts-163790 |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Sakshi |language=te}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Teltumbde |first1=Anand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LfVyDwAAQBAJ&dq=madiga+jangam+priests&pg=PT293 |title=The Radical in Ambedkar: Critical Reflections |last2=Yengde |first2=Suraj |date=2024-05-08 |publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited |isbn=978-93-5305-313-0 |pages=127 |language=en}}</ref> and the priestly class is known as ''Madiga Dasu''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=K. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv5s-qwMw30C&q=%22madiga+dasu%22 |title=People of India: Andhra Pradesh |date=1992 |publisher=Anthropological Survey of India |isbn=978-81-7671-006-0 |pages=1053 |language=en}}</ref>

== Origin and mythology ==
[[Edgar Thurston]] and Siraj-ul-Hasan speculated Madiga derived from ''Mahadige'' or ''maha dige ra'' ({{Translation|great man come down}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajpramukh |first=K. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aXOSAAAAQBAJ |title=Satellite Castes and Dependent Relations: Dalits in South India |date=2013-08-13 |publisher=Partridge Publishing |isbn=978-1-4828-1057-8 |pages=21 |language=en}}</ref> This is related to the common origin story that the Madigas originated from [[Jambavan]]ta, who helped the gods out of a difficulty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thallapally |first=Manohar |title=Cultural History of Madigas - A Brief Study |publisher=Pragma Publications |year=2016 |isbn=978-93-984845-16-2 |location=Vidyanagar, Hyd |pages=8}}</ref>

==Distribution and occupation==
=== Distribution ===
Madigas live mainly in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Karnataka, with small minorities in neighboring states. As per the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], in [[Andhra Pradesh (1956–2014)|United Andhra Pradesh]] Madigas constituted 48.27% of the total Scheduled Caste population with a population of 6,702,609.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India - A-10 Appendix: District wise scheduled caste population (Appendix), Andhra Pradesh - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42907 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> While [[Mala (caste)|Malas]] constituted 40.11%.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jammanna |first1=Akepogu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kOa2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 |title=Dalits' Struggle for Social Justice in Andhra Pradesh (1956-2008): From Relays to Vacuum Tubes |last2=Sudhakar |first2=Pasala |date=2016-12-14 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-4496-3 |pages=222 |language=en}}</ref> Around 3.4 million Madigas live in Andhra Pradesh and another 3.3 million throughout Telangana.<ref name=":1" />

In Karnataka, the Madigas make up 9.1% of the total Scheduled Caste population, totaling 953,913 individuals. In [[Mysore State|Old Mysore]], the Madigas were one of the main [[Dalit]] communities, along with the [[Holeya]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India - A-10 Appendix: District wise scheduled caste population (Appendix), Karnataka - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42908 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>

In Tamil Nadu, their population is recorded at 5,929,<ref>{{Cite web |title=India - A-10 Appendix: District wise scheduled caste population (Appendix), Tamil Nadu - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42911 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> and in Maharashtra at 15,318.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India - A-10 Appendix: District wise scheduled caste population (Appendix), Maharashtra - 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/42906 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>

In 2009, the term "[[Arunthathiyar]]" in Tamil Nadu was officially designated as an umbrella term encompassing various communities, including Arunthathiyar, Chakkiliyan, Madari, Madiga, Pagadai, Thoti and [[Adi Andhra]] with a combined population of 2,150,285.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 March 2009 |title=Tamil Nadu Government Gazette |url=http://www.tniuscbe.org/download/gg/gg70.pdf |access-date=2015-04-05 |publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu |page=3}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="background-color: blue; color: white;" | Madiga Population Distribution (2011 census)
! State !! Population !! Percentage in State Population
!Notes
|-
| Andhra Pradesh || 3,468,967 || 7.3%
|
|-
| Telangana || 3,222,642 || 9.21%
|
|-
| Karnataka || 953,913 || 1.56%
|
|-
| Tamil Nadu || 5,929 || 0.008%
|2.97% (2,150,285 including sub-castes)
|-
| Maharashtra || 15,318 || 0.013
|
|}

=== Occupation ===
The occupation of the Madiga community is primarily associated with tanning leather, making footwear, belts, pouches, toddy-containers and bags which were provided to different castes as needed. Additionally, the Madiga community is known for their expertise in crafting the traditional drum called the ''Dappu''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-04-12 |title=The undying beat of the Dappu: How a traditional drum signifies dignity, revolution for the Madiga community |url=https://www.firstpost.com/living/the-undying-beat-of-the-dappu-how-a-traditional-drum-signifies-dignity-revolution-for-the-madiga-community-8251031.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref> A significant portion of the Madiga population traditionally worked as cobblers. They specialized in crafting and repairing footwear.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Manohar |first=Thallapally |date=2018-01-01 |title=Traditional Economy and Religious Life of Leather Working Madigas |url=https://www.academia.edu/43408220 |journal=INSTITUTE OF STUDIES ON LEATHER WORKERS (ISLW), Warangal}}</ref> They are also village drummers who use Dandora or Dappu in festivals, death and marriage ceremony and announcements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The undying beat of the Dappu: How a traditional drum signifies dignity, revolution for the Madiga community |url=https://www.firstpost.com/living/the-undying-beat-of-the-dappu-how-a-traditional-drum-signifies-dignity-revolution-for-the-madiga-community-8251031.html |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=Firstpost|date=12 April 2020 }}</ref>

Some Madigas were traditionally engaged in various village services, including activities like horn-blowing, drum-beating, removal of animal carcasses, cleaning of public spaces and menial tasks. In exchange for their services, they received ''inam'' land. Those specifically involved in menial work were referred to as ''etti-Madiga''. Their responsibilities included street cleaning, carrying government officials luggage, helping with revenue collection, maintaining peace as watchmen, household and farm chores for their landlord family.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Khare |first=R. S. |date=March 1974 |title=The Madiga: A Study in Social Structure and Change . T. R. Singh, K. S. Mathur. |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=144–145 |doi=10.1525/aa.1974.76.1.02a00720 |issn=0002-7294 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the past, Madigas were obligated to provide free labor under the [[Jajmani system|vetti system]] to landlords for a certain number of days during peak periods of agricultural labour.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Caste, Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh: Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories; Page 13, Page 19 |url=http://cdn-odi-production.s3-website-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/media/documents/2692.pdf}}</ref> When payment was made, it was less than what was paid to the rest of the farmers.<ref name=":1" /> In some areas, landlords allocated land to Dalits, mainly Madigas, and provided initial resources. In return, tenants worked on the landlord's fields for nominal wages and received only 1/3 of the crop after harvest, maintaining their economic dependence.<ref name=":1" />

The first social reform movements, driven by paternalistic upper-caste leaders, aimed to uplift the Madigas by encouraging them to adopt upper-caste customs and traditions. This involved forsaking practices such as alcohol consumption and rituals like the buffalo sacrifice. Despite the initial enthusiasm of the Madigas, they eventually abandoned these movements upon realizing that the upper castes continued to treat them with the same contempt as before. Subsequently, they turned to secular paths for upliftment, such as pursuing education and changing occupations, opportunities that were further opened up to them through the reservation system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chandrasekaran |first=Lalita |date=1992 |title=Social Mobility Among the Madiga of Karnataka |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23620176 |journal=Sociological Bulletin |volume=41 |issue=1/2 |pages=119–144 |doi=10.1177/0038022919920107 |issn=0038-0229 |jstor=23620176 |s2cid=148185178|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

After the 1960s, significant changes occurred in Madiga livelihoods. The introduction of the Green Revolution led to more capital-intensive farming and mechanization, increasing the need for laborers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Land and Income Inequalities in Rural Andhra Pradesh |url=https://www.cpim.org/marxist/201202-Land-Inequalities-AP.pdf}}</ref> Additionally, industrially-produced goods began dominating rural markets, undermining the traditional occupations of Madiga leather artisans. This pushed many Madigas as agriculture laborers, increasing their dependence on landlords. The Green Revolution benefited the upper castes but left landless Madiga and Mala laborers facing continued exploitation.<ref name=":2" />

== Politics ==
Early politics related to Dalits, including Madigas, in Andhra Pradesh was centered around welfare schemes for them, a form of politics most typical of [[Indian National Congress|Indian Congress]]. With the rise of the TDP ([[Telugu Desam Party]]), social polarization took on a political hue: with Dalits being considered "rebellious" if they did not support the TDP. In [[Telangana]], Dalits and other backward communities formed the main base of the [[List of communist parties in India|Left parties]], who helped bring an end to the [[Jajmani system|vetti system]] and other injustices committed by the landlords. However, in areas where the Left was not strong, the Dalits followed patronage systems and supported the Congress party, which was led by their [[Reddy]] landlords.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=K |first=Srinivasulu |date=September 2002 |title=Caste, Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh:Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories; Page 40 |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/100516/wp179.pdf |journal=Overseas Development Institute, London}}</ref>

Initially, during the [[1991 Indian general election]], the DMS (Dalit Maha Sabha) was unable to turn the Dalit anger after [[Tsundur massacre]] into setting the political discourse. However, after the [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] - [[Samajwadi Party]] alliance came to power in the [[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]], the DMS thought they could create a similar victory in Andhra Pradesh. With the political aspirations of the Dalits and some other backward classes (like the [[Golla (caste)|Gollas]]) awakened, [[Kanshi Ram]]'s 1994 tour of Andhra Pradesh garnered significant popularity and spurred the awakening of leaders not only within the [[Mala (caste)|Malas]], Madigas, and other Dalit castes but also among marginalized leaders from the Backward Classes (BC). But when the media focused on the BSP in Andhra Pradesh, the Dalits felt that the local media was biased and only talked about problems within the BSP. This sudden rise of Dalit voices made the Congress and TDP change their election strategies. The Congress tried to get the votes of BSP supporters, and the TDP introduced popular programs. The TDP's efforts paid off, and they won big in the [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ratnam |first=K. Y. |date= December 2008|title=The Dalit movement and democratization in Andhra Pradesh |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10125/6136 |journal= |hdl=10125/6136 |language=en-US}}</ref> while the BSP didn't do well. People believed that the Mahasabha, which had originally aimed for social change, moving into politics, was bad for the fight against caste discrimination in Andhra Pradesh. This led to the breakup of grassroots activists and their leaders.<ref name=":1" />

=== Madiga Dandora movement ===
In 1994, [[Manda Krishna Madiga]] and Dandu Veeraiah Madiga formed the [[Madiga Reservation Porata Samiti]] (MRPS) to demand the categorization of the SC reservation quota to ensure equitable distribution of state allocations for all the constituent castes in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, with implications extending beyond these states.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEcrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73|title=Dalit Women: Honour and Patriarchy in South India|last=Still|first=Clarinda|date=2017-07-06|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-58819-5|pages=39|language=en}}</ref> This movement, more popularly known as the Madiga Dandora movement, held dharnas, mass rallies, rail rokos, and other activities to publicize for the demand of sub-classification within the Scheduled Caste category, with a focus on securing internal reservations for the Madiga community and other marginalized Dalit subgroups. This demand arose due to the growing disparities within the SC category, with some communities having more access to educational and employment opportunities than others. The MRPS has united not only the Madiga community but also other smaller marginalized groups, often referred to as "satellite castes," who face similar socio-economic challenges. The movement's bipartisan approach, engaging with various political parties to push for its demands, has drawn both support and criticism, with some accusing it of dividing the larger Dalit movement.

Their agitations led to a commission headed by justice Ramachandra Raju to examine the issue. In 1997, the commission published its report which found that reservation benefits had mainly gone to the Mala and [[Adi Andhra]] communities, and neither the Madiga or [[Relli (caste)|Relli]] had proportional representation in the quota. The commission recommended a four-fold classification of SCs for reservation benefit: 1% for group D (Rellis and related), 7% for group B (Madigas and related), 6% for group C (Malas and related) and 1% for Adi Andhra.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Satyanarayana|first=K.|date=October 2014|title=Dalit reconfiguration of caste: representation, identity and politics|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/criq.12137|journal=Critical Quarterly|volume=56|issue=3|pages=46–61|doi=10.1111/criq.12137|issn=0011-1562|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Earlier, TDP and Congress in the state made efforts to categorize SCs based on their level of backwardness, but these initiatives were met with legal challenges. In 2013, the movement gained significant momentum when Krishna Madiga, met [[Narendra Modi]]. During this meeting, Modi promised to amend the Constitution to implement internal reservations within the SC category.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Teja |first=Charan |date=2022-08-24 |title=Madiga Dandora: A force no political party can ignore or control |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/telangana/madiga-dandora-force-no-political-party-can-ignore-or-control-167146 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref> In a related development, the A.J. Sadashiva Commission, in its report submitted in 2012, has recommended internal reservation within the 15 per cent Dalit quota in Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-02 |title=Politics in Dalit quota |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/social-issues/social-justice/politics-indalit-quota/article32643422.ece |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=Frontline |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=The Hans |date=2019-07-08 |title=Education key for development of Dalit: Dr Praveen Kumar |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/news/cities/hyderabad/education-key-for-development-of-dalit-dr-praveen-kumar-544712 |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref>

On November 11, 2023, Prime Minister Narendra Modi attended the Madigala Vishwaroopa Sabha,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-14 |title=Behind that picture of PM Modi consoling Madiga leader, BJP's Dalit outreach in Telangana |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/pm-modi-consoling-madiga-leader-bjp-dalit-outreach-in-telangana-9026518/ |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> where Krishna Madiga appealed to him for a resolution to the 30-year-old peaceful struggle for social justice for the Madiga community within the Scheduled Castes (SCs).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Watch: PM Comforts Madiga Leader Who Got Emotional At His Telangana Rally |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/watch-pm-narendra-modi-comforts-madiga-leader-manda-krishna-madiga-who-got-emotional-at-his-telangana-rally-4567481 |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-11 |title=MRPS chief wants 'big brother' Modi to help Madigas with SC categorisation |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/telangana-assembly/mrps-chief-wants-big-brother-modi-to-help-madigas-with-sc-categorisation/article67524833.ece |access-date=2023-12-20 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Following Krishna Madiga's address, Modi expressed that he didn't attend the meeting to make requests but to seek forgiveness on behalf of those who deceived the Madiga Community. Modi acknowledged Manda Krishna as his younger brother and announced that the Union government would establish a committee to evaluate the community's demands.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=T. N. M. |date=2023-11-12 |title=Will set up committee to consider demands of Madiga reservation: PM Modi in Hyderabad |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/telangana/will-set-up-committee-to-consider-demands-of-madiga-reservation-pm-modi-in-hyderabad |access-date=2023-12-20 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>

On August 1, 2024, [[Supreme Court of India]], in a landmark decision, ruled that states are empowered to sub-classify Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to provide quotas within the reserved category, aiming to uplift the more underprivileged castes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Explained: Supreme Court's verdict on sub-classification of SCs and STs |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-law/explained-sub-classification-of-sc-st-9489996/ |website=The Indian Express |language=en |date=2 August 2024}}</ref> A seven-judge constitution bench, led by [[Chief Justice of India|Chief Justice]] [[Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud|D.Y. Chandrachud]], delivered this judgment with a 6:1 majority, stating that SCs and STs are not homogenous groups, and further sub-classification can ensure quotas for the most backward castes.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bakshi |first1=Gursimran Kaur |title=Scheduled Castes Not A Homogeneous Class, Sub-classification One Of The Means To Achieve Substantive Equality: Supreme Court |url=https://www.livelaw.in/supreme-court/scheduled-castes-not-a-homogeneous-class-sub-classification-one-of-the-means-to-achieve-substantive-equality-supreme-court-265375 |website=www.livelaw.in |language=en |date=1 August 2024}}</ref> [[Bhushan Ramkrishna Gavai|Justice B R Gavai]] emphasized that states should identify and exclude the creamy layer from reservations. However, the court clarified that no caste in the SC category could be entirely deprived of quota benefits under this process. This ruling overrules the 2004 ''EV Chinnaiah vs. State of Andhra Pradesh'' case,<ref>{{cite web |title=Who was E V Chinnaiah, lead petitioner in Supreme Court's SC sub-classification case? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/e-v-chinnaiah-lead-petitioner-supreme-court-sc-sub-classification-case-9489550/ |website=The Indian Express |language=en |date=1 August 2024}}</ref> which had previously barred such sub-classification.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supreme Court allows sub-classification in SC, ST for quota |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/sc-holds-sub-classification-within-reserved-classes-sc/sts-permissible/articleshow/112185382.cms?from=mdr |website=The Economic Times |date=1 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Supreme Court dismisses review petitions against judgment allowing sub-classification of Scheduled Castes |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/supreme-court-dismisses-review-petitions-against-judgment-allowing-sub-classification-of-scheduled-castes/article68717606.ece |website=The Hindu |language=en-IN |date=4 October 2024}}</ref>

== Religious conversion and caste identity ==
While the majority of Madigas adhere to traditional practices within their villages in [[Rayalaseema]] and Telangana, most of those residing in [[Coastal Andhra]] have embraced [[Protestant Christianity]]. Notably, the act of converting to Christianity was prevalent among Dalits in Coastal Andhra. Among them, the Madigas and Malas chose to affiliate with the [[Baptists|Baptist]] and [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] denominations respectively, while still maintaining their caste identities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Senftleben, Martin. |title=Influences of Hinduism on Christianity in Andhra Pradesh |date=1992 |oclc=634626847}}</ref> Most Madigas who adopted Christianity continue to identify as Hindu to secure their eligibility for Scheduled Caste reservations. This is due to the fact that [[Christians]] who disavow any caste affiliation are not eligible for these reservations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Centre Appoints Commission To Examine Possibility Of SC Status To Dalit Converts: A Change Of Heart? |date=7 October 2022 |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/centre-appoints-commission-to-examine-possibility-of-sc-status-to-dalits-among-muslims-and-christians-a-change-of-heart--news-228286}}</ref> Consequently, Dalits who opt for Christianity risk losing their eligibility for the government's affirmative action program. This program, established in accordance with a 1950 presidential order, extends its benefits exclusively to those who identify as [[Hindus|Hindu]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], or [[Sikhs|Sikh.]]<ref>{{Citation|last1=M.|first1=Ashok Kumar|title=Margins of Faith: Dalit and Tribal Christianity in India|date=2010|pages=149–168|chapter=Legally Hindu: Dalit Lutheran Christians of Coastal Andhra Pradesh|chapter-url=http://sk.sagepub.com/books/margins-of-faith/n7.xml|place=New Delhi|publisher=SAGE Publications India|doi=10.4135/9788132106043.n7|isbn=978-81-321-0467-4|last2=Robinson|first2=Rowena}}</ref>

==In popular culture==

* The activists Lelle Suresh and Sabrina Francis made a documentary on the condition and culture of the community, titled ''[[Mahadiga (film)|Mahadiga]]'', which was released in 2004.<ref name=":0" />
* ''[[1940 Lo Oka Gramam]]'' film directed by [[Narasimha Nandi]] in 2010 portrays caste-based societal dynamics during the 1940s, offering a perceptive examination of the prevailing prejudices. The film's perspective serves as a representation of the era's social intricacies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1940 Lo Oka Gramam {{!}} filmibeat.com |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/telugu/movies/1940-lo-oka-gramam.html}}</ref>
* ''[[Palasa 1978]]'' film released in 2020 tells primarily about the [[Caste system in India|caste discrimination in India]] and [[untouchability]] in the 1970s period.<ref>{{Citation |title=Manda Krishna Madiga Great words About Palasa 1978 Movie {{!}} TV5 | date=9 March 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8C6UatZyERw |access-date=2023-09-15 |language=en}}</ref>

==Notable people==

=== Arts ===

* [[Darshanam Mogilaiah]] - Kinnera artist from [[Nagarkurnool district]], Telangana<ref>{{Cite web |last=Teja |first=Charan |date=2021-10-01 |title=Telangana's last 12-step Kinnera player Mogulaiah wants govt to save dying art form |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/telangana/telanganas-last-12-step-kinnera-player-mogulaiah-wants-govt-save-dying-art-form-155991 |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>

=== Film ===

* [[Kathi Mahesh]] - Film critic and actor from [[Chittoor district]], Andhra Pradesh<ref>{{Cite web |title=కత్తి మహేష్‌ను వాడుకుని వదిలేసిన వైసీపీ.. కనీసం, ఒక్క ఎమ్మెల్యే కూడా.. మంద కృష్ణమాదిగ సంచలన కామెంట్స్ |url=https://telugu.samayam.com/andhra-pradesh/news/mrps-founder-manda-krishna-madiga-sensational-comments-about-kathi-mahesh-death-and-ysrcp-leaders/articleshow/84406981.cms |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Samayam Telugu |language=te}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
* [[Gurram Jashuva]] - Telugu poet from [[Guntur]], Andhra Pradesh<ref name="vepachedu">[http://www.vepachedu.org/Gurram.html Vepachedu Education foundation article on Jashua, Accessed 27 Oct 2013]</ref><ref>Suprasiddula jeevita viseshalu, Hanumcchastri Janamaddi</ref><ref>Satajayanti saahitimoortulu, Sastri D (DN Sastri)</ref>

=== Politics ===
* [[A. Narayanaswamy]] - [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment|Minister of Social Justice and Empowerment]], MP, [[Chitradurga (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chitradurga]]<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bhuvaneshwari|first=S.|date=2019-09-18|title=Report sought on denial of entry of Dalit MP into Gollarahatti|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/report-sought-on-denial-of-entry-of-dalit-mp-into-gollarahatti/article29443609.ece|access-date=2020-05-20|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* N. Rachaiah - former MP, [[Chamarajanagar Lok Sabha constituency|Chamarajanagar]], Karnataka
* [[Bangaru Laxman]] - first Dalit national president of [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]], former M.P and [[Third Vajpayee ministry|Minister of State in the Ministry of Railways]]<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Who was Bangaru Laxman?|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/bangaru-bangaru-laxman-bjp-hyderabad-andhra-pradesh-operation-west-end-183290-2014-03-01|date=March 1, 2014 |magazine=India Today|language=en|access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref>
* [[Chirumarthi Lingaiah]] - former MLA, [[Nakrekal Assembly constituency|Nakrekal]], Telangana
* [[Damodar Raja Narasimha]] - MLA of [[Andole Assembly constituency|Andole]] and former [[List of deputy chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh|Deputy Chief Minister]] of [[United Andhra Pradesh]]
* [[Govind Karjol]] - former [[List of deputy chief ministers of Karnataka|Deputy Chief Minister of Karnataka]]
* [[H. Anjaneya]] - former Minister of Social and Backward Classes Welfare, Karnataka<ref>{{Cite web |last=DHNS |title=Govt will protect 'tainted' KPSC ex-chief: Anjaneya |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/bengaluru/govt-protect-tainted-kpsc-ex-2066060 |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>
* [[K. H. Muniyappa]] - [[Second Siddaramaiah ministry|Cabinet Minister]], former [[Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises|Minister of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises]], Karnataka
* [[K. Pushpaleela]] - former MLA, [[Ibrahimpatnam Assembly constituency|Ibrahimpatnam]], Telangana
* [[Kolikapudi Srinivasa Rao]] - MLA of [[Tiruvuru Assembly constituency|Tiruvuru]], Andhra Pradesh<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2024-02-26 |title=బలహీనవర్గాలకు టీడీపీ ప్రాధాన్యం - తొలి జాబితాలోనే 20 మంది ఎస్సీలకు చోటు |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/te/!state/tdp-priority-for-sc-candidates-in-first-list-of-candidates-for-ap-assembly-elections-2024-aps24022600432 |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=te}}</ref>
* [[Kothapalli Samuel Jawahar]] - former [[Third N. Chandrababu Naidu ministry|Minister of Excise]], [[Kovvur Assembly constituency|Kovvur]], Andhra Pradesh<ref>{{Cite web |last=jangir |first=suresh |title=TDP's Dalita Tejam aims at creating awareness on SC welfare schemes |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Andhra-Pradesh/2018-06-29/TDPs-Dalita-Tejam-aims-at-creating-awareness-on-SC-welfare-schemes/393722 |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=The Hans India |date=30 June 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[L. Murugan]] - [[Minister of State]] in the [[Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying]] from [[Tamil Nadu]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-11-11 |title=MRPS chief wants 'big brother' Modi to help Madigas with SC categorisation |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/telangana-assembly/mrps-chief-wants-big-brother-modi-to-help-madigas-with-sc-categorisation/article67524833.ece |access-date=2024-06-12 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hirehalli |first=Devaraj B. |date=2021-08-18 |title=Jan Ashirwad Yatra: BJP readies its new brand ambassadors |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2021/Aug/18/jan-ashirwad-yatra-bjp-readies-its-new-brand-ambassadors-2346208.html |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
*[[M.S. Raju (politician)|M.S. Raju]] - MLA of [[Madakasira Assembly constituency|Madakasira]], Andhra Pradesh<ref>{{Cite web |last=ABN |date=2024-03-19 |title=బాపట్ల ఎంపీ సీటుకు ఎమ్మెస్‌ రాజు ఖరారు |url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2024/andhra-pradesh/mms-raju-has-been-selected-for-bapatla-mp-seat-1227176.html |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Andhrajyothy Telugu News |language=te}}</ref>
* [[Malyala Rajaiah]] - Former Minister of Finance, Power, and Housing and MP of [[Siddipet Lok Sabha constituency|Siddipet]]
* [[Nallagatla Swamy Das]] - former MLA, [[Tiruvuru Assembly constituency|Tiruvuru]], Andhra Pradesh<ref>{{Cite web |title=YSR Congress Party MLA's |url=https://www.sakshi.com/ap-election-2024/andhrapradesh/ysrcp_candidates.html |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=www.sakshi.com}}</ref>
* Roopakala M Shashidhar - MLA of [[Kolar Gold Field Assembly constituency|Kolar Gold Field]], Karnataka
* [[R. S. Praveen Kumar]] - Politician and former [[Indian Police Service|IPS Officer]], Telangana<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chandrashekar |first=Anjana Meenakshi, Nandini |date=2023-10-16 |title=Telangana polls: RS Praveen Kumar banks on local Bahujan history to win Sirpur |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/telangana/telangana-polls-rs-praveen-kumar-banks-on-local-bahujan-history-to-win-sirpur |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>
* [[T. Rajaiah]] - former [[List of deputy chief ministers of Telangana|Deputy Chief Minister of Telangana]], MLA of [[Ghanpur (Station) (SC) (Assembly constituency)|Station Ghanpur]], Telangana<ref>{{Cite web |title=డిప్యూటీ సీఎం తాటికొండ రాజయ్య అంతరంగం {{!}} Sakshi |url=https://www.sakshi.com/news/telangana/thatikonda-rajaiah-biographie-168877 |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=www.sakshi.com |language=te}}</ref>
* [[Vangalapudi Anitha]] - MLA of [[Payakaraopet Assembly constituency|Payakaraopeta]], Andhra Pradesh<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=T. N. M. |date=2018-04-22 |title=I'm a Hindu and not Christian, says TDP MLA Anitha after old video goes viral |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/andhra-pradesh/im-hindu-and-not-christian-says-tdp-mla-anitha-after-old-video-goes-viral-79999 |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Vemula Veeresham]] - MLA of [[Nakrekal Assembly constituency|Nakrekal]], Telangana<ref>{{Cite web |last=Velugu |first=V6 |date=2023-07-20 |title=బీఆర్ ఎస్ మాజీ ఎమ్మెల్యే వేముల వీరేశం దారెటు? మందుల సామిల్ తుంగతుర్తి శాసనసభ్యులు |url=https://www.v6velugu.com/former-nakirekal-mla-vemula-veeresham-political-career |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=V6 Velugu |language=te}}</ref>

=== Social Activists ===
* [[Manda Krishna Madiga]] - Indian politician and activist, founder of [[Madiga Reservation Porata Samiti|MRPS]]

==See also==

* [[Karamchedu massacre]]
* [[List of Scheduled Castes in Andhra Pradesh & Telangana]]
* [[Chamar]]
* [[Ramdasia]]
* [[Jatav]]
* [[Chambhar]]
* [[Mang (caste)|Matanga]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Pai |first=Sudha |editor-last=Kumar |editor-first=Ashutosh |title=Rethinking State Politics in India: Regions within Regions |year=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-59777-7 |pages=352–377 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ypKoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA352 |chapter=Affirmative Action, Group Rights and Democracy: The Mala-Madiga Conflict in Andhra Pradesh}}
*[http://www.gla.ac.uk/sociology/units/anthrop/dalit/jamba_puranam.htm Jumba Puranam – Caste Origin myth]
*[http://www.religion-online.org/article/liberative-motifs-in-the-dalit-religion/ Liberative Motifs in the Dalit Religion]
*[http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/working_papers/wp179.pdf Caste, Class and Social articulation in Andhra Pradesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928021821/http://www.odi.org.uk/publications/working_papers/wp179.pdf |date=28 September 2007 }}

[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Scheduled Castes of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:South Indian communities]]
[[Category:Leatherworking castes]]

List of World Heritage Sites in India

2026-03-19T18:49:32Z

Brandon81T: minor add citations for consistency and added references per standard format

{{Short description|none}}
{{Featured list}}

{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2023}}

{{location map+ |India |float=right |width=500 |caption=Location of [[World Heritage Site]]s in India: {{bullet list|Green dots indicate the seven clusters in the [[Western Ghats]]|Blue dots are the [[Hill Forts of Rajasthan]]|Yellow dots are the [[Great Living Chola Temples]]||Orange dots are the [[Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas]]|Pink dots indicate the [[Mountain Railways of India]]|Purple dots are the [[Maratha Military Landscapes of India]]|Turquoise dots indicate cities with multiple sites. Delhi and Mumbai have three sites each, Agra and Jaipur have two sites each.}}
|places=
{{location map~ |India |lat=27.097528|N|long=77.666500 |E|label={{nowrap|[[Fatehpur Sikri]]}}|position=top}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=26.94|N|long=94.87|E|label=[[Maidam|Moidams]]|position=top}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=26.63|N|long=93.35|E|label=[[Kaziranga National Park|Kaziranga]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=26.50|N|long=91.85|E|label=[[Manas Wildlife Sanctuary|Manas]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=22.766 |N|long= 77.383|E|label=[[Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi|Sanchi]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=22.923|N |long=77.576|E|label=[[Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka|Bhimbetka]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=24.863|N|long=79.92|E |label=[[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=24.718|N|long=84.999 |E|label=[[Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya|Bodh Gaya]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=22.4833|N|long=73.5332 |E|label=[[Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park|Champaner-Pavagadh]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=15.50222|N|long=73.91167|E|label=[[Churches and Convents of Goa|Goa]]|position=left}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=27.1667|N|long=77.5166 |E|label=[[Keoladeo National Park|Keoladeo]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=20.552377|N|long=75.700436|E|label=[[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=20.02639|N|long=75.17917|E|label=[[Ellora Caves|Ellora]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=12.61667|N|long=80.19167|E|label=[[Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram|Mahabalipuram]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=15.3144|N|long=76.47167|E|label=[[Hampi]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=31.76|N|long=77.55|E|label=[[Great Himalayan National Park|Great Himalayan]]|position=top}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=15.94833|N|long=75.816667|E|label=[[Group of Monuments at Pattadakal|Pattadakal]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=19.8875|N|long=86.09472|E|label=[[Konark Sun Temple|Konark]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.85892|N|long=72.10162|E|label=[[Rani ki vav]]|position=right}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.03|N|long=72.58|E|label=[[Historic City of Ahmadabad|Ahmadabad]]|position=left}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=30.71666|N|long=79.6666|E|label=[[Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks|Nanda Devi]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=21.945 |N|long=88.8958|E|label=[[Sundarbans National Park|Sundarbans]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=27.7|N|long=88.133333|E|label={{nowrap|[[Khangchendzonga National Park|Khangchendzonga]]}}|position=top|}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=25.136667|N|long=85.443889|E|label=[[Nalanda]]|position=left}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=18.259|N|long=79.943|E|label=[[Ramappa Temple|Ramappa]]|position=bottom}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.888|N|long=70.213|E|label=[[Dholavira]]|position=top}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=30.7573|long=76.8066|label=[[Chandigarh Capitol Complex|Chandigarh]]|position=left}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=23.68|N|long=87.68|E|label=[[Santiniketan]]|position=bottom}}

{{location map~ |India |lat=24.8863|long=74.647|position=bottom|mark=Blue pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=25.148889|long=73.580278|position=top|mark=Blue pog.svg|label=[[Hill Forts of Rajasthan|Hill Forts]]}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=26.020278|long=76.455|position=bottom|mark=Blue pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=24.628|long=76.183|position=bottom|mark=Blue pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=26.9859|long=75.8507|position=bottom|mark=Blue pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=26.9127|long=70.9126|position=bottom|mark=Blue pog.svg}}


{{location map~ |India |lat=27.1766|N|long=78.066 |E|label=[[Agra]]|position=right|mark=Turquoise pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=28.6588|N|long=77.18|E|label= [[Delhi]]|position=top|mark=Turquoise pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=26.9|N|long=75.8|E|label=[[Jaipur]]|position=left|mark=Turquoise pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=18.940122|N|long=72.836202|E|label=[[Mumbai]]|position=left|mark=Turquoise pog.svg}}


{{location map~ |India |lat=13.16|long=75.86|position=right|mark=Orange ff8040 pog.svg|label={{nowrap|[[Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas|Hoysala Ensembles]]}}}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=13.21|long=75.99|position=bottom|mark=Orange ff8040 pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=12.27|long=76.88|position=bottom|mark=Orange ff8040 pog.svg}}


{{location map~ |India |lat=31.1027|N|long=77.1598|E|label={{nowrap|[[Kalka–Shimla Railway|Kalka–Shimla]]}}|position=right|mark=Pink ff0080 pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=11.51028|N|long=76.93583|E|label=[[Nilgiri Mountain Railway|Nilgiris]]|position=right|mark=Pink ff0080 pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=26.68|N|long=88.46|E|label=[[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway|Darjeeling]]|position=left|mark=Pink ff0080 pog.svg}}


{{location map~ |India |lat=8.5297 |N|long=77.2497|E|position=bottom|mark=Darkgreen pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=9.4856 |N|long=77.21|E|position=bottom|mark=Darkgreen pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=10.2178 |N|long=77.18|E|position=bottom|mark=Darkgreen pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=11.3306 |N|long=76.3094|E|position=bottom|mark=Darkgreen pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=12.5464 |N|long=75.7078|E|position=left|label=[[Western Ghats]]|mark=Darkgreen pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=13.4997 |N|long=75.1006|E|position=bottom|mark=Darkgreen pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=17.1717 |N|long=73.7272|E|position=bottom|mark=Darkgreen pog.svg}}


{{location map~ |India |lat=10.9484 |N|long=79.3567|E|position=right|mark=Yellow ffff00 pog.svg|label=[[Great Living Chola Temples|Chola Temples]]}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=10.7828 |N|long=79.1317|E|position=right|mark=Yellow ffff00 pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=11.2062 |N|long=79.4489|E|position=right|mark=Yellow ffff00 pog.svg}}


{{location map~ |India |lat=20.7225|long=73.9425|position=left|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=19.196667|long=73.858333|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=18.71|long=73.476667|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=18.703889|long=72.813333|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=18.236111|long=73.444444|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=18.246111|long=73.6825|position=right|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg|label=[[Maratha Military Landscapes of India|Maratha forts]]}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=17.935833|long=73.578611|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=17.816389|long=73.084444|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=16.811111|long=74.108056|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=16.560833|long=73.333333|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=16.0425|long=73.459722|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
{{location map~ |India |lat=12.250556|long=79.401389|position=bottom|mark=Purple 8000ff pog.svg}}
}}

The [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO) designates [[World Heritage Site]]s of outstanding universal value to [[cultural heritage|cultural]] or [[natural heritage]] which have been nominated by countries which are signatories to the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972.<ref name=convention>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/convention/ |title=The World Heritage Convention |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=21 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827065310/https://whc.unesco.org/en/convention/ |archive-date=27 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cultural heritage consists of monuments (such as architectural works, monumental sculptures, or inscriptions), groups of buildings, and sites (including archaeological sites). Natural features (consisting of physical and biological formations), geological and physiographical formations (including habitats of threatened species of animals and plants), and natural sites which are important from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty, are defined as natural heritage.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/ |title=Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 February 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201042309/http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[India]] accepted the convention on 14 November 1977, making its sites eligible for inclusion on the list.<ref name="India">{{Cite web |title=India |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/in |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251004174917/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/in |archive-date=4 October 2025 |access-date=29 June 2025 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>

There are 44 World Heritage Sites in India. Out of these, 36 are cultural, seven are natural, and one, [[Khangchendzonga National Park]], is of mixed type, listed for both cultural and natural properties. India has the [[World Heritage Sites by country|sixth-most sites]] worldwide. The first sites to be listed were the [[Ajanta Caves]], [[Ellora Caves]], [[Agra Fort]], and [[Taj Mahal]], all of which were inscribed in the 1983 session of the [[World Heritage Committee]]. The most recent site listed is the [[Maratha Military Landscapes of India]], in 2025.<ref name="India" /> At different times, two sites were listed as [[List of World Heritage in Danger|endangered]]: the [[Manas National Park|Manas Wildlife Sanctuary]] was listed between 1992 and 2011 due to poaching and the activities of [[Boro people|Bodo]] militias,<ref name="Manas">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/762|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=June 21, 2011|title=Successful preservation of India's Manas Wildlife Sanctuary enables withdrawal from the List of World Heritage in Dange|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628134302/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/762|archive-date=June 28, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> and the monuments at [[Hampi]] were listed between 1999 and 2006 due to risks from increased traffic and new constructions in surroundings.<ref name="Hampi">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/264/|title=Cologne Cathedral (Germany), Djoudj Bird Sanctuary (Senegal), Ichkeul National Park (Tunisia), and Hampi (India) removed from List of World Heritage in Danger|date=July 10, 2006|access-date=May 12, 2011|publisher=UNESCO|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605001355/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/264/|archive-date=June 5, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> One site is transnational: [[The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier]] is shared with six other countries.<ref name="Corbusier">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321 |title=The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=10 December 2020 |archive-date=24 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124215521/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321 |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition, India has 70 sites on its tentative list.<ref name="India" />

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== World Heritage Sites ==
UNESCO lists sites under [[World Heritage Site#Selection criteria|ten criteria]]; each entry must meet at least one of the criteria. Criteria i through vi are cultural, and vii through x are natural.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre – The Criteria for Selection|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=17 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612152223/https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/|archive-date=12 June 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

{{Legend|#D0E7FF|Transnational site|outline=silver|text={{asterisk}}}}
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{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
|+ {{sronly|World Heritage Sites }}
! style="width:100px;" scope="col" | Site
! class="unsortable" style="width:150px;" scope="col" | Image
! style="width:80px;" scope="col" | Location ([[States and union territories of India|state]])
! style="width:50px;" scope="col" | Year listed
! style="width:60px;" scope="col" data-sort-type="number"| {{Abbr|UNESCO data|UNESCO reference number and criteria}}
! scope="col" class="unsortable"| Description
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ajanta Caves]]
| [[File:Cave 26, Ajanta.jpg|150px|alt=Cave with carved columns and a shrine in the middle]]
| [[Maharashtra]]
| 1983
| 242; i, ii, iii, vi (cultural)
| The caves at Ajanta represent a collection of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] art from two periods. The first monuments date to the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE and were created by the followers of [[Theravada]] Buddhism. Further monuments were added in the 5th and 6th centuries CE, during the [[Vakataka dynasty]], by the followers of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. The monuments are masterpieces of [[Buddhist art]] and exerted strong artistic influence in India and the broader region, especially in [[Java]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242 |title=Ajanta Caves |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=December 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218043116/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ellora Caves]]
| [[File:Kailasa temple overview, Ellora.jpg|150px|alt=Tourists visiting a temple cut in rock]]
| [[Maharashtra]]
| 1983
| 243; i, iii, vi (cultural)
| The Ellora Caves comprise 34 temples and monasteries that were cut into a {{convert|2|km|abbr=on}} long [[basalt]] cliff between the 7th and 11th centuries during [[Rashtrakuta Empire]]. As they were built by followers of [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Jainism]], they illustrate the religious tolerance of the period when they were constructed. The largest temple is the [[Kailasa Temple, Ellora|Kailasa Temple]] (pictured), which is elaborately decorated with sculptures and paintings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243 |title=Ellora Caves |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=December 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209142802/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/243 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Agra Fort]]
| [[File:Uttar-Pradesh-Agra-Agra-Fort-Jahangiri-mahal-Apr-2004-00.JPG|150px|alt=Building in red stone with decorations]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 1983
| 251; iii (cultural)
| Agra Fort is a 16th-century [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] imperial fortress in [[Agra]]. It got its present layout under the Emperor [[Akbar]]. The complex contains several palaces ([[Jahangiri Mahal]] pictured), audience halls, and two mosques. Stylistically, it is one of the high points of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]], with influences of Persian and [[Timurid_Empire#Timurid_architecture|Timurid architecture]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/153046 |title=Agra Fort |publisher=ICOMOS |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717160341/http://whc.unesco.org/document/153046 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/251 |title=Agra Fort |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717221242/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/251/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Taj Mahal]]
| [[File:The Taj Mahal main building.jpg|150px|alt=Taj Mahal, a domed building in white marble with four surrounding minarets]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 1983
| 252; i (cultural)
| The Taj Mahal is considered the finest example of [[Indo-Islamic architecture]]. It was built in [[Agra]] on the bank of the [[Yamuna]] river as a mausoleum of [[Mumtaz Mahal]], the [[Persians|Persian]] wife of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Shah Jahan]], between 1631 and 1648. It was designed by [[Ustad Ahmad Lahori]] and built in white marble inlaid with precious and semi-precious stones. The tomb is surrounded by four free-standing [[minaret]]s. The complex also includes the main gate, a mosque, a guesthouse, and surrounding gardens.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252 |title=Taj Mahal |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=March 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315231759/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Konark Sun Temple|Sun Temple]], Konark
| [[File:Konarka Temple.jpg|150px|alt=A large Hindu temple in stone]]
| [[Odisha]]
| 1984
| 246; i, iii, vi (cultural)
| This [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temple was built by [[Narasingha Deva I]] of [[Eastern Ganga dynasty]] in the 13th century and is one of the finest examples of [[Kalinga architecture]]. It represents the chariot of the [[solar deity]] [[Surya]]: on the outer sides, it has 24 wheels carved of stone and richly decorated, being pulled by seven horses. Other decorative motifs include lions, musicians, dancers, and erotic scenes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/246 |title=Sun Temple, Konârak |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=April 3, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403190240/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/246/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram]]
| [[File:Shore Temple -Mamallapuram -Tamil Nadu -N-TN-C55.jpg|150px|alt=A Hindu temple in stone]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 1984
| 249; i, ii, iii, vi (cultural)
| The monuments around the town of [[Mamallapuram]] were built in the 7th and 8th centuries, under the [[Pallava dynasty]]. There are different types of monuments: the ''[[Pancha Rathas|rathas]]'', which are chariot-shaped temples ([[Dharmaraja Ratha]]); the ''[[mandapa]]s'' (rock-cut temples); rock reliefs, including the giant ''[[Descent of the Ganges (Mahabalipuram)|Descent of the Ganges]]''; [[Shore Temple]] (pictured) and other temples and archaeological remains. The artistic expression of the monuments was influential in the broader region, including Cambodia, Vietnam, and [[Java]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249 |title=Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=December 2, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202145914/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Kaziranga National Park]]
| [[File:Beauty of Kaziranga National Park.jpg |150px|alt=A rhino at a water edge]]
| [[Assam]]
| 1985
| 337; ix, x (natural)
| Kaziranga is located in the floodplains of the [[Brahmaputra River]]. It is one of the best wildlife sanctuaries in the world, home to the world's largest population of the [[Indian rhinoceros]] (pictured), as well as [[tiger]]s, [[Asian elephant]]s, [[wild water buffalo]], and the [[Ganges river dolphin]]. The wetlands are important for migratory bird species.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/337 |title=Kaziranga National Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703121300/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/337 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Manas National Park|Manas Wildlife Sanctuary]]
| [[File:Herd of Elephant in Manas.jpg|150px|A herd of Wild elephants in the park]]
| [[Assam]]
| 1985
| 338; vii, ix, x (natural)
| The sanctuary along the [[Manas River]] covers grasslands on floodplains and forests, both in lowlands and in hills. The area is a biodiversity hotspot and home to several endangered species, including the [[Indian rhinoceros]], [[Asian elephant]] (pictured), [[wild water buffalo]], [[tiger]], [[sloth bear]], [[pygmy hog]], [[Gee's golden langur]], and [[Bengal florican]]. The forests are constantly being renewed after floods and changes in the river courses. Between 1992 and 2011, the site was listed as [[List of World Heritage in Danger|endangered]] due to poaching and the activities of [[Boro people|Bodo]] militias.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/338 |title=Manas Wildlife Sanctuary |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=February 13, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060213202835/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/338 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Manas"/>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Keoladeo National Park]]
| [[File:Bar-headed Geese- Bharatpur I IMG 8335.jpg|150px|alt=A group of Bar Headed Geese and Demoiselle cranes flying together in the Sanctuary]]
| [[Rajasthan]]
| 1985
| 340; x (natural)
| Initially a [[Waterfowl hunting|duck-hunting]] reserve for [[Maharaja]]s, Keoladeo is a man-made and man-maintained [[wetland]]. It is important both for migratory and resident birds, especially waterbirds. Over 350 species of birds have been recorded, including 15 species of [[heron]]s, the [[Siberian crane]], and the [[greater spotted eagle]]. Pictured here is a group of [[bar-headed goose|bar-headed geese]] and [[demoiselle crane]]s flying together in the park. The park is also protected under the [[Ramsar Convention]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/340 |title=Keoladeo National Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=October 30, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101030050702/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/340/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Churches and convents of Goa|Churches and Convents of Goa]]
| [[File:Basilika Bom Jesus.jpeg |150px|alt=A church in red brick and an adjacent building in white]]
| [[Goa]]
| 1986
| 234; ii, iv, vi (cultural)
| [[Old Goa]] was the capital of [[Portuguese India]], a colony that lasted for 450 years until 1961. The site comprises seven churches and convents that were built in the 16th and 17th centuries in the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]], [[Manueline]], [[Mannerism#Mannerist_architecture|Mannerist]], and [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] styles, but which were also adapted to suit local techniques and resources. They spread architectural influences to Asian countries where [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] missions were established. The [[Basilica of Bom Jesus]], where Saint [[Francis Xavier]] is buried, is pictured.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234 |title=Churches and Convents of Goa |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703135307/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments]]
| [[File:Lakshmana Temple 24.jpg |150px|alt=Stone carvings representing people in different situations]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 1986
| 240; i, iii (cultural)
| This site comprises 23 temples, both [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Jainism|Jain]], that were built in the 10th and 11th centuries, during the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti|Chandela]] dynasty. The temples are built in the [[Hindu_temple_architecture#Nagara_(नागर)_architecture|Nagara]] style. They are richly decorated with stone carvings and sculptures that depict sacred and secular motifs, including depictions of domestic life, musicians, dancers, and amorous couples. A detail from the [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana Temple]] is pictured.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240 |title=Khajuraho Group of Monuments |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=November 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116173646/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/240 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Group of Monuments at [[Hampi]]
| [[File:The elegant stone chariot.jpg|150px|alt=A stone chariot in Dravidian style in Hampi]]
| [[Karnataka]]
| 1986
| 241bis; i, iii, iv (cultural)
| Hampi was the capital of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] until its abandonment after its sacking and pillaging by the [[Deccan sultanates]] in 1565. For about 200 years, it was a prosperous multi-cultural city that left several monuments in the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style]] as well as the [[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic style]]. The remains include religious and secular buildings and defensive structures. The Vitthala Temple is pictured. A minor boundary modification of the site took place in 2012. Between 1999 and 2006, the site was listed as [[List of World Heritage in Danger|endangered]] due to risks posed by increased traffic and new constructions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241 |title=Group of Monuments at Hampi |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=November 19, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051119115851/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hampi"/>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Fatehpur Sikri]]
| [[File:Fatehput Sikiri Buland Darwaza gate 2010.jpg|150px|alt=A large gate in red stone in Mughal style]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 1986
| 255; ii, iii, iv (cultural)
| For about a decade in the second half of the 16th century, Fatehpur Sikri was the capital of the [[Mughal Empire]] under Emperor [[Akbar]], until the capital was moved to [[Lahore]] in 1585 and the city was mostly abandoned. The site comprises a large collection of monuments and temples in the [[Mughal architecture|Mughal style]], such as the [[Jama Mosque, Fatehpur Sikri|Jama Masjid]] (the gate to the mosque, the [[Buland Darwaza]], pictured), the [[Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri|Panch Mahal]] palace, and the [[Tomb of Salim Chishti]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/255 |title=Fatehpur Sikri |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514052508/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/255 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Group of Monuments at [[Pattadakal]]
| [[File:Pattadakal 000.JPG|150px|alt=A Hindu temple in light-coloured stone]]
| [[Karnataka]]
| 1987
| 239rev; iii, iv (cultural)
| This site comprises nine [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temples and one [[Jainism|Jain]] temple that were built in the 7th and 8th centuries under the [[Chalukya dynasty]]. They were constructed in the [[Badami Chalukya architecture|Badami Chalukya style]] that blends influences from northern and southern India. The Temple of Virupaksha is pictured.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/239 |title=Group of Monuments at Pattadakal |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=March 26, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326134122/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/239 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Elephanta Caves]]
| [[File:Trimurti, Cave No. 1, Elephanta Caves - 1.jpg|150px|alt=Stone carvings representing Shiva and religious scenes]]
| [[Maharashtra]]
| 1987
| 244rev; i, iii (cultural)
| The cave complex, located on [[Elephanta Island]] in [[Mumbai Harbour]], was constructed mainly in the 5th and 6th centuries, with remains of human occupation dating back to the 2nd century BCE. The temples are dedicated to [[Shiva]]. The caves are decorated with stone carvings, some of them colossal. A statue of [[Trimurti]] Shiva, flanked by the ''[[dvarapala]]s'', is pictured.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/244 |title=Elephanta Caves |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=April 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414214727/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/244/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Great Living Chola Temples]]
| [[File:Le temple de Brihadishwara (Tanjore, Inde) (14354574611).jpg|frameless|150x150px]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 1987
| 250bis; i, ii, iii, iv (cultural)
| This site comprises three [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temples built in the 11th and 12th centuries under the [[Chola dynasty]]. They represent some of the best examples of [[Dravidian architecture]] of the Chola period. They are made of stone and decorated with stone and bronze sculptures. Initially, only the [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara Temple]] (pictured) was listed as a World Heritage Site; two other temples, the [[Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram|Brihadisvara Temple]] and the [[Airavatesvara Temple]] were added in 2004, after which the site was renamed to its current name.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250 |title=Great Living Chola Temples |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=January 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105115252/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/115 |title=Decision 28 COM 14B.32. Extension of Properties Inscribed on the World Heritage List (Great Living Chola Temples) |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=April 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421114539/https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/115 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Sundarbans|Sundarbans National Park]]
| [[File:Sundarban Tiger.jpg|150px|alt=A tiger at the water margin]]
| [[West Bengal]]
| 1987
| 452; ix, x (natural)
| The national park covers the Indian part of the [[Sundarbans]], the delta of the [[Ganges]] and [[Brahmaputra]] rivers. It is the world's largest and richest [[mangrove forest]], with about 78 recorded [[mangrove]] species. It is a biodiversity hotspot, home to a large population of [[Bengal tiger]]s (one pictured), as well as an important habitat for the [[Irrawaddy dolphin]] and [[Ganges river dolphin]], several species of birds and sea turtles. In Bangladesh, the Sundarbans is listed as a separate World Heritage Site.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452 |title=Sundarbans National Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=March 6, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306224515/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798|title=The Sundarbans|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=28 May 2010|archive-date=July 3, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703145630/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks ]]
| [[File:(A) Valley of flowers, Garhwal Uttarakhand India.jpg|150px|alt=Flowers in a mountain valley]]
| [[Uttarakhand]]
| 1988
| 335bis; vii, x (natural)
| This site comprises two areas in the West [[Himalayas]], the [[Valley of Flowers National Park]] (pictured) and the [[Nanda Devi National Park]]. There are different types of high-altitude habitats, from high mountain peaks ([[Nanda Devi]] at {{convert|7817|m|abbr=on}} is India's second-highest mountain) to alpine meadows. In addition to numerous mountain plant species, the area is home to the [[Asiatic black bear]], [[snow leopard]], [[brown bear]], and [[bharal]]. Nanda Devi NP was originally listed alone in 1988; the Valley of Flowers NP was added in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/335 |title=Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=September 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160929132458/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/335 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/477 |title=Decision 29 COM 8B.14. Nominations of Natural Properties to the World Heritage List (Nanda Devi National Park) |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=April 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421125408/https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/477 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Buddhist Monuments at [[Sanchi]]
| [[File:Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg|150px|alt=A large stupa in stone with an elaborate gate in front]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 1989
| 524; i, ii, iii, iv, vi (cultural)
| Sanchi is one of the oldest extant [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] sanctuaries and was instrumental in the spread of the religion through the Indian subcontinent. It became important under Emperor [[Ashoka]] of the [[Maurya Empire]] in the 3rd century BCE. The remains of a [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillar]] from the period are preserved. [[Stupa]]s (Stupa 1 pictured), palaces, temples, and monasteries are preserved in different states of conservation, mostly dating to the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. The city declined in importance in the 12th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/524 |title=Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 3, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703142650/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/524 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Humayun's Tomb]], Delhi
| [[File:Humayun's tomb by Shagil Kannur 4.jpg|150px|alt=Look at a mausoleum in white and red stone through a gate]]
| [[Delhi]]
| 1993
| 232bis; ii, iv (cultural)
| The tomb of the [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] [[Humayun]] was constructed in the 1560s and represents the first example of a garden tomb on the Indian subcontinent, introducing the elements of [[Persian gardens]]. The monumental double-domed mausoleum represents a leap in [[Mughal architecture]] and is an architectural predecessor of the [[Taj Mahal]]. The complex includes several smaller tombs from the period. A minor boundary modification took place in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232 |title=Humayun's Tomb, Delhi |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=May 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527102431/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Qutb Minar complex|Qutb Minar and its Monuments]], Delhi
| [[File:Qutab Minar mausoleum.jpg|150px|alt=A tall minaret and a mausoleum, both in red and white stone]]
| [[Delhi]]
| 1993
| 233; iv (cultural)
| The complex comprises several early Islamic India monuments from the 13th and 14th centuries when the [[Delhi Sultanate]] established power there. They include the [[Qutb Minar]], a {{convert|72.5|m|abbr=on}}-high [[minaret]] (pictured), the [[Alai Darwaza]] gateway, the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque where several stone pillars from previous Hindu temples were repurposed, the [[Iron pillar of Delhi|Iron pillar]], and several tombs and other monuments.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/233 |title=Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127002942/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/233 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Mountain railways of India|Mountain Railways of India]]
| [[File:KSR Train on a big bridge 05-02-12 71.jpeg|150px|alt=A train crossing a bridge with several arches]]
| [[West Bengal]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| 1999
| 944ter; ii, iv (cultural)
| This site comprises three mountain railways built in the late 19th and early 20th centuries during [[Company rule in India|British East India Company Rule in India]] to provide access to towns in the highlands. They represent a technology transfer in a colonial setting; the construction involved building bridges and tunnels to cross difficult terrains. The railways supported further human settlement of the areas they linked to and are still fully operational. The [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] was initially listed alone in 1999. The [[Nilgiri Mountain Railway]] was added in 2005, and the [[Kalka–Shimla railway]] (pictured) in 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944 |title=Mountain Railways of India |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=May 3, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060503143242/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Mahabodhi Temple|Mahabodhi Temple Complex]] at Bodh Gaya
| [[File:Mahabodhitemple.jpg|150px|alt=A large stone Buddhist temple]]
| [[Bihar]]
| 2002
| 1056rev; i, ii, iii, iv, vi (cultural)
| The [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] temple complex marks the site where [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] is said to have attained [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]] under the [[Bodhi Tree]]. The present temple dates to the 5th and 6th centuries CE (during the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta period]]) and was built upon a previous structure commissioned by Emperor [[Ashoka]] in the 3rd century BCE. The temple is {{convert|50|m|abbr=on}} high and made of brick. It had a substantial influence on the development of architecture in the following centuries. After centuries of abandonment and neglect, the temple was extensively restored in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1056 |title=Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=November 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105154305/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1056/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bhimbetka rock shelters|Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka]]
| [[File:Rock Shelter 8, Bhimbetka 02.jpg|150px|alt=Rock paintings depicting people and animals]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2003
| 925; iii, v (cultural)
| This site comprises five clusters of [[rock shelter]]s in the foothills of the [[Vindhya Range]]. They contain rock paintings from the [[hunter-gatherer]] societies of the [[Mesolithic]] to the historical period. The nearby villages still maintain some cultural practices similar to those depicted in the paintings.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/925 |title=Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=March 8, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070308082739/https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=925 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus]] (formerly Victoria Terminus)
| [[File:Chhatrapati shivaji terminus, esterno 01.jpg|150px|alt=A large heavily decorated railway station building]]
| [[Maharashtra]]
| 2004
| 945rev; ii, iv (cultural)
| The historic [[Train_station#Terminus|terminal train station]] in [[Mumbai]] was built in the late 19th century. It was designed by [[Frederick William Stevens]] in the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Victorian Gothic]] style, drawing influences from [[Italian Gothic architecture]] and combining them with influences from Indian traditional buildings. It symbolized the wealth of Mumbai as a major commercial port within the [[British Commonwealth]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/945 |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=November 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127020843/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/945 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park]]
| [[File:Jama masjid in Champaner.JPG|150px|alt=A mosque in brown stone]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| 2004
| 1101; ii, iv, v, vi (cultural)
| The site contains remains from several periods, from the [[Chalcolithic]] to the remains of [[Champaner]], a short-lived capital of the [[Gujarat Sultanate]] in the 16th century. Important buildings include the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temple [[Kalika Mata Temple, Pavagadh|Kalika Mata]], [[Jain temples, Pavagadh|Jain temples]], and [[Jama Mosque, Champaner|Jama Mosque]] (pictured) which features both Hindu and Muslim architectural elements, and the remains of water-managing systems, fortifications, and 14th-century temples.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1101 |title=Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 4, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704064711/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1101 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Red Fort|Red Fort Complex]]
| [[File:Delhi fort.jpg|150px|alt=Fortress walls and a gate in red stone]]
| [[Delhi]]
| 2007
| 231rev; ii, iii, vi (cultural)
| The Red Fort was built under [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] [[Shah Jahan]] in the mid-17th century. It represents the zenith of [[Mughal architecture]], blending the elements of [[Indo-Persian culture]] with [[Timurid_Empire#Timurid_architecture|Timurid]] elements. Its architecture had a strong influence on later palaces and gardens in the region. The Red Fort was also the setting of historical events; it was sacked and partially repurposed by the [[British Empire|British]], and it was the site where the [[Indian independence movement|independence of India]] was first celebrated. The [[Delhi Gate (Red Fort)|Delhi Gate]] is pictured.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/231 |title=Red Fort Complex |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=August 3, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090803141206/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/231 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | The [[Jantar Mantar, Jaipur|Jantar Mantar]], Jaipur
| [[File:Yantramandir01.jpg|150px|alt=A collection of buildings for astronomical purposes]]
| [[Rajasthan]]
| 2010
| 1338; iii, vi (cultural)
| The Jantar Mantar in [[Jaipur]] is India's most significant historic astronomical observatory. It dates from the early 18th century and was built by Rajput king [[Sawai Jai Singh]]. There are about 20 astronomical instruments that were designed and built for [[naked eye]] observations of the positions of stars and planets. It also served as a meeting point for different scientific cultures.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1338 |title=The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=October 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005070230/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1338/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Western Ghats]]
| [[File:Pampadumshola.jpg|150px|alt=A scenic view of Pampadumshola Mountains]]
| [[Maharashtra]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 2012
| 1342rev; ix, x (natural)
| The Western Ghats is a mountain range that runs along the western coast of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It is covered with montane forests. The area is a biodiversity hotspot and home to endangered species such as the [[Bengal tiger]], [[lion-tailed macaque]], [[Nilgiri tahr]], and [[Nilgiri langur]]. In terms of evolutionary history, the area is important given the breakup of [[Gondwana]] in the early [[Jurassic]] period, after which India was an isolated landmass until its collision with the [[Eurasian Plate]]. The World Heritage Site comprises 39 individual properties.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342 |title=Western Ghats |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704212953/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1342 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Hill Forts of Rajasthan]]
| [[File:Amber Fort (आमेर का किला ).jpg|150px|alt=A fortress in light-coloured stone above a river]]
| [[Rajasthan]]
| 2013
| 247rev; ii, iii (cultural)
| This site comprises six forts: the [[Chittor Fort]], [[Kumbhalgarh Fort]], [[Ranthambore Fort]], [[Gagron Fort]], [[Amber Fort]] (pictured), and [[Jaisalmer Fort]], which were constructed between the 8th and 18th centuries by [[Rajput]] kingdoms. They are eclectic in style, with elements of [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultanate]] and [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] architecture, and were influential on the later styles of the [[Maratha Empire]]. They are situated in different settings; for example, Ranthambore is in a forest, and Jaisalmer is in a desert.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/247 |title=Hill Forts of Rajasthan |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=June 25, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625034554/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/247 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Rani ki vav|Rani-ki-Vav]] (the Queen's Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat
| [[File:Rani ki vav 02.jpg|150px|alt=A view of the stepwell with several decorated pillars]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| 2014
| 922; i, iv (cultural)
| Rani-ki-Vav is one of the finest examples of a [[stepwell]], an elaborate type of [[well]] where groundwater is accessed through several levels of stairs. It was constructed in the 11th century, during the [[Chaulukya dynasty]], on the banks of the [[Saraswati River (Gujarat)|Saraswati River]] in the city of [[Patan, Gujarat|Patan]]. It has seven levels, each decorated with stone carvings and sculptures depicting religious and secular themes and literary works. After the change in the river course in the 13th century, it was no longer in use and got covered with [[silt]], which allowed for its preservation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/922 |title=Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen's Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=December 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226001327/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/922 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Great Himalayan National Park]] Conservation Area
| [[File:Himalayn National Park 01.jpg|150px|alt=Meadow with cattle grazing and snow-capped peaks in the background]]
| [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| 2014
| 1406rev; x (natural)
| The national park covers habitats from alpine peaks of the [[Himalayas]] above {{convert|6000|m|abbr=on}} to alpine meadows and riverine forests below {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}}. In total, there are 25 types of forests recorded, and they have rich floral and faunal assemblies, including numerous species of birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects. It is home to endangered species such as the [[western tragopan]] and [[musk deer]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1406 |title=Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704212820/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1406 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Archaeological Site of [[Nalanda|Nalanda Mahavihara]] at Nalanda, Bihar
| [[File:Temple No.- 3, Nalanda Archaeological Site.jpg|150px|alt=Ruins of brick buildings]]
| [[Bihar]]
| 2016
| 1502; iv, vi (cultural)
| Nalanda Mahavihara was a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[ancient higher-learning institutions|ancient higher-learning institution]] established in the 5th century during [[Gupta Empire]] and lasting until its sacking in the 13th century. However, some archaeological remains also date back to the 3rd century BCE. The remains include shrines and [[stupa]]s, ''viharas'' (residential and educational buildings), and artworks in different materials. Both the architectural solutions and educational approaches were influential in other similar institutions in the broader region.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1502 |title=Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=September 27, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180927054041/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1502 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Khangchendzonga National Park]]
| [[File:Abhishek532 SamitiReflections.jpg|150px|alt=Snow-covered mountains and a lake in front]]
| [[Sikkim]]
| 2016
| 1513; iii, vi, vii, x (mixed)
| The national park is located around Mount [[Kangchenjunga|Khangchendzonga]], the world's third highest mountain ({{convert|8586|m|abbr=on}}). It is a sacred mountain in [[Tibetan Buddhism]], where the area is considered a ''[[beyul]]'', a sacred hidden land. It is home to ethnically very diverse Sikkimese communities. From the natural perspective, the area comprises various habitats, from high mountains with [[glacier]]s to old-growth forests, and is rich in animal and plant species.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513 |title=Khangchendzonga National Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 11, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711185515/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1513 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" style="background:#D0E7FF;"| [[The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier|The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement]]{{asterisk}}
| [[File:Palace of Assembly Chandigarh 2006.jpg|150px|A modernist concrete building, a pond in front]]
| [[Chandigarh]]
| 2016
| 1321rev; i, ii, vi (cultural)
| This transnational site (shared with Argentina, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, and Japan) encompasses 17 works of Franco-Swiss architect [[Le Corbusier]]. Le Corbusier was an important representative of the 20th-century [[Modernism|Modernist movement]], which introduced new architectural techniques to meet the needs of the changing society. The [[Chandigarh Capitol Complex]] is listed in India. It is the central part of the city of Chandigarh and is designed in line with the principles of a [[Ville Radieuse|radiant city]]. The [[Palace of Assembly, Chandigarh|Palace of Assembly]] is pictured.<ref name="Corbusier"/>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Historic City of Ahmadabad]]
| [[File:Teen Darwaza.JPG|150px|alt=An intricately carved Jali Design on Sidi Saiyyed Mosque]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| 2017
| 1551; ii, v (cultural)
| The city of [[Ahmedabad]] was founded by [[Ahmad Shah I]] in 1411 to serve as the capital of the [[Gujarat Sultanate]]. It was the meeting place of many religions ([[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Christianity]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and [[Judaism]]), which resulted in a unique urban fabric. The architecture is based on timber, and the typical neighborhoods are called [[Pol (housing)|pols]], densely packed traditional houses with gated streets. Important buildings from the Sultanate period include the [[Bhadra Fort]] city walls, [[Teen Darwaza]] (Pictured), [[Rani Sipri's Mosque]], [[Sidi Bashir Mosque]], [[Sidi Saiyyed Mosque]] and [[Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad|Jama Mosque]] and other numerous mosques, tombs, and shrines.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1551 |title=Historic City of Ahmadabad |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704111432/http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1551 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[The Victorian and Art Deco Ensemble of Mumbai|Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai]]
| [[File:Mumbai 03-2016 40 Bombay High Court.jpg|150px|alt=A brick building in neo-gothic style]]
| [[Maharashtra]]
| 2018
| 1480; ii, iv (cultural)
| This site comprises two assemblies of buildings in [[Mumbai]] from the [[British Empire]] era. Public buildings in the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Victorian Gothic]] style from the second half of the 19th century adapted Gothic Revival elements for the Indian climate, introducing features such as balconies and [[veranda]]s. The [[Bombay High Court]] building is pictured. The [[Art Deco]] buildings date to the early 20th century and include cinema halls and apartment buildings. See also [[Art Deco in Mumbai]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480 |title=Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 7, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707140322/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Jaipur|Jaipur City]], Rajasthan
| [[File:20191218 Pałac Wiatrów w Jaipurze 1129 9124.jpg|150px|alt=A large palace in red and pink sandstone with many windows]]
| [[Rajasthan]]
| 2019
| 1605; ii, iv, vi (cultural)
| Jaipur was founded by the [[Rajput]] ruler [[Jai Singh II]] in 1727. The city was built with a [[grid plan]], inspired by ancient Hindu and Western ideals, in a departure from the medieval architecture of the region. It was a strong trade centre and home to craftsmen and artists. Important buildings and sites include the [[Hawa Mahal]] palace (pictured), [[Govind Dev Ji Temple]], [[City Palace, Jaipur|City Palace]], and [[Jantar Mantar]], which is listed as a separate World Heritage Site.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1605 |title=Jaipur City, Rajasthan |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=May 10, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510213435/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1605 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ramappa Temple|Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple]], Telangana
| [[File:Ramappa Temple 02.jpg|150px|alt=A Hindu temple in red stone]]
| [[Telangana]]
| 2021
| 1570; i, iii (cultural)
| The [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temple, dedicated to [[Shiva]], was constructed in the first half of the 13th century under the [[Kakatiya dynasty]]. It is decorated with stone carvings and sculptures in [[granite]] and [[Diabase|dolerite]] that depict regional dance customs. In line with Hindu practices, the temple is constructed in a way that blends harmonically with the environment.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1570 |title=Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple, Telangana |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=July 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725122608/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1570 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Dholavira]]: a Harappan City
| [[File:Dholavira-1.jpg|150px|alt=Archaeological site with some brick and stone walls]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| 2021
| 1645; iii, iv (cultural)
| Dholavira was one of the centres of the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Harappan Civilisation]] from the 3rd to mid-2nd millennium BCE, in the [[Bronze Age]]. The remains include a walled city and a cemetery, and there are remains of buildings and water management systems. The city's location was chosen because of nearby sources of precious minerals. The city had trade connections with other cities in the region and as far as [[Mesopotamia]]. The site was rediscovered in 1968.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1645 |title=Dholavira: a Harappan City |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=April 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417071611/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1645 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Shantiniketan|Santiniketan]]
| [[File:Santiniketan Prayer Hall.jpg|150px|alt=A building with elaborate facade behind a metal fence]]
| [[West Bengal]]
| 2023
| 1375; iv, vi (cultural)
| Santiniketan was founded as an [[ashram]] by [[Debendranath Tagore]] in the second half of the 19th century and then developed into a university town for [[Visva-Bharati University]]. It is connected to the life and philosophy of Debendranath's son [[Rabindranath Tagore]], the leading figure of the [[Bengali Renaissance]]. The prayer hall is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5495/|title=Santiniketan|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231235/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5495/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Santiniketan |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1375 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=September 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920110348/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1375 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas]]
| [[File:Le temple de Chennakesava (Somanathapura, Inde) (14465165685).jpg|150px|alt=Hindu temple in Dravidian style]]
| [[Karnataka]]
| 2023
| 1670; i, ii, iv (cultural)
| Three [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysala]] temples - the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Chennakeshava Temple]] in [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Belur]], the [[Hoysaleswara Temple]] in [[Halebidu]] and the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Somanathapura|Keshava temple]] (pictured) in [[Somanathapura, Mysuru|Somanathapura]], dating between the 12th and 14th centuries. [[Hoysala architecture]] combined the elements of [[Dravidian architecture]] with influences from northern India. The temples were built by the followers of [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]] and they are richly decorated with stone sculptures and carvings. The Chennakeshava Temple in Belur is still an important pilgrimage site.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5898/|title=Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysala|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=December 4, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204005659/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5898/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1670 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=October 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013010823/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1670 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Maidam|Moidams]] – the Mound-Burial system of the [[Ahom dynasty|Ahom Dynasty]]
| [[File:Charaideo Maidam of Ahom Kings at Charaideo in Sivasagar, Assam 4.jpg|150px|alt=A tumulus in a forest]]
| [[Assam]]
| 2024
| 1711; iii, iv (cultural)
| [[Charaideo]] was the capital of the [[Ahom kingdom]] (1228–1826), and the tumuli were the burial sites of the royals and nobility. The tumuli create an undulating landscape reminiscent of hills, in line with the spiritual beliefs of the [[Ahom people|Tai-Ahom people]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5915/|title=Moidams – the Mound-Burial system of the Ahom Dynasty|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516235030/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5915/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1711|title=Moidams – the Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=23 July 2024|archive-date=July 27, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727121513/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1711|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Maratha Military Landscapes of India]]
| [[File:Raigad fort towers.jpg|150px|alt=Two fortress towers, partially in ruin]]
| [[Maharashtra]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 2025
| 1739; iv, vi (cultural)
| This inscription comprises 11 forts in Maharashtra and 1 in Tamil Nadu. They are typically constructed of [[basalt]] rocks on the hills and were used for defensive purposes in different historical periods. The forts are connected to the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] ruler [[Shivaji|Chhatrapati Shivaji]], who commissioned several of them in the 17th century. The [[Raigad Fort]] is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1739/|title=Maratha Military Landscapes of India|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=11 July 2025}}</ref>
|}

==Tentative list==
In addition to sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, member states can maintain a list of tentative sites that they may consider for nomination. Nominations for the World Heritage List are only accepted if the site was previously listed on the tentative list.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/ |title=Tentative Lists |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=7 October 2010 |archive-date=1 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401104537/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/ |url-status=live }}</ref> India lists 70 properties on its tentative list.<ref name="India"/>
{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
|+ {{sronly|Tentative sites }}
! style="width:100px;" scope="col" | Site
! class="unsortable" style="width:150px;" scope="col" | Image
! style="width:80px;" scope="col" | Location ([[States and union territories of India|state]])
! style="width:50px;" scope="col" | Year listed
! style="width:60px;" scope="col" | UNESCO criteria
! scope="col" class="unsortable"| Description
|-
! scope="row" | [[Temples of Bishnupur|Temples at Bishnupur]], West Bengal
| [[File:Jor Bangla Temple Arnab Dutta 2011.JPG|150px|alt=A brick temple with a domed roof]]
| [[West Bengal]]
| 1998
| (cultural)
| The terracotta temples built by [[Mallabhum|Malla kings]] of [[Bishnupur (West Bengal)|Bishnupur]] date to the 17th century. They were built in brick and [[laterite]] stone. They have characteristic sloping roofs. The [[Jor Bangla Temple]], from 1655, is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1087/|title=Temples at Bishnupur, West Bengal|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231314/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1087/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Mattancherry Palace]], Ernakulam, Kerala
| [[File:Kerala Dutch Palace1.JPG|150px|alt=A building with cars parked in front]]
| [[Kerala]]
| 1998
| (cultural)
| The palace was built by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] for the local rulers around 1555. It is a two-storey building with several halls and a ceiling decorated with carvings in the coronation hall.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1092/|title=Mattanchery Palace, Ernakulam, Kerala|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517062709/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1092/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Group of Monuments at [[Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|Mandu]], Madhya Pradesh
| [[File:Jahaz Mahal 10.jpg|150px|alt=A building in Indo-Islamic style above a pond]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 1998
| (cultural)
| This nomination comprises monuments dating from the 11th to the 16th centuries. They include rock-cut tombs and temples, mosques, palaces, and pavilions. The Jahaz Mahal palace is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1095/|title=Group of Monuments at Mandu, Madhya Pradesh|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516235153/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1095/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Ancient Buddhist Site, [[Sarnath]], Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
| [[File:Ancient Buddhist monasteries near Dhamekh Stupa Monument Site, Sarnath.jpg|150px|alt=A brick Buddhist stupa]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 1998
| (cultural)
| This nomination comprises two groups of monuments. The first group includes [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] temples, [[stupa]]s ([[Dhamek Stupa]] pictured), and monasteries, as well as the remains of a [[Pillars of Ashoka|pillar of Ashoka]]. They date from the 3rd century BCE to the 12th century CE. The second group is represented by the [[Chaukhandi Stupa]], built in 1588.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1096/|title=Ancient Buddhist Site, Sarnath, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=November 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126071858/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1096/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Golden Temple|Sri Harimandir Sahib]], Amritsar, Punjab
| [[File:Amritsar Golden Temple 3.JPG|150px|alt=A temple in golden colour with a pool in front]]
| [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| 2004
| iii, iv, vi (cultural)
| Sri Harimandir Sahib, also known as the Golden Temple, is the spiritual centre of [[Sikhism]]. The temple complex was rebuilt several times. The architectural layout of the complex reflects the spiritual concepts of the religion. The main temple building is richly decorated with floral patterns, either painted or as marble [[inlay]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1858/|title=Sri Harimandir Sahib, Amritsar, Punjab|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231406/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1858/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | River Island of [[Majuli]] in midstream of Brahmaputra River in Assam
| [[File:Majuli Island.jpg|150px|alt=Two men on a boat on a river]]
| [[Assam]]
| 2004
| ii, iii, v, vi (cultural)
| Majuli is a large [[river island]] in the [[Brahmaputra River]]. There are over 200 villages on the island, inhabited by people from various ethnic origins. A characteristic concept of the region is the ''[[Satra (Ekasarana Dharma)|satras]]'', institutional centres for cultural activities that also serve as democratic mediators for dispute resolution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1870/|title=River Island of Majuli in midstream of Brahmaputra River in Assam|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231227/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1870/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Namdapha National Park]]
| [[File:Forest snow Namdapha IMG 3373 04.jpg|150px|alt=Forest and snow-covered mountains in the background]]
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| 2006
| vii, ix, x (natural)
| The national park covers an extensive wilderness area mostly covered in forests and sparsely explored. It is located in the [[Eastern Himalayas]]. The highest peak is Dapha Bum, at {{convert|4571|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2104/|title=Namdapha National Park|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=September 18, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918084032/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2104/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary|Wild Ass Sanctuary]], Little Rann of Kutch
| [[File:IndianWildAss (cropped).jpg|150px|alt=Two wild asses]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| 2006
| x (natural)
| [[Little Rann of Kutch]] is a [[salt marsh]] with sparse vegetation, mostly with [[Xerophyte|xerophytic]] species. It is home to the last wild population of the [[Indian wild ass]] (pictured). It is also an important nesting area for birds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2105/|title=Wild Ass Sanctuary, Little Rann of Kutch|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516234433/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/2105/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Neora Valley National Park]]
| [[File:The mystic forest.jpg|150px|alt=Forest scenery]]
| [[West Bengal]]
| 2009
| vii, x (natural)
| The area is covered by virgin forest and is a biodiversity hotspot. The valley spans from lowlands to altitudes around {{convert|3200|m|abbr=on}}, which results in a variety of habitats. It is home to several bird species and mammals, including the [[red panda]] and two species of [[pangolin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5447/|title=Neora Valley National Park|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517132906/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5447/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Desert National Park]]
| [[File:A view on Sams sand dunes.JPG|150px|alt=Sand dunes and some shrubs]]
| [[Rajasthan]]
| 2009
| vii, viii, x (natural)
| The national park covers a part of the [[Thar Desert]]. It is home to several endemic species such as the [[Indian hairy-footed gerbil]] and the [[Bufoniceps laungwalaensis|Rajasthan toad-headed lizard]]. It is also home to two endangered species of [[vulture]]s. The [[Chinkara]] gazelle (Gazella bennettii) is a common antelope of this region. There are [[fossil]] beds in the park, dating to the [[Jurassic]] period.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5448/|title=Desert National Park|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516235029/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5448/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Silk Road sites in India|Silk Road Sites in India]]
| [[File:VikramshilaRuins.jpg|150px|alt=Archaeological remains of a stupa]]
| [[Bihar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 2010
| ii, iii, vi (cultural)
| This nomination comprises 12 sites connected to the ancient [[Silk Road]], a network of trade routes connecting [[China]] with the west. There were at least three corridors in India. In addition to the movement of goods, they were important in the spread of [[Buddhism]] and [[Greco-Buddhism|Greco-Buddhist]] culture. Sites in the nomination include the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] trade port at [[Arikamedu]], [[Vikramashila]] (pictured) and the early Buddhist site of [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]] (the Relic Stupa).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5492/|title=Silk Road Sites in India|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 1, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501084120/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5492|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | The Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad [[Golconda Fort]], [[Qutb Shahi tombs|Qutb Shahi Tombs]], [[Charminar]]
| [[File:Charminar Hyderabad 1.jpg|150px|alt=Charminar at Hyderabad]]
| [[Telangana]]
| 2010
| i, ii, iii, iv (cultural)
| This nomination comprises the monuments of the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty]], a sultanate that ruled in the 16th and 17th century, in [[Hyderabad]] and its surroundings. The Golconda Fort is a citadel and early capital. Qutb Shahi tombs (two pictured) are mosques and burial places of the sultans, and Charminar, built in 1591, is a monumental gateway with four minarets. These sites illustrate the cosmopolitan nature of the region in that period.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5573/|title=The Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad Golconda Fort, Qutb Shahi Tombs, Charminar|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=February 1, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201205635/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5573/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Mughal Gardens in Kashmir
| [[File:Shalimar Bagh 1.jpg|150px|alt=A pavilion in the middle of a pond]]
| [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| 2010
| i, ii, iv (cultural)
| [[Mughal gardens]] were built in a style influenced by [[Persian gardens]], particularly by the ''[[Charbagh]]'' layout, with terraces and fountains arranged around a central water channel, reflecting the Islamic concept of [[paradise]]. Six gardens are listed in the nomination: [[Chashme Shahi]], [[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]] (pavilion pictured), [[Pari Mahal]], [[Verinag]], [[Achabal Gardens]], and [[Nishat Bagh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5580/|title=Mughal Gardens in Kashmir|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516234416/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5580/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Delhi]] - A Heritage City
| [[File:Jama Masjid,Delhi,India 05.jpg|150px|alt=Two Islamic tombs with white domes and several people around]]
| Delhi
| 2012
| ii, v, vi (cultural)
| Delhi, as [[Qila Rai Pithora|Lal Kot]], was founded in 1060 as a capital of the [[Tomara dynasty]]. Later, rulers built subsequent cities on the site. Delhi was the capital of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and an intermittent capital of the [[Mughal Empire]]. During the [[British Raj|British rule]], the capital was moved from [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] to the newly constructed [[New Delhi]] in 1911. The nomination lists the following areas of historical and architectural importance: [[Mehrauli]], [[Nizamuddin Dargah]] (the tomb of the [[Sufi]] saint [[Nizamuddin Auliya]]), [[Old Delhi|Shahjahanabad]] (pictured), and New Delhi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5743/|title=Delhi - A Heritage City|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=April 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424023553/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5743/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Monuments and Forts of the Deccan Sultanate
| [[File:Gateway to Bidar fort.jpg|150px|alt=Fortress gate in red brick]]
| [[Karnataka]], [[Telangana]]
| 2014
| ii, iii (cultural)
| This nomination comprises the monuments of [[Deccan sultanates]], dating between the 14th and 17th centuries, in four cities: [[Gulbarga]], [[Bidar]], [[Bijapur]] in Karnataka state, and [[Hyderabad]] in Telangana state. The [[architecture of the Deccan sultanates]] represents interactions between Islamic and Hindu influences. Some of the monuments in the nomination include the [[Bidar Fort]] (pictured), [[Jama Mosque Kalaburagi|Jama Mosque]] in Gulbarga, and the [[Qutb Shahi tombs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5887/|title=Monuments and Forts of the Deccan Sultanate|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=February 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228210923/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5887/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Cellular Jail]], Andaman Islands
| [[File:Cellular Jail, Andaman and Nicobar.JPG|150px|alt=One of the jail wings with three rows of cells]]
| [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
| 2014
| iv, vi (cultural)
| The jail was constructed in 1906 by the British, primarily to exile political prisoners to the remote archipelago. The architecture was based on the [[panopticon]] system, with radiating wings that were easy to monitor by a single guard. Jail cells were intended for individuals for confinement. The jail was infamous for the brutal treatment of inmates and is important in the history of the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5888/|title=Cellular Jail, Andaman Islands|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517062631/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5888/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Iconic Saree Weaving Clusters of India
| [[File:Styles of Sari.jpg|150px|alt=Picture of different types of saris]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Assam]]
| 2014
| iii, v (cultural)
| [[Sari]], or saree, is a traditional attire of Indian women. Sari weaving required particular adjustments of the weavers' houses to accommodate [[loom]]s and other devices for [[silk]] processing, resulting in a specific vernacular architecture. This nomination comprises eight clusters where sari weaving was and still is a major profession of the villagers. Different styles of saris are pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5890/|title=Iconic Saree Weaving Clusters of India|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 10, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510232614/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5890/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Apatani Cultural Landscape
| [[File:A cross section of luch green valley of Ziro.jpg|150px|alt=A hill covered with forest, a village and rice paddies]]
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| 2014
| iii, v (cultural)
| [[Apatani people]] live in the [[Ziro|Ziro Valley]] that is surrounded by high mountains of the [[Himalayas]]. They have a culture that is distinct from that of other tribes in the region, with traditional crafts and festivals. They practice [[paddy field|wet rice cultivation]] and are careful in land management, which allowed sustainable agriculture for several centuries. The resulting [[cultural landscape]] reflects the ability of the tribe to make the adverse environment habitable.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5893/|title=Apatani Cultural Landscape|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=August 10, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810213143/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5893/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple]], Srirangam
| [[File:Ranganathaswamy temple tiruchirappalli.jpg|150px|alt=Two gopuram of a temple, decorated with figures]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 2014
| i, ii, iii, v (cultural)
| The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is dedicated to [[Ranganatha]]. It is the world's largest operating [[Hindu temple]] and is, in fact, a temple town, with inner enclosures constituting the temple and outer ones being used for settlements. There have been temples at the site for over two millennia; however, the key buildings standing today date to the time of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], from the 14th to the 16th century. The temple has 21 ''[[gopuram]]s'', which are richly decorated with paintings and sculptures.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/|title=Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231635/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Monuments of [[Srirangapatna]] Island Town
| [[File:Gopuram of the Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangapatna Karnataka India.jpg|150px|alt=Ranganathaswamy temple, Srirangapatna]]
| [[Karnataka]]
| 2014
| i, ii, iii, iv (cultural)
| Srirangapatna, the [[river island]] in the [[Kaveri]] river, is an important pilgrimage site in South India. It has been continuously inhabited since the 12th century. The monuments on the island date to different historical periods, including the periods of the [[Hoysala Empire]], [[Vijayanagara Empire]], [[Kingdom of Mysore]], and the [[British Raj]]. Most monuments date from the 16th to the 19th centuries and have elements of Hindu, Indo-Islamic, and British styles. The [[Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangapatna|Ranganathaswamy Temple]] is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5895/|title=Monuments of Srirangapatna Island Town|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516235113/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5895/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Chilika Lake]]
| [[File:Chilika Bhubaneswar.me.jpg|150px|alt=A group of Flamingos flying over Chilika Lake]]
| [[Odisha]]
| 2014
| ix, x (natural)
| Chilika Lake is a large [[brackish water]] [[lagoon]], fed by over 50 rivers and streams. It is an ephemeral environment, with the river sediments being deposited to the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Different parts of the lake are freshwater, brackish, and marine ecosystems and are an important habitat for birds and mammals, including the endangered [[Irrawaddy dolphin]]. The lake is rich in fish species that support the local fishermen population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5896/|title=Chilika Lake|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=August 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824112741/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5896/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]]
| [[File:Padmanabhapuram Palace 1.jpg|150px|alt=A large building with white walls, red roof, and wooden beams]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 2014
| iii, iv (cultural)
| The palace in [[Padmanabhapuram]] was constructed in the 16th century, with later additions continuing into the early 19th century, to serve as the seat of the [[Travancore royal family]]. It is a masterpiece of traditional timber architecture decorated with murals and carvings. Murals depict [[Hindu mythology]] and secular themes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5897/|title=Padmanabhapuram Palace|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517062632/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5897/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Sites of Satyagrah, India's non-violent freedom movement
| [[File:GANDHI ASHRAM 03.jpg|150px|alt=People in front of an ashram building]]
| several sites
| 2014
| iv, vi (cultural)
| ''[[Satyagraha]]'', a form of [[nonviolent resistance]] or [[civil resistance]], was developed by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] in the first half of the 20th century, as a part of the [[Indian independence movement]]. The nomination comprises 22 sites across India related to the movement. Several sites are [[ashram]]s ([[Sabarmati Ashram]] pictured), founded by Gandhi to teach his philosophy. Other sites are related to the independence movement. Satyagraha theory was influential in the [[civil rights movement]] in the United States and in the fight against [[apartheid]] in South Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5899/|title=Sites of Satyagrah, India's non-violent freedom movement|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231340/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5899/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Thembang]] Fortified Village
| [[File:Northern gate of Thembang fort.jpg|150px|alt=Stone gate to the village]]
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| 2014
| ii, iii, v (cultural)
| The village of Thembang is located in the [[Eastern Himalayas]] at an altitude above {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}}. It is built as a [[Dzong architecture|dzong]], a type of fortified monastery also found in neighbouring [[Bhutan]] and [[Tibet]]. It is inhabited by the Monpas and was constructed before the 12th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5913/|title=Thembang Fortified Village|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231638/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5913/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Narcondam Island]]
| [[File:Narcondam Hornbill DSCN1242 15.jpg|150px|alt=A bird, hornbill, sitting on a tree branch]]
| [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
| 2014
| viii, ix, x (natural)
| Narcondam Island is a volcanic island off the main chain of the [[Andaman Islands]]. It is composed mostly of [[andesite]], [[dacite]], and [[amphibole]], types of volcanic rocks and minerals. The island provides an important example of evolutionary processes due to its isolation. It is the only place where the endangered [[Narcondam hornbill]] (pictured) is found, and it is also home to several endemic species of the Andaman Islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5914/|title=Narcondam Island|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516235129/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5914/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bhubaneswar|Ekamra Kshetra – The Temple City, Bhubaneswar]]
| [[File:Lingaraj Temple Complex.jpg|150px|alt=A Hindu temple in stone]]
| [[Odisha]]
| 2014
| i, ii, iii (cultural)
| Ekamra Kshetra is the name of the old part of the city of Bhubaneswar. It is a holy city and has earned the nickname "Temple City" due to about 700 temples that once stood here. The temples were built between the 3rd century BCE and 15th century CE. They are built in the [[Kalinga architecture|Kalinga style]], and belong to [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], and [[Jainism|Jain]] religions. The [[Lingaraja Temple]] is pictured. In addition to the temples, there are also [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]] built by Jain worshipers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5916/|title=Ekamra Kshetra – The Temple City, Bhubaneswar|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=October 1, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001225112/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5916/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | The Neolithic Settlement of [[Burzahom archaeological site|Burzahom]]
| [[File:Horned figure on pottery. Pré-Indus civilization. Kashmir.jpg|150px|alt=A clay pot with an animal with horns painted]]
| [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| 2014
| ii, iii, v (cultural)
| The archaeological site at Burzahom has provided information about different stages of societal development from the 4th to the 2nd millennium BCE. People initially lived in [[pit-house]]s and later built houses of mud and brick. There are also remains of [[megalith]]ic structures. Material remains excavated at the site hint at interactions with cultures of Central and South West Asia. A painted pot from 2700 BCE is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5917/|title=Burzahom archaeological site|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231230/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5917/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, [[Lothal]]
| [[File:The drainage system at Lothal 2.JPG|150px|alt=Archaeological site with remains of drainage channels]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| 2014
| v (cultural)
| Lothal was the only port-town of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]], or Harappan Civilization, from the [[Bronze Age]]. It was occupied from around 2400 BCE to 1600 BCE when it was likely damaged by tidal flooding. The settlement consisted of a citadel with wide streets, a warehouse, and a port area along the river. Remains found at the site demonstrate trade links with the [[Persian Gulf]] region. The remains of drainage channels are pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5918/|title=Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231301/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5918/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Mountain Railways of India]] (Extension)
| [[File:Train to Matheran.JPG|150px|alt=Train on a hilly railway]]
| [[Maharashtra]], [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| 2014
| ii, iv (cultural)
| This is a proposed extension of the existing World Heritage Site. It includes the [[Matheran Hill Railway]] (pictured) and the [[Kangra Valley Railway]]. They were built in the early 20th century; construction involved technical innovation to overcome difficult mountainous terrain.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5919/|title=Mountain Railways of India (Extension)|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231641/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5919/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Chettinad]], Village Clusters of the Tamil Merchants
| [[File:Chettinad palatial house.jpg|150px|alt=A large two-storey building with white decorated facade]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 2014
| ii, v, vi (cultural)
| This nomination comprises 11 villages in three clusters. Wealthy merchants built them in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The villages mix urban and rural influences, both Tamil and those from a broader region, as a result of the travels of the merchants in Southeast Asia. Thousands of palatial houses were built using local and imported materials. The most recent ones, built in the 1930s and 1940s, are in the [[Art Deco]] style. An example of a palatial house is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5920/|title=Chettinad, Village Clusters of the Tamil Merchants|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518215344/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5920/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Lotus Temple|Bahá'í House of Worship]] at New Delhi
| [[File:LotusDelhi.jpg|150px|alt=A temple in the shape of a lotus flower]]
| [[Delhi]]
| 2014
| i, v, vi (cultural)
| The Lotus Temple is the main [[Baháʼí House of Worship]] in India. It was inaugurated in 1986. It has the shape of a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]] flower, with petals made of concrete and covered by [[marble]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5921/|title=Bahá'í House of Worship at New Delhi|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=August 26, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826220742/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5921/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Badami Chalukya architecture|Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami-Pattadakal]]
| [[File:Durga Temple.jpg|150px|alt=A Hindu temple in red stone]]
| [[Karnataka]]
| 2015
| iii, iv (cultural)
| This nomination comprises several temples in [[Aihole]], [[Badami cave temples|Badami]], and [[Pattadakal]], that were built between the 6th and 8th centuries under the [[Chalukya dynasty]]. They demonstrated the evolution of [[Hindu temple architecture]] with rock-cut and free-standing temples and were influential in temples built in later periods. The temples at Pattadakal are already listed as a World Heritage Site. The Durga Temple in Aihole is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5972/|title=Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami-Pattadakal|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 May 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231411/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5972/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Cold Desert Cultural Landscape of India
| [[File:Kee monastery Spiti Valley (edited).jpg|150px|alt=A monastery in a mountain valley covered by snow]]
| [[Ladakh]], [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| 2015
| iii, v, vi, x (mixed)
| The landscapes in the [[Himalayas]] are characterized by high altitudes, between {{convert|3000|m|abbr=on}} and {{convert|5000|m|abbr=on}}, and harsh dry weather and temperatures ranging from above {{convert|30|C}} in summer to below {{convert|-30|C}} in winter. Two areas are inhabited, the [[Ladakh]] and the [[Spiti Valley]]. The culture is a mixture of Indian and [[Tibet]]an cultures. Several settlements are linked to [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monasteries ([[Key Monastery]] pictured). From the natural perspective, the area is home to endangered species such as the [[snow leopard]], [[Tibetan antelope]], and the [[Himalayan wolf]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6055/|title=Cold Desert Cultural Landscape of India|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=May 27, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527061843/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6055/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Sites along the Uttarapath, Badshahi Sadak, Sadak-e-Azam, [[Grand Trunk Road]]
| [[File:Ambala-Kos Minar.jpg|150px|alt=A stone pillar close to a road]]
| several sites
| 2015
| ii, iv, vi (cultural)
| The Grand Trunk Road is one of Asia's oldest and longest roads. It connects Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. The road has been used at least since the times of the [[Maurya Empire]] in the 4th century BCE, has been reconstructed several times in different periods, and has been upgraded to modern traffic in the 20th century. In addition to trade, the road has been instrumental in the spread of ideas, religions, and culture. Several historical sites have been preserved along the road. The [[Kos Minar]], a milestone, in [[Ambala]] is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6056/|title=Sites along the Uttarapath, Badshahi Sadak, Sadak-e-Azam, Grand Trunk Road|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=January 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117131142/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6056/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Keibul Lamjao National Park|Keibul Lamjao Conservation Area]]
| [[File:Loktak Lake,Manipur,India 01.jpg|150px|alt=Lake with some floating plants]]
| [[Manipur]]
| 2016
| v, vii, ix, x (mixed)
| [[Loktak Lake]] is a large freshwater lake that features a unique type of ecosystem called [[phumdi]], [[floating island]]s consisting of soil and vegetation. The area is a mixture of aquatic, wetland, and terrestrial habitats, and is home to [[sangai]], an endangered deer species. There are several villages on the shores of the lake, as well as some settlements on the phumdis.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6086/|title=Keibul Lamjao Conservation Area|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=July 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715011918/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6086|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Garo Hills]] Conservation Area (GHCA)
| [[File:West Garo Hills View Sasatgre Oct24 A7CR 03240-Pano.jpg|150px|alt=Lush green Scenery of western Garo Hills]]
| [[Meghalaya]]
| 2018
| v, vi, viii, x (mixed)
| [[Garo Hills]] (Pictured) are inhabited by the [[Garo people]], a tribe that speaks a language from the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman family]]. They practice [[slash-and-burn]] agriculture regulated by community rules to ensure sustainable land use. The area is interesting from a geological perspective, with the terrain being shaped by the [[Paleogeography of the India–Asia collision system|India–Asia collision system]]. The area is home to [[Asian elephant]], [[gaur]], [[clouded leopard]], [[sambar deer]], and five species of [[civet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6356/|title=Garo Hills Conservation Area (GHCA)|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=November 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112181502/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6356/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | The historic ensemble of [[Orchha]]
| [[File:OrchhaPalace.jpg|150px|alt=A palace overlooking a forest and a river]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2019
| ii, iv (cultural)
| The town of Orchha was founded in the 16th century by the [[Bundela]] clan to serve as their capital. In the following century, it came under [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] influence. The architecture of the [[Orchha Fort complex|fort complex]], palaces, temples, and gardens represent a mixture of styles from [[Rajput architecture|Rajput]] and [[Mughal architecture]]. The [[Jahangir Mahal, Orchha|Jahangir Mahal]] is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6404/|title=The historic ensemble of Orchha|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=July 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706095312/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6404/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ghats in Varanasi|Iconic Riverfront of the Historic City of Varanasi]]
| [[File:Ahilya Ghat by the Ganges, Varanasi.jpg|150px|alt=Ganges riverfront with steps, temples, people, and boats]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 2021
| iii, iv, vi (cultural)
| [[Varanasi]] is a holy city of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]]. More than 80 [[ghat]]s (steps to the river bank) are located along the [[Ganges]], the [[holy river]], and serve as a place for rituals and festivals. Varanasi has been continuously inhabited since at least 1200 BCE, while the earliest stone ghats date to the 14th century. Palatial buildings, temples, [[ashram]]s, and rest houses for pilgrims date to the 18th and later centuries. The Ahilya Ghat is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6526/|title=Iconic Riverfront of the Historic City of Varanasi|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=April 25, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425223400/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6526/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Temples of [[Kanchipuram]]
| [[File:Parameswara Vinnagaram.JPG|150px|alt=A Hindu temple in Tamil style]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| 2021
| iv, vi (cultural)
| Kanchipuram was the capital of the [[Pallava dynasty]] from the 6th to the 9th century. It is a holy [[Hinduism|Hindu]] city which used to have hundreds of temples. The architecture marks the shift from rock-cut temples to free-standing structures. 11 temples are listed in the nomination. The [[Ekambareswarar Temple (Kanchipuram)|Ekambareswarar Temple]] is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6528/|title=Temples of Kanchipuram|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=May 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220508093324/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6528/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Hire Benakal]], Megalithic Site
| [[File:Pre-historic tombs-1.JPG|150px|alt=Several prehistoric dolmens]]
| [[Karnataka]]
| 2021
| iii, iv (cultural)
| Hire Benakal is the largest [[megalith]]ic site in India. The [[dolmen]]s date to the 1st millennium BCE to the [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]] and provide information about the culture that constructed India's first large-scale monuments. Rock paintings have also been discovered on site. Depictions of human figures, riders, and animals date roughly from 700 to 500 BCE, while some paintings are older, from the [[Mesolithic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6529/|title=Hire Benkal, Megalithic Site|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=April 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426080555/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6529/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Marble Rocks|Bhedaghat]]-[[Lameta Formation|Lametaghat]] in Narmada Valley
| [[File:Marble Rocks - Jabalpur.jpg|150px|alt=River flowing through a gorge with white marble stones]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2021
| vii, viii (natural)
| At [[Bhedaghat]], the [[Narmada River]] has carved a canyon through a mountain of white [[marble]] (pictured), creating a landscape that is both popular with tourists for its perceived beauty and of special interest for geologists. The Lameta Formation contains several [[fossil]]s, including those of [[dinosaur]]s and [[Crocodilia|crocodilians]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6531/|title=Bhedaghat-Lametaghat in Narmada Valley|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=March 31, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331194524/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6531/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Satpura Tiger Reserve]]
| [[File:Tiger satpura .jpg|150px|alt=A Bengal tiger in Satpura]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2021
| vii, ix, x (natural)
| The forests in the [[Satpura Range]] hills are protected as a habitat for a large population of [[Bengal tiger]] (Pictured). The area acts as a faunal bridge between the [[Western Ghats]] and the [[Himalayas]] and is also home to several endangered plant species.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6532/|title=Satpura Tiger Reserve|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=June 7, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607144135/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6532/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Konkan geoglyphs|Geoglyphs of Konkan]] Region of India
| [[File:Usgalimal.PNG|150px|alt=Geoglyphs of Konkan Goa]]
| [[Maharashtra]], [[Goa]]
| 2022
| i, iii, iv (cultural)
| This nomination comprises 10 sites with [[geoglyph]]s in the [[Konkan]] coast. They date from the [[Mesolithic]] period, about ten millennia BCE to the second millennium BCE. They depict animals, human figures, and abstract art, and are related to the transition from [[hunter-gatherer]] societies to settled ones.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6605/|title=Geoglyphs of Konkan Region of India|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=May 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516231414/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6605/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Jingkieng jri: [[Living root bridge|Living Root Bridge]] Cultural Landscapes
| [[File:Living root bridges, Nongriat village, Meghalaya2.jpg|150px|alt=Two bridges, consisting of tree roots, crossing a river]]
| [[Meghalaya]]
| 2022
| i, iii, vi (cultural)
| A living root bridge is a type of [[simple suspension bridge]] formed of living plant roots by [[tree shaping]]. They are handmade from the [[aerial root]]s of rubber fig trees (''[[Ficus elastica]]'') over several generations and are common in the communities of the [[Khasi people]]. The bridges reflect a harmonious relationship between people and nature. An example of such a bridge in [[Nongriat]] village is pictured.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6606/|title=Jingkieng jri: Living Root Bridge Cultural Landscapes|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=June 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616070739/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6606/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Veerabhadra Temple, Lepakshi|Sri Veerabhadra Temple]] and [[Monolithic Bull, Andhra Pradesh|Monolithic Bull]] (Nandi), Lepakshi (The Vijayanagara Sculpture and Painting Art Tradition)
| [[File:Front side of Veerabhadra Temple, Lepakshi.jpg|150px|alt=A Hindu temple in stone]]
| [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| 2022
| i, ii, vi (cultural)
| The [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temple is located in the village of [[Lepakshi]]. The temple's construction started around 1100, while the major development took place during the period of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], from 1350 to 1600, when a large complex was built. The temple contains important examples of Vijayanagara art, including the only surviving frescoes from that period. A large monolithic bull ([[Nandi (Hinduism)|Nandi]]) is located on the temple grounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6607/|title=Sri Veerabhadra Temple and Monolithic Bull (Nandi), Lepakshi (The Vijayanagara Sculpture and Painting Art Tradition)|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=3 June 2022|archive-date=May 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517062600/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6607/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Sun Temple, Modhera]] and its adjoining monuments
| [[File:Surya mandhir.jpg|150px|alt=A Hindu temple complex in stone]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| 2022
| i, iv (cultural)
| The temple complex, a prominent example of the [[Māru-Gurjara architecture|Māru-Gurjara]] style from the 11th century, is dedicated to the Sun God. It has three components: ''Gūḍhamanḍapa'', the shrine hall; ''Sabhamanḍapa'', the assembly hall; and ''Kunḍa'', the reservoir.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6627/|title=Sun Temple, Modhera and its adjoining monuments|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=21 December 2022|archive-date=December 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221074701/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6627/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Rock-cut Sculptures and Reliefs of the [[Unakoti]], Unakoti Range, Unakoti District
| [[File:Unakotiswara Kal Bhairava,Unakoti ( ঊনকোটি).JPG|150px|alt=Rock cut bas relief of Hindu deity]]
| [[Tripura]]
| 2022
| i, iv (cultural)
| Unakoti features colossal rock cut panels and bas relief sculptures depicting Hindu deities, which date from the 8th and 9th centuries. They were created by the adherents of [[Shaivism]], with the style influenced by local folk arts.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6628/|title=Rock-cut Sculptures and Reliefs of the Unakoti, Unakoti Range, Unakoti District|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=21 December 2022|archive-date=August 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829203802/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6628/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Vadnagar]] – A multi-layered Historic town, Gujarat
| [[File:Vadnagar's Kirti Toran full shot with beautiful clouds.JPG|150px|alt=A ''torana'' gate in stone]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| 2022
| ii, v (cultural)
| The town has been continuously occupied since 750 BCE, with monuments such as gates (Kirti Toran pictured), fortresses, and temples constructed throughout different historical periods. Remains found on site demonstrate the trade connections with the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]] and the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6629/|title=Vadnagar – A multi-layered Historic town, Gujarat|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=21 December 2022|archive-date=December 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221074659/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6629/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Serial nomination of Coastal Fortifications along the Konkan Coast, Maharashtra
| [[File:Bastions of vijaydurg.jpg|150px|alt=An old fort with several towers, located at a coast]]
| [[Maharashtra]]
| 2024
| ii, iv, vi (cultural)
|This nomination comprises nine forts in Maharashtra. They were used for trade and military functions between the 9th and 19th centuries. They supported trade routes connecting India with African and Arabian coasts and with the western countries. [[Vijaydurg Fort]] is pictured.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Serial nomination of Coastal Fortifications along the Konkan Coast, Maharashtra |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6703/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325072346/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6703/ |archive-date=2024-03-25 |access-date=2024-03-25 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |The Gond monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla
| [[File:Moti Mahal Mandla.jpg|150px|alt=An old fortress made of stone, a wire fence in front]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2024
| ii, iii (cultural)
| The nomination comprises clusters of monuments related to the kingdoms of the [[Gondi people|Gond people]], including the [[Garha kingdom]] of the early modern era. The Gonds are the largest tribe in India and held a substantial rule over the central India before the rise of the [[Mughal Empire]]. The forts display an influence of the [[Mughal architecture]] and some influence from the [[List of Rajput dynasties and states|Rajputs]]. The [[Moti Mahal, Mandla|Moti Mahal]], built under [[Hridayshah]], is pictured.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Gond monuments of Ramnagar, Mandla |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6735/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |The [[Bhojeshwar Temple|Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple]], Bhojpur
| [[File:Shiva Temple, Bhojpur 01.jpg|150px|alt=A large stone temple with some people around]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2024
| i, iii, iv (cultural)
| Construction of the large temple started in the 11th century under the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] king [[Bhoja]] but was at some point abandoned so the temple is left unfinished. It demonstrates the architecture and arts of the period. Important features of the temple are a large [[lingam]] and architectural drawings carved on the walls, intended to assist the builders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Bhojeshwar Mahadev Temple, Bhojpur |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6733/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=July 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727121513/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6733/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Rock Art Sites of the [[Chambal River|Chambal]] Valley
| [[File:Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley.jpg|150px|alt=Rock art in red colour depicting human figures with weapons]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]]
| 2024
| iii, iv (cultural)
| Chambal Valley has a large concentration of rock art. Sites date from the [[Paleolithic]] period with [[Acheulean]] stone tools, to rock art sites from the early historic times. Motifs and styles differ between periods. Some depict human figures, hunting and battle scenes, while art from the later periods has religious motifs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rock Art Sites of the Chambal Valley |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6732/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=July 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727121514/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6732/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Khooni Bhandara, Burhanpur
| [[File:Khooni bhandara.jpg|150px|alt=Underground tunnel for water management]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2024
| ii, iii, iv (cultural)
| Khooni Bhandara is an underground water management system built under the [[Mughal Empire]] in the early 17th century in the city of [[Burhanpur]]. It is based on the Persian [[qanat]] system where the water flow is assisted only by gravity. The water system comprises pipelines and reservoirs. The capacity has been decreasing through time due to deposition of sediments on the walls.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khooni Bhandara, Burhanpur |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6731/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=July 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727121514/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6731/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Gwalior Fort]], Madhya Pradesh
| [[File:Gwalior Fort front.jpg|150px|alt=Fortress wall on a hill with several towers and elaborate decoration]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2024
| ii, iv (cultural)
| The architecture of the fort predominantly shows a mixture of [[Rajput]] and [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] styles but also includes earlier components, dating back to the 5th century. It features delicate stone carving elements. It served as a reference for later structures.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gwalior Fort, Madhya Pradesh |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6730/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |The historic ensemble of [[Dhamnar Caves|Dhamnar]]
| [[File:Buddist sculpture caves.jpg|150px]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| 2024
| ii, iv (cultural)
|The [[Dhamnar Caves]] are rock-cut caves dating back to between the 5th and 7th centuries CE. There are numerous Buddhist caves and a Hindu temple complex. Some of the caves include secluded and not ornamented spaces for monks ([[Vihāra]]s).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The historic ensemble of Dhamnar |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6736/ |access-date=2024-03-25 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=July 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727121513/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6736/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Kanger Valley National Park]]
| [[File:Kanger valley11.JPG|150x150px]]
| [[Chhattisgarh]]
| 2025
| vii, viii, x (natural)
|The national park covers the Kanger River valley. Its varying topography and the multitude of geological features contribute to the park's natural beauty and scientific importance. As an untouched forest area, it also contains diverse wildlife, including various [[threatened species]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kanger Valley National Park |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6801/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs]]
| [[File:Mudumal Megalithic Menhris Narayanpet Telangana India 11.jpg|150x150px]]
| [[Telangana]]
| 2025
| v, vi (cultural)
|The [[Menhir|menhirs]] date back 3500–4000 years and are arranged to align with celestial events. They reflect the ancient cultures' understanding of celestial phenomena and have influenced local religious beliefs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6802/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Serial nomination for [[Edicts of Ashoka|Ashokan Edict]] sites along the Mauryan Routes
| [[File:Ashoka Lauriya Areraj inscription.jpg|213x213px]]
| [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Bihar Legislative Assembly|Bihar]], [[Delhi]], [[Gujarat]], [[Karnataka]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 2025
| iii, iv, v (cultural)
|This nomination comprises thirty-five rock and pillar edicts, as well as cave inscriptions (segment of the [[Lauriya Araraj|Lauriya Araraj pillar]] pictured).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Serial nomination for Ashokan Edict sites along the Mauryan Routes |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6803/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Serial nomination of [[Yogini temples|Chausath Yogini Temples]]
| [[File:Chausath Yogini Temple, Mitaoli, Morena 006.jpg|150x150px]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Odisha]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 2025
| iii, iv (cultural)
|This nomination comprises thirteen temples of [[Yogini|yoginis]] (female yoga practitioners), each with 64 images or statues of yoginis ([[Chausath Yogini Temple, Mitaoli|temple in Mitaoli]] pictured).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Serial nomination of Chausath Yogini Temples |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6804/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Serial nomination of [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] Temples in North India
| [[File:Deogarh01.jpg|150x150px]]
| [[Bihar]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 2025
| i, iii (cultural)
|This nomination comprises twenty temples of the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta dynasty]] (Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh pictured).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Serial nomination of Gupta Temples in North India |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6805/ |access-date=10 March 2025}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |The Palace-Fortresses of the [[Bundelkhand|Bundelas]]
| [[File:View of Raja Mahal from Jahangir Mahal with Ram Raja Temple and Chaturbhuj Temple in the background, Tikamgarh.jpg|150x150px]]
| [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 2025
| ii, iv (cultural)
|This nomination comprises six fortresses of the Bundelkhand region (Raja Mahal pictured).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Palace-Fortresses of the Bundelas |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6806/ |access-date=10 March 2025 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Salkhan Fossils Park|Salkhan Fossil Park]], Sonbhadra
| [[File:150 crore years old Fossils of Blue green algae, in Salkhan (Sonebhadra, UP).jpg|alt=Fossilized green algae with greenery in the background|150x150px]]
| [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| 2025
| viii (natural)
|This park features a large number of [[Stromatolite|stromatolites]] and [[Microfossil|microfossils]]. It demonstrates the effect of the [[Great Oxidation Event]] on the development of unicellular life and how early microbes shaped the Earth's environment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Salkhan Fossil Park, Sonbhadra |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6842/ |access-date=29 June 2025 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Naga Hill Ophiolite
|
| [[Nagaland]]
| 2025
| viii, ix (natural)
| The [[Naga Hills]] are important in view of their geological structure. They containe [[ophiolite]]s, sections of Earth's [[oceanic crust]] and the underlying [[upper mantle (Earth)|upper mantle]] that have been uplifted and exposed on the continental plate. They provide insight into [[plate tectonics]] and continent collision. The area is also important due to its biodiversity, and is home to the vulnerable bird species [[rufous-necked hornbill]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6889/ |title=Naga Hill Ophiolite |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=1 November 2025 |url-status=live |archive-date=1 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251101230151/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6889/}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Deccan Traps at [[Panchgani]] and [[Mahabaleshwar]]
| [[File:Picturesque - Mahabhaleshwar - Panchghani (5767643681).jpg|150px|alt=View of rugged hills]]
| [[Maharashtra]]
| 2025
| viii, x (natural)
| This nomination comprises parts of the [[Deccan Traps]] (Panchgani pictured) and the [[Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary]]. Deccan Traps are a [[large igneous province]] that was created in a geologically short volcanic episode around 66 million years ago. This resulted in lava deposits up to {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}} thick. The area is also a biodiversity hotspot, with animals including the [[Indian leopard]], [[sloth bear]], [[Nilgiri tahr]], [[Indian giant squirrel]], as well as numerous bird, reptile, and amphibian species.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6890/ |title=Deccan Traps at Panchgani and Mahabaleshwar |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=1 November 2025 |url-status=live |archive-date=1 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251101230307/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6890/}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Geological Heritage of [[St. Mary's Islands|St' Mary's Island]] Cluster
|[[File:DR0085DSC 1767.jpg|150px|alt=Basaltic rock formations on a shore]]
| [[Karnataka]]
| 2025
| viii (natural)
| The four islands are significant because of their [[Columnar jointing|columnar basalt]] formations, originating from the [[Late Cretaceous]] [[epoch]]. They are associated with the volcanic activitsy during the breaking up between the [[Indian plate|Indian]] and the [[Madagascar plate]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6891/ |title=Geological Heritage of St' Mary's Island Cluster |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2 November 2025 |url-status=live |archive-date=2 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251102000637/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6891/}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Meghalayan Age Caves
|
| [[Meghalaya]]
| 2025
| vii, viii, ix (natural)
| The four nominated caves feature numerous [[speleothem]]s. The stalagmite sampled from the [[Mawmluh Cave]] was used to detect the chemical signatures related to the [[4.2-kiloyear event]], a prolongued drought linked to the collapse of several ancient civilizations. The cave is used as the [[Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point]] for the [[Meghalayan]] age. Additionally, the caves are home to endemic species of fish and arthropods.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6892/ |title=Meghalayan Age Caves |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2 November 2025 |url-status=live |archive-date=2 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251102001043/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6892/}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Natural Heritage of [[Erra Matti Dibbalu]]
|[[File:Erramatti Dibbalu (Red Sand Hills) in Visakhapatnam 03.jpg|150px|alt=Red sand formation with some plants]]
| [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| 2025
| viii (natural)
| The sand, [[silt]], and [[clay]] formations preserve the geologic record of the late [[Quaternary]], including the fluctuations of the sea level during the [[Quaternary glaciation|glaciation]] episodes, monsoons, and dry seasons. The sediments were deposited by rivers or winds.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6893/ |title=Natural Heritage of Erra Matti Dibbalu |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2 November 2025 |url-status=live |archive-date=2 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251102000742/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6893/}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Natural Heritage of [[Tirumala]] Hills
| [[File:Natural stone arch in tirumala.JPG|150px|alt=A stone arch made of ancient rocks]]
| [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| 2025
| vii, viii, x (natural)
| The area is significant due to the [[Eparchaean Unconformity]], a rare geological [[Stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] formation where there is a gap of hundreds of million of years between the older [[Archean]] and younger [[Proterozoic]] rocks. One of the formations in the area is the [[Natural Arch, Tirumala hills|Natural Arch]] (pictured), which is also sacred to the Hindus. The area is also home to diverse flora.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6894/ |title=Natural Heritage of Tirumala Hills |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2 November 2025 |url-status=live |archive-date=2 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251102001448/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6894/}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Natural Heritage of Varkala
|[[File:Varkala cliff 02.jpg|150px|alt=A beach and a cliff in the background]]
| [[Kerala]]
| 2025
| vii, viii (natural)
| Thsi nomination comprises the cliff and the beach in [[Varkala]]. The cliff is a geological formation that shows differet layers of sediments, documenting the processess such as tectonic uplift, sedimentation, and tropical weathering. There are numerous fossils found in the rocks. The area is also popular with visitors because of its scenic beauty.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6895/ |title=Natural Heritage of Varkala |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2 November 2025 |url-status=live |archive-date=2 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251102001724/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6895/}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Serial Nomination of Buddhist Triangle Sites of Odisha
|[[File:Lalitagiri Courtyard.jpg|150px|alt=Ruins and a collection of artefacts]]
| [[Odisha]]
| 2025
| ii, iv (cultural)
| The nomination comprises three sites connected with [[Buddhism]]: [[Lalitagiri]] (ruins of a [[stupa]] pictured), [[Udayagiri, Odisha|Udayagiri]], and [[Ratnagiri, Odisha|Ratnagiri]]. They document the development of the religion from the 3rd or 2nc century BCE, with the transition from [[Theravada]] traditions into the [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana]] schools. The sites also demonstrate the evolution of art and architectural styles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6926/|title=Serial Nomination of Buddhist Triangle Sites of Odisha|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=31 January 2026|url-status=live|archive-date=31 January 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260131221945/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6926/}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Intangible Cultural Heritage elements in India]]
* [[List of inscriptions in UNESCO Memory of the World Register from India]]
* [[National Geological Monuments of India]]
* [[UNESCO world heritage site]]
* [[Monuments of National Importance of India]]
* [[List of rock-cut temples in India]]
* [[List of forts in India]]
* [[List of museums in India]]
* [[Tourism in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|World Heritage Sites in India}}
{{wikivoyage|UNESCO World Heritage List (India)}}

{{World Heritage Sites in India}}
{{Lists of World Heritage Sites in Asia}}
{{India topics}}
{{Tourism in India}}
{{Portalbar|India|Society}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:World Heritage Sites in India}}
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in India| ]]
[[Category:Lists of tourist attractions in India|World Heritage Sites]]
[[Category:Lists of World Heritage Sites|India]]
[[Category:Historic preservation in India]]
[[Category:Architecture in India]]

Westernization

2026-03-16T20:52:04Z

Brandon81T: fixed details additionally and improved wording

{{Short description|Global adoption of western culture and values}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=January 2026}}
{{Unbalanced|date=January 2026}}
}}
'''Westernization''' (or '''Westernisation''', see [[British and American spelling differences|spelling differences]]), also '''[[Europeanisation]]''' or '''occidentalization''' (from the ''[[Occident]]''), is a process whereby [[Society|societies]] come under or adopt what is considered to be [[Western culture]], in areas such as [[Manufacturing|industry]], [[technology]], [[science]], [[education]], [[politics]], [[economics]], [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]], [[law]], [[Social norm|norms]], [[mores]], [[Convention (norm)|customs]], [[tradition]]s, [[Value (ethics)|values]], [[mentality]], [[perception]]s, [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], [[clothing]], [[language]], [[writing system]], [[religion]], and [[Western philosophy|philosophy]]. During [[colonialism]] it often involved the spread of [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thong |first1=Tezenlo |title='To Raise the Savage to a Higher Level': The Westernization of Nagas and their Culture |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |date=July 2012 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=893–918 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X11000412 |id={{ProQuest|1011622231}} |jstor=41478422 |s2cid=145414470 }}</ref> A related concept is '''Northernization''', which is the consolidation or influence of the [[Global North]].<ref>{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|305033607}} |last1=Lloyd |first1=Paulette D |date=2005 |title=An Empirical Test of Theories of World Divisions and Globalization Processes: An International and Comparative Regional Perspective }}{{page needed|date=October 2024}}</ref>

Westernization has been a growing influence across the world in the last few centuries, with some thinkers assuming Westernization to be the equivalent of [[Modernization theory|modernization]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Hayford|first=Charles|title=Westernization |editor1-first=David |editor1-last=Pong |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Modern China|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons}}</ref> a way of thought that is often debated. The overall process of Westernization is often two-sided in that Western influences and interests themselves are joined with parts of the affected society, at minimum, to become a more Westernized society, with the putative goal of attaining a Western life or some aspects of it, while Western societies are themselves affected by this process and interaction with non-Western groups.

After contact, changes in cultural patterns are evident within one or both cultures. Specific to Westernization and the non-Western culture, foreign societies tend to adopt changes in their social systems relative to Western ideology, lifestyle, and physical appearance, along with numerous other aspects, and shifts in culture patterns can be seen to take root as a community becomes acculturated to Western customs and characteristics – in other words, Westernized. The phenomenon of Westernization does not follow any one specific pattern across societies as the degree of adaption and fusion with Western customs will occur at varying magnitudes within different [[communities]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=McLeish |first1=Kenneth |chapter=Westernization |title=Bloomsbury Guide to Human Thought |date=1993 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publications |isbn=978-0-7475-0991-2 }}</ref> Specifically, the extent to which domination, destruction, resistance, survival, adaptation, or modification affect a native culture may differ following inter-ethnic contact.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kottak |first1=Conrad Phillip |title=Window on Humanity: A Concise Introduction to General Anthropology with Powerweb |date=2007 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education |isbn=978-0-07-325893-5 |oclc=1245991011 |url=https://archive.org/details/windowonhumanity0000kott }}{{page needed|date=April 2023}}</ref>

==Western world==
{{Main|Western world}}The West was originally defined as the [[Western world]]. A thousand years later, the [[East-West Schism]] separated the [[Catholic Church]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] from each other. The definition of Western changed as the West was influenced by and spread to other nations. Islamic and Byzantine scholars added to the [[Western canon]] when their stores of Greek and Roman literature jump-started the [[Renaissance]]. The [[Cold War]] also reinterpreted the definition of the West by excluding the countries of the former [[Eastern Bloc]]. Today, most modern uses of the term refer to the societies in the West and their close [[genealogical]], [[natural language|linguistic]], and [[philosophical]] descendants. Typically included are those countries whose ethnic identity and dominant culture are derived from [[Culture of Europe|Western European culture]]. Though it shares a similar historical background, the Western world is not a monolithic bloc, as many cultural, linguistic, religious, political, and economic differences exist between Western countries and populations.

==Significantly influenced countries==
The following countries or regions experienced a significant influence by the process of Westernization:
*[[Azerbaijan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Azerbaijan & the West |date=29 March 2017 |url=https://www.thebusinessyear.com/whats-behind-azerbaijans-shirt-to-the-west/focus}}</ref>
*[[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], and [[Singapore]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Puga |first=Rogério Miguel |url=https://www.academia.edu/3785763 |title=The British Presence in Macau, 1637–1793 |date=2013 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |isbn=978-988-8139-79-8 |series=[[Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|Royal Asiatic Society]] |location=[[Hong Kong]] |language=en |lccn=2013383538 |ol=25637013M |author-link=Rogerio Miguel Puga |access-date=2022-03-22}}</ref>
*[[Israel]]:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Arndt |first1=Richard T. |last2=Rubin |first2=David Lee |title=The Fulbright Difference: 1948-1992 |date=1993 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-1-4128-2424-8 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqMwKTUN7f0C&pg=PA53 }}</ref><ref name="Sheldon Kirshner">{{Cite web |last=Sheldon Kirshner |date=2013-10-16 |title=Is Israel Really a Western Nation? |url=https://sheldonkirshner.com/?p=1673 |access-date=2013-11-09 |publisher=Sheldon Kirshner Journal}}</ref> Although Israel is geographically located in [[West Asia]], many Western cultural influences were brought in Israel by [[Aliyah|Jewish settlers]] from the [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]], particularly countries like [[Canada]], [[France]], [[Germany]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]]. It is a member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]. It is often a member of European organisations for sports and cultural events such as [[UEFA]] and [[Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision]], which is due in large part to Israel's ouster from their respective Asian counterparts. According to [[Sammy Smooha]], a professor emeritus of [[sociology]] at Haifa University, Israel is described as a "hybrid," a modern and developed "semi-Western" state. With time, he acknowledged, Israel will become "more and more Western." But as a result of the ongoing [[Arab–Israeli conflict]], full Westernization will be a slow process in Israel.<ref name="Sheldon Kirshner" />
*[[Japan]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early Westernization & Modernization in Japan 1868-1900 | Japan Experience |url=https://www.japanvisitor.com/japanese-culture/history/westernization}}</ref>
*[[Americas]].<ref name="west">{{Cite book |last=Huntington, Samuel P. |url=https://archive.org/details/clashofcivilizat00hunt/page/38 |title=Clash of Civilizations |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-684-84441-1 |edition=6th |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/clashofcivilizat00hunt/page/38 38–39] |quote=The origin of western civilization is usually dated to 700 or 800 AD. In general, researchers consider that it has three main components, in Europe, North America and South america. [...] However, South America has followed a quite different development path from Europe and North America. Although it is a scion of European civilization, it also incorporates more elements of indigenous American civilizations compared to those of Northern America and Europe. It also currently has a more corporatist and authoritarian culture. Both Europe and Northern America felt the effects of Reformation and the combination of Catholic and Protestant cultures. Historically, many countries in the Americas has been only Catholic, although this may be changing. [...] the Americas could be considered, or a sub-set, within Western civilization, or can also be considered a separate civilization, intimately related to the West, but divided as to whether it belongs with it. |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>
*[[Philippines]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Heydarian |first=Richard |date=2015-01-12 |title=Philippines' Shallow Capitalism: Westernization Without Prosperity |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/richard-javad-heydarian/philippines-shallow-capit_b_6441868.html |access-date=19 November 2016 |website=The Huffington Post}}</ref>
*[[Turkey]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cagaptay |first1=Soner |title=The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power |date=2014 |publisher=Potomac Books |isbn=978-1-61234-651-9 |page=44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8vQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 }}</ref>

==Views==

===Kishore Mahbubani===
[[Kishore Mahbubani]]'s book entitled ''The Great Convergence: Asia, the West, and the Logic of One World'' (Public Affairs), is very optimistic.{{Why|date=August 2014}} It proposes that a new global civilization is being created. The majority of non-Western countries admire and adhere to Western living standards. It says this newly emerging global order has to be ruled through new policies and attitudes. He argues that policymakers all over the world must change their preconceptions and accept that we live in one world. The national interests must be balanced with global interests and the power must be shared. Mahbubani urges that only through these actions can we create a world that converges benignly.

[[Samuel P. Huntington]] posits a conflict between "the West and the Rest" and offers three forms of general action that non-Western civilizations can react toward Western countries.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-62397-6_6 |chapter=The Clash of Civilizations? |title=Culture and Politics |year=2000 |last1=Huntington |first1=Samuel P. |pages=99–118 |isbn=978-1-349-62399-0 }}</ref>
# Non-Western countries can attempt to achieve isolation to preserve their own values and protect themselves from Western invasion. He argues that the cost of this action is high and only a few states can pursue it.
# According to the theory of "[[Bandwagoning|band-wagoning]]" non-Western countries can join and accept [[Western values]].
# Non-Western countries can make an effort to balance Western power through modernization. They can develop economic, and military power and cooperate with other non-Western countries against the West while still preserving their own values and institutions.

Mahbubani counters this argument in his other book, ''The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East''. This time, he argues that Western influence is now "unraveling", with [[March to Modernity|Eastern powers]] such as China arising. He states:
{{blockquote|…the 5.6 billion people who live outside the West no longer believe in the innate or inherent superiority of Western civilization. Instead, many are beginning to question whether the West remains the most civilized part of the world. What we are witnessing today…is the progressive unwrapping of these many layers of Western influences.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahbubani |first1=Kishore |title=The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East |date=2009 |publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=978-1-58648-628-0 |pages=129–130 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdw3hyNPj34C&pg=PA129 }}</ref>}} He explains the decline of Western influence, stating reasons as to the loss of Western credibility with the rest of the world.
# There is an increasing perception that Western countries will prioritize their domestic problems over international issues, despite their spoken and written promises of having global interests and needs.
# The West has become increasingly biased and close-minded in their perception of "non-Western" countries such as China, declaring it an "un-free" country for not following a democratic form of government.
# The West uses a double standard when dealing with international issues.
# As the biggest Eastern populations gain more power, they are moving away from the Western influences they sought after in the past. The "anti-Americanism" sentiment is not temporary, as Westerners like to believe – the change in the Eastern mindset has become far too significant for it to change back.

===Samuel P. Huntington===
In contrast to territorial delineation, others, like the American political scientist [[Samuel P. Huntington]] in ''[[The Clash of Civilizations]]'', consider what is "Western" based on religious affiliation, such as deeming the majority-[[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] part of Europe and North America the West, and creating 6 other civilizations, including [[Latin America]], [[Confucian]], Japanese, [[Islamic]], [[Hindu]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Slavic-Orthodox]], to organize the rest of the globe.<ref>{{cite web|last=Graham|first=James|title=Samuel P. Huntington's Clash of Civilizations|url=https://www.historyorb.com/world/clashofcivilizations.php|publisher=History Orb|access-date=12 April 2013}}</ref> Huntington argued that after the end of the [[Cold War]], world politics had been moved into a new aspect in which non-Western civilizations were no more the exploited recipients of Western civilization but become another important actor joining the West to shape and move the world history.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murden |first1=Simon |chapter=Cultures in world affairs |pages=414–427 |editor1-last=Baylis |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=Steve |editor3-last=Owens |editor3-first=Patricia |title=The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations |date=2011 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-956909-0 }}</ref> Huntington believed that while the age of [[ideology]] had ended, the world had only reverted to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.slideshare.net/mehbaliyev/rashad-mehbaliyev-civilizations-their-nature-and-clash-possibilities|title=Civilizations, their nature and clash possibilities (c) Rashad Mehbal…|last=mehbaliyev|date=30 October 2010}}{{self-published inline|date=April 2023}}</ref>

===Edward Said===
In ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'' [[Edward Said]] views Westernization as it occurred in the process of [[colonization]], an exercise of essentializing a "subject race" in order to more effectively dominate them. Said references [[Arthur Balfour]], the British Prime Minister from 1902 to 1905, who regarded the rise of nationalism in Egypt in the late 19th century as counterproductive to a "benevolent" system of occupational rule. Balfour frames his argument in favor of continued rule over the Egyptian people by appealing to England's great "understanding" of Egypt's civilization and purporting that England's cultural strengths complemented and made them natural superiors to Egypt's racial deficiencies. Regarding this claim, Said says, "Knowledge to Balfour means surveying a civilization from its origins to its prime to its decline – and of course, it means being able to...The object of such knowledge is inherently vulnerable to scrutiny; this object is a 'fact' which, if it develops, changes, or otherwise transforms itself...[the civilization] nevertheless is fundamentally, even ontologically stable. To have such knowledge of such a thing is to dominate it." The act of claiming coherent knowledge of a society in effect objectifies and others it into marginalization, making people who are classified into that race as "almost everywhere nearly the same." Said also argues that this relationship to the "inferior" races, in fact, works to also fortify and make coherent what is meant by "the West"; if "The Oriental is irrational, depraved (fallen), childlike, "different..." then "...the European is rational, virtuous, mature, normal." Thus, "the West" acts as a construction in the similar way as does "the Orient" – it is a created notion to justify a particular set of power relations, in this case, the colonization and rule of a foreign country.

=== Chinese Communist Party ===
{{Main|Chinese-style modernization}}
The [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) rejects the view that modernization equals Westernization, instead touting its own development model.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |date=4 March 2023 |title=Chinese-style Modernization |url=https://chinamediaproject.org/the_ccp_dictionary/chinese-style-modernization/ |access-date=15 March 2023 |website=China Media Project}}</ref> [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]] said that Chinese-style modernization "breaks the myth of 'modernization equals Westernization'".<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 February 2023 |title=Xi Rejects Westernization in Show of Faith in Self Reliance |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-08/xi-calls-for-china-s-modernization-path-to-surpass-capitalism |access-date=10 February 2023 |work=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> Zhang Zhanbin, an official at the [[Central Party School of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Central Party School]] wrote in the ''[[People's Daily]]'' that understanding the role of [[common prosperity]] is crucial to "clearly recognizing the major differences between Chinese-style modernization and the Western modernization path."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=4 March 2023 |title=Chinese-style Modernization |url=https://chinamediaproject.org/the_ccp_dictionary/chinese-style-modernization/ |access-date=15 March 2023 |website=China Media Project}}</ref>

==Process==
{{See also|Western influence on Africa|Anglicisation}}

===Colonization and Europeanization (1400s–1970s)===
{{Main|Colonialism}}

{{See also|European diaspora|American diaspora}}

From the 1400s onward, [[Europeanization]] and [[colonialism]] spread gradually over much of the world and controlled different regions during this five centuries long period, [[History of colonialism|colonizing or subjecting]] the majority of the globe.

Following [[World War II]], Western leaders and academics sought to expand innate liberties and international equality. A period of [[decolonization]] began. At the end of the 1960s, most colonies were allowed autonomy. Those new states often adopted some aspects of Western [[politics]] such as a constitution, while frequently reacting against Western culture.{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}

===In the Americas and Oceania===
{{See also|North American frontier|Americanization}}
[[File:Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo.jpg|thumb|The [[Mestizo|racial mixing]] of Spaniards and indigenous Latin Americans.]]

Due to the [[European colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]] and [[Europeans in Oceania|Oceania]] by [[Europe]]ans, the cultural, ethnic, and linguistic make-up of the Americas and Oceania has been changed. This is most visible in settler colonies such as: [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] in Oceania, and the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[Uruguay]] in the Americas, where the traditional [[indigenous peoples|indigenous population]] has been predominantly replaced demographically by non-indigenous settlers due to transmitted disease and conflict. This demographic takeover in settler countries has often resulted in the linguistic, social, and cultural marginalisation of indigenous people. Even in countries where large populations of indigenous people remain or the indigenous peoples have mixed ([[mestizo]]) considerably with European settlers, such as countries in Latin America and the Caribbean: [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], [[Panama]], [[Suriname]], [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Belize]], [[Paraguay]], [[South Africa]], [[Colombia]], [[Guatemala]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Guyana]], [[El Salvador]], [[Jamaica]], [[Cuba]], or [[Nicaragua]], relative marginalisation still exists.

Latin America was shaped by Iberian culture, with local religious forms also mixing with Christian influences.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carmagnani |first1=Marcello |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1ppz4m |title=The Other West: Latin America from Invasion to Globalization |last2=Frongia |first2=Rosanna M. Giammanco |date=2011 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24798-7 |edition=1 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1ppz4m }}</ref> In Mexico, indigenous people adopted writing alongside their traditional oral and pictorial forms of communication.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gruzinski |first=Serge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ed0BtAEACAAJ |title=The Conquest of Mexico: The Incorporation of Indian Societies Into the Western World, 16th-18th Centuries |date=1993 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-0-7456-0873-0 |language=en}}</ref>

===In Asia===
[[File:King Amanullah of Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Amānullāh Khān|King Amanullah Khan]] of [[Kingdom of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] attempted to [[Reforms of Amānullāh Khān and civil war|Westernize his country]] in the 1920s, but tribal revolts caused his abdication.]]


General reactions to Westernization can include [[fundamentalism]], [[protectionism]], or embrace to varying degrees. Countries such as [[Korea]] and [[China]] attempted to adopt a system of [[isolationism]] but have ultimately juxtaposed parts of Western culture into their own, often adding original and unique social influences, as exemplified by the introduction of over 1,300 locations of the traditionally Western fast-food chain [[McDonald's]] into China.<ref>{{cite news |title=McDonald's China Plans To Open A New Store Every Day |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/mcdonalds-china-new-stores_n_913071 |work=HuffPost |date=29 July 2011 }}</ref> Specific to [[Taiwan]], the industry of bridal photography (see [[Photography in Taiwan]]) has been significantly influenced by the Western idea of "love". As examined by author Bonnie Adrian, Taiwanese bridal photos of today provide a striking contrast to past accepted norms, contemporary couples often displaying great physical affection and, at times, placed in typically Western settings to augment the modernity, in comparison to the historically prominent relationship, often stoic and distant, exhibited between bride and groom.<ref>{{cite book|last=Adrian|first=Bonnie|title=Framing the Bride: Globalizing Beauty and Romance in Taiwan's Bridal Industry|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=Los Angeles, CA}}</ref> Though Western concepts may have initially played a role in creating this cultural shift in Taiwan, the market and desire for bridal photography has not continued without adjustments and social modifications to this Western notion.

====East Asia====

=====China=====
{{Excerpt|Eastward spread of Western learning}}

=====Korea=====
{{See also|Seohak}}

In [[Korea]], the first contact with Westernization was during the [[Joseon Dynasty]], in the 17th century. Every year, the emperor dispatched a few envoy ambassadors to China and while they were staying in Beijing, the Western missionaries were there. Through the missionaries, Korean ambassadors were able to adopt Western technology. In the 19th century, Korea started to send ambassadors to the foreign countries, other than Japan and [[China]]. While Korea was being Westernized slowly in the late 19th century, Korea had the idea of "Eastern ways and Western frames (東道西器)", meaning that they accepted the Western "bowl", but used it with Eastern principles inside.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}

=====Japan=====
{{Main|Bunmei-kaika}}
{{See also|Japanization}}
[[File:Chikamatsu Kiken buto no ryakuke.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|An example of 19th-century Westernization of Japanese society: [[Ballroom dance|ballroom dancing]] at the [[Rokumeikan]], [[Tokyo]], 1888]]

In [[Japan]], the [[Netherlands]] continued to play a key role in transmitting Western know-how to the Japanese from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, because the Japanese had only opened their doors to Dutch merchants before US Navy commodore [[Matthew C. Perry]]'s [[Perry Expedition|visit in 1853]]. After Commodore Perry's visit, Japan began to deliberately accept Western culture to the point of hiring Westerners to teach Western customs and traditions to the Japanese starting in the [[Meiji era]]. One of the key figures in the Westernization of Japan was [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]], whose ten-volume book [[Seiyō Jijō]] (1866-1879) became the textbook for Japan's understanding of the West.

Since then, many Japanese politicians have encouraged the Westernization of Japan with the use of the term ''[[Datsu-A Ron]]'', which means the argument for "leaving Asia" or "Good-bye Asia". In ''Datsu-A Ron'', "Westernization" was described as an "unavoidable" but "fruitful" change. In contrast, despite many advances in industrial efficiency, Japan has sustained a culture of strict social hierarchy and limited individualization.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dore |first1=Ronald |chapter=Unity and Diversity in World Culture |pages=407–424 [416] |editor1-last=Bull |editor1-first=Hedley |editor2-last=Watson |editor2-first=Adam |title=The Expansion of International Society |date=1984 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-821942-2 }}</ref>

====South Asia====
{{See also|Anglicisation#South Asia}}

=====India=====
{{See also|Cultural history of India#Colonial era}}

At the turn of the 19th century, when India was being conquered by the [[East India Company]], some of its native kingdoms sought [[Western education]] to learn how to deal with the threat.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-09-22 |title=What a false quote about Bengal reveals about our past |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/what-a-false-quote-about-bengal-reveals-about-our-past-101727021145362.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240924072503/https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/what-a-false-quote-about-bengal-reveals-about-our-past-101727021145362.html |archive-date=2024-09-24 |access-date=2024-12-25 |work=Hindustan Times |language=en-us}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2024}} India's later [[Indian independence movement|independence movement]] also took inspiration from Western ideas about democracy and human rights.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McLane |first=John R. |title=Indian Nationalism and the Early Congress |date=1977 |publisher=Princeton University Press |jstor=j.ctt13x1cv8}}{{page needed|date=October 2024}}</ref> India's ruling class after independence in 1947 remained somewhat Westernized; India's first Prime Minister, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], had such a substantial Britishness that he once described himself as "the last Englishman to rule India."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nanda |first1=B. R. |title=Jawaharlal Nehru |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-564586-6 |pages=253–263 |chapter=Nehru and the British |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195645866.003.0013}}</ref> In 2014, however, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) won power on the back of perceptions of the ruling class being [[Indianisation|insufficiently Indian]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dhingra |first=Sanya |date=2023-08-14 |title=How Hindu Nationalists Redefined Decolonization in India |url=https://newlinesmag.com/argument/how-hindu-nationalists-redefined-decolonization-in-india/ |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=New Lines Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

====Southeast Asia====

=====Thailand=====
Although Thailand is geographically located in [[Southeast Asia]], through the 18th and 19th centuries, Siam faced imperialist pressure from [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], including many unequal treaties with Western powers and forced concessions of territory; it nevertheless remained the only Southeast Asian country to avoid direct Western colonization. The country became westernized by itself, the Siamese system of government was centralized and initially organized into a modern unitary absolute monarchy during the reign of [[Chulalongkorn]], later as a constitutional monarchy following the [[Siamese revolution of 1932]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leventon |first1=Melissa |last2=Gluckman |first2=Dale Carolyn |title=Modernity Through the Lens: The Westernization of Thai Women's Court Dress |journal=Costume |date=June 2013 |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=216–233 |doi=10.1179/0590887613Z.00000000025 }}</ref> In the late 1950s, Thailand became a major ally of the [[United States]], and played a key anti-communist role in the region as a member of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]]. Currently, Thailand continues to have strong ties to Western countries.

=====Vietnam=====
Starting from the period of the [[Nguyễn dynasty]] as a protectorate of France, the Vietnamese transitioned from [[chữ Hán]] and [[chữ Nôm]] writing systems to the Vietnamese alphabet ([[chữ Quốc ngữ]]). Between the late 19th to early 20th centuries, a number of [[French colonial architecture#Vietnam|French style buildings]] were built in [[Saigon]] and [[Hanoi]], becoming two of several locations in Asia claiming to be the [[Paris of the East (disambiguation)|Paris of the East]]. Vietnam is also a member of the International Organisation of La Francophonie. Under the Nguyễn dynasty, Christianity became established as a minority religion for currently around 7% of the population. After the abdication of Emperor [[Abdication of Bảo Đại|Bảo Đại]] and the [[August Revolution]] that took place during the end of World War II, Vietnam would incorporate [[socialist]] and [[United States|American]] values as it underwent industrialization and economic development during and after the period of [[Reunification Day|political division]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Quynh Thi Nhu |title=The Vietnamese Values System: A Blend of Oriental, Western and Socialist Values |journal=International Education Studies |date=2016 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=32–40 |doi=10.5539/ies.v9n12p32|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====West Asia====
{{Multiple image
| align = vertical
| width1 = 150
| image1 = HIH Prince Yorihito Higashifushimi.jpg
| caption1 = Another example of Westernization: Prince [[Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito|Yorihito Higashifushimi]] of [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] in typical Western naval dress [[uniform]] with white gloves, [[epaulette]]s, medals and hat.
| width2 = 193
| image2 = Gen John Bates.jpg
| caption2 = Similarity with U.S. [[General]] [[John C. Bates]]'s uniform.
|}}

=====Iran=====
In [[Iran]], the process of Westernization dates back to the country's attempt to westernize during the beginning of the 1930s, which was dictated by [[Rezā Shāh|Shah Rezā Khan]] and continued by [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|his son]] during the Cold War and agitated the largely conservative [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslim]] masses of the country which was partly responsible for the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=del Giudice |first1=Marguerite |title=Persia: ancient soul of Iran |journal=National Geographic |date=2008 |volume=214 |issue=2 |pages=34–67 }}</ref>

=====Turkey=====
In transcontinental [[Turkey]], the synchronization process with the West is known as the [[Tanzimat]] ''(reorganization)'' period. The [[Ottoman Empire]] began to change itself according to modern science, practice, and culture. The Empire took some innovations from the West. Also, with the contribution of foreign engineers, the Empire repaired its old arm systems. Newly-found schools, permanent ambassadors, and privy councils were an essential improvement for the Empire. As a result, Turkey is one of the most Westernized majority-Muslim nations.

===In Europe===
{{See also|Greater Europe}}

====Russia====
{{Excerpt|Westernizer|paragraphs=1-2}}

===Globalization (1970s–present)===
Westernization is often regarded as a part of the ongoing process of [[globalization]]. This theory proposes that Western thought has led to globalisation, and that globalisation propagates Western culture, leading to a cycle of Westernization. On top of largely Western government systems such as [[democracy]] and [[constitution]], many Western technologies and customs like music, clothing, and cars have been introduced across various parts of the world and copied and created in traditionally non-Western countries.

Westernization has been reversed in some countries following war or regime change. For example: [[Russia]] in aftermath of the [[Russian Revolution]] in 1917 and [[Iran]] by the [[Iranian Revolution]] in 1979.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Priborkin |first1=Emily |title=40 Years Later: Iran after the Islamic Revolution |url=https://www.american.edu/sis/news/20190408-40-years-later-iran-after-the-islamic-revolution.cfm |work=American University |date=8 April 2019 }}</ref>

The main characteristics are economic and political ([[free trade]]) democratisation, combined with the spread of an [[Individualism|individualised culture]]. Often it was regarded as opposite to the worldwide influence of [[communism]]. After the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|break-up]] of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] in late 1991 and the end of the [[Cold War]], many of its component states and allies nevertheless underwent Westernization, including [[privatization]] of hitherto state-controlled industry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Consequences of the Collapse of the Soviet Union |url=https://online.norwich.edu/online/about/resource-library/consequences-collapse-soviet-union |work=Norwich University }}</ref>

With debates still going on, the question of whether globalization can be characterized as Westernization can be seen in various aspects. Globalization is happening in various aspects, ranging from economics, politics, and even food or culture. Westernization, to some schools, is seen as a form of globalization that leads the world to be similar to Western powers. Being globalized means taking positive aspects of the world, but globalization also brings the debate about being Westernized. Democracy, fast food, and American pop culture can all be examples that are considered as Westernization of the world.

According to the "Theory of the Globe scrambled by Social network: a new Sphere of Influence 2.0", published by Jura Gentium ([[University of Florence]]), the increasing role of Westernization is characterized by [[social media]]. The comparison with Eastern societies, who decided to ban American social media platforms (such as Iran and China with Facebook and Twitter), marks a political desire to avoid the Westernization process of their own populations and ways to communicate.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peccia |first1=Tiziano |date=2014 |title=The Theory of the Globe Scrambled by Social Networks |url=https://www.juragentium.org/topics/wlgo/en/peccia.htm |website=Jura Gentium }}</ref>

==Consequences==

===Linguistic influence===
{{See also|Englishisation}}

Due to colonization and immigration, the formerly prevalent languages in the Americas, Oceania, and part of [[South Africa]], are now usually Indo-European languages or creoles based on them:
*[[English Language|English]] ([[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[United States]], and [[Canada]] (excluding [[French language in Canada|Francophone regions of Canada]]); [[English language|English]] along with [[English-based creole languages]] ([[Anglophone|Anglophone Africa]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Dominica]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[Guyana]], [[Hong Kong]], [[India]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kiribati]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Nauru]], [[Palau]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Samoa]], [[Singapore]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tonga]], [[Tuvalu]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], and [[Vanuatu]]).
*[[French language|French]] ([[Quebec]], [[The Maritimes|Maritime provinces]], [[Manitoba]], and [[Ontario]] in Canada. France's overseas collectivity [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]); [[French language|French]] along with [[French-based creole languages]] ([[Francophone Africa]], [[French Guiana]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Haiti]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Martinique]], and [[Saint-Barthelemy]]).
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] ([[the Americas]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Western Sahara]], and the [[Philippines]]).
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ([[Brazil]], [[Lusophone Africa]], [[East Timor]], [[Macau]], [[Goa]], and other members of the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]).
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]] along with [[Creole languages]] ([[Suriname]], [[Aruba]] and the [[Netherlands Antilles]]).
*[[Afrikaans]] along with English (parts of [[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]]).
*[[German language|German]] along with [[Creole languages]] (along with [[Afrikaans]] in [[Namibia]] and some areas in the US, such as [[Pennsylvania]] ([[Pennsylvania Dutch language|Pennsylvania Dutch]]))

Many indigenous languages are on the verge of becoming extinct. Some settler countries have preserved indigenous languages; for example, in New Zealand, the [[Māori language]] is one of three official languages, the others being English and New Zealand sign language, another example is Ireland, where [[Irish language|Irish]] is the first official language, followed by English as the second official language.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

===Sports importance in Westernization===
{{See also|Western sports|Muscular Christianity}}

The importance of sports partly comes from its connection to Westernization. The insight by Edelman, R., & Wilson, W. (2017) explains “This new system of thought and practices imbued with positive values in the exertion and strategic deployment of the human body, embracing the Anglo-American notion that physical activity was meaningful in and of itself, conducive to values such as learning and character-building. Modern athletics and competitive sports, avatars of this new body culture, elicited largely willing local receptions in North Asia, though there were no doubt isolated cases of coercive foisting better characterized as cultural imperialism.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edelman |first1=Robert |last2=Wilson |first2=Wayne |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sports History |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-985892-7 |page=273 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|small=yes}}

* {{Annotated link |Acculturation}}
* {{Annotated link |Anti-globalization|Anti-globalisation}}
* {{Annotated link |Christianization}}
* {{Annotated link |Colonial mentality}}
* {{Annotated link |Colonialism}}
* {{Annotated link |Colonisation}}
* {{Annotated link |Cultural assimilation}}
* {{Annotated link |Cultural diversity}}
* {{Annotated link |Cultural imperialism}}
* {{Annotated link |The Culture of Nakedness and the Nakedness of Culture|''The Culture of Nakedness and the Nakedness of Culture''}}
* {{Annotated link |Democratization|Democratisation}}
* {{Annotated link |East–West cultural debate}}
* {{Annotated link |Global citizenship}}
* {{Annotated link |Globalization|Globalisation}}
* {{Annotated link |Indigenization}}
* {{Annotated link |McDonaldization}}
* {{Annotated link |Melting pot}}
* {{Annotated link |Modern culture}}
* {{Annotated link |Modernization}}
* {{Annotated link |Multiculturalism}}
* {{Annotated link |Pop culture}}
* {{Annotated link |Post-Westernization}}
* {{Annotated link |Western education}}
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* '{{cite book |last = Bonnett |first= Alastair |year = 2004 |title = The Idea of the West: Culture, Politics, and History |publisher = Palgrave Macmillan| location = Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York |isbn = 978-1-4039-0034-0 }}
* ''The Limits of Westernization: American and East Asian Intellectuals Create Modernity, 1860-1960'' (2019) [[Routledge]], written by [[Jon Thares Davidann]]
* ''[[The Decline of the West]]'' (1918), written by [[Oswald Spengler]].
* ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]'' (1992), written by [[Francis Fukuyama]].
* ''[[The Clash of Civilizations]]'' (1996), written by [[Samuel P. Huntington]].
* ''The Triumph of the West'' (1985) written by [[Oxford University]] historian [[John Roberts (historian)|J.M. Roberts]].
*{{cite book|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |year= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 978-2-88155-004-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Watters | first=Ethan | title=Crazy like us | publication-place=London | date=2011 | isbn=978-1-84901-577-6 | oclc=751584971}}
* Gardels, Nathan (1997) 'Clash of civilizations: modernization without Westernization', The National Times, May/June: 8–10.

{{Western culture}}
{{Cultural assimilation}}
{{Globalization|state=autocollapse}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Westernization|*]]
[[Category:Global culture]]
[[Category:Cultural assimilation]]
[[Category:Cultural geography]]
[[Category:Imperialism]]

Kiran Karmarkar

2026-03-14T20:56:55Z

Brandon81T: corrected structure for clarity and corrected details to improve readability

{{short description|Indian television actor (born 1968)}}

{{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kiran Karmarkar
| image = Kiran Karmarkar.jpg
| imagesize =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1958|05|02}}
| birth_place = [[Bombay]], Bombay State, India
| occupation = [[Actor]]
| networth =
| yearsactive = 1992–present
| othername =
| spouse = {{marriage|Rinku Dhawan|2002|2019|end=divorce}}
| children =
| website =
}}

'''Kiran Karmarkar''' (born 2 May 1958)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Latest News, Breaking News Today - Bollywood, Cricket, Business, Politics - IndiaToday|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-news-breaking-news-today-bollywood-cricket-business-politics|access-date=2022-01-03|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref> is an Indian television, film and theatre actor. He is popularly known for his portrayal of the character Om Agarwal in the television saga ''[[Kahaani Ghar Ghar Kii]]'' (2000–2008) that aired on [[Star Plus]].<ref name=Plan>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-09-20/tv/27957576_1_television-smriti-irani-ekta-kapoor |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216074712/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-09-20/tv/27957576_1_television-smriti-irani-ekta-kapoor |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 February 2013 |title=I never plan anything in life:Kiran | date=20 September 2007 | access-date=28 January 2013 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] | author=Unnithan, Chitra}}</ref>

==Career==
Karmarkar started his acting career through [[Marathi theatre]] Dinmaam in 1989<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=The Who's Who of Mahaabhaarat|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/2008/jul/09slid11.htm|access-date=|website=Rediff.com}}</ref> and later various cameos on television and commercial advertisements he appeared in his debut marathi film Name [[Nishpaap]] with legendary marathi actor [[Yashwant dutt]], [[Vinay Apte]], [[Suhas Joshi]]. His first major role came in the show ''Ghar Ek Mandir'' directed by [[Ekta Kapoor]].<ref name=Plan/> He became popular for his role of Om Agarwal opposite actress [[Sakshi Tanwar]] in the show ''[[Kahaani Ghar Ghar Kii]]''. The show aired on [[Star Plus]] and started in 2000. After the script killed the character, Karmarkar was no longer seen in it. But due to later changes in the script, the character was retrieved and he was seen playing the same role in 2007.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/kirans-back-kahaani-ghar-ghar-ki | title=Kiran's back in Kahaani Ghar Ghar ki | publisher=Telly Chakkar | date=21 September 2007 | access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref> He then went on to play various roles in TV shows. His 2006 role in the show ''[[Saarathi]]'' was of a business tycoon, inspired by [[Sabeer Bhatia]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report_kiran-karmarkar-does-a-sabeer-bhatia_1014299 | title=Kiran Karmarkar does a Sabeer Bhatia | newspaper=[[DNA (newspaper)|DNA]] | date=22 February 2006 | access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref> In 2012, he joined the popular show ''[[Uttaran]]'' playing a negative role of Tej Singh.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-19/tv/35891443_1_tv-baddies-abhaas-mehta-adaa-khan | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216070720/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-19/tv/35891443_1_tv-baddies-abhaas-mehta-adaa-khan | url-status=dead | archive-date=16 February 2013 | title=TV baddies take their shows to new heights in 2012 | date=19 December 2012 | access-date=28 January 2013 | newspaper=[[The Times of India]] | author=Jambhekar, Shruti}}</ref>

Karmarkar also secured small roles in [[Bollywood]] film. He has also played roles in [[Marathi film]]s and plays. In 2006, he was seen playing a comedy role opposite actress [[Bhavana Balsavar]] in the play ''Merra Naam Joker''. The play was directed by [[Shubha Khote]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mumbaitheatreguide.com/dramas/Articles/06/apr/26kiran_karmarkar.asp | title=Kiran Karmarkar's comedy act | publisher=Mumbai Theatre Guide | access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref> He played the lead role in the Hindi play ''Bas Itna Sa Khwab Hai...!'' opposite [[Shefali Shah]] in the year 2010. The play was directed by [[Chandrakant Kulkarni]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.mid-day.com/lifestyle/2010/aug/140810-Play-Shifalli-Shah-Bus-Itna-Sa-Khwab-Hai.htm |newspaper=[[Mid-Day]] |location=Mumbai | title=Peek into the lives of Mr & Mrs Singh | date=14 August 2010 | access-date=25 January 2013 | author=Sharma, Aditi}}</ref> For his role in the film ''Kshanokshani'' he also won the [[Maharashtra State Film Award]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/interviews/i-hope-tv-fans-will-my-comedy-kiran-karmarkar | title=I hope TV fans will like my comedy - Kiran Karmarkar | date=16 December 2011 | access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref> Soon, Kiran will be portraying a role in the upcoming [[StarPlus]] series, Zindagi Mere Ghar Aana.

==Personal life==
Karmarkar was married to actress Rinku Dhawan<ref name=Plan/> who played his sister in the show ''Kahaani Ghar Ghar Kii''.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/printarticle.aspx?page=comments&action=translate&sectid=12&contentid=2007091920070919025420953e22e2233&subsite= | title=Floor-Bored! | newspaper=[[Mumbai Mirror]] | date=19 September 2007 | access-date=28 January 2013 | author=Shyam, Kavita | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216121230/http://www.mumbaimirror.com/printarticle.aspx?page=comments&action=translate&sectid=12&contentid=2007091920070919025420953e22e2233&subsite= | archive-date=16 February 2013 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060224/asp/etc/story_5864676.asp | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120914151354/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060224/asp/etc/story_5864676.asp | url-status=dead | archive-date=14 September 2012 | title=Reality shows! | newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] | date=24 February 2006 | access-date=28 January 2013 | author=Hazarika, Sneha}}</ref>

The couple separated in 2017 after 15 years of marriage and filed for divorce in 2019. The duo have one son.

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Medium !! Notes
|-
| 1992
| ''Nishpaap''
| Satish Gaikwad
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 1994
| ''Yadnya''
|
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2001
| ''Shirdi Sai Baba''
| Blind man who sees after Saibaba's miracle
|
|
|-
| 2004
| ''[[Thoda Tum Badlo Thoda Hum]]''
| Raju's Father
|
|
|-
| 2006 || ''Kachche Dhage'' || || Play ||
|-
| 2006 || ''Merra Naam Joker''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/convalescing-kiran-takes-extra-work | title=Convalescing Kiran takes on extra work | publisher=Telly Chakkar | date=26 April 2006 | access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref> || || Play ||
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Just Married (2007 film)|Just Married]]''
| Rohit
|
|
|-
| 2009
| ''Rangiberangi''
| Ram Dandekar
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2009
| ''Kshanokshani''
| Chief Minister
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Pankh]]''
|
|
|
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Raajneeti]]''
| Mr. Sharma, Superintendent of Police
|
|
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Aaghaat]]''
| Dr. Deshpande
| Marathi film
|
|-
| || ''Salim Aarif'' || || Play ||
|-
| || ''Humsafar'' || || Play ||
|-
| || ''Bas Itna Sa Khwab Hai...!'' || || Play ||
|-
| || ''Shaadi Ki Home Delivery'' || || Play ||
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Force (film series)|Force]]''
| Tahir Mirza
|
|
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Shanghai (2012 film)|Shanghai]]''
| Janardhan Purshottamdas Sawant alias Deshnayak
|
|
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Chakravyuh (2012 film)|Chakravyuh]]''
| Home Minister
|
|
|-
| 2012
| ''Aarohi Gosht Tighanchi''
| Mandar Apte
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Pune 52]]''
| Prasad Sathe
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2014
| ''Anudini''
|
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2014
| ''[[A Rainy Day (2014 film)|A Rainy Day]]''
| Mr. Rao
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2014
| ''Bhatukali''
| Shantanu Atre
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2015
| ''[[Crazy Cukkad Family]]''
|
|
|
|-
| 2015
| ''[[Janiva]]''
| Milind Deshpande
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Shasan]]''
|
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Jai Gangaajal]]''
| Ramakant Choudhary
|
|
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Kanha (film)|Kanha]]''
| Madhu
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Family Katta]]''
| Nishikant
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2017
| ''[[Aamhi Doghi]]''
| Jagdish Sardesai
| Marathi film
|
|-
| 2018
|''Double Game''
|
| Television movie
|
|-
| 2021
| ''[[June (2021 film)|June]]''
| Neel's Father
| Marathi film
|
|-
|2022
|''[[Darlings (film)|Darlings]]''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-02 |title=Kiran Karmarkar on his role in Darlings, extinction of stardom, Marathi industry not growing like Telugu industry |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/kiran-karmarkar-on-his-role-in-darlings-extinction-of-stardom-marathi-industry-101659402870929.html |access-date=2022-08-10 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
|Ticket collector Damle
|Hindi film
|
|-
|2023
|''[[Sajini Shinde Ka Viral Video]]''
|Yashwant Desai
|Hindi film
|
|-
|2024
|''[[Article 370 (film)|Article 370]]''
|Home Minister
|Hindi film
|
|-
|2025
|''[[Chhaava]]''
| Annaji Datto Sachiv
|Hindi film
|
|-
|}

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Serial
! Role
|-
| 1995
| ''[[Mano Ya Na Mano (1995 TV series)|Mano Ya Na Mano]]''
|
|-
| 1995
| Padosan
|
|-
| 1996–1998
| ''[[Itihaas (TV series)|Itihaas]]''
|
|-
|
| ''[[Aahat (Indian TV series)|Aahat]]''
|
|-
| 1999–2000
| ''[[Abhimaan (TV series)|Abhimaan]]''
| Sukhdev Mehra
|-
| 2000–2002
| ''[[Ghar Ek Mandir (TV series)|Ghar Ek Mandir]]''
| Rajesh
|-
| 2000–2005; 2007–2008
| ''[[Kahaani Ghar Ghar Kii]]''
| Om Agarwal / Rishabh Rai Chaudhary
|-
| 2003
| Ghar Sansaar<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030309/spectrum/tv.htm|title=Soapy tales|access-date=2003-03-09}}</ref>
| Advocate Ajay Chaudhary
|-
| 2004–2005
| ''[[Kkehna Hai Kuch Mujhko]]''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/interviews/y2k4/actor/kiran_k.htm | title=Television is a woman dominated industry | publisher=Indiantelevision.com | date=19 March 2004 | access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref>
| Nishchay Kapoor
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Saarrthi]]''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/kiran-karmarkar-do-cameo-saarrthi | title=Kiran Karmarkar to do a cameo in Saarrthi | publisher=Telly Chakkar | date=9 January 2006 | access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref>
| Bhujang Ahuja
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Thodi Si Zameen Thoda Sa Aasmaan]]''
| Sudhanshu
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Jeena Isi Ka Naam Hai]]''
|
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Comedy Circus]]''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/catch-eliminated-jodis-comedy-circus-tonight | title=Catch the eliminated jodis on Comedy Circus tonight. | publisher=Telly Chakkar | date=21 July 2007 | access-date=28 January 2013 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
| Contestant
|-
| 2008
| ''[[Kahaani Hamaaray Mahaabhaarat Ki]]''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/kiran-om-karmarkar-play-father-ronit-roy | title=Kiran 'Om' Karmarkar to play father to Ronit Roy? | publisher=Telly Chakkar | date=21 April 2008 | access-date=28 January 2013 | archive-date=12 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112004724/http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/kiran-om-karmarkar-play-father-ronit-roy | url-status=dead }}</ref>
| Maharaj [[Shantanu]]
|-
| 2011–2012
| Zindagi Kahe – Smile Please <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/kiran-karmarkar-opines-lack-promotion-harming-zindagi-kahe-smile-please | title=Kiran Karmarkar opines lack of promotion is harming Zindagi Kahe Smile Please | publisher=Telly Chakkar | date=4 January 2012 | access-date=28 January 2013 | archive-date=12 February 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212194937/http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/kiran-karmarkar-opines-lack-promotion-harming-zindagi-kahe-smile-please | url-status=dead }}</ref>
|
|-
| 2012–2013
| ''[[Uttaran]]''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/kiran-karmarkar-enter-uttaran | title=Kiran Karmarkar to enter Uttaran | publisher=Telly Chakkar | date=9 August 2012 | access-date=28 January 2013}}</ref>
| Tej Singh Bundela
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Badalte Rishton Ki Dastaan]]''<ref> {{cite news | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-13/tv/37682240_1_additi-gupta-kiran-karmarkar-mona-ambegaonkar | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114015608/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-13/tv/37682240_1_additi-gupta-kiran-karmarkar-mona-ambegaonkar | url-status=dead | archive-date=14 November 2013 | title=Recreating magic of Khela with Badalte Rishton | date=13 March 2013 | newspaper=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=19 March 2013}}</ref>
| Balraj Asthana
|-
| 2014–2015
| ''[[Pukaar (Indian TV series)|Pukaar]]''
| Advocate Ashok Pradhan
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Tamanna (TV series)|Tamanna]]''
| Deepak Solanki
|-
| rowspan = "2" | 2017
| ''[[Dhhai Kilo Prem]]''
| Pankaj Sharma
|-
| ''[[Rudram (TV series)|Rudram]]''
| Mr. Makhija
|-
| 2019–2020
| ''[[Ishaaron Ishaaron Mein]]''
| Prakash Srivastav
|-
| 2021
| ''[[Bawara Dil]]''
| Yashwant Lashkare
|-
| 2021–2022
| ''[[Zindagi Mere Ghar Aana]]''
| Krishnakant Sehgal
|-
| 2022
| ''[[Spy Bahu]]''
| Suryakant Sharma
|-
|2025
|''[[Mandala Murders]]''
| Naveen Desai
|-
| 2025
| ''[[Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi 2]]''
| Om Agarwal
|-
|}

== See also ==
* [[List of Indian television actors]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* {{IMDb name|3245943}}
* [http://www.tellychakkar.com/news/kiran-karmarkar-unplugged Interview]

{{Indian Telly Award Best Lead Actor}}
{{Indian Telly Award Best Negative Actor}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Karmarkar, Kiran}}
[[Category:1958 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male soap opera actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Marathi actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Marathi cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]

Kati roll

2026-03-11T05:06:42Z

Brandon81T: refined formatting for clarity and fixed typos

{{Short description|Street-food dish originating from muthi, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Kathi roll
| image = Kolkata Rolls.jpg
| image_size = 225px
| caption = Kati roll served in [[Kolkata]], India
| alternate_name = Kathi roll
| national_cuisine = [[Bengali cuisine|Bengali]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]]
| country = [[India]]
| region = [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]]
| creator =
| course =
| type = [[Bread roll|Roll]]
| main_ingredient = Mutton (lamb) pieces, bread, egg (omlette)
| served =
| variations = Many, depending on ingredients
| calories =
| other =
}}

A '''kati roll''' (sometimes spelt '''kathi roll'''; {{langx|bn|কাঠি রোল}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.shabdkosh.com/bn/translate?e=kathi&l=bn|title=kathi - Meaning in Bengali - kathi in Bengali - Shabdkosh {{!}} অভিধান : English Bengali Dictionary and Translation|last=Shabdkosh.com|website=www.shabdkosh.com|access-date=2016-05-01}}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>) is a street-food dish originating from [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], India.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Banerji |first1=Urvija |title=The Kati Roll Can Be Traced Back to One Kolkata Restaurant |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-kati-roll-can-be-traced-back-to-one-kolkata-restaurant |access-date=21 July 2024 |date=3 May 2016}}</ref> In its original form, it is a [[skewer]]-roasted [[kebab]] [[wrap (sandwich)|wrap]]ped in a [[paratha]] bread, although over the years many variants have evolved all of which now go under the generic name of ''kati roll''. Today, mostly any wrap containing a filling enfolded in an Indian flatbread ([[roti]]) is called a ''kati roll''. In native Bengali, the word {{Transliteration|bn|kati}} roughly translates to 'stick', referring to how they were originally made. In Bengal though, the delicacy is simply known as ''roll''. Kati rolls normally contain coriander chutney, egg, and chicken but the types may vary.

==History==
The kati roll is said to have started its life in the Nizam Restaurant in [[Kolkata]], a popular [[Mughlai cuisine|Mughlai]] eatery founded in 1932 by one Raza Hassan Saheb.<ref name="theculturetrip"/><ref name="Moneycontrol"/> There are many stories about how exactly the roll got started.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sanghvi |first1=Vir |author1-link=Vir Sanghvi |title=Rude Food by Vir Sanghvi: Roll redemption |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/rude-food-by-vir-sanghvi-roll-redemption/story-WLkxCkUTD0BSDcINWNAALI.html |access-date=22 October 2022 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=12 July 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Some suggest that hurried office commuters wanted something quick and portable to eat; some mention British [[Babu (title)|babus]] who were too fastidious to make kabab.<ref name="itinari">{{cite news |last1=Majumder |first1=Hitaishi |title=Nizam's Restaurant: the story of the Kolkata kathi roll |url=https://www.itinari.com/nizam-s-restaurant-the-story-of-the-kolkata-kathi-roll-bgaw |access-date=22 October 2022 |work=itinari |date=1 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The most likely origin is probably more mundane, but in any case someone decided to roll things up at some point. Nizam enjoyed a virtual monopoly over this method of serving kababs for decades, but it eventually became commonplace in Kolkata and later spread elsewhere.<ref name="theculturetrip">{{cite news |last1=Nambiar |first1=Sridevi |title=How The Famous Kathi Roll Originated At Kolkata's Nizam's Restaurant |url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/how-the-famous-kathi-roll-originated-at-kolkatas-nizams-restaurant/ |access-date=22 October 2022 |work=Culture Trip |date=3 January 2018}}</ref>

[[File:Kathiroll.jpg|right|180px|thumb|Kati roll served in [[Mumbai]], India]]
The ''kati'' part of the name came later. Like everyone else in India, Nizam used iron skewers to make their kababs; they were easy to maintain and lasted a lifetime. However, as Nizam popularity grew, these long heavy iron skewers became problematic, as far many more were required than could be handled.{{Clarify|date=December 2022}} In 1964, Nizam moved to bamboo skewers that were lightweight and available in large numbers. These skewers are referred to in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] as {{Transliteration|bn|kati}} or 'stick', and the names ''kati kabab'' and ''kati roll'' soon stuck. The name eventually became synonymous with any kind of paratha rolled with stuffing (even when neither ''kati'' nor ''kabab'' was involved) such as the egg roll or the potato roll, and later even for other breads such as [[naan]] or [[Rumali roti|rumali]].<ref name="Moneycontrol">{{cite news |last1=Mukherjee |first1=Kamalika |title=Kolkata-style kathi roll: The origin story, competition, and present-day avatar |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/trends/lifestyle-trends/kolkata-style-kathi-roll-the-origin-story-competition-and-present-day-avatar-8874361.html |access-date=22 October 2022 |work=[[Moneycontrol]] |date=July 25, 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

In [[West Bengal]], shops serving rolls are mostly known as ''Roll-er-dokaan'' and people use ''roll'' to refer to a kati roll. Chicken roll and egg roll are two of the most common variants of kati roll.

==Description==
Traditionally, a kati roll is a ''kati'' [[kebab]] wrapped in a layered [[paratha]] bread. Paratha is dough that is kneaded into a rope, then coiled into a round patty. It is then flattened with a rolling pin and partially fried in oil on a [[Tava|tawa]] (griddle). These semi-cooked parathas are then kept aside until needed, at which time they're put back on the tawa and cooked through. If an egg is to be added, it is usually cracked into the tawa and the paratha put on top of the egg; they both cook together and the paratha gets coated on one side with the egg.

Kati kababs were originally beef, and now have variations with chicken or mutton (lamb) chunks, marinated in spices and cooked on skewers (the ''kati'') over coals in a [[Sigri (stove)|sigri]]. When the roll is being prepared, these are taken off the skewers and tossed with onions, chillies and sauces on the tawa, before being laid in a thin strip on the centre of the paratha (egg side up, when applicable). At this stage, most roll vendors will add various kinds of sauces, a dash of vinegar, a squeeze of lime, sometimes a shake of [[chaat masala]] and maybe some julienned carrots. The whole thing is then rolled up (originally in old newspaper, but now clean paper is generally used). In Kolkata, the paper usually covers only half the roll; elsewhere the paper will cover more or even all of the roll.

==Variants==
Variants on the filling include egg, potato, [[paneer]], mixed vegetables, and curried chicken or mutton. Other variants may have different ingredient combinations, or curries such as Thai or [[Szechuan cuisine|Sichuan]]. In August 2012, U.S.-based fast food chain [[Taco Bell]] released a version of the kati roll in India. The "Mexican-inspired burrito" is a combination of a kati roll and a Kathitto.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Taco Bell India Facebook Page|title=Introducing Kathitto: Something Different to|url=http://sphotos-b.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-ash3/547917_10151150910679813_1224265371_n.jpg|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130221142527/http://sphotos-b.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-ash3/547917_10151150910679813_1224265371_n.jpg|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 February 2013|access-date=5 November 2012}}</ref>

== Similar dishes ==

* [[Paratha roll]], a similar dish from Karachi

==See also==
* [[List of stuffed dishes]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Sandwiches}}
{{Street food}}
{{Indian Dishes}}
{{Cuisine of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kati Roll}}
[[Category:Paratha]]
[[Category:Culture of Kolkata]]
[[Category:Indian fast food]]
[[Category:Hors d'oeuvres]]
[[Category:Street food]]
[[Category:Indian sandwiches]]
[[Category:Bengali cuisine]]

Telangana Power Generation Corporation Limited

2026-03-09T18:09:56Z

Brandon81T: made new article.

{{Short description|Indian power generating organization}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Telangana Power Generation Corporation Limited (TGPGCL)
| logo = TSGENCOlogo.png
| type = [[Public Sector Undertaking]]
| foundation = 2 June 2014
| location = [[Hyderabad]], [[Telangana]], [[India]]
| key_people = SANDEEP KUMAR SULTANIA, I.A.S., (Chairman And Managing Director)(FAC)
| num_employees = |
industry = [[Electricity generation]]|
products = [[Electricity]]|
assets = |
equity = |
homepage = https://tggenco.com/TGGENCO/home.do;jsessionid=8EC63E2115534D60C1EEAD4E13F1A383
}}
The '''Telangana Power Generation Corporation Limited (TGPGCL)''' is responsible for power generation in the state of [[Telangana]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/TG-Genco-Transco-Created-to-be-Functional-from-June-2/2014/05/30/article2253581.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819102750/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/TG-Genco-Transco-Created-to-be-Functional-from-June-2/2014/05/30/article2253581.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=19 August 2014 | title=TG Genco, Transco Created, to be Functional from June 2 | work=Indian Express | date=30 May 2014 | accessdate=30 May 2014}}</ref> It has ceased to do power trading and has retained with powers of controlling system operations of power generation after formation of Telangana state.<ref name="Notification">{{cite web|title=Notification|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2014/158365.pdf|work=The Gazette of India|publisher=Government of India|date=4 March 2014|accessdate=4 March 2014}}</ref>

Telangana Power Generation Corporation Limited has been incorporated under companies Act, 2013, on 19 May 2014 and commenced its operations from 2 June 2014.

==History==
The erstwhile Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Board (APSEB) which came into existence on 1st April 1959 was responsible for generation, transmission and distribution of electricity. APSEB was the successor to Electricity Department of the Government of Andhra Pradesh. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://tgtransco.com/images/data/pdfs/dept_manuals/aped-manual-volume-I-2012.pdf|title=Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Board manual, Volume-1|work=TGTRANSCO|accessdate=2026-01-20}}</ref>
Prior to the independence, power was supplied to parts of Telangana by Hyderabad State Electricity Department. Under the Electricity Sector Reforms agenda, government of Andhra Pradesh promulgated Andhra Pradesh Electricity Reforms Act, 1998. The erstwhile APSEB was unbundled into one generating company (APGENCO), one transmission company ([[Transmission Corporation of Andhra Pradesh|APTRANSCO]]) and four distribution companies (APDISCOMs) as part of the reform process.

Later, on 2 June 2014, when the state was bifurcated, [[Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation|APGENCO]] distributed all the assets, liabilities and power stations to both the states and Telangana Power Generation Corporation (TGGENCO) was formed for the newly formed [[Telangana]] state and APGENCO remained for Andhra Pradesh in accordance with the [[Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014]]. All the plants (thermal, hydel and solar) located in Telangana region were transferred to Telangana Genco on an "as is where is" basis.<ref name="power plants">{{cite web|author1=Sudheer Goutham|title=Power plants division between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140530/nation-current-affairs/article/existing-power-plants-be-divided-between-andhra-pradesh|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=7 June 2014|date=30 May 2014}}</ref>

==Mission==
*To spearhead accelerated power development by planning and implementing new power projects.
*To generate adequate and reliable power most economically, efficiently and eco-friendly.
*To implement renovation and modernisation of all existing units and enhance their performance.

== Power Plants of TGGENCO ==

The power plants<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apgenco.gov.in/administrator/uploadedfiles/location%20map%201.4.2012.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-06-07 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124063925/http://www.apgenco.gov.in/administrator/uploadedfiles/location%20map%201.4.2012.pdf |archivedate=2013-01-24 }}</ref> of TGGENCO are

===Thermal-Coal based===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Sr. No.
! Project
! Inst.Capacity (MW)
! Total (MW)
! Remarks
! Gallery
|-
| 1
| [[Kakatiya Thermal Power Station|Kakatiya TPP]]
| 1x500+1x600
| 1100
|
|
|-
| 2
| [[Kothagudem Thermal Power Station|Kothagudem TPS]]
| 2x250+1x500+1x800
| 1800
|
| [[File:Kothagudem Thermal Power station at Paloncha.jpg|250px|KTPS at Paloncha]]
|-

|4
|[[Bhadradri Thermal Power Plant]]
| 4x270
|1020 MW
|
|
|-
| 5
| [[Yadadri Thermal Power Plant]]
| 5X800
| 4000 MW under construction
|
|
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| '''Overall installed capacity (MW)'''
| ''' 3920'''||||
|}

===Hydro-Water based===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Sr. No.
! Project
! Inst.Capacity (MW)
! Total (MW)
! Remarks
! Gallery
|-
| 1
| [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam|Nagarjuna Sagar]] Main PH
| 1x110+7x100.8
| 815.6
| 7x100.8 MW [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity|with pumping features]]
| [[File:NagarjunaSagarDam.JPG|250px|Power house on the left bank of Nagarjuna Sagar dam]]
|-
| 2
| [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam|Nagarjuna Sagar]] LCPH
| 2x30
| 60
|
| [[File:Nagarjuna sagar dam... 2.JPG|250px|Nagarjuna sagar dam]]
|-
| 3
| [[Srisailam Dam|Srisailam]] LBPH
| 6x150
| 900
| 6x150 MW [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity|with pumping features]]
| [[File:Srisailam Damm.jpg|250px|Srisailam Damm]]
|-
| 4
| [[Sriram Sagar Project|Pochampad]] PH
| 4x9
| 36
|
| [[File:Sri Ram Sagar Project (Pochampahad).jpg|250px|Sriram Sagar dam (Pochampad)]]
|-
| 5
| [[Singur Dam|Singur]] PH
| 2x7.5
| 15
|
|
|-
| 6
| [[Nizam Sagar]] PH
| 2x5
| 10
|
| [[File:Nizam Sagar,Nizamabad.jpg|250px|Nizam Sagar, Nizamabad]]
|-
| 7
| Puttamagandi AMRP Lift
| 4x18
|
| Water pumping station
|
|-
| 8
| Paleru Mini Hydel
| 2x1
| 2
|
|
|-
| 9
| Peddapalli Mini Hydels
| 1x9.16
| 9.16
|
|
|-
| 10
| Lower Jurala HEP
| 6x40
| 240
|
|
|-
| 11
| [[Jurala Project|Jurala HEP]]
| 6x39
| 234
| 50% joint project with Karnataka state
| [[File:Priyadarshini jurala project.jpg|250px|Priyadarshini jurala project]]
|-
| 12
| [[Sammakka Sagar Barrage|Sammakka Sagar HEP]]
| 10x24
| 240
| Under Construction
|
|-
|13
|[[Pulichintala Hydro Project]] PCHES
|4x30
|120
|
|
|-
|colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| '''Overall capacity (MW)'''
| colspan="2" | '''2441.76'''
|}

===Non-Conventional Plants===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="text-align:left;"
! Sr. No.
! Project
! Inst.Capacity (MW)
|- style="text-align:left;"
|| 1
|| Jurala Solar PV Plant
|| 1
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| '''Overall capacity (MW)'''
| style="text-align:left;"| '''1'''
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Power Stations in Telangana]]
* [[Transmission Corporation of Telangana]]
* [[Solar power in India]]
* [[Wind power in India]]
* [[Torrefaction]]
* [[Central Electricity Authority (India)]]
* [[Economics of new nuclear power plants]]
* [[Demand response]]
* [[National Grid (Great Britain)]]
* [[Spark spread]]
* [[Electricity market]]
* [[Electricity Act (2003)]]
{{Portal|Energy}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{State Agencies of Telangana}}
{{Power Plants of Telangana}}
{{Asia topic|Electricity sector in}}
{{Electricity delivery |state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Electric-generation companies of India]]
[[Category:Energy in Telangana]]
[[Category:State agencies of Telangana]]
[[Category:State electricity agencies of India]]
[[Category:Companies based in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 2014]]
[[Category:2014 establishments in Telangana]]

Indha Crime Thappilla

2026-03-03T02:32:32Z

Brandon81T: Created first details w/ infobox

{{Short description|2023 Tamil film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Indha Crime Thappilla
| image = Indha Crime Thappilla.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Devakumar
| writer =
| producer =
| starring = {{plainlist|
*Pandi Kamal
*Meghana Ellen
*[[Aadukalam Naren]]
}}
| cinematography =
| editing =
| music = Parimala Vasan
| studio = Madhurya Productions
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2023|10|6}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Indha Crime Thappilla''''' ({{Translation|This crime is not wrong}}) is a 2023 Indian Tamil-language [[crime film]] directed by Devakumar and starring Pandi Kamal, Meghana Ellen and [[Aadukalam Naren]] in the lead roles. It was released on 6 October 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Indha Crime Thappilla |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movie-details/indha-crime-thappilla/movieshow/104340243.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028095814/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/getdataofseason.cms?msid=104656373&type=link&parentseo=web-series/reviews/english/the-enfield-poltergeist |archive-date=28 October 2023 |access-date=25 October 2023 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Cast ==
*Pandi Kamal
*Meghana Ellen
*[[Aadukalam Naren]]
*[[Muthukaalai]]
*[[Vengal Rao]]
*Karpagavalli

== Production ==
Production on the film began in early 2021 under the title of ''Naan Vera Maathiri'', before undergoing a name change. Promotions for the film began in September 2023.{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}}

== Reception ==
The film was released on 6 October 2023 across theatres in [[Tamil Nadu]]. A critic from ''[[Maalai Malar]]'' gave the film a negative review, noting that the "story was fine but the screenplay was disappointing".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indha Crime Thappilla |url=https://www.maalaimalar.com/movie-review/indha-crime-thappilla-27488 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028095729/https://www.maalaimalar.com/movie-review/indha-crime-thappilla-27488 |archive-date=28 October 2023 |access-date=25 October 2023}}</ref> A reviewer from ''[[Dina Thanthi]]'' noted that the filmmaker "failed to properly covey the film's message".<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 October 2023 |title=இந்த கிரைம் தப்பில்ல - சினிமா விமர்சனம் |url=https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/Review/intha-crime-thappilla-cinema-review-1071097 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025102143/https://www.dailythanthi.com/Cinema/Review/intha-crime-thappilla-cinema-review-1071097 |archive-date=25 October 2023 |access-date=25 October 2023}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2023 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2023 Indian films]]
[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2023 crime drama films]]
[[Category:Indian crime drama films]]

Espionage

2026-03-02T10:15:29Z

Brandon81T: improve content further and corrected details

{{Short description|Clandestine acquisition of confidential information}}
{{Other uses}}
{{hatnote group|
{{Redirect-multi|2|Spy|Secret agent}}
}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2018}}
{{OR1|date=September 2025}}

[[File:Wolkowski-Craucher.jpg|thumb|Madame [[Minna Craucher]] (''right''), a Finnish [[socialite]] and spy, with her chauffeur Boris Wolkowski (''left'') in 1930s]]
{{Intelligence}}
{{Criminal law}}

'''Espionage''', '''spying''', or '''intelligence gathering''', as a subfield of the [[intelligence field]], is the act of obtaining secret, [[Confidentiality|confidential]], or in some way valuable information. Such information is also referred to as [[Intelligence (information)|intelligence]]. A professional trained in conducting intelligence operations by their government may be employed as an [[intelligence officer]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Language of Espionage |url=https://www.spymuseum.org/education-programs/spy-resources/language-of-espionage/ |access-date=2025-05-21 |website=International Spy Museum |language=en}}</ref> Espionage may be conducted in a foreign country, domestically or remotely. The practice is [[Clandestine operation|clandestine]], as it is by definition unwelcome. In some circumstances, it may be a legal tool of [[law enforcement]] and in others, it may be [[Crime|illegal]] and punishable by law.

Espionage is often part of an institutional effort by a government or commercial concern. The term is frequently associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies for [[Military intelligence|military]] purposes. However, there are many types of espionage. [[Industrial espionage]], for example, involves spying on civilians and their respective [[business]] or [[corporate]] interests.

One way spies gather data and information about a targeted military organization is by infiltrating its ranks. They can then return information such as the size and strength of the [[enemy force|enemy forces]]. They can also find [[collaborationism|collaborators]] and [[dissidents]] within the organization and influence them to provide further information or defect.<ref>Fischbacher-Smith, D., 2011. "The enemy has passed through the gate: Insider threats, the dark triad, and the challenges around security". ''Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance'', 2(2), pp. 134–156.</ref> Spies can steal technology and [[sabotage]] the enemy in various ways. [[Counterespionage]], also known as counterintelligence or [[Counterintelligence#Theory of offensive counterintelligence|offensive countertintelligence]], is the practice of thwarting enemy espionage and intelligence gathering. Almost all [[sovereign state|sovereign states]] have laws concerning espionage and the penalties for being caught spying are often severe.

==History==
{{Main|History of espionage}}

===Ancient history===
Espionage has been recognized as of importance in military affairs since ancient times. The oldest known classified document was a report made by a spy disguised as a [[Envoy (title)|diplomatic envoy]] in the court of [[King Hammurabi]], who died in around 1750 BC. The [[ancient Egypt]]ians had a developed secret service, and espionage is mentioned in the ''[[Iliad]]'', the [[Bible]], and the [[Amarna letters]].<ref name="foo">{{cite web |title=Espionage Facts |url=https://www.spymuseum.org/education-programs/spy-resources/espionage-facts/ |website=International Spy Museum |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> Espionage was also prevalent in the [[Greco-Roman world]], when spies employed illiterate subjects in [[civil service]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richmond |first=J. A. |date=1998 |title=Spies in Ancient Greece |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/643204 |journal=Greece & Rome |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1093/gr/45.1.1 |jstor=643204 |issn=0017-3835|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ñaco del Hoyo |first=Toni |date=November 2014 |title=Roman and Pontic Intelligence Strategies: Politics and War in the Time of Mithradates VI |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26098615 |journal=War in History |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=401–421 |doi=10.1177/0968344513505528 |jstor=26098615 |s2cid=220652440 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ehoward |date=2006-06-12 |title=Espionage in Ancient Rome |url=https://www.historynet.com/espionage-in-ancient-rome/ |access-date=2023-12-21 |website=HistoryNet |language=en-US}}</ref>

The thesis that espionage and intelligence has a central role in [[war]] as well as [[peace]] was first advanced in ''[[The Art of War]]'' and in the ''[[Arthashastra]]''. "The Art of War," identifies five types of spies that are essential for gathering intelligence and achieving victory: ''local spies'' (citizen [[informants]] within the enemy's territory), ''inward spies'' (recruited [[double agent]]s within the enemy ranks), converted spies (recruited [[Defection|defectors]] converted to serve your side), doomed spies (expendable [[Fabricator (intelligence)|fabricators]] used to spread disinformation; acts as decoy for counter-intelligence), and surviving spies (spies that provide accurate intelligence after gathering information from the enemy).

===Post-classical history===

====Europe====
In the [[Middle Ages]], European states excelled at what has later been termed counter-[[subversion]] when Catholic [[inquisition]]s were staged to annihilate [[heresy]]. Inquisitions were marked by centrally organised mass [[interrogation]]s and detailed record keeping. Western espionage changed fundamentally during the Renaissance when Italian [[city-state]]s installed resident [[ambassador]]s in [[capital cities]] to collect intelligence.

=====Renaissance=====
Renaissance [[Venice]] became so obsessed with espionage that the [[Council of Ten]], which was nominally responsible for [[security]], did not even allow the [[Doge (title)|doge]] to consult government [[archive]]s freely. In 1481 the Council of Ten barred all Venetian government officials from making contact with ambassadors or foreigners. Those revealing [[official secret]]s could face the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]]. Venice became obsessed with espionage because successful [[international trade]] demanded that the city-state could protect its [[trade secret]]s.

Under Queen [[Elizabeth I]] of England ({{reign | 1558 | 1603}}), [[Francis Walsingham]] ({{circa}} 1532–1590) was appointed foreign secretary and intelligence chief.<ref>{{Cite book | last= Andrew | first= Christopher | title= The Secret World: A History of Intelligence | date= 28 June 2018 | publisher= Penguin Books Limited | isbn= 9780241305225}}</ref> The novelist and journalist [[Daniel Defoe]] (died 1731) not only spied for the British government, but also developed a theory of espionage foreshadowing modern [[police-state]] methods.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ulfkotte|first=Udo|author-link=Udo Ulfkotte|year=1997|title=Verschlusssache BND|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V_oEAQAAIAAJ|language=de|edition=2|location=Munich|publisher=Koehler & Amelang|page=38|isbn=9783733802141|access-date=6 January 2023|quote=Ein neuer Typ des Spions War Daniel Defoe (1650–1731), der Autor des weltberühmten Romans "Robinson Crusoe" ... Zudem verfaßte Defoe eine Theorie der Spionage, in der er der Regierung die Spitzelmethoden des Polizeistaates empfahl.}}</ref>

===Modern history===

====United States====
During the [[American Revolutionary War]], [[Nathan Hale]] and [[Benedict Arnold]] achieved their fame as spies, and there was considerable use of [[American Civil War spies|spies on both sides]] during the [[American Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Allen|first=Thomas|title=Intelligence in the Civil War|url=https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/civilwar.pdf|access-date=September 3, 2021|publisher=Intelligence Resource Program, Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> Though not a spy himself, [[George Washington]] was America's first [[wikt:spymaster|spymaster]], utilizing espionage tactics against the British.<ref name="foo" />

====20th century====

=====World War I=====
In the 20th century, at the height of [[World War I]], all [[great power]]s except the [[United States]] had elaborate civilian espionage systems, and all national military establishments had intelligence units. In order to protect the country against foreign agents, the [[U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Espionage Act of 1917]]. [[Mata Hari]], who obtained information for Germany by seducing French officials, was the most noted espionage agent of World War I.

=====World War II=====
Prior to [[World War II]], [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] and [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] established elaborate espionage nets. In 1942 the [[Office of Strategic Services]] was founded by Gen. [[William J. Donovan]]. However, the British [[Special Operations Executive]] was the keystone of Allied intelligence. Numerous resistance groups such as the Austrian [[Heinrich Maier|Maier]]-Messner Group, the [[French Resistance]], the [[Witte Brigade]], [[Milorg]] and the Polish [[Home Army]] worked against Nazi Germany and provided the Allied secret services with information that was very important for the war effort.

=====Cold War=====
Since the end of [[World War II]], the activity of espionage has enlarged, much of it growing out of the [[Cold War]] between the United States and the [[Former Soviet Union|former USSR]]. The [[Russian Empire]] and its successor, the [[Soviet Union]], have had a long tradition of espionage ranging from the [[Okhrana]] to the [[KGB]] (Committee for State Security), which also acted as a secret police force. In the United States, the 1947 National Security Act created the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to coordinate intelligence and the National Security Agency for research into codes and electronic communication. In addition to these, the United States has 13 other intelligence gathering agencies; most of the U.S. expenditures for intelligence gathering are budgeted to various Defense Dept. agencies and their programs. Under the intelligence reorganization of 2004, the director of national intelligence is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the activities and budgets of the U.S. intelligence agencies.

In the [[Cold War]], espionage cases included [[Alger Hiss]], [[Whittaker Chambers]] and the Rosenberg Case. In 1952 the Communist Chinese captured two CIA agents and in 1960 [[Francis Gary Powers]], [[1960 U-2 incident|flying a U-2 reconnaissance mission]] over the Soviet Union for the CIA, was shot down and captured. During the Cold War, many Soviet intelligence officials defected to the West, including Gen. [[Walter Krivitsky]], [[Victor Kravchenko (defector)|Victor Kravchenko]], [[Vladimir Petrov (diplomat)|Vladimir Petrov]], Peter Deriabin, Pawel Monat and [[Oleg Penkovsky]] of the [[GRU (Soviet Union)|GRU]]. Among Western officials who defected to the Soviet Union are [[Guy Burgess]] and [[Donald Maclean (spy)|Donald D. Maclean]] of Great Britain in 1951, [[Otto John]] of West Germany in 1954, [[William Hamilton Martin|William H. Martin]] and [[Bernon F. Mitchell]], U.S. cryptographers, in 1960, and Harold (Kim) Philby of Great Britain in 1962. U.S. acknowledgment of its U-2 flights and the exchange of Francis Gary Powers for [[Rudolf Abel]] in 1962 implied the legitimacy of some espionage as an arm of foreign policy.

[[China]] has a very cost-effective intelligence program that is especially effective in monitoring neighboring countries such as [[Mongolia]], [[Russia]] and [[India]]. Smaller countries can also mount effective and focused espionage efforts. For instance, the [[Communist Party of Vietnam|Vietnamese communists]] had consistently superior intelligence during the [[Vietnam War]]. Some Islamic countries, including [[Libya]], [[Iran]] and [[Syria]], have highly developed operations as well. [[SAVAK]], the secret police of the [[Pahlavi dynasty]], was particularly feared by Iranian dissidents before the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution]].

=====Post-Cold War=====
{{Expand section|date=December 2025}}

====21st century====
Today, spy agencies target the [[illegal drug trade]] and [[Terrorism|terrorists]] as well as state actors.<ref>Arrillaga, Pauline. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/05/07/ap/national/main20060765.shtml "China's spying seeks secret US info."] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519102542/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/05/07/ap/national/main20060765.shtml |date=May 19, 2011 }} ''AP'', 7 May 2011.</ref>

Intelligence services value certain intelligence collection techniques over others. The former Soviet Union, for example, preferred [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)|human sources]] over [[Open-source intelligence|research in open sources]], while the United States has tended to emphasize technological methods such as [[Signals intelligence|SIGINT]] and [[Imagery intelligence|IMINT]]. In the Soviet Union, both political ([[KGB]]) and [[military intelligence]] ([[GRU (Soviet Union)|GRU]])<ref>{{cite book| first = Victor| last = Suvorov| author-link = Victor Suvorov| title = Inside the Aquarium| publisher = Berkley| year = 1987| isbn = 978-0-425-09474-7}}</ref> officers were judged by the number of agents they recruited.

==Targets of espionage==
Espionage agents are usually trained experts in a targeted field so they can differentiate mundane information from targets of value to their own organizational development. Correct identification of the target at its execution is the sole purpose of the espionage operation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Espionage Facts |url=https://www.spymuseum.org/education-programs/spy-resources/espionage-facts/ |access-date=2025-12-03 |website=International Spy Museum |language=en}}</ref>

Broad areas of espionage targeting expertise include:{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}
* [[Natural resource]]s: strategic production identification and assessment (food, energy, materials). Agents are usually found among bureaucrats who administer these resources in their own countries
* [[Public opinion|Popular sentiment]] towards domestic and foreign policies (popular, middle class, elites). Agents often recruited from field journalistic crews, exchange postgraduate students and sociology researchers
* Strategic economic strengths (production, research, manufacture, infrastructure). Agents recruited from science and technology academia, commercial enterprises, and more rarely from among military technologists
* [[Military capability]] intelligence (offensive, defensive, manoeuvre, naval, air, space). Agents are trained by military espionage education facilities and posted to an area of operation with covert identities to minimize prosecution
* [[Counterintelligence]] operations targeting opponent's intelligence services themselves, such as breaching the confidentiality of communications and recruiting defectors or [[Mole (espionage)|mole]]s

==Methods and terminology==

===How the United States defines espionage===
Although the news media may speak of "spy satellites" and the like, espionage is not a synonym for all intelligence-gathering disciplines. It is a specific form of human source intelligence ([[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)|HUMINT]]). Codebreaking ([[cryptanalysis]] or [[Signals intelligence#Communications intelligence|COMINT]]), aircraft or satellite photography ([[Imagery intelligence|IMINT]]), and analysis of publicly available data sources ([[Open-source intelligence|OSINT]]) are all intelligence gathering disciplines, but none of them is considered espionage. Many HUMINT activities, such as prisoner [[interrogation]], reports from military [[reconnaissance]] patrols and from diplomats, etc., are not considered espionage. Espionage is the disclosure of sensitive information (classified) to people who are not cleared for that information or access to that sensitive information.

Unlike other forms of [[List of intelligence gathering disciplines|intelligence collection disciplines]], espionage usually involves accessing the place where the desired information is stored or accessing the people who know the information and will divulge it through some kind of [[Deception|subterfuge]]. There are exceptions to physical meetings, such as the [[Oslo Report]], or the insistence of [[Robert Hanssen]] in never meeting the people who bought his information.

The US defines espionage towards itself as "the act of obtaining, delivering, transmitting, communicating, or receiving information about the national defence with an intent, or reason to believe, that the information may be used to the injury of the United States or to the advantage of any foreign nation". ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]'' (1990) defines espionage as: "... gathering, transmitting, or losing ... information related to the [[defense (military)|national defense]]". Espionage is a violation of United States law, {{UnitedStatesCode|18|792|798}} and Article 106a of the [[Uniform Code of Military Justice]].<ref>{{cite web|last=US Department of Defense |author-link=U.S. Department of Defense |title=Joint Publication 1-02 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms |date=2007-07-12 |url=http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf |access-date=2007-10-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108082044/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf |archive-date=2009-11-08 }}</ref> The United States, like most nations, conducts espionage against other nations, under the control of the [[National Clandestine Service]].{{Update|reason=What about the Defense Department, and the Director of National Intelligence?|date=December 2021}} Britain's espionage activities are controlled by the [[Secret Intelligence Service]].

===Technology and techniques===
{{See also|Tradecraft|List of intelligence gathering disciplines}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Agent handling]]
* [[Biographic leverage]]
* [[Concealment device]]
* [[Covert agent]]
* [[Covert listening device]]
* [[Cut-out (espionage)|Cut-out]]
* [[Cyber spying]]
* [[Dead drop]]
* [[False flag]] operations
* [[Front organisation]]
* [[Gate-crashing (espionage)|Gate-crashing]]
* [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)|Human intelligence]] (HUMINT)
* [[Sexpionage|Honeypot]]
* [[Impersonator|Impersonation]]
* [[Impostor]]
* [[Interrogation]]
* [[Non-official cover]]
* [[Numbers station|Numbers messaging]]
* [[Official cover]]
* [[Open-source intelligence]] (OSINT)
* [[One-way voice link]]
* [[Sabotage]]
* [[Safe house]]
* [[Side channel attack]]
* [[Signals intelligence]] (SIGINT)
* [[Spy ship]]
* [[Steganography]]
* [[Surveillance]]
* [[Surveillance aircraft]]
* [[Surveillance balloon]]
{{div col end}}

'''Source:'''<ref name=PROTOCOL />

==Organization==
A spy is a person employed to seek out secret information from a source.<ref name="bar">{{cite web |title=Language of Espionage |url=https://www.spymuseum.org/education-programs/spy-resources/language-of-espionage/ |website=International Spy Museum |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> Within the [[United States Intelligence Community]], "[[Asset (intelligence)|asset]]" is more common usage. A [[case officer]] or [[Special Agent]], who may have [[diplomatic protection|diplomatic status]] (i.e., [[official cover]] or [[non-official cover]]), supports and directs the human collector. Cut-outs are [[courier]]s who do not know the agent or case officer but transfer messages. A [[safe house]] is a refuge for spies. Spies often seek to obtain secret information from another source.

In larger networks, the organization can be complex with many methods to avoid detection, including [[clandestine cell system]]s. Often the players have never met. Case officers are stationed in foreign countries to recruit and supervise intelligence agents,<ref name="bar" /> who in turn spy on targets in the countries where they are assigned. A spy need not be a citizen of the target country and hence does not automatically commit [[treason]] when operating within it. While the more common practice is to recruit a person already trusted with access to sensitive information, sometimes a person with a well-prepared synthetic identity (cover background), called a ''legend''<ref name="bar" /> in [[tradecraft]], may attempt to infiltrate a target organization.

These agents can be moles (who are recruited before they get access to secrets), [[Defection|defectors]] (who are recruited after they get access to secrets and leave their country) or [[Clandestine HUMINT#Defector in place|defectors in place]] (who get access but do not leave).

A ''legend'' is also employed for an individual who is not an illegal agent, but is an ordinary citizen who is "relocated", for example, a "protected witness". Nevertheless, such a non-agent very likely will also have a case officer who will act as a controller. As in most, if not all synthetic identity schemes, for whatever purpose (illegal or legal), the assistance of a controller is required.

Spies may also be used to spread disinformation in the organization in which they are planted, such as giving false reports about their country's military movements, or about a competing company's ability to bring a product to market. Spies may be given other roles that also require infiltration, such as [[sabotage]].

Many governments spy on their allies as well as their enemies, although they typically maintain a policy of not commenting on this. Governments also employ private companies to collect information on their behalf such as [[SCG International Risk]], [[International Intelligence Limited]] and others.

Many organizations, both national and non-national, conduct espionage operations. It should not be assumed that espionage is always directed at the most secret operations of a target country. National and terrorist organizations and other groups are also targeted.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cyber Espionage to Combat Terrorism|url=https://www.utep.edu/liberalarts/nssi/_Files/docs/Theses1/Utilizing-Cyber-Espionage-to-Combat-Terrorism-Adkins.pdf}}</ref> This is because governments want to retrieve information that they can use to be proactive in protecting their nation from potential terrorist attacks.

Communications both are necessary to espionage and [[clandestine operation]]s, and also a great vulnerability when the adversary has sophisticated SIGINT detection and interception capability. Spies rely on COVCOM or covert communication through technically advanced spy devices.<ref name="foo" /> Agents must also transfer money securely.

==Industrial espionage==
{{Main|Industrial espionage}}

'''Industrial espionage''', also known as '''economic espionage''', '''corporate spying''', or '''corporate espionage''', is a form of espionage conducted for [[Commerce|commercial]] purposes instead of purely [[national security]].<ref>{{cite news |date=25 May 2013 |title=Unusual suspects: Cyber-spying grows bigger and more boring |url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21578383-cyber-spying-grows-bigger-and-more-boring-unusual-suspects |access-date=25 May 2013 |newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref> While political espionage is conducted or orchestrated by governments and is international in scope, industrial or corporate espionage is more often national and occurs between companies or [[corporation]]s. It may include the acquisition of [[intellectual property]], such as information on industrial manufacture, ideas, techniques and processes, recipes and formulas. Or it could include sequestration of proprietary or operational information, such as that on customer datasets, pricing, sales, marketing, research and development, policies, prospective bids, planning or marketing strategies or the changing compositions and locations of production. It may describe activities such as theft of [[trade secrets]], [[bribery]], [[blackmail]], and technological surveillance. As well as orchestrating espionage on commercial organizations, governments can also be targets – for example, to determine the terms of a tender for a government contract.

Reportedly [[Canada]] is losing $12 billion<ref>"[https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/defectors-say-china-running-1-000-spies-in-canada-1.557085 Defectors say China running 1,000 spies in Canada]". CBC News. June 15, 2005.</ref> and [[Germany|German]] companies are estimated to be losing about €50 billion ($87 billion) and 30,000 jobs<ref>"[http://www.smh.com.au/world/beijings-spies-cost-german-firms-billions-says-espionage-expert-20090724-dw73.html Beijing's spies cost German firms billions, says espionage expert]". The Sydney Morning Herald. July 25, 2009.</ref> to industrial espionage every year.

==Types of agent==
In espionage jargon, an "agent" is the person who does the spying. They may be a citizen of a country recruited by that country to spy on another; a citizen of a country recruited by that country to carry out [[false flag]] assignments disrupting his own country; a citizen of one country who is recruited by a second country to spy on or work against his own country or a third country, and more.

In popular usage, this term is sometimes confused with an ''[[intelligence officer]]'', ''intelligence operative'', or ''case officer'' who recruits and handles agents.

Among the most common forms of agent are:
* [[Agent provocateur]]: instigates trouble or provides information to gather as many people as possible into one location for an arrest.
* Intelligence agent: provides access to [[Information sensitivity|sensitive information]] through the use of special privileges. If used in ''corporate intelligence'' gathering, this may include gathering information of a corporate business venture or [[Portfolio (finance)|stock portfolio]]. In ''economic intelligence'', "Economic Analysts may use their specialized skills to analyze and interpret economic trends and developments, assess and track foreign financial activities, and develop new econometric and modelling methodologies."<ref name="Economic_intelligence">Cia.gov</ref> This may also include information of trade or tariff.
* [[Agent of influence|Agent-of-influence]]: provides political influence in an area of interest, possibly including [[Propaganda|publications]] needed to further an intelligence service agenda.<ref name="bar" /> The use of the media to print a story to [[Disinformation|mislead]] a foreign service into action, exposing their operations while under surveillance.
* [[Double agent]]: engages in clandestine activity for two intelligence or security services (or more in joint operations), who provides information about one or about each to the other, and who wittingly withholds significant information from one on the instructions of the other or is unwittingly manipulated by one so that significant facts are withheld from the adversary. [[Peddler]]s, [[Fabricator (intelligence)|fabricators]], and others who work for themselves rather than a service are not double agents because they are not agents. The fact that double agents have an agent relationship with both sides distinguishes them from penetrations, who normally are placed with the target service in a staff or officer capacity."<ref name="double_agent">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol6no1/html/v06i1a05p_0001.htm |title=Double Agent |publisher=cia.gov |access-date=2010-05-14 |archive-date=2019-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701161536/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol6no1/html/v06i1a05p_0001.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
** [[Re-doubled agent|Redoubled agent]]: forced to mislead the foreign intelligence service after being caught as a double agent.
** Unwitting double agent: offers or is forced to recruit as a double or redoubled agent and in the process is recruited by either a third-party intelligence service or his own government without the knowledge of the intended target intelligence service or the agent. This can be useful in capturing important information from an agent that is attempting to seek allegiance with another country. The '''double agent''' usually has knowledge of both intelligence services and can identify operational techniques of both, thus making third-party recruitment difficult or impossible. The knowledge of operational techniques can also affect the relationship between the operations officer (or case officer) and the agent if the case is transferred by an operational targeting officer] to a new operations officer, leaving the new officer vulnerable to attack. This type of transfer ''may'' occur when an officer has completed his term of service or when his ''cover'' is blown.
** [[Triple agent]]: works for three intelligence services.{{How|Please give an example of how this would work and be balanced.|date=July 2020}}
* [[Fabricator (intelligence)|Fabricator]]: used to spread disinformation.
* [[Sleeper agent]]: recruited to ''wake up'' and perform a specific set of tasks or functions while living undercover in an area of interest. This type of agent is not the same as a ''deep cover operative'', who continually contacts a case officer to file intelligence reports. A sleeper agent is not in contact with anyone until ''activated''.

Less common or lesser known forms of agent include:
* '''Access agent''': provides access to other potential agents by providing [[offender profiling]] information that can help lead to recruitment into an intelligence service.
* '''Confusion agent''': an individual who is dispatched for the primary purpose of confounding the intelligence or [[counterintelligence]] apparatus of another country, rather than for the purpose of collecting and transmitting information. Such an individual may provide misleading information, among other confusion tactics.<ref>{{cite book |title=Race against evil: the secret missions of the Interpol agent who tracked the world's most sinister criminals : a real life drama |last=Bannon |first=David Race |year=2003 |publisher=New Horizon Press |isbn=0882822314 |page=326 |accessdate=June 12, 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-X_aAAAAMAAJ&q=%22confusion+agent%22+technique}}</ref>
* '''Facilities agent''': provides access to buildings, such as [[Garage (residential)|garages]] or offices used for [[Staging area|staging]] operations, resupply, etc.
* [[Cover (intelligence gathering)#Non-official cover|Illegal agent]]: lives in another country under [[Identity document forgery|false credentials]] and does not report to a local station. A nonofficial cover operative can be dubbed an "illegal"<ref name="Illegal">[https://www.mi5.gov.uk/output/how-do-spies-operate.html Illegal] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106175822/https://www.mi5.gov.uk/output/how-do-spies-operate.html |date=January 6, 2011 }} Mi5.gov. "How spies operate".</ref> when working in another country without diplomatic protection.
* '''Principal agent''': functions as a [[Agent handling|handler]] for an established network of agents, usually considered "blue chip".

==Private espionage==
{{See also|Private intelligence agency|Private military company}}

Private espionage is a large-scale industry involving a vast array of different companies and individuals who provide a variety of services. These companies may be employed to act independently without any connection to a state agency or they may be hired to work in an integrated manner with a state agency, or agencies, in order to provide the specific services which are required.

In terms of scale, the writer Frederic Lemieux states that 'In 2010. it was estimated that 1,931 private intelligence firms were working within the intelligence community in the United States, employing approximately 265, 000 contractors with top-secret clearances.'<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lemieux |first1=Frederic |title=Intelligence and State Surveillance in Modern Societies |date=2024 |publisher=Emerald Publishing |location=Leeds |isbn=978-1-83549-099-0 |edition=2 |chapter=Private Intelligence Actors and Services}}</ref> He goes on to state, however, that only about 110 of them represent 90% of the market. These include: [[Aegis Defense Services|AEGIS]], [[BAE Systems]], [[Booz Allen Hamilton]] (BAH), [[CACI International Inc.]], [[CSRA Inc.]], [[General Dynamics]], [[Leidos]], [[Northrop Grumman]], and [[Science Applications International Corporation]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lemieux |first1=Frederic |title=Intelligence and State Surveillance in Modern Societies |date=2024 |publisher=Emerald Publishing |location=Leeds |isbn=978-1-83549-099-0 |edition=2 |chapter=Private Intelligence Actors and Services}}</ref>

==Law==
{{Main|Intelligence law}}
{{Globalize|date=August 2024}}

Espionage against a nation is a crime under the [[legal code]] of many world states.

===Espionage law in the United States===
In the United States, it is covered by the [[Espionage Act of 1917]]. The risks of espionage vary. A spy violating the host country's laws may be deported, imprisoned, or even executed. A spy violating its own country's laws can be imprisoned for espionage or/and [[treason]] (which in the United States and some other jurisdictions can only occur if they take up arms or aids the enemy against their own country during wartime), or even executed, as the [[Rosenbergs]] were. For example, when [[Aldrich Ames]] handed a stack of dossiers of U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) agents in the [[Eastern Bloc]] to his KGB-officer "handler", the KGB "rolled up" several networks, and at least ten people were secretly shot. When Ames was arrested by the U.S. [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI), he faced life in prison; his contact, who had [[diplomatic immunity]], was declared ''[[persona non grata]]'' and taken to the airport. Ames' wife was threatened with life imprisonment if her husband did not cooperate; he did, and she was given a five-year sentence. [[Hugh Francis Redmond]], a CIA officer in China, spent nineteen years in a Chinese prison for espionage—and died there—as he was operating without diplomatic cover and immunity.<ref>{{cite web|title=CIA Status Improves Contractor's Case for Immunity|url=http://newamericamedia.org/2011/02/cia-status-improves-contractors-case-for-immunity.php|publisher=New America Media|access-date=2013-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102085259/http://newamericamedia.org/2011/02/cia-status-improves-contractors-case-for-immunity.php|archive-date=2013-11-02|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

In United States law, treason,<ref>[http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+1130+29++%28treason%29 treason] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203024319/http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+1130+29++%28treason%29 |date=December 3, 2012 }}</ref> espionage,<ref>{{cite web |url = http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+486+45++%28espionage%25 |title = espionage |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203024325/http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+486+45++%28espionage%25 |archive-date=3 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and spying<ref>[http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t09t12+600+1++%28spying%29%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20 spying] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203024508/http://uscode.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t09t12+600+1++%28spying%29%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20 |date=December 3, 2012 }}</ref> are separate crimes. Treason and espionage have graduated punishment levels.

The United States in [[World War I]] passed the Espionage Act of 1917. Over the years, many spies, such as the [[Soble spy ring]], [[Robert Lee Johnson (spy)|Robert Lee Johnson]], [[Julius and Ethel Rosenberg|the Rosenberg ring]], [[Aldrich Hazen Ames]],<ref name=jyaames /> [[Robert Philip Hanssen]],<ref name=fashans /> [[Jonathan Pollard]], [[John Anthony Walker]], [[James Hall III]], and others have been prosecuted under this law.

In modern times, many people convicted of espionage have been given penal sentences rather than execution. For example, [[Aldrich Hazen Ames]] was an American CIA analyst, turned KGB mole, who was convicted of espionage in 1994; he served a [[life sentence]] without the possibility of parole in the high-security [[United States Penitentiary, Allenwood|Allenwood U.S. Penitentiary]], before dying in 2026.<ref name="Federal Bureau of Prisons">{{cite web |url=http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=NameSearch&needingMoreList=false&LastName=Ames&Middle=&FirstName=Aldrich+&Race=U&Sex=U&Age=&x=23&y=24 |title=Aldrich Hazen Ames Register Number: 40087-083 |publisher=Federal Bureau of Prisons |work=Bop.gov |access-date=2014-01-03 |archive-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919121009/http://www.bop.gov/iloc2/InmateFinderServlet?Transaction=NameSearch&needingMoreList=false&LastName=Ames&Middle=&FirstName=Aldrich+&Race=U&Sex=U&Age=&x=23&y=24 |url-status=dead }} ''(Search result)''</ref> Ames was formerly a 31-year [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] [[counter-intelligence|counterintelligence]] officer and analyst who committed espionage against his country by [[spying]] for the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Russia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/aldrich-hazen-ames|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101013065115/http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/aldrich-hazen-ames|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-10-13|title= Aldrich Hazen Ames|publisher=FBI}}</ref> So far as it is known, Ames compromised the second-largest number of CIA agents, second only to [[Robert Hanssen]], who also served a prison sentence until his death in 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Robert Hanssen, F.B.I. Agent Exposed as Spy for Moscow, Dies at 79 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/05/us/robert-hanssen-spy-dead.html |website=The New York Times |date=5 June 2023 |access-date=5 June 2023 |last1=Baker |first1=Peter }}</ref>

===Use against non-spies===
Espionage laws are also used to prosecute non-spies. In the United States, the Espionage Act of 1917 was used against socialist politician [[Eugene V. Debs]] (at that time the Act had much stricter guidelines and amongst other things banned speech against military recruiting). The law was later used to suppress publication of periodicals, for example of [[Father Coughlin]] in [[World War II]]. In the early 21st century, the act was used to prosecute [[whistleblower]]s such as [[Thomas Andrews Drake]], [[John Kiriakou]], and [[Edward Snowden]], as well as officials who communicated with journalists for innocuous reasons, such as [[Stephen Jin-Woo Kim]].<ref name=josh_gerstein1 /><ref>See the article on [[John Kiriakou]]</ref>

{{as of|2012}}, India and Pakistan were holding several hundred prisoners of each other's country for minor violations like trespass or visa overstay, often with accusations of espionage attached. Some of these include cases where Pakistan and India both deny citizenship to these people, leaving them [[statelessness|stateless]].{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} The BBC reported in 2012 on one such case, that of Mohammed Idrees, who was held under Indian police control for approximately 13 years for overstaying his 15-day visa by 2–3 days after seeing his ill parents in 1999. Much of the 13 years were spent in prison waiting for a hearing, and more time was spent homeless or living with generous families. The Indian [[People's Union for Civil Liberties]] and [[Human Rights Law Network]] both decried his treatment. The BBC attributed some of the problems to tensions caused by the [[Kashmir conflict]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2012/43/ws-nowhereman.html Your World: The Nowhere Man] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915061632/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2012/43/ws-nowhereman.html |date=2019-09-15 }}, Rupa Jha, October 21, 2012, BBC (retrieved 2012-10-20) (Program link: [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00z57wt The Nowhere Man])</ref>

===Espionage law in the UK===
From ancient times, the penalty for espionage in many countries was execution. This was true right up until the era of [[World War II]]; for example, [[Josef Jakobs]] was a Nazi spy who parachuted into Great Britain in 1941 and was executed for espionage.

Espionage is illegal in the UK under the [[National Security Act 2023]], which repealed prior Official Secrets Acts and creates three separate offences for espionage. A person is liable to be imprisoned for life for committing an offence under Section 1 of the Act, or 14 years for an offence under Sections 2 and 3.

====Government intelligence law and its distinction from espionage====
Government intelligence is very much distinct from espionage, and is not illegal in the UK, providing that the organisations of individuals are registered, often with the ICO, and are acting within the restrictions of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA). 'Intelligence' is considered legally as "information of all sorts gathered by a government or organisation to guide its decisions. It includes information that may be both public and private, obtained from much different public or secret sources. It could consist entirely of information from either publicly available or secret sources, or be a combination of the two."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/espionage/what-is-espionage.html |title=What is espionage? |website=MI5 - the Security Service |access-date=2013-08-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101174455/https://www.mi5.gov.uk/home/the-threats/espionage/what-is-espionage.html |archive-date=2013-11-01 }}</ref>

However, espionage and intelligence can be linked. According to the MI5 website, "foreign intelligence officers acting in the UK under diplomatic cover may enjoy immunity from prosecution. Such persons can only be tried for spying (or, indeed, any criminal offence) if diplomatic immunity is waived beforehand. Those officers operating without diplomatic cover have no such immunity from prosecution".

There are also laws surrounding government and organisational intelligence and surveillance. Generally, the body involved should be issued with some form of warrant or permission from the government and should be enacting their procedures in the interest of protecting national security or the safety of public citizens. Those carrying out intelligence missions should act within not only RIPA but also the Data Protection Act and Human Rights Act. However, there are spy equipment laws and legal requirements around intelligence methods that vary for each form of intelligence enacted.

===Military intelligence and military justice===
[[File:L'espion - Alphonse de Neuville - 1880.jpg|thumb|Painting of French spy captured during the [[Franco-Prussian War]] by [[Alphonse de Neuville]], 1880]]

In war, espionage is considered permissible as many nations recognize the inevitability of opposing sides seeking intelligence each about the dispositions of the other. To make the mission easier and successful, [[combatant]]s wear [[disguise]]s to conceal their true identity from the enemy while penetrating enemy lines for intelligence gathering. However, if they are caught behind enemy lines in disguises, they are not entitled to [[prisoner-of-war]] status and subject to [[prosecution]] and punishment—including [[execution]].

The [[Hague Convention of 1907]] addresses the status of wartime spies, specifically within "Laws and Customs of War on Land" (Hague IV); October 18, 1907: Chapter II Spies".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/ihl/385ec082b509e76c41256739003e636d/1d1726425f6955aec125641e0038bfd6?OpenDocument |title=Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907. |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]}}</ref> Article 29 states that a person is considered a spy who, acts clandestinely or on false pretences, infiltrates enemy lines with the intention of acquiring intelligence about the enemy and communicate it to the [[belligerent]] during times of war. Soldiers who penetrate enemy lines in proper uniforms for the purpose of acquiring intelligence are not considered spies but are [[Combatant#Privileged combatants|lawful combatants]] entitled to be treated as prisoners of war upon capture by the enemy. Article 30 states that a spy captured behind enemy lines may only be punished following a trial. However, Article 31 provides that if a spy successfully rejoined his own military and is then captured by the enemy as a lawful combatant, he cannot be punished for his previous acts of espionage and must be treated as a prisoner of war. This provision does not apply to citizens who committed [[treason]] against their own country or co-belligerents of that country and may be captured and prosecuted at any place or any time regardless whether he rejoined the military to which he belongs or not or during or after the war.<ref>{{cite book |title=Crime Wars: The Global Intersection of Crime, Political Violence, and International Law |author1=Paul Battersby |author2=Joseph M. Siracusa |author3=Sasho Ripiloski |year=2011 |page=125 |publisher=[[Praeger Publishers|Greenwood Publishing Group]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=2 SAS Regiment, War Crimes Investigations, and British Intelligence: Intelligence Officials and the ''Natzweiler Trial'' |first=Lorie |last=Charlesworth |journal=The Journal of Intelligence History |volume=6 |issue=2 |date=2006 |page=41 |doi=10.1080/16161262.2006.10555131 |s2cid=156655154 }}</ref>

The ones that are excluded from being treated as spies while behind enemy lines are escaping prisoners of war and downed [[Airman|airmen]] as [[international law]] distinguishes between a disguised spy and a disguised escaper.<ref name="PROTOCOL">{{cite book |title=New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts: Commentary on the Two 1977 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (Nijhoff Classics in International Law) |date=August 15, 2013 |author=Igor Primoratz |page=214 |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]}}</ref> It is permissible for these groups to wear enemy uniforms or civilian clothes in order to facilitate their escape back to friendly lines so long as they do not attack enemy forces, collect military intelligence, or engage in similar military operations while so disguised.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v2_cou_us_rule62 |title=United States of America, Practice Relating to Rule 62. Improper Use of Flags or Military Emblems, Insignia or Uniforms of the Adversary |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBTul-duLEYC&q=escaping%20POWs%20civilian%20clothes%20enemy%20uniforms&pg=PA24|title=2006 Operational Law Handbook|isbn=9781428910676|year=2010|publisher=DIANE }}</ref> Soldiers who are wearing enemy uniforms or civilian clothes simply for the sake of warmth along with other purposes rather than engaging in espionage or similar military operations while so attired are also excluded from being treated as unlawful combatants.<ref name="PROTOCOL" />

[[Sabotage|Saboteurs]] are treated as spies as they too wear disguises behind enemy lines for the purpose of waging destruction on an enemy's vital targets in addition to intelligence gathering.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Contemporary Law Of Armed Conflict 2nd Edition |author=Leslie C. Green |date=2000 |page=142 |publisher=Juris Publishing, Inc. |isbn=978-1-929446-03-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Romantics at War: Glory and Guilt in the Age of Terrorism |url=https://archive.org/details/romanticsatwar00geor |url-access=registration |author=George P. Fletcher |page=[https://archive.org/details/romanticsatwar00geor/page/106 106] |date=September 16, 2002 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=9780691006512 }}</ref> For example, during [[World War II]], eight German agents entered the U.S. in June 1942 as part of [[Operation Pastorius]], a sabotage mission against U.S. economic targets. Two weeks later, all were arrested in civilian clothes by the [[FBI]] thanks to two German agents betraying the mission to the U.S. Under the Hague Convention of 1907, these Germans were classified as spies and tried by a [[Military justice|military tribunal]] in [[Washington D.C.]]<ref>{{cite book |title=International Law in Historical Perspective: The laws of war. Part IX-A |author= J. H. W. Verziji |year=1978 |page=143 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-286-0148-2}}</ref> On August 3, 1942, all eight were found guilty and sentenced to death. Five days later, six were executed by [[electric chair]] at the District of Columbia jail. Two who had given evidence against the others had their sentences reduced by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] to prison terms. In 1948, they were released by President [[Harry S. Truman]] and deported to the [[American Zone of Occupation#American Zone of Occupation|American Zone of occupied Germany]].

Eighteen German soldiers were shot by the [[United States Army]] after being caught in American uniform as part of [[Operation Greif]] during the [[Battle of the Bulge]] in 1944.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/operation-greif-and-otto-scarface-skorzeny/#:~:text=One%20unit%20requested%20%E2%80%9Cpetrol%E2%80%9D%20instead,'m%20a%20retired%20kidnapper.%E2%80%9D |title=Operation Greif and Otto "Scarface" Skorzeny |website=Warfare History Network |last=Hollway |first=Don |date=November 2014|access-date=5 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/german-commandos-captured-american-uniform-1944/|title=German commandos captured in American uniform are prepared for execution, 1944 - Rare Historical Photos|date=27 January 2017}}</ref> In June 1945, after Germany had been occupied by the allies, the US Army executed six individuals, including two German youths aged 16 and 17, for espionage committed against American forces during the final stages of [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emsgm31rpQI |title=The Execution Of The Teenage Hitler Youth Spies |website=The Untold Past |date=26 March 2023 |access-date=20 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/217696/ |title=Execution of Spies by Firing Squad |website=British Pathe |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref> {{about||further discussion|Capital punishment by the United States military}}

The U.S. codification of enemy spies is Article 106 of the [[Uniform Code of Military Justice]]. This provides a mandatory death sentence if a person captured in the act is proven to be "lurking as a spy or acting as a spy in or about any place, vessel, or aircraft, within the control or jurisdiction of any of the armed forces, or in or about any shipyard, any manufacturing or industrial plant, or any other place or institution engaged in work in aid of the prosecution of the war by the United States, or elsewhere".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/mcm/bl106.htm|title=UCMJ – Article 106 – Spies|work=About.com US Military|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515214735/http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/mcm/bl106.htm|archive-date=2013-05-15}}</ref>

==Spy fiction==
{{Main|Spy fiction}}

Spies have long been favorite topics for novelists and filmmakers.<ref>Brett F. Woods, ''Neutral Ground: A Political History of Espionage Fiction'' (2008) [https://www.questia.com/library/120076034/neutral-ground-a-political-history-of-espionage online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091232/https://www.questia.com/library/120076034/neutral-ground-a-political-history-of-espionage |date=2019-03-27 }}</ref> An early example of espionage literature is ''[[Kim (novel)|Kim]]'' by the English novelist [[Rudyard Kipling]], with a description of the training of an intelligence agent in the [[Great Game]] between the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|UK]] and [[Russia]] in 19th century [[Central Asia]]. An even earlier work was [[James Fenimore Cooper]]'s classic novel, ''[[The Spy (Cooper novel)|The Spy]],'' written in 1821, about an American spy in New York during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]].

During the many 20th-century spy scandals, much information became publicly known about national spy agencies and dozens of real-life secret agents. These sensational stories piqued public interest in a profession largely off-limits to [[Human interest story|human interest news reporting]], a natural consequence of the secrecy inherent in their work. To fill in the blanks, the popular conception of the secret agent has been formed largely by 20th and 21st-century fiction and film. Attractive and sociable real-life agents such as [[Valerie Plame]] find little employment in serious fiction, however. The fictional secret agent is more often a loner, sometimes amoral—an [[existentialism|existential]] hero operating outside the everyday constraints of society. Loner spy personalities may have been a stereotype of convenience for authors who already knew how to write loner [[private investigator]] characters that sold well from the 1920s to the present.<ref>Miller, Toby, ''Spyscreen: Espionage on Film and TV from the 1930s to the 1960s'' (Oxford University Press, 2003).</ref>

[[Johnny Fedora]] achieved popularity as a fictional agent of early [[Cold War espionage]], but [[James Bond]] is the most commercially successful of the many spy characters created by intelligence insiders during that struggle. Other fictional agents include Le Carré's [[George Smiley]], and [[Harry Palmer]] as played by [[Michael Caine]].

Jumping on the spy bandwagon, other writers also started writing about spy fiction featuring female spies as protagonists, such as ''[[The Baroness (novels)|The Baroness]]'', which has more graphic action and sex, as compared to other novels featuring male protagonists.

Spy fiction has permeated the [[video game]] world as well, in games such as ''[[Perfect Dark]]'', ''[[GoldenEye 007 (1997 video game)|GoldenEye 007]]'', ''[[The Operative: No One Lives Forever|No One Lives Forever]]'', ''[[Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell]]'' and the [[Metal Gear|''Metal Gear'' series]].

Espionage has also made its way into comedy depictions. The 1960s TV series ''[[Get Smart (TV series)|Get Smart]]'', the 1983 Finnish film ''[[Agent 000 and the Deadly Curves]]'', and ''[[Johnny English (film series)|Johnny English]]'' film trilogy portrays an inept spy, while the 1985 movie ''[[Spies Like Us]]'' depicts a pair of none-too-bright men sent to the Soviet Union to investigate a missile.

The historical novel ''The Emperor and the Spy'' highlights the adventurous life of U.S. Colonel [[Sidney Mashbir|Sidney Forrester Mashbir]], who during the 1920s and 1930s attempted to prevent war with Japan, and when war did erupt, he became General MacArthur's top advisor in the Pacific Theater of World War Two.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theemperorandthespy.com/books/the-emperor-and-the-spy/overview/|title=The Emperor and the Spy|last=Katz|first=Stan S.|date=2019|website=TheEmperorAndTheSpy.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926154509/https://theemperorandthespy.com/books/the-emperor-and-the-spy/overview/|archive-date=2019-09-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Emperor and the Spy|last=Katz|first=Stan S.|publisher=Horizon Productions|year=2019|isbn=978-0-9903349-4-1}}</ref>

Black Widow is also a fictional agent who was introduced as a [[Russia]]n spy, an antagonist of the superhero [[Iron Man]]. She later became an agent of the fictional spy agency [[S.H.I.E.L.D.]] and a member of the superhero team the [[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]].

Unlike much of the spy fiction, real life espionage is described as routine and boring work.<ref name="y100">{{cite book | last=Penzler | first=Otto | title=The Big Book of Espionage | publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group | date=2020 | isbn=978-1-9848-9806-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SfbDwAAQBAJ&dq=espionage+boring&pg=PR11 | access-date=21 October 2025 | page=xi}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Liulevicius |first1=Vejas Gabriel |date=October 2011 |title=Espionage and Covert Operations: A Global History |chapter=1. Introducing the Secret World |chapter-url=https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/espionage-and-covert-operations-a-global-history |url-access= |trans-title= |format= |language= |location= |publisher=[[The Great Courses]] |access-date= |via= |quote=Like the old adage about war, real espionage is most often made up of vast stretches of boredom punctuated by sharp moments of fear. [...] It has been said, with some justice that good tradecraft keeps espionage, routine, and boring, which is good, because excitement actually means that something has gone terribly wrong.}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[American espionage in China]]
* [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
* [[Chinese espionage in the United States]]
* [[Clandestine operation]]
* [[Cover (intelligence gathering)]]
* [[Covert operation]]
* [[Detective]]
* [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
* [[Foreign agent]]
* [[History of Soviet espionage]]
* [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)]]
* [[Intelligence assessment]]
* [[James Gannon (author)]]
* [[List of intelligence agencies]]
* [[List of intelligence gathering disciplines]]
* [[MI5]]
* [[Military intelligence]]
* [[Secret identity]]
* [[Secret service]]
* [[Sleeper agent]]
* [[Special agent]]
* [[Spying on United Nations leaders by United States diplomats]]
* [[Undercover operation]]

{{div col end}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=josh_gerstein1>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2011/03/obamas-hard-line-on-leaks-050761|title=Obama's hard line on leaks|access-date=2011-03-19|date=2011-03-07|first=Josh|last=Gerstein|publisher=politico.com}}</ref>

<ref name=fashans>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/irp/ops/ci/hanssen_affidavit.html|title=USA v. Robert Philip Hanssen: Affidavit in Support of Criminal Complaint, Arrest Warrant and Search Warrant|access-date=2011-03-19|publisher=fas.org|archive-date=2019-07-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712054515/https://fas.org/irp/ops/ci/hanssen_affidavit.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=jyaames>{{cite web|url=http://www.jya.com/ames.htm|title=Aldrich Ames Criminal Complaint|access-date=2011-03-19|publisher=John Young Architect|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513222808/http://www.jya.com/ames.htm|archive-date=2011-05-13}}</ref>

}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book|title=The Evolution of British Sigint, 1653–1939|last=Johnson|first=John|year=1997|publisher=[[HMSO]]|location=London|oclc=52130886}}
* {{cite journal|last=Winkler|first=Jonathan Reed|date=July 2009|journal=The Journal of Military History|title=Information Warfare in World War I|volume=73|issue=3|pages=845–867|issn=1543-7795|doi=10.1353/jmh.0.0324|s2cid=201749182}}

===Sources===
{{Source-attribution|[[Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms]], 12 April 2001 (As Amended Through 31 October 2009) [aka Join Publication 1-02]}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Aldrich, Richard J., and Christopher Andrew, eds. ''Secret Intelligence: A Reader'' (2nd ed. 2018); focus on the 21st century; reprints 30 essays by scholars. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415705681/ excerpt]
* [[Christopher Andrew (historian)|Andrew, Christopher]], ''The Secret World: A History of Intelligence'', 2018.
* [[Frederick Russell Burnham|Burnham, Frederick Russell]], ''Taking Chances'', 1944.
* Felix, Christopher [pseudonym for James McCarger] {{cite book|url=https://www.amazon.com/Fearless-Fascinating-Story-Secret-Medieval-ebook/dp/B072BM8WQ1/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011135100/https://www.amazon.com/Fearless-Fascinating-Story-Secret-Medieval-ebook/dp/B072BM8WQ1|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 11, 2022|title=Intelligence Literature: Suggested Reading List|publisher=US CIA|access-date=September 2, 2012}} ''A Short Course in the Secret War, 4th Edition''. Madison Books, November 19, 2001.
* Friedman, George. ''America's Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between the United States and Its Enemies'' 2005
* [[Adam Gopnik|Gopnik, Adam]], "Spy vs. Spy vs. Spy: How valuable is espionage?", ''[[The New Yorker]]'', 2 September 2019, pp. 53–59. "There seems to be a paranoid paradox of espionage: the better your intelligence, the dumber your conduct; the more you know, the less you anticipate.... Hard-won information is ignored or wildly misinterpreted.... [It] happens again and again [that] a seeming national advance in intelligence is squandered through cross-bred confusion, political rivalry, mutual bureaucratic suspicions, intergovernmental competition, and fear of the press (as well as leaks to the press), all seasoned with dashes of sexual jealousy and adulterous intrigue." (p. 54.)
* Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. ''In Spies, We Trust: The Story of Western Intelligence'' (2013), covers U.S. and Britain
* Jenkins, Peter. ''Surveillance Tradecraft: The Professional's Guide to Surveillance Training'' {{ISBN|978-0-9535378-2-2}}
* [[David Kahn (writer)|Kahn, David]], ''The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet'', 1996 revised edition. First published 1967.
* [[John Keegan|Keegan, John]], ''Intelligence in War: Knowledge of the Enemy from Napoleon to Al-Qaeda'', 2003.
* [[Phillip Knightley|Knightley, Phillip]], ''The Second Oldest Profession: Spies and Spying in the Twentieth Century'', Norton, 1986.
* [[Paul Krugman|Krugman, Paul]], "The American Way of Economic war: Is Washington Overusing Its Most Powerful Weapons?" (review of [[Henry Farrell (political scientist)|Henry Farrell]] and [[Abraham L. Newman|Abraham Newman]], ''Underground Empire: How America Weaponized the World Economy'', Henry Holt, 2023, 288 pp.), ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 103, no. 1 (January/February 2024), pp. 150–156. "The [U.S.] dollar is one of the few currencies that almost all major banks will accept, and... the most widely used... As a result, the dollar is the currency that many companies must use... to do international business." (p. 150.) "[L]ocal banks facilitating that trade... normally... buy U.S. dollars and then use dollars to buy [another local currency]. To do so, however, the banks must have access to the U.S. financial system and... follow rules laid out by Washington." (pp. 151–152.) "But there is another, lesser-known reason why the [U.S.] commands overwhelming economic power. Most of the world's [[fiber-optic cables]], which carry data and messages around the planet, travel through the United States." (p. 152.) "[T]he U.S. government has installed 'splitters': [[prism (optics)|prism]]s that divide the beams of light carrying information into two streams. One... goes on to the intended recipients, ... the other goes to the [[National Security Administration|National Security Agency]], which then uses high-powered [[computation]] to analyze the data. As a result, the [U.S.] can monitor almost all international communication." (p. 154) This has allowed the U.S. "to effectively cut [[Iran]] out of the world financial system... Iran's economy stagnated... Eventually, Tehran agreed to cut back its [[nuclear reactor|nuclear]] programs in exchange for relief." (pp. 153–154.) "[A] few years ago, American officials... were in a panic about [the Chinese company] [[Huawei]]... which... seemed poised to supply [[5G]] equipment to much of the planet [thereby possibly] giv[ing] China the power to eavesdrop on the rest of the world – just as the [U.S.] has done.... The [U.S.] learned that Huawei had been dealing surreptitiously with Iran – and therefore violating U.S. sanctions. Then, it... used its special access to information on international bank data to [show] that [Huawei]'s [[chief financial officer]], [[Meng Wanzhou]] (... the founder's daughter), had committed [[bank fraud]] by falsely telling the British [[financial services company]] [[HSBC]] that her company was not doing business with Iran. Canadian authorities, acting on a U.S. request, arrested her... in December 2018. After... almost three years under house arrest... Meng... was allowed to return to China... But by [then] the prospects for Chinese dominance of 5G had vanished..." (pp. 154–155.) Farrell and Newman, writes Krugman, "are worried about the possibility of [U.S. ''Underground Empire''] overreach. [I]f the [U.S.] weaponizes the dollar against too many countries, they might... band together and adopt alternative methods of international payment. If countries become deeply worried about U.S. spying, they could lay fiber-optic cables that bypass the [U.S.]. And if Washington puts too many restrictions on American exports, foreign firms might turn away from U.S. technology." (p. 155.)
* Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. ''Terrorism: essential primary sources'' Thomas Gale 2006 {{ISBN|978-1-4144-0621-3}}
* Lerner, K. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security'' (2003), worldwide recent coverage 1,100 pages.
* May, Ernest R. (ed.). ''Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment Before the Two World Wars'' (1984).
* O'Toole, George. ''Honorable Treachery: A History of U.S. Intelligence, Espionage, Covert Action from the American Revolution to the CIA'' 1991
* Murray, Williamson, and Allan Reed Millett, eds. ''Calculations: net assessment and the coming of World War II'' (1992).
* Owen, David. ''Hidden Secrets: A Complete History of Espionage and the Technology Used to Support It''
* Richelson, Jeffery T. ''A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century'' (1977)
* Richelson, Jeffery T. ''The U.S. Intelligence Community'' (1999, fourth edition)
* Shaw, Tamsin, "Ethical Espionage" (review of Calder Walton, ''Spies: The Epic Intelligence War Between East and West'', Simon and Schuster, 2023, 672 pp.; and [[Cécile Fabre]], ''Spying Through a Glass Darkly: The Ethics of Espionage and Counter-Intelligence'', Oxford University Press, 251 pp., 2024), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXXI, no. 2 (8 February 2024), pp. 32, 34–35. "[I]n Walton's view, there was scarcely a US [[covert operation|covert action]] that was a long-term strategic success, with the possible exception of intervention in the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] (a disastrous military fiasco for the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]]) and perhaps support for the anti-Soviet [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity movement]] in [[Poland]]." (p. 34.)
* Smith, W. Thomas Jr. ''[[Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency]]'' (2003)
* [[Barbara Tuchman|Tuchman, Barbara W.]], ''The Zimmermann Telegram'', New York, Macmillan, 1962.
* Warner, Michael. ''The Rise and Fall of Intelligence: An International Security History'' (2014)
* Zegart, Amy B. ''Spies, Lies, and Algorithms: The History and Future of American Intelligence'' (2022), university textbook. [https://issforum.org/to/ir14-5 online reviews]

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140820053730/http://konstantynowicz.info/family_history_genealogy_historia_rodzina_genealogia/Italy_UK_Switzerland_Estonia_Sweden_Belarus_Russia_Poland_France/Belarusian_Estonian_Polish_Russian_genealogical_historical_database/Europe_1789_1815_1914_1917_1937/1989/index.html History of an espionage in Russia] (archived)

{{Espionage}}
{{Intelligence cycle management}}
{{Soviet Spies}}
{{Types of crime}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Espionage| ]]
[[Category:Law enforcement occupations]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]
[[Category:Security]]

Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board

2026-02-28T16:31:07Z

Brandon81T: Created first stub w/ sources

{{Short description|VERBAL ABILITY JKSSB}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date= June 2018}}

{{Infobox examination
| name = Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board (JKSSB)
| image_name = Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board logo.png
| image_alt =
| caption =
| acronym = JKSSB
| type = Paper pen mode test
| test_admin =
| purpose = Conducts various entrance examinations to various non-gazette posts
| year_started = {{Start date|1992}}
| year_terminated = 
| duration =
| score_range =
| score_validity =
| offered =
| attempt_restriction =
| regions = [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| test_takers =
| prerequisite =
| fee =
| score_users =
| qualification_rate =
| website = {{URL|http://jkssb-jk-edu-gov-in.unaux.com/}}
}}
'''Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board''' ('''JKSSB''') is a service recruiting board constituted by the [[Government of Jammu and Kashmir]] that conducts examinations to various departmental services or non-gazette posts in the union territory of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jkssb.nic.in/Static/Functioning.htm |title=Functioning of the Board |website=jkssb.nic.in |publisher=Jammu and Kashmir Services Selection Board |accessdate=8 December 2018 |archive-date=11 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211014913/http://www.jkssb.nic.in/Static/Functioning.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The board has been constituted in exercise of powers conferred by Provision of Section 124 of the [[Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir]] in accordance with Section 15 of J&K Civil Services Decentralization and Recruitment Act 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jkgad.nic.in/PDF/Handbook.pdf |title=Microsoft Word - handbook |website=jkgad.nic.in |publisher=General Administration Department, Government of Jammu & Kashmir |accessdate=8 December 2018 |archive-date=9 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209123911/http://jkgad.nic.in/PDF/Handbook.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/jobs/jkssb-teacher-notification-jammu-and-kashmir-directs-jkssb-to-recruit-2154-teachers-in-4-months-1787961 |title=Jammu And Kashmir Directs JKSSB To Recruit 2154 Teachers In 4 Months |website=ndtv.com |publisher=[[NDTV]] |date=14 December 2017}}</ref>

==Background==
The Jammu and Kashmir Service Selection Board is the only constitutional body to conduct all the entrance examinations for all the non-gazette vacancies in the UT. Its headquarters are located in the Ram Bagh area of [[Srinagar]] city, 190009. The agency is headed by its chairman, who is responsible for the recruitment process, JKSSB policy formulation, and its implementation. The agency chairman and other members are appointed by the [[lieutenant governor]]. The LG has the right to determine the number of members as well as the members of the commission and their terms of service.

== Members==
The commission consists of five members, including a chairman who holds different positions for specific roles.<ref>{{cite web |title=JAMMU AND KASHMIR SERVICE SELECTION BOARD {{!}} Main Page |url=https://jkssb.nic.in/ |access-date=20 March 2023}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Position
|-
| Indu Kanwal Chib, JKAS || Chairman
|-
| Ghulam Hassan Sheikh, JKAS || Member
|-
| Peerzada Zahoor Ahmad, JKAS || Member
|-
| Amit Vermani, JKAS || Member
|-
| Atul Kumar, JKAS || Member
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:State agencies of Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Government agencies established in 1992]]
[[Category:1992 establishments in Jammu and Kashmir]]

Maibam Lotpa Ching

2026-02-26T22:04:36Z

Brandon81T: added a page!

{{Short description|WWII historical site in Manipur, India}}
{{notability|1=Places|date=May 2020}}

'''Maibam Lotpa Ching'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peace museum now adorns Maibam Lotpa : 23rd jun19 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |url=https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=7..230619.jun19 |access-date=2024-05-15 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref> or '''Red Hills''' is a historical site of [[World War II]], in [[Nambol, Bishnupur district]] of [[Manipur]], India. The site is a small hillock about 17 Kms south of Imphal City on Tiddim Road (NH-150). A fierce battle was fought at the site between the Allied Forces and the Japanese Forces during World War II. Japanese war veterans constructed a monument at the foot of this hill and it is significantly named "India Peace Memorial". There is a cemetery in the foothills, which houses the tombs of the Japanese soldiers who died in the war.<ref name="thestatesman1">{{cite web | author=IANS | title=Japan to build war museum in Manipur's Maibam Lokpa Ching | website=The Statesman | date=2017-05-21 | url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/japan-to-build-war-museum-in-manipur-s-maibam-lokpa-ching-1495395219.html | access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ixigo.com/maibam-lokpa-ching-manipur-india-ne-1701208 |title=Maibam Lokpa Ching, India - Location, Facts, History and all about Maibam Lokpa Ching - ixigo trip planner |publisher=Ixigo.com |date= |accessdate=2020-05-13}}</ref>

== Imphal Peace Museum {{Anchor|War museum}} ==
{{Main|Imphal Peace Museum}}
A war museum is also built which houses a collection of rare war items and relics including the weapon materials used by the soldiers during the war.<ref name="thestatesman1"/>

== Commemoration {{Anchor|Homage}} ==
{{Further|Sorei}}
Every year, many Japanese and British visit the site to pay homage to their ancestors who lost their lives here in the war for their motherland.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tourmyindia.com/states/manipur/maibam-lokpa-ching.html |title=Maibam Lokpa Ching Imphal, Manipur |publisher=Tourmyindia.com |date= |accessdate=2020-05-13}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
* [[Imphal 1944]]
* [[Japan Landa Imphal]]
* [[My Japanese Niece]]

== See also ==
* [[Japanese–Meitei cultural relations]]
* [[National recognition of Meitei culture]]
* [[Classicism in Meitei civilization]]
* [[Intangible cultural heritage of Meitei civilization]]
* [[Women in Meitei civilisation]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord|24.703|93.817|type:landmark_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:20th century in Manipur]]
[[Category:Japan in World War II]]
[[Category:India in World War II]]
[[Category:History museums in India]]

{{Manipur-geo-stub}}

Kodandaramaswamy Temple, Ayodhyapatinam

2026-02-26T21:24:37Z

Brandon81T: Created some place needs work

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox temple
| name = Kodandaramaswamy Kovil
| image =
| alt =
| caption = Kodandaramaswamy Temple
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Salem district]]
| location = [[Ayothiapattinam|Ayodhyapattinam]]
| elevation_m =
| deity = Kodandaramaswamy ([[Rama]]), Seethalakshmi ([[Sita]])
| architecture = [[Dravidian architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator = Vijayanagara dynasty
| website =
| map_type = India Salem#India Tamil Nadu#India
| coordinates = {{coord|11.6748|78.2385|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
}}

'''Kodandaramaswamy Temple''' or '''Pattabi Rama Temple''' is a [[Hindu temple]] located in the [[Salem district]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. The temple is glorified by [[Valmiki]], [[Vasishta]], [[Bharadvaja]] and classified as one of the 108 [[Abhimana Kshethram]]s of the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavate tradition]]. This temple is called as the [[Ayothiapattinam|Dakshina Ayodhya]] (Ayodhya of South India). The temple is constructed in the [[Dravidian architecture|South Indian style]] of architecture, dedicated to the god [[Rama]], the seventh avatar of [[Vishnu]]. The temple is said to be built by [[Bharadvaja]] primarily and later constructed by [[Adhiyaman]] kings. The [[Gopura|Raja Gopura]] of the temple is said to be built by [[Tirumala Nayaka]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.india.com/travel/articles/sri-kodandapani-ramar-temple-in-tamil-nadu-7-interesting-facts-you-should-know-this-ram-navami-3230278/|title=Travel Articles | Travel Blogs | Travel News & Information | Travel Guide | India.comSri Kodandapani Ramar temple in Tamil Nadu: 7 interesting facts you should know this Ram Navami | India.com|website=www.india.com}}</ref>

Though the temple has historic roots, most of the present campus structure was rebuilt after the 14th century CE, further repaired, renovated and expanded in the 17th century by [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai Nayaka]] king [[Tirumala Nayaka]], a vassal of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. A granite wall surrounds the temple, enclosing all the shrines and the temple tank. There is a five-tiered ''[[gopuram|rajagopuram]]'', the temple's gateway tower. This structure is now maintained and administered by the [[Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department]], follows the [[Pancharatra|Pancharatra agama]].

== Legend ==
As per Legend, after departure from his kingdom [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]] to the forest, the exiled prince Rama visited the hermitage of the sage [[Bharadvaja]]. After Rama kills the demon [[Ravana]] of [[Lanka]] who kidnaped his wife [[Sita]], Rama decides to return to Ayodhya. Rama is said to be so disciplined that he visits Bharadvaja once again while traveling from Lanka to Ayodhya.<ref>{{cite web |title=Valmiki Ramayana - Yuddha Kanda - Sarga 124 |url=https://www.valmikiramayan.net/utf8/yuddha/sarga124/yuddha_124_frame.htm |website=www.valmikiramayan.net |access-date=19 January 2024}}</ref> Rama, Sita, [[Lakshmana]] and [[Vibhishana]] stayed in the hermitage of Bharadvaja.

Bharadvaja wanted to see the coronation ceremony of Rama; he advised Rama to start his coronation here and complete it in Ayodhya. Rama acceded to the wishes of the sage and showered his blessings to Bharadvaja.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Besides Bharadvaja, the sages [[Vasishta]] and [[Valmiki]] are said to have worshipped here.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

After the ritual consecration of the icon of Rama, Bharadvaja built the sanctum sanctorum and the pujas were continued by the sage and his disciples.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Treasure trove of sculptures and paintings |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/Treasure-trove-of-sculptures-and-paintings/article16258054.ece |website=The Hindu |access-date=5 January 2024 |language=en-IN |date=18 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.salemonline.in/city-guide/kothandaramar-temple | title=Kothandaramar Temple, History of Kothandaramar Temple }}</ref>

== Architecture ==
The temple has granite walls enclosing all the shrines and pierced by a five-tiered ''[[gopuram|Raja Gopuram]]'', the gateway tower. The temple is noted for its exquisite pillars. The presiding deity, Ramaswamy (Rama), along with Sita, is sported with two arms seated in the central shrine in an elevated structure with [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]], [[Lakshmana]], [[Shatrughna]], [[Hanuman]], [[Vibhishana]], [[Bharadvaja]] and [[Vasishta]] serving and worshiping them.<ref name="auto"/> The sanctum sanctorum is constructed by the [[Adhiyaman]] kings,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1F236ehpmOs | title=தமிழகத்தின் அயோத்தி : சேலம் அயோத்தியாபட்டணம் கோதண்டராமர் திருக்கோயில் சிறப்பம்சங்கள் | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref> and later renovated by the [[Chola Empire|Cholas]] and renovated and expanded in the 17th century by [[Madurai Nayak dynasty|Madurai Nayaka]] king [[Tirumala Nayaka]], a vassal of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. The temple has a Kodi Maram and a Garuda Sthambam, There are shrines dedicated for [[Sudarshana]], [[Alvars]], [[Hanuman]] and [[Andal]]. The temple has an old chariot of wood. The temple is a protected monument.<ref name="auto"/>

== Religious significance and practices ==
[[File:Kabandha1.jpg|thumb|200px|The Famous Painting of [[Kabandha]] is from this Temple's Mandapam.]]
The temple is also glorified by the composer [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]] in his ''Kshethra keerthis'' of Rama''.''He describes the beauty of Rama, Sita seated in the throne and worshiped by Bharata, Lakshmana, Shatrughna, Hanuman, Vibhishana, and Vasishta in the sanctum sanctorum, and the Mandapam in this temple in his keerthi ''Mamava pattaabhirama''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.karnatik.com/c1188.shtml | title=Carnatic Songs - maamava paTTaabhiraamaa }}</ref>

The festivals associated with Vishnu like [[Vaikunta Ekadasi]], [[Krishna Janmashtami]], [[Rama Navami|Ramanavami]] and [[Adi Pooram]] are celebrated in the temple. The prime temple festival, the [[Brahmotsava|Brahmotsavam]] takes place every year in the month of ''[[Chaitra]]'' for 10 days around Ramanavami, which celebrates the birth of Rama.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.salemonline.in/city-guide/kothandaramar-temple | title=Kothandaramar Temple, History of Kothandaramar Temple }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Salem district]]
[[Category:Rama temples in Tamil Nadu]]

MPATGM

2026-02-24T17:22:31Z

Brandon81T: small cleaned up information to improve readability and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|Indian anti-tank missile}}
{{Infobox weapon
| name = Man portable anti-tank guided missile
| image = DRDO MPATGM.jpg
| image_size = 300
| caption = MPATGM tested on 11 January 2026
| origin = [[India]]
| type = [[Anti-tank guided missile]]
| is_ranged = yes
| is_explosive = yes
| is_missile = yes
| is_UK = no
| service =
| used_by =
| wars = 
| designer = [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]]
| design_date = 2015
| manufacturer = [[Bharat Dynamics Limited]] [[Bharat Electronics|Bharat Electronics Limited]]
| unit_cost =
| production_date =
| number =
| variants = 
| spec_label =
| weight = Missile: {{convert|14.50|kg|lb|abbr=on}} Command Launch Unit (CLU): {{convert|14.25|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name="Jane"/>
| length = {{convert|1300|mm|ftin|abbr=on}}<ref name="Jane"/>
| part_length =
| width =
| height =
| diameter = {{convert|120|mm|in|abbr=on}}<ref name="Jane"/>
| crew = 2
| cartridge =
| caliber =
| barrels =
| action =
| rate =
| velocity =
| range = {{convert|200|m|km|abbr=on}} - {{convert|4,000|m|km|abbr=on}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-12 |title=India successfully tests man-portable anti-tank guided missile: All you need to know about it |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/india-successfully-tests-man-portable-anti-tank-guided-missile-all-you-need-to-know-about-it-10278551.html |access-date=2022-05-12 |website=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref>
| feed =
| sights = Digital sight with [[laser designator]]
| filling = [[Tandem-charge]] [[High-explosive anti-tank|HEAT]]
| filling_weight =
| detonation =
| yield = Penetration: 660 mm of [[Rolled homogeneous armor|RHA]] + [[Explosive reactive armour|ERA]] 710 mm of RHA {{citation needed|date=February 2026}}
| armour =
| primary_armament =
| secondary_armament =
| engine = [[Dual-thrust rocket motor|Dual-thrust]] [[Rocket engine|rocket]] with blast tube [[Soft launch (missile)|ejection motor]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Man-Portable Anti Tank Guided Missile |url=https://www.drdo.gov.in/man-portable-anti-tank-guided-missile |access-date=23 July 2021 |agency=Defence Research & Development Organisation |publisher=Ministry of Defence, Government of India |date=9 May 2019}}</ref>
| engine_power =
| propellant = [[Rocket propellant#Solid chemical propellants|Solid fuel]]
| transmission =
| payload_capacity =
| fuel_capacity =
| pw_ratio =
| suspension =
| clearance =
| vehicle_range =
| speed =
| guidance = Dual mode mid-wave [[Imaging infrared|IIR]] direct drive with real-time target identification + [[Edge AI]] [[image processing]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kajal |first1=Kapil |title=Aero India 2023: DRDO plans lightweight MPATGM |url=https://www.janes.com/osint-insights/defence-news/defence/aero-india-2023-drdo-plans-lightweight-mpatgm |access-date=14 January 2025 |publisher=Janes |date=13 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Velayanikal |first=Malavika |date=2021-02-15 |title=Guided missiles homing in with Indian deep tech |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/business-of-life/guided-missiles-homing-in-with-indian-deep-tech-11613314273154.html |access-date=2021-02-19 |website=Mint |language=en}}</ref>
| launch_platform = Launch tube, tripod-mount
| Penetration =
}}

The '''MPATGM''' or '''man portable anti-tank guided missile''',<ref name=":4"/> is an Indian third generation [[fire-and-forget]] [[anti-tank guided missile]] (ATGM) derived from India's [[Nag (missile)|Nag ATGM]]. It is being developed by the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|Defence Research and Development Organization]] (DRDO).<ref name="Jane"/><ref name=":3"/><ref name=":1"/>

==Design==
The MPATGM is a low weight, long cylindrical missile with two groups of four radial fins, larger ones at the middle, and smaller ones at the tail.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Geetanath |first=V. |date=14 March 2019 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/anti-tank-missile-developed-by-drdo-successfully-fired/article26533308.ece |title=Anti-tank missile developed by DRDO successfully fired |work=The Hindu |access-date=2019-08-13 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> It is fitted with one [[high-explosive anti-tank]] (HEAT) [[shaped charge]] warhead.<ref name=":3"/> The missile has a length of about 130 cm and a diameter of about 12 cm with a collapsible tripod, and launch tube of aluminum and carbon fiber to reduce weight.<ref name="Jane"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://21stcenturyasianarmsrace.com/2019/09/13/the-indian-drdo-has-a-top-attack-missile-in-the-works/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216113629/https://21stcenturyasianarmsrace.com/2019/09/13/the-indian-drdo-has-a-top-attack-missile-in-the-works/ |url-status=usurped |archive-date=February 16, 2020 |title=The Indian DRDO Has A Top Attack Missile In The Works |date=2019-09-12 |website=21st Century Asian Arms Race |language=en |access-date=2020-02-16}}</ref> It has a weight of 14.5 kg, with its command launch unit (CLU) weighing 14.25 kg which combines a [[laser designator]] with digital all-weather sight.<ref name="Jane">{{Cite journal |last=Dhingra |first=Jayesh |date=22 February 2019 |url=https://www.janes.com/article/86778/aero-india-2019-drdo-details-short-range-mpatgm |title=Aero India 2019: DRDO details short-range MPATGM |journal=Jane's Missiles & Rockets |access-date=2019-07-08 |location=Bangalore |publisher=IHS Jane's 360}}</ref> Minimum range is 200 to 300 m; maximum range is 4 km.<ref name=":7"/>

The MPATGM is equipped with an advanced dual-mode imaging [[infrared homing]] (IIR) sensor with integrated [[avionics]] for day and night operations.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Somasekar |first=M. |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/drdo-test-fires-successfully-man-portable-anti-tank-guided-missile/article26532753.ece |title=DRDO test fires successfully Man Portable Anti-tank Guided Missile |website=Business Line |date=14 March 2019 |language=en |access-date=2019-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Abhijeet |date=13 August 2024 |title=Watch: Indigenous portable anti-tank missile successfully tested by DRDO |url=https://www.business-standard.com/external-affairs-defence-security/news/watch-indigenous-portable-anti-tank-missile-successfully-tested-by-drdo-124081300840_1.html |access-date=13 August 2024 |website=Business Standard}}</ref> With both direct and [[top attack]] capabilities, the missile fires in lock-on before launch mode.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Kajal |first1=Kapil |title=Aero India 2023: DRDO plans lightweight MPATGM |url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/aero-india-2023-drdo-plans-lightweight-mpatgm |access-date=29 February 2024 |publisher=Janes |date=13 February 2023}}</ref> It reportedly shares many similarities with ATGMs such as America's [[FGM-148 Javelin]]<ref name=":2" /> and Israel's [[Spike (ATGM)|Spike]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Pandit |first=Rajat |date=4 October 2019 |title=Army inducts Israeli 'tank killers' till DRDO develops indigenous ones |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/army-inducts-israeli-tank-killers-till-drdo-develops-indigenous-ones/articleshow/71432164.cms |access-date=4 October 2019}}</ref>

==Development==
DRDO started work on a man-portable version of the Nag missile in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Udoshi |first=Partha Shukla & Rahul |date=2022-01-13 |title=India tests manportable anti-tank guided missile |url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/india-tests-manportable-anti-tank-guided-missile |access-date=2023-02-08 |website=www.janes.com |language=en}}</ref> The [[Ministry of Defence (India)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD) sanctioned the official development of the MPATGM on 27 January 2015 with probable completion date around 26 July 2018 at a cost of ₹73.46 crore.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Shukla |first=Ajai |date=2021-07-22 |title=DRDO successfully test-flies indigenously developed 'man-portable ATGM' |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/drdo-successfully-test-flies-indigenously-developed-man-portable-atgm-121072201571_1.html |access-date=2021-07-25}}</ref>

On 20 December 2017, India cancelled a major deal for acquiring the Israeli Spike (ATGM) in favour of the DRDO MPATGM, after deciding that no [[technology transfer]] was needed to develop the MPATGM.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/pub/npc/2018/march/din-06march2018.pdf |title=India scraps mega Israeli deal for anti-tank missiles in favor of DRDO product |date=6 March 2018 |website=Defence Research and Development Organisation |access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref> However, India reauthorized the deal in January 2018 during a visit of Israeli prime minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] to India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gady |first=Franz-Stefan |date=June 2019 |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/06/report-india-scraps-israel-anti-tank-guided-missiles-deal-again/ |title=Report: India Scraps Israel Anti-Tank Guided Missiles Deal (Again) |website=The Diplomat|language=en-US |access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> This deal was cancelled again in June 2019 after DRDO promised to deliver the MPATGM by 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Amitav |last=Ranjan |date=2019-06-24 |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-israel-spike-anti-tank-missiles-drdo-5796306/ |title=India scraps Israel anti-tank missile deal after DRDO says it will deliver |website=The Indian Express |language=en-IN |access-date=2019-08-14 |location=New Delhi}}</ref> However, the Indian Army bought a limited number of [[Spike (ATGM)]] to cater for their immediate needs until the MPATGM is ready for induction.<ref name=":5"/> MPATGM user trials were planned to be complete by 2020 but were postponed due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krishnan M. |first=Anantha |date=14 February 2020 |title=Interview: Youngsters can power India into a defence technology leader: Dr Satheesh Reddy |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/india/2020/02/14/youngsters-india-defence-technology-satheessh-reddy.html |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=OnManorama}}</ref> On induction, the MPATGM will replace second generation [[MILAN]] and [[9M113 Konkurs]] ATGMs with the [[Indian Army Infantry Regiments|infantry]], [[Parachute Regiment (India)|parachute]], and [[Special forces of India|special forces]].

In collaboration with [[Bharat Dynamics Limited|Bharat Dynamics]], defense [[Startup company|startup]] Tonbo Imaging is developing an uncooled lightweight infrared seeker that does not require a cryogenic compressor. The seeker has integrated real-time target identification and [[edge AI]] [[image processing]] to assist the missile in orienting itself toward the most vulnerable area of a target.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Velayanikal |first=Malavika |date=2021-02-15 |title=Guided missiles homing in with Indian deep tech |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/business-of-life/guided-missiles-homing-in-with-indian-deep-tech-11613314273154.html |access-date=2021-02-19 |website=Mint |language=en}}</ref>

The Imaging Infrared (IIR) Homing Seeker, all-electric Control Actuation System, [[Fire Control System]], [[tandem warhead]], propulsion system and high performance sighting system were developed by different integral laboratories of DRDO including [[Research Centre Imarat]] (RCI), [[Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory]] (TBRL), [[High Energy Materials Research Laboratory]] (HEMRL) and [[Instruments Research and Development Establishment]] (IRDE). Meanwhile, the Thermal Target System was developed by [[Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur]] which is being used to simulate the target tank to test the missile system.<ref name=":8">{{Cite press release |title=DRDO successfully flight-tests Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile with top attack capability against a moving target |date=2026-01-12 |publisher=[[Press Information Bureau]] |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2213690&reg=3&lang=1 |access-date=2026-01-12}}</ref>

===Production facility===
The MPATGM will be manufactured by [[Bharat Dynamics Limited|Bharat Dynamics]] at a facility located in [[Bhanoor]], Telangana. This facility was inaugurated on 29 September 2018.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Siddiqui |first=Huma |date=1 October 2018 |title=MPATGM: Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile production facility opened at Bharat Dynamics Ltd |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/defence/mpatgm-man-portable-anti-tank-guided-missile-production-facility-opened-at-bharat-dynamics-ltd/1333247/ |website=The Financial Express |language=en-US |access-date=15 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author=PTI |date=1 October 2018 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/production-facility-for-man-portable-anti-tank-missiles-opened/articleshow/66028928.cms |title=Production facility for man-portable anti-tank missiles opened |work=The Economic Times |access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref> Another [[Defence Research and Development Organisation#Development cum Production Partner programme|Development cum Production Partner]] is [[Bharat Electronics]].<ref name=":8" />

==Testing==
* ''Test 1'' – On 15 September 2018, DRDO conducted the first trial of the MPATGM; it was successful. On 16 September 2018, this was followed by another successful trial.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |url=http://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=183492 |title=Second Flight Test of MPATGM Successful|date=16 September 2018 |website=Press Information Bureau, Government of India |access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Gady |first=Franz-Stefan |date=16 September 2018 |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/indias-drdo-test-fires-indigenous-man-portable-anti-tank-guided-missile/ |title=India's DRDO Test Fires Indigenous Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile |website=The Diplomat |language=en-US |access-date=2019-07-08}}</ref>

* ''Test 2'' – On 13 March 2019, DRDO successfully completed guided flight trials (GFTs) of the MPATGM at Rajasthan desert. It proved the top attack mode, at a range of 2,500 m. On 14 March 2019, another successful test occurred.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=18941613 |title=Twin Success for Man Portable Anti Tank Guided Missile |date=14 March 2019 |website=Press Information Bureau, Government of India |access-date=2019-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/india-successfully-carries-out-trial-for-mp-atgm/articleshow/68411020.cms |title=Anti-tank guided missile test-fired successfully |date=14 March 2019 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=2019-07-08}}</ref>

* ''Test 3'' – On 11 September 2019, the missile was tested again. A man portable tripod launcher was used in the test. The target of the test was a dummy tank, which was hit via [[top-attack]].<ref>{{Cite news |author= |date=2019-09-11 |title=DRDO successfully tests indigenous anti-tank missile |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/drdo-successfully-tests-indigenous-anti-tank-missile/article29394941.ece |access-date=2019-09-12 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* ''Test 4'' – After a gap of one year due to [[COVID-19 lockdown in India]], on 21 July 2021, DRDO successfully flight tested the MPATGM on a target mimicking a tank, using a [[thermal sight]] to prove the minimum range using direct attack at 200–300 meters. The test was to validate missile in-flight stability and deployment of guidance mechanism within short distance. With this test, the MPATGM development project is now nearer completion. During this test, the missile used a newly developed light-weight [[state of the art]] miniaturized version of the IIR seeker.<ref name=":6"/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Banerjea |first=Aparna |date=21 July 2021 |title=DRDO successfully flight tests home-grown man-portable anti-tank guided missile |website=Mint |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/drdo-successfully-flight-tests-home-grown-man-portable-anti-tank-guided-missile-11626864322755.html |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref>

* ''Test 5'' – On 11 January 2022, DRDO successfully flight tested MPATGM in final deliverable configuration. The test was to prove consistent performance at minimum range. It already completed a similar successful test for maximum range. The missile used a miniaturized IIR seeker with advanced avionics for on-board control and guidance. The system is now ready to enter serial production.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sharma |first=Ravi |date=11 January 2022 |title=DRDO successfully flight tests final deliverable configuration of man portable anti-tank guided missile |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/dispatches/drdo-successfully-flight-tests-final-deliverable-configuration-of-man-portable-anti-tank-guided-missile/article38240245.ece |agency=The Publishing |publisher=Frontline |access-date=11 January 2022}}</ref> In this test, the Indian Army's demand that the missile be effective and accurate at 200–300 m, was demonstrated for the second time.<ref name=":7">{{cite news |last=Shukla |first=Ajai |date=12 January 2022 |title=DRDO test-fires indigenous anti-tank missile |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/drdo-test-fires-indigenous-anti-tank-missile-122011200053_1.html |access-date=12 January 2022 |work=Business Standard}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Abhijeet |date=2024-08-13 |title=Watch: Indigenous portable anti-tank missile successfully tested by DRDO |url=https://www.business-standard.com/external-affairs-defence-security/news/watch-indigenous-portable-anti-tank-missile-successfully-tested-by-drdo-124081300840_1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240927223509/https://www.business-standard.com/external-affairs-defence-security/news/watch-indigenous-portable-anti-tank-missile-successfully-tested-by-drdo-124081300840_1.html |archive-date=2024-09-27 |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=[[Business Standard]] |language=en-US}}</ref> This matched the minimum range performance of ATGMs such as Spike-LR with effective minimum range of 200 m.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spike-LR multi-purpose missile system |url=https://en.missilery.info/missile/spike-lr |access-date=2022-10-12 |website=Missilery.info}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Broadsword |title=DRDO successfully test-fires man-portable, Gen-3, anti-tank missile |url=https://www.ajaishukla.com/2022/01/drdo-successfully-test-fires-man.html |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=Broadsword by Ajai Shukla - Strategy. Economics. Defence.}}</ref>
* ''Test 6'' – In 2023, flights trials of MPATGM were conducted for a range of 2.5 km at National Open Air Range (NOAR), Kurnool.<ref>{{Cite news |date=22 December 2023 |title=MINISTRY OF DEFENCE – YEAR END REVIEW 2023 |work=Press Information Bureau |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1989502 |access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>
* ''Test 7'' – At the [[Pokhran Test Range]], DRDO successfully completed a number of field evaluation tests on 13 April 2024. The MPATGM missile, the launcher unit, the target acquisition system, and the fire control unit were all part of the test system. Trials for both tandem warhead penetration and warhead flight were conducted in the presence of a user team. This test will now lead to 'Final User Evaluation Trials' and eventual induction into the Indian Army.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-14 |title=DRDO successfully conductd MPATGM weapon system developmental trials at PFFR in Rajasthan |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/drdo-successfully-conductd-mpatgm-weapon-system-developmental-trials-at-pffr-in-rajasthan/articleshow/109282611.cms |access-date=2024-04-14 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=DRDO & Indian Army conduct successful trials of indigenous Man Portable Anti-tank Guided Missile Weapon System |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2017876 |access-date=2024-04-14 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>
* ''Test 8'' – The warhead flight trials have been successfully conducted on 13 August 2024 at Pokhran Field Firing Range. The joint Indian Army-DRDO team assessed the performance using a range of flight configurations and operating factors. The efficiency in defeating contemporary armor-protection has been demonstrated by successful penetration trials of tandem warhead system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Watch: DRDO, Army Successfully Test Portable Anti Tank Missile System |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/watch-drdo-army-successfully-test-portable-anti-tank-missile-system-6327430 |access-date=2024-08-13 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-14 |title=DRDO, Army test indigenous anti-tank guided missile in Raj |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/drdo-and-army-successfully-test-indigenous-anti-tank-guided-missile-in-raj/articleshow/112508272.cms |access-date=2024-08-14 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
* ''Test 9'' – The missile was tested successfully against a moving target on 11 January 2026 at the KK Ranges, [[Ahilya Nagar]], [[Maharashtra]]. The target tank was the Thermal Target System developed by [[Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur]].<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-12 |title=‘Top attack capability against moving target’: DRDO flight-tests man-portable anti-tank guided missile — watch |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/top-attack-capability-against-moving-target-drdo-flight-tests-man-portable-anti-tank-guided-missile-watch/articleshow/126479613.cms |access-date=2026-01-12 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
{{Gallery
|width=160 | height=170

|File:Indigenously developed Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile (MPATGM) successfully flight-tested for the second time from the Ahmednagar range, Maharashtra on September 16, 2018.JPG|Maiden test flight.
|File:DRDO successfully test fires indigenously developed MPATGM missile.jpg|Top-attack ability and tripod launcher validation test.
|File:MPATGM launched in final deliverable configuration by DRDO.ogg|Final deliverable configuration test.
|File:DRDO MPATGM.webm|Calibration test for target at minimum range.||Target hit at short distance. Verification of in-flight stability and instant guidance activation.}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|India|Rocketry}}
;Related development
* [[Nag (missile)]]

;Missiles of comparable role and configuration
* {{lwc|Spike (missile)#Spike-LR|Spike-LR}}
* {{lwc|FGM-148 Javelin}}
* {{lwc|HJ-12}}
* {{lwc|AT-1K Raybolt}}
* {{lwc|ALAS (missile)|ALAS}}
* [[Karaok]] – (Turkey)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|MPATGM}}
* [https://www.mod.gov.in/sites/default/files/MoDAR2018.pdf, Annual Report 2018-19 Ministry of Defence, Government of India]

{{Defence Research and Development Organisation}}
{{Indian missiles}}

[[Category:Anti-tank guided missiles]]
[[Category:Guided missiles of India]]

Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary

2026-02-23T03:28:58Z

Brandon81T: Created the post needs work

{{short description|Wildlife sanctuary in Mizoram, India}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary
| iucn_category = IV
| image =
| image_caption =
| map = India Mizoram#India
| map_caption = Location in Mizoram, India
| relief = 1
| mapframe = Yes
| nearest_city = Lunglei
| coordinates = {{coord|23|7|24|N|92|56|48|E|display=inline,title}}
| area_km2 = 35.75
| established = 2000
| governing_body = Department of Environment & Forest, Government of Mizoram
}}

'''Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary''' is a [[List of wildlife sanctuaries of India|wildlife sanctuary]] in the [[Lunglei district]] of the Indian state of [[Mizoram]]. The sanctuary covers about 35.75 km2. <ref name="ForestDept">{{cite web |title=Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://forest.mizoram.gov.in/page/khawnglung-wildlife-sanctuary |website=Forest Department, Government of Mizoram |access-date=2025-11-28}}</ref>

==History==
The area now known as Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary was originally occupied by a village on Khawnglung Mountain, whose steep cliffs formed a natural fortress. According to local legend and historical accounts, the village became the site of violent feuds among regional chieftains (Sailo chiefs) during the mid-19th century. These conflicts culminated in a massacre and the eventual destruction and abandonment of the settlement. <ref name="IncredibleIndia">{{cite web
| title = Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary
| website = Incredible India Digital Portal
| url = https://www.incredibleindia.gov.in/en/mizoram/lunglei/khawnglung-wildlife-sanctuary
| access-date = 29 November 2025
}}</ref>

The sanctuary was declared around the year 2000 under the Wildlife provisions of the state. It is administered by the Department of Environment & Forest, Government of Mizoram. Nearby fringe villages include Pangzawl, Rawpui, Bungtlang, Sialsir, Lungchhuan, and Chawntui. <ref name="LungleiDistrict">{{cite web |title=Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://lunglei.nic.in/tourist-place/khawnglung-wildllife-sanctuary/ |website=Lunglei District, Government of Mizoram |access-date=2025-11-28}}</ref>

==Geography and Location==
The sanctuary lies in the hilly terrain of southern Mizoram. The geographic coordinates — 23°07′–23°09′ N, 92°52′–92°54′ E — are based on official state-forest documentation. <ref name="LungleiDistrict"/><ref name="ForestDept"/>
The terrain consists of steep slopes, ridges and hill-forest typical of the subtropical / semi-evergreen forests of the region.

==Flora & Fauna==
A Survey have recorded high diversity of pteridophytes (33 species) in the sanctuary. <ref name="Verma2014">{{cite journal |last=Verma |first=Durgesh |title=Pteridophytes of Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary, Mizoram, India |journal=Indian Journal of Forestry |year=2014 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264441439_Pteridophytes_of_Khawnglung_Wildlife_Sanctuary_Mizoram_India |access-date=2025-11-28}}</ref>

The sanctuary provides habitat to various mammals and birds typical of northeastern Indian hill forests. Reported mammals include [[hoolock gibbon]], barking deer, sambar deer, wild boar and leopard. The region is also noted for its avifauna, making it of interest for birdwatching. <ref name="IncredibleIndia" />

An eco-sensitive zone (ESZ) notification for Khawnglung has been issued by the central government; the notification outlines buffer-zone regulations around the sanctuary to help conserve its biodiversity and prevent incompatible development. <ref name="MOEF_ESZ">{{cite web |title=Notification: Eco-sensitive Zone around Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary |url=https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2019/10/khawanglung.pdf |website=Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, Government of India |format=PDF |access-date=2025-11-28}}</ref>

==Access and Tourism==
The sanctuary is accessible by road from the state capital (Aizawl) via Lunglei — about 160–170 km by road according to tourism sources. Best visiting season is generally October–March when weather is more favourable. <ref name="MizoramTourism">{{cite web |title=Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary – Mizoram Tourism |url=https://mizoramtourism.com/top-destination/80 |website=Mizoram Tourism |access-date=2025-11-28}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Tawi Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Thorangtlang Wildlife Sanctuary]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Wildlife sanctuaries in Mizoram]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 2000]]
[[Category:Lunglei district]]

Chengalpattu

2026-02-21T23:02:56Z

Brandon81T: basic enhance information for accuracy for clarity

{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2007}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Chengalpattu
| other_name = Chengai (shortened) Chingleput Chengalpet
| settlement_type = Town
| nicknames = Gateway of Chennai, Chengai, Lake City, City of Hills
| image_skyline = Chengalpat lake.jpg
| image_caption = Kolavai Lake on the outskirts of Chengalpattu
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_caption = Chengalpattu (Tamil Nadu)
| coordinates = {{coord|12|40|54.8|N|79|59|19.7|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Region]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Pallava Dynasty|Pallava Nadu]], [[Tondaimandalam|Tondai Nadu]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Chengalpattu district|Chengalpattu]]
| government_type = First Grade Municipality
| governing_body = Chengalpattu Municipality
| leader_title1 = [[District collector]]
| leader_name1 = Raghul Nath, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 = 136.25
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 66
| population_footnotes = <ref name="dashboard">{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/censusinfodashboard/index.html|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref>
| population_total = 1,77,638
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 603001, 603002, 603003, 603004
| population_demonym = Chengalpattean
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = +91-44
| registration_plate = TN-19
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = Kanchipuram
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Legislative assembly]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = Chengalpattu
| website = {{URL|chengalpattu.nic.in}}
| official_name =
}}
'''Chengalpattu''', previously known as '''Chingleput''' or '''Chengalpet''', is a town in [[Chennai metropolitan area]] and the headquarters of [[Chengalpattu district]] of the state [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. The town is located near the industrial and IT hub. It is the headquarters of the district and is {{Convert|56|km}} away from the state capital, [[Chennai]] on the [[National Highway 45 (India)|National Highway 45]].

It is an important commercial center. It has a medical college and other colleges affiliated with the [[University of Madras]].

== Etymology ==
The city is believed to have been named after a [[lily]] called 'chenkazhuneer poo' (செங்கழுநீர் பூ) which is found in the region. It is near the banks of [[Palar River]] about 56 km southwest of [[Chennai city]] (Madras) and thus Chengapattu is called the "Gateway of Chennai".

==History==
Chengalpattu dates from the early Chola dynasty of the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Chengalpattu|title=Chengalpattu {{!}} India|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> Chengalpattu was formerly a capital of the kings of [[Vijayanagara]], after their defeat by the [[Deccan sultanates]] at [[Battle of Talikota]] in 1565. The fortress at Chengalpattu, built by the Vijayanagara kings in the 16th century, was of strategic importance, owing to its swampy surroundings and the lake that flanked its side.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Chingleput|volume=6|page=233}}</ref>

In 1639 a local governor or [[Nayak (title)|nayak]], subject to these kings, granted a piece of coastal land to the [[British East India Company]] where [[Fort St George]] now stands, which became the nucleus of the city of Madras. Chengalpattu was taken by the [[France|French]] in 1751 and was retaken in 1752 by [[Robert Clive]], after which it proved of great strategic advantage to the British, especially when [[Thomas Arthur, comte de Lally|Lally]] failed to capture the fortress in his advance on Madras.<ref name="EB1911"/>

During the wars of the British with [[Hyder Ali]] of [[Mysore Kingdom|Mysore]], it withstood his assault and afforded a refuge to the nearby residents. In 1780, after the defeat of Colonel W Baillie, the army of Sir Hector Munro took refuge there. By 1900 the town was noted for its manufacture of pottery and was a local market center, especially of the rice trade.<ref name="EB1911"/> The surrounding district was home to cotton and silk weaving,<ref name="EB1911"/> indigo dyeing, tanneries, and a cigar factory, and extensive salt manufacturing took place along the coast.

The city was part of the [[Chengalpattu (Lok Sabha constituency)]] that existed from 1952 to 2004 in the Lok Sabha elections. Since 2009 it is a part of the [[Kancheepuram (Lok Sabha constituency)]].

Chengalpattu Municipality was extended for Greater Municipality on 24 August 2021 by annexing the villages of Anjur, Kunnavakkam, Thimmavaram, Thenmelpakkam, Vallam, Alapakkam, Thiruporur cross-road, Malalinatham, Nenmeli, [[Melamaiyur]], [[Singaperumalkoil]], Pulipakkam, Veerapuram, Pattaravakkam, Pazhaveli, Chettipunniyam, and [[Tirumani]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}

== Geography==
Chengalpattu is located at {{Coord|12.7|N|79.98|E}}.<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/25/Chengalpattu.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Chengalpattu]</ref> It has an average elevation of 36 metres (118 ft). Lake Kolavai is the largest located in Chengalpattu.

== Demographics ==
According to [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Chengalpattu had a population of 62,579 with a sex-ratio of 1,020 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929.<ref name="dashboard">{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/censusinfodashboard/index.html|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref> A total of 5,884 were under the age of six, constituting 3,045 males and 2,839 females. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] accounted for 15.55% and 1.44% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the town was 83.25%, compared to the national average of 72.99%.<ref name="dashboard"/> The town had a total of 15675 households. There were a total of 23,937 workers, comprising 264 cultivators, 215 main agricultural labourers, 475 in house hold industries, 19,376 other workers, 3,607 marginal workers, 127 marginal cultivators, 66 marginal agricultural labourers, 175 marginal workers in household industries and 3,239 other marginal workers.<ref name=2011census>{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals - Chengalpattu|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=680237|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref> As per the religious census of 2011, Chengalpattu had 85.33% [[Hindus]], 6.09% [[Muslims]], 6.48% [[Christians]], 0.02% [[Sikhs]], 0.13% [[Buddhists]], 0.13% [[Jainism|Jains]], 1.79% following other religions and 0.02% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.<ref name=religion2011>{{cite web|title=Population By Religious Community - Tamil Nadu|year=2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html|format=XLS|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref>

{{bar box|title=Religious census|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Religion|right1=Percent(%)|float=right|bars={{bar percent|[[Hinduism|Hindu]]|Orange|85.33}}{{bar percent|[[Islam|Muslim]]|Green|6.09}}{{bar percent|[[Christianity|Christian]]|purple|6.48}}{{bar percent|[[Buddhism|Buddhist]]|Gold|0.13}}{{bar percent|[[Jainism|Jain]]|Blue|0.13}}{{bar percent|[[Sikhism|Sikh]]|yellow|0.02}}{{bar percent|Other|grey|1.79}}{{bar percent|[[Irreligion|No religion]]|violet|0.02}}}}

===Religion===
There are numerous temples, mosques and churches in Chengalpattu.

== Government and politics ==
[[Chengalpattu (state assembly constituency)]] is part of [[Kancheepuram (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2001/background/S22/TN_ACPC.pdf
|title=List of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies
|access-date=2008-10-08
|work=Tamil Nadu
|publisher=Election Commission of India
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131000/http://archive.eci.gov.in/se2001/background/S22/TN_ACPC.pdf
|archive-date=2008-10-31
}}</ref>

=== Civic services ===
Chengalpattu Government Hospital is a landmark and the largest government hospital in this district. The hospital has its own medical college. The town has the principal court of the district, and Dr. Ambedhkar Law College.

====Hospitals====
* [[Chengalpattu Medical College|Chengalpattu Medical College and Hospital]]
* Government Leprosy Hospital

== Economy ==

===Industry===
There are several modern industries around Chengalpattu, due to the town's proximity to Chennai and its frequent connectivity to other places through rail and road.

Several companies in and around the town like [[Al-Ohm Inc.]], [[Tech Mahindra]], [[Wipro]], [[BMW]], [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], [[Flextronics]], [[Foxconn]], [[Dell]], [[Samsung]], [[Infosys]], [[Pepsi]], [[TVS Group|TVS]], [[Siemens]], [[Renault Nissan Automotive India Private Limited|Nissan Renault]], [[RLT Instrumentation]], [[Apollo Tyres]], [[Mahindra Group|Mahindra]], [[Medopharm Pvt Ltd]], R & D, Bay forge have production plants near Chengalpattu. Marg Swarnabhoomi SEZ at Kodur have several industries like [[DHL]], [[Zwilling J. A. Henckels]].

In September 2021, the Ministry of Industry announced development of a SIDCO industrial estate at Kodur Village, which would provide employment to over 2000 people.<ref>{{cite news
| last =
| first =
| title = New projects to boost MSME sector
| newspaper = The Hindu
| location = Chennai
| pages =
| language =
| publisher = Kasturi & Sons
| date = 3 September 2021
| url = https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/new-projects-to-boost-msme-sector/article36264232.ece/
| access-date = 26 September 2021}}</ref>

== Culture ==

=== Tourist attractions ===
Today Chengalpattu has developed as a tourist spot for many foreign travellers on their way to [[Mamallapuram]], [[Thirukazhukundram]], [[Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary]] and [[Kanchipuram]], [[Karikili Bird Sanctuary]].

The boat house established by [[Tamil Nadu Tourism Development Corporation]] (TTDC) in the Kolavai lake which is alongside the NH 45 highway has turned into a place where people can relax with their families on weekends. The monsoon rains flooded the gates of the lake in December 2005 due to which the TTDC boat club operation has been stopped. It also serves as a bridge connecting all nearby districts with the renowned tourist places like [[Mahabalipuram]], [[Muttukadu boat house|Muttukadu]], theme parks on [[East Coast Road]] (ECR), [[Thirukazhukundram]], and [[Kanchipuram]].

==== Kolavai Lake ====
[[Kolavai Lake]] is the second largest lake in the Chengalpattu District after Madhuranthagam Lake. Kolavai Lake is well known for its perennial nature: There are records of going dry in summers. It even supplies water to industries in Chennai when the lakes in Chennai go dry. The lake is now being polluted due to the rapid urbanisation of Chengalpattu. The early morning sunrise and the moon hovering above the lake over its waters in the night are scenic to the eyes. The lake's beauty can be experienced by taking a train from the Chengalpattu station to Paranur.

===Archaeological excavations===

Chengalpattu has received attention recently because of archaeological finds in the nearby village of Chettimedu Pathur. In February 2024, an ancient burial site of a child with a pot beside it likely dating back to the [[Neolithic]] period was unearthed at Chettimedu Pathur.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2024-02-28 |title=Tamil Nadu: Child burial site dating back to neolithic age unearthed in Chengalpattu |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2024/Feb/28/tamil-nadu-child-burial-site-dating-back-to-neolithic-age-unearthed-in-chengalpattu |access-date=2024-08-10 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-28 |title=Madras univ researchers unearth neolithic site near Chengalpet |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/madras-univ-researchers-unearth-neolithic-site-near-chengalpet/articleshow/108059076.cms |access-date=2024-08-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Transport ==
Chenglapattu is connected by road and rail.

=== By air ===
The [[Chennai Airport]] lies just 38 km north of the town and can be reached in about 1 hour by road.

=== By rail ===
[[File:Chengalpattu Junction.jpg|thumb|200 px|View of the [[Chengalpattu Junction railway station|Chengalpattu Railway Junction]], one of the main stations in the Chord Line]]
[[Chengalpattu Junction railway station|Chengalpattu Railway Station]], technically known as CGL, is one of the major railway junctions of the [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railway]] and is a nationally important halt.

Chengalpattu railway junction lies in the Main [[Broad Gauge]] line and most of the south bound trains stop here. There is a railway connection to [[Arakkonam]] via [[Kanchipuram]]. There are many trains running from Chengalpattu to Chennai Beach Station. stopping at all stations up to [[Chennai city]] [[Tambaram]]. Express trains are available, running from Chengalpattu to [[Chennai city]] area's [[Tambaram]], [[Guindy]], [[Mambalam]], [[Egmore]], [[Park]] and finally Beach Station.

=== By road ===

There are many buses connecting Chengalpattu with other parts of the state and beyond.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}} Kanchipuram - Chengalpattu road (State Highway - 58) is used to connect the city of Kanchipuram and Chengalpattu. Government MTC Buses and private buses which go to and from cities like Kanchipuram, Vellore, and Tirupati can be seen frequently along this route. The town of Mahabalipuram lies 29 km away from Chengalpattu and is connected through SH58.

==Education==
Various educational institutions are in Chengalpattu like schools, engineering colleges, dental and medical colleges, and arts/science colleges.

===Arts and science===
* [[Rajeswari Vedachalam Government Arts College]]
* Vidyasagar Women's College

===Law===
* [[Government Law College, Chengalpattu]]

===Medical===
* [[Chengalpet Medical College|Chengalpet Government Medical College]]
* Karpaga Vinayaga Institute of Medical Science
*National Institute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities (Govt of India - Ministry Of Social Justice and Empowerment)

===Dental===
* Asan Memorial Dental College and Hospital
* Karpaga Vinayaga Institute of Dental Science

===Nursing===
* Karpaga Vinayaga Institute of Nursing
* School of Nursing, Chengalpattu Government Hospital
* Government College of Nursing

===Engineering===
* Asan Memorial College of Engineering & Technology

===Schools===
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Chengalpattu.<ref name="rkmission">{{Cite web|title=Schools {{!}} Ramakrishna Mission, Chengalpattu|url=https://rkmissionchengalpattu.org/Schools|access-date=2021-09-05|website=rkmissionchengalpattu.org|language=en-US}}</ref>
* Swamy Vivekananda Vidhyalaya Matric School, Chengalpattu
* Sri Ramakrishna Boys.Hr.Sec.school
* Seventh Day Adventist Matric. Hr. Sec.School, Chengalpattu
* Blessings Matric Hr. Sec. School
* Brindhavan Public School
* CSI Alison Cassie Girls Higher Secondary School
* CSI St. Hilda's & St. Hugh's Matric Hr.Sec. School
* Government Girls Hr. Sec. School
* Guardian International Nursery School
* Little Jacky Matric. Hr. Sec. School
* Maharishi Vidhya Mandir School
* Mahindra World School
* Prasan Vidhya Mandir School
* RLT Academy Matric. Hr. Sec. School
* Sri Ramakrishna Mission Boys Hr. Sec. School<ref name="rkmission" />
* Sri Ramakrishna Mission Girls Hr. Sec. School<ref name="rkmission" />
* St. Columba's Hr. Sec. School
* CSI St. Hilda's & St. Hugh's Matric.Hr.Sec.School
* [[St. Joseph's Higher Secondary School, Chengalpattu]]
* St.Joseph's Matric. Hr. Sec. School
* Dr. MGR Nursery and Primary School, Perungalatore.
* St.Mary's Girls Hr. Sec. School
* St.Mary's Primary School
* St.Paul's Academy (CBSE)
* St.Paul's Matriculation School
* SCAD World School
* St. Ann's Matric Hr. Sec.School
* Vidhya Sagar Global School
* Annai Sathya School
* Barathi School
* Shree Vidya Mandir Matric. Hr.Sec.School
}}

==Notable persons==
* [[O. V. Alagesan]], member of first Constituent Assembly of India, born in Chengalpattu
* [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]], Indian film actor, director and producer, born in Chengalpattu
* [[Waheeda Rehman]], Indian actress born in Chengalpattu
* [[General Krishnaswamy Sundarji]], [[Chief of the Army Staff (India)]] from 1986 to 1988, born in Chengalpattu

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

* [https://chengalpattu.nic.in/ Chengalpattu District, Government of Tamilnadu]

{{Chengalpattu district}}
{{Municipalities of Tamil Nadu}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Chengalpattu district]]
[[Category:Suburbs of Chennai]]

Operation Flipper

2026-02-11T18:09:04Z

Brandon81T: quick expanded content to improve readability also and fixed typos

{{Short description|WW2 British commando raid (Nov 1941), in North Africa}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Operation Flipper or the 'Rommel Raid'
| partof = [[Operation Crusader]] during the [[Second World War]]
| image = Geoffrey Keyes VC.jpg
| image_upright = 1.0
| caption = Geoffrey Keyes VC
| date = 10–18 November 1941
| place = [[Libya]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|32|55|59|N|21|44|30|E|type:event_region:LY|display=inline,title}}
| result = Axis victory
| combatant1 = {{Flag|United Kingdom}}
| combatant2 = {{Flagcountry|Nazi Germany}} {{Flagcountry|Fascist Italy (1922–1943)}}
| commander1 = {{Flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Robert Laycock]] {{Flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Geoffrey Charles Tasker Keyes|Geoffrey Keyes]]{{KIA}}
| commander2 = {{Flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erwin Rommel]] {{Flagicon|Fascist Italy (1922–1943)}} Alfredo Mercuro
| casualties1 = 2 killed 28 captured (incl. 3 wounded)
| casualties2 = 4 killed 3 wounded
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Western Desert}}
}}
'''Operation Flipper''' (also called the '''Rommel Raid''') was a British commando raid during the [[Second World War]], mainly by men from [[No. 11 (Scottish) Commando]]. The operation included an attack on the headquarters of [[Erwin Rommel]], the commander of {{lang|de|[[Panzergruppe Afrika]]}} in [[North Africa]]. It was timed for the night of 17/18 November 1941, just before the start of [[Operation Crusader]]. The operation failed as Rommel had left the target house weeks earlier and all but two of the commandos who landed were killed or captured. One member of the [[Special Boat Section]] team, who had secured the beach for the commando party, also escaped.

==Planning==
From October to November 1941, a plan was formulated at [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|Eighth Army]] headquarters to attack: (data from Jones 2006 unless indicated){{sfn|Jones|2006|p=197}}
* Rommel's presumed headquarters near [[Bayda, Libya|Beda Littoria]], some {{convert|18|mi|km|abbr=on}} inland from [[Apollonia, Cyrenaica|Apollonia]], Libya
* a wireless station and intelligence centre at Apollonia
* an Italian headquarters and communications cable mast at [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]]
* the headquarters of the Italian [[Trieste Division]] near [[Slonta]]

Although not specified in the orders, the goal of the raid was to kill or capture Rommel, to disrupt German organisation before the start of Crusader. Rommel's headquarters was believed to be at Beda Littoria, because Captain John Haselden had reconnoitred the area disguised as an Arab and reported that Rommel's staff car came and went from the former [[Prefecture]]. The operation was led by Lieutenant-Colonel [[Robert Laycock]]; Lieutenant-Colonel [[Geoffrey Charles Tasker Keyes|Geoffrey Keyes]], present throughout the planning stage, selected the most hazardous task of the attack on Rommel's headquarters for himself. Unbeknownst to the planners, Beda Littoria had only briefly been Rommel's headquarters and had been taken over by the chief quartermaster of {{lang|de|Panzergruppe Afrika}}, General Schleusener. Some weeks earlier, Rommel had moved his headquarters nearer to [[Tobruk]] to be close to the action. Rommel was not even in North Africa during Flipper, having gone to Rome to request replacements for supply ships sunk by the British.{{sfn|Brighton|2009|p=110}}

==Raid==
===10–14/15 November===
[[File:HMS Torbay.jpg|thumb|Submarine HMS ''Torbay'']]
On 10 November, {{HMS|Torbay|N79|6}} carried Keyes, Captain Robin Campbell, Lieutenant Roy Cooke and 25 men. {{HMS|Talisman|N78|6}} transported Laycock, Captain Glennie, Lieutenant [[David Macbeth Sutherland]] and 25 men from [[Alexandria]]. On the night of 14/15 November 1941, Keyes' detachment landed on the beach of {{lang|ar|Khashm al-Kalb}} (The Dog's Nose), guided by two-man Special Boat Section (SBS) teams in folboats (folding canoes).{{sfn|Pitt|2001|p=39}} The beach lay near a place known as Hamama, some {{convert|250|mi|km|abbr=on}} behind Axis lines. Once ashore, they made contact with Haselden, delivered earlier by the [[Long Range Desert Group]] for reconnaissance. The weather deteriorated and Laycock's group had a much more difficult time getting ashore. Laycock and seven men landed but the rest were stranded on ''Talisman''. With only 34 of the 59 men available, instead of four detachments attacking the targets, there were only to be three.{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=198}} Laycock remained at the rendezvous with three men to secure the beach, Keyes led his detachment of 25 men for the attack on Rommel's supposed headquarters, while Lieutenant Cooke took six men to destroy the communications facilities near Cyrene. Haselden's detachment completed its mission and was picked up by the LRDG.

===15–18 November===
Shortly before first light, Keyes' men moved to a [[wadi]], where they sheltered until dark on the second night then moved off. Their Arab guide refused to accompany the party in the deteriorating weather. Keyes then led his men on a {{convert|1800|ft|m|abbr=on}} climb, followed by an approach march of {{convert|18|mi|km|abbr=on}} in pitch dark and torrential rain. Hiding in a cave during the day, the detachment advanced to within a few hundred yards of the objective by 22:00 on the third night. At 23:59, Keyes led his party past sentries and other defences up to the house. Unable to find an open window or door, Keyes took advantage of Campbell's excellent German by having him pound on the front door and demand entrance. They set upon the sentry who opened the door. Campbell shot him and Keyes might have been wounded in the scuffle. The official version {{which|date=April 2021}} is that Keyes opened the door to a nearby room, found Germans inside, closed it again abruptly, reopened it to hurl in a grenade and was shot by one of the Germans. Only one round was fired by the Germans during the raid on the HQ.{{sfn|Asher|2004|p=243}}

Keyes was taken outside but quickly died. Shortly afterwards, Campbell was accidentally shot in the leg by one of his own men. He passed command to Sergeant Jack Terry and remained behind. Terry gathered the raiding team and retreated with 17 men to rejoin Laycock at the beach. An Italian source, not explicit in naming the British names, points that Cooke's men encountered a platoon of Italian police paratroopers. The Italians had been searching for the British raiders close to the village Mansura (about {{cvt|15|km|mi|0|order=flip}} north of Cyrene).

===19 November===
According to the source, 2nd Lieutenant Alfredo Sandulli Mercuro and the 3rd Platoon, 2nd Company, 1° {{lang|it|Battaglione Paracadutisti Carabinieri Reali}} encountered what he thought was a band of Arabs hiding along a mountain ridge on 19 November. When Mercuro's Arabic interpreter called out to them, the Italians were fired on and the paratroopers engaged what they now knew were British commandos, who withdrew to a cave. With no way out, the wounded commandos surrendered after Mercuro threatened to use [[flamethrower]]s on them. The paratroops took prisoner a group consisting of an officer, one NCO and three other ranks. Except for the officer, all the British were wounded and received medical treatment from the Italians. Mercuro searched the cave and found small arms and three demolition charges. The Italians suffered three wounded during the fight.{{sfn|Cursi|2014|p=75}}

It proved impossible for the Laycock party to re-embark on the submarines and they waited for the weather to improve. They were discovered and exchanged fire with local Italian gendarmes (and German troops by some accounts). Aware that they could not hope to stand off the large force that was surely being organised, Laycock ordered the men to scatter. Laycock and Terry made it to safety after 37 days in the desert and Bombardier John Brittlebank, one of the SBS team who had guided the commandos in the folbots, escaped and survived alone in the desert for forty days until picked up by Allied troops. The rest of the raiding force was captured, some of them wounded. Contrary to some reports, only Keyes was killed by the Germans; one man had drowned during the landing.

==Nominal roll==
Reconstructed by Michael Asher (2004), based on a list by Hans Edelmaier, amended from documentary and witness evidence, with the assistance of the Commando Association [now defunct]. It might contain errors.{{sfn|Asher|2004|pp=310–311}}

:''Captured, unless otherwise noted.''
* Beach party
** Lt. Col. Robert Laycock, Royal Horse Guards (escaped)
** Sgt. Charles Nicol, Gordon Highlanders
** Bdr. George Dunn, Royal Artillery
** L/Cpl. Larry Codd, Royal Corps of Signals
** Pte. E.C. Atkins, Beds & Herts Regt
** Lt. John Pryor, Beds & Herts Regt & SBS (wounded and captured)
** Bdr. John Brittlebank, Royal Artillery & SBS (escaped)
** Pte. Robert Fowler, Cameron Highlanders
* German HQ assault party
** Lt. Col Geoffrey Keyes, Royal Scots Greys (killed)
** Capt. Robin Campbell, General List (wounded and captured)
** Sgt. Jack Terry, Royal Artillery (escaped)
** L/Cpl. Dennis Coulthread, Royal Scots
** L/Bdr. A. Brodie, Royal Artillery
** Cpl/Interpreter Avishalom Drori (Palestine), 51 ME Commando
* German HQ covering party
** L/Cpl. William Pryde, Cameron Highlanders
** Cpl. A.E. Radcliffe, RASC, (wounded and captured)
** Pte. John Phiminster, Cameron Highlanders
** L/Cpl. Frank Varney, Sherwood Foresters
** Bdr. Joseph Kearney, (Newfoundland) Royal Artillery
** L/Cpl. Malcolm Hughes, Manchester Regt
** Cpl. William Heavyside, Yorks & Lancs Regt
* German HQ outside covering party
** Sgt. Charles Bruce, Black Watch [Royal Highland Regt]
** Cpl. Charles Lock, London Scottish [Gordon Highlanders]
** Pte. James Bogle, Gordon Highlanders
** Pte. Robert Murray, Highland Light Infantry
* Cyrene crossroads party
** Lt. Roy Cooke, Royal W. Kent Regt
** Sgt. Frederick Birch, Liverpool Scottish [Cameron Highlanders]
** Cpl. John Kerr, Cameron Highlanders
** Gnr. James Gornall, Royal Artillery
** L/Bdr. Terence O'Hagen, Royal Artillery
** Gnr. P. Macrae, Royal Artillery
** Pte. Charles Paxton, Cameron Highlanders

==Aftermath==
On 17 November 1941, the day of the raid, Rommel was in Italy, having left for Rome on 1 November, which became known to British military intelligence via ''[[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]]'' on 17 November and that he was due back in Africa on 18 November. An emergency signal was sent to Middle East Command but was too late to stop the operation. On 15 November, a decrypt of an Italian C 38m machine cipher had revealed that the Italians knew from diverse sources that a British landing was imminent near Apollonia.{{sfn|Hinsley|1994|p=188}}

The German historian Hans Edelmaier suggests that Rommel was not the objective of the raid and his name not featuring in the plan supports this. There is no proof that Haselden reported Rommel's presence at the house in Beda and it has never been explained how Rommel was to be found or recognised by the commando unit.{{sfn|Edelmaier|2000|p=}}{{page needed|date=August 2017}} The only extant evidence that Rommel was the object of the raid came from a witness, Gunner Jim Gornall, who related that Keyes briefed the men on board the ''Torbay'' that their objective was to "get Rommel".{{sfn|Asher|2004|p=166}} When news of the raid reached him, Rommel was said to be indignant that the British should believe his headquarters was {{convert|250|mi|km|abbr=on}} behind the front; Rommel preferred to be near the front line with his troops.{{cn|date=February 2026}}

===Casualties===
The British suffered two men killed, 28 captured (three wounded) and three men escaped; German casualties were four killed and three wounded. Keyes' body and those of the four dead Germans were buried with [[military honours]] on Rommel's orders in a local Catholic cemetery.{{sfn|Mortimer|2014|p=64}} For his actions Keyes was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]]. The citation for the award was written by Robert Laycock, who contrary to British military custom, was not a witness to Keyes' actions on the night in which he was killed. Almost none of the statements in the citation are verifiable and some contradict witness accounts.{{sfn|Asher|2004|p=246}}

Sergeant Jack Terry was awarded the [[Distinguished Conduct Medal]] (DCM) and Bombardier John Brittlebank (SBS) later received the DCM for actions including the Rommel Raid. Gunner Jim Gornall was awarded the [[Military Medal]] (MM). (Another attempt, this time by an SAS group, was made to kidnap or assassinate Rommel in [[Operation Gaff]] in July 1944 but Rommel had suffered skull fractures in an RAF attack eleven days earlier.){{sfnm|1a1=Asher|1y=2004|1pp=301–304|2a1=Mortimer|2y=2014|2pp=75–77}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Asher |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Asher (explorer) |title=Get Rommel: The Secret British Mission to Kill Hitler's Greatest General |year=2004 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-297-84685-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Terry |last=Brighton |title=Masters of Battle: Monty, Patton and Rommel at War |year=2009 |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-102985-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Cursi |first=Enrico |authorlink= |series=Memori |title=I leoni de deserto : storia del primo battaglione paracadutisti Carabinieri reali, 1940–1942 |trans-title=The Lions of the Desert, History of the First Royal Carabinieri Parachute Battalion |language=Italian |year=2014 |publisher=Edizione Chillemi |location=Roma |isbn=978-88-96522-49-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Edelmaier |first=Hans |title=Das Rommel-Unternehmen: der Überfall britischer Commandos auf den vermuteten Gefechtsstand General Rommels bei Beda Littoria in der Nacht vom 17. zum 18. November 1941 |trans-title=The Raid on Rommel: The British Commando Raid on the Suspected Headquarters General Rommel at Beda Littoria on the Night of 17/18 November 1941 |language=German |year=2000 |publisher=Osterreichischer Miliz-Verlag |location=Salzburg |isbn=978-3-901185-19-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Hinsley |first=F. H. |series=History of the Second World War |title=British Intelligence in the Second World War. Its influence on Strategy and Operations (abridged) |location=London |publisher=[[HMSO]] |year=1994 |orig-year=1993 |edition=2nd rev. |isbn=978-0-11-630961-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Tim |authorlink= |title=SAS Zero Hour: The Secret Origins of the Special Air Service |year=2006 |publisher=Greenhill Books |location=London |isbn=978-1-85367-669-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Mortimer |first=G. |series=Raid |title=Kill Rommel! Operation Flipper 1941 |year=2014 |publisher=Osprey |location=Oxford |edition=ebook |isbn=978-1-4728-0111-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Pitt |first=B. |title=The Crucible of War: Auchinleck's Command |year=2001 |orig-year=1980 |volume=II |publisher=Jonathan Cape (2 vol.) |location=London |edition=repr. 3 vol. Cassell |isbn=0-304-35951-3}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.combinedops.com/Operation%20Flipper.htm Operation Flipper, Rommel's HQ, 14/18 November 1941 combinedops.com]
* [https://www.combinedops.com/Black%20Hackle.htm#Operation%20Flipper%20-%20the%20Raid%20on%20Rommel%27s%20 HQ Operation Flipper, the Raid on Rommel's HQ combinedops.com]

{{British Commando raids of the Second World War}}
{{World War II}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Flipper, Operation}}
[[Category:North African campaign]]
[[Category:Western Desert campaign]]
[[Category:Libya in World War II]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1941]]
[[Category:British Commando operations during the Second World War]]
[[Category:Military operations of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy]]
[[Category:1941 in Africa]]
[[Category:Erwin Rommel]]
[[Category:Amphibious operations of World War II|F]]
[[Category:Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom]]

Ra.One (soundtrack)

2026-02-04T21:23:42Z

Brandon81T: adjust citations for consistency and updated info

{{Short description|2011 film score by various artists}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox album
| name = Ra.One
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Vishal–Shekhar]]
| cover = RaOnealbum.jpg
| alt =
| released = 21 September 2011
| recorded = 2010–2011
| venue =
| studio = YRF Studios, [[Mumbai]] [[City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra|Smečky Music Studios]], Prague
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 59:21
| language = Hindi
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer =
* Vishal–Shekhar
* Abhijit Nalani
* Abhijit Vaghani
* Giorgio Tuinfort
* John Stewart
| prev_title = [[Rascals (2011 film)|Rascals]]
| prev_year = 2011
| next_title = [[The Dirty Picture]]
| next_year = 2011
}}
'''''Ra.One''''' is the [[soundtrack album]] composed by the duo [[Vishal–Shekhar]], to the 2011 [[Indian cinema|Indian]] [[superhero film]] [[Ra.One|of the same name]], written and directed by [[Anubhav Sinha]], and starring [[Shah Rukh Khan|Shahrukh Khan]], [[Kareena Kapoor]], [[Armaan Verma]] and [[Arjun Rampal]] in the lead roles. It also stars [[Shahana Goswami]], [[Dalip Tahil]] and Chinese-british actor [[Tom Wu]] in supporting roles, along with [[Rajinikanth]], [[Sanjay Dutt]] and [[Priyanka Chopra]] making cameo appearances.

The film is jointly produced by [[Eros International]] and Khan's production company, [[Red Chillies Entertainment]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/SRK-on---Ra-1------Don-2---and-Yash-Chopra--s-next/574434|author=Bollywood Hungama News Network|title=SRK on 'Ra-1', 'Don 2' and Yash Chopra's next|date=2 February 2010|work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=11 February 2010}}</ref> and was originally scheduled to release on 3 June 2011. However, due to extensive post-production work involving special effects and the [[Stereoscopy|3D]] conversion, its release was postponed, and saw a worldwide opening during the [[Diwali|Diwali weekend]] of 26 October 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessofcinema.com/news.php?newsid=17286|title=Shah Rukh Khan's Ra.One postponed to Diwali 2011|date=17 November 2010|work=BusinessofCinema|access-date=17 November 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120102855/http://businessofcinema.com/news.php?newsid=17286|archive-date=20 November 2010}}</ref> The album features fifteen tracks, and was released on 21 September 2011 by [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]].

==Production==
The soundtrack of ''Ra.One'' was composed by [[Vishal–Shekhar]] whilst the lyrics were penned by Atahar Panchi, Vishal Dadlani, [[Kumaar]], [[Anubhav Sinha]] and [[Anvita Dutt Guptan]]. In addition to composing the film's soundtrack, the music directors brought together the 200-piece [[Prague Philharmonic Orchestra]] to record the film's background score. They said, "Shahrukh and Anubhav wanted a particular sound and we have managed to bring it alive for [the film]."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.asianage.com/bollywood/raone-s-music-goes-places-257|author=Tuteja, Joginder|title=Ra.One's music goes places|date=5 September 2011|work=[[Asian Age]]|access-date=7 September 2010}}</ref>

Director Anubhav Sinha announced that the soundtrack would also feature two songs recorded by [[Senegalese American]] [[R&B]] singer [[Akon]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/akon-records-a-song-for-shah-rukhs-ra.one/589138/|author=Express News Service|title=Akon in city, lends voice to SRK's Ra.1|date=9 March 2010|work=The Indian Express|access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref> It is said that [[Shah Rukh Khan|Shahrukh Khan]] met the singer in New York and became his "big fan", then he asked him to fly down to India to record a song for the film.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/Kareena-marries-Akon-SRK/articleshow/5663747.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928085645/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-03-10/news-interviews/28128252_1_akon-shahrukh-superhero | url-status=live | archive-date=28 September 2012 | title=Kareena marries Akon, SRK! | access-date=23 September 2011 | work=[[The Times of India]] | date=10 March 2010}}</ref> Akon arrived to [[Mumbai]] in March 2010 for two days to record both the songs ''Chammak Challo'' and ''Criminal''.<ref name="Filmfare">{{cite web|url=http://www.filmfare.com/articles/akon-to-sing-for-srk-for-free-552.html|title=Akon in India for Ra.One|work=[[Filmfare]]|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> Shahrukh Khan, [[Kareena Kapoor]] and Ra.One director Anubhav Sinha held a press conference to declare the association of the [[Grammy Award]] winning singer with the film.<ref name="press con">{{cite web|url=http://videos.oneindia.in/watch/18038/shahrukh-kareena-welcome-akon.html|title=SRK welcomes Akon|work=Oneindia|access-date=21 September 2011|archive-date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329233854/http://videos.oneindia.in/watch/18038/shahrukh-kareena-welcome-akon.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The song ''Chammak Challo'' was co-composed by Akon and was recorded at the Yash Raj Studios.<ref name="Filmfare"/> The makers of the film have complied with international copyright laws and have obtained the license to use [[Ben E. King]]'s song, "''[[Stand by Me (Ben E. King song)|Stand By Me]]''", on which they have based the song "''Dildaara''".<ref name="NDTV">{{cite web|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?ID=ENTEN20110184255&keyword=music&subcatg=MUSICINDIA&nid=134111|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|author-link=Indo-Asian News Service|title=Music Review: SRK's Ra.One|work=[[NDTV]]|publisher=Prannoy Roy Publications|date=16 September 2011|access-date=16 September 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923150631/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?ID=ENTEN20110184255&keyword=music&subcatg=MUSICINDIA&nid=134111|archive-date=23 September 2011}}</ref>

The song ''Jiya Mora Ghabraaye'' was originally composed as an instrumental piece as a part of the background score, but due to great appreciation from the production team, it was eventually converted into an original track and added to the album. Music producer, [[Abhijit Vaghani]] stated: "Our mindset was in the zone of all superhero movies for the score (...) I've taken my engineers in my car along with a mike and recorded sounds from inside my car. The point of this was, one of the pieces, which was the 'chase' sequence was so loved by all that it eventually got converted into a track called 'Jiya Mora'. I also added the 'dub step' in the middle of the track."<ref name="Musicprod">{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/features/2011/10/12/8009/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014232619/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/features/2011/10/12/8009/|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 October 2011|author=Patel, Devansh |title=SRK loved the score of Ra.One immensely|work=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=12 October 2011|access-date=16 October 2011}}</ref> Vaghani also revealed that they have created a Spanish piece which he has sung in as well, it consists of an interaction scene between the two people. They have also called a Spanish translator to come up with the lyrics. The piece however, was not included in the soundtrack.<ref name="Musicprod"/>

Music rights was bought by T-Series for a record sum of {{INRConvert|150|m}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/ra.one-rakes-in-moolah-even-before-release/849345/3|work=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]]|location=India|title=Ra.One rakes in moolah even before release|date=21 September 2011|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref>

==Release==
[[File:Ra.One audio launch.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ra.One audio launch]]
The soundtrack was heavily promoted pre-release.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.radioandmusic.com/content/editorial/news/t-series-acquires-music-rights-salman-khan-starrer-dabangg-2-kick|title=After the magnum opus music promotion of the mega-budget film 'RA.One' |date=18 August 2011|work=radioandmusic.com|access-date=15 October 2011}}</ref> The music of the film was dedicated to [[Yash Johar]] and Bobby Chawla.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/music/news-and-interviews/SRK-dedicates-Ra-One-music-to-Yash-Johar/articleshow/9967840.cms|title=SRK dedicates ''Ra.One'' music to Yash Johar|work=The Times of India|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|date=13 September 2011|access-date=23 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914114635/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/music/news-and-interviews/SRK-dedicates-Ra-One-music-to-Yash-Johar/articleshow/9967840.cms|archive-date=14 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Originally scheduled to release on 21 September 2011, the film's entire music album was leaked online two days earlier.<ref>{{cite news|author=Dubey, Bharati|date=19 September 2011|title=Ra.One's music leaked two days before release|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-10/news-interviews/30139252_1_audio-release-raone-srk-t-series|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106133937/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-10/news-interviews/30139252_1_audio-release-raone-srk-t-series|url-status=dead|archive-date=6 November 2012|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=19 September 2011}}</ref> Four months prior to this, the rough version of "Chammak Challo" was leaked on the internet in May 2011.<ref name="Legalnotice">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Shah-Rukh-Khan-sues-a-jewellery-brand/Article1-734627.aspx|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125184553/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Shah-Rukh-Khan-sues-a-jewellery-brand/Article1-734627.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2013|title=Shah Rukh Khan sues a jewellery brand|date=18 August 2011|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=30 August 2011}}</ref> In August, T-Series sent a legal notice to a jewellery brand for illegally using the unreleased song at the India International Jewellery Week 2011, asking for a compensation of {{Indian Rupee}} 20 million.<ref name="Legalnotice"/>

The film's music launch took place in a huge set at Mumbai's [[Film City, Mumbai|Film City]] where performances were seen by the film's music directors and cast members. The star studded event's telecast rights were sold to a TV channel for {{INRConvert|100|m}}.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-25/news-interviews/30200118_1_srk-s-red-chillies-shah-rukh-khan-anubhav-sinha/3 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710143529/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-25/news-interviews/30200118_1_srk-s-red-chillies-shah-rukh-khan-anubhav-sinha/3 | url-status=dead | archive-date=10 July 2012 | title=Ra.One challenges Shah Rukh Khan, the star | date=25 September 2011 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=26 September 2011}}</ref> [[Radio Mirchi]] ran a contest through which it gave its listeners a chance to not only attend the music launch event but also meet the stars of the film.<ref>{{cite web|author=RnM Team|date=22 September 2011|title=Mirchi listeners meet their superhero!|url=http://www.radioandmusic.com/content/editorial/news-releases/mirchi-listeners-meet-their-superhero|access-date=22 September 2011|work=[[Radio Mirchi]]}}</ref>

The [[Tamil language|Tamil]] version of the audio was released in Satyam Cinemas, [[Chennai]] on 5 October 2011. Shahrukh Khan along with [[Mani Ratnam]], [[Suhasini Maniratnam]], [[Santosh Sivan]], [[Soundarya Rajinikanth]] and Abirami Ramanathan were present in the occasion.<ref name="tamil1">{{cite web|date=6 October 2011|title=Ra.One's Tamil version audio launched|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/video/entertainment/20/ra.ones-tamil-version-audio-launched/6309|access-date=6 October 2011|work=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref name="tamil2">{{cite web|date=5 October 2011|title='Ra.One' audio launch in Chennai – An entertaining affair|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/article/71871.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011124855/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/hindi/article/71871.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 October 2011|access-date=6 October 2011|work=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> The songs of the film have also been dubbed in Telugu, which was released on 9 October 2011. The lyrics for the Tamil version have been penned by [[Vairamuthu]] while the lyrics for the Telugu version have been penned by [[Vanamali]], Rajshri Sudhakar and [[Bhuvana Chandra|Bhuvanachandra]]. Both the versions of the album have been met by a huge positive response from the audience in south India.<ref name="songsTm">{{cite web|title=Ra.One songs take Tamil listeners by storm|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2011/ra-one-songs-take-tamil-listeners-storm-121011.html|access-date=8 October 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130108071542/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/tamil/news/2011/ra-one-songs-take-tamil-listeners-storm-121011.html|archive-date=8 January 2013}}</ref>

Due to the extremely positive response for the album, especially the song ''Chammak challo'', Akon decided to branch out and make tracks especially for [[Bollywood]] projects and now wants to have a dedicated branch into producing music for Bollywood with [[Music of India|local talent]].<ref name=songsTI>{{cite news|title=Ra.One songs take Tamil listeners by storm|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/news/akons-big-plans-for-bollywood/articleshow/10353589.cms|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103113554/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-15/news-and-interviews/30279764_1_singer-akon-bollywood-big-plans|url-status=live|archive-date=3 January 2013|access-date=15 October 2011 |work=[[The Times of India]]|date=15 October 2011}}</ref> Sinha later revealed that there remained eight songs not selected for the final soundtrack, and that there was a possibility of releasing them in a separate album.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/3314|title=Anubhav Sinha on his next and unused songs of ''Ra.One''|work=Bollywood Hungama|date=25 April 2012|access-date=27 April 2012|author=Ramsubramaniam, Nikhil|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428002008/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/3314|archive-date=28 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Reception==
{{Music ratings
| rev1 = [[Filmfare]]
| rev1Score = {{Rating|5|5}}
|
| rev2 = [[Bollywood Hungama]]
| rev2Score = {{Rating|4.5|5}}
|
| rev3 = [[Hindustan Times]]
| rev3Score = {{Rating|3.5|5}}
|
| rev4 = [[Rediff.com]]
| rev4Score = {{Rating|3.5|5}}
|
}}

===Critical reception===
Upon release, the album was met by overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics. Joginder Tuteja from [[Bollywood Hungama]] gave it 4.5 out of 5 stars, concluding: "''Ra.One'' has brilliancy written all over it and is clearly a huge winner all the way. It isn't just the grandest score of the year but is also one of the hugest ever that has come out of Bollywood. Music here not just meets the huge expectations but also surpasses it at various junctures, hence making it a satiating experience for the listener. A definite choice of the season."<ref>{{cite web|author=Tuteja, Joginder|date=23 September 2011|title=Ra.One: Music Review|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/musicreview/14208/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108022110/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/musicreview/14208/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 January 2010|access-date=1 October 2011|work=Bollywood Hungama}}</ref>

According to Devesh Sharma from ''[[Filmfare]]'', who gave the music a rating of 5 stars from 5, the album is "worth every penny!" further adding: "A truly international album for a truly international film. The orchestration, programming and vocals fuse together to make it a truly world class album. Vishal–Shekhar have raised the bar and Ra.One would be a tough act to follow, not only for them but for others as well."<ref name="FFReview">{{cite web|title=Ra.1 Music worth every penny|url=http://www.filmfare.com/articles/raone-2774.html|access-date=1 October 2011|work=[[Filmfare]]}}</ref>

[[Indo-Asian News Service]] rated the album favourably and said: "To cut a long story short, the album delivers big-time as composer duo Vishal-Shekhar pack a killer punch. ''Ra.One'', therefore, lives up to expectations and perhaps even surpasses some. It's more than worth it, it's a winner all the way."<ref name="ndtv">{{cite web|agency=Indo-Asian News Service|author-link=Indo-Asian News Service|date=25 September 2011|title=Music Review: SRK's Ra.One|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?ID=ENTEN20110184255&keyword=music&subcatg=MUSICINDIA&nid=134111|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923150631/http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?ID=ENTEN20110184255&keyword=music&subcatg=MUSICINDIA&nid=134111|archive-date=23 September 2011|access-date=1 October 2011|work=[[NDTV]]|publisher=Prannoy Roy Publications}}</ref>

''[[The Times of India]]'' gave it a thumbs up and added: "The album of the film lives up to the expectations, thanks to composers Vishal-Shekhar for packing a musical punch for the sci-fi movie. The album is worth buying and offers some interesting and entertaining tracks. Kudos to the music composers!"<ref>{{cite news|author=Kher, Ruchika|date=26 September 2011|title=Ra.One|work=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/music/music-reviews/RA-One/articleshow/10005520.cms|access-date=1 October 2011}}</ref>

The ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' gave the album 3.5 stars from 5 and elaborating: "Shahrukh Khan's RA.One has been generating curiosity since beginning and expectations have been high from its music as well. The album of the film lives up to the expectations, thanks to composers Vishal-Shekhar for packing a musical punch for the sci-fi movie (..) On the whole the album is worth buying and offers some interesting and entertaining tracks. Kudos to the music composers!"<ref name="Review4">{{cite web|title=Ra.1 M.R|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Thumbs-up-to-RA-One-s-music/Article1-746348.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923183352/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Thumbs-up-to-RA-One-s-music/Article1-746348.aspx|archive-date=23 September 2011|access-date=1 October 2011|work=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

[[Sukanya Verma]] from [[Rediff.com]] gave it 3.5 stars and noted: "Vishal-Shekhar eventually succeed in emulating that all-important larger-than-life appeal. There's no denying this. ''Ra.One'', with all its pomp and pizzazz, is a thoroughly enjoyable soundtrack. It's grand. It's great. It's, well, give it a shot."<ref>{{cite web|author=Verma, Sukanya|date=21 September 2011|title=Review: Ra.One songs are a great listen|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-ra-one/20110913.htm|access-date=1 October 2011|work=Rediff.com}}</ref>

==Track listing==
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing (Hindi)
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 59:21
| title1 = [[Chammak Challo]]
| extra1 = [[Akon]], [[Hamsika Iyer]], [[Blaaze]]
| lyrics1 = [[Vishal–Shekhar]], [[Niranjan Iyengar]]
| length1 = 3:46
| title2 = Dildaara
| extra2 = [[Shafqat Amanat Ali]], [[Vishal Dadlani]], [[Shekhar Ravjiani]], [[Clinton Cerejo]]
| lyrics2 = [[Kumaar]]
| length2 = 4:09
| title3 = Criminal
| extra3 = Akon, Vishal Dadlani, [[Shruti Pathak]]
| lyrics3 = Kumaar
| length3 = 5:06
| title4 = Bhare Naina
| extra4 = [[Nandini Srikar]], Vishal Dadlani, Shekhar Ravjiani
| lyrics4 = Panchhi Jalonvi
| length4 = 6:00
| title5 = Right By Your Side
| extra5 = Siddharth Coutto
| lyrics5 = [[Anvita Dutt Guptan]]
| length5 = 4:22
| title6 = Raftaarein
| extra6 = Vishal Dadlani, Shekhar Ravjiani, [[Jolly Mukherjee]]
| lyrics6 = [[Vishal Dadlani]]
| length6 = 4:29
| title7 = Jiya Mora Ghabraaye
| extra7 = [[Sukhwinder Singh]], Vishal Dadlani
| lyrics7 = [[Anubhav Sinha]]
| length7 = 4:37
| title8 = Chammak Challo
| note8 = Punjabi Mix
| extra8 = Akon, Hamsika Iyer
| length8 = 3:57
| title9 = Comes The Light
| note9 = Theme
| extra9 = Instrumental
| length9 = 1:34
| title10 = I'm On
| note10 = Theme
| extra10 = Instrumental
| length10 = 1:21
| title11 = Song of the End
| note11 = Theme
| extra11 = Instrumental
| length11 = 1:47
| title12 = Chammak Challo
| note12 = Club Mix
| extra12 = Akon, Hamsika Iyer
| length12 = 4:17
| title13 = Criminal
| note13 = Club Mix
| extra13 = Akon, Vishal Dadlani, Shruti Pathak
| length13 = 5:33
| title14 = Chammak Challo
| note14 = International
| extra14 = Akon
| length14 = 3:47
| title15 = Chammak Challo
| note15 = Remix
| extra15 = Akon, Hamsika Iyer
| length15 = 4:36
| all_writing =
| note2 = Stand by Me
| note7 = The Chase
| lyrics12 = Vishal–Shekhar, Niranjan Iyengar
| lyrics13 = Kumaar
| lyrics14 = Vishal–Shekhar, Niranjan Iyengar
| lyrics15 = Vishal–Shekhar, Niranjan Iyengar
}}
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing (Telugu)
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 25:49
| title1 = Nuvve Naa [[Chammak Challo]]
| extra1 = Vishal Dadlani, Akon (English lines), Hamsika Iyer
| length1 = 3:46
| title2 = Vanchichina (Criminal)
| extra2 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]], Akon (Chorus), [[Pop Shalini|Shalini Singh]]
| length2 = 5:06
| title3 = O Priyatama
| extra3 = Shankar Mahadevan, [[Unni Menon]], [[Mithoon]]
| length3 = 4:09
| title4 = Em Naatone
| extra4 = [[Chinmayi Sripada|Chinmayi]]
| length4 = 6:00
| title5 = Alaano Ilaano
| extra5 = [[Naresh Iyer]]
| length5 = 4:20
| title6 = Sandramlaa
| extra6 = Shankar Mahadevan
| length6 = 4:28
| lyrics6 = [[Bhuvana Chandra]]
| lyrics4 = Vanamali
| lyrics3 = Vanamali
| lyrics2 = Rajshri Sudhakar
| lyrics1 = [[Vanamali]]
| length10 =
| length9 =
| title10 =
| title9 =
| length8 =
| title8 =
| length7 =
| title7 =
| all_writing =
| lyrics5 = Vanamali
}}
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing (Tamil)
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 25:49
| title1 = Muthada [[Chammak Challo]]
| extra1 = Vishal Dadlani, Akon (English lines), Hamsika Iyer,
| length1 = 3:46
| title2 = Pachai Poove
| extra2 = Shankar Mahadevan, Akon (Chorus), Shalini Singh
| length2 = 5:06
| title3 = Poovulagamaa
| extra3 = Shankar Mahadevan, Unni Menon, Mithoon
| length3 = 4:09
| title4 = En Uyir
| extra4 = Chinmayi
| length4 = 6:00
| title5 = Ulagam Ulagam
| extra5 = Naresh Iyer
| length5 = 4:20
| title6 = Yarukum Nenje
| extra6 = Shankar Mahadevan
| length6 = 4:28
| all_writing = [[Vairamuthu]]
| title7 =
| length7 =
| title8 =
| length8 =
| title9 =
| length9 =
| title10 =
| length10 =
}}

==Awards==
; [[Filmfare Awards]] (Nominated)
*[[Filmfare Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]] – [[Vishal–Shekhar]]
*[[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyricist]] – Vishal Dadlani & Niranjan Iyengar – Chammak Challo
*[[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] – Akon & Vishal Dadlani for Chammak Challo
*[[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] – [[Shafqat Amanat Ali]] for [[Dildaara (Stand by me)|Dildaara]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Ra.One}}
[[Category:2011 soundtrack albums]]
[[Category:Ra.One]]
[[Category:Hindi film soundtracks]]
[[Category:T-Series (company) soundtracks]]

List of festivals observed at Jagannatha Temple, Puri

2026-02-04T21:09:38Z

Brandon81T: minor changes

{{short description|None}}

[[File:Rath Yatra Puri 07-11027.jpg|thumb|300px|The Rath Yatra in Puri in modern times showing the three chariots of the deities with the Temple in the background]]

There are elaborate daily worship services. There are many festivals each year attended by millions of people. A large number of traditional festivals are observed by the devotees of Jagannath. Out of those numerous festivals, twelve are important.<ref name="Miśra2007">{{cite book|author=Narayan Miśra|title=Annals and Antiquities of the Temple of Jagannātha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKUkLzqNv64C&pg=PA143|access-date=28 December 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-747-3|pages=143–}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=10em}}
#[[Snana Yatra]]
#[[Ratha Yatra (Puri)|Ratha Yatra]] or Sri Gundicha Yatra
# Sri Hari Sayan
# Utthapan Yatra
# Parswa Paribartan
# Dakhinayan Yatra
# Prarbana Yatra
# Pusyavishek
#[[Uttarayana|Uttarayan]]
#[[Holi|Dola Yatra]]
# Damanak Chaturdasi<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jagannathtemplepuri.com/article/id/726/damanaka-chaturdasi |title=Damanaka Chaturdasi - Jagannath Temple |first= |last= |work=jagannathtemplepuri.com |quote=This falls in the month of Chaitra. On this day, the deities pay a visit to the garden of the celebrated Jagannath Vallabha Matha where they pick-up the tender leaves of the Dayanaa unnoticed by anybody. |access-date=21 December 2012 |archive-date=14 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914231738/http://jagannathtemplepuri.com/article/id/726/damanaka-chaturdasi |url-status=live }}</ref>
# [[Akshaya Tritiya]]
{{div col end}}

==Snana Yatra==
{{main|Snana Yatra}}
On the [[Full Moon|Purnima]] of the month of [[Jyestha]] the Gods are ceremonially bathed and decorated every year on the occasion of [[Snana Yatra]].

==Ratha Yatra==
{{main|Ratha Yatra (Puri)}}
[[File:Suna Vesha or Golden Attire of Lord Shri Jagannath of Puri.jpg|thumb|Suna Vesha or Golden Attire of Lord Jagannath]]

Ratha Yatra is most significant of all festivals of Jagannath. The Jagannath triad are usually worshiped in the sanctum of the temple, but once during the month of [[Asadha]] (Rainy Season of [[Odisha]], usually falling in month of June or July), they are brought out onto the Bada Danda (The main high street of Puri) and travel (3 km) to the Shri [[Gundicha Temple]], in huge chariots (Rath), allowing the public to have [[Darśana|Darshan]] (Holy view). This festival is known as Ratha Yatra, meaning the festival (Yatra) of the chariots (Ratha). Ratha-Yatra is also termed as the Shri Gundicha yatra.

This spectacular festival includes a procession of three huge chariots bearing the idols of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra through the '''Bada Danda''' meaning the Grand Avenue of Puri till their final destination the [[Gundicha Temple]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rathyatra.fullodisha.com/ |title=Rath Yatra 2013 live, Puri |first= |last= |work=rathyatra.fullorissa.com |quote=As part of Rath Yatra, the idols of Lord Puri Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra and Subhadra are taken out in a procession to Gundicha Temple |access-date=22 December 2012 |archive-date=9 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909105500/http://rathyatra.fullodisha.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Hera Panchami ===
{{main|Hera Panchami}}
Hera Panchami is known as a ritual of Maa [[Lakshmi|Mahalakshmi]]. Celebrated on the fifth day from Rath Yatra i.e. fifth day in bright fortnight of Ashadha.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jagannathdham.com/hera-panchami/ |title=Hera Panchami – Articles - Jagannath Dham |work=jagannathdham.com |year=2012 |quote=It is celebrated on Ashada Shukla Panchami, fifth day in bright fortnight of Ashad month in Oriya calendar. |access-date=25 June 2012 |archive-date=14 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814035415/http://www.jagannathdham.com/hera-panchami/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.shreekhetra.com/carfestival2.html | title=RITUALS OF CAR FESTIVAL OF PURI | quote=‘Hera’ means to ‘see’ and ‘Panchami’ means the ‘fifth day’. | access-date=June 25, 2012 | archive-date=May 11, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511103651/http://shreekhetra.com/carfestival2.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Hari Sayan==
{{see also|Shayani Ekadashi}}
This is the sayana utsav (sleeping ceremony) of the Lord. Sri Hari Sayan festival of Lord Jagannath is observed on the Asadha sukla edadashi (June–July).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://orissa.oriyaonline.com/srihari_sayan.html |title=Lord Jagannath:Festivals - Sri Hari Sayan, Festival of Lord jagannath, Jagannath Puri, Jagganth Temple of Puri | orissa.oriyaonline.com |first= |last= |work=orissa.oriyaonline.com |quote=Sri Hari Sayan festival of Lord Jagannath is observed on the 11th day of the bright night of Asadha (June–July). |access-date=27 December 2012 |archive-date=16 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121216131518/http://orissa.oriyaonline.com/srihari_sayan.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Chandan Yatra==
{{main|Chandan Yatra}}
In [[Akshaya Tritiya]] every year the [[Chandan Yatra]] festival marks the commencement of the construction of the Chariots of the Ratha Yatra.

==Panchaka==
{{main|Panchaka}}
During panchaka many people wait for different [[Beshas of Jagannath|Beshas]] of deities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jagannath.orissaculture.com/Festives%20%26%20Festivals/Festivals-2.html |title=FESTIVALS OF LORD JAGANNATH, BALABHADRA, SUBHADRA |first= |last= |work=jagannath.orissaculture.com |year=2009 |quote=PANCHAK VESA - Started from the beginning of 11th day of bright fortnight to Full Moon of Kartika. |access-date=22 December 2012 |archive-date=25 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525073429/http://jagannath.orissaculture.com/Festives%20%26%20Festivals/Festivals-2.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Different vesha like Dalakia vesha, Adakia vesha, Laksmi Nrusingha Vesha, Trivikrama vesha and finally on the day of Kartik Purnima lord is decorated in Rajarajeswara vesha.

==Nabakalebara==
{{main|Nabakalebara}}
One of the most grandiloquent events associated with the Lord Jagannath, Naba Kalabera takes place when one lunar month of Ashadha is followed by another lunar month of Aashadha. This can take place in 8, 12 or even 18 years.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.jagannathpuritourism.com/festival-puri.htm |title= Rath Yatra | Jagannath Rath Yatra | |first= |last= |work= jagannathpuritourism.com |quote= These wood logs in every 8-19years in the month of Asadha (June–July) when a leap year fall in the same month as per the lunar calendar. |access-date= 22 December 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121017182028/http://www.jagannathpuritourism.com/festival-puri.htm |archive-date= 17 October 2012 |url-status= dead }}</ref> Literally meaning the “New Body” (Nava = New, Kalevar = Body). The event involves installation of new images in the temple<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.templenet.com/Orissa/puri.html |title=Jagannath Temple at Puri |first= |last= |work=templenet.com |quote=the wooden images being worshipped are renewed during special occasions |access-date=22 December 2012 |archive-date=2 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102085247/http://templenet.com/Orissa/puri.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and burial of the old ones in the temple premises at Koili Vaikuntha. The idols that are currently being worshipped in the temple premises were installed in the year 1996.
Presently in the year of 2015 Nabakalebara was held after 19 years.

==Anavasara or Anasara==
Literally means vacation. Every year, the main idols of [[Jagannath]], [[Balabhadra]], [[Subhadra]] & [[Sudarshana Chakra|Sudarshan]] after the holy [[Snana Yatra]] on the [[Jyeshtha (month)|Jyestha]] [[purnima (day)|purnima]], go to a secret altar named ''Anavasara Ghar'' where they remain for the next dark fortnight (krishna paksha). Hence devotees are not allowed to view them. Instead of this devotees go to nearby place [[Brahmagiri, Odisha|Brahmagiri]] to see their beloved lord in the form of four handed form Alarnath a form of [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jagannathdham.com/alarnatha/ |title=Alarnatha – Articles - Jagannath Dham |work=jagannathdham.com |year=2012 |quote=peoples believe that Lord Jagannath during this time manifests as Alarnath Dev, |access-date=16 May 2012 |archive-date=14 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814035656/http://www.jagannathdham.com/alarnatha/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Then people get the first glimpse of lord on the day before [[Rath Yatra]], which is called '''[[Nabayaubana]]''. It is said that the gods fall in fever after taking a huge bath and they are treated by the special servants named, Daitapatis for 15 days. During this period cooked food is not offered to the deities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nilachakra.org/Temple/festivals.htm |title=Festivals of Lord Sri Jagannath |work=nilachakra.org |year=2010 |quote=suffer from fever on the account of elaborate bath and for that they are kept in dietary provisions (No cooked food is served) and are nursed by the Daitas |access-date=16 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022015102/http://nilachakra.org/Temple/festivals.htm |archive-date=22 October 2012 }}</ref>

==Niladri Bije==
Celebrated on Asadha Trayodashi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nilachakra.org/Temple/festivals.htm |title=Festivals of Lord Sri Jagannath |work=nilachakra.org |year=2010 |quote=NILADRI BIJE - Celebrated on 13th day of bright fortnight of Asadha. |access-date=3 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022015102/http://nilachakra.org/Temple/festivals.htm |archive-date=22 October 2012 }}</ref>
Niladri Bije is the concluding day of Ratha yatra. On this day deities return to the ratna bedi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oneindia.com/2007/07/26/ocean-of-devotees-on-grand-road-to-witness-sunavesh-1185471289.html |title=Ocean of devotees on Grand road to witness Sunavesh |work=Oneindia |year=2012 |quote=entering in to the sanctum sanctorum popularly called called Niladri Bije |access-date=3 July 2012 |archive-date=23 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523141223/http://news.oneindia.in/2007/07/26/ocean-of-devotees-on-grand-road-to-witness-sunavesh-1185471289.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://puriwaves.nirmalya.in/rathyatra2011/niladri-bije-lord-jagannath-returning-to-shree-mandir |title=Niladri Bije – Lord Jagannath Returning to Shree Mandir | PURIWAVES |work=puriwaves.nirmalya.in |year=2012 |quote=‘Niladri Bije’, the return journey to Shree Mandir. It is the welcome festival of Lord Jagannath to Shree Mandir |access-date=3 July 2012 |archive-date=26 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126105030/http://puriwaves.nirmalya.in/rathyatra2011/niladri-bije-lord-jagannath-returning-to-shree-mandir |url-status=live }}</ref> Lord Jagannath offers [[Rasgulla]] to goddess Mahalakshmi to enter into the temple.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://vv.telegraphindia.com/1120703/jsp/odisha/story_15682727.jsp#.T_JfDZFxzcc |title=Lord placates wife with sweet delight |work=vv.telegraphindia.com |year=2012 |quote=Lord Jagannath tries to mollify His wife by offering her rasagollas, so that she lets Him enter the temple with His siblings |access-date=3 July 2012 |location=Calcutta, India }}{{dead link|date=February 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/chandigarh/77507-lord-jagannath-placates-angry-mahalakshmi-reenters-temple.html |title=Lord Jagannath placates angry Mahalakshmi, reenters temple |work=dailypioneer.com |year=2012 |quote=Jagannath then offers Mahalakshmi rasgullas to placate her and to forgive him |access-date=3 July 2012 |archive-date=24 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524140414/http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/chandigarh/77507-lord-jagannath-placates-angry-mahalakshmi-reenters-temple.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Gupta Gundicha==
The annual ''shodasha dinatmaka'' or 16 day puja beginning 8 days prior to [[Mahalaya]] of [[Ashwin]] month for goddess [[Vimala Temple#Religious significance|Vimala]] and ending on [[Vijayadashami]], is of great importance, in which both the utsava murty of lord [[krishna|Madanmohan]] and Vimala take part.

Celebrated for 16 days from Ashwina Krushna dwitiya to Vijayadashami.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.telegraphindia.com/1101011/jsp/orissa/story_13041645.jsp |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120619092615/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1101011/jsp/orissa/story_13041645.jsp |url-status= dead |archive-date= June 19, 2012 |title=The Telegraph - Calcutta (Kolkata) | Orissa | Gupta Gundicha attracts devotees |first= Namita |last=Panda |work=telegraphindia.com |quote=Beginning from Ashwina Krishna dwitiya to the last day of Dusherra, |access-date=20 December 2012 |location=Calcutta, India |date=11 October 2010}}</ref>
As per tradition, the idol of Madhaba, along with the idol of Goddess Durga (known as Durgamadhaba), is taken on a tour of the temple premises. The tour within the temple is observed for the first eight days. For the next eight days, the idols are taken outside the temple on a palanquin to the nearby Narayani temple situated in the Dolamandapa lane. After their worship, they are brought back to the temple.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://puriwaves.nirmalya.in/festivals/gupta-gundicha-in-srikhetra |title=Gupta Gundicha In Srikhetra – Start of Durga Madhab worshiping | PURIWAVES |first= |last= |work=puriwaves.nirmalya.in |quote=The Vimanbadu servants ( who carry the chariot) carry Sri Durga – Madhab ( Sri Jagannath & Jaya Durga ) in a chariot to the temple of Narayani at Dolamandap Sahi. |access-date=20 December 2012 |archive-date=22 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022062132/http://puriwaves.nirmalya.in/festivals/gupta-gundicha-in-srikhetra |url-status=live }}</ref>

Many festivals like [[holi|Dol Yatra]] in spring and [[raksha bandhan|Jhulan Yatra]] in monsoon are celebrated by temple every year. '''Pavitrotsava''' and '''Damanaka utsava''' are celebrated as per [[panchanga]] or [[panjika]]. There are special ceremonies in the month of [[Kartika (month)|Kartika]] and [[Pausha]].

* '''Pana Sankranti''': Also known or [[Vishuva Sankranti]] and [[Mesha (Indian astrology)|Mesha]] [[Sankranti]]: Special rituals are performed at the temple.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fullodisha.com/puri/temple_festivals.htm |title=Festivals of lord jagannath, puri festivals |work=fullorissa.com |year=2010 |quote=Pana Sankranti or Mahabishuba sankranti: |access-date=16 May 2012 |archive-date=24 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524154218/http://www.fullodisha.com/puri/temple_festivals.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* '''Chitalagi Amabasya''': Also known as Chitau Amabasya celebrated on Srabana [[Amavasya]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aryabhatt.com/fast_fair_festival/Festivals/Chitou%20Amavasya.htm |title=Festivals of India - CHITOU AMAVASYA |first= |last= |work=aryabhatt.com |quote='Chitalagi' or 'Chitou Amavasya' is one such festival, which falls on the new-moon day of the 'Sravana' |access-date=13 February 2013 |archive-date=20 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120023511/http://aryabhatt.com/fast_fair_festival/Festivals/Chitou%20Amavasya.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> (July–August), the gold and precious stone set Chitas those are removed from the deities on the Snana Purnima (Snana Yatra) night are again adorned on them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puribeachresorts.com/festivals-in-puri/chitalagi-amabasya.html|title=Chitalagi Amabasya - Chitalagi Amabasya Festival of Odisha - Chitalagi Amabasya Festival in Odisha|first=|last=|work=puribeachresorts.com|quote=Chitalagi Amabasya is also known as Chitau Amabasya. Chitalagi Amabasya is celebrated on the new moon day of the lunar month of Shravana.|access-date=27 December 2012|archive-date=27 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227161350/http://www.puribeachresorts.com/festivals-in-puri/chitalagi-amabasya.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Deba dipabali''': Celebrated for three days from Margasira krushna chaturdashi to shukla pratipada, Jagannath as incarnation of Sri Ram offers pinda to king Dasarath. On the second day as Krishna he offers Pinda to his original parents Basudev and Devaki and on the third day he offered Pinda to his foster parents Nanda and Jashoda.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orissapost.com/dev-deepavali-at-srimandir-lord-remembers-ancestors/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130216150827/http://www.orissapost.com/dev-deepavali-at-srimandir-lord-remembers-ancestors/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 February 2013 |title=Dev Deepavali at srimandir: Lord remembers ancestors | Orissa Post |first= |last= |work=orissapost.com |year=2012 |quote=As an incarnation of Sri Ram, he offered ‘pinda’ to king Dasarath. On the second day as Krishna, he offered ‘pinda’ to his parents Basudev and Devaki and on the third day he offered it to his foster parents Nanda and Yashoda. |access-date=3 January 2013 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Jagannath}}

[[Category:Jagannath]]
[[Category:Festivals in Jagannath]]
[[Category:Lists of religious festivals|Jagannatha Temple, Puri]]
[[Category:Lists of festivals in India|Jagannatha Temple]]
[[Category:Hindu festivals]]
[[Category:Odisha-related lists|festivals observed at Jagannatha Temple, Puri]]
[[Category:Lists of tourist attractions in Odisha|Festivals observed at Jagannatha Temple, Puri]]

E. A. Siddiq

2026-02-01T00:26:47Z

Brandon81T: creating initial article and citations...

{{Short description|Indian agricultural scientist (1937–2026)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = E. A. Siddiq
| image = EA Siddiq interviewed by International Rice Research Institute (cropped).jpg
| imagesize =
| alt = Headshot of Siddiq in a blue shirt against a white background
| caption = Siddiq in 2015
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1937|07|15|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Ilayangudi]], composite [[Ramanathapuram district|Ramnad district]], [[Madras Province]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and given age|df=yes|2026|1|22|88}}
| death_place = [[Hyderabad]], [[Telangana]], India
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| occupation = Agricultural scientist
| yearsactive =
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| children =
| parents =
| website = 
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] Hari Om Ashram Trust National Award [[VASVIK Industrial Research Award]] [[Om Prakash Bhasin Award]] [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Award]] [[Borlaug Award]] [[Directorate of Rice Research|DRR]] Silver Jubilee Medal [[Indian National Science Academy|INSA]] Silver Jubilee Medal GP Chatterjee Memorial Lecture Award Agricultural Leadership Award [[INSA]] Professor Sundar Lal Hora Medal [[National Academy of Agricultural Sciences|NAAS]] Dr. B. P. Pal Memorial Award
}}

'''Ebrahimali Abubacker Siddiq''' (15 July 1937 – 22 January 2026) was an Indian agricultural scientist, whose research in [[genetics]] and [[plant breeding]] assisted in the development of various high-yielding rice varieties, such as dwarf [[basmati]] and hybrid rice.<ref name="ABF">{{cite web |date=2014 |title=Prof E A Siddiq |url=http://www.abfindia.org/PeopleECMSiddiq.aspx |url-status=live |access-date=22 November 2014 |publisher=ABF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019142158/http://www.abfindia.org:80/PeopleECMSiddiq.aspx |archive-date=19 October 2015}}</ref> The government of India honoured Siddiq in 2011 with its fourth-highest civilian award, [[Padma Shri]].<ref name="Padma Shri">{{cite web |url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |title=Padma Shri |publisher=Padma Shri |date=2014 |access-date=11 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2015 }}</ref>

==Background==
E. A. Siddiq was born on 15 July 1937 in [[Ilaiyangudi|Ilayangudi]], a town in [[Sivaganga district|Sivaganga District]], Madras Province, then a part of [[British India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Academy of Agricultural Sciences|url=https://naas.org.in/detail.php?id=473|website=naas.org.in|access-date=29 January 2026}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Dr EA Siddiq, legendary rice scientist, passes away at 88 in Hyderabad|url=https://www.siasat.com/dr-ea-siddiq-legendary-rice-scientist-passes-away-at-88-in-hyderabad-3330333/|website=The Siasat Daily|date=23 January 2026|access-date=29 January 2026|language=en|first=M.|last=Somasekhar}}</ref> His graduate studies were completed in Botany (1959)<ref name="INSA">{{cite web|date=2014|title=INSA Indian Fellow Dr EA Siddiq|url=http://www.insaindia.org.in/detail.php?id=N95-1187|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813085256/http://www.insaindia.org.in/detail.php?id=N95-1187|archive-date=13 August 2016|access-date=22 November 2014|publisher=INSA}}</ref> from the [[University of Madras]] following which he obtained masters (1964)<ref name="INSA" /> and doctoral degrees (1968)<ref name="INSA" /> in [[Cytogenetics]], under the supervision of renowned botanist, [[M. S. Swaminathan]], from the [[Indian Agricultural Research Institute]] (IARI).<ref name="ABF" /><ref name="CDFD">{{cite web|date=2014|title=CDFD. Computational & Functional Genomics. Dr. E.A.Siddiq|url=http://www.cdfd.org.in/labpages/e_a_saddiq.html|url-status=live|access-date=22 November 2014|publisher=Centre for DNA Finger printing and Diagnostics|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827135653/http://www.cdfd.org.in:80/labpages/e_a_saddiq.html |archive-date=27 August 2009 }}</ref> His career started at his alma mater, the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, as a cytogeneticist in 1968,<ref name="ABF" /><ref name="CDFD" /><ref name="Padmashree Prof Dr E A Siddiq">{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4S5vckzsqY | title=Padmashree Prof Dr E A Siddiq | publisher=YouTube | work=Video | date=10 February 2014 | access-date=22 November 2014}}</ref> a post he held till 1976 when he was promoted as the Senior Scientist.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="ABF" /><ref name="CDFD" /> In 1983, he was deputed to Egypt as the Rice Breeder and in 1986, he was transferred to Philippines as the Professor of Genetics.<ref name="ABF" /> In 1987, he returned to India as the Project Director of the [[Directorate of Rice Research]], Hyderabad and worked there till 1994.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="ABF" /> The next move was to [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]] (ICAR), New Delhi as the Deputy Director General of the Crop Science Division.<ref name="CDFD" />

In 1997 Siddiq was honoured as the National Professor of ICAR and in 2002,<ref name="ABF" /><ref name="Padmashree Prof Dr E A Siddiq" /> he took charge of the [[Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics]] (CDFD) as the Distinguished Chair.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CDFD" /> On his retirement in 2007, he was appointed the Adjunct Scientist at CFFD.<ref name="INSA" /> He also held the positions of Adjunct Professor of the [[University of Hyderabad]], Adjunct Professor of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and the Honorary Professor of Biotechnology at [[Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University]], Hyderabad.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="ABF" /><ref name="CDFD" />

Siddiq died on 22 January 2026, at the age of 88.<ref>{{Cite web |last=telugu |first=NT News |date=23 January 2026 |title=ప్రముఖ వ్యవసాయ శాస్త్రవేత్త సిద్ధిక్‌ కన్నుమూత |url=https://www.ntnews.com/telangana/8-renowned-agricultural-scientist-siddiqui-passes-away-2279674 |access-date=23 January 2026 |website=www.ntnews.com |language=te}}</ref>

==Positions==
Siddiq was a member of the scientific advisory council of the [[Prime Minister of India]] from 2004 to 2009.<ref name="ABF" /> He sat on the Board of Members of the [[International Rice Research Institute]] as well as on the Executive Committee of the Agri Biotech Foundation.<ref name="ABF" /> He was a member of the working group for the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007–2012) of India.<ref name="Planning Commission">{{cite web|url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wrk11_1i.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911093959/http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp11/wrk11_1i.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 September 2014 |title=Planning Commission |publisher=Planning Commission |date=2007 |access-date=22 November 2014 }}</ref> He was also a member of the Research Advisory Committee of the National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology, an Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) subsidiary.<ref name="NRCPB">{{cite web | url=http://nrcpb.org/content/research-advisory-committee-172011-3062014 | title=NRCPB | publisher=NRCPB | date=2014 | access-date=22 November 2014}}</ref>

Siddiq was the chairman of the Farm and Rural Science Foundation of [[The Federation of Andhra Pradesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry]].<ref name="Hybiz TV" /> He also served as a council member of National Science academy, India from 1998 till 2000.<ref name="INSA" />

==Legacy==
Siddiq is credited with contributions on the scientific, academic and organizational fronts.<ref name="CDFD" /> His research primarily focussed on genetic research and applied breeding of rice, for improving the yield and quality, and is reported to have assisted in the development of ten high-yielding rice varieties.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CDFD" /> A variety of dwarf basmati rice (Pusa Basmati-1), claimed to be the first high-yielding variety in its class,<ref name="ABF" /> and quick maturing varieties such as Pusa 2-21, Pusa 33, Pusa 4 and Pusa 834 are credited to Siddiq.<ref name="CDFD" /><ref name="INSA" /> His contribution is also reported in the development of DRRH-1, a first-generation Indian hybrid.<ref name="CDFD" /><ref name="INSA" /> Siddiq also did basic research on adaptability, stability and the potential of convergent breeding of various rice breeds. His research also covered the cytogenetic and phylogenetic aspects of rice breeding.<ref name="CDFD" />

Siddiq was a part of the project for enhancement of rice research in Egypt, under the USAID-funded Rice Breeder programme of [[International Rice Research Institute]] (IRRI) in 1987 as well as in the establishment of the [[Government of India]]-sponsored National Rice Research Institute in Vietnam.<ref name="CDFD" /><ref name="INSA" /> Working as a consultant for the [[World Bank]], he designed the projects for agricultural development in Assam and Bangladesh.<ref name="INSA" /> He is credited with two scientific studies, one in Egypt and the other in India, in the capacity of the consultant to the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO).<ref name="CDFD" />

On the organizational front, Siddiq collaborated with the World Bank/[[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] as consultant and adviser and prepared many project proposals for programmes in Egypt, Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia and the Philippines.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CDFD" /> He also helped in the establishment of rice research institutes in Vietnam and Bangladesh. He was a member of the Task Force on Crop Biotechnology, Monitoring and Evaluation Committee and the National Convenor of the Natural Rice Biotechnology Network during the period from 1990 to 2002.<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CDFD" />

Siddiq is credited with over 150 research publications,<ref name="INSA" /><ref name="CDFD" /><ref name="FAO">{{cite web | url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6905e/x6905e09.htm | title=Bridging the Rice Yield Gap in India | publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization | work=Scientific paper | date=2014 | access-date=22 November 2014}}</ref> 16 of which have been listed by [[Microsoft Academic Search]] in their online repository<ref name="Microsoft Academic Search">{{cite web | url=http://65.54.113.26/Author/42429567/ebrahimali-siddiq | title=Microsoft Academic Search | publisher=Microsoft Academic Search | date=2014 | access-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://archive.today/20141122175730/http://65.54.113.26/Author/42429567/ebrahimali-siddiq | archive-date=22 November 2014 }}</ref> and his research findings have been cited in many books and journals.<ref name="Chemical Aspects of Rice Grain Quality">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hAh_3eYATMwC&q=E.+A.+Siddiq&pg=PA147 | title=Chemical Aspects of Rice Grain Quality | publisher=IRRI | date=1979 | isbn=9789711040109 | access-date=22 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="Breaking the Yield Barrier">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZrpO5UH4UMC&q=E.+A.+Siddiq&pg=PA18 | title=Breaking the Yield Barrier | publisher=IRRI | date=1994 | isbn=9789712200564 | access-date=22 November 2014}}</ref> He supervised 35 students in their PhD studies<ref name="INSA" /> and delivered keynote addresses at many conferences.<ref name="Hybiz TV">{{cite web | url=http://www.hybiz.tv/EA-Siddiq--FRSF/165455 | title=Speech | publisher=Hybiz TV | date=2013 | access-date=22 November 2014 | archive-date=29 November 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129071957/http://www.hybiz.tv/EA-Siddiq--FRSF/165455 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Padmashree Prof Dr E A Siddiq" />
==Awards and recognitions==
Siddiq received several honours starting with the Hari Om Ashram Trust National Award in 1976.<ref name="ABF" /><ref name="CDFD" /> In 1981, he was awarded the [[VASVIK Industrial Research Award]],<ref name="Vasvik">{{cite web | url=http://www.vasvik.org/agricultural_sciences%20_%26_technology.html | title=Vasvik | publisher=Vasvik | date=2014 | access-date=4 January 2015 | archive-date=23 August 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823010251/http://www.vasvik.org/agricultural_sciences%20_%26_technology.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> followed by Amrik Singh Cheema Award in 1988, Silver Jubilee Medal from the [[Directorate of Rice Research]] (DRR) in 1990<ref name="CDFD" /><ref name="INSA" /> and [[Om Prakash Bhasin Award]] in 1994.<ref name="ABF" /><ref name="CDFD" /> A year later, in 1995, he received the [[Borlaug Award]] and the [[Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Award]].<ref name="CDFD" /><ref name="ABF" /><ref name="INSA" /> Indian National Science Academy honored Siddiq in 1997 with the Silver Jubilee Medal.<ref name="ABF" /><ref name="CDFD" /><ref name="INSA" /> He also received the GP Chatterjee Memorial Lecture Award<ref name="INSA" /> of the [[Indian Science Congress Association]] in 2001, the Agricultural Leadership Award in 2008<ref name="ABF" /> and appreciative mementos from the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]] and the [[Government of Egypt]],<ref name="CDFD" /> besides receiving the Professor Sundar Lal Hora Medal of INSA, (2011) and B. P. Pal Memorial Award of National Academy of Agricultural Sciences (NAAS) (2011–12).<ref name="INSA" /> In 2011, the [[Government of India]] included him in the [[Indian honours system|Republic day honours]], listing him for the fourth highest civilian award of [[Padma Shri]].<ref name="ABF" /><ref name="Padma Shri" />

Siddiq was an elected Fellow of the [[Indian National Science Academy]] (1995),<ref>The Year Book 2014 // Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi</ref> [[National Academy of Sciences, India|National Academy of Sciences (India)]], Allahabad and [[National Academy of Agricultural Sciences]], New Delhi.<ref name="INSA" />

==See also==
{{Portal|India|Agriculture}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University]]
* [[Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics]]
* [[Directorate of Rice Research]]
* [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]]
* [[International Rice Research Institute]]
* [[National Academy of Agricultural Sciences]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Cite web | url=http://www.rkmp.co.in/category/news-events-optional-tags/easiddiq | title=Rice Knowledhe Management Portal | publisher=RKMP | date=4 February 2014 | access-date=22 November 2014}}
* {{Cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4S5vckzsqY | title=Padmashree Prof Dr E A Siddiq | publisher=YouTube | date=10 February 2014 | access-date=22 November 2014}}
* {{Cite web | url=http://www.hybiz.tv/EA-Siddiq--FRSF/165455 | title=Speech | publisher=Hybiz TV | date=2013 | access-date=22 November 2014 | archive-date=29 November 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129071957/http://www.hybiz.tv/EA-Siddiq--FRSF/165455 | url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6905e/x6905e09.htm |title=Bridging the Rice Yield Gap in India |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |work=Scientific paper |date=2014 |access-date=22 November 2014}}
* {{Cite web | url=http://65.54.113.26/Author/42429567/ebrahimali-siddiq | title=Microsoft Academic Search | publisher=Microsoft Academic Search | date=2014 | access-date=22 November 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://archive.today/20141122175730/http://65.54.113.26/Author/42429567/ebrahimali-siddiq | archive-date=22 November 2014 }}

{{2000s Padma Shri Award Recipients in Science & Engineering}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Siddiq, E. A.}}
[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:2026 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian botanists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy]]
[[Category:Fellows of the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences]]
[[Category:Fellows of the National Academy of Sciences, India]]
[[Category:Indian agriculturalists]]
[[Category:Indian geneticists]]
[[Category:Om Prakash Bhasin Award recipients]]
[[Category:People from Sivaganga district]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in science & engineering]]
[[Category:Scientists from Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Tamil Muslims]]

Guwahati City Centre Mall

2026-01-29T09:21:59Z

Brandon81T:

{{Short description|Shopping mall in Guwahati, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox shopping mall
| name = Guwahati City Centre Mall
| image = CIty Center Mall Guwahati.jpg
| caption = Guwahati City Centre Mall interior
| coordinates = {{coord|26.155|N|91.782|E|display=inline,title}}
| address = G.S. Road, Christian Basti, [[Guwahati]]
| opening_date = {{start date and age|1 April 2018}}
| developer = Brahmaputra Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd.
| owner = Brahmaputra Infrastructure Pvt. Ltd
| number_of_stores = 107
| floor_area = 4,50,000 sq. ft.
| floors = 7
| website = {{url|https://citycenterghy.com/}}
}}
'''Guwahati City Centre Mall''' is a shopping complex located in [[Guwahati]], [[Assam]], [[India]]. It is located in Christian Basti and it is also one of the largest malls of Assam and [[Northeast India]]. The mall was opened on 1 April 2018 and revamped in December 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |title=City Center - Brahmaputra Group |url=https://brahmaputragroup.com/city-center/ |work=Brahmaputra Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://citycenterghy.com/about-us/ |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=City Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Sandeep |date=11 December 2018 |title=City Centre: Guwahati’s first complete mall set for pre-launch in December |url=https://www.indiaretailing.com/2018/12/11/city-centre-guwahatis-first-complete-mall-set-for-pre-launch-in-december/ |access-date=2 May 2025 |work=Indiaretailing}}</ref>

== Facilities ==
=== Brands ===

* The mall features several brands like Shoppers Stop, Levis, Nykaa, Park Avenue, Bata, Lenskart and Adidas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shop |url=https://citycenterghy.com/shop/ |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=City Center |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=News Desk |first=TNM |date=26 August 2019 |title=Nykaa Luxe store opens at City Center in Guwahati |url=https://thenewsmill.com/2019/08/nykaa-luxe-store-opens-at-city-center-in-guwahati/ |access-date=2 May 2025 |work=The News Mill}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=News Desk |first=TNM |date=9 June 2019 |title=Shoppers Stop formally opens flagship store at City Center Mall in Guwahati |url=https://thenewsmill.com/2019/06/shoppers-stop-formally-opens-flagship-store-at-city-center-mall-in-guwahati/ |access-date=2 May 2025 |work=The News Mill}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 July 2024 |title=Adidas unveils upsized and renovated store at BCS City Centre Mall, Guwahati |url=https://infashionbusiness.com/home/news_details/3397/15#:~:text=The%20brand%20is%20renowned%20for,sports%20fashion%20and%20performance%20gear. |access-date=2 May 2025 |work=In Fashion Business}}</ref>
* On 22 January 2021, a British lifestyle brand, WK Life, opened its first store in City Centre Mall in Guwahati.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gupta |first=Vaishnavi |date=25 January 2021 |title=London-Based Lifestyle Brand WK LIFE Unveils First Store in Guwahati |url=https://www.retail4growth.com/news/wk-life-launches-first-ever-retail-store-in-guwahati-5443 |access-date=2 May 2025 |work=Retail4Growth}}</ref>
=== Entertainment ===

* The mall also features a spacious food court and a [[PVR Cinemas|PVR]] multiplex.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Entertainment |url=https://citycenterghy.com/entertainment/ |access-date=2025-05-02 |website=City Center |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://citycenterghy.com/ Official Website]

{{Shopping malls in India}}

[[Category:Shopping malls in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Guwahati]]
[[Category:Shopping malls established in 2018]]
[[Category:2018 establishments in Assam]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Guwahati]]
[[Category:Retail buildings in India]]

2.0 (soundtrack)

2026-01-29T02:05:18Z

Brandon81T: slightly corrected details and corrected details for consistency

{{short description|2017 soundtrack album by A. R. Rahman}}
{{more citations needed|date=November 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox album
| name = 2.0 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cover = 2.0_soundtrack_album.jpg
| caption = Soundtrack album cover
| alt =
| released = 27 October 2017
| recorded = 2015–2018
| venue =
| studio = [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios]], [[Chennai]]
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]], [[Music of India|Indian conventional music]], [[soft rock]]
| length = {{Duration|m=14|s=35}}
| label = Lyca Music [[Divo (record label)|Divo]]
| producer = A. R. Rahman
| prev_title = [[Mersal (soundtrack)|Mersal]]
| prev_year = 2017
| next_title = [[Beyond the Clouds (2017 film)#Soundtrack|Beyond the Clouds]]
| next_year = 2018
| misc =
{{Singles
| name = 2.0
| type = soundtrack
| single1 = Pullinangal (Bonus Track)
| single1date = 6 November 2018
}}
}}
'''''2.0''''' is the [[soundtrack album]] and score for the 2018 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Science fiction film|science fiction]] [[action film]] [[2.0 (film)|of the same name]]. [[A. R. Rahman]] composed the feature film soundtrack and background score. The lyrics for the songs has been penned by [[Madhan Karky]], [[Na. Muthukumar]] in Tamil.

Rahman was chosen to compose the songs, during the pre-production works of the film in December 2015. The recording process for the songs and original score, took place for nearly four years. The soundtrack album was launched at a promotional event held on 27 October 2017, at [[Burj Al Arab]], [[Dubai]], where the film's cast and crew and other celebrities attended the event. Two songs from the movie was released in Tamil, and also the dubbed versions in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Hindi]], on the same day and A bonus track was released on 6 November 2018, in Tamil as well as the dubbed versions in Telugu and Hindi. The album received generally positive reviews from critics.

==Development==

In 2015, during pre-production phase of the film, it was announced that A. R. Rahman would be composing the soundtrack and original score of 2.0.

In an interview with Archana Chandhok on [[Zee Tamil]], Rajinikanth revealed that director Shankar wanted to make ''2.0'' without any songs. Plans for recording a title track and a background song failed.<ref name=":0"/> The track "Enthira Logathu Sundariye" made its way after taking into account that the screenplay of the film was entirely subject-oriented and moves at a frenetic pace.<ref name=":0"/> Keeping audiences in consideration, a "breather" form of a song was recorded. However, Rahman was still not convinced and felt that an album should have a minimum of four songs to provide listeners with a wholesome experience.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/rajinikanth-on-working-with-akshay-kumar-in-shankars-magnum-opus-hes-the-real-hero-and-villain-of-2-0-5542021.html|title=Rajinikanth on working with Akshay Kumar in Shankar's magnum opus: He's the real hero and villain of 2.0|date=13 November 2018|website=Firstpost|access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref>

In an interview with ''[[Press Trust of India]]'', Rahman stated that 2.0 was a tough film to score.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asianage.com/entertainment/bollywood/211116/shankar-is-not-happy-with-anything-i-am-doing-a-r-rahman.html|title=Shankar is not happy with anything I am doing: A R Rahman|date=21 November 2016|website=The Asian Age|access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref> Recording of "Endhira Logathu Sundariye" was completed by early August 2017. The song, reported as a romantic number with dance included, was shot indoors in a 12-day schedule in August 2017. Recording of the Hindi version ("Mechanical Sundariye") of the track was completed on 29 October 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/armaan-malik-happy-to-sing-with-a-r-rahman-in-2-0-see-photo-4911790/|title=Photo: Armaan Malik happy to sing with A.R.Rahman in 2.0|date=29 October 2017|website=The Indian Express|language=en-IN|access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref> The Hindi version of "Pullinangal" titled "Nanhi Si Jaan" was recorded in June 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/ar-rahman-records-a-song-with-kailash-kher-for-rajinikanth-2-0-1261789-2018-06-16|title=Rajinikanth's 2.0: AR Rahman records a bird song with Kailash Kher|author= |date=16 June 2018|website=[[India Today]]|access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref> About this, Rahman stated that he initially wanted to release more background themes rather than songs.

==Overview==

;Endhira Logathu Sundariye
[[Madhan Karky]]'s lyrics in the duet Endhira Logathu Sundariye speak of a romance between a male and a female robot. "En uyire uyire batteriye, enai nee piriyaadhae" (My life, my life battery, do not leave me) or "Hey minsara samsarame" (My electronic wife) are in line with 2.0's storyline. [[Armaan Malik]] and [[Shashaa Tirupati]] have sung the Hindi version, while [[Sid Sriram]] and the latter have sung the Tamil and Telugu versions. The composition is not forgettable, but the trap music arrangement and the techno bleeps and bloops do come in way of the melody. There are subtle differences, lyrically, between the Tamil and the Hindi versions, that reveal how the makers perceive audiences in the South and the Hindi belt. If Endhira Logathu Sundariye has Sriram singing "Un bus-in conductor naan" (I am your bus conductor), in Mechanical Sundariye, written by Abbas Tyrewala, Malik sings "Hoon super conductor main" (I am a super conductor) – the idea being that Tamil audiences will appreciate the reference to [[Rajinikanth]]'s early days.

;Raajali
Raajali is an anthem-like number that celebrates the triumph of good over evil, a typical sentiment in Rajinikanth movies. The song begins with a reference to science fiction author Isaac Asimov ("Isaac Asimov peran daa" – grandson of Isaac Asimov).

;Pullinangal
The best composition is Pullinangal, a sweet and sublime song that is an ode to birds. It is a theme song for the bird-loving villain, with the sweetness of the tune designed to draw him sympathy. Free from the mandate of having to be a theatre-shattering Rajinikanth song, the melodious Pullinangal's arrangement and mixing is low-key with strings, a simple synthetic beat, some piano and recordings of bird sounds. Na Muthukumar penned beautiful lyrics, in his very own trademark style.

Though it is a love song that is ultimately not for a person, the singers ([[A. R. Ameen|AR Ameen]] and [[Suzanne D'Mello|Suzanne D’Mello]] sing all three versions, accompanied by [[Bamba Bakya]] in Tamil, [[Kailash Kher]] in Hindi, and fellow composer [[M. M. Keeravani|MM Keeravani]] in Telugu) sing their heart out, bringing an emotional weight missing from the other two tracks.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/reel/855802/the-2-0-soundtrack-so-far-strictly-serviceable-nothing-exceptional|title='2.0' music review: AR Rahman gives the villain the better song|last=Ghosh|first=Devarsi|website=Scroll.in|date=21 November 2018 |language=en-US|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment/reviews/music/article/2-0-music-review-the-soundtrack-of-rajinikanth-and-akshay-kumar-starrer-has-catchy-music-and-weird-lyrics/322487|title=2.0 Music Review: The soundtrack of Rajinikanth-Akshay Kumar starrer is catchy and weird in equal proportions|website=www.timesnownews.com|date=30 November 2018 |language=en|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref>

==Release==

A promotional music event for the film was held at [[Burj Al Arab]], [[Dubai]] on 27 October 2017, with [[Rajinikanth]], [[Akshay Kumar]], [[Amy Jackson]], composer [[A. R. Rahman]], director [[S. Shankar|Shankar]], producer [[Allirajah Subaskaran|Subaskaran]] and the film's entire technical crew, along with [[Dhanush]], [[Aishwarya R. Dhanush]], [[Kamal Haasan|Kamal Hassan]] and other celebrities attended the event.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/gallery/entertainment/281017/20-audio-launch-rajinikanth-akshay-amy-others-take-dubai-by-storm.html|title=2.0 audio launch: Rajinikanth, Akshay, Amy, others take Dubai by storm|last=Chronicle|first=Deccan|date=28 October 2017|website=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/2-0-audio-launch-rajinikanth-akshay-kumar-shankar-amy-1070686-2017-10-26|title=2.0 audio launch: All you need to know about Rajinikanth-Akshay Kumar's event|date=26 October 2017 |website=India Today |access-date=2 October 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/2-0-audio-launch-rajinikanth-akshay-kumar-dubai-1070687-2017-10-26 |title=Before 2.0 audio launch, Rajinikanth fever has gripped Dubai |date=26 October 2017 |website=India Today|access-date=2 October 2019}}</ref> The event was hosted together by [[RJ Balaji]], [[Rana Daggubati]] and [[Karan Johar]]. The album features two songs "Endhira Logathu Sundhariye" and "Rajaali". Both these tracks were released on digital music platforms the same day. A. R. Rahman and his music team performed these two songs and an additional track "Pullinangal" at the event.<ref name="behindwoods.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-16/unreleased-3-third-song-from-2-point-0.html|title=Unreleased 3 third song from 2 Point 0|date=28 October 2017|website=Behindwoods|access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/2-0-audio-launch-rajinikanth-says-he-has-one-unfulfilled-dream/story-LEnZQ74iwa75HYKrUiHgJK.html|title=2.0 audio launch: Rajinikanth says he has one unfulfilled dream|date=28 October 2017|website=[[Hindustan Times]]|access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref> A symphony of an estimated 125 musicians was present to perform live.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/robcain/2017/10/26/heres-why-the-audio-launch-for-rajinis-2-0-is-the-highest-stakes-promo-in-indian-movie-history/|title=Why Audio Launch For Rajini's '2.0' Is The Highest-Stakes Promotion in Indian Movie History|last=Cain|first=Rob|website=Forbes|access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="behindwoods.com"/> The audio launch event was telecasted on 19 November 2017 on [[Zee Tamil]], and also telecasted once again on 2 December 2017 on [[News18 Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/regional/2-0-zee-tv-tamil-announces-exclusive-telecast-of-akshay-kumar-rajinikanth-starrers-audio-launch-2057782.html|title=2.0: Zee TV Tamil announces exclusive telecast of Akshay Kumar-Rajinikanth starrer's audio launch|date=17 November 2017|website=Zee News|language=en|access-date=2 October 2019}}</ref> The track "Pullinangal" was released as a part of the soundtrack album on 6 November 2018.

==Reception==
Behindwoods gave 3.25/5 rating to the album & wrote [[A.R.Rahman]] churns out yet another powerful album that seems to be binding with the story whilst adding to its 2.0's grandeur.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies/slideshow/2-point-0-music-review/2-point-0-music-review-summary.html|title=2.0 Music Review Summary {{!}} 2.0 Music Review|date=7 November 2018|website=Behindwoods|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref>

Srinivasa Ramanujam, from [[The Hindu]], reviewed the soundtrack album, stating that "The focus of Rahman's work in these two released songs for the Shankar-Rajinikanth film clearly seems to be on providing a futuristic soundscape rather than concentrating on tune – perhaps aligning with the sci-fi elements in the script."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/20-music-review-sound-choice/article19938137.ece|title=2.0 music review: Sound choice|last=Ramanujam|first=Srinivasa|date=28 October 2017|work=The Hindu|access-date=2 October 2019|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

M Suganth, from [[The Times of India]], reviewed the album, summarising it "As with Endhiran, Rahman has come up with songs that are global in sounding, but still distinctly local with 2.0."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/music/music-review-2-0/articleshow/61300413.cms|title=Music Review: 2.0|website=The Times of India|date=28 October 2017 |language=en|access-date=2 October 2019}}</ref>

A reviewer from [[Firstpost]] reviewed the song "Endhira Logathu Sundhariye", stating that "Shashaa Tirupati kickstarts the song on a mysterious note and in trademark ''Robot'' style. Then, we are transported into lots of techno, groovy beats and some subtle melody as well. And suddenly, it strikes you. What stands out in the midst of this typical AR Rahman-Rajini track is Sid Sriram's vocals. The singer is a breath of fresh air in this album which otherwise has nothing we have not already heard of, and also reviewing "Raajali" as "the track that uplifts the soul of the movie. It is evident, through the pace of the track, that it is tailor-made for Rajini's role. One can typically imagine the superstar in a larger than life setup with this one. We must say, Rajali' might just be the '''Irumbile Oru Idhaiyam' (Enthiran)'' of ''2.0''. Sid Sriram, who is the new Arijit Singh of the South industry, is definitely the highlight of this album yet again. The singer who otherwise was known for his addictive melodies like ''"Yennai Matrum Kadhale"'' and the latest hit ''"Maruvaarthai"'' has proved that he can be the voice behind such peppy and high techno songs too". Finally the reviewer gave a verdict, stating that "The 2.0 songs released so far are a feast for Rajini's audience. The tracks are tailor-made for a plot like 2.0's. But we sure have heard better from Rahman. And yet, the "Neruppu Da" feels from Rajini's last outing ''Kabali'', is yet to be witnessed in this jukebox".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/2-0-music-review-ar-rahmans-techno-beats-sid-srirams-vocals-are-addictive-4180677.html|title=2.0 music review: AR Rahman's techno beats, Sid Sriram's vocals are addictive|date=29 October 2017|website=Firstpost|language=en|access-date=24 September 2019}}</ref>

== Track listing ==
{{Track listing
| all_writing =
| headline = 2.0 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - Tamil<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/2-0-tamil-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1441607244|title=2.0 [Tamil] (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-date=12 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212005049/https://music.apple.com/us/album/2-0-tamil-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1441607244|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Endhira Logathu Sundariye
| length1 = 5:30
| lyrics1 = [[Madhan Karky]]
| extra1 = [[Sid Sriram]], [[Shashaa Tirupati]]
| title2 = Raajali
| length2 = 4:12
| lyrics2 = [[Madhan Karky]]
| extra2 = [[Blaaze]], [[Arjun Chandy]], [[Sid Sriram]]
| title3 = Pullinangal
| length3 = 4:53
| lyrics3 = [[Na. Muthukumar]]
| extra3 = [[Bamba Bakya]], [[A. R. Ameen]], [[Suzanne D'Mello]]
| total_length = 14:35
}}

{{Track listing
| all_writing =
| headline = 2.0 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - Telugu
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Yanthara Lokapu Sundarive
| length1 = 5:30
| lyrics1 = [[Ananta Sriram]]
| extra1 = [[Sid Sriram]], [[Shashaa Tirupati]]
| title2 = Randali
| length2 = 4:13
| lyrics2 = [[Bhaskarabhatla Ravi Kumar|Bhaskarabhatla Ravikumar]]
| extra2 = [[Blaaze]], [[Arjun Chandy]], Nivas
| title3 = Bulliguvaa
| length3 = 4:52
| lyrics3 = [[Ananta Sriram]]
| extra3 = [[M. M. Keeravani]], [[A. R. Ameen]], [[Suzanne D'Mello]]
| total_length = 14:35
}}

{{Track listing
| all_writing =
| headline = 2.0 (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - Hindi
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Mechanical Sundariye
| length1 = 5:30
| lyrics1 = [[Amitabh Bhattacharya]]
| extra1 = [[Armaan Malik]], [[Shashaa Tirupati]]
| title2 = Rakshassi
| length2 = 4:12
| lyrics2 = [[Abbas Tyrewala]]
| extra2 = [[Blaaze]], [[Kailash Kher]], [[Nakash Aziz]]
| title3 = Nanhi Si Jaan
| length3 = 4:52
| lyrics3 = [[Abbas Tyrewala]]
| extra3 = [[Kailash Kher]], [[A. R. Ameen]], [[Suzanne D'Mello]]
| total_length = 14:35
}}

==Background score==
{{Infobox album
| name = 2.0 (Original Background Score)
| type = Film score
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cover = blank
| alt =
| released = 29 June 2019
| recorded = 2015–2018
| venue =
| studio = [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios]], [[Chennai]]
| genre = [[Film score|Feature film score]]
| length = {{Duration|m=39|s=18}}
| label = Lyca Music [[Divo (record label)|Divo]]
| producer = A. R. Rahman
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc =
}}

Recording of the original score began in London and Rahman's Los Angeles studios in 2016.<ref name=":0" /> Unlike previous projects, Rahman began finalising the original background score six months back prior to release because he felt that the scenes were very heavy and it needed a lot of work.<ref name="Shankar">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2018/nov/27/ar-rahmans-20-background-score-is-like-listening-to-batman-or-spidermans-bgm-shankar-1903931.html|title=AR Rahman's '2.0' background score is like listening to Batman or Spiderman's BGM: Shankar|website=The New Indian Express|date=27 November 2018 |access-date=12 December 2018}}</ref> The official film score consists of fifteen tracks with nearly a duration of nearly forty minutes. The film score was marketed and released on 29 June 2019.<ref name="Shankar"/>

{{Track listing
| headline = ''2.0 (Original Background Score)''
| title1 = Eerie Flapping
| title2 = Its Over
| title3 = Will You Believe
| title4 = Shadow's Journey
| title5 = We Need Chitti
| title6 = You Are Next
| title7 = Army Attack
| title8 = Interval
| title9 = Nila's Espionage
| title10 = Grand Son
| title11 = Let The Game Begins
| title12 = The Unknown
| title13 = You Will Be Avenged
| title14 = Replication
| title15 = Pakshirajan's Story
| all_writing =
| length1 = 1:41
| length2 = 0:18
| length3 = 2:24
| length4 = 1:32
| length5 = 4:40
| length6 = 2:56
| length7 = 2:31
| length8 = 3:40
| length9 = 1:12
| length10 = 1:00
| length11 = 2:46
| length12 = 3:07
| length13 = 2:02
| length14 = 1:08
| length15 = 6:31
| total_length = 39:18
}}

==Album credits==
Credits adapted from official website.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arrahman.com/discography_details.aspx?id=302|title=A. R. Rahman - The Official Site|website=www.arrahman.com|access-date=23 September 2019}}</ref>

=== Producer(s) ===
A. R. Rahman

=== Songwriter(s) ===
* A. R. Rahman (Composer & Arranger)
*[[Madhan Karky]], [[Na. Muthukumar]], [[Abbas Tyrewala]], [[Amitabh Bhattacharya]], [[Ananta Sriram]], [[Bhaskarabhatla Ravi Kumar|Bhaskarabhatla Ravikumar]], [[Blaaze]] (Lyrics)

=== Performer(s) ===
A. R. Rahman, [[Sid Sriram]], [[Shashaa Tirupati]], [[Blaaze]], [[Arjun Chandy]], Bamba Bakya, [[A. R. Ameen]], [[Suzanne D'Mello]], Nivas, [[M. M. Keeravani]], [[Armaan Malik]], [[Kailash Kher]]

=== Musicians ===
* Guitar - [[Keba Jeremiah]], [[Rex Vijayan]], Chris Jason, [[Warren Mendonsa]]
* Keyboards, Live Drums & Brass - Geoff Foster
* Flute - [[Naveen Kumar (musician)|Naveen Kumar]], Kareem Kamalakar
* Live Rhythm - Lakshmi Narayanan, Raju, Vedha, T Raja, Krishna Kishore
* Orchestra - Chennai Strings Orchestra
* Strings - [[Sunshine Orchestra]] (conducted by V. J. Srinivasa Murthy)

=== Backing vocals ===
Deepthi Suresh, Veena Murali, Sowmya, Deepak Blue, Aravind Srinivas, Maalavika Sundar, [[Santhosh Hariharan]], Niranjana Ramanan, Narayanan, Srinivas, Suryansh, Lavita Lobo, Aishwarya Kumar, [[Nakul Abhyankar]], Shravan Sridhar, Srinivasan

=== Additional vocals ===
[[Arjun Chandy]], Shenbagaraj, Nivas, Soundarya, Narayanan, Deepak Blue, Akshara, Madhura Dhara Talluri, [[Nakul Abhyankar|Nakul Abhayankar]], Shashwat Singh

=== Personnel ===
'''Music Supervisor'''

Ishaan Chhabra

'''Additional Programming'''

TR Krishna Chetan, Kumaran Sivamani, Ishaan Chhabra, Santosh Dhayanidhi, Pawan CH, Hari Dafusia, AH Kaashif, Jerry Vincent, Jim Sathya

=== Sound Engineers ===
* [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios|Panchathan Record Inn]], [[Chennai]] - Suresh Permal, Karthik Sekaran, Srinidhi Venkatesh, Ishaan Chhabra, Jerry Vincent, Santosh Dhayanidhi, Vinay Sridhar, AH Kaashif
* [[AM Studios]], [[Chennai]] - S Sivakumar, Pradeep, Kannan Ganpat, Anantha Krishnan, Manoj, Srinath
* Panchathan Hollywood Studios, [[Los Angeles]] - Tony Joy, Kevin Doucette

=== Production ===
* Mixed by - TR Krishna Chetan
* Mastered by - Suresh Permal
* Musicians Coordinators - Vijay Iyer, TM Faizuddin, Noell James, Abdul Haiyum
* Musicians Fixer - R Samidurai

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2018 soundtrack albums]]
[[Category:Tamil film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Hindi film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Telugu film soundtracks]]
[[Category:A. R. Rahman soundtracks]]
[[Category:Science fiction film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Action film soundtracks]]
[[Category:Enthiran]]

Bisi Bele Bath

2026-01-12T20:32:32Z

Brandon81T: general cleanup content after review

{{Short description|Rice-based dish with origins in the state of Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Bisi bele bath
| image = Bisi Bele Bath (Bisibelebath).JPG
| place_of_origin = [[Karnataka]], [[India]]
| caption = Fresh bisi bele bhath
}}
'''Bisi bele bhath''' ({{langx|kn|ಬಿಸಿ ಬೇಳೆ ಭಾತ್ |bisi bēl̥e bhāt|hot lentil [boiled] rice}}) is a spicy, rice-based dish with origins in the state of [[Karnataka]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Philpott | first=D. | title=The World of Wine and Food: A Guide to Varieties, Tastes, History, and Pairings | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-4422-6804-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3dIbDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA362 | access-date=January 19, 2017 | page=362}}</ref> It is said to have originated in the [[Mysore Palace]]. Its recipe was almost a secret among palace cooks for two centuries until it would become public and famous across world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bisi Bele Bath: Karnataka's Most Famous Vegetarian Rice Dish |url=https://food.ndtv.com/food-drinks/bisi-bele-bath-karnatakas-most-famous-vegetarian-rice-dish-2225541 |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=NDTV Food |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parodi |first=Massimo |date=June 2013 |title=Tra baci e rasoi. Una riflessione sul principio di economia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7359/643-2013-paro |journal=Laboratorio Teoretico |issue=9788879166430 |pages=117–128 |doi=10.7359/643-2013-paro|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Amazon.com |url=https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01BKM6LJU/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219043125/https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01BKM6LJU/ |archive-date=19 December 2024 |access-date=2024-12-20 |website=www.amazon.com |language=en-us |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Preparation==
[[File:Food-Bisibelle-Bhat-1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Bisi bele bhaath served with raita and Happala(papad)]]
The traditional preparation of this dish is elaborate and involves the use of a spicy [[Spice mix#Masala|masala]] (huliyanna), [[toor dal]] (a type of lentil), rice, ghee and [[vegetables]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Rice Bowl: Vegetarian Rice Recipes from India and the World|url=https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B01BKM6LJU/}}</ref> Spices like [[nutmeg]], [[asafoetida]], [[curry leaves]] and [[tamarind]] pulp contribute to its unique flavour and taste. Some versions of the dish are prepared with up to thirty ingredients.<ref name="Cohen 2007">{{cite web | last=Cohen | first=Margot | title=The Dish: Bisi Bele Bath | website=The Wall Street Journal | date=October 26, 2007 | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB119326475201070463 | access-date=January 19, 2017}} {{subscription required}}</ref>

It is served hot and sometimes eaten with [[chutney]], [[boondi]], [[salad]], [[Papadum|papad]], or [[potato chip]]s. This dish is commonly found in restaurants that serve the [[Udupi cuisine]]. The [[Spice mix#Masala|masala]] used is available off the shelf.

==See also==
* [[Cuisine of Karnataka]]
* [[List of rice dishes]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Bisi Bele Bath}}

{{Indian Dishes}}

[[Category:Karnataka cuisine]]
[[Category:Indian rice dishes]]

{{karnataka-stub}}

Charia, Nalbari district

2026-01-04T23:40:10Z

Brandon81T: creating first location added tags...

{{Short description|Village in Nalbari district, Assam, India}}

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Charia
| other_name = Saria
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| settlement_type = Village
| etymology =
| pushpin_map = India Assam#India
| pushpin_map_caption = Map of Assam
| coordinates = {{coord|26.37428|91.44118|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_footnotes =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Assam]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Nalbari district|Nalbari]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Gram Panchayat]]
| subdivision_name3 = Dakhin Bahjani
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| seat_type =
| seat =
| leader_party =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_m = 56
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 2477
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 781348
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbers in India|STD Code]]
| area_code = 03624
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Census of India|Census]] code
| blank_info_sec1 = 303972
| footnotes =
| pushpin_map_alt = Nalbari district
| area_total_ha = 188.87
| registration_plate = AS-14
}}
'''Charia''' is a census village in [[Nalbari district]], [[Assam]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Das |first=Bhakta |title=A Glimpse of the Scheduled Castes and Their Socio-economic Development in Assam |publisher=Omsons Publications; Distributed by Western Book Depot |year=1986 |edition=1st |location=New Delhi; Guwahati, Assam |pages=20 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hussain |first=Wasbir |title=Homemakers Without the Men : Assam's Widows of Violence |publisher=Indialog Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-87981-86-2 |location=New Delhi |pages=98 |language=English |author-link=Wasbir Hussain}}</ref> As per the [[2011 Census of India]], Charia has a total population of 2,477 people including 1,289 males and 1,188 females with a literacy rate of 64.19%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=POPULATION BREAKUP AS PER CENSUS-2011 |url=https://nalbari.gov.in/sites/default/files/swf_utility_folder/departments/nalbari_epr_amtron_in_oid_2/this_comm/pub_nalbari.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220703045835/https://nalbari.gov.in/sites/default/files/swf_utility_folder/departments/nalbari_epr_amtron_in_oid_2/this_comm/pub_nalbari.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2022 |access-date=3 July 2022 |website=[[Government of Assam]] {{!}} [[Nalbari District]]}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Nalbari district]]

{{Assam-geo-stub}}

Dallewalia Misl

2026-01-04T19:11:49Z

Brandon81T: add details to improve readability

{{short description|Sovereign state of the Sikh Confederacy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2018}}
{{Misls}}
The '''Dallewalia Misl''' was one of the twelve misls of the Sikh Confederacy. The [[Sikh Confederacy|misl]] was founded by Sardar Gulab Singh, a Khatri [[Sikh]], as a [[Jatha]], but he was later succeeded by a [[Jat Sikh|Jatt Sikh]] named Tara Singh Ghaiba of the Kang clan. Tara Singh made the Jatha into a powerful misl in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Bhagat |title=A History of the Sikh Misals |date=2009 |publisher=[[Punjabi University]] |isbn=978-8130201818 |page=225 |language=English |chapter=Chapter 9: The Dallewalia Misal}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs: The Sikh Commonwealth or Rise and Fall of Sikh Misls |date=2001 |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal|Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers]] |isbn=978-8121501651 |page=52 |language=English |chapter=Chapter 3: The Dallewalia Misl}}</ref> It held territory in the Jalandhar region and northern Malwa.

== History ==

=== Origins ===
The misl was founded by both Khatris and Jats.<ref name="Dhavan">{{cite book |last=Dhavan |first=Purnima |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-7HJ5idB8_QC&pg=PA61 |title=When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699-1799 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-975655-1 |page= |pages=60–61}}</ref> The founder of this Misl was [[Sardar Gulab Singh]]<ref>Singh, Surinder Pal (2009). ''History Of Sikh Misls''. p. 149</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhavan, Purnima. |title=When sparrows became hawks : the making of the Sikh warrior tradition, 1699-1799 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975655-1 |location=New York |oclc=695560144}}</ref> resident of the village of [[Dalewal|Dallewal]] near Dera Baba Nanak, in Doaba Bist [[Jalandhar]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Surinder Pal |title=History Of Sikh Misls |publisher= |year=2009 |isbn= |location= |pages=149}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhawan |first=Purnima |title=When Sparrows Became Hawks, The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699–1799 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-975655-1 |location= |pages=}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs: The Sikh commonwealth or Rise and fall of Sikh misls |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishing |year=1978 |isbn= |location= |pages=52}}</ref> He took [[Pahul]] and became an active member of the [[Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army)|Dal Khalsa]] in 1726 A.D and launched upon a career of chivalry, fighting against the tyrannical government of the Punjab. One day at the head of 150 comrades, he attacked Jalandhar and having obtained a rich booty all of them returned to their camp in the jungle safely.<ref>{{Cite book |last=www.DiscoverSikhism.com |url=http://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheSikhsVol.IvTheSikhCommonwealthOrRiseAndFallOfSikh |title=History Of The Sikhs Vol. IV The Sikh Commonwealth Or Rise And Fall Of Sikh Misls |language=English}}</ref>

Gulab Singh, with his two brothers, Dayal Singh and Gurdyal Singh and two sons, Jaipal Singh and Hardyal Singh, actively participated in the chhota ghallughara in June 1746. In 1748, Gulab Singh was declared to be the head of the Dallewalias, with Gurdyal Singh and [[Sardar Tara Singh Ghaiba|Tara Singh Ghaiba]] as his deputies<ref name=":0" />

=== Skirmish with Najib Khan Rohilla of Najibabad ===
In the year 1756, in collaboration with his friend, Sardar Karora Singh, Gulab Singh attacked [[Rohilla|Najib Khan Rohilla]] of [[Najibabad]]. Nawab Doda Khan offered a stiff resistance in the beginning but shortly thereafter he escaped from the battlefield. Later, Gulab Singh chastised [[Zabita Khan|Nawab Zabita Khan]] of [[Meerut]]. Then, he turned his attention towards [[Muzaffarnagar]], [[Deoband]], [[Miranpur, Uttar Pradesh|Miranpur]] and [[Saharanpur]]. Finding themselves unable to face him, the rulers of these places offered tribute and paid obeisance to him.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Singh|first=Surinder Pal|title=History of the Sikh Misls|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=227}}</ref>

=== Encounter with Ahmed Shah Abdali ===
In 1756-57, when [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]], after plundering [[Delhi]], was carrying with him a huge booty and many young Hindu girls, he was obstructed by the Sikhs at river [[Ravi River|Ravi]] and dispossessed of much of the booty. All the girls were got released from the Afghans and restored to their parents. Gulab Singh, accompanied by his men, actively participated in this enterprise. The same year, an intelligence of the Sikhs gave them an information that revenue, to the tune of five lakh rupees, collected from the area between Sarai Rawalpindi and Rohtas, was being carried to [[Lahore]]. Hearing this news Gulab Singh and Karora Singh, at the head of their men, attacked the guard that was escorting the treasure near [[Jhelum]] and took away the money with which they purchased provisions and distributed the same among the dais of the Khalsa.<ref name=":0" />

=== Decline ===
Gulab Singh died in 1759, in the [[Kalanaur, Gurdaspur|Battle of Kalanaur]], 27 km west of [[Gurdaspur]], fighting against Ambo Khan. His two sons, Jaipal Singh and Hardyal Singh had died earlier in the [[Basholi|Battle of Basohli.]] So the leadership of the Misl was entrusted to Gurdyal Singh, one of the close associates of Gulab Singh. Gurdyal Singh also died about an year after the assumption of the Sardari of the Misal. Tara Singh succeeded Gurdyal Singh<ref name=":2" />

After the death of Sardar Gulab Singh in 1759, his successor was [[Sardar Tara Singh Ghaiba]] (1717–1807), who ruled and further expanded his Misl up to [[Ambala]] Area (Haryana Region). With other Sikh Sardars he sacked the [[Kasur]] city of Pathans and joined the Sikh Sardars in the sack of [[Sirhind-Fategarh|Sirhind]] City in 1764. In 1807, after the death of Tara Singh Ghaiba, his territories were annexed to the empire of [[Ranjit Singh]]. The Dallewalia and [[Nishanwalia Misl|Nishanwalia]] Jathas were stationed at Amritsar to protect the holy city.<ref name=":1" />

== Territory ==
The misl originated from Dallewal near Jalandhar.<ref name="Dhavan" /> The Dallewalias held territory in parts of Jalandhar and northern Malwa.<ref name="Dhavan" /> The Dallewalia Misl controlled areas on the right-bank of the upper Sutlej river.''<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Herrli |first=Hans |title=The Coins of the Sikhs |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |year=2004 |isbn=9788121511322 |edition=2nd |pages=11–13 |chapter=The Sikh Misls}}</ref>''

== Leaders ==
Prominent leaders of the misl were:<ref name="Dhavan" />

* Gulab Singh
* Tara Singh Gheba

== See also ==
* [[Sardar Gulab Singh]]
* [[Sardar Tara Singh Ghaiba]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Sikhism}}

[[Category:Sikh Confederacy]]
[[Category:Princely states of Punjab]]
[[Category:Jalandhar district]]

{{Sikhism-stub}}

Sarada Tilaka

2025-12-21T11:42:26Z

Brandon81T: made info.

{{More citations needed|date=June 2022}}{{Hindu scriptures}}

'''Sarada Tilaka''' or '''Sharada Tilak''' a collection of [[mantra]]s and instructions for worship ([[Homa (ritual)|Homa]]) of various deities including [[Ganapati]], [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]] and various manifestations of the goddess. It was compiled circa 800 AD by Sri Lakshmana Desikendra believed to be a native of [[Nasik]] in [[Maharashtra]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Avalon |first=Arthur |title=Sarada-Tilaka Tantram |publisher=Motilal Banarasidass |year=1996 |isbn=9788120813373 |location=India |language=en}}</ref>

The term 'Sarada Tilaka' means the [[tilaka]] of [[Sarada]] or goddess [[Saraswati]], and the text deals with the [[tantra]] system of worship. Topics including Tantra Swaroopa, Tantrik Prakriya, Mantrotpatti, Yogavidya etc. are explained in detail in 25 chapters of verses.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hindu texts]]

{{hindu-stub}}

Sandila

2025-12-16T17:34:33Z

Brandon81T: made details

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement 
|name = Sandila
|settlement_type = Town
|image_map = Sandila block map.png
|map_caption = Map of Sandila CD block
|pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh#India
|pushpin_label_position = right
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
|coordinates = {{Coord|27|04|10|N|80|30|51|E|type:city_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[List of states and union territories of India|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of Uttar Pradesh|Division]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Lucknow division|Lucknow]]
|subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of Uttar Pradesh|District]]
|subdivision_name3 = [[Hardoi district|Hardoi]]
|government_type = [[Municipal council (India)|Municipal Council]]
|governing_body = Sandila Municipal Council
|leader_title = Municipal Chairperson
|leader_name = Mohammed Rais Ansari ([[Samajwadi Party|SP]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sec.up.nic.in/site/NewWinnerList2023.aspx|title=2023 UP Municipal Election results|work=ECI Uttar Pradesh|accessdate=22 May 2023}}</ref>
|leader_title1 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha MP]]
|leader_name1 = [[Ashok Kumar Rawat]] ([[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]])
|leader_title2 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly|MLA]]
|leader_name2 = [[Alka Singh Arkvanshi]] ([[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]])
|unit_pref = Metric
|area_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011"/>
|area_total_km2 = 24.62
|elevation_m = 142
|population_total = 58346
|population_as_of = 2011
|population_density_km2 = auto
|population_demonym = Sandilivi
|population_footnotes = <ref name="Census 2011"/>
|demographics_type1 = Languages
|demographics1_title1 = Official
|demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
|demographics1_title2 = Additional official
|demographics1_info2 = [[Urdu]]
|timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|utc_offset1 = +5:30
|registration_plate = UP-30
}}
'''Sandila''' is a town and [[nagar palika parishad]] in [[Hardoi district]] in the Indian state of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web|title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Hardoi, Part A (Village and Town Directory)|pages=15–16, 32–52, 435–54, 578–82, 589|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/09/0924_PART_A_DCHB_HARDOI.pdf|website=Census 2011 India|access-date=19 June 2021|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712070511/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/09/0924_PART_A_DCHB_HARDOI.pdf|archivedate=12 July 2021|url-status=dead}}</ref> It serves as a [[tehsil]] headquarters within the district.<ref name="Census 2011"/> Located midway between [[Hardoi]] and [[Lucknow]], Sandila is a well-connected town with roads leading in all directions and a major [[broad gauge]] rail line passing through the south side of town.<ref name="Gazetteer">{{cite book|last1=Nevill|first1=H.R.|title=Hardoi - A Gazetteer|year=1904|publisher=Government Press|location=Allahabad|pages=121, 133–5, 249–57|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.48076|access-date=19 June 2021}}</ref> According to legend, Sandila was the ''Tapobhumi'' of the Vedic sage [[Shandilya (Rishi)|Shandilya]]. The [[Shandilya Ashram]] was located at the temple of [[Shitala|Goddess Shitala]] in western side of the town.<ref>{{Cite web |title=शाडिल्य ऋषि की तपोभूमि पर स्थित शीतला मां करतीं मनोकामना पूरी - |url=https://www.jagran.com/uttar-pradesh/hardoi-13861217.html |access-date=2025-04-24 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>

Important industries include sweets<ref name="Census 2011"/> — its [[laddu]]s are especially well-known<ref name="Gazetteer"/> — as well as [[beedi]] production and [[zardozi]] work.<ref name="Census 2011"/> [[Sandila Industrial Area]] have many big industries like [[Pepsi]], British Paints, [[Berger Paints]], [[Webley & Scott]], [[ITC Limited]], [[Haldiram's]].

Sandila is the oldest municipality in Hardoi district, established on 14 July 1868.<ref name="Gazetteer"/> As of 2011, its population is 58,346, in 9,663 households.<ref name="Census 2011"/>

==History==

Sandila became the seat of Arkvanshi (suryavanshi) power in the early 13th century and became a flourishing town under Arkvanshi (suryavanshi) rajput. Arkvanshi (suryavanshi) rajput held the region till last quarter of the 14th century, when a large army sent by Feroz Shah Tughlaq under his lieutenant Syed Makhdum Alauddin, captured the town and the adjoining areas after a fierce battle with Arkvanshi (suryavanshi) rajputs. The remains of Arkvanshi rule are seen in form of ruined fortresses in the mounds of Garhi Jindor, Malhaiyya garhi (Malaiyya), Sahinjana tila, Samad Khera, Naurang garh (Tarauna), Sandi qila, and many others. After the decline of Arkvanshi (suryavanshi) Rajput's power, Sandila came under the rule of Delhi sultanate. The folklore of Arkvanshi still sings about the bravery of its heroes, Salhia Singh Arkvanshi and Malhia Singh Arkvanshi and Salhia Arkvanshi.

''Begum Aizaz Rasul lived in Sandila'''

Apart from this, the [[Begum Aizaz Rasul]] was the only '''muslim woman''' in the [[Constituent Assembly of India]] that drafted the [[Constitution of India]]. Qudsia was married in 1929 to Nawab Aizaz Rasul, the ''[[taluqdar]]'' ([[landowner]]) of Sandila in [[Hardoi district]] of what was then [[Oudh]] (now a part of [[Uttar Pradesh]]). The match was arranged by Sir Malcolm Hailey and the marriage was entirely harmonious. Two years after the wedding, when Qudsia was fourteen, her father died in 1931. Shortly after this happened, her in-laws came and took her away to '''Sandila''', which was to be her home in life and where she lies buried after her death

==Geography==
Sandila is located at {{Coord|27.08|N|80.52|E|}}.<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/36/Sandila.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Sandila]</ref> It has an average elevation of {{convert|142|m|ft}}. It is around 50 kilometres away from [[Hardoi|district headquarters]] and also 50 kilometres away from [[Lucknow]], the capital of [[Uttar Pradesh]] and is an important tehsil of the [[Hardoi district]].

==Demographics==
{{historical populations
| align = left
| source = 2011 Census of India<ref name="Census 2011"/>
| 1901 | 16843
| 1911 | 15241
| 1921 | 14074
| 1931 | 15034
| 1941 | 17526
| 1951 | 17400
| 1961 | 18407
| 1971 | 22365
| 1981 | 29700
| 1991 | 38605
| 2001 | 48899
| 2011 | 58346
}}
The [[2011 Census of India]] recorded the population of Sandila as 58,346 people, of whom 30,400 were male and 27,946 female.<ref name="Census 2011"/> The corresponding [[sex ratio]] of 919 females to every 1000 males was the highest among towns in Hardoi district.<ref name="Census 2011"/> Among the 0-6 age group, the sex ratio was 910, which was slightly above the district urban average of 906.<ref name="Census 2011"/> Members of [[scheduled castes]] made up 8.13% of the town's population, and members of [[scheduled tribes]] made up 0.03%.<ref name="Census 2011"/> The [[literacy rate]] of Sandila was 65.79% (counting only people age 7 and up); it was higher among men and boys (70.99%) than women and girls (60.15%).<ref name="Census 2011"/> In terms of employment, Sandila had the highest percentage of main workers (i.e. people employed for at least 6 months per year) among towns in Hardoi district, with 27.15% falling into this category.<ref name="Census 2011"/> Marginal workers made up 3.91%, and non-workers made up 68.94%.<ref name="Census 2011"/> Employment status varied heavily according to gender, with 51.34% of men but only 9.01% of women being either main or marginal workers.<ref name="Census 2011"/>
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Sandila
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Muslims]]|green|53.97}}
{{bar percent|[[Hindus]]|orange|45.49}}
{{bar percent|Others†|black|0.54}}
|caption=Distribution of religions 
†Includes [[Sikh]]s (0.18%), [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] (<0.05%).
}}

== Economy ==
As of 1971, the economy of Sandila was described as a mixture of the industrial, service, and commercial sectors (in that order).<ref name="Census 1971">{{cite book |title=Census 1971 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part X-A: Village & Town Directory, District Hardoi|year=1972|pages=viii-xi, 8–9|url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1130/1/45148_1971_HAR.pdf|access-date=19 June 2021}}</ref> The main items imported were groundnuts, cloth, and grains; the main items manufactured were handloom cloth, brass utensils, and [[beedi]]es; and the main exports were groundnuts, grain, and handloom cloth.<ref name="Census 1971"/>

In 1981, Sandila was home to four medium- and large-scale factories, including two each in the public and private sectors.<ref name="Census 1981">{{cite book |title=Census 1981 Uttar Pradesh: District Census Handbook Part XIII-A: Village & Town Directory, District Hardoi |date=1982 |pages=4, 6–7 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1229/1/27831_1981_HAR.pdf |access-date=19 June 2021}}</ref> These included the Laxmi Sugar & Oil Mills Ltd., the oldest large-scale factory in the district, which was established in 1935 and as of 1981 was producing 24,000 tonnes of sugar.<ref name="Census 1981"/> Raw sugarcane was supplied from Hardoi as well as parts of [[Sitapur district]].<ref name="Census 1981"/> There was also a textile mill, run by U.P. State Textiles Corporation Ltd., which at the time employed almost 1,000 weavers and was equipped with 25,000 spindles; an expansion was planned at the time that would double its size.<ref name="Census 1981"/> A medium-scale factory run by U.P. Metal Industries Ltd. had been functioning since 1976 and was producing some 1,000 tonnes of metal pipe annually.<ref name="Census 1981"/> The fourth, the Hardoi Co-operative Vanaspati Mills Ltd., was still under construction at the time.<ref name="Census 1981"/>

Also described in 1981, the main powerlines connecting Lucknow's hydroelectric power supply to Hardoi run through Sandila; they include both a 132-[[kilovolt]] line and a 66-kilovolt one.<ref name="Census 1981"/> The lion's share of electricity consumption in the district at the time was for irrigation and water supply, making up 57.34% of the total consumption.<ref name="Census 1981"/>

Sandila is also known for its delicacy that's ''Laddoos''. The ladoos are selling at the Sandila railway station to the passengers. The mention of Sandila's famous ladoo has seen in the movie [[Hum Saath-Saath Hain]] by [[Sadashiv Amrapurkar]].

===Sandila Industrial Area===

As of 2022, [[Sandila Industrial Area]] have many big industries like [[Pepsi]], British Paints, [[Berger Paints]], [[Webley & Scott]], [[ITC Limited]], [[Haldiram's]]. Handgun biggie Webley & Scott's world famous revolver is already being manufactured in Sandila.<ref>{{cite web |title=Webley revolver makes comeback after 100 years, UP to manufacture |url=https://manufacturing.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/aerospace-defence/webley-revolver-makes-comeback-after-100-years-up-to-manufacture/114526715 |website= manufacturing.economictimes.indiatimes.com | date= Oct 24, 2024 }}</ref>

[[Berger Paints|Berger Paints India Ltd]] is setting up its factory on 35 acres of land at a cost of about Rs 850 crore and generating employment of 2500 people. British Paints Limited, a well-known company of England, has also started construction of its unit on over 10 acres of [[Uttar Pradesh State Industrial Development Corporation]] land at a cost of Rs 150 crore.

Green Ply Company is setting up its unit on 35 acres of land at a cost of Rs 600 crore.<ref>{{cite web |title= Greenply Industries to set up Rs 75-cr plant in UP | url=https://www.constructionweekonline.in/projects-tenders/17660-greenply-industries-to-set-up-rs-75-cr-plant-in-up |website=constructionweekonline.in |date=May 11, 2021}}</ref> Austin Plywood Company is establishing its factory at a cost of Rs 50 crore and will employ 500 people. Gang Industries Ltd is setting up its distillery over 25 acres of land at a cost of Rs 250 crore.

[[Varun Beverages|Varun Beverages Limited]] is setting up a factory at Sandila over 100 acres of land with an investment of Rs 700 crore to produce cold drinks, juices, etc. in association with Pepsi, generating 2000 people getting employment in this factory.

Besides, [[ITC Limited]] is setting up its factory to produce flour, juice, chips, etc. over 60 acres land with an investment of Rs 800 crore.

[[Haldiram's]] is setting up its unit on five acres at a cost of about Rs 50 crore and will offer job opportunities to 250 people. Hindustan Food Limited is also setting up its factory at Sandila at a cost of Rs 100 crore.

==Education==

There are both government as well as private schools in the town affiliated with [[Central Board of Secondary Education]], [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] & [[Uttar Pradesh State Board of High School and Intermediate Education]].

===Government===

*Girls Government Inter College (Only for Girls)
*Bhagwaan Budhh Inter College (Only for Boys)
*Iltifat Rasool Inter College

===Private===

There are many private schools in the town affiliated with [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE Board]], [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education|ICSE Board]]. Some of the schools are:
*Saint Theresa School (ICSE)
*Saira Bano Public School (CBSE)
*Sandila Lions Public School (CBSE)
*TRS Convent School (CBSE)
*Shanti Niketan Public School
*Seth M.R.Jaipuria School (CBSE)

==Airforce Landing==
In 1952, [[Suhas Biswas]] a flight lieutenant of [[Indian Air Force]] who was working in a Communication Flight unit in '''Lucknow''' took charge of the aircraft carrying army officials who were returning to [[New Delhi]] after an official visit. After it took off, suddenly a crew member observed an engine malfunction; subsequently a fire broke out. Biswas first tried extinguish it, but it was difficult to control. He decided to attempt a forced landing, and made a belly landing near Sandila town in Uttar Pradesh and successfully saved the lives of all the passengers. Biswas was awarded the [[Ashoka Chakra]] for his extraordinary example of bravery, intelligence and rationality.

==Sanitation==

As of 1971, Sandila was one of two towns in Hardoi district (along with Hardoi itself) that had arrangements for mechanical transport and removal of [[night soil]].<ref name="Census 1971"/>

As of 2011, the drainage system employed in Sandila is [[open sewer]]s, and 6,000 [[flush toilet]]s have been installed in the town.<ref name="Census 2011"/>

==Transport==

===Roads===

Town is well connected with [[Hardoi|district headquarters]], state capital [[Lucknow]] and neighboring district headquarters like [[Sitapur]], [[Unnao]], [[Shahjahanpur]], [[Lucknow]], [[Kannauj]] and [[Kanpur Nagar|Kanpur]]. The [[National Highway 731 (India)|NH-731]] passes through the town connecting [[Lucknow]] with other parts of the state.

===Rail===

[[Sandila Railway Station]] is a railway station on [[broad gauge]] [[Lucknow-Moradabad line]], that connects the town with [[Lucknow Charbagh railway station|Lucknow]], [[Bareilly Junction railway station|Bareilly]] and country capital [[Hazrat Nizamuddin railway station|Delhi]] via [[Moradabad railway station|Moradabad]].

The [[Kashi Vishwanath Express]] (15127/15128) is an Indian express train that runs between [[Banaras railway station|Banaras]] in Uttar Pradesh and [[New Delhi railway station]] haults at the Sandila railway station.

The [[Nauchandi Express]] (14241 / 14242) is an express train belonging to [[Indian Railways]] that runs between [[Prayagraj Sangam railway station|Prayagraj Sangam]] and [[Saharanpur Junction railway station|Saharanpur Junction]] haults at the Sandila railway station in Uttar Pradesh.

===Bus===

Sandila does not have any official [[bus station]] or [[bus station|depot]], but [[UPSRTC]] buses are available in town square for neighboring districts & cities. Buses are available for [[Delhi]], [[Lucknow]], [[Kanpur]], [[Hardoi]] and [[Bareilly]].

===Electric Bus===

[[Lucknow City Transport Services Limited]] (LCTSL) operates its services from Lucknow to Sandila or [[Vice versa|Vice Versa]]. New services started from Lucknow to Naimisharanya via Sandila on the daily basis.

===Air===

Nearest Airport is [[Chaudhary Charan Singh Airport]], Lucknow, 60 kms away from the town.

==Villages==

At the turn of the 20th century, it was noted that many villages in Sandila pargana were unusually large because of past political instability.<ref name="Gazetteer"/> In (then-) recent years, "numberless hamlets have sprung up as offshoots of the larger villages," due to secure conditions.<ref name="Gazetteer"/>

As of 2011, Sandila CD block has the following 97 villages:<ref name="Census 2011"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Village name
! Total land area (hectares)
! Population (in 2011)
|-
| Gogawan Dew || 137.5 || 1,625
|-
| Gahira || 183.1 || 1,038
|-
| Padri Gahirawaly || 50.4 || 249
|-
| Terwa Pahelwan || 188.9 || 975
|-
| Bhirka || 217.6 || 1,576
|-
| Yarka || 43.4 || 553
|-
| [[Mahgawan, Hardoi|Mahgawan]] || 1,165.4 || 8,057
|-
| Mawai Brahman || 54.1 || 579
|-
| Parihawan || 165.7 || 1,758
|-
| Shekhwapur || 60.6 || 593
|-
| Raheriyamau || 43 || 370
|-
| [[Gopalpur, Sandila|Gopalpur]] || 164.8 || 1,190
|-
| Narendarpur || 100.6 || 1,019
|-
| Rasulpur || 326.6 || 2,332
|-
| Rahimabad Grant || 190.5 || 1,144
|-
| Mawae Musalmanabad || 211.3 || 1,393
|-
| Lohrai || 173.5 || 1,252
|-
| Mahroniya || 236.8 || 1,594
|-
| Lumamau || 678.3 || 5,546
|-
| Kinhoti || 182.6 || 2,146
|-
| Atsaliya || 898.8 || 6,060
|-
| Malehra || 920.5 || 5,846
|-
| Chanohiya || 1,177.8 || 5,537
|-
| [[Paharpur, Sandila|Paharpur]] || 37.6 || 271
|-
| Jajmau || 97.2 || 1,052
|-
| Bhitauly || 355.8 || 1,782
|-
| Jamu || 550.5 || 3,745
|-
| Bhadehana || 136.8 || 1,035
|-
| Umartaly || 239.2 || 1,157
|-
| Shivnagara || 244.1 || 1,331
|-
| Gogawan Umray || 373.9 || 1,373
|-
| Mahamau || 107.8 || 654
|-
| Khutehana || 146.3 || 897
|-
| Gausapur || 44.4 || 625
|-
| Mahamadwur Belwaran || 467.9 || 2,386
|-
| Mirnagar Ajjgawan || 861.6 || 6,690
|-
| Bibipur || 45.9 || 454
|-
| Tarf Malikana || 276.8 || 515
|-
| Hakimpur || 34.7 || 2
|-
| Tarf Ashraf Tola || 128.6 || 2,082
|-
| Tarf Mandie || 206.8 || 1,146
|-
| Jamkura || 440 || 3,707
|-
| Atamau || 376.9 || 2,299
|-
| Bharighna || 296.2 || 2,407
|-
| Baghuwamau || 311.4 || 1,689
|-
| Talauly || 596.6 || 3,778
|-
| Jamsara || 437.7 || 2,132
|-
| Gangau || 168.2 || 917
|-
| Saray Marukpur || 165.8 || 1,151
|-
| Rampur Ashu || 222.6 || 1,026
|-
| Kurna Timruk || 351.4 || 2,960
|-
| Edulpur || 44.6 || 152
|-
| Jallalpur || 92.6 || 1,294
|-
| Hardalmau || 275.1 || 2,607
|-
| Kudauri || 332.3 || 2,711
|-
| Sunderpur || 356.8 || 2,541
|-
| Gauswa Donga || 734.3 || 4,178
|-
| Behsary || 80.8 || 749
|-
| Maleya || 756.8 || 3,290
|-
| Gajaudin Nagar || 247 || 983
|-
| Padry || 174.4 || 1,111
|-
| Meetau || 651.4 || 4,732
|-
| Makhadum Pura || 89.2 || 923
|-
| Mahatwana || 278.9 || 2,131
|-
| [[Alampur, Sandila|Alampur]] || 235 || 1,123
|-
| Begamgang || 431.1 || 5,324
|-
| Tikra Daudpur || 129.4 || 851
|-
| [[Sanie, Hardoi|Sanie]] || 474.8 || 2,909
|-
| Tiloeya Kalan || 246.1 || 2,836
|-
| [[Narayanpur, Sandila (census code 141057)|Narayanpur]] || 256.3 || 2,021
|-
| Tiloeya Khurd || 193.8 || 1,599
|-
| Bada Danda || 58.9 || 270
|-
| Uttar Kaund || 300.2 || 2,315
|-
| Atwawary || 147.9 || 1,648
|-
| Pahtoeya || 195.4 || 1,235
|-
| Kakraly || 748.8 || 4,966
|-
| [[Shank, Hardoi|Shank]] || 939 || 4,536
|-
| Tikra Barar || 223.7 || 1,707
|-
| Beremau || 125.6 || 536
|-
| Gaudora || 268.6 || 2,527
|-
| Majh Gaon || 384.3 || 2,908
|-
| Mau Chena || 111 || 1,019
|-
| Sarwa || 1,089.2 || 4,520
|-
| [[Kasimabad, Hardoi|Kasimabad]] || 324.4 || 262
|-
| Purwa Man || 265.4 || 2,185
|-
| Bariya || 241.8 || 2,259
|-
| [[Barahi, Hardoi|Barahi]] || 549.3 || 3,028
|-
| Gauswa || 69.6 || 552
|-
| Tikra Kalla || 419.5 || 2,375
|-
| [[Sunda, Hardoi|Sunda]] || 275.4 || 1,623
|-
| [[Narayanpur, Sandila (census code 141078)|Narayanpur]] || 209.2 || 1,331
|-
| Kirtapur || 51 || 159
|-
| Mandoly || 633.2 || 4,065
|-
| Sikrohry || 275 || 3,886
|-
| Jawar || 422.9 || 3,471
|-
| Kally Khera || 68 || 657
|-
| Som || 528.4 || 5,040
|}

==See also==
*[[Sandila Assembly constituency]]
*[[Shitala Mata Mandir]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Hardoi district}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Hardoi district]]

Grievance redressal

2025-11-23T09:14:59Z

Brandon81T: creating new details w/ refs...

{{Short description|Governance process}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2024}}
'''Grievance Redressal''' is a management- and governance-related process used commonly in [[India]]. While the term "Grievance Redressal" primarily covers the receipt and processing of complaints from citizens and consumers, a wider definition includes actions taken on any issue raised by them to avail services more effectively.

==Overview==
GRS is mandated in Government agencies and departments that are directly involved with serving citizens and organizations. Usually a [[Chief communications officer|Public Relations Officer (PRO)]] is designated with the role of receiving complaints and initiating corrective action, but this mechanism often fails on account of lack of authority vested in the PRO over officers of various capacities. The [[Government of India]] has made effort to systematize the nature of grievance redressal through legislation,<ref name="Citizens Charter Bill 2011">[http://pib.nic.in/newsite/efeatures.aspx?relid=79138 "The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011"] - pplPress Information Bureau, Government of India</ref> being driven by civil society agitations under the leadership of [[Anna Hazare]] and [[Arvind Kejriwal]] for enactment of the [[Jan Lokpal Bill]] into law.<ref name="Jan Lokpal">[http://www.aamaadmiparty.org/janlokpal Jan Lokpal Bill] - as proposed by Aam Aadmi Party</ref>

Private businesses and [[Nonprofit organization|Non-Profits]] engaged in service delivery, such as hotels, restaurants, colleges, etc. often tend to set up their own mechanisms, such as [[Feedback]] forms and '''Contact Us''' pages. Such means to get direct feedback enables businesses to take corrective action in time. Governments also often accept the responsibility of [[Consumer protection]] from private organizations through '''Legislation'''<ref name="Consumer Protection Act of 1986">[http://www.ncdrc.nic.in/1_1.html Consumer Protection Act, 1986] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206005316/http://www.ncdrc.nic.in/1_1.html |date=2015-02-06 }} - Government of India</ref> as well as setting up Consumer Courts and Organizations for [[Dispute resolution|Dispute Resolution]].<ref name="NCDRC">[http://ncdrc.nic.in/ National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission] - Government of India</ref> Such consumer courts pursue quick action for redress, while maintaining affordability and ease to the consumer.{{fact|date=September 2024}}

==Coverage==
Grievance Redressal typically covers the following types of complaints:
* Service Unavailability
* Non-Delivery against Commitment
* Excessive Delays
* Injustice concerns (such as over race, caste, sex)
* Staff Misbehaviour
* Malpractice

Wider definition of grievance redressal covers:
* Malfunctions under Warranty coverage
* Product Support issues
* Citizen Vigilance reports
* Employee Disputes

==Process==
[[File:Grievance Redressal Workflow.png|frame|Workflow for Grievance Redressal as handled by sites such as ActPlease.com]]
Organizations define their own process flows for grievance redressal. These are rarely made known to the public in case of private businesses; governments and non-profits usually share voluntarily or by mandate the hierarchy of officers responsible for taking corrective action. Some organizations maintain a custom-developed ticketing software, while others count on [[Software as a service|SaaS]] [[Web portal|Portals]] such as ActPlease.com. Feedback Portals such as [[Tripadvisor|TripAdvisor]] and [[Yelp]] are driven by consumers, and organizations / businesses have the option to join and participate. Depending on the desire to correct as well as level of transparency of the organization, grievance redressal flow can include the following steps:

===Input acceptance===
Customers convey their grievance to the organization through feedback forms, letters, registered communications, emails, etc. These inputs may be submitted by mail, over the Internet, or in person.

====Anonymity====
Customers are often reluctant to report grievances that target individual executives of the organization, especially those who may influence their future interactions or have the potential to take vengeance. Under such conditions, the organization needs to assure the customer that her identity will be hidden from executives, and preferably from everyone. This, however, opens the potential problem of deceitful negative inputs purposefully targeted against specific executives, as the people reporting are kept anonymous.

Feedback forms on website are prone to spam submissions. There are cases when employees themselves submit feedback - positive for their professional gain, and negative if targeting colleagues. Some service centers make employees sign blank feedback forms to create positive statistics. Such situations can be prevented by seeking verification of identity of customers. This is especially possible on online setups, such as ActPlease.com, which uses [[Short Message Service|SMS]] to verify the authenticity of the mobile number of reporter. Basic tools such as [[Captcha]] can prevent automatic spammers. Mass submission of false feedback becomes less likely and easy to detect in case of paper-based submission.

===Acknowledgement & Status Tracking===
Customers tend to develop much greater confidence in the grievance and feedback mechanism if they are given a formal acknowledgement. The acknowledgement could be by SMS and Email, as used by ActPlease.com, or simply by publicly posting their message on the appropriate forum, such as [[TripAdvisor]]. [[Issue tracking system|Ticketing Systems]] such as osTicket and Fresh Desk, as well as SaaS systems such as ActPlease respond with acknowledgements with unique tracking numbers. These may be used by customers to check the status of action taken on their complaint.

===Forwarding===
Paper-based feedback as well as standard feedback forms on websites usually forward inputs to a single officer or email address. This naturally causes scope for delay or failure to reach the right persons. However, smarter ticketing systems sort grievances based on their classification, and then redirect each to their relevant executive(s) instantly.

====Escalation====
Smart Grievance Portals such as ActPlease expect organizations to configure typical action time for each type of complaint, as well as set up the hierarchy for escalation. When an executive fails to take corrective action in time, the matter is promoted to the officer next in line in seniority.

===Action===
Computerized and web-based systems have an advantage over paper-based systems as they can alert the reporter immediately upon completion of action, as marked by the executive in charge.

====Verification====
Customer may certify, if applicable and asked, whether the corrective action taken on their grievance satisfies them or is not substantial enough. Should it not be, the complaint may be marked as pending again, or be forwarded to a more senior officer in escalated form.

==Measurements==
The effectiveness of implementation of a grievance redressal mechanism can be calculated with the following parameters:
* Count of cases received
* Nature of cases received
* Acceptance of anonymous feedback
* Ratio of false inputs
* Time taken for corrective action
* Escalations required
* Confirmations & rejections after completion
* Repeat nature of grievances

==Challenges==
Traditional Grievance Redressal mechanisms tend to fail, or are very ineffective, on account of some of these causes:
* '''Unavailability''' or '''Difficulty to access''' means to report grievances, at times done so purposefully, or due to lack of priority
* '''Lack of authority''' of PRO over relevant departments and executives in Government organizations
* '''Disconnect''' of senior decision-maker executives with end customers
* '''Non-motivation''' of front-end managers to forward negative feedback to higher-ups
* '''Fear''' of citizens / consumers to report malpractice about officers with substantial authority
* '''Inability''' of smaller private organizations to set up computerized mechanisms
* '''Inaccuracy''' and '''spamming''' of feedback forms, driving false impressions
* '''Delayed feedback acceptance''', as feedback is taken after service has been provided, while corrective action may be taken typically during the delivery of service

==Grievance Redressal Options available to Organizations==

===Paper-based >===

===Feedback Forms===
These are most popular and usually used by consumer service businesses, such as hotels and restaurants. They are less likely to be effective, as there is reduced assurance of their reaching the decision-making authorities. These also usually do not give any formal confirmation or tracking number to the complainant. Possibility of fake submissions also remains. Customers therefore have less confidence on such forms. Confidence can be strengthened if a central call center sends an acknowledgement of receipt of such feedback. Another possible reinforcement may be done by taking digitized input, which can be processed using ''scantron machines''.

===Contact Us Links===
Websites of organizations generally carry the '''Contact Us''' page, which lists the email and phone numbers to use to submit any concerns. Many websites also provide a form to fill that automatically gets sent by email, with confirmation to the reporter.

===Customer-driven Feedback Websites===
Websites such as Yelp and TripAdvisor allow customers to post grievances and recommendations about organizations from personal experience. Designated representatives of these organizations have the option to respond to such communications, though these responses are often just standard text. The feedback also tends to be subjective and unlikely to be auto-sorted and forwarded for action.

===Organization-oriented Portals===
Organizations can subscribe to grievance redressal portals such as ActPlease.com to invite their customers to report their grievances and request action. As such portals are configured by the organizations themselves, they can ensure that complaints are directed properly. ActPlease, being a third party site, handles anonymity of the reporter from the organization when necessary, while ensuring the genuine nature of the person, through [[SMS]] verification. Such [[Software as a service|SaaS]] Portals are easy to use and easily affordable for all organizations including SMEs, while empowering them with the latest tools such as [[Mobile application testing]] and Customized Websites.

===Custom-developed Ticketing Systems===
Large organizations involved in [[customer service]] set up their own ticketing systems with similar features as the SaaS portals, but with greater customization in the processing of grievances. Examples of such organizations are [[Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited]] and [[Torrent Power]]. Large-scale ERP software, such as SAP and Genie also provide facility for setting up ticketed grievance redressal and customer support systems.

==References==
{{reflist}}


==External links==
* [http://pgportal.gov.in Public Grievance Portal for Government of India]

[[Category:Ombudsmen in India]]
[[Category:Consumer protection in India]]
[[Category:Privacy in India]]

Badho Bahu

2025-11-07T08:42:29Z

Brandon81T: new new stub

{{Short description|2016 Indian television series}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Cover Image.jpg
| genre = {{Plainlist|
* [[Drama]]
* [[Romance (love)|Romance]]
}}
| creator = Dipti Kalwani
| writer = {{ubl|Pankaj Mavchi|Dipti Kalwani}}
| starring = {{ubl| [[Rytasha Rathore]] |[[Prince Narula]]}}
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country = [[India]]
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons =
| num_episodes = 444
| producer = {{ubl|Dipti Kalwani|Teenna Swayyam|Sushant Kumar}}
| director = Sumit Sodani
| editor =
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime =
| company = {{Plainlist|
* Sunny Side Up films Private Limited Liability Partnership
* Hum Tum Tele-Films Private Limited Liability Partnership
}}
| network = [[&TV]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2016|9|12}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=yes|2018|5|25}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Badho Bahu cast gets emotional on last day of shoot.|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/-badho-bahu-cast-get-emotional-on-the-last-day-of-shoot/articleshow/64211500.cms|access-date=17 May 2018|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
}}

'''''Badho Bahu''''' is an Indian Hindi-language [[Romance (love)|romantic]] [[drama]] television series that aired on [[&TV]]. Produced by Sunny Side Up and Hum Tum Tele Films, the show premiered on September 12, 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/prince-narula-to-make-fiction-tv-debut-as-wrestler-with-badho-bahu-2955929/|title=Prince Narula to make fiction TV debut as wrestler with Badho Bahu|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|date=5 August 2016|access-date=7 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/prince-narulas-new-tv-show-badho-bahu-to-break-size-zero-obsession/17575193|title=Prince Narula's new TV show 'Badho Bahu' to break size-zero obsession|date=2016-08-31|website=Mid-day|access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref> It starred [[Rytasha Rathore]] and [[Prince Narula]] in the lead roles of Komal and Lakhan respectively. The show went off air on 17 May 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/-badho-bahu-cast-gets-emotional-on-the-last-day-of-shoot/articleshow/64211500.cms|title=Badho Bahu cast gets emotional on the last day of shoot - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=17 May 2018 |access-date=2018-12-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/prince-narula-and-rytasha-rathores-show-badho-bahu-to-go-off-the-air-soon/articleshow/64050275.cms|title=Badho Bahu to go off air soon - Times of India|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=6 May 2018 |access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref> It has been remade in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Brahmagantu]]'' on [[Zee Kannada]], in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as [[Oru Oorla Oru Rajakumari (TV series)|''Oru Oorla Oru Rajakumari'']] on [[Zee Tamil]], in [[Malayalam]] as ''[[Swathi Nakshatram Chothi]]'' on [[Zee Keralam]], in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as [[Gundamma Katha (TV series)|''Gundamma Katha'']] on [[Zee Telugu]].

==Plot==
It revolves around an overweight girl, Komal, who gets nicknamed Badho because of her physical appearance. Komal is made to do tough manual tasks which need physical strength. She is a sweet, loving, energetic and a simple girl. She has a big heart and helps most people in her town. Lucky Singh Ahlawat is a famous wrestler and is known for his looks. A series of events leads up to Komal and Lucky getting married.

== Cast ==
===Main===
*[[Rytasha Rathore]] as Komal "Badho" Singh Ahlawat: Jamuna and Shamsher's daughter; Prithvi and Vardaan's sister; Lucky's wife (2016–2018)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/prince-narula-to-make-fiction-tv-debut-as-wrestler-with-badho-bahu-2955929/|title=Prince Narula to make fiction TV debut as wrestler with Badho Bahu|date=2016-08-05|website=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref>
*[[Prince Narula]] as Laakha "Lucky" Singh Ahlawat: Raghubir and Malti's son; Rana and Pragya's cousin; Badho's husband (2016–2018)<ref name="'Bigg Boss' winner to make his acting debut as a wrestler">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Bigg-Boss-winner-to-make-his-acting-debut-as-a-wrestler/articleshow/53541444.cms|title='Bigg Boss' winner to make his acting debut as a wrestler - Times of India|date=5 August 2016|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=7 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tv/prince-narula-took-inspiration-for-badho-bahu-from-salman-khan-s-sultan/story-86WcKt7sDlWVqhBP0SRYML.html|title=Prince Narula took inspiration for Badho Bahu from Salman Khan's Sultan|date=2016-09-01|website=[[Hindustan Times]]|access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref>

===Recurring===
*[[Pankaj Dheer]] as Raghubir Singh Ahlawat: Kailash and Chhoto's brother; Malti's husband; Lucky's father (2016–2018)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/television/220816/pankaj-dheer-to-play-prince-narulas-father-on-new-show.html|title=Pankaj Dheer to play Prince Narula's father on new show|date=2016-08-22|website=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref>
*[[Jaya Ojha]] as Malti Ahlawat: Raghubir's wife; Lucky's mother (2016–2018)
*[[Arhaan Khan]] as Ranbir "Rana" Singh Ahlawat: Kailash and Kamla's son; Pragya's brother; Lucky's cousin; Pinky's husband (2016–2018)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/arhaan-khan-badho-bahu-has-made-me-a-prominent-face-on-tv/19035159|title=Arhaan Khan: Badho Bahu has made me a prominent face on TV|date=2018-02-07|website=Mid-day|access-date=2019-09-06}}</ref>
*[[Antara Banerjee]] as Pinky Ahlawat: Rana's wife (2016–2018)
*[[Karmveer Choudhary]] as Kailash Singh Ahlawat: Raghubir and Chhoto's brother; Kamla's husband; Rana and Pragya's father (2016–2018)<ref>{{cite news|title=Karmveer Choudhary:I shifted base to Mumbai because I lost all my money in elections - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/karmveer-choudharyi-shifted-base-to-mumbai-because-i-lost-all-my-money-in-elections/articleshow/63950689.cms|access-date=28 April 2018|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
*[[Sangeeta Panwar]] as Kamla Ahlawat: Kailash's wife; Rana and Pragya's mother (2016–2018)
*Nishi Singh / Ashima Khan as Pragya Ahlawat Singh: Kamla and Kailash's son; Rana's sister; Lucky's cousin; Vardaan's wife (2016–2018)
*[[Shagun Pandey]] as Vardaan Singh: Jamuna and Shamsher's younger son; Prithvi and Badho's brother; Pragya's husband (2016–18)
*Geeta Udeshi as Jamuna Singh: Shamsher's wife; Prithvi, Badho and Vardaan's mother (2016–2018)
*[[Juhi Aslam]] as Arshpreet "Chhoto" Ahlawat: Kailash and Raghubir's sister; Rana, Lucky and Pragya's aunt (2016–2018)
*Arsha Goswami as Bharpai
*Rupali Ganguli as Payal Gupta Singh: Prithvi's wife (2016–2018)
*[[Zeena Bhatia]] as Laxmi Paresh Gupta:
*Jaswinder Kumar as Jitesh Solanki
*Ankush Bhaskar as Ajay, Lucky's Friend
*[[Paras Chhabra]] as Tejinder Singh (Teji/Jatta), Pragya's ex-lover
*Rahul Rana as Vijay, Pradhan Singh's son

===Cameo===
*Ghanshyam Tilawat as ex-Sarpanch
*Rajeev Singh as Sangram Singh
*Sapnaa Nahar as Sita
*[[Kanika Mann]] as Titli (2018)
*Yasemin Delikan as Margery (2016)
*[[Ankit Arora]] as Balwinder Singh, Rana's Wrestling Coach (2017)
*Ram Mehar Jangra as Producer Kapoor (2017)
*[[Jaya Bhattacharya]] as Sushma (2018)
*RJ Alok as Radio Jockey (2017)
*[[Arti Singh]] as Amba (2016, 2017)
*Shweta Mehta as Lavina (2017)<ref>{{Cite web |title=हरभजन सिंह को कंधों पर बिठाने वाली लड़की सिखाएगी कुश्ती, जानिए कौन? |url=https://www.amarujala.com/photo-gallery/chandigarh/mtv-roadies-rising-14-winner-shweta-mehta-in-tv-badho-bahu-serial |access-date=2022-07-14 |website=Amar Ujala |language=hi}}</ref>

==Adaptations==
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-right: 0;"
|- style="color:white"
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Language
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Title
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Original release
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Network(s)
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Last aired
! style="background:#7b0c0c; "| Notes
|-
| [[Hindi]]
| ''Badho Bahu'' बढो बहू
| 12 September 2016
| [[And TV]]
| 25 May 2018
| Original
|-
| [[Kannada]]
| ''[[Brahmagantu]]'' ಬ್ರಹ್ಮಗಂಟು
| 8 May 2017
| [[Zee Kannada]]
| 9 July 2021
| rowspan="4"| Remake
|-
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| ''[[Gundamma Katha (TV series)|Gundamma Katha]]'' గుండమ్మ కథ
| 9 April 2018
| [[Zee Telugu]]
| Ongoing
|-
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| ''[[Oru Oorla Oru Rajakumari (TV series)|Oru Oorla Oru Rajakumari]]'' ஒரு ஊர்ல ஒரு ராஜகுமாரி
| 23 April 2018
| [[Zee Tamil]]
| 24 October 2021
|-
| [[Malayalam]]
| ''[[Swathi Nakshatram Chothi]]'' സ്വാതി നക്ഷത്രം ചോതി
| 26 November 2018
| [[Zee Keralam]]
| 27 March 2020
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.zee5.com/tvshows/details/badho-bahu/0-6-266 ''Badho Bahu''] at [[ZEE5]]

{{&TV Programmes}}

[[Category:2016 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:&TV original programming]]
[[Category:2018 Indian television series endings]]

Mor Bani Thanghat Kare

2025-10-11T12:03:49Z

Brandon81T: added details

{{Short description|Popular Gujarati song}}
{{italics title}}
'''''Mor Bani Thanghat Kare''''' ({{langx|gu|મોર બની થનગાટ કરે}}), originally titled '''''Navi Varsha''''' ({{langx|gu|નવી વર્ષા}}) is a 1944 Gujarati song translated by poet [[Jhaverchand Meghani]] which was published in his anthology ''Ravindra-Veena'' (1944). It was later composed by [[Hemu Gadhavi]]. The song is a loosely translated version of "Navavarsha" (lit. New Rain) by [[Rabindranath Tagore]].

Meghani had heard the song from Tagore himself in 1920 at his home in [[Calcutta]]. He wrote the Gujarati version in 1944 after the death of Tagore in 1941. It was translated in Gujarati in the traditional tone of [[Charan]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://meghani.com/index.php?content=showpoem&id=9|title=JHAVERCHAND MEGHANI's LITERATURE|website=meghani.com|access-date=2017-07-21}}</ref> It is sung by several other singers such as Chetan Gadhvi and [[Ashit Desai]]. The song is also used in title credits of 2013 Hindi film ''[[Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela]]'' directed by [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]] where it is sung by Gujarati folk singer Osman Mir.<ref name="rl">{{cite web|title=Ram-Leela song Man mor bani thanghat kare: Original poet to get credit in film|url=http://www.bollywoodlife.com/news-gossip/ram-leela-song-man-mor-bani-thanghat-kare-original-poet-to-get-credit-in-film/|publisher=bollywoodlife.com|access-date=27 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/ahmedabad/report-kutchi-voice-adds-colour-to-bhansali-s-epic-love-story-in-gujarat-1901607|title=Kutchi voice adds colour to Bhansali's epic love story in Gujarat|date=2013-10-10|newspaper=dna|access-date=2017-02-14|language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{Wikisourcelang|gu|નવી વર્ષા}}
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Songs in Gujarati]]
[[Category:Culture of Gujarat]]
{{song-stub}}

Bijay Kumar Satpathy

2025-10-03T00:22:25Z

Brandon81T: creating some biography initial version...

{{Short description|Indian weightlifter (1951 or 1952 – 2025)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox sportsperson
| headercolor =
| name = Bijay Kumar Satpathy
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name = Bijay Kumar Satpathy
| fullname =
| nickname =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| nationality = Indian
| residence =
| alma mater =
| birth_date = 1951 or 1952 
| birth_place = [[Berhampur]], Orissa, India
| death_date = {{Death date and given age|2025|09|22|73|df=yes}} 
| death_place = Berhampur, Odisha, India
| height =
| weight =
| website =
| country = {{IND}}
| sport = [[Olympic weightlifting|Weightlifting]]
| event =
| collegeteam =
| universityteam =
| club =
| team =
| turnedpro =
| partner =
| former_partner =
| coach =
| retired =
| coaching =
| worlds =
| regionals =
| nationals =
| olympics =
| paralympics =
| highestranking =
| pb =
| show-medals = y
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport| Men's [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Commonwealth Games]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[1982 Commonwealth Games|1982 Brisbane]]|[[Weightlifting at the 1982 Commonwealth Games|Bantamweight]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Weightlifting Championships]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[1981 Asian Weightlifting Championships|1981 Nagoya]]|56 kg}}
{{MedalBronze|[[1983 Asian Weightlifting Championships|1983 Damascus]]|56 kg}}
}}

'''Bijay Kumar Satpathy''' (1951 or 1952 – 22 September 2025) was an Indian weightlifter who won the silver medal in the men's Bantamweight event at [[1982 Commonwealth Games]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bijay Kumar Satpathy|url=https://www.orisports.com/PersonDetails.aspx?pId=NTM2|work=Orisports|access-date=15 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=COMMONWEALTH GAMES 1982 |url=https://olympic.ind.in/eventdatas/cwg/cwg09_CommonwealthGames1982.html|website=olympic.ind.in |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129161620/https://olympic.ind.in/eventdatas/cwg/cwg09_CommonwealthGames1982.html |archive-date=29 November 2018}}</ref> He was conferred with the [[Arjuna Award]] in the year 1981–82 by the [[Government of India]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIST OF ARJUNA AWARDEES|url=https://yas.nic.in/sites/default/files/LIST%20OF%20ARJUNA%20AWARDEES.docx%2061%20-%2017_0_0.pdf|website=yas.nic.in|access-date=26 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ravi's Arjuna Award lifts Berhampur's spirits|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/ravis-arjuna-award-lifts-berhampurs-spirits/articleshow/9794038.cms|website=The Times of India|date=30 August 2011}}</ref> He died at his residence in [[Berhampur]], [[Odisha]], on 22 September 2025, at the age of 73.<ref>{{cite news |title=Arjuna Awardee & Weightlifting Icon of India Bijay Kumar Satpathy Passes Away |url=https://pragativadi.com/arjuna-awardee-weightlifting-icon-of-india-bijay-kumar-satpathy-passes-away/ |access-date=23 September 2025 |publisher=Pragativadi |date=23 September 2025}}</ref>

==Career==
Satpathy was a five-time national champion in weightlifting from 1977–78 to 1982–83 and represented the [[Indian Navy]] and [[Indian Railways]]. He won the gold medal at the 1981 Mini Commonwealth Games and later followed up with silver at the [[1982 Commonwealth Games|1982 main event at Brisbane]]. He won the bronze medal at the 1981 and 1983 [[Asian Weightlifting Championships]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Champion weightlifter in dire straits|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-otherstates/champion-weightlifter-in-dire-straits/article4053306.ece|website=The Hindu|date=1 November 2012|access-date=26 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Unsung awardee cries govt neglect|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/odisha/unsung-awardee-cries-govt-neglect/cid/351417|website=The Telegraph|date=1 September 2011}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of National Sports Award recipients in Olympic sports]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20211024190229/https://thecgf.com/results/athletes/55234 CW Games profile]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Satpathy, Bijay Kumar}}
[[Category:1950s births]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:2025 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male weightlifters]]
[[Category:People from Brahmapur]]
[[Category:Weightlifters from Odisha]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games silver medallists for India]]
[[Category:Weightlifters at the 1982 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Medallists at the 1982 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games silver medallists in weightlifting]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games weightlifters for India]]

{{India-weightlifting-bio-stub}}