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Lamka

2023-07-18T06:07:41Z

Bieltvz: Contributed a new addition to the collection.

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Lamka
| native_name_lang = 
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Municipality]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Manipur#India
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Manipur, India
| coordinates = {{coord|24|20|N|93|40|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Manipur]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Churachandpur district|Churachandpur District]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 824
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 =
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 =
Language(s)
| demographics1_title1 =
Official
| demographics1_info1 =
| demographics1_title2 = Regional
| demographics1_info2 = [[Thadou language|Thadou Kuki]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 795128<br>795006
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 03874
| registration_plate = MN-02
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Lamka''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɑː|m|k|ə}}), previously known as '''Churachandpur''' or '''Ccpur''', is the second largest urban area in the Indian state of [[Manipur]]. It is a [[municipality]] and the headquarters of the [[Churachandpur district|Churachandpur District]] of Manipur.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vualzong|first=Ginza|title=The Story Behind Songpi, Churachandpur and Lamka|url=https://www.zogam.com/articles/articles-i/general-articles/3022-the-story-behind-songpi-churachandpur-and-lamka.html |access-date=10 July 2023|website=www.zogam.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Guite|first=Paojakhup|title=Churachandpur (Lamka) Town: The Unplanned Growth of Urbanisation and its Civic Management Systems - Imphal Times|url=https://www.imphaltimes.com/it-articles/item/23246-churachandpur-lamka-town-the-unplanned-growth-of-urbanisation-and-its-civic-management-systems|access-date=10 July 2023|website=www.imphaltimes.com}}</ref>

==Wards==
*[[Hiangzou]]
*[[Kamdou Veng]]
*[[Manniang Veng]]
*[[Simveng]]
*[[Zomi Colony]]
*[[Zoveng]]

==Education==
===Universities and colleges===
* Lamka Medical College
* [[Sangai International University]]
* Lamka College
* [[Rayburn College]]
* [[Grace Bible College (India)|Grace Bible College]]

== Transportation ==
=== Air ===
The nearest airport is [[Imphal Airport|Bir Tikendrajit International Airport]], which is {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=off}} from Lamka.

The [[Lengpui Airport]] in [[Mizoram]] is located {{convert|375|km|mi|abbr=off}} southwest of Lamka.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Neihsial |first=Tualchin |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.co.in/books/about/This_is_Lamka.html?id=yEzDmgEACAAJ&redir_esc=y |title=This is Lamka: A Historical Account of the Fastest Growing Town of Manipur Hills |location=Lamka |publisher=Zougam |isbn= }} From [[Google Books]].

== External links ==

{{Manipur}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Churachandpur district]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1930]]
[[Category:1930 establishments]]
[[Category:Manipur]]

Cooch Behar Trophy

2023-05-10T06:26:18Z

Bieltvz: Edited the website URL for BCCI as it was wrong (bcci.com) and provided the correct URL (bcci.tv)

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox cricket tournament main|name=Cooch Behar Trophy|country=[[India]]|administrator=Board of Control for Cricket in India|headquarters=Mumbai, [[Maharashtra]]|next=2023|last=2022|tournament format=4 day|website=https://www.bcci.tv|current=|trophyholder=Haryana U-19}}{{Short description| Under-19 Indian cricket tournament}}

The '''Cooch Behar Trophy''' is [[India]]'s national four-day [[cricket]] tournament for under-19 players. It has been held annually since the 1945–46 season. It is run by the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cricket Series Archive - Domestic {{!}} BCCI |url=https://www.bcci.tv/domestic/archive |access-date=2022-09-30 |website=www.bcci.tv |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
The trophy was donated by, and named after, the family of the [[Maharaja of Cooch Behar]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Wisden India|first=Shamya|last=Dasgupta|title=Royalty, cricket and the Cooch Behar story|date=31 October 2014|url=http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/royalty-cricket-cooch-behar-story/132593|access-date=24 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018013535/http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/royalty-cricket-cooch-behar-story/132593|archive-date=18 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> From 1945–46 to 1986–87 the Cooch Behar Trophy was a schools competition. It changed to an under-19 competition in 1987–88.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cooch Behar Trophy 1986/87 |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/7/Cooch_Behar_Trophy_1986-87.html |website=CricketArchive |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cooch Behar Trophy 1987/88 |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/7/Cooch_Behar_Trophy_1987-88.html |website=CricketArchive |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref>

==Current format ==
Matches are played over four days. All the [[Ranji Trophy]] teams field sides, except for [[Railways cricket team|Railways]] and [[Services cricket team|Services]]. The sides are divided into four groups, each of which plays a [[Round-robin tournament|round-robin]]. After the group matches are completed, quarter-finals, semi-finals and a final are held.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cooch Behar Trophy |url=https://www.bcci.tv/domestic/229/cooch-behar-trophy |website=BCCI |access-date=1 October 2022}}</ref>

==Prominent players==
Many [[Test cricket|Test]] players have been prominent in the Cooch Behar Trophy in their youth. [[Budhi Kunderan]] and [[Rusi Surti]] scored centuries in North Zone Schools' victory in the 1954–55 final.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/137/137296.html | title = North Zone Schools v West Zone Schools 1954–55| publisher = CricketArchive| access-date =24 November 2017}}</ref> [[Ashok Mankad]] represented West Zone Schools in the final for three consecutive seasons from 1960–61 to 1962–63. <ref>{{cite web | url =https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/1/1342/Miscellaneous_Matches.html | title = Miscellaneous matches played by Ashok Mankad| publisher = CricketArchive| access-date =24 November 2017}}</ref> [[Karsan Ghavri]] and [[Mohinder Amarnath]] were the leading bowlers on opposing sides in a semi-final in 1967–68.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/138/138768.html| title = North Zone Schools v West Zone Schools 1967–68| publisher = CricketArchive| access-date =24 November 2017}}</ref> [[Sachin Tendulkar]] scored 214 for Bombay Under-19s in 1988–89.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/142/142518.html | title = Bombay Under-19s v Maharashtra Under-19s 1988–89| publisher = CricketArchive| access-date =24 November 2017}}</ref> He made his Test debut less than a year later.

In the final in 1999–2000 [[Yuvraj Singh]] made 358 in Punjab Under-19s' total of 839 for 5.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/119/119688.html | title = Bihar Under-19s v Punjab Under-19s 1999–2000| publisher = CricketArchive|access-date =24 November 2017}}</ref> According to Yuvraj, the Cooch Behar Trophy was second only to the Ranji Trophy in importance for young cricketers at the time, but has declined in status since then, supplanted by the [[Indian Premier League]].<ref>[[Yuvraj Singh]], ''The Test of My Life: From Cricket to Cancer and Back'', Random House India, 2013.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/after-maiden-ranji-title-vidarbha-win-first-cooch-behar-trophy/articleshow/62729301.cms Photo of Vidarbha Under-19s and the Trophy in 2017–18]

{{Cricket in India}}
[[Category:Indian domestic cricket competitions]]

Warren Hastings

2023-02-02T17:59:22Z

Bieltvz: Shared a valuable publication.

{{Short description|British Governor General of Bengal, 1773–1785}}
{{for|several vessels of this name|Warren Hastings (East Indiaman){{!}}''Warren Hastings'' (East Indiaman)|Warren Hastings (1789 ship){{!}}''Warren Hastings'' (1789 ship)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix = [[The Right Honourable]]
| name = Warren Hastings
| honorific-suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS}}
| image = Warren Hastings by Tilly Kettle.jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Tilly Kettle]]
| order =
| office2 = [[List of Governors of Bengal|Governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal)]]
| term_start2 = 28 April 1772
| term_end2 = 20 October 1773
| predecessor2 = [[John Cartier]]
| successor2 = ''Position abolished''
| office1 = [[Governor-General of Bengal|Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William]]
| term_start1 = 20 October 1773
| term_end1 = 8 February 1785<ref>Bengal Public Consultations, 12 February 1785, No. 2. Letter from Warren Hastings, 8 February, formally declaring resignation of the office of Governor General.</ref>
| monarch1 = [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
| predecessor1 = ''Position created''
| successor1 = [[Sir John Macpherson, 1st Baronet|Sir John Macpherson, Bt]]<br /><small>As acting Governor-General</small>
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1732|12|6}}
| birth_place = [[Churchill, Oxfordshire]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1818|8|22|1732|12|6}}
| death_place = [[Daylesford, Gloucestershire]]
| nationality = [[History of British nationality law|British]]
| relations =
| spouse = [[Marian Hastings]]
| children =
| residence = [[Daylesford House]]
| alma_mater = [[Westminster School]]
}}
'''Warren Hastings''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS}} (6 December 1732 – 22 August 1818) was a British colonial administrator, who served as the first [[Governor-General of Bengal|Governor of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal)]], the head of the [[Supreme Council of Bengal]], and so the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1772–1785. He and [[Robert Clive]] are credited with laying the foundation of the [[British Empire]] in India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/empire/episodes/episode_41.shtml |title=Warren Hastings |publisher=BBC |access-date=17 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Warren Hastings, maker of British India |year=1935 |journal=Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=476–480|doi=10.1080/03068373508725383}}</ref> He was an energetic organizer and reformer. In 1779–1784 he led forces of the [[East India Company]] against a coalition of native states and the [[French East India Company|French]]. Finally, the well-organized British side held its own, while France lost influence in India. In 1787, he was accused of corruption and [[Impeachment of Warren Hastings|impeached]], but after a long trial acquitted in 1795. He was made a [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|Privy Councillor]] in 1814.

==Early life and education==
Warren Hastings was born in [[Churchill, Oxfordshire]],{{clarify}} in 1732 to Reverend Penyston Hastings and his wife Hester (née Warren), who died soon after he was born.<ref name=Glouc.1730>Gloucestershire, England, Church of England Baptisms, Marriages and Burials, 1538-1813. </ref><ref name=Lyall1889>{{Cite book |author=Sir Alfred Lyall |title=Warren Hastings |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.91491 |year=1889 |publisher=Macmillan and Co.}} pp. 1-2.</ref><ref name=Lawson1897>{{cite book |last1=Lawson |first1=Charles |title=The Private Life of Warren Hastings |publisher=Madras Mail Press |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tFigAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA9 |language=en}}</ref> The family had been lords of the manor and [[advowson|patrons of the living]] of Daylesford in direct line from 1281 until 1715. It was relinquished after there had been a considerable loss of family wealth due to support given to [[Charles I of England|Charles I]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=John Chambers |title=Biographical Illustrations of Worcestershire: Including Lives of Persons, Natives Or Residents, Eminent Either for Piety Or Talent |url=https://archive.org/details/biographicalillu00cham |year=1820 |publisher=W. Walcott |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biographicalillu00cham/page/486 486]–501}}</ref> Young Warren was brought up by his grandfather and educated in a charity school with the poorest children in the Gloucestershire village of Daylesford. At some point he was rescued by an uncle who sent him to London.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Dalrymple |first=William |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1076511649 |title=The anarchy : the relentless rise of the East India Company |others=Olivia Fraser |isbn=1-63557-395-5 |location=New York, NY |oclc=1076511649}}</ref>

Hastings attended [[Westminster School]], where he coincided with the future Prime Ministers [[Lord Shelburne]] and the [[William Henry Cavendish Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland|Duke of Portland]] and with the poet [[William Cowper]].<ref>Patrick Turnbull, ''Warren Hastings''. New English Library, 1975, p. 17.</ref> He quickly excelled as a top scholar but was forced to leave at sixteen, when his uncle died.<ref name=":0" /> He joined the [[British East India Company]] in 1750 as a clerk (writer) and sailed out to India, reaching [[Calcutta]] in August 1750.<ref>Turnbull pp. 17–18.</ref> There he built up a reputation for diligence and spent his free time learning about India and mastering [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref>Turnbull pp. 19–21.</ref> His work won him promotion in 1752 when he was sent to [[Kasimbazar]], a major trading post in [[Bengal]], where he worked for [[William Watts (East India Company official)|William Watts]]. While there he gained further experience in the politics of East India.

British traders still relied on the whims of local rulers, so that the political turmoil in Bengal was unsettling. The elderly moderate [[Nawab of Bengal|Nawab]] [[Alivardi Khan]] was likely to be succeeded by his grandson [[Siraj ud-Daulah]], but there were several other claimants. This made British trading posts throughout Bengal increasingly insecure, as Siraj ud-Daulah was known to harbour [[Anti-Europeanism|anti-European]] views and be likely to launch an attack once he took power. When Alivardi Khan died in April 1756, the British traders and a small garrison at Kasimbazar were left vulnerable. On 3 June, after being surrounded by a much larger force, the British were persuaded to surrender to prevent a massacre.<ref>Turnbull p. 23.</ref> Hastings was imprisoned with others in the Bengali capital, [[Murshidabad]], while the Nawab's forces marched on [[Calcutta]] and [[Siege of Calcutta|captured it]]. The garrison and civilians were then locked up under appalling conditions in the [[Black Hole of Calcutta]].

[[File:Mrshestings.jpg|thumb|260x260px|Warren Hastings with his wife Marian in their garden at [[Alipore]], c. 1784–87]]
For a while Hastings remained in Murshidabad and was even used by the Nawab as an intermediary, but fearing for his life, he escaped to the island of Fulta, where a number of refugees from Calcutta had taken shelter. While there, he met and married Mary Buchanan, the widow of one of the victims of the Black Hole. Shortly afterwards a British expedition from [[Madras]] under [[Robert Clive]] arrived to rescue them. Hastings served as a volunteer in Clive's forces as they [[Siege of Calcutta|retook Calcutta]] in January 1757. After this swift defeat, the Nawab urgently sought peace and the war came to an end. Clive was impressed with Hastings when he met him, and arranged for his return to Kasimbazar to resume his pre-war activities. Later in 1757 fighting resumed, leading to the [[Battle of Plassey]], where Clive won a decisive victory over the Nawab. Siraj ud-Daulah was overthrown and replaced by his commander-in-chief [[Mir Jafar]], who initiated policies favourable to the East India Company traders, before falling out with them and being overthrown.

==Rising status==
In 1758 Hastings became the British [[Resident (title)|Resident]] in the Bengali capital of [[Murshidabad]] – a major step forward in his career – at the instigation of Clive. His role in the city was ostensibly that of an [[ambassador]] but as Bengal came increasingly under the dominance of the East India Company he was often given the task of issuing orders to the new Nawab on behalf of Clive and the Calcutta authorities.<ref>Turnbull pp. 27–28.</ref> Hastings personally sympathised with Mir Jafar and regarded many of the demands placed on him by the company as excessive. Hastings had already developed a philosophy that was grounded in trying to establish a more understanding relationship with India's inhabitants and their rulers, and he often tried to mediate between the two sides.

During Mir Jafar's reign the East India Company exerted an increasingly large role in the running of the region, and effectively took over the defence of Bengal against external invaders when Bengal's troops proved insufficient for the task. As he grew older, Mir Jafar became gradually less effective in ruling the state, and in 1760 [[Presidency armies|EIC troops]] ousted him from power and replaced him with [[Mir Qasim]].<ref>Turnbull pp. 34–35.</ref> Hastings expressed his doubts to Calcutta over the move, believing they were honour-bound to support Mir Jafar, but his opinions were overruled. Hastings established a good relationship with the new Nawab and again had misgivings about the demands he relayed from his superiors. In 1761 he was recalled and appointed to the [[Calcutta]] council.

===Conquest of Bengal===
{{Further|Battle of Buxar}}
Hastings was personally angered when investigating trading abuses in Bengal. He alleged that some European and British-allied Indian merchants were taking advantage of the situation to enrich themselves personally. Persons travelling under the unauthorised protection of the British flag engaged in widespread fraud and illegal trading, knowing that local [[customs official]]s would be cowed into not interfering with them. Hastings felt this was bringing shame on Britain's reputation and urged the authorities in Calcutta to put an end to it. The Council considered his report but ultimately rejected Hastings' proposals. He was fiercely criticised by other members, many of whom had themselves profited from the trade.<ref>Turnbull pp. 36–40.</ref>

Ultimately, little was done to stem the abuses, and Hastings began to consider quitting his post and returning to Britain. His resignation was only delayed by the outbreak of fresh fighting in Bengal. Once on the throne Qasim proved increasingly independent in his actions, and he rebuilt Bengal's army by hiring European instructors and [[Mercenary|mercenaries]] who greatly improved the standard of his forces.<ref>Turnbull p. 36.</ref> He felt gradually more confident and in 1764 when a dispute broke out in the settlement of [[Patna]] he captured its British garrison and threatened to execute them if the East India Company responded militarily. When Calcutta dispatched troops anyway, Mir Qasim executed the hostages. British forces then went on the attack and won a series of battles culminating in the decisive [[Battle of Buxar]] in October 1764. After this Mir Qasim fled into exile in [[Delhi]], where he died in 1777. The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) gave the East India Company the right to [[Dewan|collect taxes]] in Bengal on behalf of the Mughal Emperor.

Hastings resigned in December 1764 and sailed for Britain the following month. He left deeply saddened by the failure of the more moderate strategy that he had supported, but which had been rejected by the hawkish members of the Calcutta Council. Once he arrived in London Hastings began spending far beyond his means. He stayed in fashionable addresses and had his picture painted by [[Joshua Reynolds]] in spite of the fact that, unlike many of his contemporaries, he had not amassed a fortune while in India. Eventually, having run up enormous debts, Hastings realised he needed to return to India to restore his finances, and applied to the East India Company for employment. His application was initially rejected as he had made many political enemies, including the powerful director [[Laurence Sulivan]]. Eventually an appeal to Sulivan's rival Robert Clive secured Hastings the position of deputy ruler at the city of Madras. He sailed from Dover in March 1769. On the voyage on board the ''Duke of Grafton'' he became ill and he was cared for<ref>{{Citation |title=Marian Hastings|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/63512 |work=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |editor-last=Matthew |editor-first=H. C. G. |access-date=2023-06-12 |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/63512 |editor2-last=Harrison |editor2-first=B.}}</ref> by the [[German people|German]] [[Marian Hastings|Baroness Marian von Imhoff]] (1749–1837)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG146264 |title=Marian Hastings |website=The British Museum}}</ref> and her husband. He fell in love with the Baroness and they began an affair, seemingly with her husband's consent. Hastings' first wife, Mary, had died in 1759, and he planned to marry the Baroness once she had obtained a divorce from her husband.{{citation needed}} The process took a long time and it was not until 1777 when news of divorce came from Germany that Hastings was finally able to marry her.

===Madras and Calcutta===
Hastings arrived in Madras shortly after the [[First Anglo-Mysore War]] of 1767–1769, when the forces of [[Hyder Ali]] had threatened the capture of the city. The [[Treaty of Madras]] (4 April 1769) ended the war but failed to settle the dispute and three further [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] followed (1780–1799). During his time at Madras Hastings initiated reforms of trading practices which cut out the use of middlemen and benefited both the Company and the Indian labourers, but otherwise the period was relatively uneventful for him.<ref name="turnbull 52">Turnbull p. 52.</ref>

By this stage Hastings shared Clive's view that the three major British Presidencies (settlements) – [[Madras]], [[Mumbai|Bombay]] and [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] – should be brought under single rule rather than being governed separately as they currently were.<ref name="turnbull 52"/> In 1772 he was appointed to be Governor of Calcutta, the most important of the Presidencies. In Britain moves were underway to reform the divided system of government and establish single rule across all of British-controlled regions in India with its capital in Kolkata (Calcutta). Hastings became the first Governor General in 1773.

While Governor, Hastings launched a major crackdown on [[Outlaw|bandits]] operating in Bengal, which proved largely successful. He also faced the severe [[Bengal famine of 1770|Bengal Famine]], which resulted in between two and ten million deaths.

==Governor-General==
[[File:Calcutta, Past and Present p91.png|thumb|Portrait of Warren Hastings (''Calcutta, Past and Present''; {{circa|1905}})]]
The [[Regulating Act of 1773]] brought the presidencies of Madras and Bombay under Bengal's control. It raised Hastings from Governor to the new post of [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]], but limited his power by making the Governor-General one member of a five-man Supreme Council.<ref name="Wolpert"/> This was so confusingly structured that it was difficult to tell what constitutional position Hastings actually held.<ref>''The Earl of Birkenhead, Famous Trials of History'', Garden City: Garden City Publishing Company, 1926, p. 165.</ref>

According to [[William Dalrymple (historian)|William Dalrymple]]:
:He got quickly to work, beginning the process of turning the EIC into an administrative service. Hastings first major change was to move all of all the functions of government from Murshidabad to Calcutta.... Throughout 1773, Hastings worked with extraordinary energy. He unified currency systems, ordered the codification of Hindu laws and digests of Muslim law books, reformed the tax and customs system, fixed land revenue and stopped the worst oppression being carried out on behalf of private traders by the local agents. He created an efficient postal service, backed a proper cartographic survey of India by [[James Rennell]] and built a series of public granaries, including the great Gola at Patna, to make sure the famine of 1770-71 was never repeated.... Underlying all Hastings' work was a deep respect for the land he had lived in since his teens.... Hastings genuinely liked India, and by the time he became Governor spoke not only good Bengali and Urdu but also fluent court and literary Persian.<ref>William Dalrymple, ''The Anarchy: The East India Company, Corporate Violence, and the Pillage of an Empire'', 2019, pp. 238–239.</ref>

===War with France===
In 1777 during the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] (1775–1783), the Americans had captured a British field army at the [[Battle of Saratoga]] during the [[Saratoga campaign]]. This emboldened the French to sign a military alliance with the new [[United States|United States of America]], and declare war on Great Britain. The French concentrated in the Caribbean islands, and on India. Meanwhile, the presidencies of Madras and Bombay became involved in serious quarrels with the greatest of the native states. Madras with the formidable [[Hyder Ali]] of Mysore and with the Nizam of Hyderabad, and Bombay with the [[First Anglo-Maratha War|Marathas]]. France sent a [[French Navy|fleet]] under Admiral [[Pierre André de Suffren]]. The combination meant Hastings faced a formidable challenge, with only Oudh as an ally.<ref>[[Penderel Moon]], ''Warren Hastings and British India'; (1947) pp 201–243.</ref> In six years of intense and confused fighting, 1779–1784. Hastings sent one army marching across India to help Bombay, and another to Madras. His greatest achievement was in breaking up the hostile coalition. By 1782 he made peace with the Marathas. The French fleet had been repeatedly delayed. Suffren finally arrived in 1782 to discover that the Indian coalition had fallen apart, that Hastings had captured all the French ports, and Suffren could achieve nothing. When the wars ended in 1784, British rule in India had not changed, but the French position was now much weaker. The East India Company now had an efficient system in operation. However, Hastings's multiple wartime operations needed large sums of money and London sent nothing. His methods of using the local treasuries later became the main line of attack in the impeachment brought against him.<ref>Ramsey Muir, ''British History'', 1930, pp. 441–442.</ref><ref>Henry Dodwell, "Warren Hastings and the Assignment of the Carnatic." ''English Historical Review'' 40.159, 1925, pp. 375–396 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/551858 online].</ref><ref>Kumar Badri Narain Singh, "The War of American Independence and India" ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'' Vol. 38, 1977 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139119 online].</ref>

===Bhutan and Tibet===
In 1773, Hastings responded to an appeal for help from the Raja of the princely state of [[Cooch Behar State|Cooch Behar]] to the north of [[Bengal]], whose territory had been invaded by Zhidar, the [[Druk Desi]] of [[Bhutan]] the previous year. Hastings agreed to help on the condition that Cooch Behar recognise British sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite book |first=James B. |last=Minahan |title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World A-Z |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfnWCQAAQBAJ |year=2002 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-07696-1 |page=1556}}</ref> The Raja agreed and with the help of British troops they pushed the Bhutanese out of the [[Duars]] and into the foothills in 1773.

The Druk Desi returned to face civil war at home. His opponent Jigme Senge, the regent for the seven-year-old [[Zhabdrung Rinpoche|Shabdrung]] (the Bhutanese equivalent of the Dalai Lama), had supported popular discontent. Zhidar was unpopular for his [[corvee]] tax (he sought unreasonably to rebuild a major [[Dzong architecture|dzong]] in one year), as well as for his overtures to the [[Qing dynasty|Manchu Emperors]] which threatened Bhutanese independence. Zhidar was soon overthrown and forced to flee to Tibet, where he was imprisoned and a new Druk Desi, Kunga Rinchen, installed in his place. Meanwhile, the [[Sixth Panchen Lama]], who had imprisoned Zhidar, interceded on behalf of the Bhutanese with a letter to Hastings, imploring him to cease hostilities in return for friendship. Hastings saw the opportunity to establish relations with both the Tibetans and the Bhutanese and wrote a letter to the Panchen Lama proposing "a general treaty of amity and commerce between Tibet and Bengal".{{sfn |Younghusband |1910 |pages=5–7}}

In February 1782, news reached the headquarters of the EIC in Calcutta of the reincarnation of the Panchen Lama. Hastings proposed sending a mission to Tibet with a message of congratulation, designed to strengthen amicable relations established by Bogle on his earlier visit. With the assent of the EIC Court of Directors, [[Samuel Turner (diplomat)|Samuel Turner]] was appointed chief of the Tibet mission on 9 January 1783 with fellow EIC employee [[Samuel Davis (orientalist)|Samuel Davis]] as "Draftsman & Surveyor".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Views of Medieval Bhutan: the diary and drawings of Samuel Davis, 1783 |first1=Samuel |last1=Davis |first2=Michael |last2=Aris |year=1982 |publisher=Serindia |url=https://archive.org/stream/ViewsOfMedievalBhutanTheDiaryAndDrawingsOfSamuelDavis1783MichaelAris/Views%20of%20Medieval%20Bhutan%20--%20the%20Diary%20and%20Drawings%20of%20Samuel%20Davis%201783%20Michael%20Aris#page/n29/mode/2up |page=31}}</ref> Turner returned to the Governor-General's camp at Patna in 1784 where he reported he had been unable to visit the Tibetan capital at Lhasa, but received a promise that merchants sent there from India would be encouraged.{{sfn |Younghusband |1910 |page=27}}

Turner was instructed to obtain a pair of [[yak]]s on his travels, which he duly did. They were transported to Hasting's menagerie in Calcutta and on the Governor-General's return to England, the yaks went too, although only the male survived the difficult sea voyage. Noted artist [[George Stubbs]] subsequently painted the animal's portrait as ''The Yak of [[Tartary]]'' and in 1854 it went on to appear, albeit stuffed, at [[The Great Exhibition]] at Crystal Palace in London.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Clare |last=Harris |title=The Museum on the Roof of the World: Art, Politics, and the Representation of Tibet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N979o0TR4uAC |year=2012 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-31747-2 |pages=30–33}}</ref>

Hasting's return to England ended any further efforts to engage in diplomacy with Tibet.

==Impeachment==
{{main|Impeachment of Warren Hastings}}
[[File:The trail of Warren Hastings, 1788.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|The trial of Warren Hastings in [[Westminster Hall]], 1788]]

In 1785, after 10 years of service, during which he helped extend and regularise the nascent Raj created by [[Robert Clive|Clive of India]], Hastings resigned. He was replaced by the [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Earl Cornwallis]]; Cornwallis served as Commander-in-Chief of British India and Governor of the Presidency of Fort William, also known as the Bengal Presidency.

On return to England, Hastings was impeached in the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]] for alleged crimes in India, notably embezzlement, extortion and coercion, and an alleged judicial killing of [[Maharaja Nandakumar]]. At first thought unlikely to succeed,<ref>Thomas Babington Macaulay, [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/hastings/txt_complete.html#22 "Warren Hastings (1841)"].</ref> the prosecution was managed by MPs including [[Edmund Burke]], encouraged by Sir [[Philip Francis (English politician)|Philip Francis]], whom Hastings had wounded during a duel in India,<ref name="Wolpert">{{Cite book |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Wolpert |year=2004 |orig-year=First published 1977 |title=A New History of India |edition=7th |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=190 |isbn=978-0-19-516677-4}}</ref> [[Charles James Fox]] and [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]]. When the charges of the indictment were read, the 20 counts took Edmund Burke two full days to read.<ref>The Earl of Birkenhead, ''Famous Trials of History'', Garden City: Garden City Publishing Company, 1926, p. 170.</ref> According to historian Mithi Mukherjee, the trial instituted debate between two radically opposed visions of empire – one based on ideas of power and conquest in pursuit of the exclusive national interests of the colonizer, and one represented by Burke, of sovereignty based on a recognition of the rights of the colonized.<ref>Mithi Mukherjee, "Justice, War, and the Imperium: India and Britain in Edmund Burke's Prosecutorial Speeches in the Impeachment Trial of Warren Hastings." ''Law and History Review'' 23.3 (2005): 589–630 [http://125.22.40.134:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1922/1/Justice_War_and_the_Imperium_India_and_B.pdf online]. Also see Mukherjee, ''I [https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198062509.001.0001/acprof-9780198062509 ndia in the Shadows of Empire: A Legal and Political History (1774-1950)]'' (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2010).</ref>

The House sat for 148 days over a period of seven years during the investigation.<ref>Sir Alfred Lyall, ''Warren Hastings'', London: Macmillan and Co, 1920, p. 218.</ref> The investigation was pursued at great cost to Hastings personally: he complained constantly that the cost of defending himself from the prosecution was bankrupting him. He is rumoured once to have said that the punishment would have been less extreme had he pleaded guilty.<ref>The Earl of Birkenhead, ''Famous Trials of History'', Garden City: Garden City Publishing Company, 1926, p. 173.</ref> The [[House of Lords]] acquitted him of all charges on 24 April 1795.<ref>Ron Christenson, ''Political Trials in History'', pp. 178–179, {{ISBN|0-88738-406-4}}</ref> The Company subsequently compensated him with £4,000 annually, retroactive to the date he returned to England, but did not reimburse his legal fees, which he claimed to have been £70,000. He collected the stipend for nearly 29 years.<ref name="amdigital.co.uk">[https://www.amdigital.co.uk/about/blog/item/the-impeachment-of-warren-hastings, 'The captain-general of iniquity': The impeachment of Warren Hastings.]</ref><ref name="Christie2000">{{Cite book |author=Christopher Christie |title=The British Country House in the Eighteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-wOz1kFCdMC&pg=PA10 |year=2000 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-4725-1 |pages=10–}}</ref> Throughout the years of the trial, Hastings lived in considerable style at his leased town house, [[Somerset House, Park Lane]].<ref>"Park Lane", ''Survey of London: volume 40: The Grosvenor Estate in Mayfair, Part 2 (The Buildings) (1980)'', [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=42151#s29 pp. 264–289], accessed 15 November 2010.</ref> He subsequently sold the lease at auction for £9,450.

Among many who supported him in print was the pamphleteer [[Ralph Broome (pamphleteer)|Ralph Broome]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Letters from Simkin the Second to his dear brother in Wales, for the year 1790; giving a full and circumstantial account of all the most material points during the trial of Warren Hastings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SIFA9lbJOIYC |year=1790 |publisher=John Stockdale}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Ralph Broome |title=The letters of Simkin the second: poetic recorder of all the proceedings |url=https://archive.org/details/lettersofsimkins00brooiala |year=1791 |publisher=J. Stockdale}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Ralph Broome |title=An Elucidation of the Articles of Impeachment Preferred by the Last Parliament Against Warren Hastings, Late Governor General of Bengal |url=https://archive.org/details/elucidationofart00broo |year=1790 |publisher=Stockdale}}</ref> Others disturbed by the perceived injustice of the proceedings included [[Frances Burney]].<ref>''The Journals and Letters of Fanny Burney (Madame d'Arblay) I. 1791–1792'', p. 115 ff.</ref>

Letters and journals of [[Jane Austen]] and her family, who knew Hastings, show they followed the trial closely.<ref>[https://austenised.blogspot.com/2011/07/jane-austens-colonial-connections.html Jane Austen's colonial connections.]</ref>

==Later life==
Hastings's supporters from the [[Edinburgh]] East India Club and a number of other gentlemen from India, gave a reportedly "elegant entertainment" for Hastings when he visited Edinburgh. A toast on the occasion went to the "Prosperity to our settlements in India" and wished that "the virtue and talents which preserved them be ever remembered with gratitude."<ref>W. M. Gilbert, ed., ''Edinburgh in the Nineteenth Century'', Edinburgh, 1901, p. 44.</ref>

In 1788 Hastings bought for £54,000 an estate at [[Daylesford, Gloucestershire]], including the site of the Hastings family's medieval seat.<ref name="Christie2000"/> Thereafter he remodelled the house to designs by [[Samuel Pepys Cockerell]] with classical and Indian decoration and gardens landscaped by John Davenport. He rebuilt the [[Norman architecture|Norman]] church in 1816, where he was buried two years later. In 1801 he was elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqDb=Catalog&dsqSearch=RefNo==%27EC%2F1801%2F14%27&dsqCmd=Show.tcl |title=Fellows details |publisher=Royal Society |access-date=23 January 2017}}</ref>

In spite of substantial compensation from the East India Company, Hastings was technically insolvent on his death.<ref name="amdigital.co.uk"/>

==Administrative ethos and legacy==
[[File:Warren Hastings by Johan Joseph Zoffany.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hastings painted by [[Johann Zoffany]], 1783–1784]]
[[File:Warren Hastings.jpg|thumb|200px|Hastings in the late 18th century, as painted by [[Lemuel Francis Abbott]]]]
[[File:Memorial to Warren Hastings St Peters Church Daylesford - geograph.org.uk - 1100655.jpg|thumb|200px|His memorial in [[Daylesford, Gloucestershire|Daylesford]] churchyard]]

In the last quarter of the 18th century, many senior administrators realised that to govern Indian society it was essential to learn its various religious, social, and legal customs and precedents. The importance of such knowledge to the colonial government was in Hastings's mind when he remarked in 1784, in his introduction to the English translation of the ‘’[[Bhagavad Gita]]’’ by Wilkins:<ref>{{cite web |title=The Bhagavat-Geeta, Or, Dialogues of Krishna and Arjoon in Eighteen Lectures |url=https://archive.org/details/bhagavatgeetaor00humbgoog/page/n17/mode/2up?view=theater |access-date=28 December 2022}}</ref>
{{blockquote|text=Every accumulation of knowledge and especially such as is obtained by social communication with people over whom we exercise dominion founded on the right of conquest, is useful to the state... it attracts and conciliates distant affections; it lessens the weight of the chain by which the natives are held in subjection; and it imprints on the hearts of our countrymen the sense of obligation and benevolence.... Every instance which brings their real character... home to observation will impress us with a more generous sense of feeling for their natural rights, and teach us to estimate them by the measure of our own. But such instances can only be obtained in their writings: and these will survive when the British dominion in India shall have long ceased to exist, and when the sources which once yielded of wealth and power are lost to remembrance.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Bernard S |last=Cohn |year=1997 |title=Colonialism and its forms of knowledge: The British in India |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=45 |isbn=978-0-19-564167-7}}</ref>}}

Under Hastings's term as governor-general, much administrative precedent set profoundly shaped later attitudes towards the government of British India. Hastings had great respect for the ancient scripture of [[Hinduism]] and set the British position on governance as one of looking back to the earliest precedents possible. This allowed [[Brahmin]] advisors to mould the law, as no Briton thoroughly understood [[Sanskrit]] until [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]], and even then, a literal translation was of little use – it needed to be elucidated by religious commentators well-versed in the lore and its application. This approach accentuated the [[Hindu caste system]] and to an extent the frameworks of other religions, which had at least in recent centuries been somewhat more flexibly applied. So British influence on the fluid social structure of India can largely be seen as a solidification of the privileges of the Hindu caste system through the influence of exclusively [[Brahmin|high-caste Hindu scholars]] advising the British on their laws. In short, under Hastings there was a codification of Hindu laws, and a digest of Muslim law books.<ref>''The Anarchy'', W. Dalrymple, London, 2019, p. 238.</ref> Where British translators or interpreters read in the Artha Shastra a ''caste system'' in India, the actual wording speaks of ''varna'' and ''jati'': skin-colour and birth, i.e. clan, and it speaks of the four societal classes, not castes: from upper-class Brahmin to lower-class Shudra.

In 1781, Hastings founded [[Madrasa 'Aliya]] at [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] (transformed in 2007 into Aliah University by the [[Government of West Bengal]]).<ref>[https://www.aliah.ac.in/history-of-aliah-university University History. Retrieved 21 April 2020.]</ref> In 1784, he supported the foundation of the Bengal Asiatic Society, now the [[Asiatic Society of Bengal]], by the oriental scholar Sir William Jones. This became a storehouse for information on the subcontinent and has remained in various institutional guises to the present day.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keay |first=John |author-link=John Keay |year=2000 |title=India: A History |publisher=[[Grove Press]] |page=426 |isbn=0-8021-3797-0 |quote=Not the least of Warren Hastings' achievements had been the foundation in 1784 of the Bengal Asiatic Society which, under the presidency of [Sir William] Jones, became a veritable clearing-house for intellectual data about India.}}</ref> Hastings's legacy as an administrator has been somewhat dualistic: he was able to institute reforms during the time he spent as governor that would change the path India followed in subsequent years, but he retained the distinction of being also the "architect of British India and the one ruler of British India to whom the creation of such an entity was anathema."<ref>{{Cite book |first=John |last=Keay |author-link=John Keay |year=1991 |title=The Honourable Company |place=New York |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers (United States)|Macmillan]] |page=394 }}</ref>

==Legacy==
The city of [[Hastings, New Zealand|Hastings]], New Zealand, and the [[Melbourne]] outer suburb of [[Hastings, Victoria]], Australia, were named after him. There is also a road and the neighbourhood of [[Hastings, Kolkata]], in India named after him.

"Hastings" is the name of one of the four school houses in [[La Martiniere Calcutta]] (Kolkata). It is represented by the colour red. "Hastings" is also the name of one of the four school houses in [[Bishop Westcott Girls' School (Ranchi)|Bishop Westcott Girls' School, Ranchi]], again represented by the colour red. "Hastings" is a senior wing house at [[St Paul's School, Darjeeling]], India, where all the senior wing houses are named after Anglo-Indian colonial figures.

RIMS ''Warren Hastings'' was a Royal Indian Marine troopship built by the Barrow Shipbuilding Co. and launched on 18 April 1893. The ship struck a rock and was wrecked off the coast of [[Réunion]] on the night of 14 January 1897.

==Literature==
Hastings took an interest in seeing the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' translated into English. His efforts led to a first translation by [[Charles Wilkins]] appearing in 1785. He wrote the introduction to it which appeared on 4 October 1784 in [[Benares]].<ref name="Gita-Garrett">{{Cite book |editor1-last=Garrett |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Wilhelm |editor2-first=Humboldt |title=The Bhagavat-Geeta, Or, Dialogues of Krishna and Arjoon in Eighteen Lectures |publisher=Wesleyan Mission Press |location=Bangalore |url=https://archive.org/details/bhagavatgeetaor00humbgoog |access-date=18 January 2017}}</ref>

"Warren Hastings and His Bull", a short story by the Indian writer [[Uday Prakash]], was adapted for stage under the same title by the director [[Arvind Gaur]]. It presents Hastings's interaction with traditional India in a work of socio-economic political satire.

A short story by the Hindi author Shivprasad Singh 'Rudra' Kashikeya called ''Bahti Ganga'' features [[Chait Singh]], then Raja of Banaras, in conflict with Hastings, who is imprisoned by the Raja, but escapes, though ordinary people of the city make fun of him.

The Hastings career is much discussed in the historical mystery novel, ''Secrets in the Stones'', by [[Tessa Harris]].<ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IZCmCQAAQBAJ&q=secrets+in+the+stones++warren+hastings&pg=PA336 |title=Secrets in the Stones |author=Tessa Harris |isbn=978-0-7582-9342-8}} excerpt from Secrets in the Stones, Postscript.</ref>

Hastings is named in Book 5 of [[George Eliot]]'s novel ''[[Middlemarch]]'', where his greed for Daylesford is compared to the character Joshua Rigg's greed for money.

Hastings was rumoured to be the biological father of [[Eliza de Feuillide]], the daughter of [[Philadelphia Austen Hancock]] and a cousin of [[Jane Austen]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Shelden |first1=Michael |author-link=Michael Shelden |title=Cousin Eliza, the incurable flirt who inspired Jane Austen |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4728689/Cousin-Eliza-the-incurable-flirt-who-inspired-Jane-Austen.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4728689/Cousin-Eliza-the-incurable-flirt-who-inspired-Jane-Austen.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=6 June 2020 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] }}{{cbignore}}</ref> Some scholars have seen parallels between Hastings and Colonel Brandon in Austen's ''[[Sense and Sensibility]]'': both left for India at age 17; both may have had illegitimate daughters named Eliza; both participated in a duel. Linda Robinson Walker argues that Hastings "haunts ''Sense and Sensibility'' in the character of Colonel Brandon."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Linda Robinson |title=Jane Austen, the Second Anglo-Mysore War, and Colonel Brandon's Forcible Circumcision: A Rereading of ''Sense and Sensibility'' |journal=Persuasions On-Line |volume=34 |issue=1 |url=http://jasna.org/persuasions/on-line/vol34no1/walker.html |access-date=6 June 2020 |publisher=Jane Austen Society of North America}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Company rule in India]]
*[[Mughal Empire]]
*[[Shah Alam II]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*William Dalrymple, ''The Anarchy: The East India Company, Corporate Violence, and the Pillage of an Empire'' (2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Anarchy-Company-Corporate-Violence-Pillage-ebook/dp/B07W952J1F/ excerpt]
*Alfred Mervyn Davies, ''Strange destiny: a biography of Warren Hastings'' (1935)
*Suresh Chandra Ghosh, ''The Social Condition of the British Community in Bengal: 1757–1800'' (Brill, 1970)
*[[Keith Feiling]], ''Warren Hastings'' (1954)
*Philip Lawson, ''The East India Company: A History'' (Routledge, 2014)
*[[P. J. Marshall]], ''The impeachment of Warren Hastings'' (1965)
*P. J. Marshall, "Hastings, Warren (1732–1818)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (Oxford University Press, 2004); online edn, Oct 2008 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/12587, accessed 11 Nov 2014]
*[[Penderel Moon]], ''Warren Hastings and British India'' (Macmillan, 1949) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.50196 online]
*Patrick Turnbull, ''Warren Hastings''. (New English Library, 1975)
*{{Cite book |first=Francis |last=Younghusband |author-link=Francis Younghusband |title=India and Tibet: a history of the relations which have subsisted between the two countries from the time of Warren Hastings to 1910; with a particular account of the mission to Lhasa of 1904 |url=https://archive.org/details/indiatibethistor00younrich |year=1910 |publisher=John Murray |location=London}}

===Primary sources===
*G. W. Forrest, ed., ''Selections from the State Papers of the Governors-General of India: Warren Hastings'' (2 vols.), [[Blackwell's]], Oxford (1910)
*{{Cite book |author=Sir George Forrest |title=The Administration of Warren Hastings, 1772-1785 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rbBJAAAAMAAJ |year=1892 |publisher=Office of the Superintendent of Government Print |location=Calcutta}}
*{{Cite book |author=Warren Hastings |title=A Narrative of the Insurrection which Happened in the Zemeedary of Banaris in August 1781 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=51ZKAAAAYAAJ |year=1782 |publisher=The Governor General |location=Calcutta}}
*{{Cite book |author=Warren Hastings |title=A Narrative of the Late Transactions at Benares |url=https://archive.org/details/narrativeoflatet00hastiala |year=1782 |publisher=J. Debrett |location=London}}
*{{Cite book |author=Warren Hastings |title=Memoirs Relative to the State of India |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsrelative00hastgoog |year=1786 |publisher=J. Murray |location=London}}
*{{Cite book |author=G. R. Gleig |title=Memoirs of the Life of Warren Hastings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ufA5AAAAcAAJ |volume=I |year=1841 |publisher=Rich. Bentley |location=London}}
*{{Cite book |author=G. R. Gleig |title=Memoirs of the Life of Warren Hastings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4vA5AAAAcAAJ |volume=II |year=1841 |publisher=Rich. Bentley |location=London}}
*{{Cite book |author=G. R. Gleig |title=Memoirs of the Life of Warren Hastings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPE5AAAAcAAJ |volume=III|year=1841 |publisher=Rich. Bentley |location=London}}
*{{Cite book |author=Lionel James Trotter |title=Warren Hastings |url=https://archive.org/details/warrenhasting00trotrich |year=1892 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford}}
*{{Cite book |author=Sir Charles Lawson |title=The Private Life of Warren Hastings: First Governor-General of India |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66014 |year=1895 |publisher=S. Sonnenschein |location=London}}
*{{Cite book |author=Sir Charles Lawson |title=The Private Life of Warren Hastings: press reviews |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tFigAAAAMAAJ |year=1897 |publisher=Madras Mail Press |location=Madras}}
*{{Cite book |author=Warren Hastings |editor=Sydney C. Grier |editor-link=Sydney C. Grier |title=The Letters of Warren Hastings to His Wife |url=https://archive.org/details/letterswarrenha00griegoog |year=1905 |publisher=W. Blackwood |location=London}}

==External links==
*[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_hastings_1841.html "Warren Hastings" an essay by Thomas Babington Macaulay (October 1841)]
*{{gutenberg|no=28046}} (within [[Critical and Historical Essays (Macaulay)]])
*{{librivox book |title=Warren Hastings |author=Thomas Babington Macaulay}}
*{{PM20|FID=pe/007254}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-gov}}
{{s-new|creation}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Governor-General of India]] |years=1773–1785}}
{{s-aft|after=Sir [[Sir John Macpherson, 1st Baronet|John Macpherson]], ''acting''}}
{{s-end}}

{{Kolkata topics}}
{{Indian Independence Movement}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hastings, Warren}}
[[Category:1732 births]]
[[Category:1818 deaths]]
[[Category:Governors-General of India]]
[[Category:British East India Company people]]
[[Category:Founders of Indian schools and colleges]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Impeached British officials]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:English duellists]]
[[Category:People educated at Westminster School, London]]
[[Category:People from Cotswold District]]
[[Category:People from West Oxfordshire District]]

15th century

2022-07-26T23:11:18Z

Bieltvz:

{{short description|Century}}
{{More citations needed}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Centurybox|15}}
[[File:Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Sultan]] [[Mehmed II]], victorious at the [[Fall of Constantinople|Ottoman conquest of Constantinople]] and the fall of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Various historians describe it as the end of the [[Middle Ages]].]]
[[File:La Rendición de Granada - Pradilla.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|''The [[Treaty of Granada (1491)|Capitulation of Granada]]'' by [[Francisco Pradilla Ortiz]], 1882: [[Muhammad XII of Granada|Muhammad XII]] surrenders to [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Ferdinand and Isabella]]]]The '''15th century''' was the [[century]] which spans the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] dates from 1 January [[1401]] ([[Roman numerals|MCDI]]) to 31 December [[1500]] ([[Roman numerals|MD]]).

In [[History of Europe|Europe]], the 15th century includes parts of the [[Late Middle Ages]], the [[Early Renaissance]], and the [[early modern period]].
Many technological, social and cultural developments of the 15th century can in retrospect be seen as heralding the "[[European miracle]]" of the following centuries. The [[Perspective (graphical)|architectural perspective]], and the modern fields which are known today as [[banking]] and [[accounting]] were founded in [[Italy]].

The [[Hundred Years' War]] ended with a decisive [[Kingdom of France|French]] victory over the [[Kingdom of England|English]] in the [[Battle of Castillon]]. Financial troubles in England following the conflict resulted in the [[Wars of the Roses]], a series of dynastic wars for the throne of England. The conflicts ended with the defeat of [[Richard III]] by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]], establishing the [[House of Tudor|Tudor dynasty]] in the later part of the century.

[[Constantinople]], known as the [[Caput Mundi|capital of the world]] and the capital of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (today's [[Turkey]]), [[Fall of Constantinople|fell]] to the emerging Muslim [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], marking the end of the tremendously influential Byzantine Empire and, for some historians, the end of the Middle Ages.<ref>{{cite book |first=Roger |last=Crowley |author-link=Roger Crowley |title=Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453 |publisher=Faber |year=2006 |isbn=0-571-22185-8 }} (reviewed by {{Cite web |title=The Conquestof Constantinople and the end of empire |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-155920054.html |last=Foster |first=Charles |website=Contemporary Review |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822080420/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-155920054.html |archive-date=22 August 2009 |quote=It is the end of the Middle Ages}}</ref> This led to the migration of [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|Greek scholars]] and texts to Italy, while [[Johannes Gutenberg]]'s invention of a mechanical [[movable type]] began the [[printing press]]. These two events played key roles in the development of the [[Renaissance]].<ref name="Britannica1">Encyclopædia Britannica, ''Renaissance'', 2008, O.Ed.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McLuhan|1962}}; {{harvnb|Eisenstein|1980}}; {{harvnb|Febvre|Martin|1997}}; {{harvnb|Man|2002}}</ref> The Roman [[Pope|papacy]] was split in two parts in Europe for decades (the so-called [[Western Schism]]), until the [[Council of Constance]]. The division of the Catholic Church and the unrest associated with the [[Hussite]] movement would become factors in the rise of the Protestant [[Reformation]] in the following century.

[[Islamic Spain]] became dissolved through the Christian [[Reconquista]], followed by the [[Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain|forced conversions]] and the [[Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1499–1501)|Muslim rebellion]],{{sfn|Harvey|2005|p=14}} ending over seven centuries of [[Islamic]] rule and returning southern Spain to Christian rulers.

The spices, wines and precious metals of the [[Bengal Sultanate|Bengal sultanate]]<ref>Nanda, J. N (2005). {{Cite book |title=Bengal: the unique state |publisher=Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-8069-149-2 |quote=Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.}}</ref> had attracted European traders to trade with Bengal, but the trade was subsequently lower, due to the rise of the Ottoman Empire, which introduced new taxes and tarrifs against European traders. This had led to explorers like [[Christopher Columbus]] finding a route to reach India, which eventually reached the Americas. Explorers like [[Vasco da Gama]], a Portuguese traveller, also found a route to reach to India from the African coast.

In [[History of Asia|Asia]], the [[Timurid Empire]] collapsed and the Afghan Pashtun [[Lodi dynasty]] took control of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Under the rule of the [[Yongle Emperor]], who built the [[Forbidden City]] and commanded [[Zheng He]] to [[Treasure voyages|explore the world overseas]], the [[Ming dynasty]]'s territory reached its pinnacle.

In [[History of Africa|Africa]], the [[Muslim conquest of the Sudan|spread of Islam]] led to the destruction of the Christian kingdoms of [[Nubia]], by the end of the century, leaving only [[Alodia]] (which was to collapse in 1504). The formerly vast [[Mali Empire]] teetered on the brink of collapse, under pressure from the rising [[Songhai Empire]].

In the [[Pre-Columbian era|Americas]], both the [[Aztec Empire]] and the [[Inca Empire]] reached the peak of their influence, but the [[voyages of Christopher Columbus]] and other European voyages of discovery in the Americas, beginning the [[European colonization of the Americas]], changed the course of modern history.

==Events==

=== 1401–1409 ===
[[File:Pacioli.jpg|250px|thumb|upright|''[[Portrait of Luca Pacioli|Portrait of the founder of accounting, Luca Pacioli]]'', by [[Jacopo de' Barbari]] ([[Museo di Capodimonte]]).]]
* [[1401]]: [[Dilawar Khan]] establishes the [[Malwa Sultanate]] in present-day central India.
* [[1402]]: [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Timurid Empire]]s fight at the [[Battle of Ankara]] resulting in the capture of [[Bayezid I]] by [[Timur]].
* [[1402]]: [[Sultanate of Malacca]] founded by [[Parameswara (sultan)|Parameswara]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Winstedt |first=R. O. |author-link=R. O. Winstedt |year=1948 |title=The Malay Founder of Medieval Malacca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuaMNAAACAAJ |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] on behalf of [[School of Oriental and African Studies]] |volume=12 |issue=3/4 |pages=726–729 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00083312 |jstor=608731}}</ref>
* [[1402]]: The [[Conquest of the Canary Islands|settlement of the Canary Islands]] signals the beginning of the [[Spanish Empire]].
* [[1403]]–[[1413]]: [[Ottoman Interregnum]], a civil war between the four sons of [[Bayezid I]].
* [[1403]]: The [[Yongle Emperor]] moves the capital of China from [[Nanjing]] to [[Beijing]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=An introduction to the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/imperial-china/ming-dynasty/a/an-introduction-to-the-ming-dynasty-13681644 |website=[[Khan Academy]] |publisher=[[Asian Art Museum (San Francisco)|Asian Art Museum]] |access-date=29 September 2018}}</ref>
* [[1404]]–[[1406]]: [[Regreg War]], [[Majapahit]] civil war of secession between [[Wikramawardhana]] against Wirabhumi.
* [[1405]]: The [[Sultanate of Sulu]] is established by [[Sharif ul-Hāshim of Sulu|Sharif ul-Hāshim]].
* [[1405]]–[[1433]]: During the [[Ming treasure voyages]], Admiral [[Zheng He]] of China sails through the [[Indian Ocean]] to Malacca, India, Ceylon, Persia, Arabia, and East Africa to spread China's influence and sovereignty. The first voyage, a massive [[Ming dynasty]] naval expedition ending in 1407, visited Java, Palembang, Malacca, Aru, Samudera and Lambri.<ref>Modern interpretation of the place names recorded by Chinese chronicles can be found e.g. in [http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/polities.html Some Southeast Asian Polities Mentioned in the MSL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712191241/http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/polities.html }} by Geoffrey Wade</ref>
* [[1408]]: The last recorded event to occur in the [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlements of [[Greenland]] was a wedding in [[Hvalsey]] in the [[Eastern Settlement]] in 1408.

===[[1410s]]===
[[File:Northern Yuan and Golden Horde.svg|thumb|250px|The [[Northern Yuan dynasty]] and [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]] residual states and domains by the 15th century]]
* [[1410]]: The [[Battle of Grunwald]] is the decisive battle of the [[Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War]] leading to the downfall of the [[Teutonic Knights]].
* [[1410]]–[[1413]]: Foundation of [[St Andrews University]] in [[Scotland]].
* [[1410]]-[[1415]]: [[Glyndŵr Rising|The last Welsh war of independence]], led by [[Owain Glyndŵr]].
* [[1414]]: [[Khizr Khan]], deputised by [[Timur]] to be the governor of [[Multan]], takes over Delhi founding the [[Sayyid dynasty]].
* [[1415]]: [[Henry the Navigator]] leads the [[conquest of Ceuta]] from the [[Moors]] marking the beginning of the [[Portuguese Empire]].
* [[1415]]: [[Battle of Agincourt]] fought between the [[Kingdom of England]] and [[France]].
* [[1415]]: [[Jan Hus]] is burned at the stake as a heretic at the [[Council of Constance]].
* [[1417]]: A large goodwill mission led by three kings of Sulu, the ''Eastern King'' [[Paduka Pahala]], the ''Western king'' Maharaja Kolamating and ''Cave king'' Paduka Prabhu as well as 340 members of their delegation, in what is now the southern Philippines, ploughed through the Pacific Ocean to China to pay tribute to the [[Yongle emperor]] of the [[Ming Dynasty]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://filipiknow.net/paduka-pahala-ancient-sulu-king-buried-in-china/|title=Thousands in China are descendants of an ancient Filipino king. Here’s how it happened.|website=Filipiknow}}</ref>
* [[1417]]: The East king of Sulu, [[Paduka Pahala]], on their way home, suddenly died in Dezhou, a city in east China's Shandong province. The [[Yongle Emperor]] Zhu Di commissioned artisans to build a tomb for the king.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/asiapacific/2018-11/09/c_137595006.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816052052/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/asiapacific/2018-11/09/c_137595006.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 August 2021|title=New Sulu King research book by Chinese author debuts in Philippines|website=Xinhuanet}}</ref>
* [[1419]]–[[1433]]: The [[Hussite Wars]] in [[Bohemia]].

===[[1420s]]===
[[File:Joan of Arc miniature graded.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Joan of Arc]], a [[French people|French]] peasant girl, directly influenced the result of the [[Hundred Years' War]].]]
* [[1420]]: Construction of the Chinese [[Forbidden City]] is completed in Beijing.
* [[1424]]: [[James I of Scotland|James I]] returns to [[Scotland]] after being held hostage under three [[Kings of England]] since [[1406]].
* [[1424]]: [[Deva Raya II]] succeeds his father [[Veera Vijaya Bukka Raya]] as monarch of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].
* [[1425]]: Catholic [[Old University of Leuven|University of Leuven]] (Belgium) founded by [[Pope Martin V]].
* [[1427]]: Reign of [[Itzcoatl]] begins as the fourth ''[[tlatoani]]'' of [[Tenochtitlan]] and the first emperor of the [[Aztec Empire]].
* [[1429]]: [[Joan of Arc]] ends the [[Siege of Orléans]] and turns the tide of the [[Hundred Years' War]].
* [[1429]]: Queen [[Suhita]] succeeds her father [[Wikramawardhana]] as ruler of [[Majapahit]].<ref name="RICKLEFSp18">Ricklefs (1991), page 18.</ref>

===[[1430s]]===
* [[1430]]: [[Rajah Lontok]] and [[Dayang Kalangitan]] become co-regent rulers of the ancient kingdom of [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]].
* [[1431]]
** [[9 January]] – Pretrial investigations for [[Joan of Arc]] begin in [[Rouen]], [[France]] under [[England|English]] occupation.
** [[3 March]] – [[Pope Eugene IV]] succeeds [[Pope Martin V]], to become the 207th [[pope]].
** [[26 March]] – The [[trial of Joan of Arc]] begins.
** [[30 May]] – Nineteen-year-old Joan of Arc is [[burned at the stake]].
** [[16 June]] – the [[Teutonic Knights]] and [[Švitrigaila]] sign the [[Treaty of Christmemel]], creating anti-Polish alliance
** September – [[Battle of Inverlochy (1431)|Battle of Inverlochy]]: Donald Balloch defeats the Royalists.
** [[30 October]] – [[Treaty of Medina del Campo (1431)|Treaty of Medina del Campo]], consolidating peace between [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] and [[Crown of Castile|Castille]].
** [[16 December]] – [[Henry VI of England]] is crowned King of France.
* [[1438]]: [[Pachacuti]] founds the [[Inca Empire]].

===[[1440s]]===
[[File:Detail of The Emperor's Approach, Xuande period.jpg|thumb|Detail of ''The Emperor's Approach'' showing the [[Xuande Emperor]]'s royal carriage. [[Ming Dynasty]] of China.]]
* [[1440]]: [[Eton College]] founded by Henry VI.
* [[1440s]]: The [[Golden Horde]] breaks up into the [[Siberia Khanate]], the [[Khanate of Kazan]], the [[Astrakhan Khanate]], the [[Crimean Khanate]], and the [[Great Horde]].
* [[1440]]–[[1469]]: Under [[Moctezuma I]], the [[Aztec]]s become the dominant power in [[Mesoamerica]].
* [[1440]]: [[Oba Ewuare]] comes to power in the [[West African]] city of [[Benin Empire|Benin]], and turns it into an empire.
* [[1440]]: Reign of [[Moctezuma I]] begins as the fifth ''[[tlatoani]]'' of [[Tenochtitlan]] and emperor of the [[Aztec Empire]].
* [[1441]]: [[Jan van Eyck]], Flemish painter, dies.
* [[1441]]: Portuguese navigators cruise [[West Africa]] and reestablish the [[Atlantic Slave Trade|European slave trade]] with a shipment of [[Slavery in Africa|African slaves]] sent directly from [[Africa]] to [[Portugal]].
* [[1441]]: A civil war between the [[Tutul-Xiu|Tutul Xiues]] and [[Cocom]] breaks out in the [[League of Mayapan]]. As a consequence, the league begins to disintegrate.
* [[1442]]: [[Leonardo Bruni]] defines [[Middle Ages]] and Modern times.
* [[1443]]: [[Abdur Razzaq (traveller)|Abdur Razzaq]] visits India.
* [[1443]]: [[Sejong the Great of Joseon|King Sejong the Great]] publishes the [[hangul]], the native phonetic alphabet system for the [[Korean language]].
* [[1444]]: The [[Albania|Albanian league]] is established in Lezha, [[Skanderbeg]] is elected leader. A war begins against the [[Ottoman Empire]]. An Albanian [[Sovereign state|state]] is set up and lasts until [[1479]].
* [[1444]]: [[Ottoman Empire]] under [[Sultan]] [[Murad II]] defeats the [[Poland|Polish]] and [[Hungary|Hungarian]] armies under [[Władysław III of Poland]] and [[John Hunyadi|János Hunyadi]] at the [[Battle of Varna]].
* [[1445]]: The [[Kazan Khanate]] defeats the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] at the [[Battle of Suzdal]].
* [[1446]]: [[Mallikarjuna Raya]] succeeds his father [[Deva Raya II]] as monarch of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].
* [[1447]]: Wijaya Parakrama Wardhana, succeeds [[Suhita]] as ruler of Majapahit.<ref name="RICKLEFSp18" />
* [[1449]]: [[Sankardeva|Saint Srimanta Sankardeva]] was born.
* [[1449]]: [[Esen Tayisi]] leads an [[Oirats|Oirat Mongol]] invasion of China which culminate in the capture of the [[Zhengtong Emperor]] at [[Battle of Tumu Fortress]].

===[[1450s]]===
[[File:Conquest_of_Constantinople,_Zonaro.jpg|thumb|Modern painting of [[Mehmed II]] marching on [[Fall of Constantinople|Constantinople in 1453]]]]
* [[1450s]]: [[Machu Picchu]] constructed.
* [[1450]]: [[Dayang Kalangitan]] became the [[Queen regnant]] of the ancient kingdom of [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]] that started Tondo's political dominance over [[Luzon]].
* [[1451]]: [[Bahlul Khan Lodhi]] ascends the throne of the [[Delhi sultanate]] starting the [[Lodhi dynasty]]
* [[1451]]: Rajasawardhana, born Bhre Pamotan, styled Brawijaya II succeeds Wijayaparakramawardhana as ruler of Majapahit.<ref name="RICKLEFSp18" />
* [[1453]]: The [[Fall of Constantinople]] marks the end of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the death of the last Roman Emperor [[Constantine XI]] and the beginning of the [[Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1453]]: The [[Battle of Castillon]] is the last engagement of the [[Hundred Years' War]] and the first battle in European history where cannons were a major factor in deciding the battle.
* [[1453]]: Reign of Rajasawardhana ends.<ref name="RICKLEFSp18" />
* [[1454]]–[[1466]]: After defeating the Teutonic Knights in the [[Thirteen Years' War (1454–66)|Thirteen Years' War]], Poland annexes [[Royal Prussia]].
* [[1455]]–[[1485]]: [[Wars of the Roses]] – English civil war between the House of York and the House of Lancaster.
* [[1456]]: [[Joan of Arc]] is [[Retrial of Joan of Arc|posthumously acquitted]] of [[heresy]] by the [[Catholic Church]], redeeming her status as the heroine of [[France]].
* [[1456]]: The [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]] halts the Ottomans' advance into Europe.
* [[1456]]: Girishawardhana, styled Brawijaya III, becomes ruler of Majapahit.<ref name="RICKLEFSp18" />
* [[1457]]: Construction of [[Edo Castle]] begins.

===[[1460s]]===
[[File:Cacicazgos mayas - es.svg|thumbnail|The seventeen Kuchkabals of Yucatán after The League of Mayapan in 1461.]]
*[[1461]]: The [[League of Mayapan]] disintegrates. The league is replaced by seventeen [[Kuchkabal]].
* [[1461]]: The city of [[Sarajevo]] is founded by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].
* [[1461]]:
** [[2 February]] – [[Battle of Mortimer's Cross]]: Yorkist troops led by [[Edward IV of England|Edward, Duke of York]] defeat Lancastrians under [[Owen Tudor]] and his son [[Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke]] in [[Wales]].
** [[17 February]] – [[Second Battle of St Albans]], [[England]]: The [[Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick|Earl of Warwick]]'s army is defeated by a Lancastrian force under [[Margaret of Anjou|Queen Margaret]], who recovers control of her husband.
** [[4 March]] – The Duke of York seizes London and proclaims himself King [[Edward IV of England]].
** [[5 March]] – [[Henry VI of England]] is deposed by the [[Duke of York]] during [[war of the Roses]].
** [[29 March]] – [[Battle of Towton]]: Edward IV defeats Queen Margaret to make good his claim to the English throne (thought to be the bloodiest battle ever fought in England).
** [[28 June]] – Edward, Richard of York's son, is crowned as [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]], King of England (reigns until [[1483]]).
** July – [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] general [[Graitzas Palaiologos]] honourably surrenders [[Salmeniko Castle]], last garrison of the [[Despotate of the Morea]], to invading forces of the [[Ottoman Empire]] after a year-long siege.[[File:Europe in 1470.PNG|thumb|Political map of Europe in 1470]]
** [[22 July]] – [[Louis XI of France]] succeeds [[Charles VII of France]] as king (reigns until [[1483]]).
* [[1462]]: [[Sonni Ali|Sonni Ali Ber]], the ruler of the [[Songhai Empire|Songhai (or Songhay) Empire]], along the [[Niger River]], conquers [[Mali Empire|Mali]] in the central [[Sudan]] by defeating the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] contingent at [[Timbuktu|Tombouctou]] (or [[Timbuktu]]) and capturing the city. He develops both his own capital, [[Gao]], and the main centres of Mali, Timbuktu and [[Djenné]], into major cities. Ali Ber controls trade along the Niger River with a navy of war vessels.
* [[1462]]: [[Mehmed the Conqueror]] is driven back by [[Wallachia]]n prince [[Vlad III Dracula]] at [[The Night Attack]].
* [[1464]]: [[Edward IV of England]] secretly marries [[Elizabeth Woodville]].
* [[1465]]: The [[1465 Moroccan revolt]] ends in the murder of the last [[Marinid]] Sultan of Morocco [[Abd al-Haqq II]].
* [[1466]]: Singhawikramawardhana, succeeds Girishawardhana as ruler of Majapahit.<ref name="RICKLEFSp18" />
* [[1467]]: [[Uzun Hasan]] defeats the [[Kara Koyunlu|Black Sheep Turkoman]] leader [[Jahan Shah|Jahān Shāh]].
* [[1467]]–1615: The [[Sengoku period]] is one of civil war in Japan.
* [[1469]]: The marriage of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella I of Castile]] leads to the unification of [[Spain]].[[File:Matthias Corvinus.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[renaissance]] king [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]]. His mercenary standing army (the [[Black Army of Hungary|Black Army]]) had the strongest military potential of its era.]]
* [[1469]]: [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]] conquers some parts of [[Bohemia]].
* [[1469]]: Birth of [[Guru Nanak Dev]]. Beside followers of [[Sikhism]], Guru Nanak is revered by [[Hindus]] and [[Muslim Sufis]] across the [[Indian subcontinent]].
* [[1469]]: Reign of [[Axayacatl]] begins in the [[Aztec]] capital of [[Tenochtitlan]] as the sixth ''[[tlatoani]]'' and emperor of the [[Aztec Triple Alliance]].

===[[1470s]]===
* [[1470]]: The [[Moldavia]]n forces under [[Stephen the Great]] defeat the Tatars of the [[Golden Horde]] at the [[Battle of Lipnic]].
* [[1471]]: The kingdom of [[Champa]] suffers a massive defeat by the Vietnamese king [[Lê Thánh Tông]].
* [[1472]]: [[Abu Abd Allah al-Sheikh Muhammad ibn Yahya]] becomes the first [[Wattasid dynasty|Wattasid]] Sultan of Morocco.
* [[1474]]–[[1477]]: [[Burgundy Wars]] of France, [[Switzerland]], [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] and [[Sigismund, Archduke of Austria|Sigismund II of Habsburg]] against the [[Charles the Bold]], [[Duchy of Burgundy|Duke of Burgundy]].
* [[1478]]: [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] conquers [[Novgorod]].
* [[1478]]: Reign of Singhawikramawardhana ends.<ref name="RICKLEFSp18" />
* [[1478]]: [[Demak Great Mosque|The Great Mosque of Demak]] is the oldest mosque in Java, built by the [[Wali Songo]] during the reign of Sultan [[Raden Patah]].
* [[1479]]: [[Battle of Breadfield]], [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]] defeated the Turks.
* [[1479]]: [[Vallabha|JagatGuru Vallabhacharya Ji Mahaprabhu]] was born<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shri Mahaprabhuji Shri Vallabhacharyaji Biography {{!}} Pushti Sanskar |url=https://pushtisanskar.org/about_shri_mahaprabhuji.php |access-date=2023-06-02 |website=pushtisanskar.org}}</ref>

=== [[1480s]] ===
[[File:SiegeOfRhodes1480.jpg|thumb|upright|[[1480s|The]] [[Siege of Rhodes (1480)|Siege of Rhodes]] ([[1480]]). Ships of the [[Hospitaliers]] in the forefront, and Turkish camp in the background.]]
* [[1480]]: After the [[Great standing on the Ugra river]], [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] gained independence from the [[Great Horde]].
* [[1481]]: [[Spanish Inquisition]] begins in practice with the first ''[[auto-da-fé]]''.
* [[1481]]: Reign of [[Tizoc]] begins as the seventh ''[[tlatoani]]'' of [[Tenochtitlan]] and the emperor of the [[Aztec Triple Alliance]].
* [[1482]]: [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Diogo Cão]] becomes the first [[Europe|European]] to enter the [[Congo (river)|Congo]].
* [[1483]]: [[Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain#The_expulsion_of_the_Jews_from_Andalusia_(1483)|The Jews are expelled from Andalusia]].
* [[1483]]: [[Pluto]] moves inside [[Neptune]]'s orbit until [[July 23]], [[1503]], according to modern [[Orbit|orbital]] calculations.
* [[1484]]: [[William Caxton]], the first [[Printer (publishing)|printer]] of books in [[English language|English]], prints his translation of ''[[Aesop's Fables]]'' in London.
* [[1485]]: [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]] captured [[Vienna]], [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]] ran away.
* [[1485]]: [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] defeats [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] at the [[Battle of Bosworth]] and becomes King of England.
* [[1485]]: [[Ivan III of Russia]] conquered [[Prince of Tver|Tver]].
* [[1485]]: [[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya]] drives out [[Praudha Raya]] ending the [[Sangama Dynasty]].
* [[1486]]: [[Sher Shah Suri]], is born in [[Sasaram]], [[Bihar]].
* [[1486]]: Reign of [[Ahuitzotl]] begins as the eighth ''[[tlatoani]]'' of [[Tenochtitlan]] and emperor of the [[Aztec Triple Alliance]].
* [[1487]]: [[Hongzhi Emperor]] ascends the throne, bringing Confucian ideology under his administration.
* [[1488]]: Portuguese Navigator [[Bartolomeu Dias]] sails around the [[Cape of Good Hope]].

=== 1490–1500 ===
[[File:Columbus Taking Possession.jpg|thumb|250px|Gergio Deluci, ''[[Christopher Columbus]] arrives in [[America]] in 1492,'' 1893 painting.]]
* [[1492]]: The death of [[Sonni Ali|Sunni Ali Ber]] left a leadership void in the [[Songhai Empire]], and his son was soon dethroned by [[Askia Muhammad I|Mamadou Toure]] who ascended the throne in 1493 under the name [[Askia Mohammad I|Askia]] (meaning "general") Muhammad. Askia Muhammad made Songhai the largest empire in the history of West Africa. The empire went into decline, however, after 1528, when the now-blind Askia Muhammad was dethroned by his son, [[Askia Musa]].
* [[1492]]: [[Boabdil]]'s surrender of [[Granada]] marks the end of the Spanish [[Reconquista]] and [[Al-Andalus]].
* [[1492]]: [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella]] sign the [[Alhambra Decree]], expelling all [[Jews]] from Spain unless they convert to [[Catholicism]]; 40,000–200,000 leave.
* [[1492]]: [[Christopher Columbus]] landed in the Americas from [[Spain]].
* [[1493]]: [[Christopher Columbus]] landed on modern-day [[Puerto Rico]].
* [[1493]]: [[Leonardo da Vinci]] creates the first known design for a [[helicopter]].
* [[1494]]: Spain and Portugal sign the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] and agree to divide the World outside of Europe between themselves.
* [[1494]]–1559: The [[Italian Wars]] lead to the downfall of the [[Italian city-states]].
* [[1495]]: [[Manuel I of Portugal]] was succeeded as the king of [[Portugal]] (reigns until [[1521]]).
* [[1497]]–[[1499]]: [[Vasco da Gama]]'s first voyage from [[Europe]] to [[India]] and back.
* [[1499]]: [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman fleet]] defeats [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] at the [[Battle of Zonchio]].
* [[1499]]: University "Alcalá de Henares" in Madrid, Spain is built.
* [[1499]]: [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Pietà]] in St. Peter's Basilica is made in Rome
* [[1500]]: Islam becomes the dominant religion across the Indonesian archipelago.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religions |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Religions |last=Leinbach |first=Thomas R. |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=23 February 2019}}</ref>
* [[1500]]: Around late 15th century [[Bujangga Manik]] manuscript was composed, tell the story of Jaya Pakuan Bujangga Manik, a [[Sunda kingdom|Sundanese]] Hindu hermit journeys throughout Java and Bali.<ref name="Noorduyn 2006 437">{{Cite book |last=Noorduyn |first=J. |title=Three Old Sundanese poems |publisher=KITLV Press |year=2006 |page=437}}</ref>
* [[1500]]: [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles of Ghent]] (future [[Lord of the Netherlands]], [[King of Spain]], [[Archduke of Austria]], and [[Holy Roman Emperor]]) was born.
* [[1500]]: [[Guru Nanak]] begins the spreading of [[Sikhism]], the fifth-largest religion in the world.
* [[1500]]: [[Spain|Spanish]] navigator [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón]] encounters [[Brazil]] but is prevented from claiming it by the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]].
* [[1500]]: [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] claims Brazil for Portugal.
* [[1500]]: The [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman fleet]] of [[Kemal Reis]] defeats the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] at the [[Battle of Lepanto (1500)|Second Battle of Lepanto]].{{Gallery}}

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="150" heights="150">
File:Masaccio, cappella brancacci, san pietro in cattedra. ritratto di filippo brunelleschi.jpg|[[Filippo Brunelleschi]] (1377–1446), regarded as one of the greatest engineers and architects of all time
File:Anonymous portrait of Johannes Gutenberg dated 1440, Gutenberg Museum.JPG|[[Johannes Gutenberg]] (1400–1468), German inventor who introduced [[printing]] to Europe with his mechanical [[Movable type|movable-type]] [[printing press]]
File:Skanderbeg by Antonio Maria Crespi.jpg|[[Skanderbeg]] (1405–1468), who led the Albanian resistance against the [[Ottoman Empire]]
File:Ivan III of Russia.jpg|[[Ivan III of Russia]] (1440–1505), Grand Prince of Moscow who ended the dominance of the Tatars in the lands of the Rus
File:King Richard III from NPG.jpg|[[Richard III of England]] (1452–1485), the last king of the [[House of York]] and the last of the [[Plantagenet dynasty]]
File:Henry Seven England.jpg|[[Henry VII of England|King Henry VII]] (1457–1509), the founder of the royal house of [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]]
</gallery>

==Inventions, discoveries, introductions==
{{see also|Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci}}{{See also|Timeline of historic inventions#15th century}}
* [[Renaissance]] affects [[philosophy]], [[History of Science and Technology|science]] and [[art]].
* Rise of [[Modern English]] language from [[Middle English]].
* Introduction of the [[noon bell]] in the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] world.
* Public [[History of banking|banks]].
* [[Yongle Encyclopedia]]—over 22,000 volumes.
* [[Hangul]] alphabet in [[Korea]].
* [[Scotch whisky]].
* [[Psychiatric hospital]]s{{clarify}}.
* Development of the [[woodcut]] for printing between [[1400]]–[[1450]].
* [[Movable type]] first used by King [[Taejong of Joseon]]—[[1403]]. (Movable type, which allowed individual characters to be arranged to form words, was invented in China by [[Bi Sheng]] between 1041 and 1048.)
* Although pioneered earlier in Korea and by the Chinese official [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]] (with [[tin]]), [[bronze]] metal [[movable type]] [[printing]] is created in China by [[Hua Sui]] in [[1490]].
* [[Johannes Gutenberg]] advances the [[printing press]] in Europe ({{circa|lk=no|[[1455]]}})
* [[Linear perspective]] drawing perfected by [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] [[1410]]–[[1415]]
* Invention of the [[harpsichord]] {{circa|lk=no|[[1450]]}}
* Arrival of [[Christopher Columbus]] to the [[Americas]] in [[1492]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00lang online free]
*{{Citation
| last1 = Febvre
| first1 = Lucien
| author-link1 = Lucien Febvre
| last2 = Martin
| first2 = Henri-Jean
| author-link2 = Henri-Jean Martin
| title = The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800
| publisher = Verso
| place = London
| year = 1997
| isbn = 1-85984-108-2
}}
*{{Citation
| last = Eisenstein
| first = Elizabeth L.
| author-link = Elizabeth L. Eisenstein
| title = The Printing Press as an Agent of Change
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| year = 1980
| isbn = 0-521-29955-1
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/printingpressasa0000eise
}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Eyck, Barthélemy d' |encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to Western Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_r1z5 |last=Tolley |first=Thomas |editor-last=Hugh Brigstocke |isbn=0-19-866203-3 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Harvey|first=L. P.|title=Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614|url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsinspain1500lple|url-access=registration|publisher=University of Chicago Press|place=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-31963-6}}
*{{Citation
| last = Man
| first = John
| author-link = John Man (author)
| title = The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World
| publisher = Headline Review
| place = London
| year = 2002
| isbn = 978-0-7472-4504-9
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/gutenbergrevolut0000manj
}}
*{{Citation
| last = McLuhan
| first = Marshall
| author-link = Marshall McLuhan
| title = The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man
| publisher = University of Toronto Press
| edition = 1st
| year = 1962
| isbn = 978-0-8020-6041-9
}}

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