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Abu Dawud al-Sijistani

2023-09-25T12:04:11Z

Bhumika: another notable Hadith collector

{{Short description|9th-century Persian Islamic hadith scholar}}
{{other uses|Abu Dawud (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| religion = [[Islam]]
| era = [[Islamic golden age]] <br /> ([[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid era]])
| image = Abu Da'ud al-Sijistani (d. 889 AD); Kitab al-sunan, probably Andalusia, 13th century.jpg
| caption = Manuscript of al-Sijistani's ''Kitab al-sunan'', probably created in [[Al-Andalus]], dated 13th century
| name = Abu Dawud al-Sijistani
| birth_date = 817–18 CE / 202 AH
| birth_place = [[Sistan]], [[Abbasid Caliphate]]
| death_date = 889 CE / 275 AH
| death_place = [[Basra]], Abbasid Caliphate
| denomination = [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]
| school = [[Hanbali]]
| creed = [[Athari]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Canonization of Islamic Law: A Social and Intellectual History|last=El Shamsy |first=Ahmed |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-04148-6 | location= New York| quote="Al-Buwayti... enjoyed the trust of traditionalist scholars such as Abu Dawud al-Sijistani and al-Humaydı as well as Ahmad b. Hanbal himself.."|pages=197 |chapter=Chapter 8: Canonization beyond the Shafi'i School}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law, 9th-10th Centuries C.E |last=Melchert |first=Christopher |publisher=Brill Publishers |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-10952-8 | location= Koninklijke Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands | quote="the later Iraqi traditionalist Abu Dawud says not only that he was weak.."|pages=165-166 |chapter=Chapter 8: The Maliki School}}</ref>
| notable_ideas =
| occupation = ''[[muhaddith]]''
| main_interests = ''[[Hadith|ḥadīth]]'' and ''[[fiqh]]''
| influences = [[Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub al-Juzajani]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Al-Bastawī|first=ʻAbd al-ʻAlīm ʻAbd al-ʻAẓīm | title=Al-Imām al-Jūzajānī wa-manhajuhu fi al-jarḥ wa-al-taʻdīl|year=1990|publisher=Maktabat Dār al-Ṭaḥāwī|page=9}}</ref> [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]], [[Ali ibn al-Madini]], [[Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh]], [[Yahya ibn Ma'in]]
| influenced = [[Tirmidhi]], [[Al-Nasa'i]]
| works = ''[[Sunan Abī Dāwūd]]''
| nationality =
| region =
}}
'''Abū Dāwūd (Dā’ūd) Sulaymān ibn al-Ash‘ath ibn Isḥāq al-Azdī al-Sijistānī''' ({{lang-ar|أبو داود سليمان بن الأشعث الأزدي السجستاني}}), commonly known as '''Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī''', was a scholar of prophetic [[hadith]] who compiled the third of the [[Six major Hadith collections|six "canonical" hadith collections]] recognized by [[Sunni]] Muslims, the ''[[Sunan Abu Dawood|Sunan Abu Dāwūd]]''.

==Biography==
A [[Persians|Persian]] of [[Arabs|Arab]] descent,<ref name=Frye1975>{{Cite book|last1=Frye|first1=R. N.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&q=history+iran+volume+4+cambridge|title=The Cambridge History of Iran|last2=Fisher|first2=William Bayne|last3=Frye|first3=Richard Nelson|last4=Avery|first4=Peter|last5=Boyle|first5=John Andrew|last6=Gershevitch|first6=Ilya|last7=Jackson|first7=Peter|date=1975-06-26|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-20093-6|page=471|quote=Abu Da'ud Sulaiman b. Ash'ath al-Sijistani, a Persian but of Arab descent, who died in 275/888-9.|language=en|access-date=2020-10-01|archive-date=2022-07-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708142525/https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&q=history+iran+volume+4+cambridge|url-status=live}}</ref> Abū Dā’ūd was born in [[Sistan]] and died in 889 in [[Basra]]. He travelled widely collecting [[hadith|ḥadīth]] (traditions) from scholars in numerous locations including [[Iraq]], [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Hijaz]], [[Tihamah]], [[Nishapur]] and [[Merv]]. His focus on legal ḥadīth arose from a particular interest in [[fiqh]] (law). His collection included 4,800 ḥadīth, selected from some 500,000. His son, Abū Bakr ‘Abd Allāh ibn Abī Dā’ūd (died 928/929), was a well known ''[[Hafiz (Quran)|ḥāfiẓ]]'' and author of ''Kitāb al-Masābīh'', whose famous pupil was [[Al-Marzubānī|Abū 'Abd Allāh al-Marzubānī]].{{sfn|Nadīm (al)|1970|pp=164–6}}{{sfn|Khallikān (Ibn)|1843|loc=I|p=590}}

==School of thought and Quotes==
Imam Abu Dawud was a follower of [[Hanbali]] although some have considered him [[Shafi'i|Shafi]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamicencyclopedia.org/islamic-pedia-topic.php?id=54 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328041058/http://www.islamicencyclopedia.org/islamic-pedia-topic.php?id=54 |archive-date=2018-03-28 |title=Islamic Pedia - Abu Dawood Sijistani (202–275H) أبو داوود السجستاني}}</ref>

Imam Abu Dawud has stated: "From this book of mine four [[Hadith]] are sufficient for an intelligent and insightful person.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Imam Abu Dawud|url = http://www.sunnah.org/history/Scholars/imam_abu_dawud.htm|website = www.sunnah.org|access-date = 2016-02-21|archive-date = 2018-02-15|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180215093725/http://sunnah.org/history/Scholars/imam_abu_dawud.htm|url-status = dead}}</ref> They are:
* Deeds are to be judged only by intentions.<ref>Shahih Al Bukhari, Imam Al Bukthari, Vol.1 Book 1 Hadith 1
</ref>
* Part of a man's good observance of Islam is that he leaves alone that which does not concern him.
* None of you can be a believer unless you love for your brother that which you love for yourself.
* The permitted (''halal'') is clear, and the forbidden (''haram'') is clear, between these two are doubtful matters. Whosoever abstains from these doubtful matters has saved his religion."

==Works==
Principal among his twenty-one works are:
*''[[Sunan Abu Dawood|Sunan Abu Dāwūd]]'': contains 4,800 [[hadith]]{{snd}}mostly [[Hadith terminology#Sahih|''sahih'']] (authenticated), some marked [[Hadith terminology#Da`if|''ḍaʿīf'']] (unauthenticated){{snd}}usually numbered after the edition of Muhammad Muhyi al-Din `Abd al-Hamid (Cairo: Matba`at Mustafa Muhammad, 1354 AH/1935 CE), where 5,274 are distinguished. Islamic scholar [[Ibn Hajar Asqalani|Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani]], and some others, believe a number of the unmarked hadith are [[Hadith terminology#Da`if|''ḍaʿīf'']].
*''Kitab al-Marāsīl'' lists 600 extensively investigated [[Hadith terminology#Sahih|''sahih'']] [[Hadith terminology#Mursal|''mursal hadith'']].
*''Risālat Abu Dāwūd ilā Ahli Makkah'': letter to the people of [[Mecca|Makkah]] describing his [[Sunan Abu Dawood|Sunan Abu Dāwūd]] collection.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dkh-islam.com/Content/Article.aspx?ATID=71 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090819072727/http://www.dkh-islam.com/Content/Article.aspx?ATID=71 |url-status=dead |title=Translation of the ''Risālah'' by Abū Dāwūd |archive-date=August 19, 2009}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Kutub al-Sittah]]
* [[Sunan Abu Dawood]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book |last=Baghdādī (al-) |author-link=Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi |first=Al-Khaṭīb Abū Bakr Aḥmad ibn ‘Alī | title=Ta'rīkh Madīnat al-Salām (Ta'rīkh Baghdād) |place=Beirut|publisher=Dār al-Gharib al-Islāmī |year=2001 |volume=X, §4591 |page=75 |language=ar |url= https://archive.org/details/WAQtaba}}
*{{cite book |last= Khallikān (Ibn) |author-link= Ibn Khallikan|first=Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad |title=Wafayāt al-A'yān wa-Anbā' Abnā' al-Zamān (The Obituaries of Eminent Men) |translator-last=[[William McGuckin de Slane|McGuckin de Slane]] |translator-first=William |place= Paris |publisher=Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland |year=1843 |pages=590–91 |volume=I |url= https://archive.org/stream/WafayatAlAyantheObituariesOfEminentMenByIbnKhallikan/Vol1Of4WafayatAl-ayantheObituariesOfEminentMenByIbnKhallikan#page/n629/mode/2up}}
*{{cite book|last=Nadīm (al)|author-link=Ibn al-Nadim|first= Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq Abū Ya’qūb al-Warrāq| title=The Fihrist of al-Nadim; a tenth-century survey of Muslim culture|editor-last=[[Bayard Dodge|Dodge]] |editor-first=Bayard |place=New York & London|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1970|isbn=9780231029254|url=https://archive.org/details/fihristofalnadim0000ibna|url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite book|last= Nawawī (al-)|first= Abū Zakarīyā’ Yaḥyā|title=Kitāb Tahdhīb al-Asmā' (Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Men)|editor-last= [[Ferdinand Wüstenfeld|Wüstenfeld]] |editor-first=Ferdinand|place= Göttingen |publisher= London Society for the Publication of the Oriental Texts|orig-year=1842|year=1847|language=ar|page=708 Arabic|url=https://archive.org/details/b30092966/page/n175}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Abderrazzaq|first=Mohammad A.|title=Sijistānī, Abū Dāʿūd al-.|year=2009|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-530513-5|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|editor1-link=John L. Esposito|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001/acref-9780195305135-e-1082?rskey=gkmm46&result=7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Bowker|first1=John|author1-link=John Bowker (theologian)|encyclopedia=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|title=Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-102?rskey=gkmm46&result=1|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-280094-7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Esposito|editor1-first=John L.|editor1-link=John L. Esposito|title=Sijistani, Abu Daud al-|encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512558-0|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-2207?rskey=gkmm46&result=6}}
* {{EI3|last1=Melchert|first1=Christopher|author1-link=Christopher Melchert|title=Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī|year=2007|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/abu-dawud-al-sijistani-SIM_0024}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Melchert|first1=Christopher|author1-link=Christopher Melchert|date=2008|title=The Life and Works of Abu Dāwūd al-Sijistāni|journal=Al-Qantara|volume=29|issue=1|pages=9–44|doi=10.3989/alqantara.2008.v29.i1.48|doi-access=free}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Islamica|last1=Pakatchi|first1=Ahmad|last2=Khodaverdian|first2=Shahram|title=Abū Dāwūd al-Sijistānī|year=2008|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/abu-dawud-al-sijistani-COM_0053?s.num=11&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-islamica&s.q=Maslama}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Robson|first1=James|date=1952|title=The Transmission of Abū Dāwūd's 'Sunan'|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=14|issue=3|pages=579–588|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/609117}}
* {{EI2|last=Robson|first=J.|title=Abū Dāʾūd al-Sid̲j̲istānī|volume=1|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/abu-daud-al-sidjistani-SIM_0172}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Thomas|first=David|editor-last=Thomas|editor-first=David|title=Abū Dāwūd Sulaymān ibn al-Ashʿath al-Sijistānī|encyclopedia=Christian-Muslim Relations 600 – 1500|date=24 March 2010|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/christian-muslim-relations-i/*-COM_23760|publisher=Brill Online}}

==External links==
* [http://www.muslimscholars.info/manage.php?submit=scholar&ID=30002 Biodata at MuslimScholars.info] * [https://sunnah.com/abudawud/about Biography at Sunnah.com]
* [https://sunnah.com/abudawud/letter Letter from Imam Abu Dawud to the people of Makkah explaining his book, terms he uses, and his methodology.]
{{Hanbali scholars}}
{{People of Khorasan}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abu Dawood}}
[[Category:810s births]]
[[Category:888 deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian people of Arab descent]]
[[Category:Hadith compilers]]
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Hadith studies]]
[[Category:Taba‘ at-Tabi‘in]]
[[Category:Hanbalis]]
[[Category:Atharis]]
[[Category:9th-century jurists]]

Akshat Sharma

2023-09-17T05:17:45Z

Bhumika: Just completed a new piece.

{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Akshat Sharma
| image = Akshat Sharma Slide Guitar Performance.png
| alt =
| caption = In concert at Jaipur
| birth_date = 1993
| birth_place = [[Delhi]]
| instrument = [[Indian Slide Guitar]]
| genre = [[Hindustani classical music]]
| years_active =
| label =
| website = {{URL|http://www.gopalkrishan.org}}
}}
'''Akshat Sharma''' (born 1993) is an Indian musician who plays [[Indian classical music]] on Slide Guitar. <ref>{{cite news|title= Akshat Sharma On Guitar And Pt. Ajay Prasanna On Flute, Simple Tunes, Much Appreciated|url= https://www.bhaskar.com/local/rajasthan/jaipur/news/akshat-sharma-on-guitar-and-pt-ajay-prasanna-on-flute-simple-tunes-much-appreciated-131585445.html|newspaper=[[Dainik Bhaskar]]}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news|title= Akshat Sharma On Guitar And Pt. Ajay Prasanna On Flute, Simple Tunes, Much Appreciated|url= https://www.bhaskar.com/local/rajasthan/jaipur/video/akshat-sharma-on-guitar-and-pt-ajay-prasanna-on-flute-simple-tunes-much-appreciated-131585445.html?type=video|newspaper=[[Dainik Bhaskar]]}}</ref>

Akshat was taught and trained from an early age. Akshat learnt Slide Guitar under the “Guru Shishya Parampara” from his Father Pt. Shri Krishan Sharma. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/singing-strings/article4701021.ece |title=Singing strings |newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref>

He was also fortunate enough to learn from his Grand Father Pt. Gopal Krishan Sharma<ref>{{cite web|title= Pt. Gopal Krishan Sharma|url=https://sangeetnatak.gov.in/public/uploads/awardees/docs/Gopal_Krishnan.pdf}}</ref>

Akshat is the fourth generation who is carrying forward the family legacy. <ref>{{cite book |last=Shumsky |first=Susan|title= The Inner Light: How India Influenced the Beatles |url= https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Inner_Light/kDeKEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=The+Inner+Light:+How+India+Influenced+the+Beatles&printsec=frontcover|publisher= Permuted Platinum |page= 431 |isbn= 1682619788}}</ref>

Akshat has given solo performances in [[All India Radio]] and [[DoorDarshan]]. Apart from Slide Guitar Akshat also plays [[Indian Classical Music]] on Synthesizer with the same proficiency.

[[File:Akshat Sharma Performing Indian Classical Music on Synthesizer.jpg|thumb|Performing Indian Classical Music on Synthesizer]]
[[File:Akshat Performing on Indian Slide Guitar.jpg|left|thumb|Performing on Indian Slide Guitar]]

He has got the privilege to play with the renowned artists of National Orchestra as he has been a part of the prestigious “Vadya Vrind” which was started by Bharat Ratan Pt. [[Ravi Shankar]].
[[File:Akshat Sharma on Synthesizer (Center Back) playing for Vadiya Vrinda (All India Radio).jpg|left|thumb|Akshat Sharma (Center Back) performing for the prestigious Vadiya Vrind]]

Apart from music, Akshat did his Honors in Bachelors of Commerce from [[Shaheed Bhagat Singh College]] of Commerce, [[Delhi University]] and his [[Masters of Business Administration]] in Finance from [[IP University]], [[Delhi]] following which he worked as a Business Analyst with a reputed MNC for some time.

Like his father Akshat is also a keen believer that [[Indian Classical Music]] should reach the masses and wishes to give a considerable time in promoting and teaching the [[Indian Classical Music]] to the younger generation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gopalkrishan.org/akshat-sharma-press-release.html|title= Press Releases about Akshat Sharma}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ananyasoch.com/In-todays-fast-paced-life-music-is-necessary-to-control-stress-level-and-attain-inner-peace-Akshat|title= World Music Day}}</ref>
[[File:Lecture Demonstartion.jpg|thumb|Lecture Demonstration to School Children]]

In order to promote Fine Arts of India Akshat has formed a Foundation which is named in the loving memory of his Grandfather Pt. Gopal Krishan. Through this foundation Akshat aims to promote not only [[Indian Classical Music]] but other forms of art as well so that the rich heritage of our country can be preserved.
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gopalkrishan.org/press-release.html|title= Press Release}}</ref>

==Books==
*'The Inner Light: How India Influenced the Beatles', by Susan G. Shumsky<ref>{{cite book |last=Shumsky |first=Susan|title= The Inner Light: How India Influenced the Beatles |url= https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Inner_Light/kDeKEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=The+Inner+Light:+How+India+Influenced+the+Beatles&printsec=frontcover|publisher= Permuted Platinum |page= 431 |isbn= 1682619788}}</ref>
==Discography==
[[File:Akshat Sharma in Concert, accompanied by Ust. Rafiuddin Sabri.png|thumb| Akshat Sharma in Concert, accompanied by Ust. Rafiuddin Sabri]]
;2022
* Morning Bliss (Raag Nat Bhairav)
* Raag Yaman (Slide Guitar)
* Raag Kirwani
* Raag Jhinjhoti

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharma, Akshat}}
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian guitarists]]
[[Category:Hindustani instrumentalists]]
[[Category:Slide guitarists]]

List of expressways in Maharashtra

2023-07-05T03:58:22Z

Bhumika:

This is a '''list of expressways''' '''in [[Maharashtra]].'''

== State expressways ==
State expressways are funded by the [[Government of Maharashtra]] and [[Government of India]] to connect areas within the state. These expressways reduce travel time, allowing for more efficient travel and fuel savings. This also allows for a more equal distribution of goods, especially to [[Rural industry in India|rural areas]]. These expressways are not part of the national expressway system, but may be operated by the state authority or national authority.{{Static row numbers}}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible static-row-numbers"
!Name
!States
!Start
!End
! data-sort-type="number" |Length (km/mi)
!Lanes
!Year of Completion
!Remarks
|-
| [[Mumbai–Nagpur Expressway]]||[[Maharashtra]]
|[[Nagpur]]
|[[Shirdi]]|| style="text-align:right" |{{convert|520|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=br}}
| 6
| December 2022
|Longest expressway in India.
|-

|[[Mumbai–Pune Expressway]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/projects/mumbai/ |title="Mumbai-Pune Expressway, India". |publisher=Road Traffic Technology. |access-date=21 August 2010}}</ref>||[[Maharashtra]]
|[[Mumbai]]
| [[Pune]]|| style="text-align:right" |{{convert|94.5|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=br}}
|6
|April 2002
|India's first 6-lane wide expressway.
|-
|}

== Bypass expressways ==

Bypass expressways were built to bypass city traffic and congestion. These may include [[ring road]]s, [[Bypass (road)|bypasses]], [[freeways]], and [[Elevated roadway|elevated roads]] that exist entirely within a city or between two cities. These expressways direct heavy traffic to the outskirts freeing city roads of traffic. This also allows outside traffic to directly pass the city instead of going through it further limiting traffic within a city.
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible static-row-numbers"
!Name
!Locale
!States
! data-sort-type="number" |Length (km/mi)
!Lanes
!Year of Completion
!Remarks
|-
|[[Eastern Freeway (Mumbai)|Eastern Freeway]]
|[[Mumbai Metropolitan Region|Mumbai]]
|[[Maharashtra]]
| style="text-align:right" |{{convert|16.8|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=br}}
|4
|June 2014
|
|-
|[[National Highway 348 (India)|JNPT Road]]
|[[Panvel]],[[Navi Mumbai]]
|[[Maharashtra]]
| style="text-align:right" |{{convert|28|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=br}}
|6
|April 2022
|6 lane access controlled road connecting Navi Mumbai to JNPT Port, it runs parallel to Uran-Panvel road
|-
|[[Palm Beach Marg]]
|[[Navi Mumbai]]
|[[Maharashtra]]
| style="text-align:right" |{{convert|10|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=br}}
|6
|1995
|Palm Beach road is an access controlled 6 lane ring road of Navi Mumbai
|-
|[[Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Uddanpul]] (Nashik Freeway)
|[[Nashik]]
|[[Maharashtra]]
|{{convert|16|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=br}}
|4-6
|June 2013
|First [[NHAI]] expressway in Maharashtra. The longest flyover in Maharashtra.
|-
|}

== Expressways under construction ==
{{Static row numbers}}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible static-row-numbers"
!Name
!States
! data-sort-type="number" |Length (km/mi)
!Expected date of completion
|-
| Airoli–Katai Naka Freeway (Phase 1- 5.2 km section)
| [[Maharashtra]]
| align="right" |{{Convert|12.3|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| 2023-03
|-
| [[Coastal Road (Mumbai)]] (Phase 1)
| [[Maharashtra]]
| align="right" |{{Convert|29.2|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| 2023-12
|-
| [[Delhi–Mumbai Expressway]]<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/soon-new-delhi-mumbai-expressway-project-to-cost-rs-1-lakh-crore-nitin-gadkari/story-9OUM2mNyhqKFFvSXlByoPJ.html|title = Govt announces plans to build Delhi-Mumbai expressway for Rs 1 lakh crore |work = Hindustan Times|date = 17 April 2018 }}</ref>
| [[Delhi]], [[Haryana]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]]
| align="right" |{{Convert|1350|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| 2023-12
|-
| [[Mumbai Trans Harbour Link]]
| [[Maharashtra]]
| align="right" |{{Convert|21.8|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| 2023-10
|-
| [[Mumbai–Nagpur Expressway]] (Phase 3)<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Work on Nagpur-Mumbai expressway begins in full swing - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/work-on-nag-mum-eway-begins-in-full-swing/articleshow/67631967.cms |website=The Times of India}}</ref>
| [[Maharashtra]]
| align="right" |{{convert|181|km|mi|1|abbr=on}}
| 2023-03<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-24 |title=Mumbai-Nagpur Expressway: Route Map, Cost and Status |url=https://www.magicbricks.com/blog/mumbai-nagpur-expressway/127488.html |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=Magicbricks Blog |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

== Proposed expressways ==

{{Static row numbers}}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible static-row-numbers"
!Name
!States
!data-sort-type="number" |Length (km/mi)
|-
|Bangalore–Pune Expressway<ref>{{cite web |url=https://themetrorailguy.com/nhai-pune-bangalore-expressway-route-map-status-update/ |title=Pune – Bangalore Expressway – Information & Status |date=3 October 2022 }}</ref>
|[[Karnataka]], [[Maharashtra]]
|align="right" |{{Convert|700|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Surat–Chennai Expressway]]<ref name="Manual">{{cite web|url=https://themetrorailguy.com/nhai-surat-chennai-expressway-route-map-status-update-tenders/#:~:text=1271%20km%20Surat%20%E2%80%93%20Chennai%20Expressway,Maharashtra%2C%20Telangana%20and%20Tamil%20Nadu.&text=Project's%20Length%3A%201271%20km%20(approx.)|title=Surat – Chennai Expressway – Information & Status |date=9 November 2022 |publisher=The Metrorail Guy |access-date=16 November 2022}}</ref> || [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Telangana]], [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tamil Nadu]]|| align= ''right'' |{{convert|1271|km|mi|1|abbr=on}}
|-
| Virar–Alibag Expressway<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-21 |title=After Samruddhi Mahamarg, Maharashtra shifts focus on Alibaug-Virar Multi Modal Corridor |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/after-samruddhi-mahamarg-maharashtra-shifts-focus-on-alibaug-virar-multi-modal-corridor-8336941/ |access-date=2022-12-23 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|[[Maharashtra]]
|{{Convert|126|km|mi|1|abbr=on}}
|-
| Pune–Nashik Industrial Expressway<ref name="auto3">{{cite web|url=https://msrdc.in/Site/Upload/T2586NITPuneNashik.pdf |title=NOTICE INVITING TENDER |work=MAHARASHTRA STATE ROAD DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION LIMITED, MUMBAI(A Govt. of Maharashtra Undertaking)|access-date=12 October 2022}}</ref><ref name="India Infra Hub">{{cite web|url=https://indiainfrahub.com/2022/roads/with-samruddhi-expressway-nearing-completion-maharashtra-begins-work-on-2-new-expressways-connecting-pune-nashik-nagpur-goa/ |title=With Samruddhi Expressway Nearing Completion, Maharashtra Begins Work On 2 New Expressways Connecting Pune-Nashik, Nagpur- Goa |work=India Infra Hub|access-date=18 October 2022}}</ref>
|[[Maharashtra]]
|{{Convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| Pune–Aurangabad Expressway<ref>{{cite web|url=https://themetrorailguy.com/nhai-pune-aurangabad-expressway-route-map-status-update-tenders/ |title=Pune – Aurangabad Expressway – Information & Status Update |work=The Metro Rail Guy|access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref>
|[[Maharashtra]]
| align= "right"|{{Convert|225|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Nagpur–Goa Expressway]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Nagpur – Goa Expressway – Information & Status|url=https://themetrorailguy.com/msrdc-nagpur-goa-expressway-route-map-status-update-tenders/|website=The Metro Rail Guy|access-date=11 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=All about Nagpur - Goa Expressway|url=https://timesproperty.com/news/post/nagpur-goa-expressway-details-blid3908|work=[[The Times of India|Times Property]]|date=15 February 2023|access-date=11 March 2023|language=en-IN}}</ref>
|[[Maharashtra]]
| align= "right"|{{Convert|760|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Hyderabad–Indore Expressway]]<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://m.timesofindia.com/india/23-expressways-new-highways-coming-up-in-next-5-years/articleshow/77526921.cms|title=23 new expressways and highways coming up in next 5 years|work=[[Times of India]]|access-date=13 August 2020}}</ref>
| [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Telangana]]
| align="right" |{{Convert|713|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Raipur-Hyderabad Expressway|Raipur–Hyderabad Expressway]]<ref name="constructionweekonline.in"/>
| [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Telangana]]
| align="right" |{{Convert|530|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
|[[Jalna-Nanded Expressway|Jalna–Nanded Expressway]]<ref name="auto" />
|[[Maharashtra]]||align="right"|{{Convert|179|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| Konkan Greenfield Expressway
|[[Maharashtra]]
|align="right" |{{Convert|500|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| Nagpur–Gondia–Gadchiroli Expressway (extension of [[Mumbai–Nagpur Expressway]])<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">{{Cite web|title=225km eastern Mah E-way to connect Gadchiroli Gondia to Samrudddhi Mahamarg|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/225km-eastern-mah-e-way-to-connect-gadchiroli-gondia-to-samrudddhi-mahamarg/articleshow/88152316.cms|access-date=8 December 2021|website=Times Of India|language=en}}</ref>
|[[Maharashtra]] ||align="right"|{{Convert|225|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Nagpur–Hyderabad–Bengaluru Expressway]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/feedback-infra-pitches-for-a-big-role-in-designing-greenfield-expressways/article10010165.ece|title=Feedback Infra pitches for a big role in designing greenfield expressways|last=Ramakrishnan|first=N|date=3 January 2018|work=Business Line|access-date=31 May 2018|archive-url=https://archive.today/20180531131809/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/feedback-infra-pitches-for-a-big-role-in-designing-greenfield-expressways/article10010165.ece|archive-date=31 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
|[[Maharashtra]], [[Telangana]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Karnataka]]
| align="right" |{{Convert|1100|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| Nagpur–Vijayawada Expressway<ref name="constructionweekonline.in">{{Cite web|title=NHAI chalks out plan to build 22 greenfield expressways by FY25|url=https://www.constructionweekonline.in/projects-tenders/12133-nhai-chalks-out-plan-to-build-22-greenfield-expressways-by-fy25|access-date=4 June 2020|website=Construction Week Online India|language=en}}</ref>
|[[Maharashtra]], [[Telangana]], [[Andhra Pradesh]] ||align="right"|{{Convert|457|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| [[Pune Ring Road]]
|[[Maharashtra]]||align="right"|{{Convert|128|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
| Mumbai-Pune Expressway's Missing Link <ref>{{Cite news |agency=The Metro Rail Guy |date=2022-11-24 |title=Mumbai-Pune Expressway's Missing Link – Information & Status Update |language=en-IN |work=The Metro Rail Guy |url=https://themetrorailguy.com/msrdc-mumbai-pune-expressway-missing-link-route-map-status-update/ |access-date=2022-11-09}}</ref>
|[[Maharashtra]]||align="right"|{{Convert|13.30|km|mi|abbr=on}}
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maharashtra expressways (list)}}
[[Category:Expressways in Maharashtra| ]]

Gandhara grave culture

2022-10-26T10:29:11Z

Bhumika: Published a well-researched resource.

{{Multiple issues|
{{Update}}
{{Unreliable sources}}
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{{Use dmy dates}}
[[File:Rigvedic geography.jpg|thumb|Geography of the [[Rigveda]], with [[Rigvedic rivers|river names]]; the extent of the Swat and [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]] cultures are indicated.]]
[[File:Indo-Iranian origins.png|thumb|Archaeological cultures associated with [[Indo-Iranian migration]]s (after [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]]). The [[Andronovo culture|Andronovo]], [[BMAC]] and [[Yaz culture]]s have often been associated with [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] migrations. The GGC (Swat), [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]], [[Copper Hoard Culture|Copper Hoard]] and [[Painted Grey Ware culture|PGW]] cultures are candidates for cultures associated with [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] [[Indo-Aryan migration|migrations]].]]

{{History of South Asia}}

The '''Gandhara grave culture''', also called '''Swat Protohistoric Graveyards Complex''', was an [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan culture]] which emerged ''c.''1200 BCE,<ref>Olivieri, Luca M., (2019). [https://www.academia.edu/42747040/The%20early%20historic%20funerary%20monuments%20of%20Butkara%20IV%20New%20evidence%20on%20a%20forgotten%20excavation%20in%20outer%20Gandhara "The early-historic funerary monuments of Butkara IV. New evidence on a forgotten excavation in outer Gandhara"], in: Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, Nuova Serie, Volume XCII, Fasc. 1-2, Sapienza Università di Roma, Pisa-Roma, '''p. 231''': "[T]he Swat Protohistoric Graveyards complex (henceforth: SPG), {was] first published by Chiara Silvi Antonini and Giorgio Stacul (1972). More recent studies and fieldwork, though, have changed the SPG chronologies (c. 1200-800 BCE) demonstrating that there are no SPG features posterior to 800 BCE (Vidale, Micheli and Olivieri 2016; Narasimhan et al. 2019)."</ref> and lasted until 800 BCE,<ref>Olivieri, Luca M., Roberto Micheli, Massimo Vidale, and Muhammad Zahir, (2019). [https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/2019_Science_NarasimhanPatterson_CentralSouthAsia_Supplement.pdf 'Late Bronze - Iron Age Swat Protohistoric Graves (Gandhara Grave Culture), Swat Valley, Pakistan (n-99)'], in Narasimhan, Vagheesh M., et al., "Supplementary Materials for the formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", Science 365 (6 September 2019), pp. 137-164.</ref> as recent fieldwork, along with subsequent analyses, have shown there are no burials with these features after 800 BCE.<ref>Olivieri, Luca M., (2019). [https://www.academia.edu/42747040/The_early_historic_funerary_monuments_of_Butkara_IV_New_evidence_on_a_forgotten_excavation_in_outer_Gandhara "The Early-Historic Funerary Monuments of Butkara IV: New Evidence on a Forgotten Excavation in Outer Gandhara"], in Rivista Degli Studi Orientali, Nuova Serie, Volume XCII, Fasc. 1-2, Sapienza Universitá di Roma, Instituto Italiano di Studi Orientali, Pisa-Rome, '''p. 231:''' "...More recent studies and fieldwork, though, have changed the SPG [Swat Protohistoric Graveyards] chronologies (c. 1200-800 BCE) demonstrating that there are no SPG features posterior to 800 BCE..."</ref> It is found in Middle [[Swat River]] course, even though earlier research considered it to be expanded to the Valleys of [[Dir District| Dir]], [[Kunar Province|Kunar]], [[Chitral]], and [[Valley of Peshawar| Peshawar]].<ref>Coningham, Robin, and Mark Manuel, (2008). "Kashmir and the Northwest Frontier", Asia, South, in ''Encyclopedia of Archaeology 2008'', Elsevier, p. 740.</ref> It has been regarded as a token of the [[Indo-Aryan migrations]], but has also been explained by local cultural continuity. Estimates, based on ancient DNA analyses, suggest ancestors of Swat people mixed with a population coming from the [[Inner Asian Mountain Corridor]], which carried [[Eurasian Steppe|Steppe]] ancestry, sometime between 1900 and 1500 BCE.<ref>Narasimhan, Vagheesh M., et al. (2019). [https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/2019_Science_NarasimhanPatterson_CentralSouthAsia.pdf "The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia"], in Science 365 (6 September 2019), p. 11: "...we estimate the date of admixture into the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age individuals from the Swat District of northernmost South Asia to be, on average, 26 generations before the date that they lived, corresponding to a 95% confidence interval of ~1900 to 1500 BCE..." </ref>

==Location and characteristics==
Almost at the end of the second millennium BCE, large graveyards appear in northern Gandhara, featuring mainly inhumations, (c. 1200-900 BCE), the so-called Gandhara grave culture by earlier scholars, a period in which iron technology was introduced.<ref>Olivieri, Luca Maria, (2022). [https://oxfordre.com/anthropology/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.001.0001/acrefore-9780190854584-e-545;jsessionid=E443C2811BBE6169388659FB35560E41 "The Archaeology of Gandhāra"], in: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology 2022, Oxford University Press, '''Summary''': "...Toward the end of the 2nd millennium, northern Gandhāra features a rather coherent settlement phenomenon marked by large graveyards, mainly with inhumations, which were labeled by previous scholarship as the 'Gandhāra Grave Culture' (1200–900 BCE). In this phase among the major cultural markers, the introduction of iron technology is noteworthy..."</ref>

A constant funeral tradition with pottery and similar artifacts can be found along the banks of the [[Lower Swat Valley|Swat]] and [[Panchkora Valley of Dir|Dir]] rivers in the north, Chitral and the Vale of Peshawar.<ref>Coningham, Robin, and Mark Manuel, (2008). [https://es.scribd.com/doc/311799337/Encyclopedia-of-Archaeology-Volume-1-3 "Kashmir and the Northwest Frontier"], Asia, South, in Deborah M. Pearsall (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Archaeology'', Elsevier, '''p. 740''': "...A homogenous tradition of burial practices with associated ceramic and artifact assemblages, it appears to have emerged in the upper Indus Valley...and then spread across the Valleys of Swat, Dir and Chitral, and into the Vale of Peshawar..."</ref> Simply-made terracotta figurines were buried with the pottery, and other items are decorated with simple dot designs.

Re-evaluation of the findings suggests this so-called Gandhara Grave Culture was actually a burial tradition, spread across a wide geographical area, rather than a specific culture.<ref>Coningham, Robin, and Ruth Young, (2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&dq=gandharan+grave+culture+coningham&pg=PA324 The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE - 200 CE], Cambridge University Press, New York, p. 287.</ref> There are more than thirty cemeteries of this tradition found in [[Swat River|Swat]] and surrounding valleys of [[Dir District|Dir]],[[Buner District| Buner]],[[Malakand District| Malakand]], [[Chitral]], and in the [[Valley of Peshawar|Vale of Peshawar]] to the south, featuring [[cist]] graves, where large stone slabs were used to line the pit, above which another large flat stone was laid forming a roof over them. Related settlement sites were also found which helped to know more about these people's life and death.<ref>Coningham, Robin, and Ruth Young, (2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&dq=gandharan+grave+culture+coningham&pg=PA324 The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE - 200 CE], Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 290 and 293.</ref>

Anthropomorphic urns with cremation remains were not frequently found in graves, and the most common pottery within these graves is ''Burnished Grey Ware'' and ''Burnished Red Ware'', along with human terracotta figurines. However, later graves are more elaborate featuring more items, various graves with ''horse remains'' and horse furniture were also reported.<ref>Coningham, Robin, and Mark Manuel, (2008). [https://es.scribd.com/doc/311799337/Encyclopedia-of-Archaeology-Volume-1-3 "Kashmir and the Northwest Frontier"], Asia, South, in (ed.) Deborah M. Pearsall, ''Encyclopedia of Archaeology'', Elsevier, p. 740.</ref>

==Origins==
Northern Gandhara, in the region of middle Swat river, presented deposits of black burnished ware, prior to Gandhara grave culture, during the [[Ghalegay]] IV period, c. 1700-1400 BCE.<ref>Yatoo, Mumtaz A., (2019). [https://ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.139 "Kashmir and Swat During Neolithic Times – A Comparative Analysis of Material Culture Between the Sites of Two Distinct Regions"], in: Ancient Asia, Vol 10, (30 Aug 2019): "...Stacul (1987: 45–48, 1993: 71–78, 1997: 369) and Lahiri (1992: 150) mention that the black burnished ware, fine gray ware and gritty red or buff ware from the Swat region of Pakistan from period III (1950–1920 cal. BC) and period IV (1730–1690 to 1500 cal. BC) are similar to types found at Burzahom..."</ref>

Single burials are characteristic of the early phase of Gandhara grave culture, along with bronze objects and pottery within the graves. Cremation is distinctive in the middle phase, and ashes were laid in large jars, often bearing a human-like face design, this jars were then placed frequently in circular pits, surrounded by objects of bronze, gold and pottery. Multiple burials and fractional remains are found in the late phase, along with iron objects, coeval with the beginning of urban centers of [[Taxila]] and [[Charsadda]].<ref>Coningham, Robin, and Ruth Young, (2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&dq=gandharan+grave+culture+coningham&pg=PA324 The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, {{Circa|6500 BCE}} - 200 CE], Cambridge University Press, New York, p. 293.</ref> However, new research, based on 34 excavated graves in Udegram, and in nearby site of Gogdhara, uncovered two burial phases, the first between 1400 and 1100 cal BCE, and the second from 1000 to 800 cal BCE, with an inter-phase in Gogdhara, from 1200 to 900 cal BCE.<ref>Olivieri, Luca M., Roberto Micheli, Massimo Vidale, and Muhammad Zahir, (2019). [https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/2019_Science_NarasimhanPatterson_CentralSouthAsia_Supplement.pdf 'Late Bronze - Iron Age Swat Protohistoric Graves (Gandhara Grave Culture), Swat Valley, Pakistan (n-99)'], in Narasimhan, Vagheesh M., et al., "Supplementary Materials for the formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", Science 365 (6 September 2019), pp. 137-164.</ref>

===Indo-Aryan migrations===
The polished black-gray pottery has been associated with that of other [[BMAC]] sites like Dashly in Afghanistan, [[Tepe Hissar]] and [[Tureng Teppe]]. According to [[Asko Parpola]], the presence of black-red pottery also suggests links with [[Cemetery H]] culture in Punjab. The burial of bodies, the metal pins used got fastening clothes and the terracotta statuettes of females, says Parpola, are similar to those found to the BMAC. The graves during the Ghalegay V period, previously considered to run from 1400-1000 BCE, are connected with those in [[Vakhsh culture|Vakhsh]] and [[Bishkent culture|Beshkent Valley]]. Parpola adds that these graves represent a mix of the practices found in northern [[Bactria]]n portion of BMAC during the period of 1700-1400 BCE and the Fedorovo [[Andronovo culture]].<ref>Parpola, Asko, (2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=_eykCQAAQBAJ&dq=gandhara+grave+culture+bmac&pg=PA80 The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization], Oxford University Press, p. 80-81.</ref> However, these datings between 1700 and 1000 BCE are currently considered outdated, and Gandhara grave culture has been re-dated to c. 1400 to 800 BCE.<ref>Olivieri, Luca M., Roberto Micheli, Massimo Vidale, and Muhammad Zahir, (2019). [https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/2019_Science_NarasimhanPatterson_CentralSouthAsia_Supplement.pdf 'Late Bronze - Iron Age Swat Protohistoric Graves (Gandhara Grave Culture), Swat Valley, Pakistan (n-99)'], in Narasimhan, Vagheesh M., et al., "Supplementary Materials for the formation of human populations in South and Central Asia", Science 365 (6 September 2019), pp. 137-164.</ref>

According to [[Upinder Singh]], the Gandhara grave culture is similar to the one in the Ghalegay caves during their V, VI and VII phases.<ref>Singh, Upinder, (2008). [https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&dq=gandhara+grave+culture+pottery+central+asia&pg=PA212 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century], Pearson Education, Delhi, p. 212.</ref> Rajesh Kochhar says it may be associated with early [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] speakers as well as the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] into the [[Indian Subcontinent]],{{sfn|Kochhar|2000|pp=185-186}} which came from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana region]]. According to Kochhar, the Indo-Aryan culture fused with indigenous elements of the remnants of the [[Indus Valley civilization]] ([[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture|OCP]], [[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]]) and gave rise to the [[Vedic Civilization]].{{sfn|Kochhar|2000|pp=185-186}}

===Cultural continuity===
[[Asko Parpola]] argues that the Gandhara grave culture is "by no means identical with the [[Bronze Age]] Culture of [[Bactria]] and [[Margiana]]".{{sfn|Parpola|1993|p=54}} According to Tusa, the Gandhara grave culture and its new contributions are "in line with the cultural traditions of the previous period".{{sfn|Tusa|1977|p=690-692}} According to Parpola, in the centuries preceding the Gandhara culture, during the [[Early Harappan]] period (roughly 3200–2600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments etc. document intensive caravan trade between the [[Indian Subcontinent]] and [[Central Asia]] and the [[Iranian plateau]].<ref>Asko Parpola, ''Study of the Indus Script'', May 2005 p. 2f.</ref> Tusa remarks that
{{quote|... to attribute a historical value to [...] the slender links with northwestern Iran and northern [[Afghanistan]] [...] is a mistake[, since] it could well be the spread of particular objects and, as such, objects that could circulate more easily quite apart from any real contacts.{{sfn|Tusa|1977|p=690-692}}}}
[[File:Cremation Urn with Lid LACMA AC1994.234.8a-b.jpg|thumb|Cremation urn]]
According to Kennedy, who argues for a local cultural continuity, the Gandhara grave culture people shared biological affinities with the population of Neolithic [[Mehrgarh]]. This suggests a "biological continuum" between the ancient populations of [[Timargarha]] and Mehrgarh.<ref>[[Kenneth A.R. Kennedy]]. 2000, [[God-Apes and Fossil Men|God-Apes and Fossil Men: Palaeoanthropology of South Asia]] Ann Arbor: [[University of Michigan Press]]. p. 339.</ref> This is contested by [[Yelena Yefimovna Kuzmina|Elena E. Kuz'mina]], who notes remains that are similar to some from Central Asian populations.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC&pg=PA307 "The origin of the Indo-iranians, volume 3"] Elena E. Kuz'mina p. 318</ref>

Antonini,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Antonini |first1=Chiara Silvi |title=More about Swāt and Central Asia |journal=East and West |volume=23 |issue=3/4 |pages=235–244 |jstor=29755885 |issn=0012-8376}}</ref> Stacul,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stacul |first1=Giorgio |title=The Fractional Burial Custom in the Swāt Valley and Some Connected Problems |journal=East and West |volume=25 |issue=3/4 |pages=323–332 |jstor=29756090}}</ref> and other scholars argue that this culture is also not related to the [[Bishkent culture]] and [[Vakhsh culture]] of [[Tajikistan]].{{sfn|Bryant|2001}} However, [[Yelena Yefimovna Kuzmina|E. Kuz'mina]] argues the opposite on the basis of both archaeology and the human remains from the separate cultures.<ref>E. Kuz'mina, ''"The origin of the [[Indo-Iranians]], volume 3"'' (2007)</ref>

== Genetics ==
Narasimhan et al. 2018 analyzed DNA of 362 ancient skeletons from Central and South Asia, including those from the Iron Age grave sites discovered in the Swat valley of Pakistan (between 1200 BCE and 1 CE from [[Aligrama]], [[Barikot]], [[Butkara]], [[Katelai]], [[Loe Banr]], and [[Udegram]]). According to them, "there is no evidence that the main BMAC population contributed genetically to later South Asians", and that "Indus Periphery-related people are the single most important source of ancestry" in Indus Valley Civilization and South Asia. They further state that the Swat valley grave DNA analysis provides further evidence of "connections between [Central Asian] Steppe population and early Vedic culture in India".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Narasimhan|first1=Vagheesh M.|last2=Patterson|first2=Nick J.|last3=Moorjani|first3=Priya|last4=Lazaridis|first4=Iosif|last5=Mark|first5=Lipson|last6=Mallick|first6=Swapan|last7=Rohland|first7=Nadin|last8=Bernardos|first8=Rebecca|last9=Kim|first9=Alexander M.|title=The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia|url= https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2018/03/31/292581|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|pages=292581|doi=10.1101/292581|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Pottery in the Indian subcontinent]]
*[[Chust culture]]
*[[Barikot]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation | last=Bryant | first=Edwin | author-link=Edwin Bryant (author) | title=[[The Quest for the Origins of Vedic culture]] | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | isbn=0-19-513777-9}}
* {{Citation | last =Kochhar | first =Rajesh | title =The Vedic People: Their History and Geography | publisher =Sangam Books | year =2000 }}
* {{Citation | last=Müller-Karpe | first =Hermann | title =[[Jungbronzezeitlich-früheisenzeitliche Gräberfelder der Swat-Kultur in Nord-Pakistan]] | publisher=Beck | year=1983 | isbn=3406301541}}
* {{Citation | last =Parpola | first =Asko | year =1993 | title =Margiana and the Aryan Problem | journal =International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia Information Bulletin 19:41-62}}
* {{Citation | last =Tusa | first =Sebastiano | year =1977 | title =The Swat Valley in the 2nd and 1st Millennia BC: A Question of Marginality | journal =South Asian Archaeology 6:675-695}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060908052820/http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_05.html https://web.archive.org/web/20060908052920/http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_05.html]
* https://web.archive.org/web/20060908052731/http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html
* https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC&dq=isbn:900416054X&hl=en

[[Category:Gandhara|*]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in India]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures of South Asia]]
[[Category:Bronze Age cultures of Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age cultures of Asia]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Indo-Aryan archaeological cultures]]

Conservative Council

2022-09-21T11:48:09Z

Bhumika: Contributed a new entry to the website.

{{primary sources}}

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}}'''Conservative Council''' was the name of the Dominican [[upper chamber]] between November 1844 and February 1854.

The [[Constitution of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Constitution of 1844]] foresaw the existence of two chambers in the national congress: ''the Conservative Council and the Tribune<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |title=Constitucion de 1844|url=http://www.consultoria.gov.do/Documents/GetDocument?reference=5069eab1-6b65-4ce3-a312-7aad8022c032|author=Consultoria Juridica del Poder Ejecutivo|journal=2012|accessdate=2017-06-24}}</ref>'', upper and lower chambers which in other Dominican constitutions of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries received the name of [[Senate of the Dominican Republic|Senate]] and [[Chamber of Deputies (Dominican Republic)|Chamber of Deputies or Representatives]]; With that it was intended to conform a system according to the model of the [[United States Congress]], which would correspond to the Conservative Council a similar function to the [[United States Senate|Senate]] in the [[United States]].

The designation of the president of the Conservative Council corresponded to the same chamber, of a triad voted by the members. The sessions of the Conservative Council were held the current ''Borgellá Palace'' in the Plaza Colon of the [[Ciudad Colonial (Santo Domingo)|Colonial City]] of Santo Domingo, in front of the first town hall in the ''Palace Hall''.

The Constitution of 1844 was amended twice in the year 1854, one in February and one in December. During the amendments made in February 1854 the Tribunate changed its name to the House of Representatives and the Conservative Council to the Senate. With the amendments of December 1854 Dominican Republic accepts to the [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] system, establishing only a Consultative Senate. With the entry into force of the Constitution of Moca of 1858 became in Dominican Republic to the [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] legislature.

== Composition ==
The appointment of the councilors was by indirect census suffrage at the rate of 1 for each of the 5 provinces that formed the newly created nation on two levels ([[Santo Domingo]], [[Santiago de los Caballeros|Santiago or Cibao]], [[Azuay Province|Azua]], [[La Vega, Dominican Republic|La Vega]] and [[El Seibo Province|El Seibo]]). Counselors would last 6 years and could be re-elected indefinitely.

The conditions necessary to be a member of the Conservative Council were:
{{Quote|text=
*Being in the enjoyment of Civil and Political Rights.
*Be at least thirty years old.
*Owning Real Estate.
*Have your address in the Province that chooses it.
Naturalized aliens could be members of this body fifteen years after their naturalization.|sign=Political Constitution of the Dominican Republic, Article 62, 1844|source=}}

== Attributions ==
Article 67 of the Constitution of San Cristóbal established the exclusive powers of the Conservative Council. These attributions were''<ref name=":0" />'':
{{Quote|text= *Sanction all Laws in general with the following formula: ''On behalf of the Dominican Republic execute the Law N...''
*To suspend the Sanction of the Laws agreed by the tribunate and to make the observations that it judges opportune.
*To propose to the Tribunate draft laws on those matters in which it did not have initiative exclusively.
*To put in a state of accusation to its members.
*To decree the accusation of the President of the Republic and of the Secretaries of State by virtue of the denunciation made by the Tribunate in case of finding it founded.
*Judge the Judges of the Supreme Court of Justice in the cases provided by the constitution.
*Elect the judges of the Supreme Court and other lower courts, among the candidates proposed by the Tribunate.
*Decide the issues that may arise between the Commons and the powers of the State.|sign=Political Constitution of the Dominican Republic, Article 67, 1844|source=}}
In case of death, resignation or dismissal of a member of the Conservative Council, the Tribunate proceeded to its replacement electing a citizen who met all the qualities required to be Conservative. The new member only held the position for the time remaining to serve his term to the replaced member. The members of this body received a compensation of three hundred pesos during each session. In 1847 the President of this body, Mr. '''Juan Nepomuceno Tejera''' defended the position of [[Tomás Bobadilla|Tomas Bobadilla y Briones]] Tribune when he demanded from outside the right to rejoin his legislative functions.

== References ==
<references />
{{National upper houses}}
[[Category:Defunct upper houses]]
[[Category:Government of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Upper houses]]