Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Bhim Sen Beniwal

2023-10-08T08:47:26Z

BULBULP: Article Creation

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
'''Bhim Sen Beniwal''' was an Indian politician and farmer leader from [[Bikaner|Bikaner, Rajasthan]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-16 |title=किसान नेता भीमसेन चौधरी को किया याद {{!}} Farmer leader Bhimsen Chaudhary remembered |url=https://www.patrika.com/bikaner-news/farmer-leader-bhimsen-chaudhary-remembered-5899285/ |access-date=2023-10-07 |website=Patrika News |language=hi-IN}}</ref> He was a member [[Indian National Congress]]. He was a six time member of [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]] from Lunkransar, Bikaner. His son [[Virendra Beniwal]] is also two term MLA from [[Lunkaransar Assembly constituency|Lunkransar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajasthan Assembly Election Results in 1998 |url=https://www.elections.in/rajasthan/assembly-constituencies/1998-election-results.html |access-date=2023-10-07 |website=Elections in India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajasthan Assembly Election Results in 1972 |url=https://www.elections.in/rajasthan/assembly-constituencies/1972-election-results.html |access-date=2023-10-07 |website=Elections in India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajasthan Assembly Election Results in 1967 |url=https://www.elections.in/rajasthan/assembly-constituencies/1967-election-results.html |access-date=2023-10-07 |website=Elections in India}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians]]

Maharashtra State Haj Committee

2023-09-16T15:13:38Z

BULBULP: Created an informative guide.

{{Infobox government agency
| name = Maharashtra State Haj Committee
| native_name = {{lang|hi|महाराष्ट्र राज्य हज समिति}}
| type = Statutory body
| formed = 2002
| jurisdiction = [[Government of Maharashtra]]
| headquarters = Mohammed Haji Saboo Siddick Musafirkhana, Lokmanya Tilak Marg, [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]
| minister1_name = [[Eknath Shinde]]
| minister1_pfo = Minorities and Aukaf
| chief1_name = Haji Asif
| chief1_position = Chairman
| parent_department = [[Government of Maharashtra]]
| parent_agency = [[Haj Committee of India]]
}}

'''Maharashtra State Haj Committee''' is a statutory body under the Ministry of Minorities and Aukaf in the [[Government of Maharashtra]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The budget of Maharashtra Haj committee will be increased: Govt |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/budget-of-maharashtra-haj-committee-will-be-increased-govt-118011101092_1.html |website=www.business-standard.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=महाराष्ट्र राज्य हज समिति |url=https://haj.gov.in/base/mh_shc.php |website=haj.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Singh |first=Tejinder |title=राज्य हज समिति में चार सदस्यों की नियुक्ति |url=https://www.bhaskarhindi.com/city/news/appointment-of-four-members-in-the-state-haj-committee-438588 |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=www.bhaskarhindi.com |language=hi}}</ref> It was established under the Haj committee act, 2002. The committee runs four Haj house s, Haj House Mumbai, Haj House Pune and Haj House Aurangabad and Haj House Nagpur.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peddulwar |first=Anita |title=नागपुर के हज हाउस में बनेगा कोविड सेंटर |url=https://www.bhaskarhindi.com/state/news/kovid-center-will-be-built-in-haj-house-nagpur-244420 |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=दैनिक भास्कर हिन्दी (Dainik Bhaskar Hindi) |language=hi}}</ref> It is headed by Haji Asif as the chairman.<ref>{{Cite web |title=महाराष्ट्र हज कमेटी सदस्यों का किया स्वागत |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/amp/local/rajasthan/churu/news/maharashtra-haj-committee-members-welcomed-130839948.html |website=www.bhaskar.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=हज समितियों के गठन को लेकर सुप्रीम कोर्ट सख्त, राज्यों से कहा- दो सप्ताह में जवाब दो |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/national/story-supreme-court-directed-states-to-inform-about-status-of-constitution-of-haj-committees-two-weeks-6927976.html |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=Hindustan |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Shaikh |first=Aleem |title=Nagpur based Minority BJP leader Haji Asif appointed as Chairman of Maharashtra Haj Committee |url=https://www.hellomumbainews.com/current-news/nagpurbased-minority-bjp-leader-haji-asif-appointed-as-chairman-of-maharashtra-haj-committee/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=Hello Mumbai News |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2014 it was announced that the Haj Committee will be opened in every district of the State.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maharashtra govt to set up Haj committee in every district |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/maharashtra-govt-to-set-up-haj-committee-in-every-district/story-uiDklv7PVqjE0ZZk96y3eK.html |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=अब राज्य के हर जिले में खुलेंगे हज कमेटी के कार्यालय {{!}} Haj Committee office will open in every district of the state |url=https://www.patrika.com/mumbai-news/haj-committee-office-will-open-in-every-district-of-the-state-4656813/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=Patrika News |language=hi-IN}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Hajj pilgrimage from India]]

Article 21 (film)

2023-09-09T12:24:14Z

BULBULP: Wrote an insightful write-up.

{{orphan}}

{{Short description|2023 Indian film}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Article 21
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| director = Lenin Balakrishnan
| writer = Lenin Balakrishnan
| producer = {{Plain list|
* Joseph Dhanoop
* Praseena
}}
| starring = {{Plain list|
* [[Lena (actress)|Lena]]
* [[Aju Varghese]]
* [[Joju George]]
* Romanch Rajendran
* Bineesh Kodiyeri
}}
| cinematography = Ashkar
| distributor = Chemmeen Cinemas
| released =
| runtime = 163 minutes
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''Article 21''' is a 2023 Indian film directed and written by Lenin Balakrishnan.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |title='Debutant director Lenin Balakrishnan all praise for actor Lena for her work in his Malayalam movie 'Article 21' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/director-of-malayalam-movie-article-21-lenin-balakrishnan-all-praise-for-actor-lena-for-her-work-in-the-film/article67126920.ece |access-date=2023-07-27 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en |last1=Anand |first1=Shilpa Nair }}</ref> The film delves into the imperative of safeguarding the fundamental rights of underprivileged and marginalized segments of Indian society. The movie underscores the transformative potential of education for individuals living on the streets, while also scrutinizing the universality of human rights and the societal disparities that obstruct access to education and upward social mobility.<ref name="sanu">{{Cite web |last= |title='വെളിച്ചത്തില്‍ നിൽക്കുന്നവർ കാണുന്നുണ്ടോ, ഇരുട്ടിലെ ഈ ജീവിതങ്ങളെ': അവശതകൾ മറന്ന് സാനുമാഷ് വന്നു, ആർട്ടിക്കിൾ 21 കാണാൻ |trans-title=
'Do those who stand in the light see these lives in darkness': Sanumash came to see Article 21, forgetting the disadvantages.|url=https://www.vanitha.in/celluloid/movies/professor-mk-sanu-watched-article-21.html |access-date=2023-07-27 |website=Vanitha |language=ml}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |title='ആർട്ടിക്കിൾ 21 |trans-title=Article 21 (movie review)|url=https://malayalam.samayam.com/malayalam-cinema/movie-review/lena-aju-varghese-joju-george-romanch-leswin-thambu-bineesh-kodiyeri-nandan-rajesh-starrer-article-21-movie-review-rating-in-malayalam/moviereview/102210758.cms |access-date=2023-07-27 |website=[[Samayam]] |language=ml}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |title='ആ സിനിമക്കായി അഞ്ചുദിവസം പട്ടിണികിടന്നു, മണിക്കൂറുകള്‍ക്കുള്ളില്‍ പത്തുപതിനഞ്ച് ബീഡി വലിക്കേണ്ടി വന്നു: ലെന |trans-title=Starved for 5 days for that film, had to smoke 15 beedis in hours: Lena|url=https://www.doolnews.com/lena-talks-about-article-64-128.html |access-date=2023-07-27 |website=DoolNews |language=ml}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Tamara and her children, migrants from Tamil Nadu, make a living by collecting and selling scraps in Kochi. They live in an abandoned bus near a railway track, lacking the means to dream or achieve much. Dalapathi, the younger child, wishes to attend school but faces obstacles. Auto driver Vishnu and teacher Victor help them navigate these obstacles, ultimately enabling Dalapathi to enroll in school. The film, 'Article 21,' highlights the importance of education for underprivileged children in India, emphasizing the transformative power of the law and compassionate individuals.

== Cast ==
* [[Lena (actress)|Lena]] as Tamara
* [[Aju Varghese]] as Vishnu
* [[Joju George]]
* Romanch Rajendran
* Bineesh Kodiyeri
* Leswin Ullas
* Nandan Rajesh
* Manohari Joy
* Ambika Nair
* Majeed

== Release ==

=== Theatrical ===
Article 21 was released in theaters in Kerala on July 28th, 2023, and successfully extended its release to theaters in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu through Galaxy Cinemas from August 4, 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharadwaj |first=Aswin |title=Article 21 Review {{!}} A Cinematic Extension of a Lame 'Right-To-Education' Government Ad |url=https://lensmenreviews.com/article-21-malayalam-movie-review-2023/ |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Lensmen Reviews |language=en-US}}</ref>

Author and orator [[M. K. Sanu]] who recently celebrated his 96th birthday, attended a screening of the film. He commended the movie, stating that it effectively portrays the stark divide between those who have and those who do not, emphasizing the vital message of human rights—a topic frequently discussed but often lacking concrete actions to integrate the underprivileged into the broader social fabric.<ref name="sanu" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|tt12700092}}

[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2020s Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy thriller films]]

COVID-19 vaccine

2023-01-26T21:10:13Z

BULBULP: Just completed a fresh write-up.

{{Copyedit}}{{Short description|Vaccine designed to provide acquired immunity against SARS-CoV-2}}
{{Use dmy dates}}

{{Infobox drug
| type = vaccine
| image =
| width =
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| caption = 
| target = [[SARS-CoV-2]]
| vaccine_type = mRNA, viral, inactivated, protein

| pronounce =
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| licence_CA = 
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| pregnancy_AU = 
| pregnancy_AU_comment =
| pregnancy_category =
| routes_of_administration = [[Intramuscular injection|Intramuscular]]
| ATCvet =
| ATC_prefix = J07
| ATC_suffix = BN01
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATC|J07|BN02}}, {{ATC|J07|BN03}}, {{ATC|J07|BN04}}

| legal_AU = 
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| CAS_number_Ref =
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<noinclude>

[[File:Corona vaccination mechanism.webm|thumb|320px|''How COVID-19 vaccines work.'' The video shows the process of vaccination, from injection with RNA or viral vector vaccines, to uptake and translation, and on to immune system stimulation and effect.]]
</noinclude>
{{COVID-19 pandemic sidebar|expanded=medical}}
A '''COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine''' is a [[vaccine]] intended to provide [[acquired immunity]] against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 ([[SARS-CoV-2]]), the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 ([[COVID{{nbhyph}}19]]).

Prior to the [[COVID{{nbhyph}}19 pandemic]], an established body of knowledge existed about the structure and function of [[coronavirus]]es causing diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome ([[SARS]]) and Middle East respiratory syndrome ([[MERS]]). This knowledge accelerated the development of various [[vaccine platform]]s during early 2020.<ref name="pmid33341119">{{cite journal |vauthors=Li YD, Chi WY, Su JH, Ferrall L, Hung CF, Wu TC |title=Coronavirus vaccine development: from SARS and MERS to COVID-19 |journal=Journal of Biomedical Science |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=104 |doi=10.1186/s12929-020-00695-2 |pmc=7749790 |pmid=33341119 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref> The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic, often severe illness.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Subbarao K |title=The success of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and challenges ahead |journal=Cell Host & Microbe |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1111–1123 |doi=10.1016/j.chom.2021.06.016 |pmc=8279572 |pmid=34265245 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2020, the first COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines were developed and made available to the public through emergency authorizations<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |vauthors=Rogers K |title=COVID-19 vaccine |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/COVID-19-vaccine |access-date=12 June 2022 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612051640/https://www.britannica.com/science/COVID-19-vaccine |url-status=live }}</ref> and conditional approvals.<ref>{{cite press release | title=Swissmedic grants authorisation for the first COVID-19 vaccine in Switzerland | publisher=[[Swissmedic|Swiss Agency for Therapeutic Products (Swissmedic)]] | date=18 December 2020 | url=https://www.swissmedic.ch/swissmedic/en/home/news/coronavirus-covid-19/covid-19-impfstoff_erstzulassung.html | access-date=5 July 2022 | archive-date=2 May 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502135025/https://www.swissmedic.ch/swissmedic/en/home/news/coronavirus-covid-19/covid-19-impfstoff_erstzulassung.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="EU PR 20201221">{{cite press release | title=EMA recommends first COVID-19 vaccine for authorisation in the EU | website=[[European Medicines Agency]] (EMA) | date=21 December 2020 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-recommends-first-covid-19-vaccine-authorisation-eu | access-date=21 December 2020 | archive-date=30 January 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130114031/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-recommends-first-covid-19-vaccine-authorisation-eu | url-status=live }}</ref> Initially, most COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines were two-dose vaccines, with the sole exception being the single-dose [[Janssen COVID-19 vaccine]].<ref name=":0" /> However, immunity from the vaccines has been found to wane over time, requiring people to get [[booster dose]]s of the vaccine to maintain protection against COVID{{nbhyph}}19.<ref name=":0" />

The COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing the spread of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 and reducing the severity and death caused by COVID{{nbhyph}}19.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite journal |name-list-style=vanc |vauthors=Mallapaty S, Callaway E, Kozlov M, Ledford H, Pickrell J, Van Noorden R |title=How COVID vaccines shaped 2021 in eight powerful charts |journal=Nature |volume=600 |issue=7890 |pages=580–583 |bibcode=2021Natur.600..580M |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-03686-x |pmid=34916666 |doi-access=free |s2cid=245262732 |title-link=doi}}</ref> According to a June 2022 study, COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines prevented an additional 14.4 to 19.8 million deaths in 185 countries and territories from 8 December 2020 to 8 December 2021.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Watson OJ, Barnsley G, Toor J, Hogan AB, Winskill P, Ghani AC |title=Global impact of the first year of COVID-19 vaccination: a mathematical modelling study |journal=[[The Lancet Infectious Diseases]] |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=1293–1302 |doi=10.1016/s1473-3099(22)00320-6 |pmid=35753318 |pmc=9225255 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=COVID-19 vaccines saved nearly 20 million lives in a year, study says |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-saved-nearly-20-million-lives-in-a-year-study-says/ |access-date=27 June 2022 |website=[[CBS News]] |archive-date=29 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629025146/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-saved-nearly-20-million-lives-in-a-year-study-says/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Many countries implemented phased distribution plans that prioritized those at highest risk of complications, such as the elderly, and those at high risk of exposure and transmission, such as healthcare workers.<ref name="Beaumont">{{cite news |title=Covid-19 vaccine: who are countries prioritising for first doses? |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/18/covid-19-vaccine-who-are-countries-prioritising-for-first-doses |url-status=live |access-date=26 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118190247/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/nov/18/covid-19-vaccine-who-are-countries-prioritising-for-first-doses |archive-date=18 January 2021 |issn=0261-3077 |vauthors=Beaumont P}}</ref><ref name=Wang1>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang H, Xu R, Qu S, Schwartz M, Adams A, Chen X | title = Health inequities in COVID-19 vaccination among the elderly: Case of Connecticut | journal = Journal of Infection and Public Health | volume = 14 | issue = 10 | pages = 1563–1565 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34326008 | doi = 10.1016/j.jiph.2021.07.013 | pmc = 8491089 | s2cid = 236515442 }}</ref>

Common side effects of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines include soreness, redness, rash, inflammation at the injection site, fatigue, headache, [[myalgia]] (muscle pain), and [[arthralgia]] (joint pain), which resolve without medical treatment within a few days.<ref name="who-back" /><ref name=":1" /> COVID-19 vaccination is safe for people who are breastfeeding.<ref name=breastf/>

{{As of|2023|June|18}}, 13.42{{nbsp}}billion doses of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines have been administered worldwide based on official reports from [[List of national public health agencies|national public health agencies]].<ref name="Richie_2021">{{cite journal|title=Coronavirus (COVID-19) Vaccinations – Statistics and Research|url=https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations|access-date=7 February 2021|journal=Our World in Data|vauthors=Richie H, Ortiz-Ospina E, Beltekian D, Methieu E, Hasell J, Macdonald B, Giattino C, Appel C, Rodes-Guirao L, Roser M|display-authors=6|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310194213/https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations|url-status=live}}</ref> By December 2020, more than 10 billion vaccine doses had been preordered by countries,<ref name="mullard">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mullard A | title = How COVID vaccines are being divvied up around the world | journal = Nature | date = November 2020 | pmid = 33257891 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-020-03370-6 | s2cid = 227246811 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}</ref> with about half of the doses purchased by [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income countries]] comprising 14% of the world's population.<ref name="So">{{cite journal | vauthors = So AD, Woo J | title = Reserving coronavirus disease 2019 vaccines for global access: cross sectional analysis | journal = BMJ | volume = 371 | pages = m4750 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33323376 | pmc = 7735431 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.m4750 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}</ref>
Despite the extremely rapid development of effective [[mRNA vaccine|mRNA]] and [[viral vector vaccine]]s, worldwide [[vaccine equity]] has not been achieved. The development and use of [[whole inactivated virus]] (WIV) and protein-based vaccines have also been recommended, especially for use in [[developing countries]].<ref name="Hotez">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME | title = Whole Inactivated Virus and Protein-Based COVID-19 Vaccines | journal = Annual Review of Medicine | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–64 | date = January 2022 | pmid = 34637324 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-med-042420-113212 | s2cid = 238747462 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Ye">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ye Y, Zhang Q, Wei X, Cao Z, Yuan HY, Zeng DD | title = Equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines makes a life-saving difference to all countries | journal = Nature Human Behaviour | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | pages = 207–216 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 35102361 | doi = 10.1038/s41562-022-01289-8 | pmc = 8873023 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref> The United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) has now authorized bivalent vaccines to protect against the original COVID-19 strain and its [[SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant|Omicron variant]].<ref>{{cite web |title=COVID-19 Bivalent Vaccine Boosters |url=https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/covid-19-bivalent-vaccine-boosters |publisher=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006204420/https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/coronavirus-disease-2019-covid-19/covid-19-bivalent-vaccine-boosters |url-status=live }}</ref>


{{Toclimit|3}}

== Background ==
<gallery widths="400px" heights="280px">
File:COVID-19 vaccine doses administered by continent.svg|COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine doses administered by continent as of October 11, 2021. For vaccines that require multiple doses, each individual dose is counted. As the same person may receive more than one dose, the number of doses can be higher than the number of people in the population.
File:World map of share of people who received all doses prescribed by the initial COVID-19 vaccination protocol.png|Map showing share of population fully vaccinated against COVID-19 relative to a country's total population<ref group=note name=OWID-notes2>'''[[Our World in Data]]''' (OWID) vaccination maps. Click on the download tab to download the map. The table tab has a table of the exact data by country. The source tab says the data is from [https://github.com/owid/covid-19-data/tree/master/public/data/vaccinations verifiable public official sources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221015843/https://github.com/owid/covid-19-data/tree/master/public/data/vaccinations }} collated by [[Our World in Data]]. The map at the source is interactive and provides more detail. Run your cursor over the color bar legend to see the countries that apply to that point in the legend. There is an [https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations#frequently-asked-questions OWID vaccination info FAQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310194213/https://ourworldindata.org/covid-vaccinations#frequently-asked-questions }}.</ref>
</gallery>[[File:COVID Vaccine (50745583447).jpg|thumb|A US [[airman]] receiving a COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine, December 2020]]
[[File:COVID-19 vaccine map.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Map of countries by approval status
{{legend|Green|Approved for general use, mass vaccination underway}}
{{legend|SpringGreen|[[:w:Emergency Use Authorization|{{abbr|EUA|emergency use authorization}}]] (or equivalent) granted, mass vaccination underway}}
{{legend|DodgerBlue|EUA granted, mass vaccination planned}}
{{legend|LightGrey|No data available}}]]
Prior to COVID{{nbhyph}}19, a vaccine for an infectious disease had never been produced in less than several years{{snd}}and no vaccine existed for preventing a [[coronavirus]] infection in humans.<ref name="gates2">{{cite web | vauthors = Gates B |title=The vaccine race explained: What you need to know about the COVID-19 vaccine|url=https://www.gatesnotes.com/Health/What-you-need-to-know-about-the-COVID-19-vaccine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200514010012/https://www.gatesnotes.com/Health/What-you-need-to-know-about-the-COVID-19-vaccine |archive-date=14 May 2020|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2020|publisher=The Gates Notes }}</ref> However, vaccines have been produced against several animal diseases caused by coronaviruses, including (as of 2003) [[infectious bronchitis virus]] in birds, [[canine coronavirus]], and [[feline coronavirus]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cavanagh D |title=Severe acute respiratory syndrome vaccine development: experiences of vaccination against avian infectious bronchitis coronavirus |journal=Avian Pathology |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=567–582 |doi=10.1080/03079450310001621198 |pmc=7154303 |pmid=14676007 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}</ref> Previous projects to develop vaccines for viruses in the family ''[[Coronaviridae]]'' that affect humans have been aimed at [[severe acute respiratory syndrome]] (SARS) and [[Middle East respiratory syndrome]] (MERS). Vaccines against SARS<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Gao W, Tamin A, Soloff A, D'Aiuto L, Nwanegbo E, Robbins PD, Bellini WJ, Barratt-Boyes S, Gambotto A |title=Effects of a SARS-associated coronavirus vaccine in monkeys |journal=Lancet |volume=362 |issue=9399 |pages=1895–1896 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14962-8 |pmc=7112457 |pmid=14667748 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}</ref> and MERS<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Kim E, Okada K, Kenniston T, Raj VS, AlHajri MM, Farag EA, AlHajri F, Osterhaus AD, Haagmans BL, Gambotto A |title=Immunogenicity of an adenoviral-based Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus vaccine in BALB/c mice |journal=Vaccine |volume=32 |issue=45 |pages=5975–5982 |doi=10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.08.058 |pmc=7115510 |pmid=25192975 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref> have been tested in non-human [[Model organism|animals]].

According to studies published in 2005 and 2006, the identification and development of novel vaccines and medicines to treat SARS was a priority for governments and [[List of national public health agencies|public health agencies]] around the world at that time.<ref name="PMID 15655773">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Greenough TC, Babcock GJ, Roberts A, Hernandez HJ, Thomas WD, Coccia JA, Graziano RF, Srinivasan M, Lowy I, Finberg RW, Subbarao K, Vogel L, Somasundaran M, Luzuriaga K, Sullivan JL, Ambrosino DM |title=Development and characterization of a severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus-neutralizing human monoclonal antibody that provides effective immunoprophylaxis in mice |journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=191 |issue=4 |pages=507–514 |doi=10.1086/427242 |pmc=7110081 |pmid=15655773 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="PMID 15885812">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Tripp RA, Haynes LM, Moore D, Anderson B, Tamin A, Harcourt BH, Jones LP, Yilla M, Babcock GJ, Greenough T, Ambrosino DM, Alvarez R, Callaway J, Cavitt S, Kamrud K, Alterson H, Smith J, Harcourt JL, Miao C, Razdan R, Comer JA, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Sanchez A, Rota PA, Bellini WJ, Anderson LJ |title=Monoclonal antibodies to SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV): identification of neutralizing and antibodies reactive to S, N, M and E viral proteins |journal=Journal of Virological Methods |volume=128 |issue=1–2 |pages=21–28 |doi=10.1016/j.jviromet.2005.03.021 |pmc=7112802 |pmid=15885812}}</ref><ref name="PMID 16453264">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Roberts A, Thomas WD, Guarner J, Lamirande EW, Babcock GJ, Greenough TC, Vogel L, Hayes N, Sullivan JL, Zaki S, Subbarao K, Ambrosino DM |title=Therapy with a severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus-neutralizing human monoclonal antibody reduces disease severity and viral burden in golden Syrian hamsters |journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=193 |issue=5 |pages=685–692 |doi=10.1086/500143 |pmc=7109703 |pmid=16453264}}</ref> There is no cure or protective vaccine proven to be safe and effective against SARS in humans.<ref name="JiangFutureVirology">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jiang S, Lu L, Du L |title=Development of SARS vaccines and therapeutics is still needed |journal=Future Virology |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=1–2 |doi=10.2217/fvl.12.126 |pmc=7079997 |pmid=32201503}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome)|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/sars/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309174230/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/sars/|archive-date=9 March 2020|url-status=live|access-date=31 January 2020|publisher=National Health Service}}</ref> There is also no proven vaccine against MERS.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shehata MM, Gomaa MR, Ali MA, Kayali G |title=Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus: a comprehensive review |journal=Frontiers of Medicine |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=120–136 |doi=10.1007/s11684-016-0430-6 |pmc=7089261 |pmid=26791756}}</ref> When MERS became prevalent, it was believed that existing SARS research might provide a useful template for developing vaccines and therapeutics against a MERS-CoV infection.<ref name="JiangFutureVirology" /><ref name="Butler3oct2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Butler D |title=SARS veterans tackle coronavirus |journal=Nature |volume=490 |issue=7418 |pages=20 |bibcode=2012Natur.490...20B |doi=10.1038/490020a |pmid=23038444 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}</ref> As of March 2020, there was one (DNA-based) MERS vaccine which completed Phase{{nbs}}I clinical trials in humans,<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Modjarrad K, Roberts CC, Mills KT, Castellano AR, Paolino K, Muthumani K, Reuschel EL, Robb ML, Racine T, Oh MD, Lamarre C, Zaidi FI, Boyer J, Kudchodkar SB, Jeong M, Darden JM, Park YK, Scott PT, Remigio C, Parikh AP, Wise MC, Patel A, Duperret EK, Kim KY, Choi H, White S, Bagarazzi M, May JM, Kane D, Lee H, Kobinger G, Michael NL, Weiner DB, Thomas SJ, Maslow JN |title=Safety and immunogenicity of an anti-Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus DNA vaccine: a phase 1, open-label, single-arm, dose-escalation trial |journal=The Lancet. Infectious Diseases |volume=19 |issue=9 |pages=1013–1022 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30266-X |pmc=7185789 |pmid=31351922 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}</ref> and three others in progress, all being viral-vectored vaccines: two adenoviral-vectored (ChAdOx1-MERS, BVRS-GamVac) and one [[Modified vaccinia Ankara|MVA]]-vectored (MVA-MERS-S).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yong CY, Ong HK, Yeap SK, Ho KL, Tan WS |year=2019 |title=Recent Advances in the Vaccine Development Against Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=10 |pages=1781 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2019.01781 |pmc=6688523 |pmid=31428074 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}</ref>

Vaccines that use an inactive or weakened virus that has been grown in eggs typically take more than a decade to develop.<ref name="Moderna and Pfizer Are Reinventing Vaccines">{{cite news |vauthors=Loftus P, Hopkins JS, Pancevski B |title=Moderna and Pfizer Are Reinventing Vaccines, Starting With Covid |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/moderna-and-pfizer-are-reinventing-vaccines-starting-with-covid-11605638892 |access-date=4 October 2021 |work=The Wall Street Journal |archive-date=6 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106035936/https://www.wsj.com/articles/moderna-and-pfizer-are-reinventing-vaccines-starting-with-covid-11605638892 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma O, Sultan AA, Ding H, Triggle CR | title = A Review of the Progress and Challenges of Developing a Vaccine for COVID-19 | journal = Frontiers in Immunology | volume = 11 | pages = 585354 | date = 14 October 2020 | pmid = 33163000 | pmc = 7591699 | doi = 10.3389/fimmu.2020.585354 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}</ref> In contrast, mRNA is a molecule that can be made quickly, and research on mRNA to fight diseases was begun decades before the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 pandemic by scientists such as [[Drew Weissman]] and [[Katalin Karikó]], who tested on mice. [[Moderna]] began human testing of an [[mRNA vaccine]] in 2015.<ref name="Moderna and Pfizer Are Reinventing Vaccines"/> [[Viral vector vaccine]]s were also developed for the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 pandemic after the technology was previously cleared for Ebola.<ref name="Moderna and Pfizer Are Reinventing Vaccines"/>

As multiple COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines have been authorized or licensed for use, real-world vaccine effectiveness (RWE) is being assessed using case control and observational studies.<ref>{{cite journal|author4-link=John R. Mascola | vauthors = Bok K, Sitar S, Graham BS, Mascola JR | title = Accelerated COVID-19 vaccine development: milestones, lessons, and prospects | journal = Immunity | volume = 54 | issue = 8 | pages = 1636–1651 | date = August 2021 | pmid = 34348117 | pmc = 8328682 | doi = 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.07.017 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |vauthors=Lewis T |title=The New COVID Booster Shot Could Save Your Life; Get One Now, FDA Expert Says |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-new-covid-booster-shot-could-save-your-life-get-one-now-fda-expert-says/ |access-date=8 November 2022 |website=Scientific American |archive-date=7 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107182453/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-new-covid-booster-shot-could-save-your-life-get-one-now-fda-expert-says/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A study is investigating the long-lasting protection against SARS-CoV-2 provided by the mRNA vaccines.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Turner JS, O'Halloran JA, Kalaidina E, Kim W, Schmitz AJ, Zhou JQ, Lei T, Thapa M, Chen RE, Case JB, Amanat F, Rauseo AM, Haile A, Xie X, Klebert MK, Suessen T, Middleton WD, Shi PY, Krammer F, Teefey SA, Diamond MS, Presti RM, Ellebedy AH | display-authors = 6 | title = SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines induce persistent human germinal centre responses | journal = Nature | volume = 596 | issue = 7870 | pages = 109–113 | date = August 2021 | pmid = 34182569 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-021-03738-2 | bibcode = 2021Natur.596..109T | doi-access = free | title-link = doi | pmc = 8935394 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Pfizer and Moderna Vaccines Likely to Produce Lasting Immunity, Study Finds | website=The New York Times | date=28 June 2021 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/28/health/coronavirus-vaccines-immunity.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628091525/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/28/health/coronavirus-vaccines-immunity.html |archive-date=28 June 2021 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live | access-date=23 January 2022}}</ref>

== Vaccine technologies ==
[[File:Vaccine candidate mechanisms for SARS-CoV-2 (49948301838).jpg|thumb|300x300px|Conceptual diagram showing three vaccine types for forming SARS‑CoV‑2 proteins to prompt an immune response: (1) [[RNA vaccine]], (2) [[subunit vaccine]], (3) [[viral vector]] vaccine]]

[[File:Fimmu-11-579250-g004.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Vaccine platforms being employed for SARS-CoV-2. Whole virus vaccines include both [[Attenuated vaccine|attenuated]] and [[Inactivated vaccine|inactivated]] forms of the virus. Protein and [[Peptide vaccine|peptide]] [[Subunit vaccine|subunit]] vaccines are usually combined with an [[Immunologic adjuvant|adjuvant]] in order to enhance immunogenicity. The main emphasis in SARS-CoV-2 vaccine development has been on using the whole [[coronavirus spike protein|spike protein]] in its trimeric form, or components of it, such as the [[Binding domain|RBD]] region. Multiple non-replicating [[viral vector vaccine]]s have been developed, particularly focused on [[Adenoviridae|adenovirus]], while there has been less emphasis on the replicating viral vector constructs.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Flanagan KL, Best E, Crawford NW, Giles M, Koirala A, Macartney K, Russell F, Teh BW, Wen SC |title=Progress and Pitfalls in the Quest for Effective SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Vaccines |journal=Frontiers in Immunology |volume=11 |pages=579250 |doi=10.3389/fimmu.2020.579250 |pmc=7566192 |pmid=33123165 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}</ref>]]

As of July 2021, at least nine different technology platforms are under research and development to create an effective vaccine against COVID{{nbhyph}}19.<ref name="thanh22" /><ref name="london">{{cite web |title=COVID-19 vaccine tracker (Refresh URL to update) |url=https://vac-lshtm.shinyapps.io/ncov_vaccine_landscape/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084722/https://vac-lshtm.shinyapps.io/ncov_vaccine_landscape// |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=10 March 2021 |publisher=[[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]]}}</ref> Most of the platforms of vaccine candidates in clinical trials are focused on the [[Coronavirus#Microbiology|coronavirus spike protein (S protein) and its variants]] as the primary [[antigen]] of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 infection,<ref name="thanh22" /> since the S protein triggers strong B-cell and T-cell immune responses.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Arbeitman CR, Rojas P, Ojeda-May P, Garcia ME |title=The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is vulnerable to moderate electric fields |journal=Nature Communications |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=5407 |arxiv=2103.12733 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.5407A |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-25478-7 |pmc=8437970 |pmid=34518528 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}</ref><ref name="Grifoni_2020">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Grifoni A, Weiskopf D, Ramirez SI, Mateus J, Dan JM, Moderbacher CR, Rawlings SA, Sutherland A, Premkumar L, Jadi RS, Marrama D, de Silva AM, Frazier A, Carlin AF, Greenbaum JA, Peters B, Krammer F, Smith DM, Crotty S, Sette A |title=Targets of T Cell Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus in Humans with COVID-19 Disease and Unexposed Individuals |journal=Cell |volume=181 |issue=7 |pages=1489–1501.e15 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.05.015 |pmc=7237901 |pmid=32473127}}</ref> However, other coronavirus proteins are also being investigated for vaccine development, like the [[nucleocapsid]], because they also induce a robust T-cell response and their genes are more conserved and recombine less frequently (compared to Spike).<ref name="Grifoni_2020" /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dutta NK, Mazumdar K, Gordy JT |title=The Nucleocapsid Protein of SARS-CoV-2: a Target for Vaccine Development |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=94 |issue=13 |doi=10.1128/JVI.00647-20 |pmc=7307180 |pmid=32546606 |veditors=Dutch RE}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Nikolaidis M, Markoulatos P, Van de Peer Y, Oliver SG, Amoutzias GD |title=The neighborhood of the Spike gene is a hotspot for modular intertypic homologous and non-homologous recombination in Coronavirus genomes |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=39 |pages=msab292 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msab292 |pmc=8549283 |pmid=34638137 |veditors=Hepp C}}</ref> Future generations of COVID-19 vaccines that may target more and conserved genomic regions will also act as an insurance against the manifestation of catastrophic scenarios concerning the future evolutionary path of SARS-CoV-2, or any similar Coronavirus epidemic/pandemic.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Amoutzias GD, Nikolaidis M, Tryfonopoulou E, Chlichlia K, Markoulatos P, Oliver SG |title=The Remarkable Evolutionary Plasticity of Coronaviruses by Mutation and Recombination: Insights for the COVID-19 Pandemic and the Future Evolutionary Paths of SARS-CoV-2 |journal=Viruses |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=78 |doi=10.3390/v14010078 |pmc=8778387 |pmid=35062282 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Platforms developed in 2020 involved [[nucleic acid]] technologies ([[nucleoside-modified messenger RNA]] and [[DNA]]), non-replicating [[viral vector]]s, [[peptide]]s, [[recombinant protein]]s, live [[attenuated virus]]es, and [[Virus processing#Viral inactivation|inactivated viruses]].<ref name="gates2" /><ref name="thanh22" /><ref name="thanh" /><ref name="diamond" />

Many vaccine technologies being developed for COVID{{nbhyph}}19 are not like [[influenza]] vaccines, but rather are using "next-generation" strategies for precise targeting of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 infection mechanisms.<ref name="thanh22" /><ref name="thanh" /><ref name="diamond" /> Several of the synthetic vaccines use a 2P mutation to lock the [[coronavirus spike protein|spike protein]] into its prefusion configuration, stimulating an [[adaptive immune response]] to the virus before it attaches to a human cell.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The tiny tweak behind COVID-19 vaccines |url=https://cen.acs.org/pharmaceuticals/vaccines/tiny-tweak-behind-COVID-19/98/i38 |url-status=live |magazine=Chemical & Engineering News |volume=98 |issue=38 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216151009/https://cen.acs.org/pharmaceuticals/vaccines/tiny-tweak-behind-COVID-19/98/i38 |archive-date=16 February 2021 |access-date=15 April 2021 |vauthors=Cross R}}</ref> Vaccine platforms in development may improve flexibility for antigen manipulation, and effectiveness for targeting mechanisms of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 infection in susceptible population subgroups, such as healthcare workers, the elderly, children, [[COVID{{nbhyph}}19 in pregnancy|pregnant women]], and people with weakened [[immune system]]s.<ref name="thanh22" /><ref name="thanh" />

=== mRNA vaccines ===
{{anchor|RNA-based}}
{{Further|mRNA vaccine}}
[[File:RNA vaccine illustration (en).jpg|thumb|right|Diagram of the operation of an [[RNA vaccine]]. [[Messenger RNA]] contained in the vaccine enters cells and is [[Translation (biology)|translated]] into foreign proteins, which trigger an immune response.]]

Several COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines, such as the [[Pfizer–BioNTech COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine|Pfizer–BioNTech]] and [[Moderna COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine|Moderna]] vaccines, use [[RNA]] to stimulate an immune response. When introduced into human tissue, the vaccine contains either self-replicating RNA or [[messenger RNA]] (mRNA), which both cause cells to express the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. This teaches the body how to identify and destroy the corresponding pathogen. RNA vaccines often use [[nucleoside-modified messenger RNA]]. The [[Drug delivery|delivery]] of mRNA is achieved by a coformulation of the molecule into [[lipid nanoparticle]]s which protect the RNA strands and help their absorption into the cells.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Krammer F |title=SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in development |journal=Nature |volume=586 |issue=7830 |pages=516–527 |bibcode=2020Natur.586..516K |doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2798-3 |pmid=32967006 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi |s2cid=221887746}}</ref><ref name="pmid33340620">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park KS, Sun X, Aikins ME, Moon JJ |title=Non-viral COVID-19 vaccine delivery systems |journal=Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews |volume=169 |pages=137–151 |doi=10.1016/j.addr.2020.12.008 |issn=0169-409X |pmc=7744276 |pmid=33340620}}</ref><ref name="Kowalski">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kowalski PS, Rudra A, Miao L, Anderson DG |title=Delivering the Messenger: Advances in Technologies for Therapeutic mRNA Delivery |journal=Molecular Therapy |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=710–728 |doi=10.1016/j.ymthe.2019.02.012 |pmc=6453548 |pmid=30846391}}</ref><ref name="Verbeke_2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Verbeke R, Lentacker I, De Smedt SC, Dewitte H |title=Three decades of messenger RNA vaccine development |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8628303 |url-status=live |journal=Nano Today |volume=28 |pages=100766 |doi=10.1016/j.nantod.2019.100766 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009201713/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8628303 |archive-date=9 October 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1854/LU-8628303 |s2cid=202221207}}</ref>

RNA vaccines are the first COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines to be authorized in the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union.<ref>{{cite web |title=COVID-19 ACIP Vaccine Recommendations |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/acip-recs/vacc-specific/covid-19.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103224932/https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/acip-recs/vacc-specific/covid-19.html |archive-date=3 November 2021 |access-date=18 February 2021 |website=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Safe COVID-19 vaccines for Europeans |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/live-work-travel-eu/coronavirus-response/safe-covid-19-vaccines-europeans_en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104111910/https://ec.europa.eu/info/live-work-travel-eu/coronavirus-response/safe-covid-19-vaccines-europeans_en |archive-date=4 November 2021 |access-date=19 February 2021 |website=[[European Commission]]}}</ref> Authorized vaccines of this type are the Pfizer–BioNTech<ref name="hcreg">{{cite web |title=Regulatory Decision Summary – Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 Vaccine |url=https://covid-vaccine.canada.ca/info/regulatory-decision-summary-detailTwo.html?linkID=RDS00730 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130120400/https://covid-vaccine.canada.ca/info/regulatory-decision-summary-detailTwo.html?linkID=RDS00730 |archive-date=30 January 2021 |access-date=9 December 2020 |publisher=Health Canada, Government of Canada}}</ref><ref name="NCT04368728">{{cite web |title=Study to Describe the Safety, Tolerability, Immunogenicity, and Efficacy of RNA Vaccine Candidates Against COVID-19 in Healthy Adults |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04368728 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084828/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04368728/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04368728}}</ref><ref name="EudraCT-2020-001038-36">{{cite web |title=A Multi-site Phase I/II, 2-Part, Dose-Escalation Trial Investigating the Safety and Immunogenicity of four Prophylactic SARS-CoV-2 RNA Vaccines Against COVID-19 Using Different Dosing Regimens in Healthy Adults |url=https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2020-001038-36/DE |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422111024/https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2020-001038-36/DE |archive-date=22 April 2020 |access-date=22 April 2020 |website=EU Clinical Trials Register |id=[[EudraCT]] 2020-001038-36}}</ref> and Moderna vaccines.<ref name="NCT04470427">{{cite web |title=A Study to Evaluate Efficacy, Safety, and Immunogenicity of mRNA-1273 Vaccine in Adults Aged 18 Years and Older to Prevent COVID-19 |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04470427 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084833/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04470427/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=27 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04470427}}</ref><ref name="palca">{{cite news |title=COVID-19 vaccine candidate heads to widespread testing in U.S. |publisher=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/07/27/895672859/us-vaccine-candidate-heads-to-widespread-testing-in-people |url-status=live |access-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084836/https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/07/27/895672859/us-vaccine-candidate-heads-to-widespread-testing-in-people/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |vauthors=Palca J}}</ref> The [[CVnCoV]] RNA vaccine from [[CureVac]] failed in clinical trials.<ref>{{cite press release |title=CureVac Final Data from Phase 2b/3 Trial of First-Generation COVID-19 Vaccine Candidate, CVnCoV, Demonstrates Protection in Age Group of 18 to 60 |url=https://www.curevac.com/en/2021/06/30/curevac-final-data-from-phase-2b-3-trial-of-first-generation-covid-19-vaccine-candidate-cvncov-demonstrates-protection-in-age-group-of-18-to-60/ |access-date=2 July 2021 |website=CureVac |archive-date=12 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012213635/https://www.curevac.com/en/2021/06/30/curevac-final-data-from-phase-2b-3-trial-of-first-generation-covid-19-vaccine-candidate-cvncov-demonstrates-protection-in-age-group-of-18-to-60/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Severe allergic reactions are rare. In December 2020, 1,893,360 first doses of Pfizer–BioNTech COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine administration resulted in 175 cases of severe allergic reaction, of which 21 were [[anaphylaxis]].<ref name="pmid33571463">{{cite journal |vauthors=Moghimi SM |title=Allergic Reactions and Anaphylaxis to LNP-Based COVID-19 Vaccines |journal=Molecular Therapy |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=898–900 |doi=10.1016/j.ymthe.2021.01.030 |pmc=7862013 |pmid=33571463}}</ref> For 4,041,396 Moderna COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine dose administrations in December 2020 and January 2021, only ten cases of anaphylaxis were reported.<ref name="pmid33571463" /> [[Solid lipid nanoparticle|Lipid nanoparticles]] (LNPs) were most likely responsible for the allergic reactions.<ref name="pmid33571463" />

=== Adenovirus vector vaccines ===
{{anchor|viral vector}}

These vaccines are examples of non-replicating [[viral vector vaccine]]s, using an [[Adenoviridae|adenovirus]] shell containing DNA that encodes a SARS‑CoV‑2 protein.<ref name="vv-gavi">{{cite web |year=2020 |title=What are viral vector-based vaccines and how could they be used against COVID-19? |url=https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/what-are-viral-vector-based-vaccines-and-how-could-they-be-used-against-covid-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111054019/https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/what-are-viral-vector-based-vaccines-and-how-could-they-be-used-against-covid-19 |archive-date=11 November 2021 |access-date=26 January 2021 |publisher=[[GAVI|Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance]] (GAVI)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Understanding Viral Vector COVID-19 Vaccines |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines/viralvector.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113223939/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines/viralvector.html |archive-date=13 November 2021 |access-date=19 April 2021 |website=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)}}</ref> The viral vector-based vaccines against COVID{{nbhyph}}19 are non-replicating, meaning that they do not make new virus particles, but rather produce only the antigen which elicits a systemic immune response.<ref name="vv-gavi" />

Authorized [[Viral vector#Vaccines|vaccines of this type]] are the [[Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine]],<ref name="NCT04400838">{{cite web |title=Investigating a Vaccine Against COVID-19 |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04400838 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084750/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04400838/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04400838}}</ref><ref name="EudraCT-2020-001228-32">{{cite web |title=A Phase 2/3 study to determine the efficacy, safety and immunogenicity of the candidate Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) vaccine ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 |url=https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2020-001228-32/GB |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005201654/https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2020-001228-32/GB |archive-date=5 October 2020 |access-date=3 August 2020 |website=EU Clinical Trials Register |id=[[EudraCT]] 2020-001228-32}}</ref><ref name="ISRCTN89951424">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Reilly P |title=A Phase III study to investigate a vaccine against COVID-19 |doi=10.1186/ISRCTN89951424 |id=ISRCTN89951424 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi |website=ISRCTN Registry}}</ref> the [[Sputnik V COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine]],<ref name="sputnik">{{cite news |title=How Gamaleya's Vaccine Works |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/health/gamaleya-covid-19-vaccine.html |url-status=live |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420022117/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/health/gamaleya-covid-19-vaccine.html |archive-date=20 April 2021 |vauthors=Corum J, Carl Z}}</ref> [[Convidecia]], and the [[Janssen COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine]].<ref name="NCT04436276">{{cite web |title=A Study of Ad26.COV2.S in Adults |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04436276 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916063346/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04436276 |archive-date=16 September 2020 |access-date=23 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="NCT04505722">{{cite web |title=A Study of Ad26.COV2.S for the Prevention of SARS-CoV-2-Mediated COVID-19 in Adult Participants |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04505722 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926145744/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04505722 |archive-date=26 September 2020 |publisher=US National Library of Medicine}}</ref>

Convidecia and Janssen are both one-shot vaccines which offer less complicated logistics and can be stored under ordinary refrigeration for several months.<ref>{{cite news |title=Johnson & Johnson seeks emergency FDA authorization for single-shot coronavirus vaccine |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2021/02/04/jj-vaccine-fda/ |url-status=live |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205160208/https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2021/02/04/jj-vaccine-fda/ |archive-date=5 February 2021 |vauthors=Johnson C, McGinley L}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=It's not just Johnson & Johnson: China has a single-dose COVID-19 vaccine that's 65% effective |url=https://fortune.com/2021/02/09/china-covid-vaccine-single-dose-cansino-johnson-johnson/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808130747/https://fortune.com/2021/02/09/china-covid-vaccine-single-dose-cansino-johnson-johnson/ |archive-date=8 August 2021 |access-date=28 February 2021}}</ref>

[[Sputnik V COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine|Sputnik V]] uses Ad26 for its first dose, which is the same as Janssen's only dose, and Ad5 for the second dose, which is the same as Convidecia's only dose.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Wu S, Zhong G, Zhang J, Shuai L, Zhang Z, Wen Z, Wang B, Zhao Z, Song X, Chen Y, Liu R, Fu L, Zhang J, Guo Q, Wang C, Yang Y, Fang T, Lv P, Wang J, Xu J, Li J, Yu C, Hou L, Bu Z, Chen W |title=A single dose of an adenovirus-vectored vaccine provides protection against SARS-CoV-2 challenge |journal=Nat Commun |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=4081 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.4081W |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17972-1 |pmc=7427994 |pmid=32796842}}</ref>

In August 2021, the [[Russian Direct Investment Fund|developers of Sputnik V]] proposed, in view of the Delta case surge, that Pfizer test the Ad26 component (termed its 'Light' version)<ref>{{cite press release |title=Single dose vaccine, Sputnik Light, authorized for use in Russia |url=https://sputnikvaccine.com/newsroom/pressreleases/single-dose-vaccine-sputnik-light-authorized-for-use-in-russia/ |access-date=12 August 2021 |website=Sputnik V |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114232050/https://sputnikvaccine.com/newsroom/pressreleases/single-dose-vaccine-sputnik-light-authorized-for-use-in-russia/ |url-status=live}}</ref> as a booster shot.<ref>{{cite tweet|number=1390274722487746563|user=sputnikvaccine|title=Introducing a new member of the Sputnik family - a single dose Sputnik Light! It's a revolutionary 1-shot COVID-19 vaccine with the 80% efficacy - higher than many 2-shot vaccines. Sputnik Light will double vaccination rates and help to handle epidemic peaks https://t.co/BCybe8yYWU|author=Sputnik V|author-link=Sputnik V|access-date=8 December 2022|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220508165229/https://twitter.com/sputnikvaccine/status/1390274722487746563|archive-date=8 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Inactivated virus vaccines ===
{{anchor|inactivated}}

[[Inactivated vaccine]]s consist of virus particles that are grown in [[Microbiological culture|culture]] and then killed using a method such as heat or [[formaldehyde]] to lose disease-producing capacity, while still stimulating an immune response.<ref name="PetrovskyAguilar2004">{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrovsky N, Aguilar JC |title=Vaccine adjuvants: current state and future trends |journal=Immunology and Cell Biology |volume=82 |issue=5 |pages=488–496 |doi=10.1111/j.0818-9641.2004.01272.x |pmid=15479434 |s2cid=154670}}</ref>

Authorized vaccines of this type are the Chinese [[CoronaVac]]<ref name="NCT04383574">{{cite web |title=Safety and Immunogenicity Study of Inactivated Vaccine for Prevention of SARS-CoV-2 Infection (COVID-19) (Renqiu) |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04383574 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084809/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04383574/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04383574}}</ref><ref name="NCname= nct04456595=">{{cite web |title=Clinical Trial of Efficacy and Safety of Sinovac's Adsorbed COVID-19 (Inactivated) Vaccine in Healthcare Professionals (PROFISCOV) |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04456595 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084811/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04456595/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=3 August 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04456595}}</ref><ref name="PT_Bio _Farma">{{cite journal |author=PT. Bio Farma |title=A Phase III, observer-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity of SARS-COV-2 inactivated vaccine in healthy adults aged 18–59 years in Indonesia |url=https://www.ina-registry.org/index.php?act=registry_trial_detail&code_trial=16202009080721WXFM0YX |url-status=dead |journal=Registri Penyakit Indonesia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084814/https://www.ina-registry.org/index.php?act=registry_trial_detail&code_trial=16202009080721WXFM0YX%2F |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=15 August 2020}}</ref> and the Sinopharm [[Sinopharm BIBP COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine|BIBP]]<ref name="ChiCTR2000034780">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen W, Al Kaabi N |title=A Phase III clinical trial for inactivated novel coronavirus pneumonia (COVID-19) vaccine (Vero cells) |url=http://www.chictr.org.cn/showprojen.aspx?proj=56651 |url-status=live |journal=Chinese Clinical Trial Registry |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084800/http://www.chictr.org.cn/showprojen.aspx?proj=56651%2F |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=15 August 2020}}</ref> and [[Sinopharm WIBP COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine|WIBP]] vaccines; the Indian [[BBV152|Covaxin]]; later this year the Russian [[CoviVac (Russia COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine)|CoviVac]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Russia approves its third COVID-19 vaccine, CoviVac |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-russia-vaccine-idUSKBN2AK07H |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228221729/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-russia-vaccine-idUSKBN2AK07H |archive-date=28 February 2021 |access-date=11 April 2021 |website=Reuters |vauthors=Ivanova P}}</ref> the [[Kazakhstan|Kazakh]] vaccine [[QazVac]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Kazakhstan rolls out its own COVID-19 vaccine |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/kazakhstan-rolls-out-its-own-covid-19-vaccine-2021-04-27/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104170721/https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/kazakhstan-rolls-out-its-own-covid-19-vaccine-2021-04-27/ |archive-date=4 November 2021 |access-date=2 July 2021 |website=Reuters}}</ref> and the Iranian [[COVIran Barekat]].<ref>{{cite web |title=FarsNews Agency Iran Licenses Emergency Injection of Home-Made Anti-Coronavirus Vaccine |url=https://www.farsnews.ir/en/news/14000324000606/Iran-Licenses-Emergency-Injecin-f-Hme-Made-Ani-Crnavirs-Vaccine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009201716/https://www.farsnews.ir/en/news/14000324000606/Iran-Licenses-Emergency-Injecin-f-Hme-Made-Ani-Crnavirs-Vaccine |archive-date=9 October 2021 |access-date=25 August 2021 |website=Fars News Agency}}</ref> Vaccines in clinical trials include the [[VLA2001|Valneva COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine]].<ref name="precisionvaccinations-20201231">{{cite web |title=VLA2001 COVID-19 Vaccine |url=https://www.precisionvaccinations.com/vaccines/vla2001-covid-19-vaccine |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113035455/https://www.precisionvaccinations.com/vaccines/vla2001-covid-19-vaccine |archive-date=13 January 2021 |access-date=11 January 2021 |website=Precision Vaccinations}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?}}<ref name="clinicaltrials-20201230">{{cite web |title=Dose Finding Study to Evaluate Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of an Inactivated Adjuvanted Sars-Cov-2 Virus Vaccine Candidate Against Covid-19 in Healthy Adults |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04671017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214223558/https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04671017 |archive-date=14 February 2021 |access-date=11 January 2021 |publisher=U.S. National Library of Medicine}}</ref>

=== Subunit vaccines ===
{{anchor|protein subunit}}

[[Subunit vaccine]]s present one or more [[antigen]]s without introducing whole pathogen particles. The antigens involved are often [[protein subunit]]s, but can be any molecule fragment of the pathogen.<ref>{{cite web |title=Module 2 – Subunit vaccines |url=https://vaccine-safety-training.org/subunit-vaccines.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210808211206/https://vaccine-safety-training.org/subunit-vaccines.html |archive-date=8 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |website=WHO Vaccine Safety Basics}}</ref>

The authorized vaccines of this type are [[Novavax COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine]],<ref name="NCT04368988">{{cite web |title=Evaluation of the Safety and Immunogenicity of a SARS-CoV-2 rS (COVID-19) Nanoparticle Vaccine With/Without Matrix-M Adjuvant |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04368988 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714224741/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04368988 |archive-date=14 July 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04368988}}</ref> the [[peptide vaccine]] [[EpiVacCorona]],<ref name="NCT04527575">{{cite web |title=Study of the Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity of "EpiVacCorona" Vaccine for the Prevention of COVID-19 (EpiVacCorona) |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04527575 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629132034/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04527575 |archive-date=29 June 2021 |access-date=16 November 2020 |publisher=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04368988}}</ref> [[ZF2001]],<ref name="london" /> [[MVC COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine|MVC-COV1901]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MVC COVID-19 Vaccine Obtains Taiwan EUA Approval |url=https://www.medigenvac.com/public/en/news/detail/83 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127023011/https://www.medigenvac.com/public/en/news/detail/83 |archive-date=27 November 2021 |access-date=7 August 2021 |website=Medigen Vaccine Biologics}}</ref> [[Corbevax]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=India Clears 2 New Vaccines And Merck's Covid Pill: 10 Points |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/coronavirus-2-more-vaccines-covovax-and-corbevax-and-anti-viral-drug-molnupiravir-cleared-in-india-2675170 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228054125/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/coronavirus-2-more-vaccines-covovax-and-corbevax-and-anti-viral-drug-molnupiravir-cleared-in-india-2675170 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |access-date=19 January 2022 |website=NDTV.com |vauthors=Achom D}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A COVID Vaccine for All |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-covid-vaccine-for-all/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230172714/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-covid-vaccine-for-all/ |archive-date=30 December 2021 |access-date=19 January 2022 |website=Scientific American |vauthors=Bottazzi ME, Hotez PJ}}</ref> the [[Sanofi–GSK COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine|Sanofi–GSK vaccine]],<ref name="VidPrevtyn Beta EPAR">{{cite web |title=VidPrevtyn Beta |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/vidprevtyn-beta |access-date=12 November 2022 |website=[[European Medicines Agency]] (EMA) |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111174057/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/vidprevtyn-beta |url-status=live }} Text was copied from this source which is © European Medicines Agency. Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.</ref><ref name="EMA PR 20221110">{{cite press release |title=EMA recommends approval of VidPrevtyn Beta as a COVID-19 booster vaccine |website=[[European Medicines Agency]] (EMA) |url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-recommends-approval-vidprevtyn-beta-covid-19-booster-vaccine |access-date=12 November 2022}} Text was copied from this source which is © European Medicines Agency. Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.</ref> and [[Soberana 02]] (a [[conjugate vaccine]]).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iran-Cuba vaccine enters phase three clinical trials|url=https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/460275/Iran-Cuba-vaccine-enters-phase-three-clinical-trials|access-date=2021-09-07|website=Tehran Times|language=en|archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719231941/https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/460275/Iran-Cuba-vaccine-enters-phase-three-clinical-trials|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bimervax]] was approved for use as a booster vaccine in the European Union in March 2023.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors=Barrie R | title=Hipra's Covid-19 booster gets EMA nod and enters an uncertain landscape | website=Pharmaceutical Technology | date=31 March 2023 | url=https://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/news/hipras-covid-19-booster-gets-ema-nod-to-enter-uncertain-landscape/ | access-date=9 April 2023 | archive-date=10 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410045239/https://www.pharmaceutical-technology.com/news/hipras-covid-19-booster-gets-ema-nod-to-enter-uncertain-landscape/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Bimervax EPAR | website=European Medicines Agency | date=5 April 2023 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/bimervax | access-date=9 April 2023 | archive-date=8 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408071014/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/bimervax | url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[V451 vaccine]] was in clinical trials that were terminated after it was found that the vaccine may potentially cause incorrect results for subsequent HIV testing.<ref name="NCT04495933">{{cite web |title=A Study on the Safety, Tolerability and Immune Response of SARS-CoV-2 Sclamp (COVID-19) Vaccine in Healthy Adults |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04495933 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011085041/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04495933/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=4 August 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04495933}}</ref><ref name="dwuq">{{cite news |title=Australian vaccine trials stopped due to HIV false positives |url=https://www.dw.com/en/australia-ends-local-covid-vaccine-trials-due-to-hiv-false-positives/a-55900847 |website=Deutsche Welle |access-date=9 January 2023 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126235229/https://www.dw.com/en/australia-ends-local-covid-vaccine-trials-due-to-hiv-false-positives/a-55900847 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Covid: Australian vaccine abandoned over false HIV response | website=BBC News Online | date=11 December 2020 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-55269381 | access-date=9 April 2023 | archive-date=16 January 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116134101/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-55269381 | url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Other types ===
Additional types of vaccines that are in clinical trials include [[virus-like particle]] vaccines, multiple [[DNA vaccine|DNA plasmid vaccines]],<ref name=":4">{{cite web |title=A prospective, randomized, adaptive, phase I/II clinical study to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of Novel Corona Virus −2019-nCov vaccine candidate of M/s Cadila Healthcare Limited by intradermal route in healthy subjects |url=http://www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=45306 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122022620/http://www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pmaindet2.php?trialid=45306 |archive-date=22 November 2020 |publisher=Clinical Trials Registry |location=India |id=CTRI/2020/07/026352}}</ref><ref name="NCT04336410">{{cite web |title=Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of INO-4800 for COVID-19 in Healthy Volunteers |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04336410 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084843/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04336410/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04336410}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite web |title=IVI, INOVIO, and KNIH to partner with CEPI in a Phase I/II clinical trial of INOVIO's COVID-19 DNA vaccine in South Korea |url=https://www.ivi.int/ivi-inovio-and-knih-to-partner-with-cepi-in-a-phase-i-ii-clinical-trial-of-inovios-covid-19-dna-vaccine-in-south-korea/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924215700/https://www.ivi.int/ivi-inovio-and-knih-to-partner-with-cepi-in-a-phase-i-ii-clinical-trial-of-inovios-covid-19-dna-vaccine-in-south-korea/ |archive-date=24 September 2020 |access-date=23 April 2020 |publisher=International Vaccine Institute}}</ref><ref name="NCT04463472">{{cite web |title=Study of COVID-19 DNA Vaccine (AG0301-COVID19) |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04463472 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084854/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04463472/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04463472}}</ref><ref name="NCT04445389">{{cite web |title=Safety and Immunogenicity Study of GX-19, a COVID-19 Preventive DNA Vaccine in Healthy Adults |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04445389 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084931/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04445389/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] |id=NCT04445389}}</ref><ref name="gen-reut">{{cite news |title=S. Korea's Genexine begins human trial of coronavirus vaccine |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-genexine-vaccine-idUSL4N2DW1T3 |url-status=live |access-date=25 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084934/https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-genexine-vaccine-idUSL4N2DW1T3/ |archive-date=11 October 2020}}</ref> at least two [[Lentiviral vector in gene therapy|lentivirus vector]] vaccines,<ref name="NCT04299724">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chang LJ |title=Safety and Immunity of Covid-19 aAPC Vaccine |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04299724 |url-status=live |id=NCT04299724 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084913/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04299724/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]]}}</ref><ref name="NCT04276896">{{cite journal |title=Immunity and Safety of Covid-19 Synthetic Minigene Vaccine |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04276896 |url-status=live |id=NCT04276896 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201011084923/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04276896/ |archive-date=11 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]]}}</ref> a [[conjugate vaccine]], and a [[vesicular stomatitis virus]] displaying the SARS‑CoV‑2 spike protein.<ref name="NCT04608305">{{cite journal |title=A Phase I/II Randomized, Multi-Center, Placebo-Controlled, Dose-Escalation Study to Evaluate the Safety, Immunogenicity and Potential Efficacy of an rVSV-SARS-CoV-2-S Vaccine (IIBR-100) in Adults |url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04608305 |url-status=live |id=NCT04608305 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503103642/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04608305 |archive-date=3 May 2021 |access-date=2 January 2021 |website=[[ClinicalTrials.gov]]}}</ref>

Scientists investigated whether existing vaccines for unrelated conditions could prime the immune system and lessen the severity of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 infections.<ref>{{cite news |title=Can old vaccines from science's medicine cabinet ward off coronavirus? |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/06/11/can-old-vaccines-sciences-medicine-cabinet-ward-off-coronavirus/ |url-status=live |access-date=31 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611225045/https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/06/11/can-old-vaccines-sciences-medicine-cabinet-ward-off-coronavirus/ |archive-date=11 June 2020 |issn=0190-8286 |vauthors=Johnson CY, Mufson S}}</ref> There is experimental evidence that the [[BCG vaccine]] for tuberculosis has non-specific effects on the immune system, but no evidence that this vaccine is effective against COVID{{nbhyph}}19.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination and COVID-19 |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/bacille-calmette-gu%C3%A9rin-(bcg)-vaccination-and-covid-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430121126/https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/bacille-calmette-gu%C3%A9rin-(bcg)-vaccination-and-covid-19 |archive-date=30 April 2020 |access-date=1 May 2020 |work=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)}}</ref>

== List of authorized vaccines ==
{{Main|List of COVID-19 vaccine authorizations}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+COVID-19 vaccines authorized for emergency use or approved for full use
! scope="col" |Common name
! scope="col" |[[Vaccine#Types|Type]] (technology)
! scope="col" |Country of origin
!First authorization
!Notes
|-
! colspan="5" |Authorized in more than 10 countries
|- valign="top"
|[[Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine|Oxford–AstraZeneca]]
|[[Adenoviridae|Adenovirus]] [[Viral vector vaccine|vector]]
|United Kingdom, Sweden
|December 2020
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine|Pfizer–BioNTech]]
|[[MRNA vaccine|RNA]]
|Germany, United States
|December 2020
|Both original and [[SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant|Omicron variant]] versions
|- valign="top"
|[[Janssen COVID-19 vaccine|Janssen]] (Johnson & Johnson)
|Adenovirus vector
|United States, Netherlands
|February 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Moderna COVID-19 vaccine|Moderna]]
|RNA
|United States
|December 2020
|Both original and Omicron variant versions
|- valign="top"
|[[Sinopharm BIBP COVID-19 vaccine|Sinopharm BIBP]]
|[[Inactivated vaccine|Inactivated]]
|China
|July 2020
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine|Sputnik V]]
|Adenovirus vector
|Russia
|August 2020
|
|- valign="top"
|[[CoronaVac]]
|Inactivated
|China
|August 2020
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Novavax COVID-19 vaccine|Novavax]]
|[[Subunit vaccine|Subunit]]/[[virus-like particle]]
|United States
|December 2021
|A "recombinant nanoparticle vaccine"<ref>{{cite web |title=Urgent global health needs addressed by Novavax |url=https://www.novavax.com/our-unique-technology|access-date=30 January 2021 |publisher=Novavax|archive-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512090816/https://www.novavax.com/our-unique-technology|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|[[Covaxin]]
|Inactivated
|India
|January 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Valneva COVID-19 vaccine|Valneva]]
|Inactivated
|France, Austria
|April 2022
|
|-
|[[Sanofi–GSK COVID-19 vaccine|Sanofi–GSK]]
|Subunit
|France, United Kingdom
|November 2022
|Based on [[SARS-CoV-2 Beta variant|Beta variant]]
|- valign="top"
|[[Sputnik Light]]
|Adenovirus vector
|Russia
|May 2021
|
|-
! colspan="5" |Authorized in 2–10 countries
|- valign="top"
|[[Convidecia]]
|Adenovirus vector
|China
|June 2020
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Sinopharm WIBP COVID-19 vaccine|Sinopharm WIBP]]
|Inactivated
|China
|February 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Abdala (vaccine)|Abdala]]
|Subunit
|Cuba
|July 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[EpiVacCorona]]
|Subunit
|Russia
|October 2020
|
|- valign="top"
|[[ZF2001|Zifivax]]
|Subunit
|China
|March 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Soberana 02]]
|Subunit
|Cuba, Iran
|June 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[CoviVac (Russia COVID-19 vaccine)|CoviVac]]
|Inactivated
|Russia
|February 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[MVC COVID-19 vaccine|Medigen]]
|Subunit
|Taiwan
|July 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[QazCovid-in]]
|Inactivated
|Kazakhstan
|April 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Minhai COVID-19 vaccine|Minhai]]
|Inactivated
|China
|May 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[COVIran Barekat]]
|Inactivated
|Iran
|June 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Soberana Plus]]
|Subunit
|Cuba
|August 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Corbevax]]
|Subunit
|India, United States
|December 2021
|
|-
! colspan="5" |Authorized in 1 country
|- valign="top"
|[[Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences COVID-19 vaccine|Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences]]
|Inactivated
|China
|June 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[ZyCoV-D]]
|[[DNA vaccine|DNA]]
|India
|August 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[FAKHRAVAC]]
|Inactivated
|Iran
|September 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[COVAX-19]]
|Subunit
|Australia, Iran
|October 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Razi Cov Pars]]
|Subunit
|Iran
|October 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Turkovac]]
|Inactivated
|Turkey
|December 2021
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Sinopharm CNBG COVID-19 vaccine|Sinopharm CNBG]]
|Subunit
|China
|December 2021
|Based on original, Beta, and [[SARS-CoV-2 Kappa variant|Kappa]] variants
|- valign="top"
|[[CoVLP]]
|Virus-like particle
|Canada, United Kingdom
|February 2022
|
|- valign="top"
|[[Noora (vaccine)|Noora]]
|Subunit
|Iran
|March 2022
|
|-
|[[Skycovione]]
|Subunit
|South Korea
|June 2022
|
|-
|[[Walvax COVID-19 vaccine|Walvax]]
|RNA
|China
|September 2022
|
|-
|[[BBV154|iNCOVACC]]
|Adenovirus vector
|India
|September 2022
|[[Nasal vaccine]]
|-
|[[V-01]]
|Subunit
|China
|September 2022
|
|-
|[[HGC019|Gemcovac]]
|RNA
|India
|October 2022
|Self-amplifying RNA vaccine
|-
|[[IndoVac]]
|Subunit
|Indonesia
|October 2022
|
|}

== Delivery methods ==
All coronavirus vaccines are administrated by injection. However, various other types of vaccine delivery methods have been studied for future coronavirus vaccines.

=== Intranasal ===
Intranasal vaccines target [[Mucosal immunology|mucosal immunity]] in the [[nasal mucosa]] which is a portal for viral entrance to the body.<ref name="mudgal">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mudgal R, Nehul S, Tomar S | title = Prospects for mucosal vaccine: shutting the door on SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics | volume = 16 | issue = 12 | pages = 2921–2931 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 32931361 | pmc = 7544966 | doi = 10.1080/21645515.2020.1805992 }}</ref><ref name="rhee">{{cite book | vauthors = Rhee JH | title=Mucosal Vaccines | chapter=Current and New Approaches for Mucosal Vaccine Delivery | journal=Mucosal Vaccines | publisher=Elsevier | year=2020 | pmid= | pmc=7149853 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-811924-2.00019-5 | pages=325–356| isbn=9780128119242 }}</ref> These vaccines are designed to stimulate nasal [[immune factor]]s, such as [[Immunoglobulin A|IgA]].<ref name="mudgal" /> In addition to inhibiting the virus, nasal vaccines provide ease of administration because no needles (or [[Fear of needles|needle phobia]]) are involved.<ref name="rhee" /><ref name="cdc">{{cite web |title=Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine [LAIV] (The Nasal Spray Flu Vaccine) |url=https://www.cdc.gov/flu/prevent/nasalspray.htm |publisher=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) |access-date=8 September 2021 |archive-date=14 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014221155/https://www.cdc.gov/flu/prevent/nasalspray.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Nasal vaccines have been approved for [[influenza]],<ref name="rhee" /><ref name="cdc" /> but not for COVID-19.

A variety of intranasal COVID-19 vaccines are undergoing clinical trials. One is in use in China.<ref>{{Cite web |vauthors=Moritsugu K |title=Afraid of needles? China using inhalable COVID-19 vaccine |url=https://apnews.com/article/health-china-shanghai-covid-73054086e649140d3cf6edf77ae4ef73 |access-date=2 November 2022 |website=AP News |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101095030/https://apnews.com/article/health-china-shanghai-covid-73054086e649140d3cf6edf77ae4ef73 |url-status=live }}</ref> Examples include a vaccine candidate which uses a modified avian virus as a vector to target SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins and an mRNA vaccine delivered via a nasal nanoparticle spray.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Lovelace Jr B |title=Nasal vaccines may stop Covid infections. Will we get them soon? |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/nasal-vaccines-latest-research-nasal-vaccines-covid-rcna38820 |access-date=19 July 2022 |publisher=NBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719081743/https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/nasal-vaccines-latest-research-nasal-vaccines-covid-rcna38820 |archive-date=19 July 2022}}</ref> In September 2022, India and China approved the two first [[Nasal vaccine|nasal]] COVID-19 vaccines ([[iNCOVACC]] and [[Convidecia]]) which may (as boosters)<ref>{{cite news |title=Two inhaled covid vaccines have been approved—but we don't know yet how good they are |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/09/08/1059107/two-inhaled-covid-vaccines-approved/ |access-date=21 October 2022 |work=MIT Technology Review |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021140344/https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/09/08/1059107/two-inhaled-covid-vaccines-approved/ |url-status=live }}</ref> also reduce transmission<ref name="naturenasalvac" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dhama K, Dhawan M, Tiwari R, Emran TB, Mitra S, Rabaan AA, Alhumaid S, Alawi ZA, Al Mutair A | display-authors = 6 | title = COVID-19 intranasal vaccines: current progress, advantages, prospects, and challenges | journal = Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics | volume = 18 | issue = 5 | pages = 2045853 | date = November 2022 | pmid = 35258416 | pmc = 8935456 | doi = 10.1080/21645515.2022.2045853 }}</ref> (potentially via sterilizing immunity).<ref name="naturenasalvac">{{cite journal | vauthors = Waltz E | title = China and India approve nasal COVID vaccines - are they a game changer? | journal = Nature | volume = 609 | issue = 7927 | pages = 450 | date = September 2022 | pmid = 36071228 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-022-02851-0 | s2cid = 252121594 | bibcode = 2022Natur.609..450W | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Autologous ===
Aivita Biomedical is developing an experimental autologous [[dendritic cell]] COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine kit where the vaccine is prepared and incubated at the point-of-care using cells from the intended recipient.<ref name="Nistor 2022" /> The vaccine is undergoing small phase I and phase II clinical studies.<ref name="Nistor 2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nistor GI, Dillman RO, Robles RM, Langford JL, Poole AJ, Sofro MA, Nency YM, Jonny J, Yana ML, Karyana M, Lestari ES, Triwardhani R, Mujahidah M, Sari RK, Soetojo NA, Wibisono D, Tjen D, Ikrar T, Sarkissian G, Winarta H, Putranto TA, Keirstead HS | display-authors = 6 | title = A personal COVID-19 dendritic cell vaccine made at point-of-care: Feasibility, safety, and antigen-specific cellular immune responses | journal = Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics | pages = 2100189 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 36018753 | doi = 10.1080/21645515.2022.2100189 | name-list-style = vanc | title-link = doi | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pmc = 9746383 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Dendritic Cell Vaccine, AV-COVID-19, to Prevent COVID-19 Infection | website=ClinicalTrials.gov | date=30 December 2020 | url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04690387 | access-date=5 September 2022 | archive-date=13 May 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513201453/https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04690387 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Preventive Dendritic Cell Vaccine, AV-COVID-19, in Subjects Not Actively Infected With COVID-19 | website=ClinicalTrials.gov | date=16 August 2021 | url=https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05007496 | access-date=5 September 2022 | archive-date=18 June 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618005430/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05007496 | url-status=live }}</ref>

== Universal vaccine ==
{{Main|Universal coronavirus vaccine}}

A universal coronavirus vaccine would be effective against all coronavirus (and possibly other) viruses.<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Mullin E |title=A 'Universal' Coronavirus Vaccine to Prevent the Next Pandemic |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/a-universal-coronavirus-vaccine-to-prevent-the-next-pandemic1/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220060024/https://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode/a-universal-coronavirus-vaccine-to-prevent-the-next-pandemic1/ |archive-date=20 December 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 |website=[[Scientific American]] }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web | vauthors = Joi P |title=Could a universal coronavirus vaccine soon be a reality? |url=https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/could-universal-coronavirus-vaccine-soon-be-reality |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220054527/https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/could-universal-coronavirus-vaccine-soon-be-reality |archive-date=20 December 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 |website=[[GAVI]] }}</ref> The concept was publicly endorsed by [[NIAID]] director [[Anthony Fauci]], [[Virology|virologist]] [[Jeffery Taubenberger|Jeffery K. Taubenberger]], and David M. Morens.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web | vauthors = Bush E |title=Fauci pushes for universal coronavirus vaccine |url= https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/fauci-pushes-universal-coronavirus-vaccine-rcna8877 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220054522/https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/fauci-pushes-universal-coronavirus-vaccine-rcna8877 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 |website=[[NBC News]] }}</ref> In March 2022, the [[White House]] released the "National COVID-19 Preparedness Plan", which recommended accelerating development of a universal coronavirus vaccine.{{More information needed}}<ref>{{cite web |title=National COVID-19 Preparedness Plan |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/NAT-COVID-19-PREPAREDNESS-PLAN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326181157/https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/NAT-COVID-19-PREPAREDNESS-PLAN.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2022 |access-date=29 March 2022 |publisher=The White House |pages=9, 21, 29}}</ref>

One attempt at such a vaccine is being developed at [[Walter Reed Army Institute of Research]]. It uses a spike ferritin-based nanoparticle (SpFN). This vaccine began a Phase I clinical trial in April 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Phase 1 Clinical Trial of WRAIR-developed COVID-19 Vaccine Begins |url=https://www.wrair.army.mil/node/636 |access-date=11 July 2022 |archive-date=11 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711041214/https://www.wrair.army.mil/node/636 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Another strategy is to attach vaccine fragments from multiple strains to a [[nanoparticle]] scaffold. Universality is enhanced by targeting the receptor-binding domain rather than the [[spike protein]].<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors = Haridy R |title=Another universal coronavirus vaccine readies for human trials |url=https://newatlas.com/science/universal-coronavirus-vaccine-mosaic-nanoparticle-human-trials-caltech/ |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=New Atlas |archive-date=11 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711024151/https://newatlas.com/science/universal-coronavirus-vaccine-mosaic-nanoparticle-human-trials-caltech/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Formulation ==
{{Asof|2020|September}}, eleven of the vaccine candidates in clinical development use [[adjuvants]] to enhance immunogenicity.<ref name="thanh22" /> An [[immunological adjuvant]] is a substance formulated with a vaccine to elevate the immune response to an [[antigen]], such as the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 virus or influenza virus.<ref name="tregoning">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tregoning JS, Russell RF, Kinnear E |title=Adjuvanted influenza vaccines |journal=Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=550–564 |doi=10.1080/21645515.2017.1415684 |pmc=5861793 |pmid=29232151}}</ref> Specifically, an adjuvant may be used in formulating a COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine candidate to boost its immunogenicity and efficacy to reduce or prevent COVID{{nbhyph}}19 infection in vaccinated individuals.<ref name="tregoning" /><ref name="wang">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang J, Peng Y, Xu H, Cui Z, Williams RO |title=The COVID-19 Vaccine Race: Challenges and Opportunities in Vaccine Formulation |journal=AAPS PharmSciTech |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=225 |doi=10.1208/s12249-020-01744-7 |pmc=7405756 |pmid=32761294}}</ref> Adjuvants used in COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine formulation may be particularly effective for technologies using the inactivated COVID{{nbhyph}}19 virus and recombinant protein-based or vector-based vaccines.<ref name="wang" /> Aluminum salts, known as "[[alum]]", were the first adjuvant used for licensed vaccines, and are the adjuvant of choice in some 80% of adjuvanted vaccines.<ref name="wang" /> The alum adjuvant initiates diverse molecular and cellular mechanisms to enhance immunogenicity, including release of proinflammatory cytokines.<ref name="tregoning" /><ref name="wang" />

== Planning and development ==
{{Main|History of COVID-19 vaccine development}}

Since January 2020, vaccine development has been expedited via unprecedented collaboration in the [[Pharmaceutical industry|multinational pharmaceutical industry]] and between governments.<ref name="thanh22">{{cite journal | vauthors=Le TT, Cramer JP, Chen R, Mayhew S |title=Evolution of the COVID-19 vaccine development landscape |journal=Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery |volume=19 |issue=10 |pages=667–68 |doi=10.1038/d41573-020-00151-8 |pmid=32887942 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi |s2cid=221503034}}</ref>

Multiple steps along the entire development path are evaluated, including:<ref name="gates2" /><ref name="simpson">{{cite journal | vauthors=Simpson S, Kaufmann MC, Glozman V, Chakrabarti A |title=Disease X: accelerating the development of medical countermeasures for the next pandemic |journal=The Lancet. Infectious Diseases |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=e108–15 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30123-7 |pmc=7158580 |pmid=32197097 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}</ref>
* the level of acceptable toxicity of the vaccine (its safety),
* targeting vulnerable populations,
* the need for vaccine efficacy breakthroughs,
* the duration of vaccination protection,
* special delivery systems (such as oral or nasal, rather than by injection),
* dose regimen,
* stability and storage characteristics,
* emergency use authorization before formal licensing,
* optimal manufacturing for scaling to billions of doses, and
* dissemination of the licensed vaccine.

=== Challenges ===
There have been several unique challenges with COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine development.

Public health programs{{Who}} have been described as in "[a] race to vaccinate individuals" with the early wave vaccines.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zabaleta N, Dai W, Bhatt U, Hérate C, Maisonnasse P, Chichester JA, Sanmiguel J, Estelien R, Michalson KT, Diop C, Maciorowski D, Dereuddre-Bosquet N, Cavarelli M, Gallouët AS, Naninck T, Kahlaoui N, Lemaitre J, Qi W, Hudspeth E, Cucalon A, Dyer CD, Pampena MB, Knox JJ, LaRocque RC, Charles RC, Li D, Kim M, Sheridan A, Storm N, Johnson RI, Feldman J, Hauser BM, Contreras V, Marlin R, Tsong Fang RH, Chapon C, van der Werf S, Zinn E, Ryan A, Kobayashi DT, Chauhan R, McGlynn M, Ryan ET, Schmidt AG, Price B, Honko A, Griffiths A, Yaghmour S, Hodge R, Betts MR, Freeman MW, Wilson JM, Le Grand R, Vandenberghe LH | display-authors = 6 | title = An AAV-based, room-temperature-stable, single-dose COVID-19 vaccine provides durable immunogenicity and protection in non-human primates | journal = Cell Host & Microbe | pages = 1437–1453.e8 | date = August 2021 | volume = 29 | issue = 9 | pmid = 34428428 | pmc = 8346325 | doi = 10.1016/j.chom.2021.08.002 | s2cid = 231676030 }}</ref>

Timelines for conducting clinical research{{snd}}normally a sequential process requiring years{{snd}}are being compressed into safety, efficacy, and dosing trials running simultaneously over months, potentially compromising safety assurance.<ref name="sanger">{{cite news |title=With Pressure Growing, Global Race for a Vaccine Intensifies |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/02/us/politics/vaccines-coronavirus-research.html |url-status=live |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511003506/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/02/us/politics/vaccines-coronavirus-research.html |archive-date=11 May 2020 |issn=0362-4331 |vauthors=Sanger DE, Kirkpatrick DD, Zimmer C, Thomas K, Wee SL}}</ref><ref name="reuters">{{cite news | date=27 April 2020 |title=Special Report: Countries, companies risk billions in race for coronavirus vaccine |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-vaccine-idUSL2N2CF0JG |url-status=live |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515031817/https://www.reuters.com/article/health-coronavirus-vaccine-idUSL2N2CF0JG |archive-date=15 May 2020 |vauthors=Steenhuysen J, Eisler P, Martell A, Nebehay S}}</ref> For example, Chinese vaccine developers and the government [[Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention]] began their efforts in January 2020,<ref>{{cite news | date=26 January 2020 |title=Chinese scientists race to develop vaccine as coronavirus death toll jumps |work=South China Morning Post |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3047676/number-coronavirus-cases-china-doubles-spread-rate-accelerates |url-status=live |access-date=28 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126073453/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/3047676/number-coronavirus-cases-china-doubles-spread-rate-accelerates |archive-date=26 January 2020 |vauthors=Jeong-ho L, Zheng W, Zhou L}}</ref> and by March were pursuing numerous candidates on short timelines.<ref name="sanger" /><ref name="wee">{{cite news | date=4 May 2020 |title=China's coronavirus vaccine drive empowers a troubled industry |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/04/business/coronavirus-china-vaccine.html |url-status=live |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504175312/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/04/business/coronavirus-china-vaccine.html |archive-date=4 May 2020 |issn=0362-4331 |vauthors=Wee SL}}</ref>

The rapid development and urgency of producing a vaccine for the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 pandemic was expected to increase the risks and failure rate of delivering a safe, effective vaccine.<ref name="thanh">{{cite journal | vauthors=Thanh Le T, Andreadakis Z, Kumar A, Gómez Román R, Tollefsen S, Saville M, Mayhew S |title=The COVID-19 vaccine development landscape |journal=Nature Reviews. Drug Discovery |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=305–06 |doi=10.1038/d41573-020-00073-5 |pmid=32273591 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}</ref><ref name="diamond">{{cite journal | vauthors=Diamond MS, Pierson TC |title=The Challenges of Vaccine Development against a New Virus during a Pandemic |journal=Cell Host & Microbe |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=699–703 |doi=10.1016/j.chom.2020.04.021 |pmc=7219397 |pmid=32407708}}</ref><ref name="Thorp">{{cite journal | vauthors=Thorp HH |title=Underpromise, overdeliver |journal=Science |volume=367 |issue=6485 |pages=1405 |bibcode=2020Sci...367.1405T |doi=10.1126/science.abb8492 |pmid=32205459 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}</ref> Additionally, research at universities is obstructed by [[Social distancing|physical distancing]] and closing of laboratories.<ref>{{cite news | date=20 April 2020 |title=COVID-19 vaccine researchers say pandemic lockdown placing many serious obstacles to their work |work=National Post |url=https://nationalpost.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-researchers-say-pandemic-lockdown-placing-many-serious-obstacles-to-their-work |url-status=live |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20200423082751/https://nationalpost.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-researchers-say-pandemic-lockdown-placing-many-serious-obstacles-to-their-work |archive-date=23 April 2020 |vauthors=Blackwell T}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Chen J |title=Covid-19 has shuttered labs. It could put a generation of researchers at risk|url=https://www.statnews.com/2020/05/04/coronavirus-lab-shutdowns-impact-on-scientists-research-delays/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506072301/https://www.statnews.com/2020/05/04/coronavirus-lab-shutdowns-impact-on-scientists-research-delays/|archive-date=6 May 2020|url-status=live|access-date=4 May 2020|work=[[Stat (website)|Stat]]}}</ref>

Vaccines must progress through several phases of [[clinical trial]]s to test for safety, [[immunogenicity]], effectiveness, dose levels and [[Vaccine adverse event|adverse effect]]s of the candidate vaccine.<ref name="Vaccines.gov">{{cite web |title=Vaccine Safety – Vaccines|url=https://www.vaccines.gov/basics/safety|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422073442/https://www.vaccines.gov/basics/safety|archive-date=22 April 2020|url-status=live|access-date=13 April 2020|publisher=US Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref><ref name="fda-ddp">{{cite web |title=The drug development process|url=https://www.fda.gov/patients/learn-about-drug-and-device-approvals/drug-development-process|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222182002/https://www.fda.gov/patients/learn-about-drug-and-device-approvals/drug-development-process|archive-date=22 February 2020|url-status=live|access-date=12 April 2020|publisher=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA)}}</ref> Vaccine developers have to invest resources internationally to find enough participants for Phase{{nbs}}II–III clinical trials when the virus has proved to be a "[[Moving target indication|moving target]]" of changing transmission rates across and within countries, forcing companies to compete for trial participants.<ref name="cohen6-19">{{cite journal | vauthors=Cohen J |title=Pandemic vaccines are about to face the real test |journal=Science |volume=368 |issue=6497 |pages=1295–96 |bibcode=2020Sci...368.1295C |doi=10.1126/science.368.6497.1295 |pmid=32554572 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}</ref>

Clinical trial organizers also may encounter people unwilling to be vaccinated due to [[vaccine hesitancy]]<ref name="dube">{{cite journal | vauthors=Dubé E, Laberge C, Guay M, Bramadat P, Roy R, Bettinger J |title=Vaccine hesitancy: an overview |journal=Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=1763–73 |doi=10.4161/hv.24657 |pmc=3906279 |pmid=23584253}}</ref> or disbelief in the science of the vaccine technology and its ability to prevent infection.<ref name="howard-cnn">{{cite news | date=18 June 2020 |title=Fauci warns of 'anti-science bias' being a problem in US |work=CNN|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/18/politics/anthony-fauci-coronavirus-anti-science-bias/index.html |url-status=live |access-date=21 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621003117/https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/18/politics/anthony-fauci-coronavirus-anti-science-bias/index.html |archive-date=21 June 2020 |vauthors=Howard J, Stracqualursi V}}</ref> As new vaccines are developed during the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 pandemic, licensure of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine candidates{{Who}} requires submission of a full dossier of information on development and manufacturing quality.<ref name="ema-eau">{{cite web |year=2020|title=Vaccines: The Emergency Authorisation Procedure|url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/authorisation-procedures|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924065451/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/authorisation-procedures|archive-date=24 September 2020|url-status=live|access-date=21 August 2020|publisher=[[European Medicines Agency]] (EMA)}}</ref><ref name="byrne10-19">{{cite web|vauthors=Byrne J|title=Moderna COVID-19 vaccine under rolling review process in Canada, EU|url=https://www.biopharma-reporter.com/Article/2020/10/19/Moderna-COVID-19-vaccine-under-rolling-review-process-in-Canada-EU|access-date=25 November 2020|publisher=BioPharma-Reporter.com, William Reed Business Media Ltd|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225075656/https://www.biopharma-reporter.com/Article/2020/10/19/Moderna-COVID-19-vaccine-under-rolling-review-process-in-Canada-EU|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="dangerfield">{{cite news |title=Pfizer files for emergency use of coronavirus vaccine in U.S. – what about in Canada? |work=Global News |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/7474273/pfizer-emergency-use-coronavirus-vaccine-canada/ |access-date=25 November 2020 |vauthors=Dangerfield K |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125183616/https://globalnews.ca/news/7474273/pfizer-emergency-use-coronavirus-vaccine-canada/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Organizations ===
Internationally, the [[Access to COVID{{nbhyph}}19 Tools Accelerator]] is a [[G20]] and [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) initiative announced in April 2020.<ref name="g20gm">{{cite news |title=G20 launches initiative for health tools needed to combat the coronavirus |work=[[The Globe and Mail]] |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-g20-launches-initiative-for-health-tools-needed-to-combat-the-2/ |access-date=1 February 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427134921/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-g20-launches-initiative-for-health-tools-needed-to-combat-the-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="whopress">{{cite web|title=Access to COVID-19 Tools (ACT) Accelerator|publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)|url=https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/access-to-covid-19-tools-(act)-accelerator-call-to-action-24april2020.pdf|access-date=1 February 2021|archive-date=25 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425194644/https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/access-to-covid-19-tools-(act)-accelerator-call-to-action-24april2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> It is a cross-discipline support structure to enable partners to share resources and knowledge. It comprises four pillars, each managed by two to three collaborating partners: Vaccines (also called "[[COVAX]]"), Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Health Systems Connector.<ref name="act-faq">{{cite web|year=2020|title=The ACT-Accelerator: frequently asked questions (FAQ)|url=https://www.who.int/initiatives/act-accelerator/faq|access-date=16 December 2020|publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)|archive-date=4 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504125946/https://www.who.int/initiatives/act-accelerator/faq|url-status=live}}</ref> The WHO's April 2020 "R&D Blueprint (for the) novel Coronavirus" documented a "large, international, multi-site, individually randomized controlled clinical trial" to allow "the concurrent evaluation of the benefits and risks of each promising candidate vaccine within 3–6 months of it being made available for the trial." The WHO vaccine coalition will prioritize which vaccines should go into Phase{{nbs}}II and{{nbs}}III clinical trials, and determine harmonized Phase{{nbs}}III protocols for all vaccines achieving the [[pivotal trial]] stage.<ref name="who-accel">{{cite web |title=Update on WHO Solidarity Trial – Accelerating a safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine|url=https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/global-research-on-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov/solidarity-trial-accelerating-a-safe-and-effective-covid-19-vaccine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430185550/https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/global-research-on-novel-coronavirus-2019-ncov/solidarity-trial-accelerating-a-safe-and-effective-covid-19-vaccine|archive-date=30 April 2020|url-status=live|access-date=2 May 2020|publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)|quote=It is vital that we evaluate as many vaccines as possible as we cannot predict how many will turn out to be viable. To increase the chances of success (given the high level of attrition during vaccine development), we must test all candidate vaccines until they fail. [The] WHO is working to ensure that all of them have the chance of being tested at the initial stage of development. The results for the efficacy of each vaccine are expected within three to six months, and this evidence, combined with data on safety, will inform decisions about whether it can be used on a wider scale.}}</ref>

National governments have also been involved in vaccine development. Canada announced funding of 96 projects for development and production of vaccines at Canadian companies and universities with plans to establish a "vaccine bank" that could be used if another coronavirus outbreak occurs,<ref name="abedi">{{cite news | date=23 March 2020 |title=Canada to spend $192M on developing COVID-19 vaccine |work=Global News |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/6717883/coronavirus-canada-vaccine-spending/ |url-status=live |access-date=24 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409200638/https://globalnews.ca/news/6717883/coronavirus-canada-vaccine-spending/ |archive-date=9 April 2020 |vauthors=Abedi M}}</ref> and to support clinical trials and develop manufacturing and supply chains for vaccines.<ref name="can-research">{{cite web |title=Government of Canada's research response to COVID-19|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/diseases-conditions/covid-19-government-canada-research-response.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513135919/https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/diseases-conditions/covid-19-government-canada-research-response.html|archive-date=13 May 2020|url-status=live|access-date=4 May 2020|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref>

[[Government of China|China]] provided low-rate loans to one vaccine developer through its [[People's Bank of China|central bank]], and "quickly made land available for the company" to build production plants.<ref name="reuters" /> Three Chinese vaccine companies and research institutes are supported by the government for financing research, conducting clinical trials, and manufacturing.<ref name="takada">{{cite news | date=2 May 2020 |title=US and China unleash wallets in race for coronavirus vaccine |work=Nikkei Asian Review |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Coronavirus/US-and-China-unleash-wallets-in-race-for-coronavirus-vaccine |url-status=live |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510111134/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Coronavirus/US-and-China-unleash-wallets-in-race-for-coronavirus-vaccine |archive-date=10 May 2020 |vauthors=Takada N, Satake M}}</ref>

The United Kingdom government formed a COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine [[task force]] in April 2020 to stimulate local efforts for accelerated development of a vaccine through collaborations of industry, universities, and government agencies. The UK's [[Vaccine Taskforce]] contributed to every phase of development from research to manufacturing.<ref name="morriss">{{cite web | vauthors = Morriss E |title=Government launches coronavirus vaccine taskforce as human clinical trials start|url=https://pharmafield.co.uk/pharma_news/government-launches-coronavirus-vaccine-taskforce-as-human-clinical-trials-start/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626021103/https://pharmafield.co.uk/pharma_news/government-launches-coronavirus-vaccine-taskforce-as-human-clinical-trials-start/|archive-date=26 June 2020|url-status=live|access-date=3 May 2020|publisher=Pharmafield}}</ref>

In the United States, the [[Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority]] (BARDA), a federal agency funding disease-fighting technology, announced investments to support American COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine development, and manufacture of the most promising candidates.<ref name="reuters" /><ref name="kuznia">{{cite news | date=1 May 2020 |title=In quest for vaccine, US makes 'big bet' on company with unproven technology |work=CNN|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/05/01/us/coronavirus-moderna-vaccine-invs/index.html |url-status=live |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513005730/https://www.cnn.com/2020/05/01/us/coronavirus-moderna-vaccine-invs/index.html |archive-date=13 May 2020 |vauthors=Kuznia R, Polglase K, Mezzofiore G}}</ref> In May 2020, the government announced funding for a fast-track program called [[Operation Warp Speed]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Cohen J |title=U.S. 'Warp Speed' vaccine effort comes out of the shadows |journal=Science |volume=368 |issue=6492 |pages=692–93 |bibcode=2020Sci...368..692C |doi=10.1126/science.368.6492.692 |pmid=32409451 |doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Sink J, Fabian J, Griffin R |title=Trump introduces 'Warp Speed' leaders to hasten COVID-19 vaccine |publisher=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-15/trump-to-introduce-warp-speed-leaders-after-vaccine-criticism |url-status=live |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521231515/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-15/trump-to-introduce-warp-speed-leaders-after-vaccine-criticism |archive-date=21 May 2020}}</ref> By March 2021, BARDA had funded an estimated $19.3 billion in COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine development.<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=LaHucik K |title=U.S. injects $3B-plus into COVID-19 research to develop antiviral pill within a year |url=https://www.fiercebiotech.com/biotech/u-s-pledges-3b-plus-for-covid-19-antiviral-pill-within-a-year |access-date=11 July 2021 |website=Fierce Biotech |archive-date=9 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009203610/https://www.fiercebiotech.com/biotech/u-s-pledges-3b-plus-for-covid-19-antiviral-pill-within-a-year |url-status=live }}</ref>

Large pharmaceutical companies with experience in making vaccines at scale, including [[Johnson & Johnson]], [[AstraZeneca]], and [[GlaxoSmithKline]] (GSK), formed alliances with [[biotechnology]] companies, governments, and universities to accelerate progression toward effective vaccines.<ref name="reuters" /><ref name="sanger" />

== Clinical research ==
{{main|COVID-19 vaccine clinical research}}
{{excerpt|hat=no|only=paragraphs|COVID-19 vaccine clinical research}}

=== Post-vaccination complications ===
{{main|Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination}}
{{excerpt|hat=no|only=paragraphs|Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination}}

== History ==
{{Excerpt|hat=no|History of COVID-19 vaccine development}}In November 2021, the full nucleotide sequences of the AstraZeneca and Pfizer/BioNTech vaccines were released by the UK [[Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency]], in response to a [[Freedom of Information Act 2000|freedom of information]] request.<ref>{{cite q|Q109371097}}</ref><ref name="Taylor">{{cite web |name-list-style=vanc |title=Sequences of Covid-19 vaccines released via WhatDoTheyKnow |url=https://www.mysociety.org/2021/11/02/sequences-of-covid-19-vaccines-released-via-whatdotheyknow/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105153752/https://www.mysociety.org/2021/11/02/sequences-of-covid-19-vaccines-released-via-whatdotheyknow/ |archive-date=5 November 2021 |access-date=2 November 2021 |publisher=[[mySociety]] |vauthors=Taylor R}}</ref>

== Effectiveness ==
{{Excerpt|COVID-19 vaccine efficacy|Effectiveness}}

=== Duration of immunity ===
As of 2021, available evidence shows that fully vaccinated individuals and those previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 have a low risk of subsequent infection for at least six months.<ref name="CDC Science Brief">{{Cite web|title=Science Brief: SARS-CoV-2 Infection-induced and Vaccine-induced Immunity|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/science/science-briefs/vaccine-induced-immunity.html|access-date=4 December 2021|website=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|archive-date=4 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204081226/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/science/science-briefs/vaccine-induced-immunity.html|url-status=live}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Levin EG, Lustig Y, Cohen C, Fluss R, Indenbaum V, Amit S, Doolman R, Asraf K, Mendelson E, Ziv A, Rubin C, Freedman L, Kreiss Y, Regev-Yochay G |title=Waning Immune Humoral Response to BNT162b2 Covid-19 Vaccine over 6 Months |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=385 |issue=24 |pages=e84 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2114583 |pmc=8522797 |pmid=34614326 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=COVID-19 Booster Shot |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/booster-shot.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821000645/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/booster-shot.html |archive-date=21 August 2021 |access-date=4 December 2021 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention}}</ref> There is insufficient data to determine an antibody titer threshold that indicates when an individual is protected from infection.<ref name="CDC Science Brief" /> Multiple studies show that antibody titers are associated with protection at the population level, but individual protection titers remain unknown.<ref name="CDC Science Brief" /> For some populations, such as the elderly and the [[immunocompromised]], protection levels may be reduced after both vaccination and infection.<ref name="CDC Science Brief" /> Available evidence indicates that the level of protection may not be the same for all [[Variants of SARS-CoV-2|variants of the virus]].<ref name="CDC Science Brief" />

As of December 2021, there are no FDA-authorized or approved tests that providers or the public can use to determine if a person is protected from infection reliably.<ref name="CDC Science Brief" />

As of March 2022, elderly residents' protection against severe illness, hospitalization and death in English care homes was high immediately after vaccination, but protection declined significantly in the months following vaccination.<ref name="Guardian 20220318" /> Protection among care home staff, who were younger, declined much more slowly.<ref name="Guardian 20220318" /> Regular boosters are recommended for older people, and boosters for care home residents every six months appear reasonable.<ref name="Guardian 20220318">{{cite news | vauthors=Devlin H | title=Covid immunity declines steeply in care home residents in England – study | website=[[The Guardian]] | date=18 March 2022 | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/18/covid-immunity-declines-steeply-in-care-home-residents-study | access-date=12 May 2022 | name-list-style=vanc | archive-date=23 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323091154/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/18/covid-immunity-declines-steeply-in-care-home-residents-study | url-status=live }}</ref>

The US [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) recommends a fourth dose of the Pfizer mRNA vaccine {{asof|2022|March|lc=y}}, for "certain immunocompromised individuals and people over the age of 50".<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Kimball S |title=CDC recommends fourth Pfizer and Moderna Covid vaccine doses for people age 50 and older |url= https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/29/fda-authorizes-fourth-pfizer-covid-vaccine-dose-for-people-age-50-and-older-.html |access-date=22 August 2022 |work=CNBC |archive-date=3 September 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220903154426/https://www.cnbc.com/2022/03/29/fda-authorizes-fourth-pfizer-covid-vaccine-dose-for-people-age-50-and-older-.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2022/s0328-covid-19-boosters.html |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=22 August 2022 |archive-date=1 September 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220901053403/https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2022/s0328-covid-19-boosters.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Immune evasion by variants ====
In contrast to other investigated prior variants, the [[SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang R, Chen J, Wei GW | title = Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 Evolution Revealing Vaccine-Resistant Mutations in Europe and America | journal = The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters | volume = 12 | issue = 49 | pages = 11850–11857 | date = December 2021 | pmid = 34873910 | pmc = 8672435 | doi = 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c03380 | url = https://users.math.msu.edu/users/weig/paper/p272.pdf | url-status = live | access-date = 27 January 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211218184752/https://users.math.msu.edu/users/weig/paper/p272.pdf | archive-date = 18 December 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Study findings suggest spread of Omicron can be ascribed to immune evasiveness rather than an increase in transmissibility |work=News-Medical.net |url=https://www.news-medical.net/news/20220105/Study-findings-suggest-spread-of-Omicron-can-be-ascribed-to-immune-evasiveness-rather-than-an-increase-in-transmissibility.aspx |url-status=live |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121182541/https://www.news-medical.net/news/20220105/Study-findings-suggest-spread-of-Omicron-can-be-ascribed-to-immune-evasiveness-rather-than-an-increase-in-transmissibility.aspx |archive-date=21 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cao Y, Wang J, Jian F, Xiao T, Song W, Yisimayi A, Huang W, Li Q, Wang P, An R, Wang J, Wang Y, Niu X, Yang S, Liang H, Sun H, Li T, Yu Y, Cui Q, Liu S, Yang X, Du S, Zhang Z, Hao X, Shao F, Jin R, Wang X, Xiao J, Wang Y, Xie XS | display-authors = 6 | title = Omicron escapes the majority of existing SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies | journal = Nature | volume = 602 | issue = 7898 | pages = 657–663 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 35016194 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-03796-6 | pmc = 8866119 | s2cid = 245455422 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu L, Iketani S, Guo Y, Chan JF, Wang M, Liu L, Luo Y, Chu H, Huang Y, Nair MS, Yu J, Chik KK, Yuen TT, Yoon C, To KK, Chen H, Yin MT, Sobieszczyk ME, Huang Y, Wang HH, Sheng Z, Yuen KY, Ho DD | display-authors = 6 | title = Striking antibody evasion manifested by the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 | journal = Nature | volume = 602 | issue = 7898 | pages = 676–681 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 35016198 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-03826-3 | s2cid = 245462866 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mohsin M, Mahmud S | title = Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern: A review on its transmissibility, immune evasion, reinfection, and severity | journal = Medicine | volume = 101 | issue = 19 | pages = e29165 | date = May 2022 | pmid = 35583528 | doi = 10.1097/MD.0000000000029165 | pmc = 9276130 | s2cid = 248858919 }}</ref> and its BA.4/5 subvariants<ref>{{cite news |title=How soon after catching COVID-19 can you get it again? |work=ABC News |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/health/2022-05-03/covid-19-reinfection-what-are-the-odds-of-catching-it-twice/101024180 |access-date=24 June 2022 |archive-date=9 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709233023/https://www.abc.net.au/news/health/2022-05-03/covid-19-reinfection-what-are-the-odds-of-catching-it-twice/101024180 |url-status=live }}</ref> have [[Antigenic escape|evaded immunity]] induced by vaccines, which may lead to [[breakthrough infection]]s despite recent vaccination. Nevertheless, vaccines are thought to provide protection against severe illness, hospitalizations, and deaths due to Omicron.<ref>{{cite web |title=Omicron Variant: What You Need to Know |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/variants/omicron-variant.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127152019/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/variants/omicron-variant.html |archive-date=27 January 2022 |access-date=27 January 2022 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention }}</ref>

===== Vaccine adjustments =====
{{See also|Universal coronavirus vaccine}}
{{Excerpt|SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant#Vaccine adjustments}}

=== Effectiveness against transmission ===
As of 2022, fully vaccinated individuals with [[breakthrough infection]]s with SARS-CoV-2 delta (B.1.617.2) variant have peak viral load similar to unvaccinated cases and can transmit infection in household settings.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal | vauthors = Singanayagam A, Hakki S, Dunning J, Madon KJ, Crone MA, Koycheva A, Derqui-Fernandez N, Barnett JL, Whitfield MG, Varro R, Charlett A, Kundu R, Fenn J, Cutajar J, Quinn V, Conibear E, Barclay W, Freemont PS, Taylor GP, Ahmad S, Zambon M, Ferguson NM, Lalvani A | display-authors = 6 | title = Community transmission and viral load kinetics of the SARS-CoV-2 delta (B.1.617.2) variant in vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals in the UK: a prospective, longitudinal, cohort study | journal = The Lancet. Infectious Diseases | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 183–195 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 34756186 | pmc = 8554486 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00648-4 }}</ref>

=== Mix and match ===
According to studies, the combination of two different COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines, also called cross vaccination or mix-and-match method, provides protection equivalent to that of mRNA vaccines – including protection against the [[Delta variant]]. Individuals who receive the combination of two different vaccines produce strong immune responses, with side effects no worse than those caused by standard regimens.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Callaway E | title = Mix-and-match COVID vaccines ace the effectiveness test | journal = Nature | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34675430 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-021-02853-4 | s2cid = 239455075 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rashedi R, Samieefar N, Masoumi N, Mohseni S, Rezaei N | title = COVID-19 vaccines mix-and-match: The concept, the efficacy and the doubts | journal = Journal of Medical Virology | volume = 94 | issue = 4 | pages = 1294–1299 | date = April 2022 | pmid = 34796525 | pmc = 8661746 | doi = 10.1002/jmv.27463 }}</ref>

== Adverse events ==

For most people, the side effects, also called ''[[adverse effects]]'', from COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines are mild and can be managed at home. Adverse effects of the COVID-19 vaccination are similar to other vaccines, and severe adverse effects are rare.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kouhpayeh H, Ansari H | title = Adverse events following COVID-19 vaccination: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = International Immunopharmacology | volume = 109 | pages = 108906 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 35671640 | doi = 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.108906 | pmc = 9148928 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Graña C, Ghosn L, Evrenoglou T, Jarde A, Minozzi S, Bergman H, Buckley BS, Probyn K, Villanueva G, Henschke N, Bonnet H, Assi R, Menon S, Marti M, Devane D, Mallon P, Lelievre JD, Askie LM, Kredo T, Ferrand G, Davidson M, Riveros C, Tovey D, Meerpohl JJ, Grasselli G, Rada G, Hróbjartsson A, Ravaud P, Chaimani A, Boutron I | display-authors = 6 | title = Efficacy and safety of COVID-19 vaccines | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 12 | issue = 12 | pages = CD015477 | date = December 2022 | pmid = 36473651 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD015477 | pmc = 9726273 }}</ref> Adverse effects from the vaccine are higher than placebo, but placebo arms of vaccine trials still reported adverse effects that can be attributed to the [[nocebo effect]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haas JW, Bender FL, Ballou S, Kelley JM, Wilhelm M, Miller FG, Rief W, Kaptchuk TJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Frequency of Adverse Events in the Placebo Arms of COVID-19 Vaccine Trials: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis | journal = JAMA Network Open | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = e2143955 | date = January 2022 | pmid = 35040967 | doi = 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.43955 | pmc = 8767431 }}</ref>

All vaccines that are administered via [[intramuscular injection]], including COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines, have side effects related to the mild trauma associated with the procedure and introduction of a foreign substance into the body.<ref name="Polania">{{cite book | vauthors = Polania Gutierrez JJ, Munakomi S | date = January 2020 | chapter = Intramuscular Injection | chapter-url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556121/ | location = Treasure Island (FL) | publisher = StatPearls Publishing | title = StatPearls | pmid = 32310581 | access-date = 24 July 2021 | archive-date = 8 December 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201208182850/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556121/ | url-status = live }}</ref> These include soreness, redness, rash, and inflammation at the injection site. Other common side effects include fatigue, headache, [[myalgia]] (muscle pain), and [[arthralgia]] (joint pain), all of which generally resolve without medical treatment within a few days.<ref name="who-back">{{cite report |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/1330343/retrieve |title=Background document on the mRNA-1273 vaccine (Moderna) against COVID-19 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |id=WHO/2019-nCoV/vaccines/SAGE_recommendation/mRNA-1273/background/2021.1 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10665/339218 |access-date=24 July 2021 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613133906/https://apps.who.int/iris/rest/bitstreams/1330343/retrieve |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Background document on the mRNA-1273 vaccine (Moderna) against COVID-19 |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/background-document-on-the-mrna-1273-vaccine-(moderna)-against-covid-19 |access-date=23 January 2022 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |archive-date=26 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126053538/https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/background-document-on-the-mrna-1273-vaccine-(moderna)-against-covid-19 |url-status=live }}</ref> Like any other vaccine, some people are [[allergic]] to one or more ingredients in COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines. Typical side effects are stronger and more common in younger people and in subsequent doses, and up to 20% of people report a disruptive level of side effects after the second dose of an mRNA vaccine.<ref name="Huang_2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang Z, Su Y, Zhang T, Xia N | title = A review of the safety and efficacy of current COVID-19 vaccines | journal = Frontiers of Medicine | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–55 | date = February 2022 | pmid = 35122210 | pmc = 8815389 | doi = 10.1007/s11684-021-0893-y }}</ref> These side effects are less common or weaker in [[inactivated vaccine]]s.<ref name="Huang_2022" /> Covid-19 vaccination related [[lymphadenopathy|enlargement of lymph node]] happens in 11.6% of those who received one dose of vaccine and in 16% of those received two doses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tu W, Gierada DS, Joe BN | title = COVID-19 Vaccination-Related Lymphadenopathy: What To Be Aware Of | journal = Radiology. Imaging Cancer | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = e210038 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33874733 | pmc = 8049171 | doi = 10.1148/rycan.2021210038 }}</ref>

Experiments in mice show that intramuscular injections of lipid [[excipient]] nanoparticles (inactive substance that serves as the vehicle or medium) causes particles to enter the blood plasma and many organs with higher concentrations found in the liver, and lower concentrations in the spleen, adrenal glands, and ovaries. The highest concentration of nanoparticles was found at the injection site itself.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nonclinical Evaluation Report: BNT162b2 [mRNA] COVID-19 vaccine |url=https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/foi-2389-06.pdf |website=Australian Department of Health: Therapeutic Goods Administration |access-date=25 March 2023 |archive-date=28 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328233750/https://www.tga.gov.au/sites/default/files/foi-2389-06.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccination is safe for breastfeeding people.<ref name=breastf>{{cite web |publisher=NHS |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/coronavirus-vaccination/pregnancy-breastfeeding-fertility-and-coronavirus-covid-19-vaccination/ |title=Pregnancy, breastfeeding, fertility and coronavirus (COVID-19) vaccination |access-date=15 October 2022 |archive-date=15 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221015155517/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/coronavirus-covid-19/coronavirus-vaccination/pregnancy-breastfeeding-fertility-and-coronavirus-covid-19-vaccination/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Temporary changes to the [[menstrual cycle]] in young women have been reported. However, these changes are "small compared with natural variation and quickly reverse".<ref name="Menstruation">{{cite journal | vauthors = Male V | title = Menstruation and covid-19 vaccination | journal = BMJ | volume = 376 | pages = o142 | date = January 2022 | pmid = 35082132 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.o142 | s2cid = 246287912 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In one study, women who received both doses of a two-dose vaccine during the same menstrual cycle (an atypical situation) may see their next period begin a couple of days late. They have about twice the usual risk of a clinically significant delay (about 10% of these women, compared to about 4% of unvaccinated women).<ref name="Menstruation" /> Cycle lengths return to normal after two menstrual cycles post-vaccination.<ref name="Menstruation" /> Women who received doses in separate cycles had approximately the same natural variation in cycle lengths as unvaccinated women.<ref name="Menstruation" /> Other temporary menstrual effects have been reported, such as heavier than normal menstrual bleeding after vaccination.<ref name="Menstruation" />

Serious [[Vaccine adverse event|adverse events]] associated COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines are generally rare but of high interest to the public.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Montgomery J, Ryan M, Engler R, Hoffman D, McClenathan B, Collins L, Loran D, Hrncir D, Herring K, Platzer M, Adams N, Sanou A, Cooper LT |title=Myocarditis Following Immunization With mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines in Members of the US Military |journal=JAMA Cardiology |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=1202–06 |doi=10.1001/jamacardio.2021.2833 |pmc=8243257 |pmid=34185045 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi }}</ref> The official databases of reported adverse events include the World Health Organization's [[VigiBase]], the United States [[Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System]] (VAERS) and the United Kingdom's [[Yellow Card Scheme]]. Increased public awareness of these reporting systems and the extra reporting requirements under US FDA [[Emergency Use Authorization]] rules have increased reported adverse events.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=McDonald J |title=Increase in COVID-19 VAERS Reports Due To Reporting Requirements, Intense Scrutiny of Widely Given Vaccines |url=https://www.factcheck.org/2021/12/scicheck-increase-in-covid-19-vaers-reports-due-to-reporting-requirements-intense-scrutiny-of-widely-given-vaccines/ |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=FactCheck.org |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520020203/https://www.factcheck.org/2021/12/scicheck-increase-in-covid-19-vaers-reports-due-to-reporting-requirements-intense-scrutiny-of-widely-given-vaccines/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Serious side effects are an ongoing area of study, and resources have been allocated to try and better understand them.<ref>Treating Post-Vac-Syndrome – DW – 11 Oct 2022. [https://www.dw.com/en/treating-the-long-term-symptoms-of-post-vac-syndrome/video-63710911] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417113134/https://www.dw.com/en/treating-the-long-term-symptoms-of-post-vac-syndrome/video-63710911 }}</ref><ref>UKGM Spezialsprechstunde Post-Vax (Post-Vac Special Consultation). [https://www.ukgm.de/ugm_2/deu/umr_kar/51186.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504041112/https://www.ukgm.de/ugm_2/deu/umr_kar/51186.html }}</ref><ref>[https://m.faz.net/aktuell/rhein-main/corona-impfschaeden-uniklinik-marburg-oeffnet-eigene-ambulanz-18796703.html] ((in German)) ''Corona-Impfschäden: Uniklinik Marburg öffnet eigene Ambulanz'' 3 April 2023 Frankfurter Allgemeine</ref> Research currently indicates that the rate and type of side effects are lower risk then infection. For example, although vaccination may trigger some side effects, the effects experienced from an infection could be worse. Neurological side effects from getting COVID-19 are hundreds of times more likely than from vaccination.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frontera JA, Tamborska AA, Doheim MF, Garcia-Azorin D, Gezegen H, Guekht A, Yusof Khan AH, Santacatterina M, Sejvar J, Thakur KT, Westenberg E, Winkler AS, Beghi E | display-authors = 6 | title = Neurological Events Reported after COVID-19 Vaccines: An Analysis of VAERS | journal = Annals of Neurology | volume = 91 | issue = 6 | pages = 756–771 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 35233819 | doi = 10.1002/ana.26339 | pmc = 9082459 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Documented rare serious effects include:

* [[anaphylaxis]], a severe type of [[allergic reaction]].<ref name="Altmann_2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Altmann DM, Boyton RJ | title = COVID-19 vaccination: The road ahead | journal = Science | volume = 375 | issue = 6585 | pages = 1127–1132 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 35271316 | doi = 10.1126/science.abn1755 | bibcode = 2022Sci...375.1127A | s2cid = 247384207 }}</ref> Anaphylaxis affects one person per 250,000 to 400,000 doses administered.<ref name="Huang_2022" /><ref name="COVID-19 vaccines safety update">{{cite report | title=COVID-19 vaccines safety update | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/documents/covid-19-vaccine-safety-update/covid-19-vaccines-safety-update-14-july-2022_en.pdf | date= | access-date=6 September 2022 | archive-date=3 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803225933/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/covid-19-vaccine-safety-update/covid-19-vaccines-safety-update-14-july-2022_en.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccination|blood clots]] (''thrombosis'').<ref name="Altmann_2022" /> These [[Embolic and thrombotic events after COVID-19 vaccination|vaccine-induced immune thrombocytopenia and thrombosis]] are associated with vaccines using an adenovirus system (Janssen and Oxford-AstraZeneca).<ref name="Altmann_2022" /> These affect about one person per 100,000.<ref name="Huang_2022" />
* [[myocarditis]] and [[pericarditis]], or inflammation of the heart.<ref name="Altmann_2022" /> There is a rare risk of myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle) or pericarditis (inflammation of the membrane covering the heart) after the mRNA COVID-19 vaccines (Moderna or Pfizer-BioNTech). The risk of myocarditis after COVID-19 vaccination is estimated to be 0.3 to 5 cases per 100,000 persons with the highest risk in young males.<ref name="NEJM Basso">{{cite journal | vauthors = Basso C | title = Myocarditis | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 387 | issue = 16 | pages = 1488–1500 | date = October 2022 | pmid = 36260793 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra2114478 }}</ref> In an Israeli nation-wide population based study (in which the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine was exclusively given), the incidence rate of myocarditis was 54 cases out of 2.5 million vaccine recipients, with an overall incidence rate of 2 cases per 100,000 persons, with the highest incidence seen in young males (aged 16 to 29) at 10 cases per 100,000 vaccine recipients. Of the cases of myocarditis seen, 76% were mild in severity, with one case of cardiogenic shock (heart failure) and one death (in a person with a preexisting heart condition) reported within the 83 day follow-up period.<ref name="NEJM Israel study">{{cite journal | vauthors = Witberg G, Barda N, Hoss S, Richter I, Wiessman M, Aviv Y, Grinberg T, Auster O, Dagan N, Balicer RD, Kornowski R | display-authors = 6 | title = Myocarditis after Covid-19 Vaccination in a Large Health Care Organization | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 385 | issue = 23 | pages = 2132–2139 | date = December 2021 | pmid = 34614329 | pmc = 8531986 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa2110737 | s2cid = 238421512 }}</ref> COVID-19 vaccines may protect against myocarditis due to subsequent COVID-19 infection.<ref name="AHA 8/2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Patone M, Mei XW, Handunnetthi L, Dixon S, Zaccardi F, Shankar-Hari M, Watkinson P, Khunti K, Harnden A, Coupland CA, Channon KM, Mills NL, Sheikh A, Hippisley-Cox J | display-authors = 6 | title = Risk of Myocarditis After Sequential Doses of COVID-19 Vaccine and SARS-CoV-2 Infection by Age and Sex | journal = Circulation | volume = 146 | issue = 10 | pages = 743–754 | date = September 2022 | pmid = 35993236 | pmc = 9439633 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.059970 }}</ref> The risk of myocarditis and pericarditis is significantly higher (up to 11 times higher with respect to myocarditis) after COVID-19 infection as compared to COVID-19 vaccination, with the possible exception of younger men (less than 40 years old) who may have a higher risk of myocarditis after the second Moderna mRNA vaccine (an additional 97 cases of myocarditis per 1 million persons vaccinated).<ref name="AHA 8/2022" />

* thrombotic thrombocytopenia and other autoimmune diseases, which have been reported as adverse events after COVID-19 vaccine.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen Y, Xu Z, Wang P, Li XM, Shuai ZW, Ye DQ, Pan HF | title = New-onset autoimmune phenomena post-COVID-19 vaccination | journal = Immunology | volume = 165 | issue = 4 | pages = 386–401 | date = April 2022 | pmid = 34957554 | doi = 10.1111/imm.13443 | s2cid = 245522029 }}</ref>

There are rare reports of [[Subjective well-being|subjective]] hearing changes, including [[tinnitus]], after vaccination.<ref name="COVID-19 vaccines safety update" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jafari Z, Kolb BE, Mohajerani MH | title = Hearing Loss, Tinnitus, and Dizziness in COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis | journal = The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences | volume = 49 | issue = 2 | pages = 184–195 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 33843530 | pmc = 8267343 | doi = 10.1017/cjn.2021.63 | title-link = doi | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Slomski_2022">{{cite journal |vauthors=Slomski A |title=Studies Examine Risk of Hearing Loss After COVID-19 Vaccination |journal=JAMA |volume=327 |issue=17 |pages=1641 |doi=10.1001/jama.2022.6719 |pmid=35503358 |s2cid=248502943}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dorney I, Bobak L, Otteson T, Kaelber DC | title = Prevalence of New-Onset Tinnitus after COVID-19 Vaccination with Comparison to Other Vaccinations | journal = The Laryngoscope | pages = 1722–1725 | date = September 2022 | volume = 133 | issue = 7 | pmid = 36098476 | doi = 10.1002/lary.30395 | pmc = 9539087 }}</ref>

== Society and culture ==
=== Distribution ===
{{main|Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines}}
'''''Note''' about table in this section: Number and percentage of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine (unless noted otherwise). May include vaccination of non-citizens, which can push totals beyond 100% of the local population. Table is updated daily by a bot.<ref group=note name=bot-note>The table data is automatically updated daily by a bot; see [[Template:COVID-19 data]] for more information. Scroll down past the table to find the documentation and the main reference. See also: [[:Category:Automatically updated COVID-19 pandemic table templates]].</ref>''
<div style="float:right;margin-left:10px;">{{COVID-19 vaccination data|name-list-style=vanc}}</div>
{{Excerpt|hat=no|Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines|only=paragraphs}}
{{Gallery
|mode=packed
|height=240
|align=center
|File:World map of share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine by country.png
|Share of people who have received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine relative to a country's total population. Date is on the map. [[commons:File:World map of share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine by country.png|Commons source]].
|File:World map of COVID-19 vaccination doses administered per 100 people by country or territory.png

|COVID-19 vaccine doses administered per 100 people by country. The date is on the map. [[commons:File:World map of share of people who received at least one dose of COVID-19 vaccine by country.png|Commons source]].
}}

=== Access ===
{{Further|Deployment of COVID-19 vaccines#Equitable access}}
Countries have extremely unequal access to the COVID-19 vaccine. [[Vaccine equity]] has not been achieved or even approximated. The inequity has harmed both countries with poor access and countries with good access.<ref name="Hotez"/><ref name="Ye"/><ref name=lanceted/>

Nations pledged to buy doses of the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines before the doses were available. Though high-income nations represent only 14% of the global population, as of 15 November 2020, they had contracted to buy 51% of all pre-sold doses. Some high-income nations bought more doses than would be necessary to vaccinate their entire populations.<ref name="So" />
[[File:Fábrica do DF produz vacina Sputnik V (50874839072).jpg|thumb|Production of Sputnik V vaccine in Brazil, January 2021]]
[[File:Brasileiro tomando vacina contra o COVID-19.jpg|thumb|An elderly man receiving second dose of [[CoronaVac]] vaccine in Brazil, April 2021]]
[[File:Covid vaccination for children aged 12-14 in India 03.jpg|thumb|Covid vaccination for children aged 12–14 in [[Bhopal]], India]]
In January 2021, WHO Director-General [[Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus]] warned of problems with equitable distribution: "More than 39 million doses of vaccine have now been administered in at least 49 higher-income countries. Just 25 doses have been given in one lowest-income countries. Not 25 million; not 25 thousand; just 25."<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Adhanom Ghebreyesus T|title=WHO Director-General's opening remarks at 148th session of the Executive Board|url=https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-148th-session-of-the-executive-board|access-date=25 January 2021|work=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)|archive-date=12 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112045815/https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-148th-session-of-the-executive-board|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2021, it was revealed the US attempted to convince Brazil not to purchase the [[Sputnik V COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine|Sputnik V]] COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine, fearing "Russian influence" in Latin America.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. pressured Brazil to ditch Russia's Sputnik V vaccine|url=https://brazilian.report/coronavirus-brazil-live-blog/2021/03/15/us-pressured-brazil-ditch-russias-sputnik-v-vaccine/|access-date=21 March 2021|website=The Brazilian Report|archive-date=15 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315132124/https://brazilian.report/coronavirus-brazil-live-blog/2021/03/15/us-pressured-brazil-ditch-russias-sputnik-v-vaccine/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some nations involved in long-standing territorial disputes have reportedly had their access to vaccines blocked by competing nations; [[State of Palestine|Palestine]] has accused Israel of blocking vaccine delivery to [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]], while [[Taiwan]] has suggested that China has hampered its efforts to procure vaccine doses.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel blocked Covid vaccines from entering Gaza, say Palestinians |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/16/israel-blocked-covid-vaccines-from-entering-gaza-say-palestinians |access-date=17 February 2021 |vauthors=Holmes O |archive-date=16 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210216135520/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/16/israel-blocked-covid-vaccines-from-entering-gaza-say-palestinians |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Israel's Vaccine Success Unleashes a Debate on Palestinian Inequities |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/04/world/middleeast/israel-palestinians-vaccine.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/04/world/middleeast/israel-palestinians-vaccine.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited |access-date=17 February 2021 |vauthors=Rasgon A| url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Horton C |title=Taiwan Concerned China May Have Blocked Vaccine Purchase |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-17/taiwan-concerned-china-may-have-blocked-vaccine-purchase |access-date=17 February 2021 |archive-date=17 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217092645/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-17/taiwan-concerned-china-may-have-blocked-vaccine-purchase |url-status=live }}</ref>

A single dose of the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines by [[AstraZeneca]] would cost 47 [[Egyptian pound]]s (EGP), and the authorities are selling it between 100 and 200 EGP. A report by Carnegie Endowment for International Peace cited the poverty rate in Egypt as around 29.7 percent, which constitutes approximately 30.5 million people, and claimed that about 15 million of Egyptians would be unable to gain access to the luxury of vaccination. A human rights lawyer, Khaled Ali, launched a lawsuit against the government, forcing them to provide vaccination free of cost to all members of the public.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83933|title=Playing Politics with Poverty: Sisi's COVID-19 Vaccine Strategy|access-date=25 February 2021|website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|archive-date=28 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228160344/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/83933|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to [[Immunology|immunologist]] [[Anthony Fauci]], mutant strains of the virus and limited vaccine distribution pose continuing risks and he said: "we have to get the entire world vaccinated, not just our own country."<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Strazewski L|title=Dr. Fauci: Variants reveal COVID-19 vaccination as global job|url=https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/public-health/dr-fauci-variants-reveal-covid-19-vaccination-global-job|access-date=4 March 2021|website=American Medical Association|archive-date=10 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010115053/https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/public-health/dr-fauci-variants-reveal-covid-19-vaccination-global-job|url-status=live}}</ref> Edward Bergmark and [[Arick Wierson]] are calling for a global vaccination effort and wrote that the wealthier nations' "me-first" mentality could ultimately backfire because the spread of the virus in poorer countries would lead to more variants, against which the vaccines could be less effective.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Bergmark E, Wierson A|title=Opinion: Without a global vaccine plan, coronavirus variants could lead to untold number of deaths|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/26/perspectives/covid-variants-global-vaccination/index.html|access-date=4 March 2021|website=CNN|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019124133/https://www.cnn.com/2021/02/26/perspectives/covid-variants-global-vaccination/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2021, the United States, Britain, European Union member states and some other members of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) blocked [[Waiver from certain provisions of the TRIPS Agreement for the Prevention, Containment and Treatment of COVID-19|a push by more than eighty developing countries to waive COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine patent rights]] in an effort to boost production of vaccines for poor nations.<ref>{{cite web | date=10 March 2021|title=Rich, developing nations wrangle over COVID vaccine patents|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-wto-idUSKBN2B21V9|access-date=19 June 2021| vauthors = Blenkinsop P, Maclean W, Ellis A |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210311110904/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-wto-idUSKBN2B21V9|archive-date=11 March 2021|url-status=live|website=Reuters }}</ref> On 5 May 2021, the [[Presidency of Joe Biden|US government under President Joe Biden]] announced that it supports waiving intellectual property protections for COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Macias AM, Breuninger K, Franck|title=U.S. backs waiving patent protections for Covid vaccines, citing global health crisis|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/05/05/us-backs-covid-vaccine-intellectual-property-waivers-to-expand-access-to-shots-worldwide.html|access-date=5 May 2021|website=CNBC|archive-date=5 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505192749/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/05/05/us-backs-covid-vaccine-intellectual-property-waivers-to-expand-access-to-shots-worldwide.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Members of the European Parliament have backed a motion demanding the temporary lifting of intellectual properties rights for COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Sánchez Nicolás E|title=Pressure builds on EU to back WTO vaccine-patent waiver|url=https://euobserver.com/coronavirus/152109|access-date=14 June 2021|website=EUobserver|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019023651/https://euobserver.com/coronavirus/152109|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:COVID-19 mass vaccination in Ratina, Tampere, Finland.jpg|thumb|left|COVID{{nbhyph}}19 mass vaccination queue in Finland, June 2021]]
[[File:Iran COVID19-Vaccination center.jpg|thumb|left|A drive-through COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccination center in Iran, August 2021]]

In a meeting in April 2021, the World Health Organization's emergency committee addressed concerns of persistent inequity in the global vaccine distribution.<ref>{{cite web|title=WHO says against proof of Covid-19 vaccination for international travel|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3130249/who-says-against-proof-covid-19-vaccination-international-travel|access-date=17 May 2021|website=South China Morning Post|archive-date=3 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503215233/https://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/3130249/who-says-against-proof-covid-19-vaccination-international-travel|url-status=live}}</ref> Although 9 percent of the world's population lives in the 29 poorest countries, these countries had received only 0.3% of all vaccines administered as of May 2021.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Goodman PS, Mandavilli A, Robbins R, Stevis-Gridneff M |title=What Would It Take to Vaccinate the World Against Covid? |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/15/world/americas/covid-vaccine-patent-biden.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515193214/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/15/world/americas/covid-vaccine-patent-biden.html |archive-date=15 May 2021 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=17 May 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In March 2021, Brazilian journalism agency [[Agência Pública]] reported that the country vaccinated about twice as many people who declare themselves white than black and noted that mortality from COVID{{nbhyph}}19 is higher in the black population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apublica.org/2021/03/brasil-registra-duas-vezes-mais-pessoas-brancas-vacinadas-que-negras/|title=Brasil registra duas vezes mais pessoas brancas vacinadas que negras|trans-title=Brazil registers twice as many white people vaccinated as black people| vauthors = Muniz B, Fonseca B, Fernandes L, Pina R |accessdate=28 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315234311/https://apublica.org/2021/03/brasil-registra-duas-vezes-mais-pessoas-brancas-vacinadas-que-negras/|archive-date=15 March 2021|url-status=live|work=[[Agência Pública]]|language=pt-br}}</ref>

In May 2021, [[UNICEF]] made an urgent appeal to industrialized nations to pool their excess COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine capacity to make up for a 125-million-dose gap in the [[COVAX]] program. The program mostly relied on the [[Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine]] produced by [[Serum Institute of India]], which faced serious supply problems due to increased domestic vaccine needs in India from March to June 2021. Only a limited amount of vaccines can be distributed efficiently, and the shortfall of vaccines in South America and parts of Asia are due to a lack of expedient donations by richer nations. International aid organizations have pointed at Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Maldives as well as Argentina and Brazil, and some parts of the Caribbean as problem areas, where vaccines are in short supply. In mid-May 2021, UNICEF was also critical of the fact that most proposed donations of Moderna and Pfizer vaccines were not slated for delivery until the second half of 2021, or early in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2021/05/un-agencies-make-urgent-appeal-covax-vaccine-doses |title=UN agencies make urgent appeal for COVAX vaccine doses |vauthors=Schnirring L |work=[[Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy|CIDRAP]] |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=31 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031100236/https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2021/05/un-agencies-make-urgent-appeal-covax-vaccine-doses |url-status=live }}</ref>

In July 2021, the heads of the World Bank Group, the International Monetary Fund, the World Health Organization, and the World Trade Organization said in a joint statement: "As many countries are struggling with new variants, and a third wave of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 infections, accelerating access to vaccines becomes even more critical to ending the pandemic everywhere and achieving broad-based growth. We are deeply concerned about the limited vaccines, therapeutics, diagnostics, and support for deliveries available to developing countries."<ref>{{cite web|title=First Meeting of the Task Force on COVID-19 Vaccines, Therapeutics and Diagnostics for Developing Countries|url=https://www.who.int/news/item/30-06-2021-first-meeting-of-the-task-force-on-covid-19-vaccines-therapeutics-and-diagnostics-for-developing-countries|access-date=5 July 2021|website=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019012233/https://www.who.int/news/item/30-06-2021-first-meeting-of-the-task-force-on-covid-19-vaccines-therapeutics-and-diagnostics-for-developing-countries|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Tapper J, McKie R|title=Vaccines 'outpaced by variants', WHO warns, as Delta now in 98 countries|url=http://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/jul/03/vaccines-outpaced-by-variants-who-warns-as-delta-now-in-98-countries|access-date=5 July 2021|website=[[The Guardian]]|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021000507/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/jul/03/vaccines-outpaced-by-variants-who-warns-as-delta-now-in-98-countries|url-status=live}}</ref> In July 2021, ''[[The BMJ]]'' reported that countries have thrown out over 250,000 vaccine doses as supply exceeded demand and strict laws prevented the sharing of vaccines.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mahase E | title = Covid-19: Countries dump vaccines as demand slumps and sharing proves difficult | journal = BMJ | volume = 374 | pages = n1893 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 34315725 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.n1893 | s2cid = 236457553 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}</ref> A survey by ''[[The New York Times]]'' found that over a million doses of vaccine had been thrown away in ten U.S. states because federal regulations prohibit recalling them, preventing their redistribution abroad.<ref>{{cite news | vauthors = Levin D |title=The U.S. is wasting vaccine doses, even as cases rise and other countries suffer shortages. |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/01/us/covid-us-vaccine-wasted.html |url-status=live |access-date=10 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809193617/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/01/us/covid-us-vaccine-wasted.html |archive-date=9 August 2021}}</ref> Furthermore, doses donated close to expiration often cannot be administered quickly enough by recipient countries and end up having to be discarded.<ref>{{cite news |title=Covid-19 vaccines: Why some African states can't use their vaccines |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/56940657 |access-date=20 August 2021 |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114043558/https://www.bbc.com/news/56940657 |url-status=live }}</ref> To help overcome this problem, the Prime Minister of India, [[Narendra Modi]] announced that they would make their digital vaccination management platform [[CoWIN]] open to the global community. He also announced that India would also release the source code for the contact tracing app [[Aarogya Setu]] for developers around the world. Around 142 countries including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Guyana, Antigua & Barbuda, St. Kitts & Nevis and Zambia expressed their interest in the application for COVID management.<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=Das S |title=CoWIN goes global: India makes tech open source, 142 nations show interest |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/cowin-goes-global-india-makes-tech-open-source-142-nations-show-interest-121070501046_1.html |access-date=25 March 2022 |archive-date=25 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325083051/https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/cowin-goes-global-india-makes-tech-open-source-142-nations-show-interest-121070501046_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |title=Aarogya Setu is now open source |url=https://pib.gov.in/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1626979 |access-date=25 March 2022 |website=pib.gov.in |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328195237/https://pib.gov.in/ErrorPage.html?aspxerrorpath=%2Fpib.gov.in%2FPressreleaseshare.aspx |url-status=dead }}{{dead link}}</ref>

[[Amnesty International]] and [[Oxfam#Oxfam International|Oxfam International]] have criticized the support of vaccine monopolies by the governments of producing countries, noting that this is dramatically increasing the dose price by five times and often much more, creating an economic barrier to access for poor countries.<ref>{{cite press release |title=G7 support for pharma monopolies is putting millions of lives at risk |publisher=Amnesty International |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2021/06/g7-support-for-pharma-monopolies-putting-millions-of-lives-at-risk/ |access-date=20 August 2021 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019023637/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2021/06/g7-support-for-pharma-monopolies-putting-millions-of-lives-at-risk/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=Vaccine monopolies make cost of vaccinating the world against COVID at least 5 times more expensive than it could be |publisher=Oxfam International |url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/vaccine-monopolies-make-cost-vaccinating-world-against-covid-least-5-times-more |access-date=20 August 2021 |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110095146/https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/vaccine-monopolies-make-cost-vaccinating-world-against-covid-least-5-times-more |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Médecins Sans Frontières]] (Doctors without Borders) has also criticized vaccine monopolies and repeatedly called from their suspension, supporting the [[Waiver from certain provisions of the TRIPS Agreement for the Prevention, Containment and Treatment of COVID-19|TRIPS Waiver]]. The waiver was first proposed in October 2020 and has support from most countries, but delayed by opposition from EU (especially Germany – major EU countries such as France, Italy, and Spain support the exemption),<ref>{{Cite web| vauthors = Stiglitz J |title=If Olaf Scholz is serious about progress, he must back a patent waiver for Covid vaccines|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/dec/15/olaf-scholz-patent-waiver-covid-vaccines-germany-eu|url-status=live|access-date=15 December 2021|website=[[The Guardian]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215123521/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/dec/15/olaf-scholz-patent-waiver-covid-vaccines-germany-eu |archive-date=15 December 2021 }}</ref> UK, Norway, and Switzerland, among others. MSF called for a Day of Action in September 2021 to put pressure on the [[WTO]] Minister's meeting in November, which was expected to discuss the TRIPS [[intellectual property|IP]] waiver.<ref name="TRIPS">{{cite web |title=Countries must not let another opportunity slip by to advance the global waiver on overcoming COVID-19 medical-tool monopolies |url=https://www.msfindia.in/countries-must-not-let-another-opportunity-slip-by-to-advance-the-global-waiver-on-overcoming-covid-19-medical-tool-monopolies/ |website=Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF)/Doctors Without Borders |access-date=23 September 2021 |archive-date=10 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010113553/https://www.msfindia.in/countries-must-not-let-another-opportunity-slip-by-to-advance-the-global-waiver-on-overcoming-covid-19-medical-tool-monopolies/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="no_patents">{{cite web |title=MSF calls for no patents or profiteering on COVID-19 drugs and vaccines / No profiteering on COVID-19 drugs and vaccines, says MSF |url=https://www.msf.org/no-profiteering-covid-19-drugs-and-vaccines-says-msf |website=Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) International |access-date=23 September 2021 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126191836/https://www.msf.org/no-profiteering-covid-19-drugs-and-vaccines-says-msf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="profiteering">{{cite web |title=Governments must act fast on consensus supporting historic move to suspend monopolies during pandemic / COVID-19: Governments must build consensus around waiver |url=https://www.msf.org/covid-19-governments-must-build-consensus-around-waiver |website=Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) International |access-date=23 September 2021 |archive-date=23 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023213012/https://www.msf.org/covid-19-governments-must-build-consensus-around-waiver |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Inside view of the vaccination centre 2.jpg|thumb|Inside of a vaccination center in [[Brussels]], Belgium, February 2021]]
In August 2021, to reduce unequal distribution between rich and poor countries, the WHO called for a [[Moratorium (law)|moratorium]] on a [[booster dose]] at least until the end of September. However, in August, the United States government announced plans to offer booster doses eight months after the initial course to the general population, starting with priority groups. Before the announcement, the WHO harshly criticized this type of a decision, citing the lack of evidence for the need for boosters, except for patients with specific conditions. At this time, vaccine coverage of at least one dose was 58% in high-income countries and only 1.3% in low-income countries, and 1.14 million Americans already received an unauthorized booster dose. US officials argued that waning efficacy against mild and moderate disease might indicate reduced protection against severe disease in the coming months. Israel, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom have also started planning boosters for specific groups.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The WHO is right to call a temporary halt to COVID vaccine boosters |journal=Nature |volume=596 |issue=7872 |pages=317 |doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02219-w|pmid=34404945 |bibcode=2021Natur.596..317. |s2cid=237199262 | doi-access=free | title-link=doi }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=WHO slams wealthy nations' rush towards Covid booster shots while millions worldwide lack first jab |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210818-who-slams-wealthy-nations-rush-towards-covid-booster-shots-while-millions-worldwide-lack-first-jab |access-date=21 August 2021 |work=France 24 |agency=Agence France-Presse |archive-date=2 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102043229/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210818-who-slams-wealthy-nations-rush-towards-covid-booster-shots-while-millions-worldwide-lack-first-jab |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Kramer J |title=The U.S. plans to authorize boosters—but many already got a third dose |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/the-us-is-expected-to-authorize-boostersbut-many-already-got-a-third-dose |access-date=21 August 2021 |work=National Geographic |archive-date=10 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010113551/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/the-us-is-expected-to-authorize-boostersbut-many-already-got-a-third-dose |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2021, more than 140 former world leaders, and Nobel laureates, including former President of France [[François Hollande]], former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom [[Gordon Brown]], former Prime Minister of New Zealand [[Helen Clark]], and Professor [[Joseph Stiglitz]], called on the candidates to be the next German chancellor to declare themselves in favour of waiving intellectual property rules for COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines and transferring vaccine technologies.<ref>{{Cite press release|title=More than 140 former heads of state and Nobel laureates call on candidates for German chancellor to waive intellectual property rules for COVID-19 vaccines|url=https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/more-140-former-heads-state-and-nobel-laureates-call-candidates-german-chancellor|access-date=22 September 2021|website=Oxfam International|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019012236/https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/more-140-former-heads-state-and-nobel-laureates-call-candidates-german-chancellor|url-status=live}}</ref> In November 2021, nursing unions in 28 countries have filed a formal appeal with the United Nations over the refusal of the UK, EU, Norway, Switzerland, and Singapore to temporarily waive patents for Covid vaccines.<ref>{{Cite web|vauthors=Walker P|title=Nursing unions around world call for UN action on Covid vaccine patents|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/29/nursing-unions-around-world-call-for-un-action-on-covid-vaccine-patents|access-date=29 November 2021|website=[[The Guardian]]|archive-date=29 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129233801/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/29/nursing-unions-around-world-call-for-un-action-on-covid-vaccine-patents|url-status=live}}</ref>

During his first international trip, [[President of Peru]] [[Pedro Castillo]] spoke at the [[seventy-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly]] on 21 September 2021, proposing the creation of an international [[treaty]] signed by world leaders and [[Pharmaceutical industry|pharmaceutical companies]] to guarantee universal vaccine access, arguing "The battle against the pandemic has shown us the failure of the international community to cooperate under the principle of solidarity".<ref name=":16">{{Cite news|vauthors=Psaledakis D|title=Developing nations' plea to world's wealthy at U.N.: stop vaccine hoarding|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/developing-nations-plea-worlds-wealthy-un-stop-vaccine-hoarding-2021-09-22/|access-date=29 September 2021|archive-date=10 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110152208/https://www.reuters.com/world/developing-nations-plea-worlds-wealthy-un-stop-vaccine-hoarding-2021-09-22/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|author=Empresa Peruana de Servicios Editoriales S. A. EDITORA PERÚ|title=Peru: President suggests global agreement at UN ensuring universal access to vaccines|url=https://andina.pe/ingles/noticia-peru-president-suggests-global-agreement-at-un-ensuring-universal-access-to-vaccines-862568.aspx|access-date=29 September 2021|website=[[Andina (news agency)|Andina]]|language=es|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211030162131/https://andina.pe/ingles/noticia-peru-president-suggests-global-agreement-at-un-ensuring-universal-access-to-vaccines-862568.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

Optimizing the societal benefit of vaccination may benefit from a strategy that is tailored to the state of the pandemic, the demographics of a country, the age of the recipients, the availability of vaccines, and the individual risk for severe disease.<ref name=Wang1/> In the UK, the interval between prime and boost dose was extended to vaccinate as many persons as early as possible,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baraniuk C | title = Covid-19: How the UK vaccine rollout delivered success, so far | journal = BMJ | volume = 372 | pages = n421 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 33602672 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.n421 | s2cid = 231946710 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}</ref> many countries are starting to give an additional booster shot to the immunosuppressed<ref>{{cite web |title=Additional Dose of mRNA COVID{{nbhyph}}19 Vaccine for Patients Who Are Immunocompromised |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/clinical-considerations/immunocompromised-patients.html |access-date=16 August 2021 |website=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007072024/https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/clinical-considerations/immunocompromised-patients.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=France plans rollout of Covid vaccine booster shots – but only for the vulnerable |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210804-france-plans-rollout-of-covid-vaccine-booster-shots-%E2%80%93-so-far-only-for-the-vulnerable |access-date=16 August 2021 |website=France 24 |archive-date=22 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022012337/https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20210804-france-plans-rollout-of-covid-vaccine-booster-shots-%E2%80%93-so-far-only-for-the-vulnerable |url-status=live }}</ref> and the elderly,<ref>{{cite web |title=Israel to offer 3rd COVID booster shot to older citizens |url=https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-health-israel-coronavirus-pandemic-775e772a7507bcab708e9eea4bdcc50a |access-date=16 August 2021 |website=Associated Press |archive-date=31 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031225657/https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-health-israel-coronavirus-pandemic-775e772a7507bcab708e9eea4bdcc50a |url-status=live }}</ref> and research predicts an additional benefit of personalizing vaccine dose in the setting of limited vaccine availability when a wave of virus Variants of Concern hits a country.<ref name="Hunziker 805–820">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hunziker P |title=Personalized-dose Covid-19 vaccination in a wave of virus Variants of Concern: Trading individual efficacy for societal benefit |url=https://precisionnanomedicine.com/article/26101-personalized-dose-covid-19-vaccination-in-a-wave-of-virus-variants-of-concern-trading-individual-efficacy-for-societal-benefit |journal=Precision Nanomedicine |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=805–820 |doi=10.33218/001c.26101 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi |access-date=16 August 2021 |archive-date=9 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009194402/https://precisionnanomedicine.com/article/26101-personalized-dose-covid-19-vaccination-in-a-wave-of-virus-variants-of-concern-trading-individual-efficacy-for-societal-benefit |url-status=live }}</ref>

Despite the extremely rapid development of effective [[mRNA vaccine|mRNA]] and [[viral vector vaccine]]s, [[vaccine equity]] has not been achieved.<ref name="Hotez"/> The World Health Organization called for 70 percent of the global population to be vaccinated by mid-2022, but as of March 2022, it was estimated that only one percent of the 10 billion doses given worldwide had been administered in low-income countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=UN analysis shows a link between lack of vaccine equity and widening poverty gap |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/03/1114762 |website=UN News |access-date=14 April 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412221531/https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/03/1114762 |url-status=live }}</ref> An additional 6 billion vaccinations may be needed to fill vaccine access gaps, particularly in developing countries. Given the projected availability of newer vaccines, the development and use of [[whole inactivated virus]] (WIV) and protein-based vaccines are also recommended. Organizations such as the [[Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network]] could help to support the production of such vaccines in developing countries, with lower production costs and greater ease of deployment.<ref name="Hotez"/><ref name="DCVMN">{{cite web |title=DCVMN |url=http://www.dcvmn.org/ |website=Developing Countries Vaccine Manufacturers Network |access-date=26 April 2022 |archive-date=26 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426031853/http://www.dcvmn.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

While vaccines substantially reduce the probability and severity of infection, it is still possible for fully vaccinated people to contract and spread COVID{{nbhyph}}19.<ref name="cdc-effectiveness">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Thompson MG, Burgess JL, Naleway AL, Tyner HL, Yoon SK, Meece J, Olsho LE, Caban-Martinez AJ, Fowlkes A, Lutrick K, Kuntz JL, Dunnigan K, Odean MJ, Hegmann KT, Stefanski E, Edwards LJ, Schaefer-Solle N, Grant L, Ellingson K, Groom HC, Zunie T, Thiese MS, Ivacic L, Wesley MG, Lamberte JM, Sun X, Smith ME, Phillips AL, Groover KD, Yoo YM, Gerald J, Brown RT, Herring MK, Joseph G, Beitel S, Morrill TC, Mak J, Rivers P, Harris KM, Hunt DR, Arvay ML, Kutty P, Fry AM, Gaglani M |title=Interim Estimates of Vaccine Effectiveness of BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273 COVID-19 Vaccines in Preventing SARS-CoV-2 Infection Among Health Care Personnel, First Responders, and Other Essential and Frontline Workers - Eight U.S. Locations, December 2020-March 2021 |url= https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/pdfs/mm7013e3-H.pdf |journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |volume=70 |issue=13 |pages=495–500 |doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm7013e3 | doi-access=free |pmc=8022879 |pmid=33793460 |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=28 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828063404/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/pdfs/mm7013e3-H.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Public health agencies have recommended that vaccinated people continue using preventive measures (wear face masks, social distance, wash hands) to avoid infecting others, especially vulnerable people, particularly in areas with high community spread. Governments have indicated that such recommendations will be reduced as vaccination rates increase and community spread declines.<ref>{{cite web|last=CDC|title=When You've Been Fully Vaccinated|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/fully-vaccinated.html|access-date=29 April 2021|website=U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|archive-date=28 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728053816/https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/fully-vaccinated.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Economics ====
{{boxquote|text=Moreover, an unequal distribution of vaccines will deepen inequality and exaggerate the gap between rich and poor and will reverse decades of hard-won progress on human development.|source =
United Nations, ''COVID vaccines: Widening inequality and millions vulnerable''<ref name="UNnews">{{cite web |title=COVID vaccines: Widening inequality and millions vulnerable |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/09/1100192 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=30 October 2021 |date=19 September 2021 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231032620/https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/09/1100192 |url-status=live }}</ref>|width = 33%|align = right}}

Vaccine inequity damages the global economy, disrupting the global [[supply chain]].<ref name=lanceted/> Most vaccines were being reserved for wealthy countries, {{asof|lc=y|September 2021}},<ref name="UNnews"/> some of which have more vaccine than is needed to vaccinate their populations fully.<ref name="So" /> When people, under-vaccinated, needlessly die, experience disability, and live under lockdown restrictions, they cannot supply the same goods and services. This harms the economies of under-vaccinated and over-vaccinated countries alike. Since rich countries have larger economies, rich countries may lose more money to vaccine inequity than poor ones,<ref name=lanceted/> though the poor ones will lose a higher percentage of [[GDP]] and experience longer-term effects.<ref name=UNDP_ec>{{cite web |title=Impact of vaccine inequity on economic recovery |url=https://data.undp.org/vaccine-equity/impact-of-vaccine-inequity-on-economic-recovery/ |publisher=UN Development program |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103211957/https://data.undp.org/vaccine-equity/impact-of-vaccine-inequity-on-economic-recovery/ |url-status=live }}</ref> High-income countries would profit an estimated US$4.80 for every $1 spent on giving vaccines to lower-income countries.<ref name=lanceted>{{cite journal | title = COVID-19 vaccine equity and booster doses | journal = The Lancet Infectious Diseases | volume = 21 | issue = 9 | pages = 1193 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34391506 | pmc = 8360703 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(21)00486-2 | vauthors = ((The Lancet Infectious Diseases Editors)) }}</ref>

The [[International Monetary Fund]] sees the vaccine divide between rich and poor nations as a serious obstacle to a global economic recovery.<ref>{{Cite web|vauthors=Elliott L|title=IMF cuts global economic forecast as pandemic 'hobbles' growth|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/oct/05/imf-cuts-global-economic-forecast-as-pandemic-hobbles-growth|access-date=6 October 2021|website=[[The Guardian]]|archive-date=27 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027083228/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/oct/05/imf-cuts-global-economic-forecast-as-pandemic-hobbles-growth|url-status=live}}</ref> Vaccine inequity disproportionately affects refuge-providing states, as they tend to be poorer, and refugees and displaced people are economically more vulnerable even within those low-income states, so they have suffered more economically from vaccine inequity.<ref name="UN_refugees">{{cite web |title=Refugees face dire consequences from COVID-19 underfunding, UNHCR warns |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/09/1100162 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=30 October 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030015042/https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/09/1100162 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hotez"/>

=== Liability ===
Several governments agreed to shield pharmaceutical companies like [[Pfizer]] and [[Moderna]] from [[negligence]] claims related to COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines (and treatments), [[Economics of vaccines|as in previous pandemics]], when governments also took on liability for such claims.

In the US, these liability shields took effect on 4 February 2020, when the US Secretary of Health and Human Services [[Alex Azar]] published a notice of declaration under the [[Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act]] (PREP Act) for medical countermeasures against COVID{{nbhyph}}19, covering "any vaccine, used to treat, diagnose, cure, prevent, or mitigate COVID{{nbhyph}}19, or the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 or a virus mutating therefrom". The declaration precludes "liability claims alleging negligence by a manufacturer in creating a vaccine, or negligence by a health care provider in prescribing the wrong dose, absent willful misconduct." In other words, absent "willful misconduct", these companies can not be sued for [[money damages]] for any injuries that occur between 2020 and 2024 from the administration of vaccines and treatments related to COVID{{nbhyph}}19.<ref name="Preparedness Act">{{cite web |url=https://www.phe.gov/Preparedness/legal/prepact/Pages/COVID19.aspx|title=Notice of Declaration under the Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act for medical countermeasures against COVID-19 | vauthors = Azar A |access-date=22 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425015411/https://www.phe.gov/Preparedness/legal/prepact/Pages/COVID19.aspx|archive-date=25 April 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> The declaration is effective in the United States through 1{{nbs}}October 2024.<ref name="Preparedness Act" />

In December 2020, the UK government granted Pfizer legal [[indemnity]] for its COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Lintern S|title=Pfizer given protection from legal action over coronavirus vaccine by UK government|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/coronavirus-pfizer-vaccine-legal-indemnity-safety-ministers-b1765124.html|access-date=8 May 2021|website=The Independent|archive-date=5 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505000529/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/coronavirus-pfizer-vaccine-legal-indemnity-safety-ministers-b1765124.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the European Union, the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines were granted a conditional marketing authorization which does not exempt manufacturers from civil and administrative liability claims.<ref>{{cite web|title=Questions and Answers: Conditional Marketing Authorisation of COVID-19 Vaccines in the EU|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_2390|access-date=29 December 2020|publisher=[[European Commission]]|at=Question: What is the difference in liability between EU Conditional Marketing Authorisation vs Emergency Use Authorisations?|archive-date=4 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004172148/https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_2390|url-status=live}}</ref> The EU conditional marketing authorizations were changed to standard authorizations in September 2022.<ref>{{cite web | title=EMA recommends standard marketing authorizations for Comirnaty and Spikevax COVID-19 vaccines | website=European Medicines Agency | date=16 September 2022 | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-recommends-standard-marketing-authorisations-comirnaty-spikevax-covid-19-vaccines | access-date=7 October 2022 | archive-date=16 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220916095151/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-recommends-standard-marketing-authorisations-comirnaty-spikevax-covid-19-vaccines | url-status=live }}</ref> While the purchasing contracts with vaccine manufacturers remain secret, they do not contain liability exemptions even for side-effects not known at the time of licensure.<ref>{{cite web|vauthors=Haahr T|title=COVID-19: MEPs want safe vaccines, full transparency and liability for companies|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20200904IPR86419/covid-19-meps-want-safe-vaccines-full-transparency-and-liability-for-companies|access-date=29 December 2020|website=European Parliament|at=Ms. Gallina stressed negotiations with companies had been difficult but underlined that those companies developing and manufacturing COVID-19 vaccines would indeed be liable according to current laws, and if something goes wrong, they could be taken to court. This also goes for compensation for hidden defects.|archive-date=13 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013122000/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20200904IPR86419/covid-19-meps-want-safe-vaccines-full-transparency-and-liability-for-companies|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Bureau of Investigative Journalism]], a nonprofit news organization, reported in an investigation that unnamed officials in some countries, such as Argentina and Brazil, said that Pfizer demanded guarantees against costs of legal cases due to adverse effects in the form of liability waivers and sovereign assets such as federal bank reserves, embassy buildings or military bases, going beyond the expected from other countries such as the US.<ref>{{cite news |title=Investigation: Drugmaker 'bullied' Latin American nations |work=Al Jazeera |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/11/investigation-pfizer-bullied-latin-american-nations |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=31 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031172842/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/3/11/investigation-pfizer-bullied-latin-american-nations |url-status=live }}</ref> During the [[COVID{{nbhyph}}19 CPI|pandemic parliamentary inquiry in Brazil]], Pfizer's representative said that its terms for Brazil are the same as for all other countries with which it has signed deals.<ref>{{cite news |vauthors=Barcellos R |title=Carlos Murillo diz que cláusulas criticadas pelo Brasil valem em 110 países |language=Portuguese |trans-title=Carlos Murillo says critical clauses for Brazil are valid in 110 countries |work=CNN Brasil |url=https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/politica/2021/05/13/carlos-murillo-diz-que-clausulas-criticadas-pelo-brasil-valem-em-110-paises |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=28 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628135359/https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/politica/2021/05/13/carlos-murillo-diz-que-clausulas-criticadas-pelo-brasil-valem-em-110-paises |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 13 December 2022, the governor of Florida, [[Ron DeSantis]], said that he will petition the state supreme court to convene a grand jury to investigate possible violations in respect to COVID-19 vaccines,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.flgov.com/2022/12/13/governor-ron-desantis-petitions-florida-supreme-court-for-statewide-grand-jury-on-covid-19-vaccines-and-announces-creation-of-the-public-health-integrity-committee/ |title=Governor Ron DeSantis Petitions Florida Supreme Court for Statewide Grand Jury on COVID-19 Vaccines and Announces Creation of the Public Health Integrity Committee |access-date=14 December 2022 |website=www.flgov.com |archive-date=14 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221214000857/https://www.flgov.com/2022/12/13/governor-ron-desantis-petitions-florida-supreme-court-for-statewide-grand-jury-on-covid-19-vaccines-and-announces-creation-of-the-public-health-integrity-committee/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and declared that his government would be able to get "the data whether they [the companies] want to give it or not".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/dec/13/ron-desantis-grand-jury-investigation-covid-vaccines-florida |title=Florida governor seeks grand jury investigation into Covid vaccines |access-date=14 December 2022 |website=www.theguardian.com |archive-date=13 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213224924/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/dec/13/ron-desantis-grand-jury-investigation-covid-vaccines-florida |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Controversy ===
In June 2021, a report revealed that the [[UB-612]] vaccine, developed by the US-based COVAXX, was a for-profit venture initiated by the Blackwater founder [[Erik Prince]]. In a series of text messages to Paul Behrends, the close associate recruited for the COVAXX project, Prince described the profit-making possibilities in selling the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccines. COVAXX provided no data from the clinical trials on safety or efficacy it conducted in Taiwan. The responsibility of creating distribution networks was assigned to an Abu Dhabi-based entity, which was mentioned as "Windward Capital" on the COVAXX letterhead but was actually Windward Holdings. The firm's sole shareholder, which handled "professional, scientific and technical activities", was Erik Prince. In March 2021, COVAXX raised $1.35 billion in a private placement.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/exclusive-blackwater-founder-prince-takes-role-covid-vaccine-venture-2021-06-04/|title=EXCLUSIVE Blackwater founder Prince takes role in COVID vaccine venture|accessdate=4 June 2021|website=Reuters|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009203609/https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/exclusive-blackwater-founder-prince-takes-role-covid-vaccine-venture-2021-06-04/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Misinformation and hesitancy ===
{{Excerpt|COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy}}

== See also ==

* [[2009 swine flu pandemic vaccine]]
* [[COVID{{nbhyph}}19 drug development]]
* [[COVID{{nbhyph}}19 drug repurposing research]]
* [[COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine card]]
* [[List of COVID{{nbhyph}}19 vaccine authorizations]]
* [[Vaccine passports during the COVID{{nbhyph}}19 pandemic]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Copaescu AM, Rosa Duque JS, Phillips EJ | title = What have we learned about the allergenicity and adverse reactions associated with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 vaccines: One year later | journal = Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology | volume = 129 | issue = 1 | pages = 40–51 | date = July 2022 | pmid = 35390476 | pmc = 8979618 | doi = 10.1016/j.anai.2022.03.030 | doi-access = free | title-link = doi }}
* {{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Krause PR, Fleming TR, Longini IM, Peto R, Briand S, Heymann DL, Beral V, Snape MD, Rees H, Ropero AM, Balicer RD, Cramer JP, Muñoz-Fontela C, Gruber M, Gaspar R, Singh JA, Subbarao K, Van Kerkhove MD, Swaminathan S, Ryan MJ, Henao-Restrepo AM |title=SARS-CoV-2 Variants and Vaccines |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=385 |issue=2 |pages=179–186 |doi=10.1056/NEJMsr2105280 |pmc=8262623 |pmid=34161052 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
* {{cite journal |vauthors=Kyriakidis NC, López-Cortés A, González EV, Grimaldos AB, Prado EO |title=SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates |journal=NPJ Vaccines |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=28 |doi=10.1038/s41541-021-00292-w |pmc=7900244 |pmid=33619260 |doi-access=free |title-link=doi}}
* {{cite book |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/immunisation-against-infectious-disease-the-green-book |title=Immunisation against infectious disease |publisher=Public Health England |year=2020 |veditors=Ramsay M |chapter=Chapter 14a: COVID-19 |chapter-url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/covid-19-the-green-book-chapter-14a |access-date=2 January 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112005859/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/pneumococcal-the-green-book-chapter-25 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite report |url=https://www.fda.gov/media/139638/download |title=Development and Licensure of Vaccines to Prevent COVID-19: Guidance for Industry |publisher=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) |format=PDF }}
* {{cite news | title=A New Entry in the Race for a Coronavirus Vaccine: Hope | website=[[The New York Times]] | date=20 May 2020 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/20/health/coronavirus-vaccines.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520181009/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/20/health/coronavirus-vaccines.html | archive-date=20 May 2020 | url-access=subscription | url-status=live | vauthors=Zimmer C, Sheikh K, Weiland N }}
* {{cite news | title=Halting Progress and Happy Accidents: How mRNA Vaccines Were Made | website=[[The New York Times]] | date=15 January 2022 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/15/health/mrna-vaccine.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115153605/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/15/health/mrna-vaccine.html | archive-date=15 January 2022 | url-access=subscription | url-status=live | vauthors=Kolata G, Mueller B }}
{{refend}}

=== Vaccine protocols ===
* {{cite web|url=https://www.modernatx.com/sites/default/files/mRNA-1273-P301-Protocol.pdf|title=Protocol mRNA-1273-P301|publisher=[[Moderna]]|access-date=21 September 2020|archive-date=28 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928044809/https://www.modernatx.com/sites/default/files/mRNA-1273-P301-Protocol.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web | url=https://cdn.pfizer.com/pfizercom/2020-11/C4591001_Clinical_Protocol_Nov2020.pdf | title=Protocol C4591001 PF-07302048 (BNT162 RNA-Based COVID-19 Vaccines) | publisher=[[Pfizer]] | access-date=6 August 2022 | archive-date=6 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206133704/https://cdn.pfizer.com/pfizercom/2020-11/C4591001_Clinical_Protocol_Nov2020.pdf | url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web | url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/ctr-med-7111/D8110C00001/52bec400-80f6-4c1b-8791-0483923d0867/c8070a4e-6a9d-46f9-8c32-cece903592b9/D8110C00001_CSP-v2.pdf | title=Protocol AZD1222 – D8110C00001 | publisher=[[AstraZeneca]] }}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.jnj.com/coronavirus/covid-19-phase-3-study-clinical-protocol | format=PDF | title=Protocol VAC31518COV3001; Phase 3 (Ensemble) | publisher=[[Janssen Pharmaceutica|Janssen Vaccines & Prevention]] }}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.jnj.com/coronavirus/ensemble-2-study-protocol | format=PDF | title=Protocol VAC31518COV3009; Phase 3 (Ensemble 2) | publisher=[[Janssen Pharmaceutica|Janssen Vaccines & Prevention]] }}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.sanofi.com/-/media/Project/One-Sanofi-Web/Websites/Global/Sanofi-COM/Home/common/docs/clinical-study-results/rdctcovid19vat00008protocol-v30-dated-18MAY2021.pdf | title=Protocol VAT00008 – Study of Monovalent and Bivalent Recombinant Protein Vaccines against COVID-19 in Adults 18 Years of Age and Older Protocol | publisher=[[Sanofi Pasteur]] | access-date=30 July 2021 | archive-date=23 July 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723062559/https://www.sanofi.com/-/media/Project/One-Sanofi-Web/Websites/Global/Sanofi-COM/Home/common/docs/clinical-study-results/rdctcovid19vat00008protocol-v30-dated-18MAY2021.pdf | url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web | title=Protocol 2019nCoV-301 | publisher=[[Novavax]] | url=https://novavax.widen.net/s/tt8xfddqvs/2019ncov_301_version_redacted }}

== External links ==
* {{cite web | title=COVID-19 vaccine tracker and landscape | publisher=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) | url=https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines }}
* [https://www.raps.org/news-and-articles/news-articles/2020/3/covid-19-vaccine-tracker COVID{{nbhyph}}19 Vaccine Tracker]. Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society (RAPS)
* {{YouTube|id=xpqfdr9FPWM|title=M.I.T. Lecture 10: Kizzmekia Corbett, Vaccines}}
* {{YouTube|id=FAMFH3tHWks|title=M.I.T. Lecture 12: Dan Barouch, Covid-19 Vaccine Development}}
* {{cite web | title=COVID-19 vaccines: research and development | date=11 January 2021 | publisher=[[European Medicines Agency]] (EMA) | url=https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/human-regulatory/overview/public-health-threats/coronavirus-disease-covid-19/treatments-vaccines/vaccines-covid-19/covid-19-vaccines-research-development }}
* {{cite web | title=The 5 Stages of COVID-19 Vaccine Development: What You Need to Know About How a Clinical Trial Works | date=September 2020 | publisher=Johnson & Johnson | url=https://www.jnj.com/innovation/the-5-stages-of-covid-19-vaccine-development-what-you-need-to-know-about-how-a-clinical-trial-works }}
* {{cite web | title=Coronavirus vaccine – weekly summary of Yellow Card reporting | publisher=UK [[Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency]] (MHRA) | url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/coronavirus-covid-19-vaccine-adverse-reactions/coronavirus-vaccine-summary-of-yellow-card-reporting }}

{{COVID-19 pandemic|short=yes}}
{{Vaccines|short=yes}}
{{Portal bar|COVID-19|Medicine|Modern history|Viruses|Current events}}

[[Category:COVID-19 vaccines| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Directive Principles in India

2022-11-12T08:01:02Z

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#REDIRECT [[Directive Principles]]
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2021-05-21T11:58:48Z

BULBULP: -Category:Singer: Yes

{{Infobox person
| name = Rony Hosen
| image = Rony Hossen Official Pic.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Picture of Rony Hosen
| native_name = রনি হোসেন
| birth_date = 15 Feb 1996
| birth_place = [[Rajshahi,Bangladesh]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[Bangladeshi]]
| occupation = Playback Singer / Music Composer
| years_active =
| known_for = Entrepreneur, Singer, Musical Artist, Musician.
}}
'''Rony Hosen''' Born 15 Feb 1996 is an Entrepreneur, Singer, Musical Artist, Musician.<ref>[https://g.co/kgs/v36aio Google Knowledge].</ref>He currently living in Gazipur, Dhaka, Bangladesh.He was born and brought up in Rajshahi, Bangladesh. He is the founder and CEO of Best Friend , a full-service digital media agency that partners with clients to boost their business outcomes. Best Friend first started its journey through music studio but now it is going with facilities like digital marketing. Rony Hosen has a deep understanding of what it takes for a business to completely crush it on the social media landscape. His expertise in marketing has allowed him to help a number of businesses increase their revenue by tremendous amounts. From childhood, he wanted to do something different. He started working in music when he was only 17 years old. Since then he started to working as a musical artist. <ref>[https://open.spotify.com/artist/0Y0E82Bez6pd6ZlC8uA2g0 Spotify.].</ref> <ref>[https://music.apple.com/us/artist/rony-hosen/1561534382 Apple Music.].</ref> <ref>[https://en.everybodywiki.com/Rony_Hosen EveryBodyWiki.]</ref> <ref>[https://www.africaglobalvillage.com/story-about-the-youngest-musical-artist-rony-hosen/ African Global News]</ref> <ref>[https://snap-tech.com/technology/story-about-the-youngest-musical-artist-rony-hosen/ Snap-Tech News.]</ref> <ref>[https://world.einnews.com/pr_news/540614408/story-about-the-youngest-musical-artist-rony-hosen EINPRESSWIRE.]</ref> <ref>[https://www.todayontheinternet.com/2021/05/08/story-about-the-youngest-musical-artist-rony-hosen/ Today On The Internet.]</ref>

==Early life==
Rony was a student at Rajshahi University School. From childhood, he wanted to do something different. He started working in music when he was only 17 years old. Since then he started to working as a musical artist. He has been brought up in the midst of songs and music since childhood.

==Career==
He has many credentials as an Entrepreneur, Singer, Musical Artist, Musician. But he feels more comfortable in his career as a music composer. His Released Popular Album '''''“The Inspiration Vol-1”''''' and '''''“Rony Hosen (The Perfect Boy)”''''' received special praise from the audience. That music is at the top of the list of favorites of many viewers in other countries including Bangladesh.

==Discography==
1.Tadpaye Mujhe-Acoustic Version.

2.Love Of Trust.

3.The Loyalty Vol-1.

4.Rony Hosen (The Perfect Boy).

5.Girlfriend Cheka Khaiche.

6.Tor Kotha -Reprise.

7.Oviman (Unplugged).

8.Bepanah _ Unplugged.

9.The Inspiration Vol-1.

10.Baby Come Closer.

11.Feel It Again.

12.Dance Tonight Again.

13.Chill With Me.

14.Enjoy The Life.

15.Alone Inside.

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*[https://ronyhosen.com/ Rony Hosen-Official Website.]
*[https://www.deezer.com/en/artist/127979362/ Rony Hosen-Deezer Music]
*[https://open.spotify.com/artist/0Y0E82Bez6pd6ZlC8uA2g0 Rony Hosen-Spotify Verified Artist]
*[https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCbo1vJGygn22olIYEd5llWQ/ Rony Hosen-Verified YouTube]
*[https://music.amazon.com/artists/B091J62Q2B Rony Hosen-Amazon]
*[https://www.musixmatch.com/artist/Rony-Hosen Rony Hosen-Verified Musixmatch]
*[https://www.jiosaavn.com/artist/rony-hosen/efHLZZDWNMs_ Rony Hosen-Verified JioSaavn]
[[Category:Musician]]

Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests

2021-05-21T11:57:42Z

BULBULP: +Category:Singer: Singer

Bharatpedia:Requested articles/requests

2021-05-21T11:56:17Z

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