https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Ashutosh+RoyBharatpedia - User contributions [en]2026-08-02T14:34:19ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.43.6https://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sudipti_Hajela&diff=433188Sudipti Hajela2023-10-01T20:32:33Z<p>Ashutosh Roy: typo</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Equestrian athlete}}<br />
{{Infobox sportsperson<br />
| headercolor = <br />
| name = Sudipti Hajela<br />
| image = <br />
| caption = <br />
| fullname = <br />
| nationality = India<br />
| hometown = [[Indore]], India<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|2002|05|10}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Indore]], India<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/asian-games-2023/story/asian-games-2023-meet-indias-historic-dressage-team-sudipti-hajela-divyakriti-singh-hriday-chheda-anush-agarwalla-2440741-2023-09-26|title=Asian Games 2023: Meet India’s historic Dressage Team that clinched equestrian gold after 41 years|date=26 September 2023}}</ref><br />
| death_date = <br />
| death_place = <br />
| height = <br />
| weight = <br />
| website = <br />
| country = {{IND}}<br />
| sport = [[Equestrianism|Equestrian]] [[dressage]]<br />
| event = <br />
| collegeteam = <br />
| club = <br />
| team = <br />
| turnedpro = <br />
| coach = <br />
| retired = <br />
| coaching = <br />
| worlds = <br />
| regionals = <br />
| nationals = <br />
| paralympics = <br />
| highestranking = <br />
| pb = <br />
| show-medals = <br />
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport|[[equestrianism|Equestrian]]}}<br />
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}<br />
{{MedalCompetition|[[Asian Games]]}}<br />
{{MedalGold|[[2022 Asian Games|2022 Hangzhou]]|[[Equestrian at the 2022 Asian Games – Team dressage|Team dressage]]}}<br />
}}<br />
'''Sudipti Hejala''' (born 10 May 2002)<ref>{{cite tweet|number=1220691887947841536|user=narendramodi|title=Great to meet my young friend Sudipti Hajela, who hails from Madhya Pradesh. Her passion towards equestrian events is admirable. She has been practising since the age of six. May she continue to win many more laurels!|date=24 January 2020}}</ref> is an Indian equestrian athlete. She won a gold medal in team event in Equestrian Dressage at the [[2022 Asian Games]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/asian-games/asian-games-2023-india-equestrian-dressage-team-gold-medal-silver-bronze-three-medals-hangzhou-2022-41-years-news/article67348194.ece|title=Asian Games 2023: India’s Equestrian Dressage team wins gold after 41 years|date=26 September 2023}}</ref><ref name="Sahni 2023 i660">{{cite web | last=Sahni | first=Jaspreet | title=Historic Asian Games feat: Every medal is inspirational, so is this equestrian gold, but the sport calls for more accessibility — Asian Games 2023 News | website=The Times of India | date=26 Sep 2023 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/asian-games-2023/india-asian-games/historic-asian-games-feat-every-medal-is-inspirational-so-is-this-equestrian-gold-but-the-sport-calls-for-more-accessibility/articleshow/103967199.cms?from=mdr | access-date=26 Sep 2023}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India 2023 a889">{{cite web | title=Asian Games 2023 Highlights: India win first equestrian gold medal in 41 years | website=The Times of India | date=26 Sep 2023 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/asian-games-2023/live-updates-of-asian-games-2023-day-3-shooting-equestrian-hockey-swimming-fencing-tennis-boxing/liveblog/103944447.cms | access-date=26 Sep 2023}}</ref><br />
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== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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== External links ==<br />
* [https://www.fei.org/athlete/10153812/HAJELA-Sudipti Sudipti Haleja] on [[International Federation for Equestrian Sports]]<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Hajela, Sudipti}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Indian female equestrians]]<br />
[[Category:Indian dressage riders]]<br />
[[Category:Asian Games medalists in equestrian]]<br />
[[Category:Equestrians at the 2022 Asian Games]]<br />
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists for India]]<br />
[[Category:Medalists at the 2022 Asian Games]]<br />
[[Category:Asian equestrian biography stubs]]<br />
[[Category:Indian sportspeople stubs]]</div>Ashutosh Royhttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juneja_(Surname)&diff=426235Juneja (Surname)2023-09-07T05:54:50Z<p>Ashutosh Roy: Juneja (surname)</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Juneja (surname)]]<br />
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}}</div>Ashutosh Royhttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arun_Goel&diff=394723Arun Goel2023-07-19T06:20:29Z<p>Ashutosh Roy: v2.05b - Bot T20 CW#61 - Fix errors for CW project (Reference before punctuation)</p>
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<div>{{Short description|Indian Election Commissioner}}<br />
{{Infobox officeholder<br />
| name = Arun Goel<br />
| image = <br />
| caption = Election Commission of India<br />
| office = Election Commissioner of India<br />
| term_start = {{Start date|2023|11|19}}<br />
| term_end = Present<br />
| successor = <br />
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'''Arun Goel''' is an Indian administrator and public official who has been serving as [[Election Commissioner of India]] since November 21, 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arun Goel appointment as EC challenged in SC: Who is the retired bureaucrat? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/arun-goel-appointment-as-ec-challenged-in-sc-8565232/ |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=NGO moves Supreme Court against Arun Goel’s appointment as Election Commissioner |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ngo-moves-supreme-court-against-arun-goels-appointment-as-election-commissioner/article66743867.ece |access-date=2023-07-14 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Who is Arun Goel, the former bureaucrat appointed as new election commissioner? |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/who-is-arun-goel-the-former-bureaucrat-appointed-as-new-election-commissioner-101669004990943.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Retired IAS officer Arun Goel takes charge as Election Commissioner |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/retired-ias-officer-arun-goel-assumes-charge-new-election-commissioner-8280116/ |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> His appointment has been challenged in the [[Supreme Court of India|Indian Supreme Court]] due to procedural concerns.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arun Goel's appointment as Election Commissioner challenged in Supreme Court |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/law/supreme-court/story/arun-goel-election-commissioner-appointment-challenged-in-supreme-court-2360774-2023-04-16 |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chowdhury |first=Sohini |title=Arun Goel's Appointment As Election Commissioner Raises Pertinent Questions; EC Should Have 6 Years Tenure : Supreme Court |url=https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/supreme-court-arun-goelelection-commissioner-election-commission-of-india-222957 |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=www.livelaw.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SC Bench Recuses From Hearing Petition Against Arun Goel's Appointment as Election Commissioner |url=https://thewire.in/law/adr-files-petition-in-sc-against-arun-goels-appointment-as-election-commissioner |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=The Wire}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SC bench recuses from hearing plea challenging appointment of Arun Goel as EC |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/supreme-court-bench-recuses-from-hearing-plea-challenging-arun-goel-s-appointment-as-election-commissioner-citing-lack-of-legal-basis-association-of-democratic-reforms-files-fresh-petition-questioning-institutional-integrity-101681800689063.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> <br />
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== References ==<br />
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[[Category:21st-century Indian politicians]]<br />
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{{India-politician-stub}}</div>Ashutosh Royhttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weibo_Corporation&diff=432428Weibo Corporation2023-07-18T16:04:31Z<p>Ashutosh Roy: Created page with '{{Infobox company | name = Weibo Corporation<br>北京微梦创科网络技术有限公司 | type= Public | traded_as = {{NASDAQ|WB}} | foundat...'</p>
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<div>{{short description|Chinese social network company}}<br />
{{Infobox company<br />
| name = Weibo Corporation<br>北京微梦创科网络技术有限公司 <br />
| type= Private (since 2021)<br />[[Public company|Public]] (until 2021)<br />
| traded_as = {{NASDAQ was |WB}} (until 2021)<br />
| foundation = August 09, 2010<ref>[http://qyxy.baic.gov.cn/xycx/queryCreditAction!qyxq_view.dhtml?reg_bus_ent_id=a1a1a1a02a1dfb52012a54a7ded259d9 企业详细]</ref><br />
| location_city = [[Beijing]]<br />
| location_country = [[China]]<br />
| key_people = Liu Yunli (刘运利)<br>(Chairman & CEO) <br />
| industry = [[Internet]]<br />
| products = [[Social network]]<br />
| parent = [[Sina Corporation]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Weibo Corporation''' is a Chinese [[social network]] company known for the [[Microblogging in China|microblogging website]] [[Sina Weibo]]. It is based in [[Beijing]], [[China]].<br />
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==History==<br />
Weibo was established by [[Sina Corporation]] as '''T.CN''', but it changed its name to Weibo in 2012.<br />
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==See also==<br />
*{{C|Internet technology companies of China}}<br />
*[[Microblogging in China]]<br />
*[[Sina Weibo]]<br />
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== References ==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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[[Category:Sina Corp]]<br />
[[Category:Companies based in Beijing]]<br />
[[Category:Online companies of China]]<br />
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2010]]<br />
[[Category:Mass media companies established in 2010]]<br />
[[Category:Companies listed on the Nasdaq]]<br />
[[Category:Chinese companies established in 2010]]<br />
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{{China-company-stub}}<br />
{{socialnetwork-stub}}</div>Ashutosh Royhttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arangetram_(2023_film)&diff=394721Arangetram (2023 film)2023-07-16T10:24:05Z<p>Ashutosh Roy: Wrote an enlightening guide.</p>
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{{Infobox film<br />
|name=Arangetram<br />
|image=<br />
|caption=<br />
|director=Y Srinivas Praaban<br />
|writer=<br />
|producer=Maheswari K <br />
|starring={{ubl|Roshan Z| Mustafa Askari| Srinivaas Praban| Pooja | Anirudh T| Laya| Indhu| Srivalli| Vijaya| Sai Sre| Jabardasth SathiPandu}}<br />
|cinematography= Anna Raj <br />
|editing=Madhu <br />
|music=Gideon Katta <br />
|studio= Mahi Media works<br />
|distributor=<br />
|released= {{film date|2023|5|5|df=yes|ref1=<ref>{{cite news |title= Arengetram|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-details/arangetram/movieshow/99729324.cms|access-date=13 July 2023|work=Times of India|date=5 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= Arangetram review: An intense crime thriller|url=https://pynr.in/arangetram-review-an-intense-crime-thriller/|access-date=13 July 2023|work=Pynr|language=}}</ref>}}<br />
|runtime=127 minutes <br />
|country=India<br />
|language=Telugu<br />
|budget=<br />
}}<br />
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''''' Arangetram ''''' is a 2023 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film directed by Y Srinivas Praaban and produced by Maheswari K under Mahi Media works. Music scored by Gideon Katta and camera by Anna Raj. Lead roles are Roshan Z, Mustafa Askari, Srinivaas Praban, Pooja , Anirudh T, Laya, Indhu, Srivalli, Vijaya, Sai Sree, Jabardasth SathiPandu . Movie released theatrically worldwide on 5 May 2023.<ref>{{cite news |title= Arengetram|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/movie-reviews/arangetram-movie-review-engaging-psycho-crime-thriller-79220|access-date=13 July 2023|work=The Hans India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= Arengetram movie review|url=https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/srinivas-praban-arangetram-movie-review-1608664|access-date=13 July 2023|work=Sakshi|language=te}}</ref><br />
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==Plot==<br />
Ajay, a psycho killer sneaks into a girl`s home to kill her, and a few characters enter the same home, with their own Agenda. Until now, Ajay has only killed his targets. These unplanned visitors are posing a challenge to his modus operandi. If he kills them, he is deviating from his path. If left alive, his identity is revealed. What will he do?<br />
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== Cast ==<br />
{{Colbegin}}<br />
* Roshan Z<br />
*Mustafa Askari<br />
*Srinivaas Praban as Prabhan<br />
*Pooja as Meghna<br />
*Anirudh T<br />
*Laya<br />
*Indhu<br />
*Srivalli<br />
*Vijaya<br />
*Sai Sree<br />
*Jabardasth SathiPandu<br />
{{Colend}}<br />
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== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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== External links ==<br />
* {{IMDb title|tt23826564}}</div>Ashutosh Royhttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bihar_cricket_team&diff=434612Bihar cricket team2023-04-04T07:23:48Z<p>Ashutosh Roy: हम भोजपुरी moved page Bihar cricket team to Bihar Cricket Team</p>
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<div>#REDIRECT [[Bihar Cricket Team]]<br />
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}}</div>Ashutosh Royhttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kumhar&diff=388104Kumhar2022-10-09T02:19:49Z<p>Ashutosh Roy: Added page layout.</p>
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<div>{{short description|Caste in India and Pakistan}}<br />
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{{infobox ethnic group|<br />
| group = Kumhar<br />
| image = Potter Kumhar caste British India 1907.jpg<br />
| population = <br />
| region2 = India<br />
|rels = [[Hinduism]] and [[Islam]]<br />
| langs = [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Haryanvi language|Haryanvi]], [[Awadhi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Nagpuri language|Nagpuri]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]<br />
| related = [[Lohar]], [[Khati]]<br />
}}<br />
'''Kumhar''' or '''Kumbhar''' is a [[Indian caste system|caste]] or community in India, Nepal and Pakistan. Kumhar have historically been associated with art of pottery.<ref name="Saraswati1">{{cite book |last=Saraswati |first=Baidyanath |title=Pottery-Making Cultures And Indian Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqrB_Nzr5QcC&pg=PA46 |access-date=6 April 2013 |year=1979 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-091-4 |pages=46–47 }}</ref><br />
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== Etymology ==<br />
The Kumhars derive their name from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''Kumbhakar'' meaning earthen-pot maker.<ref name="K. S. Singh">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vm_KCE4XXPMC&pg=PA565 |title=People of India: Rajasthan |publisher=Popular Prakashan |first=S. K. |last=Mandal |chapter=Kumhar/Kumbhar |editor-first=Kumar Suresh |editor-last=Singh |editor-link=Kumar Suresh Singh |year=1998 |pages=565–566 |isbn=978-8-17154-769-2}}</ref> Dravidian languages conform to the same meaning of the term ''Kumbhakar''. The term ''Bhande'', used to designate the Kumhar caste, also means pot. The potters of [[Amritsar]] are called ''Kulal'' or ''Kalal'', the term used in Yajurveda to denote the potter class.<ref name="Saraswati1" /><br />
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== Mythological origin ==<br />
[[File:Kumhar.jpg|thumb|Depiction of a Kumhar.]]<br />
A section of Hindu Kumhars honorifically call themselves ''Prajapati'' after Vedic Prajapati, the Lord, who created the universe.<ref name="Saraswati1" /><br />
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According to a legend prevalent among Kumhars {{quote|Once [[Brahma]] divided sugarcane among his sons and each of them ate his share, but the Kumhara who was greatly absorbed in his work, forgot to eat. The piece which he had kept near his clay lump struck root and soon grew into a sugarcane plant. A few days later, when Brahma asked his sons for sugarcane, none of them could give it to him, excepting the Kumhara who offered a full plant. Brahma was pleased by the devotion of the potter to his work and awarded him the title ''Prajapati''.<ref name="Saraswati1"/>}}<br />
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There is an opinion that this is because of their traditional creative skills of pottery, they are regarded as ''Prajapati''.<ref name="Ke. Āra Bhāratī">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VO9cP6LYR8wC&pg=PA178 |title=Chamba Himalaya: Amazing Land, Unique Culture |publisher=Indus Publishing |first=Ke. Āra |last=Bhāratī |year=2001 |page=178 |isbn=978-8-17387-125-2}}</ref><br />
== Divisions ==<br />
[[File:Portrait of two unknown Kumhar potters from Lahore, ca.1859–69.png|thumb|Portrait of two unknown Kumhar potters from Lahore, ca.1859–69]]<br />
The potters are classified into Hindu and Muslim cultural groups.<ref name="Saraswati1" /> Among Hindus, inclusion of artisan castes, such as potters, in the Shudra varna is indisputable. They are further divided into two groups-clean caste and unclean caste .<ref>{{cite book |last=Saraswati |first=Baidyanath |title=Pottery-Making Cultures And Indian Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqrB_Nzr5QcC&pg=PA48 |access-date=6 April 2013 |year=1979 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-091-4 |page=48 }}</ref><br />
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Among the Kumhars are groups such as the Gujrati Kumhar, Kurali ke Kumhar, Lad, Haral and Telangi. They all, bear these names after different cultural linguistic zones or caste groups but are termed as one caste cluster.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLAFhJ1cev4C&pg=PA293 |title=Rise of Anthropology in India |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |first=Lalita Prasad |last=Vidyarthi |year=1976 |page=293}}</ref><br />
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== Distribution in India ==<br />
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=== Chamba (Himanchal) ===<br />
The Kumhars of Chamba are expert in making pitchers, Surahis, vessels, grain jars, toys for entertainment and earthen lamps. Some of these pots bear paintings and designs also.<ref name="Ke. Āra Bhāratī"/><br />
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=== Maharashtra (Marathe) ===<br />
Kumhars are found in [[Satara district|Satara]], [[Sangli]], [[Kolhapur]], [[Sholapur]] and [[Pune]]. Their language is [[Marathi language|Marathi]]. They use [[Devnagari]] script for communication.<ref name="B. V. Bhanu">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BsBEgVa804IC&pg=PA1175 |title=People of India: Maharashtra, Part 2 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |first=I. A. |last=Khan |chapter=Kumbhar/Kumhar |editor-first=B. V. |editor-last=Bhanu |year=2004 |pages=1175–1176 |isbn=978-8-17991-101-3}}</ref> There are Kumbhars who do not belong to Maratha clan lives in Maharashtra and have occupation of making idols and pots.<ref name="Saraswati1" /><ref name="B. V. Bhanu" /><br />
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=== Madhya Pradesh ===<br />
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Hathretie and Chakretie (or Challakad) Kumhars are found in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. Hathretie Kumhars are called so because they traditionally moved the "chak" (potter's wheel) by hands ("hath"). Gola is a common surname among Kumhars in Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tdil.mit.gov.in/coilnet/ignca/mrnslp04.htm |title=The Kumhars of Gwalior |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323001836/http://tdil.mit.gov.in/CoilNet/IGNCA/mrnslp04.htm |archive-date=2010-03-23}}</ref>{{clarify|reason=please can we have a translation}} They are listed among Other Backward Classes in the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncbc.nic.in/User_Panel/GazetteResolution.aspx?Value=mPICjsL1aLuPAiTDwaBMRTkcitPtwFoYM%2fvPkOo88fWK%2fs%2fLWkaxMKHeos%2fc%2fKys |title=Central List of OBCs: State : Madhya Pradesh |publisher=National Commission for Backwards Classes |access-date=2019-05-18}}</ref><br />
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=== Rajasthan ===<br />
In Rajasthan, Kumhars (Also known as Prajapat) have six sub-groups namely Mathera, Kumavat, Kheteri, Marwara, Timria and Mawalia. In the social hierarchy of Rajasthan, they are placed in the middle of the higher castes and the [[Harijan]]s. They follow endogamy with clan exogamy.<ref name="K. S. Singh" /><br />
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=== Odisha and Bengal ===<br />
In Bengal Kumhars are one among the ceremonially pure castes. In Odisha they are two types (Odia Kumbhar and Jhadua Kumbhar) who provide vessels for the rice distribution to Jagannath temple.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ijirssc.in/pdf/1483192306.pdf |title=www.ijirssc.in }}</ref> They are belongs to [[Other Backward Classes]] in the state of Odisha.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bcmbcmw.tn.gov.in/obc/faq/orrisa.pdf |title=www.bcmbcmw.tn.gov.in }}</ref><br />
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=== Uttar Pradesh and Bihar ===<br />
The Kannuaja Kumhars are considered to be a decent caste in both Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Although they sometimes use the term ''[[Pandit]]'' as their Surname. The Magahiya Kumhars are treated little inferior to the Kanaujias and the Turkaha (Gadhere).<ref>{{cite book |last=Saraswati |first=Baidyanath |title=Pottery-Making Cultures And Indian Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqrB_Nzr5QcC&pg=PA49 |access-date=6 April 2013 |year=1979 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-091-4 |pages=49–50 }}</ref> They belong to [[Other Backward Class|other backward classes]].<br />
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=== Gujarat ===<br />
Kumhars are listed among the Other Backward Classes of Gujarat, where they are listed with the following communities: Prajapati (Gujjar Prajapati, Varia Prajapati, Sorthia Prajapati), Sorathiya Prajapati.<ref>{{cite web|title=CENTRAL LIST OF OBCs FOR THE STATE OF GUJARAT|url=http://www.bcmbcmw.tn.gov.in/obc/faq/gujarat.pdf|publisher=Government of India}}</ref><br />
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==Kumhars in Nepal==<br />
The [[Central Bureau of Statistics (Nepal)|Central Bureau of Statistics]] of Nepal classifies the Kumhar as a subgroup within the broader social group of [[Madheshi people|Madheshi]] Other Caste.<ref> Population Monograph of Nepal, Volume II [https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Population%20Monograph%20V02.pdf]</ref> At the time of the [[2011 Nepal census]], 62,399 people (0.2% of the population of Nepal) were Kumhar. The frequency of Kumhars by province was as follows:<br />
* [[Madhesh Province]] (1.0%)<br />
* [[Koshi Province]] (0.1%)<br />
* [[Lumbini Province]] (0.1%)<br />
* [[Bagmati Province]] (0.0%)<br />
* [[Gandaki Province]] (0.0%)<br />
* [[Sudurpashchim Province]] (0.0%)<br />
* [[Karnali Province]] (0.0%)<br />
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The frequency of Kumhars was higher than national average (0.2%) in the following districts:<ref>[https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf 2011 Nepal Census, District Level Detail Report]</ref><br />
* [[Rautahat District|Rautahat]] (1.8%)<br />
* [[Bara District|Bara]] (1.5%)<br />
* [[Sarlahi District|Sarlahi]] (1.4%)<br />
* [[Dhanusha District|Dhanusha]] (1.0%)<br />
* [[Saptari District|Saptari]] (0.9%)<br />
* [[Mahottari District|Mahottari]] (0.6%)<br />
* [[Parsa District|Parsa]] (0.6%)<br />
* [[Banke District|Banke]] (0.3%)<br />
* [[Siraha District|Siraha]] (0.3%)<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[Pottery]]<br />
* [[Kumal people]]<br />
* [[Nizamabad black clay pottery]]<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}{{Social groups of Rajasthan}}{{Social groups of Maharashtra}}<br />
[[Category:Kumhar| ]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Rajasthan]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Uttar Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Bihar]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Gujarat]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Maharashtra]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Madhya Pradesh]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Punjab, India]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Haryana]]<br />
[[Category:Sindhi tribes]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Sindh]]<br />
[[Category:Indian castes]]<br />
[[Category:Indian pottery]]<br />
[[Category:Other Backward Classes]]<br />
[[Category:Pot-making castes]]<br />
[[Category:Social groups of Odisha]]</div>Ashutosh Royhttps://en.bharatpedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sterilization_(medicine)&diff=388553Sterilization (medicine)2022-02-18T17:02:31Z<p>Ashutosh Roy: Article formulated.</p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Medical technique that intentionally leaves a person unable to reproduce}}<br />
{{About|sterilization of humans|other forms of sterilization|Sterilization (disambiguation)}}{{for|sterilization of other animals|Neutering}}<br />
{{Infobox Birth control<br />
|name = Sterilization<br />
|bc_type = Sterilization<br />
|date_first_use = Ancient<br />
|rate_type = Failure<br />
|perfect_failure% = under 1<br />
|typical_failure% = under 1<br />
|duration_effect = Permanent<br />
|reversibility = Difficult and expensive, [[Vasovasostomy|vasectomy reversal]] & [[tubal reversal]] may be possible<br />
|user_reminders = 3 negative [[semen sample]]s required following vasectomy<br />
|clinic_interval = None<br />
|STD_protection_YesNo = None<br />
|periods =<br />
|benefits = Permanent methods that require no further user actions<br />
|risks = Operative and postoperative complications<br />
|medical_notes =<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Sterilization''' ([[American and British English spelling differences|also spelled]] '''sterilisation''') is any of a number of [[medical]] methods of [[birth control]] that intentionally leaves a person unable to [[reproduction|reproduce]]. Sterilization methods include both [[surgical]] and non-surgical, and exist for both males and females. Sterilization procedures are intended to be permanent; reversal is generally difficult or impossible.<br />
<br />
There are multiple ways of having sterilization done, but the two that are used most frequently are [[tubal ligation]] for women and [[vasectomy]] for men. There are many different ways tubal sterilization can be accomplished. It is extremely effective and in the United States surgical complications are low. With that being said, tubal sterilization is still a method that involves surgery, so there is still a danger. Women that chose a tubal sterilization may have a higher risk of serious side effects, more than a man has with a vasectomy. [[Pregnancy|Pregnancies]] after a tubal sterilization can still occur, even many years after the procedure. It is not very likely, but if it does happen there is a high risk of [[ectopic gestation]]. Statistics confirm that a handful of tubal sterilization [[Surgery|surgeries]] are performed shortly after a vaginal delivery mostly by minilaparotomy.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Sterilization|last=Peterson|first=Herbert B|journal=Obstetrics and Gynecology|volume=111|issue=1|pages=189–203|doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000298621.98372.62|pmid=18165410|s2cid=220557510|hdl=10983/15925|hdl-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
In some cases, sterilization can be reversed but not all. It can vary by the type of sterilization performed.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
==Methods==<br />
<br />
===Surgical===<br />
Surgical sterilization methods include:<br />
* [[Tubal ligation]] in females, known popularly as "having one's tubes tied". The [[fallopian tube]]s, which allow the sperm to fertilize the [[ovum]] and would carry the fertilized ovum to the [[uterus]], are closed. This generally involves a general anesthetic and a [[laparotomy]] or [[laparoscopic]] approach to cut, clip or [[cauterization|cauterize]] the fallopian tubes.<br />
* [[Salpingectomy|Bilateral salpingectomy]] in females, also known as tubal removal. Both fallopian tubes are surgically removed. When done for contraceptive purposes, the ovaries are left in place. This method is considered more effective than tubal ligation, as there is no chance of tubal reconnection or clip failure, and also prevents cancer of the fallopian tubes and can reduce risk of ovarian cancer.<br />
* [[Vasoligation]] in males. The [[vas deferens|vasa deferentia]], the tubes that connect the [[testicle]]s to the [[prostate]], are cut and closed. This prevents [[spermatozoon|sperm]] produced in the testicles from entering the ejaculated [[semen]] (which is mostly produced in the [[seminal vesicle]]s and [[prostate]]). Although the term ''vasectomy'' is established in the general community, the correct [[medical terminology]] is vasoligation.<br />
* [[Hysterectomy]] in females. The [[uterus]] is surgically removed, permanently preventing [[pregnancy]] and some [[disease]]s, such as [[uterine cancer]].<br />
* [[Castration]] in males. The testicles are surgically removed. This is frequently used for the sterilization of animals, but rarely for humans. It was also formerly used on some human male children for other reasons; see [[castrato]] and [[eunuch]].<br />
<br />
===Transluminal===<br />
[[Transluminal]] procedures are performed by entry through the [[female reproductive tract]]. These generally use a catheter to place a substance into the [[fallopian tube]]s that eventually causes blockage of the tract in this segment. Such procedures are generally called ''non-surgical'' as they use natural orifices and thereby do not necessitate any [[surgical incision]].<br />
*The [[Essure]] procedure was one such transluminal sterilization technique. In this procedure, [[polyethylene terephthalate]] fiber inserts were placed into the fallopian tubes, eventually inducing scarring and occlusion of the tubes.<ref name="pmid19716128">{{cite journal |author=Smith RD |title=Contemporary hysteroscopic methods for female sterilization |journal=Int J Gynaecol Obstet |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=79–84 |pmid=19716128 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgo.2009.07.026 |hdl=2027.42/135408 |s2cid=13613243 |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/135408/1/ijgo79.pdf |hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
In April 2018, the [[Essure#FDA|FDA restricted the sale and use of Essure]]. On July 20, 2018, Bayer announced the halt of sales in the US by the end of 2018.<br />
*[[Quinacrine]] has also been used for transluminal sterilization, but despite a multitude of clinical studies on the use of quinacrine and female sterilization, no randomized, controlled trials have been reported to date and there is some controversy over its use.<ref name=drugsdotcom>[https://www.drugs.com/mmx/quinacrine-hydrochloride.html Drugs.com --> Quinacrine.] Retrieved on August 24, 2009</ref> See also [[mepacrine]].<br />
<br />
===Thermal===<br />
Fahim <ref>Fahim, M. S., et al. "Heat in male contraception (hot water 60° C, infrared, microwave, and ultrasound)." Contraception 11.5 (1975): 549-562.</ref><ref>Fahim, M. S., et al. "Ultrasound as a new method of male contraception." Fertility and sterility 28.8 (1977): 823-831.</ref><ref>Fahim, M. S., Z. Fahim, and F. Azzazi. "Effect of ultrasound on testicular electrolytes (sodium and potassium)." Archives of andrology 1.2 (1978): 179–184.</ref> et al. found that heat exposure, especially high-intensity ultrasound, was effective either for temporary or permanent contraception depending on the dose, e.g. selective destruction of germ cells and Sertoli cells without affecting Leydig cells or testosterone levels.<br />
<br />
===Pharmacological===<br />
In the 1977 textbook ''Ecoscience: Population, Resources, Environment'', on page 787, the authors speculate about future possible oral sterilants for humans.<br />
<br />
In 2015, [[DNA editing]] using [[gene drive]]s to sterilize mosquitos was demonstrated.<ref>{{cite news |first=Tina |last=Hesman Saey |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/dna-editing-shows-success-mosquito-sterilization |title=DNA editing shows success in mosquito sterilization |work=Science News |access-date=October 5, 2016 }}</ref><br />
<br />
There have been hoaxes involving fictitious drugs that would purportedly have such effects, notably [[progesterex]].<br />
<br />
See also [[Norplant]], [[Depo-Provera]] and [[oral contraceptive]].<br />
<br />
Chemical, e.g. drug-based methods are available, e.g. orally-administered Lonidamine<ref>Lonidamine analogues for fertility management, WO2011005759A3<br />
WIPO (PCT), Ingrid Gunda GeorgeJoseph S. TashRamappa ChakrsaliSudhakar R. JakkarajJames P. Calvet</ref> for temporary, or permanent (depending on the dose) fertility management.<br />
Boris<ref>United States Patent US3934015A, Oral male antifertility method and compositions</ref> provides a method for chemically inducing either temporary or non-reversible sterility, depending on the dose, "Permanent sterility in human males can be obtained by a single oral dosage containing from about 18 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg".<br />
<br />
==Voluntary sterilization==<br />
<br />
Motivations for voluntary sterilizations include:<br />
<br />
===Lifestyle===<br />
Because of the emphasis placed on childbearing as the most important role of women, not having children was traditionally seen as a deficiency or due to fertility problems.<ref name="Childfree and Feminine"/> However, better access to [[contraception]], new economic and educational opportunities, and changing ideas about motherhood have led to new reproductive experiences for women in the United States, particularly for women who [[Voluntary childlessness|choose to be childless]].<ref name="The Perspectives of Childless Couples">Forsyth, Craig J. 1999. "The Perspectives of Childless Couples". ''International Review of Modern Sociology''. 29(2): 59–70.</ref> Scholars define "voluntarily childless" women as "women of childbearing age who are fertile and state that they do not intend to have children, women of childbearing age who have chosen sterilization, or women past childbearing age who were fertile but chose not to have children."<ref name="Women's Voluntary Childlessness">Kelly, Maura. 2009. "Women's Voluntary Childlessness: A Radical Rejection of Motherhood?". ''Women's Studies Quarterly''. 37(3/4): 157–172.</ref> <br />
In industrialized countries such as the United Kingdom, those of Western Europe, and the United States, the [[fertility rate]] has declined below or near the population [[replacement rate]] of two children per woman. Women are having children at a later age, and most notably, an increasing number of women are choosing not to bear children at all.<ref name="Childfree and Feminine">Gillespie, Rosemary. 2003. "Childfree and Feminine: Understanding the Gender Identity of Voluntary Childless Women". ''Gender and Society''. 17(1): 122–136.</ref> According to the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey, 46% of women aged 15 to 44 were childless in June 2008 compared to 35% of childless women in 1976.<ref name="Fertility of American Women: 2008">2010. "Fertility of American Women: 2008". American Community Survey. United States' Census Bureau.</ref> The personal freedoms of a childless lifestyle and the ability to focus on other relationships were common motivations underlying the decision to be voluntarily childless. Such personal freedoms included increased autonomy and improved financial positions. The couple could engage in more spontaneous activities because they did not need a babysitter or to consult with someone else. Women had more time to devote to their careers and hobbies. Regarding other relationships, some women chose to forgo children because they wanted to maintain the "type of intimacy that they found fulfilling" with their partners.<ref name="Childfree and Feminine"/> Although voluntary [[childlessness]] was a joint decision for many couples, "studies have found that women were more often the primary decision makers. There is also some evidence that when one partner (either male or female) was ambivalent, a strong desire not to have children on the side of the other partner was often the deciding factor."<ref name="Women's Voluntary Childlessness"/> 'Not finding a suitable partner at an appropriate time in life" was another deciding factor, particularly for ambivalent women.<br />
<br />
===Financial===<br />
Economic incentives and career reasons also motivate women to choose sterilization. With regard to women who are voluntarily childless, studies show that there are higher "opportunity costs" for women of higher socioeconomic status because women are more likely than men to forfeit labor force participation once they have children. Some women stated the lack of financial resources as a reason why they remained [[childfree]]. Combined with the costliness of raising children, having children was viewed as a negative impact on financial resources.<ref name="Women's Voluntary Childlessness"/> Thus, childlessness is generally correlated with working full-time. "Many women expressed the view that women ultimately have to make a choice between motherhood and career." In contrast, childlessness was also found among adults who were not overly committed to careers. In these finding, the importance of leisure time and the potential to retire early was emphasized over career ambitions.<br />
Sterilization is also an option for low-income families. Public funding for contraceptive services come from a variety of federal and state sources in the United States. Until the mid-1990s, "[f]ederal funds for contraceptive services [were] provided under [[Title X]] of the Public Health Service Act, Title XIX of the [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] (Medicaid), and two block-grant programs, Maternal and Child Health (MCH) and Social Services."<ref name="Public Funding of Contraceptive">Gold, Rachel Benson and Barry Nestor. 1985. "Public Funding of Contraceptive, Sterilization, and Abortion Services". ''Family Planning Perspectives''. 17(1): 25–30.</ref> The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families was another federal block granted created in 1996 and is the main federal source of financial "welfare" aid. The U.S. [[Department of Health and Human Services]] administers Title X, which is the sole federal program dedicated to family planning. Under Title X, public and nonprofit private agencies receive grants to operate clinics that provide care largely to the uninsured and the underinsured. Unlike Title X, [[Medicaid]] is an entitlement program that is jointly funded by federal and state governments to "provide medical care to various low-income populations."<ref name="Methodology for Measuring Public Funding for Contraceptive">Sonfield, Adam, and Rachel Benson Gold. 2005. "Methodology for Measuring Public Funding for Contraceptive, Sterilization, and Abortion Services, FY 1980–2001". The Alan Guttmacher Institute.</ref> Medicaid provided the majority of publicly funded sterilizations. In 1979, regulations were implemented on sterilizations funded by the Department of Health and Human Services. The regulations included "a complex procedure to ensure women's informed consent, a 30-day waiting period between consent and the procedure, and a prohibition on sterilization of anyone younger than 21 or who is mentally incompetent."<ref name="Methodology for Measuring Public Funding for Contraceptive"/><br />
<br />
===Physiological===<br />
Physiological reasons, such as genetic disorders or disabilities, can influence whether couples seek sterilization. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 1 in 6 children in the U.S. had a [[developmental disability]] in 2006–2008.<ref name="Developmental Disabilities Increasing in US">"Developmental Disabilities Increasing in US". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2011.</ref> Developmental disabilities are defined as "a diverse group of severe chronic conditions that are due to mental and/or physical impairments." Many disabled children may eventually grow to lead independent lives as adults, but they may require intensive parental care and extensive medical costs as children. Intensive care can lead to a parent's "withdrawal from the labor force, worsened economic situation of the household, interruptions in parents' sleep and a greater chance of marital instability."<ref name="Child Disability and Mothers' Tubal Sterilization">Park, Jennifer M., Hogan, Dennis P. and Frances K. Goldscheider. 2003. "Child Disability and Mothers' Tubal Sterilization". ''Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health''. 35(3): 138–143.</ref> Couples may choose sterilization in order to concentrate on caring for a child with a disability and to avoid withholding any necessary resources from additional children. Alternatively, couples may also desire more children in hopes of experiencing the normal parental activities of their peers. A child without a disability may be more likely to provide the couple with grandchildren and support in their old age. For couples without children, technological advancements have enabled the use of carrier screening and [[prenatal testing]] for the detection of [[genetic disorders]] in prospective parents or in their unborn offspring.<ref name="Genetic Screening: Marvel or Menace?">Rowley, Peter T. "Genetic Screening: Marvel or Menace?". 1984. ''Science''. 225(4658): 138–144.</ref> If prenatal testing has detected a genetic disorder in the child, parents may opt to be sterilized to forgo having more children who may also be affected.<ref name="Child Disability and Mothers' Tubal Sterilization"/><br />
<br />
===National examples===<br />
<br />
====United States====<br />
Sterilization is the most common form of contraception in the United States when female and male usage is combined. However, usage varies across demographic categories such as gender, age, education, etc. According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], 16.7% of women aged 15–44 used female sterilization as a method of contraception in 2006–2008 while 6.1% of their partners used male sterilization.<ref name="Use of Contraception in the United States: 1982-2008">2010. "Use of Contraception in the United States: 1982–2008". ''Vital and Health Statistics''. 23(29)</ref> Minority women were more likely to use female sterilization than their white counterparts.<ref name="Female Sterilisation in the United States">Zite, Nikki and Sonya Borrero. 2011. "Female Sterilisation in the United States". ''The European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care''. 16: 336–340.</ref> The proportion of women using female sterilization was highest for black women (22%), followed by Hispanic women (20%) and white women (15%). Reverse sterilization trends by race occurred for the male partners of the women: 8% of male partners of white women used male sterilization, but it dropped to 3% of the partners of Hispanic women and only 1% of the partners of black women. White women were more likely to rely on male sterilization and [[the pill]]. While use of the pill declined with age, the report found that female sterilization increased with age. <br />
[[File:U.S. Sterilization by Race chart.png|U.S. Sterilization by Race chart|right]]<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, female sterilization was the leading method among currently and formerly married women; the pill was the leading method among cohabiting and never married women. 59% of women with three or more children used female sterilization. Thus, women who do not intend to have more children primarily rely on this method of contraception in contrast with women who only aim to space or delay their next birth. Regarding education, "[l]ess-educated women aged 22–44 years were much more likely to rely on female sterilization than those with more education." For example, female sterilization was used among 55% of women who had not completed high school compared with 16% of women who had graduated from college.<ref name="Use of Contraception in the United States: 1982-2008"/><br />
Because national surveys of contraceptive methods have generally relied on the input of women, information about male sterilization is not as widespread. A survey using data from the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth found similar trends to those reported for female sterilization by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2006–2008. Among men aged 15–44 years, vasectomy prevalence was highest in older men and those with two or more biological children. Men with less education were more likely to report female sterilization in their partner. In contrast to female sterilization trends, vasectomy was associated with white males and those who had ever visited a [[family planning]] clinic.<ref name=" Contraception Sterilization Use Among Married Men in the United States">Anderson, John E. et al. 2010. "Contraceptive Sterilization Use Among Married Men in the United States: Results from the Male Sample of the National Survey of Family Growth". 82(3): 230–235</ref><br />
Several factors can explain the different findings between female and male sterilization trends in the United States. Women are more likely to receive reproductive health services. "Additionally, overall use of contraception is associated with higher socioeconomic status, but for women, use of contraceptive tubal sterilization has been found to be related to lower socioeconomic status and lack of health insurance." This finding could be related to [[Medicaid]]-funded sterilizations in the postpartum period that are not available to men.<ref name="Contraception Sterilization Use Among Married Men in the United States"/><br />
<br />
==Promoted sterilization==<br />
<br />
===Compulsory===<br />
<br />
[[Compulsory sterilization]] refers to governmental policies put in place as part of [[human population planning]] or as a form of [[eugenics]] (changing hereditary qualities of a race or breed by controlling mating) to prevent certain groups of people from reproducing. An example of forced sterilization that was ended within the last two decades is Japan's Race Eugenic Protection Law, which required citizens with mental disorders to be sterilized. This policy was active from 1940 until 1996, when it and all other eugenic policies in Japan were abolished.<ref name="The Enactment of Japan's Sterilization Laws">Matsubara, Yôko. "The Enactment of Japan's Sterilization Laws in the 1940s: A Prelude to Postwar Eugenic Policy." ''The History of Science Society of Japan''. 8.2 (1998): 187–201.</ref> In many cases, sterilization policies were not explicitly compulsory in that they required [[consent]]. However, this meant that men and women were often coerced into agreeing to the procedure without being of a right state of mind or receiving all of the necessary information. Under the Japanese [[leprosy]] policies, citizens with leprosy were not forced into being sterilized; however, they had been placed involuntarily into segregated and quarantined communities.<ref name="The Enactment of Japan's Sterilization Laws"/> In America, some women were sterilized without their consent, later resulting in lawsuits against the doctors who performed those surgeries. There are also many examples of women being asked for their consent to the procedure during times of high stress and physical pain. Some examples include women who have just given birth and are still being affected by the drugs, women in the middle of labor, or people who do not understand English.<ref>Kluchin, Rebecca M. "Locating the Voices of the Sterilized." ''The Public Historian''. 29.3 (2007): 131–44.</ref> Many of the women affected by this were poor, [[minority group|minority]] women.<ref name="Race, Class, and Gender in Punitive Welfare Reform">Pierson-Balik, Denise A. 2003. "Race, Class, and Gender in Punitive Welfare Reform: Social Eugenics and Welfare Policy". ''Race, Gender, & Class''. 10 (1): 11–30.</ref><br />
<br />
In May 2014, the [[World Health Organization]], [[OHCHR]], [[UN Women]], [[UNAIDS]], [[UNDP]], [[UNFPA]] and [[UNICEF]] issued a joint statement on '''Eliminating forced, coercive and otherwise involuntary sterilization, An interagency statement'''. The report references the involuntary sterilization of a number of specific population groups. They include:<br />
<br />
* [[women]], especially in relation to coercive population control policies, and particularly including women living with [[HIV]], indigenous and ethnic minority girls and women. Indigenous and ethnic minority women often face "wrongful stereotyping based on gender, race and ethnicity".<br />
* [[people with disabilities]], often perceived as sexually inactive. women with intellectual disabilities are "often treated as if they have no control, or should have no control, over their sexual and reproductive choices". Other rationales include menstrual management for the benefit of careers. <br />
* [[intersex]] persons, who "are often subjected to cosmetic and other non-medically indicated surgeries performed on their reproductive organs, without their informed consent or that of their parents, and without taking into consideration the views of the children involved", often as a "sex-normalizing" treatment.<br />
* [[transgender]] persons, "as a prerequisite to receiving gender-affirmative treatment and gender-marker changes".<br />
<br />
The report recommends a range of guiding principles for medical treatment, including ensuring patient autonomy in decision-making, ensuring non-discrimination, accountability and access to remedies.<ref>[https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/gender_rights/eliminating-forced-sterilization/en/ Eliminating forced, coercive and otherwise involuntary sterilization, An interagency statement], [[World Health Organization]], May 2014.</ref><br />
<br />
===Incentivizing===<br />
Some governments in the world have offered and continue to offer economic incentives to using [[birth control]], including sterilization. For countries with high population growth and not enough resources to sustain a large population, these incentives become more enticing. Many of these policies are aimed at certain target groups, often disadvantaged and young women (especially in the United States).<ref name="Providing Subsidies and Incentives">Mauldon, Jane Gilbert. "Providing Subsidies and Incentives for Norplant, Sterilization and Other Contraception: Allowing Economic Theory to Inform Ethical Analysis." ''The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics''. 31.3 (2003): 351–64.</ref> While these policies are controversial, the ultimate goal is to promote greater social well-being for the whole community. One of the theories supporting incentivizing or subsidy programs in the United States is that it offers [[contraception]] to citizens who may not be able to afford it. This can help families prevent unwanted pregnancies and avoid the financial, familial, and personal stresses of having children if they so desire.<br />
Sterilization becomes controversial in the question of the degree of a government's involvement in personal decisions. For instance, some have posited that by offering incentives to receive sterilization, the government may change the decision of the families, rather than just supporting a decision they had already made. Many people{{who}} agree that incentive programs are inherently coercive, making them unethical.<ref name="Providing Subsidies and Incentives"/> Others{{who}} argue that as long as potential users of these programs are well-educated about the procedure, taught about alternative methods of contraception, and are able to make voluntary, informed consent, then incentive programs are providing a good service that is available for people to take advantage of.<br />
<br />
===National examples===<br />
<br />
====Singapore====<br />
<br />
[[Singapore]] is an example of a country with a sterilization incentive program. In the 1980s, Singapore offered US$5000 to women who elected to be sterilized. The conditions associated with receiving this grant were fairly obvious in their aim at targeting low income and less educated parents. It specified that both parents should be below a specified educational level and that their combined income should not exceed $750 per month.<ref>Singh, K., O. A. C. Viegas, and S. S. Ratnam. "Balance in Family Planning". ''World Health Forum''. 10 (1989): 344–49.</ref> This program, among other birth control incentives and education programs, greatly reduced Singapore's birth rate, female mortality rate, and infant mortality rate, while increasing family income, female participation in the labor force, and rise in educational attainment among other social benefits. These are the intended results of most incentivizing programs, although questions of their ethicality remain.<br />
<br />
====India====<br />
Another country with an overpopulation problem is [[India]]. Medical advances in the past fifty years have lowered the death rate, resulting in large population density and overcrowding. This overcrowding is also due to the fact that poor families do not have access to [[birth control]]. Despite this lack of access, sterilization incentives have been in place since the mid-1900s. In the 1960s, the governments of three Indian states and one large private company offered free [[vasectomies]] to some employees, occasionally accompanied by a bonus.<ref>Enke, Stephen. "The Gains to India from Population Control: Some Money Measures and Incentive Schemes." ''The Review of Economics and Statistics''. 42.2 (1960): 175–81.</ref> In 1959, the second Five-Year Plan offered medical practitioners who performed vasectomies on low-income men monetary compensation. Additionally, those who motivated men to receive vasectomies, and those men who did, received compensation.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/> These incentives partially served as a way to educate men that sterilization was the most effective way of contraception and that vasectomies did not affect sexual performance. The incentives were only available to low income men. Men were the target of sterilization because of the ease and quickness of the procedure, as compared to sterilization of women. However, mass sterilization efforts resulted in lack of cleanliness and careful technique, potentially resulting in botched surgeries and other complications.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/> As the fertility rate began to decrease (but not quickly enough), more incentives were offered, such as land and fertilizer. In 1976, compulsory sterilization policies were put in place and some disincentive programs were created to encourage more people to become sterilized. However, these disincentive policies, along with "sterilization camps" (where large amounts of sterilizations were performed quickly and often unsafely), were not received well by the population and gave people less incentive to participate in sterilization. The compulsory laws were removed. Further problems arose and by 1981, there was a noticeable problem in the preference for sons. Since families were encouraged to keep the number of children to a minimum, son preference meant that female fetuses or young girls were killed at a rapid rate.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/> The focus of population policies has changed in the twenty-first century. The government is more concerned with empowering women, protecting them from violence, and providing basic necessities to families. Sterilization efforts are still in existence and still target poor families.<br />
<br />
====China====<br />
When the [[People's Republic of China]] came to power in 1949, the Chinese government viewed population growth as a growth in development and progress. The population at the time was around 540 million.<ref name="China Daily">{{cite news|title=Total population, CBR, CDR, NIR and TFR of China (1949–2000)|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010census/2010-08/20/content_11182379.htm|newspaper=China Daily}}</ref> Therefore, [[abortion]] and sterilization were restricted. With these policies and the social and economic improvements associated with the new regime, a rapid population growth ensued.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/> By the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]] in 1971 and with a population of 850 million, population control became a top priority of the government.<ref name="China Daily"/> Within six years, more than thirty million sterilizations were performed on men and women. Soon the well-known [[one-child policy]] was enforced, which came along with many incentives for parents to maintain a one-child family. This included free books, materials, and food for the child through primary school if both parents agreed to sterilization. The policy also came along with harsh consequences for not adhering to the one-child limit. For example, in Shanghai, parents with "extra children" must pay between three and six times the city's average yearly income in "social maintenance fees."<ref name="Consequences of the one-child policy">{{cite news|last=The Economist Online|title=Consequences of the one-child policy: Perils of motherhood|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/analects/2012/06/consequences-one-child-policy|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> In the past decade, the restrictions on family size and reproduction have lessened. The Chinese government has found that by giving incentives and disincentives that are more far-reaching than a one-time incentive to be sterilized, families are more willing to practice better family planning. These policies seem to be less coercive as well, as families are better able to see the long-term effects of their sterilization rather than being tempted with a one-time sum.<br />
<br />
==Criminalization==<br />
===Poland===<br />
In Poland, reproductive sterilisation of men or women has been defined as a criminal act since 1997<ref name="PolandSejm_CriminalCode_19970606" />{{rp|19}} and remains so {{as of|2019|09|05|lc=yes}}, under Article 156 §1, which also covers making someone blind, deaf or [[muteness|mute]], of the 1997 law.<ref name="PolandSejm_CriminalCode_20190905" />{{rp|64}} The original 1997 law punished contraventions with a prison sentence of one to ten years<ref name="PolandSejm_CriminalCode_19970606" /> and the updated law {{as of|2019|09|05|lc=yes}} sets a prison sentence of at least 3 years.<ref name="PolandSejm_CriminalCode_20190905" /> The prison sentence is a maximum of three years if the sterilisation is involuntary, under Art. 156 §2.<ref name="PolandSejm_CriminalCode_19970606" /><ref name="PolandSejm_CriminalCode_20190905" />{{rp|64}}<br />
<br />
==Effects==<br />
The effects of sterilization vary greatly according to gender, age, location, and other factors. When discussing female sterilization, one of the most important factors to consider is the degree of power that women hold in the household and within society.<br />
<br />
===Physical===<br />
Understanding the physical effects of sterilization is important because it is a common method of contraception. Among women who had interval tubal sterilization, studies have shown a null or positive effect on female sexual interest and pleasure.<ref name="The Effect of Interval Tubal Sterilization">Costello, Caroline et al. 2002. "The Effect of Interval Tubal Sterilization on Sexual Interest and Pleasure". ''The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists''. 100(3): 511–517.</ref> Similar results were discovered for men who had vasectomies. Vasectomies did not negatively influence the satisfaction of men and there was no significant change in communication and marital satisfaction among couples as a result.<ref name="The Influence of a Vasectomy">Hofmeyr, Doreen G. and Abraham P. Greeff. 2002. "The Influence of a Vasectomy on the Marital Relationship and Sexual Satisfaction of the Married Man". ''Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy''. 28:339–351.</ref> According to ''Johns Hopkins Medicine'', tubal sterilizations result in serious problems in less than 1 out of 1000 women. Tubal sterilization is an effective procedure, but pregnancy can still occur in about 1 out of 200 women. Some potential risks of tubal sterilization include "bleeding from a skin incision or inside the abdomen, infection, damage to other organs inside the abdomen, side effects from anesthesia, ectopic pregnancy (an egg that becomes fertilized outside the uterus), [and] incomplete closing of a fallopian tube that results in pregnancy."<ref name="Tubal Ligation">"Tubal Ligation". Johns Hopkins Medicine.</ref> Potential risks of vasectomies include "pain continuing long after surgery, bleeding and bruising, a (usually mild) inflammatory reaction to sperm that spill during surgery called sperm granuloma, [and] infection." Additionally, the [[vas deferens]], the part of the male anatomy that transports sperm, may grow back together, which could result in unintended pregnancy.<ref name="Vasectomy">"Vasectomy". Johns Hopkins Medicine.</ref><br />
<br />
===Psychological===<br />
It can be difficult to measure the psychological effects of sterilization, as certain psychological phenomenon may be more prevalent in those who eventually decide to partake in sterilization. The relationships between psychological problems and sterilization may be due more to [[correlation]] rather than [[Causality|causation]]. That being said, there are several trends surrounding the psychological health of those who have received sterilizations. A 1996 Chinese study found that "risk for depression was 2.34 times greater after tubal ligation, and 3.97 times greater after vasectomy."<ref name="Psychological Effects China">{{cite journal|last=Lin|first=Luo|author2=Wu Shi-Zhong |author3=Zhu Changmin |author4=Fan Qifu |author5=Liu Keqiang |author6=Sun Goliang |title=Psychological Effects of Sterilization|journal=Contraception|year=1996|volume=54|issue=6|pages=345–357|doi=10.1016/s0010-7824(96)00200-4|pmid=8968663}}</ref> If an individual goes into the procedure after being coerced or with a lack of understanding of the procedure and its consequences, they are more likely to develop negative psychological consequences afterwards. However, most people in the United States who are sterilized maintain the same level of [[psychological health]] as they did prior to the procedure.<ref name=philliber1985>{{Cite journal | last1 = Philliber | first1 = S. G. | last2 = Philliber | first2 = W. W. | title = Social and psychological perspectives on voluntary sterilization: A review | journal = Studies in Family Planning | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–29 | year = 1985 | pmid = 3983979| doi = 10.2307/1965814 | jstor = 1965814 }}</ref> Because sterilization is a largely irreversible procedure, post-sterilization regret is a major psychological effect. The most common reason for post-sterilization regret is the desire to have more children.<ref name="Female Sterilisation in the United States"/><br />
<br />
===Familial===<br />
<br />
====Women in the household====<br />
Some people believe that sterilization gives women, in particular, more control over their [[Human female sexuality|sexuality]] and their [[reproduction]]. This can lead to empowering women, to giving them more of a sense of ownership over their body, as well as to an improved relationship in the household.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth">STOLC, Phyllis E W. "Seeking Zero Growth: Population Policy in China and India". ''Graduate Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies''. 6.2 (2008): 10–32.</ref> In the United States, where there are no governmental incentives for being sterilized (see below), the decision is often made for personal and familial reasons. A woman, sometimes along with her husband or partner, can decide that she does not want any more children or she does not want children at all. Many women report feeling more sexually liberated after being sterilized, as there is no concern of a pregnancy risk.<ref name="The Decision to End Childbearing by Sterilization"/> By eliminating the risk of having more children, a woman can commit to a long-term job without a disruption of a [[maternity leave]] in the future. A woman will feel more empowered since she could make a decision about her body and her life. Sterilization eliminates the need for potential [[abortions]], which can be a very stressful decision overall.<ref name="The Decision to End Childbearing by Sterilization">Abell, P. K. "The Decision to End Childbearing by Sterilization." ''Family Relations''. 36.1 (1987): 66–71.</ref><br />
<br />
====Relationship with spouse====<br />
In countries that are more entrenched in the traditional [[Patriarchy|patriarchal system]], female sterilizations can inspire abusive behavior from husbands for various reasons.<ref>Rao, Vijayendra. "Wife-Beating in a Rural South India Community." ''Social Science and Medicine''. 44.8 (1997): 1169–1181.</ref> Sterilization can lead to distrust in a marriage if the husband then suspects his wife of infidelity. Furthermore, the husband may become angry and aggressive if the decision to be sterilized was made by the wife without consulting him. If a woman marries again after sterilization, her new husband might be displeased with her inability to bear him children, causing tumult in the marriage. There are many negative consequences associated with women who hold very little personal power. However, in more progressive cultures and in stable relationships, there are few changes observed in spousal relationships after sterilization. In these cultures, women hold more agency and men are less likely to dictate women's personal choices. Sexual activity remains fairly constant and marital relationships do not suffer, as long as the sterilization decision was made collaboratively between the two partners.<ref name="philliber1985"/><br />
<br />
====Children====<br />
As the Chinese government tried to communicate to their people after the population boom between 1953 and 1971, having fewer children allows more of a family's total resources to be dedicated to each child.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/> Especially in countries that give parents incentives for family planning and for having fewer children, it is advantageous to existing children to be in smaller families.<br />
In more [[rural]] areas where families depend on the labor of their children to survive, sterilization could have more of a negative effect. If a child dies, a family loses a worker. During China's controversial one-child policy reign, policymakers allowed families to have another child if an existing child in the same family died or became disabled.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/> However, if either parent is sterilized, this is impossible. The loss of a child could impact the survival of an entire family.<br />
<br />
===Community and beyond===<br />
In countries with high population rates, such as China and India, compulsory sterilization policies or incentivizes to sterilization may be implemented in order to lower birth rates.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/> While both countries are experiencing a decline in birth rate, there is worry that the rate was lowered too much and that there will not be enough people to fill the labor force.<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/> There is also the problem of son-preference: with greater [[sex selection]] technology, parents can abort a pregnancy if they know it is a female child. This leads to an uneven [[sex ratio]], which can have negative implications down the line. However, experiencing a lower population rate is often very beneficial to countries. It can lead to lower levels of [[poverty]] and [[unemployment]].<ref name="Seeking Zero Growth"/><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Infertility]]<br />
* [[Eugenics]]<br />
* [[Male contraceptive]]<br />
* [[Vas-occlusive contraception]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist|refs=<br />
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<ref name="PolandSejm_CriminalCode_20190905">{{cite web | title = Ustawa z dnia 6 czerwca 1997 r. – Kodeks karny – Opracowano na podstawie t.j. Dz. U. z 2018 r. poz. 1600, 2077, z 2019 r. poz. 730, 858, 870, 1135, 1579 | trans-title= Law of 6 June 1997 - Criminal code – Updated on the basis of [[Dziennik Ustaw|Dz. U.]] 2018 parts 1600, 2077, and Dz. U. 2019 parts 730, 858, 870, 1135, 1579 | website= [[Sejm]] |date = 2019-09-05 | url = https://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20180001600/U/D20181600Lj.pdf | access-date = 2019-09-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190930143114/https://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU20180001600/U/D20181600Lj.pdf |archive-date= 2019-09-30 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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<ref name="PolandSejm_CriminalCode_19970606">{{cite web | title = 553 Ustawa z dnia 6 czerwca 1997 r. – Kodeks karny | trans-title= 553 Law of 6 June 1997 - Criminal code | website= [[Sejm]] |date = 1997-06-06 | url = https://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19970880553/O/D19970553.pdf | access-date = 2019-09-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190930144435/https://prawo.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/download.xsp/WDU19970880553/O/D19970553.pdf |archive-date= 2019-09-30 |url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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}}<br />
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== External links ==<br />
<br />
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4m6PnJlwqc Cat's sterilization (video)] <br />
* [http://www.vasectomy-information.com Vasectomy Information] —The website of newsgroup alt.support.vasectomy.<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010412100740/http://www.vasectomymedical.com/ All About Vasectomy & Finding a Doctor. Latest advances, videos etc]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181101175441/http://my-vasectomy.com/ My Vasectomy in Words and Pictures] —One man's personal experience.<br />
* [http://vasectomy--reversal.blogspot.com/ Vasectomy Reversal Resource]<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101130104329/http://www.womenshealthchannel.com/contraception/permanent.shtml Female Sterilization Options] – /mk.nkl/cvas1.html Is Vasectomy the Right Method For Me?] and * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070416094442/http://engenderhealth.org/wh/fp/cfem1.html Is Female Sterilization the Right Method For Me?]<br />
*[https://www.no-scalpelvasectomy.com/nsv_book.html No-Scalpel Vasectomy: The NSV Book]<br />
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20141110214908/https://no-scalpelvasectomy.com/video/ Video: The NSV Procedure (graphic)]<br />
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{{Birth control methods}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Sterilization (Surgical Procedure)}}<br />
[[Category:Sterilization (medicine)| ]]</div>Ashutosh Roy