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Aarti Sequeira

2026-05-05T07:16:32Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created basic entry v1...

{{Short description|Indian-American chef (born 1978)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox chef
|image= Aarti-Sequeira-4436i.jpg
|name= Aarti Sequeira
| birth_name = Aarti Lucica Sequeira<ref name="tweet">{{cite tweet|user=aartipaarti|author=aarti sequeira|number=25082840106|date=21 September 2010|title=@glutenfreegirl btw, did I tell you that my middle name is Lucica and my gran's name was Lucia?!!}}</ref>
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1978|08|19}}
| birth_place = [[Bombay, Maharashtra]], India
| caption = Sequeira in 2019
| spouse = Brendan "Bren" McNamara
| citizenship = United States
| children = 2
| style = [[Indian cuisine]]
| education = [[Northwestern University]]
|television= ''Aarti Party'' ''[[Guy's Grocery Games]]'', ''Taste in Translation'' ''[[The Next Food Network Star]]''
}}

'''Aarti Lucica Sequeira''' (born 19 August 1978) is an [[Indian-American]] cook and television personality, best known as the winner of the [[The Next Food Network Star (Season 6)|sixth season]] of [[Food Network]]'s reality television show, ''[[Food Network Star|The Next Food Network Star]]''.<ref name="Qazi0315">{{cite news |last=Qazi |first=Nisa |title=Eats, shoots and blogs: Bona fide celebrity chef Aarti Sequeira talks about how she came to represent Indian food in the US |work=[[Financial Times]] |date=March 15, 2013 |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/6ecf548a-870e-11e2-9dd7-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2NuuW9aHL |access-date=March 18, 2013}}</ref> In 2010, after her victory, her show ''Aarti Party'' premiered on the network. Following ''Aarti Party'', she went on to host ''Taste in Translation'' on [[Cooking Channel]], in which she seeks out the most popular dishes from around the world. She had previously worked as a [[CNN]] news producer and in 2008 started the online cooking variety show ''Aarti Paarti''.

==Early life and education==
Aarti Sequeira was born in [[Bombay]], India, on 19 August 1978.<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="Nishkian0805">{{cite news |last=Nishkian |first=Jordan |title=Chef Aarti Sequeira on the Spirit of Food, Bridging Traditions and Overcoming Imposter Syndrome |work=Locale |date=August 5, 2022 |url=https://localemagazine.com/food-network-chef-aarti-sequeira/ |accessdate=December 20, 2022}}</ref><ref name="Northwestern" /> Her family was originally from [[Mangalore]] in the state of [[Karnataka]].<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="Morago0831">{{cite news |last=Morago |first=Greg |title=Next Food Network Star demystifies Indian food |work=[[Houston Chronicle]] |date=August 31, 2010 |url=https://www.chron.com/life/article/Next-Food-Network-Star-demystifies-Indian-food-1699846.php |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref><ref name="Hallock0917">{{cite news |last=Hallock |first=Betty |title=5 Questions for Aarti Sequeira |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=September 17, 2012 |url=https://www.latimes.com/food/la-xpm-2012-sep-17-la-dd-5-questions-for-aarti-sequeira-20120907-story.html |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> She has two sisters,<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="FoodNetworkBio" /> and grew up in a traditional [[Catholic Church in India|Indian Catholic]] home.<ref name="Morago0831" /><ref name="FoodNetworkBio">{{cite web| title=Aarti Sequeira Bio: Chefs |publisher=[[Food Network]] |date=August 2010 |url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/aarti-sequeira-bio/bio/index.html |access-date=21 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820085959/http://www.foodnetwork.com/aarti-sequeira-bio/bio/index.html |archive-date=20 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> When she was still an infant, her family moved to [[Dubai]] due to better job opportunities for her father.<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="Northwestern" /> Sequeira was educated in a primarily Indian-attended school in Dubai until age seven, when she was transferred to a British school, which was initially a challenge for her as she felt like an outsider.<ref name="WomenWorking">{{Cite web |title = Aarti Sequeira on Courage, Parenting and More {{!}} WomenWorking.com |date=September 10, 2014 |url=http://www.womenworking.com/aarti-sequeria-courage-parenting-and-more |publisher=[[Helene Lerner|WomenWorking.com]] |access-date=August 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907043238/http://www.womenworking.com/aarti-sequeria-courage-parenting-and-more |archive-date=September 7, 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> She participated in music-related activities at school, including choir and playing piano.<ref name="FoodNetworkBio" />

Sequeira said cooking was a large part of her family's identity, and she credits much of her culinary inspiration to her Indian cultural background and her mother's influence.<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="Medill" /><ref name="Rosenberg0216">{{cite news |last=Rosenberg |first=Lizzy |title=The Food Network's Aarti Sequeira: 'We're Meant to Live More in Tune With the World Than We Do Now' (Exclusive) |work=Green Matters |date=February 16, 2022 |url=https://www.greenmatters.com/p/aarti-sequeira-food-network |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> She called her grandmother an "incredible, incredible cook".<ref name="Gibbs0127">{{cite news |last=Gibbs |first=Adrienne |title=Food Network Chef Aarti Sequeira On New Book 'My Family Recipe Journal' |work=[[Forbes]] |date=January 27, 2022 |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/adriennegibbs/2022/01/27/food-network-chef-aarti-sequeira-on-new-book-my-family-recipe-journal/?sh=1f07b3167eb3 |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> Sequeira's mother started keeping a recipe journal after her own mother died, which inspired Sequeira to start her own recipe journal starting at age 10.<ref name="Rosenberg0216" /><ref name="Gibbs0127" /> Her fondest food memories as a child were her father's weekly trips to the market for fresh fish and produce, as well as her mother's daily recipe creations.<ref name="FoodNetworkBio" /> She was also exposed to cuisines of other countries, including homemade pastas in the home of her Italian best friend, and Arabian spit-roasted [[shawarma]]s her family ate every Friday.<ref name="AboutAarti" /> As a child, Sequeira would sometimes pretend to host a cooking show,<ref name="FoodNetworkBio" /> She moved to the [[United States]] in 1996.<ref name="Agate1223">{{cite news |last=Agate |first=Samantha |title=Food Network Host Aarti Sequeira's Home Is Colorful! Take a Tour of Her Cozy North Carolina House |work=[[Closer (magazine)|Closer]] |date=December 23, 2021 |url=https://www.closerweekly.com/posts/aarti-sequeiras-house-photos-of-her-north-carolina-home/ |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> and she was nicknamed "Showcase" because she enjoyed dancing and performing for people.<ref name="Morago0831" />

Sequeira was inspired to pursue a career in journalism after watching [[CNN]] cable news coverage of the [[Gulf War]] as a child.<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="WomenWorking" /><ref name="Medill" /> She aspired to work at CNN and pursue a career like that of journalist [[Christiane Amanpour]].<ref name="WomenWorking" /><ref name="Medill" /> Sequeira graduated from [[Northwestern University]]'s [[Medill School of Journalism]] in 2000,<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="Medill">{{cite web |title=BSJ Alumna Aarti Sequeira |publisher=[[Medill School of Journalism]] |url=http://www.medill.northwestern.edu/alumni/alumnispotlightdisplay.aspx?id=165683 |access-date=August 16, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612103955/https://www.medill.northwestern.edu/alumni/alumnispotlightdisplay.aspx?id=165683 |archive-date=June 12, 2010}}</ref><ref name="Downs0319">{{cite news |last=Downs |first=Maggie |title=Aarti Brings the Party: The Food Network star welcomes you to her table at Palm Desert Food & Wine |work=Palm Springs Life |date=March 19, 2018 |url=https://www.palmspringslife.com/aarti-sequeira/ |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> with a degree in Broadcast Journalism,<ref name="Qazi0315" /> with an adjunct major in International Relations. She worked at the school's student-run radio and television stations as a student, and spent a short time in [[Washington, D.C.]] covering the [[United States Congress]] for a local news station in [[Fargo, North Dakota]].<ref name="FoodNetworkBio" /> Sequeira described Medill as a challenging school, but said it helped make her feel tougher, more prepared for challenges, and "like I had something to offer".<ref name="Medill" />

==Early career==
Two weeks after her graduation from Medill,<ref name="Medill"/> Aarti started worked as a production assistant for CNN in [[Chicago]].<ref name="Northwestern" /><ref name="FoodNetworkBio" /><ref name="Holbrook0816">{{Cite news |last=Holbrook |first=Damian |title=Watercooler: Who's Our ''Next Food Network Star''? |work=[[TV Guide]] |date=16 August 2010 |url=http://www.tvguide.com/News/Next-Food-Star-1021914.aspx?rss=news&partnerid=spi&profileid=05 |access-date=16 August 2010}}</ref> One year later, she transferred to CNN's bureau in [[New York City]],<ref name="Medill" /> where she worked as a producer and helped cover the [[September 11 attacks]],<ref name="Northwestern" /><ref name="Medill" /> which occurred while the show she was producing was on the air.<ref name="Medill" /> Sequeira produced stories about challenges firefighters faced after the attacks, as well as other topics like economic news.<ref name="AboutAarti" /> She was eventually promoted to segment producer for CNN, producing shows for the network and packages for various networks and outlets in the company.<ref name="Medill" />

Sequeira worked for CNN until 2003,<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="Holbrook0816" /> and in 2004 moved from New York City to [[Los Angeles]], [[California]],<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="Holbrook0816" /> to be near her husband Brendan McNamara, who was pursuing an acting career.<ref name="WomenWorking" /> She freelanced for CNN's Los Angeles bureau and other outlets,<ref name="Medill" /> as well as other outlets in the city's entertainment industry,<ref name="FoodNetworkBio" /><ref name="AboutAarti" /> but otherwise had trouble finding work, and began to crave a different career path than journalism.<ref name="Medill" /> She called this a difficult realization because "it felt like my very identity had vanished",<ref name="WomenWorking" /><ref name="Mercury0309" /> but that she found some solace in cooking.<ref name="Rosenberg0216" /><ref name="NBC0102">{{cite news |title=Spice Up Your Kitchen in the New Year With Aarti Sequeira |work=[[NBC News]] |date=January 2, 2015 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/spice-your-kitchen-new-year-aarti-sequeira-n271976 |accessdate=January 2, 2023}}</ref> Sequeira began working on the production of ''[[Sand and Sorrow]]'', a documentary about the [[War in Darfur|Darfur crisis]].<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="Medill" /> She began as what she called a "[[Friday (Robinson Crusoe)#Idiom|Girl Friday]]" before becoming promoted to co-producer on the documentary,<ref name="Medill" /> which was released in 2007 on [[HBO]].<ref name="Nishkian0805" /> Sequeira began to develop an interest in cooking during this time,<ref name="WomenWorking" /><ref name="Medill" /> partially inspired by receiving the ''[[Joy of Cooking]]'' cookbook as a wedding gift,<ref name="WomenWorking" /> as well as a gift certificate her cousin gave her for a local 12-week cooking program.<ref name="AboutAarti" /><ref name="NBC0102" /> Her husband enrolled her at the New School of Cooking in [[Culver City, California|Culver City]]. She competed in both levels of its professional classes,<ref name="Medill" /> and interned for chef and restaurateur [[Suzanne Goin]] at the [[West Hollywood, California|West Hollywood]] restaurant Lucques,<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="Medill" /> but after the experience felt she did not aspire to own or run a restaurant,<ref name="WomenWorking" /><ref name="Medill" /> which made her start to feel "lost" and without purpose.<ref name="Medill" /> Sequeira earned a professional certificate from the school in 2007.<ref name="Northwestern" /><ref name="MacIntyre0816" />

A friend suggested Sequeira start a cooking show on the video-sharing website [[YouTube]], an idea she initially regarded with skepticism.<ref name="Rosenberg0216" /> In 2008, she started an online cooking variety show called ''Aarti Paarti'',<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="MacIntyre0816">{{Cite news |last=MacIntyre |first=April |title=Food blogger Aarti Sequeira takes Next Food Network Star prize |work=Monsters and Critics |date=August 16, 2010 |url=http://www.monstersandcritics.com/smallscreen/news/article_1577917.php/Food-blogger-Aarti-Sequeira-takes-Next-Food-Network-Star-prize |access-date=August 16, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819043422/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/smallscreen/news/article_1577917.php/Food-blogger-Aarti-Sequeira-takes-Next-Food-Network-Star-prize |archive-date=August 19, 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> as well as a food blog called AartiPaarti.com,<ref name="Northwestern" /> which included the tagline "eat. giggle. repeat."<ref name="Brion0815" /> The name "Aarti Paarti" came from her husband Brendon McNamara, who previously suggested it on a date when they were discussing possible Ben & Jerry's ice cream flavors that could include Sequeira's name. She initially found the phrase too cheesy, but he suggested it as a title when she began her online show, and she found it was a good way to help people recognize and remember her name.<ref name="Slezak0817" /> After filming the first segment by herself, her husband began helped her record subsequent episodes,<ref name="Northwestern" /><ref name="Medill" /><ref name="Slezak0816" /> which were filmed in the kitchen of her small studio apartment in Los Angeles.<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="AboutAarti">{{cite web |url=http://www.aartipaarti.com/about/ |title=About Aarti! |publisher=Aarti Paarti (Official Website) |access-date=December 27, 2022}}</ref> She felt comfortable working in front of the camera because she felt cooking segments were less pressure than some of the journalistic stories upon which she previously worked.<ref name="Medill" />

Inspired by her childhood, Sequeira prepared Indian and Middle Eastern dishes on the show,<ref name="Medill" /><ref name="Slezak0816" /> which also included brief comedic interludes and variety segments that included Sequeira playing the [[ukulele]], [[Belly dance|belly dancing]], or [[juggling]].<ref name="Northwestern">{{cite web |title=Aarti Sequeira: Party with Aarti |publisher=[[Northwestern University|Northwestern Magazine]] |date=2010 |url=https://www.northwestern.edu/magazine/winter2010/alumnilife/close-ups/aarti_sequeira.html |accessdate=December 27, 2022}}</ref><ref name="Medill" /><ref name="Slezak0816" /> She said these skits helped attract viewers from different demographics to her show, including teenage boys.<ref name="Slezak0817" /> Sequeira also hosted cooking segments for the website GoodBite.com for about one year.<ref name="Medill" /> Sequeira initially doubted whether a cooking show was the best use of her education and training instead of something more "serious", but a friend and producer at [[NBC News]] encouraged her and "(made) me feel like a cooking show career could impact people just as much as a good news story could -- it can inspire, it can relax, it can inform".<ref name="Medill" />

Sequeira said she experienced [[imposter syndrome]] in her early years making cooking videos because she had not gone to culinary school or worked in restaurants for a long period of time.<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="Nishkian0805" /> Sequeira said she occasionally felt she was "not the best person for this job because I'm not your quintessential Indian", not having grown up in the country,<ref name="Qazi0315" /> and she described her early videos as "almost like doing an experiment; I was doing it because something in me was compelling me to do it".<ref name="Nishkian0805" /> Sequeira openly discussed her struggles with self-doubt on her blog, which she later said helped her grow her following.<ref name="Qazi0315" />

==''The Next Food Network Star''==
In part due to encouragement from her husband Sequeira auditioned to be a contestant on ''[[The Next Food Network Star]]'', a [[Food Network]] reality television series in which the winner is awarded his or her own culinary show on the network.<ref name="Nishkian0805" /> In 2010, Sequeira became a participant on the [[The Next Food Network Star (Season 6)|sixth season]] of the show, where she 12 contestants participated in cooking competitions and on-camera challenges.<ref name="Morago0831" /><ref name="Lynch0604">{{Cite news |last=Lynch |first=Rene |title=They all want to be the next Guy Fieri |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=June 4, 2010 |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/tv/la-et-next-food-network-star-20100604-story.html |access-date=August 16, 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100722161725/http://articles.latimes.com/2010/jun/04/entertainment/la-et-next-food-network-star-20100604| archive-date=July 22, 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> The ''[[Houston Chronicle]]'' described her as an "early fan favorite".<ref name="Morago0831" /> Although Sequeira believed her experience with the ''Aarti Paarti'' online show would give her an advantage with the camera segments, she instead found them to be very challenging.<ref name="Lynch0604" /> Judges and critics were attracted to her bubbly personality, sense of humor, on-screen charisma, and strong food,<ref name="Slezak0816">{{Cite magazine |last=Slezak |first=Michael |title='Next Food Network Star' season finale recap: And the winner is... |magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]] |date=16 August 2010 |url=http://popwatch.ew.com/2010/08/16/next-food-network-star-season-finale-recap/ |access-date=16 August 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100817232724/http://popwatch.ew.com/2010/08/16/next-food-network-star-season-finale-recap/| archive-date= 17 August 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> though they repeatedly commented upon her admitted lack of self-confidence.<ref name="Slezak0817">{{cite magazine |last=Slezak |first=Michael |title='Next Food Network Star' champ Aarti Sequeira talks self-doubt, Sloppy (Bombay) Joes, and future rival Bobby Flay |magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]] |date=August 17, 2010 |url=https://ew.com/article/2010/08/17/next-food-network-star-winner-aarti-party-sequeira/ |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> Sequeira participated in 18 challenges over 10 weeks during her time on the show,<ref name="MacIntyre0816" /> and she ranked among the bottom contestants twice, but avoided elimination both times.<ref name="Morago0831" /> The first time she faced possible elimination, series judge and Food Network executive Bob Tuschman said, "You were a frontrunner," and Sequeira said his use of past tense made her realize she could not become complacent and had to work harder in future challenges.<ref name="Slezak0817" />

Sequeira won several of the weekly challenges, including an ''[[Iron Chef America|Iron Chef]]''-style [[cook-off]] competition in the penultimate episode, which drew her particularly strong praise from judges [[Cat Cora]], [[Bobby Flay]], [[Masaharu Morimoto]], and [[Michael Symon]].<ref name="Slezak0817" /> In June 2010, six weeks before the finale aired, Sequeira's name was on a list of chefs on the Food Network website, leading to speculation that she would win and that the network had mistakenly listed her before her victory was made public.<ref name="Brion0815">{{cite news |last=Brion |first=Raphael |title=Aarti Sequeira: Next Food Network Star Season Six Winner |work=[[Eater (website)|Easter]] |date=August 15, 2010 |url=https://www.eater.com/2010/8/15/6722915/aarti-sequeira-next-food-network-star-season-six-winner |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Brion |first=Raphael |title=Food Network Leaks Winner of Next Food Network Star? |work=[[Eater (website)|Easter]] |date=June 30, 2010 |url=https://www.eater.com/2010/6/30/6727969/food-network-leaks-winner-of-next-food-network-star |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> During the season finale on August 15, Sequeira was tasked with shooting a pilot of her possible television series. Sequeira's pilot was ''Aarti Party'',<ref name="Slezak0816" /> the title and style of the show were based upon her previous online cooking show, ''Aarti Paarti''.<ref name="Slezak0816" /> Sequeira felt more confident about shooting the pilot compared to some of the other challenges, because there was no time limit and it did not involve cooking for celebrity judges.<ref name="Slezak0817" /> ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' writer Michael Slezak called Sequeira's pilot "thoroughly engaging and casually informative, while managing to present a dish that looked equal parts unique and delicious".<ref name="Slezak0816" /> Sequeira was selected as winner of ''The Next Food Network Star'', defeating fellow finalists Tom Pizzica and Herb Mesa.<ref name="MacIntyre0816" /><ref name="Slezak0816" /><ref name="Brion0815" />

This show represented a series of historic first in representation. It was the first female-led transition of a webseries into a network series. Sequeira became was the first Indian woman to be the on-screen lead on a U.S.-made broadcast television series on U.S. national television. Her preceding win on NFNS made Sequeira the first Indian person and first immigrant, non-citizen to win a U.S. reality competition series. 'Aarti Party' <ref name="Slezak0816" /> also made Sequeria the first Asian woman to host her own cooking show series on Food Network, the first chef to host an Indian-cuisine centric series on cable television and the first immigrant, non-citizen to host their own recurring series on an English-language U.S. cable network.

Tuschman said of Sequeira: "Aarti has that all-too-rare combination we seek in our stars: a passionate food expert who is warm, radiant, fun, and relatable."<ref name="MacIntyre0816" /> Slezak said of her victory: "the right person took home the crown".<ref name="Slezak0816" />

==Food Network career==
The Food Network launched Sequeira's six-episode cooking show ''Aarti Party'' on August 22, 2010, one week after her victory on ''The Next Food Network Star''.<ref name="Northwestern" /><ref name="MacIntyre0816" /><ref name="Slezak0817" /> The half-hour series focused on easy ways to enhance American favorite dishes with Indian flavors and influences.<ref name="Northwestern" /><ref name="MacIntyre0816" /><ref name="Slezak0817" /> It marked the Food Network's first show focused on Indian cuisine,<ref name="Lynch0604" /> and Sequeira became one of the network's first Asian hosts.<ref name="Mercury0309">{{cite news |title=Q & A: Celebrity Chef Aarti Sequeira |work=The Mercury |date=March 9, 2020 |url=https://utdmercury.com/q-a-celebrity-chef-aarti-sequeira/ |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> She was also featured in ''Food Network Magazine'' and appeared at the Food Network New York City Wine & Food Festival that October.<ref name="MacIntyre0816" /> The series was filmed on a sound stage at [[Culver Studios]] in Culver City.<ref name="Qazi0315" /> Sequeira had to conceive 40 recipes in the span of one month for the series, which she described as challenging but "great for your brain because you start thinking creatively much more quickly".<ref name="Qazi0315" /> She was able to utilize recipes she had prepared and published on her blog prior to appearing on Food Network.<ref name="Slezak0817" /> She had originally hoped the series would have variety show elements, like her online show, but that did not happen due to time restraints.<ref name="Slezak0817" /> ''Aarti Party'' was renewed for a second season, which debuted in December 2010,<ref name="Northwestern" /> and then later received a third season,<ref name="Qazi0315" /> but was cancelled after about one year.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Davis |first1=Clayton |last2=Burton |first2=Carson |title=From Ina Garten to Guy Fieri: Ranking the 14 Best Food Network Hosts |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=August 22, 2022 |url=https://variety.com/lists/best-food-network-hosts-ranked/aarti-sequeira/ |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref>

In September 2012, Sequeira was a headliner at the Savor the Central Coast, a culinary festival in [[San Luis Obispo County, California]].<ref name="Hallock0917" /> She hosted the series ''Taste in Translation'' and was a co-host on ''Drop 5lbs with Good Housekeeping'',<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="AboutAarti" /> both of which debuted in January 2013 on the [[Cooking Channel]].<ref name="Qazi0315" /> Sequeira also hosted ''Hidden Eats'', a Cooking Channel travel series, making her the first Asian woman host of a National Food Travelogue series on US national television: helmed Taste in Translation (Cooking Channel, 2013) and was a contestant on the competitive cooking reality shows ''Cutthroat Kitchen All-Stars'' and ''Chopped All-Stars'',<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="AboutAarti" /><ref name="Downs0319" /> winning on both.<ref name="AboutAarti" /> She is a frequent judge on cooking game shows ''[[Guy's Grocery Games]]'', hosted by [[Guy Fieri]],<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="Gibbs0127" /><ref name="AboutAarti" /> and ''From Duff Til Dawn'', hosted by [[Duff Goldman]].<ref name="AboutAarti" /> Fieri nicknamed Sequeira "the spice queen" because of her love of spices.<ref name="Mercury0309" /> She has also appeared on various other Food Network and Cooking Channel shows, including ''[[The Best Thing I Ever Ate]]'', ''[[The Best Thing I Ever Made]]'', ''[[Guilty Pleasures (TV series)|Guilty Pleasures]]'', ''[[Unique Eats]]'', and ''[[Unique Sweets]]''.<ref name="AboutAarti" /> In November 2020, Sequeira appeared on a special [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] episode of the [[Selena Gomez]]-hosted [[HBO Max]] cooking show ''[[Selena + Chef]]''. In the episode, entitled "Selena + Aarti: Friendsgiving", Sequeira helped Gomez cook a Thanksgiving turkey for the first time.<ref name="Mamo1118">{{cite magazine |last=Mamo |first=Heran |title=Selena Gomez Serves Delicious Snippet of 'Selena + Chef' Thanksgiving Special |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |date=November 18, 2020 |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/pop/selena-gomez-teases-selena-chef-thanksgiving-special-9486137/ |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mamo |first=Heran |title=Selena Gomez Reveals Season 2 Trailer for 'Selena + Chef' With More Kitchen Fires & More Papa |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |date=January 11, 2021 |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/selena-gomez-selena-and-chef-season-2-trailer-9509704/ |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> Since 2021, Sequeira has appeared as a judge on the holiday-themed cooking reality shows ''Holiday Wars'',<ref>{{cite news |last=Piazza |first=Bianca |title=Food Network's Saccharine Competition Show 'Holiday Wars' Is Back for Season 3 — Here's Who's Judging in 2021 |work=[[Distractify]] |date=November 12, 2021 |url=https://www.distractify.com/p/holiday-wars-judges-2021 |accessdate=December 27, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Griesemer |first=Sarah |title=Neptune cake baker to compete on Food Network's 'Holiday Wars' |work=[[Asbury Park Press]] |date=November 2, 2022 |url=https://www.app.com/story/entertainment/dining/2022/11/02/food-network-new-jersey-cake-baker-to-compete-on-holiday-wars/69593360007/ |accessdate=December 27, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Palinkas |first=Lorianne |title=Everything To Know About Holiday Wars Season 4 |work=[[Screen Rant]] |date=November 24, 2022 |url=https://screenrant.com/everything-about-holiday-wars-season-4/ |accessdate=December 27, 2022}}</ref> and ''Halloween Wars''.<ref name="Rosenberg0216" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Holmes |first=Jessica |title=Jessica makes a hot dog rattlesnake with Food Network's Aarti Sequeira |work=[[KTLA]] |date=October 30, 2021 |url=https://ktla.com/food/california-cooking/jessica-makes-a-hot-dog-rattlesnake-with-food-networks-aarti-sequeira/ |accessdate=January 3, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Neal |first=Dane |title=Aarti Sequeira shares her Chicago side and "Halloween Wars" as we head into the frightening finale |work=[[WGN (AM)]] |date=October 31, 2021 |url=https://wgnradio.com/wgn-plus/dane-neal/aarti-sequeira-shares-her-chicago-side-and-halloween-wars-as-we-head-into-the-frightening-finale/ |accessdate=January 3, 2023}}</ref>

Sequeira published a cookbook called ''Aarti Paarti: An American Kitchen with an Indian Soul'',<ref name="AboutAarti" /><ref name="Downs0319" /> which was published in 2014 by [[Grand Central Publishing]] and became a Top 10-ranked Indian cookbook on [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]].<ref name="AboutAarti" /> She called the book an extension of both her ''Aarti Party'' show and the family recipe books her mother made in her youth, and said she hoped the book would be a "[[Gateway drug effect|gateway drug]] to Indian food" for non-Indian readers.<ref name="NBC0102" /> Her favorite recipe from the book was the ground beef dish [[Keema matar|keema]], which she said she makes for her own family every two weeks.<ref name="Downs0319" /> ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' food writer Russ Parsons praised the books fun approach to cooking, writing: "there is so much joy in her food that you can't help but smile when reading her recipes".<ref>{{cite news |last=Parsons |first=Russ |title=C'mon, cook happy with 'Aarti Paarti' |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=October 13, 2014 |url=https://www.latimes.com/food/dailydish/la-dd-cookbook-aarti-paarti-20141013-story.html |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref>
In 2015, Sequeira began writing a recurring food column for the Associated Press, 'World's Fare,' making her the first Asian woman and first immigrant, non-citizen to become a nationally syndicated AP columnist. Sequeira was working on a new cookbook as of August 2022. Sequeira also released a book ''My Family Recipe Journal: With Prayers and Scriptures'', inspired by her recipe journals previously made by herself and her mother. She intended for the book to allow others to document their own culinary traditions and flavors.<ref name="Nishkian0805" /><ref name="Rosenberg0216" /><ref name="Gibbs0127" /> Published by DaySpring, the book is color-coded and divided into 10 sections, with rooms for eight recipes in each part.<ref name="Baer1004">{{cite news |last=Baer |first=Rebecca Angel |title=Food Network Chef Aarti Sequeira's My Family Recipe Journal Will Make the Most Thoughtful Gift |work=[[Yahoo! News]] |date=October 4, 2021 |url=https://news.yahoo.com/food-network-chef-aarti-sequeiras-155712929.html |accessdate=December 29, 2022}}</ref> Sequeira has been a guest on several talk shows, including ''[[Today (American TV program)|The Today Show]]'', ''[[The Talk (talk show)|The Talk]]'', ''[[The Dr. Oz Show]]'', ''[[The Nate Berkus Show]]'', and ''[[Home & Family]]''.<ref name="AboutAarti" />

== Personal life ==
Aarti Sequeira has been married to actor Brendan "Bren" McNamara since 2003.<ref name="Agate1223" /><ref name="NBC0102" /><ref name="Kozma1115">{{cite news |last=Kozma |first=Leila |title=Aarti Sequeira and Her Hubby, Brendan McNamara, Share Two Beautiful Daughters |work=[[Distractify]] |date=November 15, 2021 |url=https://www.distractify.com/p/aarti-sequeira-husband |accessdate=December 27, 2022}}</ref> The two met when they were both attending Northwestern University,<ref name="Qazi0315" /><ref name="Medill" /><ref name="Kozma1115" /> where McNamara majored in theater studies.<ref name="Kozma1115" /> They lived in [[Mid City, Los Angeles]] as of 2013,<ref name="Qazi0315" /> and the family moved to [[Raleigh, North Carolina|Raleigh]], [[North Carolina]] in 2020.<ref name="Gibbs0127" /><ref name="Agate1223" />

Sequeira and her husband have two daughters, Eliyah and Moses Marigold.<ref name="WomenWorking" /><ref name="Kozma1115" /> She suffered from [[post-partum depression]] after giving birth to Eliyah, and the experience led her to become an advocate for women suffering from post-natal [[mood disorders]].<ref name="WomenWorking" /><ref name="AboutAarti" /><ref name="Kozma1115" /> She has been involved with the organization Postpartum Support International.<ref name="WomenWorking" />

Sequeira is a Christian and is devoutly religious.<ref name="Morago0831" /><ref name="Baer1004" /> In addition to cooking, Sequeira likes [[improvisational theatre]] and has taken classes for it, which she said helped give her the courage to post her original cooking videos online.<ref name="NBC0102" /> She also enjoys music, Middle Eastern dance, and visiting art galleries.<ref name="FoodNetworkBio" /> She is active on the social media network [[Instagram]].<ref name="Kozma1115" />

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=4 style="background:#B0C4DE;" | Television
|-
! Year
! Series
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 2010
| ''[[The Next Food Network Star]]''
| Herself
| Contestant: [[The Next Food Network Star (season 6)|Season 6]] (Winner)
|-
| 2010–2011
| ''Aarti Party''
| Herself/host
|-
| 2013
| ''Taste in Translation''
| Herself/host
|
|-
| 2014–present
| ''[[Guy's Grocery Games]]''
| Herself/Recurring Judge
|
|-
| 2020
| ''[[Selena + Aarti Sequeira: Friendsgiving]]''
| Herself
|
|-
| 2021–present
| ''[[Halloween Wars]]''
| Herself/Judge
|
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{official|http://www.aartipaarti.com/}}
* [http://www.foodnetwork.com/aarti-party/index.html Aarti Sequeira's Food Network biography]
* {{IMDb name|1703825}}

{{The Next Food Network Star}}{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sequeira, Aarti}}
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Food Network chefs]]
[[Category:Food Network Star winners]]
[[Category:Indian television chefs]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Mangalorean Catholics]]
[[Category:Mangaloreans]]
[[Category:Medill School of Journalism alumni]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Mumbai]]
[[Category:American businesspeople]]
[[Category:American women chefs]]
[[Category:Northwestern University alumni]]
[[Category:American people of Konkani descent]]

Lohar (caste)

2026-05-05T00:45:20Z

AntoniettaWhitco: put up article...

{{Short description|Caste or clan in India and Nepal}}
{{distinguish|Lohara dynasty}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}

{{Infobox caste|
|caste_name= Lohar
|image=File:Blacksmiths, Hindoos, Lahore (NYPL b13409080-1125469).jpg
|country = [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]]
| religions = [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Sikhism]]
| languages = [[Hindi]]-[[Urdu]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|
}}
'''Lohar''' or '''Lohra''' is considered to be a [[Caste system in India|caste]] among [[Hindu]]s and a [[clan]] among [[Muslim]]s and [[Sikhs]] in the Indian states of [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Jharkhand]], and in [[Nepal]].<ref>Bhattachan included the Lohar among the [[Madhesi people|Madhesi]] [[Dalit]] in his report on minorities in Nepal, listing some 82,000. {{Cite book|author=Bhattachan, Krishna B.|year=2008|title=Indigenous Peoples & Minorities of Nepal|publisher=Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN)|page=49|url=http://www.nefin.org.np/hppics/42562_MRG-Nepal-Final%20Report%20by%20Bhattachan.doc|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130312053146/http://www.nefin.org.np//hppics/42562_MRG-Nepal-Final%20Report%20by%20Bhattachan.doc|archivedate=2013-03-12|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>In Annex I, Bhattarai lists the Lohar as ''iron-workers'' under the Madhesi as 0.36% of the Nepalese population. {{Cite journal|last=Bhattarai |first=Hari Prasad|year=2004|title=Cultural Diversity and Pluralism in Nepal: Emerging Issues and the Search for a New Paradigm|journal=Contributions to Nepalese Studies|volume=31|issue=2|pages=293–340, page 339|url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_31_02_05.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515214450/http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_31_02_05.pdf|archivedate=2011-05-15|url-status=live}}</ref> They form traditionally artisanal castes.<ref>{{cite book |title=Kings and Untouchables: A Study of the Caste System in Western India |first=Rosa Maria |last=Perez |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2004 |isbn=978-8-18028-014-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDRWAglUumEC&pg=PA80 |page=80}}</ref> Writers of the [[British Raj]] period often used the term ''Lohara'' as a synonym for ''[[blacksmith]]'', although there are other traditional smiting communities, such as the [[Ramgarhia]] and [[Sikligar]], and numerous non-traditional communities, including the [[Kayastha]], [[Rajput]] and [[Brahmin]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Strategies of social change in India |first1=Paramjit S. |last1=Judge |first2=Gurpreet |last2=Bal |publisher=M.D. Publications |year=1996 |isbn=978-81-7533-006-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lKM4aWhIH0C |page=54 |accessdate=2012-03-21}}</ref>

==Distribution==
===Uttar Pradesh===

Lohara are one of the most widespread communities in Uttar Pradesh. They are divided along religious lines, with Hindu Lohars known as [[Bishwakarma|Vishwakarma]], [[Sharma]], [[Panchal]] and [[Karmakar]]. Hindu Lohars are further divided into a number of [[exogamy|exogamous]] groupings, the main ones being the Kanaujiya, Purbia, Bahai, Moulia and Magajia.

Most Lohara are still engaged in their traditional occupation of [[metal]] [[Metal fabrication|fabrication]], although the majority of those in [[western Uttar Pradesh]] are cultivators. The assimilated Lohara speak [[Hindi]] and its various dialects such as [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]];{{cn|date=July 2020}} other speak the [[Ho language]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Ho|publisher=Ethnologue|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hoc |accessdate=2013-05-02}}</ref>

===Bihar===
In [[Bihar]], Lohara caste comes under [[Other Backward Class|schedule]] tribe. As per a ruling by [[Supreme Court of India]], ‘Lohra or Lohara’, which belongs to the Schedule Tribe ([[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|ST]]) category in several districts.

===Jharkhand===
Lohara in Jharkhand are locally known as Lohar. They speak regional language such as Hindi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://slideplayer.com/slide/4455653/|title=1 Paper for 3 rd SCONLI 2008 (JNU, New Delhi) Comparative study of Nagpuri Spoken by Chik-Baraik & Oraon’s of Jharkhand Sunil Baraik Senior Research Fellow.|website=slideplayer.com|access-date=2023-07-19}}</ref> They are classified as ST in Jharkhand.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/ST%20Lists.pdf |page=12 |title=List of notified Scheduled Tribes |publisher=Census India |accessdate=15 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107225208/http://censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/ST%20Lists.pdf |archivedate=7 November 2013 }}</ref>

==Muslim Lohar==

Muslim Lohar are divided in two castes '''Multani Lohar''' and '''Deshwal Lohar'''.

[[Multani Lohar]], Muslim [[blacksmith]] community originally from [[Multan]] and widely spread all over the World. Mostly found in the state of [[Gujarat]] and Western [[Uttar Pradesh]] in India.

Deshwal Lohar, or sometimes pronounced [[Muslim Barhai]] are Muslim community, found in North India. They are also known as Saifi. which denotes the Muslim sub-caste of blacksmiths and carpenters. A small number are also found in the Terai region of [[Nepal]].

==See also==
* [[Kuchband]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Cite web|title=Indigenous Communities from India: Lohara|publisher=Native Planet|url=http://www.nativeplanet.org/indigenous/ethnicdiversity/asia/india/indigenous_data_india_lohara.shtml}}
*[https://www.lohars.org lohars.org]

{{smiths}}

[[Category:Social groups of Nepal]]
[[Category:Social groups of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Scheduled Tribes of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Blacksmith castes]]
[[Category: Muslim communities of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category: Muslim communities of Gujarat]]
[[Category: Muslim communities of Nepal]]

K. Y. Nanjegowda

2026-04-29T13:45:49Z

AntoniettaWhitco: creating basic data basic info

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1962)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
'''K. Y. Nanjegowda''' (born 1 April 1962) is an Indian politician from [[Karnataka]]. He is a member of the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]] from [[Malur Assembly constituency]] in [[Kolar district]]. He represents [[Indian National Congress]] and won the [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=K Y Nanjegowda in Karnataka Assembly Elections 2023 |url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2023/karnataka/k-y-nanjegowda-malur-candidate-s10a149c008/ |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-13 |title=Malur election results LIVE {{!}} Congress' KY Nanjegowda holds lead as BJP's KS Manjunath Gowda trails by only 248 votes - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/malur-election-results-2023-live-updates-karnataka-congress-ky-nanjegowda-bjp-ks-manjunath-gowda-jds-ge-ramegowda-16644781.htm |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Nanjegowda is from [[Malur]], Kolar district, Karnataka. His late father Yalle Gowda was a farmer. His wife Rathnamma Nanjegowda was a former president of Kolar Zilla Panchayat. He passed Class 8 in 1981 from Tekal Government High School and discontinued his studies during Class 9.<ref>{{Cite web |title=K.Y.Nanjegowda(Indian National Congress(INC)):Constituency- MALUR(KOLAR) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/Karnataka2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=7541 |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Nanjegowda won from [[Malur Assembly constituency]] representing [[Indian National Congress]] in the [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]]. He polled 50,955 votes and defeated his nearest rival, K. S. Manjunatha Gowda of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] by a narrow margin of 248 votes.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-05 |title=Malur Constituency Election Results: Assembly seat details, MLAs, candidates & more |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/karnataka/constituency/malur-assembly-constituency-election-results-assembly-seat-details-mlas-candidates/articleshow/99813721.cms |access-date=2024-07-31 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Earlier, he won the [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] from Malur representing Congress.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Karnataka Election Constituencies List 2018 |url=https://indianexpress.com/section/elections/karnataka-election-constituencies-list-2018/ |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> He polled 75,677 votes and defeated his nearest rival, K. S. Manjunath Gowda of BJP, by a margin of 17,915 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-05-15 |title=Malur Election Results 2018 Live Updates: INC's K.Y. Nanjegowda Won |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/malur-election-results-2018-live-updates-1748759.html |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

In January 2024, his house was raided by [[Enforcement Directorate]] officials under [[Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002|Prevention of Money Laundering Act]], in connection with alleged irregularities in recruitment at Kolar Chikkaballapur Milk Union,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-08 |title=ED raids premises of Congress MLA K.Y. Nanjegowda |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/ed-raids-premises-of-congress-mla-ky-nanjegowda/article67719550.ece |access-date=2024-07-31 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> where he was the president. The MLA denied the charges.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Velayudham |first=V. |date=2024-01-09 |title=ED raids premises of Malur Congress MLA Nanjegowda |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2024/Jan/09/ed-raids-premisesof-malur-congressmla-nanjegowda-2649259.html |access-date=2024-07-31 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nanjegowda, K. Y. }}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:People from Kolar district]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2018–2023]]
[[Category:Karnataka MLAs 2023–2028]]

Prataprao Patil Chikhalikar

2026-04-27T12:26:40Z

AntoniettaWhitco:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Prataprao Patil Chikhalikar
| image =
| spouse =
| children = Dr. Pramod, Pravin,
Pranita Chikhalikar-Deore,
| honorific_suffix =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1960|8|2}}
| birth_place =
| image_size =
| caption =
| order =
| office3 = [[Member of Parliament]] in [[Lok Sabha]]
| term_start3 = 2019
| term_end3 = 2024
| constituency3 = [[Nanded (Lok Sabha constituency)|Nanded]]
| predecessor3 = [[Ashok Chavan]]
| successor3 = [[Vasantrao Balwantrao Chavan]]
| office = Member of the [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2024
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Shyamsundar Dagdoji Shinde]]
| successor =
| constituency = [[Loha (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Loha]]
| term_start1 = 2014
| term_end1 = 2019
| predecessor1 = Shankarrao (Shankar Anna) Ganeshrao Dhondge
| successor1 = [[Shyamsundar Dagdoji Shinde]]
| constituency1 = [[Loha (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Loha]]
| term_start2 = 2004
| term_end2 = 2009
| predecessor2 = Rohidas Khobraji Chavan
| successor2 = ''Constituency Abolished''
| constituency2 = [[Kandhar Assembly constituency|Kandhar]]
| party = [[Nationalist Congress Party]] (Oct. 2024-Present)
| other_party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (2019-2024)
,[[Nationalist Congress Party|NCP]], [[Shiv Sena]], Lok Bharati, [[Congress(I)]].
| occupation = Politician
| website =
}}

'''Prataprao Govindrao Chikhalikar Patil''' (born 2 August 1960) is an Indian politician and [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] leader from [[Nanded district]]. He is a member of the 13th [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]. He represents the [[Loha (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Loha]] Assembly Constituency.<ref name="IT-20141103">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2015/story/maharashtra-assembly-poll-results-bjp-shiv-sena-ncp-congress-223847-2014-10-19|title=Results of Maharashtra Assembly polls 2014 |work=India Today|access-date=2015-07-10}}</ref>

==Career==
Chikhalikar has been described as close to [[Shankarrao Chavan]], but later has become an opponent of his son [[Ashok Chavan]] becoming a close junior associate of former Maharashtra Chief Minister the late [[Vilasrao Deshmukh]]. He won assembly elections in 2004.<ref name="MumbaiMirror-20071009" /><ref name="LiveMint-20141002">{{cite news|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/3iOp3YXXbaqE3GWRtqAC1L/The-curious-case-of-independents-in-Maharashtra-politics.html|title=The curious case of independents in Maharashtra politics|last=Ananth|first=Venkat|date=2014-10-02|work=Live Mint|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref> In 2007, Chikhalikar, joined Lok Bharati political outfit during municipality elections there, contesting elections against the [[Indian National Congress]].<ref name="MumbaiMirror-20071009">{{cite news|url=http://www.mumbaimirror.com/mumbai/others/Nanded-civic-poll-verdict-upsets-CM/articleshow/15748032.cms|title=Nanded civic poll verdict upsets CM|date=2007-10-09|work=Mumbai Mirror|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref> In 2012 Chikhalikar joined the [[Nationalist Congress Party]] and in August 2014, Chikhalikar joined the Shiv Sena.<ref name="DivyaMarathi-20140820">{{cite news|url=https://divyamarathi.bhaskar.com/news/MAH-MAR-pratap-patil-chikhalikar-news-in-marathi-divya-marathi-4718162-NOR.html|title=चिखलीकरांनी उचलले शिवसेनेचे 'धनुष्य', मतदारसंघावर पुन्हा पकड मिळवण्यासाठी डावपेच|last=Ekbote|first=Vinayak|date=2014-08-20|work=Divya Marathi|language=Marathi|access-date=20 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="TheFreePressJournal-20140821">{{cite news|url=http://www.freepressjournal.in/amit-shahs-intervention-preventing-influx-into-bjp/|title=Amit Shah's intervention preventing influx into BJP?|date=2014-08-21|work=The Free Press Journal|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref> In 2024 Chikhalikar joined the Nationalist Congress Party [[Ajit Pawar]] to get a ticket from Loha Kandhar Assembly Constituency.

==Positions held==
* 2004: Elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly from Kandhar Vidhansabha as Independent
* 2009: Unsuccessfully contested Loha Vidhansabha on [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] ticket
* 2014: Elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly from Shivsena Party
* 2015: Elected as Director of Nanded District Central Co-operative Bank<ref name="ABPMaza-20150507">{{cite news|url=http://abpmajha.abplive.in/maharashtra/district-bank-elction-vote-counting-21156|title=जिल्हा बँक निवडणूक: प्रत्येक जिल्हा, प्रत्येक निकाल}}</ref>
*2019: MP- Nanded loksabha Constituency
*2024: Elected to Maharashtra Legislative Assembly from Nationalist Congress Party

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19981202100332/http://www.shivsena.org/ Shivsena Home Page]
{{17th LS members from Maharashtra}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chikhalikar, Prataprao}}
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2004–2009]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Shiv Sena politicians]]
[[Category:People from Nanded district]]
[[Category:Marathi politicians]]
[[Category:India MPs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:Nationalist Congress Party politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Maharashtra]]

Gopalapuram Assembly constituency

2026-04-26T06:41:29Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Starting new article basic info

{{Short description|Constituency of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Gopalapuram
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh (66-Gopalapuram highlighted).png
| map_caption = Location of Gopalapuram Assembly constituency within Andhra Pradesh
| state = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| district = [[East Godavari district|East Godavari]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Rajahmundry Lok Sabha constituency|Rajahmundry]]
| reservation = SC
| established = 1962
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 66
| mla = [[Maddipati Venkata Raju]]
| party = {{Party index link|Telugu Desam Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| electors = 232,058
}}
'''Gopalapuram''' is a [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Caste]] reserved constituency in [[East Godavari district]], and [[Eluru district]]s of [[Andhra Pradesh]] that elects representatives to the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceoandhra.nic.in/ceoap_new/ceo/documents/Electors_Summary%20_25.03.2019.pdf|title=Electors Summary|date=25 May 2019|website=Chief Electoral Officer, Andhra Pradesh|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref> It is one of the seven assembly segments of [[Rajahmundry Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref name="constituencies">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|date=17 December 2018|website=The Election Commission of India|pages=20, 30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003220916/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2018|url-status=dead|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>

[[Maddipati Venkata Raju]] is the current [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] of the constituency, having won the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] from [[Telugu Desam Party]]. The constituency was established in 1962, as per the ''Delimitation Orders (1962)''.

== Mandals ==
The four mandals that form the assembly constituency are:<ref name="constituencies" />
{{srn}}
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"
!Mandal
|-
| [[Dwaraka Tirumala]]
|-
| [[Nallajerla]]
|-
| [[Devarapalle, West Godavari district|Devarapalli]]
|-
| [[Gopalapuram, West Godavari|Gopalapuram]]
|-
|}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Political party
|-
| [[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| rowspan=2 |Taneti Veera Raghavulu
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|-
| [[1972 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| Sali Venkata Rao
|-
| [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| Desari Sarojini Devi
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (I)}}
|-
| [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
| rowspan=3 |Karupati Vivekananda
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=5}}
|-
| [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|-
| [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|-
| [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
| rowspan=2 |Jonnakuti Babaji Rao
|-
| [[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| [[Maddala Suneeta]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| [[Taneti Vanitha]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| Muppidi Venkateswara Rao
|-
| [[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
| [[Talari Venkat Rao]]
| {{Full party name with color|YSR Congress Party}}
|-
| [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| [[Maddipati Venkata Raju]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2004 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gopalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Maddala Suneeta]]
|votes = 67,500
|percentage = 52.99
|change = +5.34
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=Abbulu Koppaka|votes=59,878|percentage=47.01|change=-3.25}}
{{Election box majority||votes=7,622|percentage=5.98|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=127,378|percentage=76.98|change=+3.44}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2009 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gopalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Taneti Vanitha]]
|votes = 70,659
|percentage = 43.26
|change = +3.75
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Usha Tigiripalli|votes=56,006|percentage=34.29|change=-18.70}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Praja Rajyam Party|candidate=Kadalaiah Sabbiti|votes=30,158|percentage=18.46|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=14,653|percentage=8.97|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=163,337|percentage=85.76|change=+8.78}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2014 ===
<section begin="Assembly Election 2014"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gopalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Muppidi Venkateswara Rao]]
|votes = 95,299
|percentage = 51.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=YSR Congress Party|candidate=[[Talari Venkat Rao]]|votes=83,759|percentage=40.62|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=11,540|percentage=10.52|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=186,343|percentage=86.91|change=+1.15}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2014"/>

=== 2019 ===
<section begin="Assembly Election 2019"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gopalapuram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Talari Venkat Rao]]
|votes = 1,11,785
|percentage = 56.04
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Muppidi Venkateswara Rao]]|votes=74,324|percentage=37.26|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Sirra Bharatha Rao|votes=5,882|percentage=2.95|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=37,461|percentage=18.78|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,99,464|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = YSR Congress Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2019"/>
=== 2024 ===
<section begin="Assembly Election 2024"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Gopalapuram}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Maddipati Venkata Raju]]
|votes = 1,14,420
|percentage = 54.06
|change = +3.59
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Taneti Vanitha]]
|votes = 87,636
|percentage = 41.4
|change = -0.68
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = NOTA
|candidate = None Of The Above
|votes = 4,500
|percentage = 2.13
|change = +0.00
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party =
|candidate = Various
|votes = 1,681
|percentage = 0.80
|change = +1.28
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 26,784
|percentage = 12.66
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 2,08,237
|percentage = 98.38
|change = +0.61
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = YSR Congress Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}
<section end="Assembly Election 2024"/>

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Coord|17.10|81.54|display=title}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:East Godavari district]]
[[Category:Eluru district]]
[[Category:Politics of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1962]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Andhra Pradesh]]

Kawal, Uttar Pradesh

2026-04-24T19:04:52Z

AntoniettaWhitco:

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Kawal
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Word
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Uttar Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|29|20|0|N|77|51|0|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Muzaffarnagar district|Muzaffarnagar]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Community development block in India|Block]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Jansath]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 232
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = UP-12
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest town
| blank1_info_sec1 = Jansath
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Bijnor (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bijnor]]
| website = {{URL|up.gov.in}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Kawal''' is a village located in the [[Muzaffarnagar district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. The foundation of this village was laid in the year 1678 by Nathu Nambardar, a respected member of the [[Qureshi]] community.{{Citation needed|date=April 2026}}

== History ==
In 2013, a dispute between Hindus and Muslims in Kawal triggered the [[2013 Muzaffarnagar riots]].<ref>[https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/asia/indian-troops-fail-to-quell-hindu-muslim-riots-1.259233/ Indian troops fail to quell Hindu-Muslim riots]</ref> On 7 September 2013, over 150,000 people from the neighbouring states of Haryana and Delhi gathered in Kawal village for a "Jat Mahapanchayat", many of them carrying weapons. There had been allegations of a Muslim man harassing a Hindu girl followed by the murder of two young [[Jat people|Jat]] men and a Muslim youth. The gathering was called to show solidarity of [[Hindus|Hindu]] groups against Muslims. After the gathering, scores of vehicle carrying peacefully returning Jat youth were burned, and many of the bodies were never recovered, as per estimate 23 tractors and 7 bikes were burned and washed away in Ganges till [[Bulandshahr|Bulandshahar]] but SDM of [[Jansath|Jansat]] only reported 13 in his report to then CM and PM. Many of the victims reportedly killed were Gyanendra Singh (chairman of Nagar Panchayat [[Bhokarhedi|Bhokhrahi]]), Udayveer Singh Rampal, Pratap Singh and Manoj from Rahmatpur village, Ajay Kumar of Rahmatpur, Sonveer Singh of [[Bhokarhedi|Bhokhrahi]] and Brijpal of Baseda.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indiafacts.org/real-truth-muzaffarnagar-riots-part-6/|title=The real truth about the Muzaffarnagar riots: Part 6|date=2014-04-03|website=IndiaFacts|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-03}}</ref> In other incidents, by 8 September, "over 50 people had already been murdered, a number of women allegedly raped, and several thousand people displaced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://caravanmagazine.in/reportage/everybodys-brother-akhilesh-yadav|title=Akhilesh Yadav in the family business|last=Dixit|first=Neha|website=The Caravan|language=en|access-date=2019-05-22}}</ref>" Girls from the village stopped going to school and requested then chief Minister of [[Uttar Pradesh|U.P.]] [[Akhilesh Yadav]] to provide alternate road to their school.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://indiafacts.org/real-truth-muzaffarnagar-riots-part-6/|title=The real truth about the Muzaffarnagar riots: Part 6|date=2014-04-03|website=IndiaFacts|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-03}}</ref> All 7 accused of the murder of the [[Jat people|Jat]] boys have been awarded life imprisonments by [[Muzaffarnagar]] District court<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/muzaffarnagar-riots-seven-accused-in-kawal-jats-murder-case-sentenced-to-life-imprisonment-2029935.html|title=Muzaffarnagar Riots: Seven Accused in Kawal Jats Murder Case Sentenced to Life Imprisonment|website=News18|access-date=2020-01-03}}</ref> in February 2019 while the counter-case towards the Jat men is still going and charges have framed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/meerut/muzaffarnagar-riots-court-charges-6th-and-last-accused-with-murder-in-kawal-case/articleshow/71655022.cms|title=Muzaffarnagar riots: Court charges 6th and last accused with murder in Kawal case |date=October 19, 2019|first=Mohd |last=Dilshad |website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2020-01-03}}</ref>

==Geography==
It is located at 29.33° N 77.85° E. It has an average elevation of {{convert|232|m|ft|abbr=off|sp=us}} above Mean Sea Level (MSL).{{Citation needed|date=April 2026}}

==Demographics==
Its population is approximately 12,000.{{Citation needed|date=April 2026}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Muzaffarnagar district]]

{{Muzaffarnagar-geo-stub}}

Shankar Jagtap

2026-04-24T02:35:22Z

AntoniettaWhitco:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Member of the [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Chinchwad Assembly constituency|Chinchwad]]
| image = Spj.jpg
| term_start = 2024
| term_end =
| profession = Politician
| predecessor = Shankar Jagtap
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
}}
'''Shankar Pandurang Jagtap''' is an Indian politician from Maharashtra. He is a [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] from [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]], representing [[Chinchwad Assembly constituency]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-23 |title=Chinchwad, Maharashtra Assembly Election Results 2024 Highlights: BJP's Shankar Jagtap defeats NCP (SP)'s Rahul Kalate with 103865 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/chinchwad-maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-live-updates-maelb-2638330-2024-11-23 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-20 |title=In Chinchwad, BJP replaces sitting MLA Ashwini Jagtap with brother in law Shankar Jagtap |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/chinchwad-bjp-replaces-ashwini-jagtap-with-shankar-jagtap-9630363/ |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra Elections 2024: 14 candidates win by over 1 lakh votes, all from Mahayuti">{{cite news |last1=CNBCTV18 |date=23 November 2024 |title=Maharashtra Elections 2024: 14 candidates win by over 1 lakh votes, all from Mahayuti |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/politics/maharashtra-elections-2024-14-candidates-win-1-lakh-vote-margin-mahayuti-19513783.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127053121/https://www.cnbctv18.com/india/politics/maharashtra-elections-2024-14-candidates-win-1-lakh-vote-margin-mahayuti-19513783.htm |archive-date=27 November 2024 |access-date=27 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra election results: These candidates have won by biggest margins so far">{{cite news |last1=Hindustantimes |date=23 November 2024 |title=Maharashtra election results: These candidates have won by biggest margins so far |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-election-results-these-candidates-have-won-by-biggest-margins-so-far-101732376089333.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124125058/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/maharashtra-election-results-these-candidates-have-won-by-biggest-margins-so-far-101732376089333.html |archive-date=24 November 2024 |access-date=24 November 2024}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra Assembly election results 2024 {{!}} Who won in Pune?">{{cite news |last1=The Hindu |first1=Sruthi |date=23 November 2024 |title=Maharashtra Assembly election results 2024 {{!}} Who won in Pune? |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/maharashtra-assembly/maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-who-won-in-pune/article68901246.ece |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124060803/https://www.thehindu.com/elections/maharashtra-assembly/maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-who-won-in-pune/article68901246.ece |archivedate=24 November 2024 |accessdate=12 December 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of chief ministers of Maharashtra]]
* [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jagtap, Shankar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:People from Pimpri-Chinchwad]]

{{Maharashtra-BJP-politician-stub}}

Nausharo

2026-04-22T12:50:37Z

AntoniettaWhitco: put up a stub...

{{Short description|Archaeological site in Pakistan}}
{{Distinguish|Naushahro}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=June 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox archaeological site
| name = Nausharo
| image = Nausharo Matka.jpg
| alt =
| caption = "Naushahdu [[Matki (earthen pot)|Matka]]", a [[jar]] made around ([[2700 BC|2700]] – [[1800 BC]]) found in Nausharo
| map_type =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| location = [[Balochistan]], Pakistan
| coordinates =
| epochs = Mature Indus Valley civilization
| excavations = 1985–1996
| archaeologists = French team led by [[Jean-François Jarrige]]
| condition = [[Ruins]]
| ownership =
| public_access =
| map = {{mapframe|frame=yes|type=point|{{Coord||}}|text=|zoom=SWITCH:5,8,9|switch=zoomed out, zoomed mid, zoomed in}}
}}

'''Nausharo''' is an archaeological site dating back to the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Harappan]] period, located in [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], Pakistan. The excavations were carried out between 1985 and 1996 by a French team of archaeologists, under the direction of [[Jean-François Jarrige]]. The other sites belonging to the same cluster are [[Mehrgarh]] and [[Pirak]].

==Nausharo excavation==
Excavations at Nausharo, 6 km from Mehrgarh, revealed a dwelling-site contemporaneous and identical to the later periods of [[Mehrgarh]]. It was occupied between 3000 and 2550 BC and again between 2550 and 1900 BC.

=== Pottery workshop ===
The discovery of a pottery workshop at Nausharo revealed fired and unfired pottery pieces and unworked clay, as well as 12 flint blades or blade fragments. The blades showed use-wear traces that indicates their usage in shaving clay while shaping pottery on a potter's wheel. The excavated blades were compared to experimentally produced replica blades used for a variety of other activities such as harvesting and processing of silica-rich plants, hide processing, and hand-held use for shaping clay; however, the use-wear traces were almost identical to the excavated blades when used with a mechanical potter's wheel in the shaping of clay pots. Also significant was the discovery of copper traces found on the platforms of two blades examined with a scanning electron microscope and X ray analysis.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Méry|first1=S|last2=Anderson|first2=P|last3=Inizan|first3=M.L.|last4=Lechavallier|first4=M|last5=Pelegrin|first5=J|title=A pottery workshop with flint tools on blades knapper with copper at Nausharo (Indus civilisation ca. 2500 BC)|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|date=2007|volume=34|issue=7|pages=1098–1116|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.002}}</ref>

==Chronology==
Mature Indus Valley Civilisation is believed to begin around 2600–2450 BC, during Mehrgarh VII period (2600 BC–2000 BC). This time period also corresponds to Nausharo I (Kot Diji phase), and Nausharo II periods.

Somewhere between 2600 BC and 2000 BC (Mehrgarh Period VII), Mehrgarh seems to have been largely abandoned in favor of Nausharo, which became fortified and quite large. Historian [[Michael Wood (historian)|Michael Wood]] suggests this abandonment took place around 2500 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Michael|title=In Search of the First Civilizations|date=2005|publisher=BBC Books|isbn=978-0563522669|page=257|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jTCezHSfbwMC&q=mehrgarh+abandoned+Naushahro&pg=PA55|access-date=20 May 2016}}</ref>

According to Jarrige, period I of Nausharo corresponds to Mehrgarth VII, while periods II and III were during the mature Harappan civilization.<ref>JEAN-FRANÇOIS JARRIGE (1993), The Early Architectural Traditions of Greater Indus as Seen from Mehrgarh, Baluchistan. Studies in the History of Art, Vol. 31, Symposium Papers XV: Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times (1993), pp. 25–33. p.33</ref>

The more detailed chronology of Nausharo is usually given as follows,

* Period IA c. 2900–2800 BC
* Period IB c. 2800–2700 BC
* Period IC c. 2700–2600 BC
* Period ID c. 2600–2550 BC (transition period)
* Period IIA c. 2550–2300 BC
* Period IIB c. 2300–1900 BC
* Period III c. 1900–1800 BC

==See also==
* [[Indus Valley civilization]]
* [[List of Indus Valley Civilization sites]]
* [[List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization]]
* [[Hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization]]
* [[Mehrgarh]]
* [[Pirak]]

==Further reading==
Jarrige, Catherine; [http://www.persee.fr/articleAsPDF/arasi_0004-3958_1992_num_47_1_1330/article_arasi_0004-3958_1992_num_47_1_1330.pdf ''Une tête d'éléphant en terre cuite de Nausharo (Pakistan)'']{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [''An elephant's head in terracotta:Nausharo (Pakistan)''] (French).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.harappa.com/indus/74.html Cooking pots, Nausharo]
* [http://www.harappa.com/indus/22.html Toy carts, Nausharo]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061120152744/http://www.museeguimet.fr/gb/pages/page_id18573_u1l2.htm Centre for Archaeological Research Indus Balochistan]

{{coord|29.365|67.588|display=title}}
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Balochistan, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Indus Valley Civilisation sites]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pre-Indus Valley civilisation sites]]

{{Balochistan-geo-stub}}

N. Renganathan

2026-04-20T05:23:56Z

AntoniettaWhitco: put up new pg...

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1949)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = N. Renganathan
| image =
| image size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1949|10|30|df=y}}
| birth_place = Kunjimedu, Tamil Nadu, India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office1 = Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA)
| constituency1 = [[Poompuhar Assembly constituency|Poompuhar]]
| term_start1 = 2001
| term_end1 = 2006
| predecessor1 = [[G. Mohandasan]]
| successor1 = Periyasamy
| party = [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (AIADMK)
| spouse =
| alma_mater =
| relations =
| children =
| profession = Agriculturist
| footnotes =
| website =
}}
'''N. Renganathan''' is an [[Politics of India|Indian politician]] and a former [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly|Member of the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]. He hails from Kunjimedu village in the [[Mayiladuthurai district]]. Having completed a master's degree and a Diploma in Cooperation, Renganathan is a member of the [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] (AIADMK) party. He was elected to the [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]] from the [[Poompuhar Assembly constituency]] in the 2001 state elections.<ref>Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly "WHO'S WHO Twelfth Assembly 2001. Chennai-600009: Legislature Assembly Secretariat, Chennai-600009. April 2002. p. 508-510.</ref>

==Electoral Performance==
===2001===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2001 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Poompuhar<ref>{{cite web| last = Election Commission of India|title = Statistical Report on General Election 2001|url= http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf|date = 12 May 2001 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006173934/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2001/Stat_Rep_TN_2001.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=N. Renganathan |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=53,760 |percentage=50.55% |change=+18.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=M. Mohammed Siddiq |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=46,305 |percentage=43.54% |change=-6.34 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. M. Musahudeen |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=3,542 |percentage=3.33% |change=-8.56 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=K. S. Raja Alias Kannadasan |party=Independent politician |votes=1,679 |percentage=1.58% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=T. V. Sampath |party=MNK(PLP) |votes=1,067 |percentage=1.00% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=7,455 |percentage=7.01% |change= -10.90% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=106,353 |percentage=67.03% |change= -6.39% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 158,741 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 0.67% }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Tamil Nadu MLAs 2001–2006]]
[[Category:All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam politicians]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{TamilNadu-politician-stub}}

Shalivahan Singh

2026-04-20T01:27:09Z

AntoniettaWhitco:

{{short description|Maharawal of Jaisalmer (1891–1914)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{infobox royalty
| name = Shalivahan Singh
| title = [[Chhatrala Yadupati]] Rukn-ud-Daula Maharajadhiraja Raj-Rajeshwar Parama Bhattarak Muzaffar Jang Bijaimand
| succession = [[Maharawal]] of [[Kingdom of Jaisalmer|Jaisalmer]]
| reign = 10 March 1891{{sndash}}14 April 1914
| predecessor = [[Bairi Sal (ruler)|Bairi Sal]]
| successor = [[Jawahir Singh]]
| birth_name = Shyam Singh
| birth_date = {{birth date|1887|06|12|df=yes}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1914|04|14|1887|06|12|df=yes}}
| house = {{flagicon image|Jaisalmer_Flag.svg}} [[Kingdom of Jaisalmer|Jaisalmer]]
| father = Khushal Singh
| spouse 2 = {{marriage|Gulab Kanwar|25 November 1913}}
| spouse 1 = {{marriage|Het Kanwar|16 February 1907}}
| dynasty = [[Bhati]]
| module = {{Infobox person | embed=yes
| education = [[Mayo College]]}}
}}

'''Shalivahan Singh''' (12 June 1887 – 14 April 1914) was [[Maharawal]] of [[Kingdom of Jaisalmer|Jaisalmer]] from 10 March 1891 until his death in 1914.

==Early life, family, and education==
He was born as Shyam Singh on 12 June 1887 to Khushal Singh, the [[Thakur (title)|Thakur]] of Lathi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bayley |first=C. S. |url=http://archive.org/details/chiefsleadingfam00csba |title=Chiefs and leading families in Rajputana |date=2004 |publisher=New Delhi : Asian Educational Services |others=Public Resource |isbn=978-81-206-1066-8 |pages=67}}</ref> He was educated at [[Mayo College]], [[Ajmer]], which he left in 1906 after passing the diploma exam.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sehgal |first=K. k |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.120390 |title=Rajasthan District Gazetteers Jaisalmer |date=1961 |pages=46–50}}</ref> He married, firstly, Het Kanwar, a daughter of [[Kesari Singh]], the [[Maharao]] of [[Sirohi state|Sirohi]], on 16 February 1907; and secondly, Gulab Kanwar, a daughter of [[Mansinhji II]], the [[Maharana]] of [[Kingdom of Jhalavad|Dhrangadhra]], on 25 November 1913.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Soszynski |first=Henry |title=JAISALMER |url=http://members.iinet.net.au/~royalty/ips/j/jaisalmer.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718093208/http://members.iinet.net.au/~royalty/ips/j/jaisalmer.html |archive-date=2017-07-18 |access-date=2025-06-11 |website=members.iinet.net.au}}</ref>

==Reign==
[[File:Bada Bagh-4-Chhatri of Mâhârawal Shalivahan Singh Ji III-20131009-8.jpg|alt=Chhatri of Shalivahan Singh|left|thumb|188x188px|[[Chhatri]] of Shalivahan Singh]]
When [[Bairi Sal (ruler)|Bairi Sal]] died on 10 March 1891, his widows, with the consent of the [[British government of India|Government of India]], adopted him as the successor of the deceased.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rp92JkMbiaIC |title=Memoranda on Native States in India, Together with a List of Independent Ruling Chiefs, Chiefs of Frontier States, and Other Notables with Their Proper Forms of Address |date=1911 |publisher=Superintendent Government Print., India |pages=122 |language=en}}</ref> At the time of his ascension to the [[throne]] of [[Kingdom of Jaisalmer|Jaisalmer]], he assumed the name Shalivahan.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Hooja |first=Rima |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ |title=A History of Rajasthan |date=2006 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=978-81-291-0890-6 |pages=910 |language=en}}</ref> On account of his minority, a [[council of regency]] was established under the supervision of the Resident at [[Kingdom of Marwar|Jodhpur]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> This council, along with the [[Dewan|Diwan]], administered the affairs of the state until he came of age.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> He was invested with full administrative powers on 14 December 1908.<ref name=":0" /> He subsequently personally supervised the administration of the state and introduced a series of fiscal reforms.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=R. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47sfj8DUwNgC |title=Indian States: A Biographical, Historical, and Administrative Survey |last2=Bond |first2=J. W. |date=2006 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1965-4 |pages=329 |language=en}}</ref>

==Death==
He died on 14 April 1914 and was succeeded by [[Jawahir Singh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Not Available |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35384 |title=Memoranda On The Indian States 1938 |date=1938 |pages=271}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:1887 births]]
[[Category:1914 deaths]]
[[Category:People from British India]]
[[Category:People from Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Jaisalmer]]

Jhanduta Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:27:49Z

AntoniettaWhitco: creating basic article w/ infobox

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Himachal Pradesh State, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Jhanduta
| type= SLA
| constituency_no = 46
| map_image = 46-Jhanduta constituency.svg
| state = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| district = [[Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh|Bilaspur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh Lok Sabha constituency|Hamirpur]]
| established = 2008
| reservation = SC
| mla = [[Jeet Ram Katwal]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| electors = {{formatnum:80977}}<ref name=election2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14751-himachal-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Himachal Pradesh General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=22 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|1}}
}}
'''Jhanduta''' is one of the 68 assembly constituencies of [[Himachal Pradesh]] a northern Indian state. It is also part of [[Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceohimachal.nic.in/Bkground/rpt_PCWISEELECTORS.pdf |title=Assembly Constituency wise Electors as on 15-09-2010 |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Himachal Pradesh website |accessdate=25 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314170045/http://ceohimachal.nic.in/Bkground/rpt_PCWISEELECTORS.pdf |archivedate=14 March 2012 }}</ref><ref name="eci1">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|pages=6, 158–164}}</ref><ref>[http://elections.traceall.in/vidhan-sabha-assembly-election-results/Jhanduta-in-Himachal-Pradesh Sitting and previous MLAs from Jhanduta Assembly constituency]</ref><ref name=hpceo>{{cite web |url=https://electionhp.gov.in/e_atlas/slider/data1/images/himachal_pradesh.jpg |title=Assembly constituencies - Himachal Pradesh |access-date=8 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185849/https://electionhp.gov.in/e_atlas/slider/data1/images/himachal_pradesh.jpg |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!Picture
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[2012 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
| [[Rikhi Ram Kaundal]]
|
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2017 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
| [[Jeet Ram Katwal]]<ref name=election2017/>
|
|-
|[[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Jeet Ram Katwal]]
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2022 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Jhanduta}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Jeet Ram Katwal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=28,268 |percentage=46.72% |change={{decrease}}6.35 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vivek Kumar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=22,469 |percentage=37.14% |change={{decrease}}6.86 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Raj Kumar Kaundal |party=Independent politician |votes=8,358 |percentage=13.81% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sudhir Kumar Suman |party=Aam Aadmi Party |votes=427 |percentage=0.71% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manoj Kumar |party=Rashtriya Devbhumi Party |votes=282 |percentage=0.47% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nota |party=None of the above |votes=246 |percentage=0.41% |change={{decrease}}0.73 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Amar Nath |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=245 |percentage=0.40% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Jitender Pal |party=Independent politician |votes=206 |percentage=0.34% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=5,799 |percentage=9.58% |change= {{increase}}0.51 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=60,501 |percentage=74.71% |change= {{decrease}}0.88 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 80,977 |ref = |change= {{increase}}11.92 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}6.35 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2017 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Jhanduta<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3815-himachal-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Himachal Pradesh General Legislative Election 2017 |author=Election Commission of India |access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Jeet Ram Katwal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=29,030 |percentage=53.07% |change={{increase}}4.16 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Beeru Ram Kishore |party=Indian National Congress |votes=24,068 |percentage=44.00% |change={{decrease}}2.35 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=624 |percentage=1.14% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,962 |percentage=9.07% |change= {{increase}}6.52 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=54,699 |percentage=75.60% |change= {{increase}}5.78 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 72,355 |ref = |change= {{increase}}7.69 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2012 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Jhanduta}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Rikhi Ram Kaundal]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=22,941 |percentage=48.91% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dr. Beeru Ram Kishore |party=Indian National Congress |votes=21,742 |percentage=46.35% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Kashmir Singh Jamwal |party=Himachal Lokhit Party |votes=791 |percentage=1.69% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vijay Kumar Kaushal |party=Independent politician |votes=764 |percentage=1.63% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anup Chand Bhatia |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=590 |percentage=1.26% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,199 |percentage=2.56% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=46,906 |percentage=69.82% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 67,186 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Himachal Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh]]
* [[Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh Lok Sabha constituency]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Himachal Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/74-himachal-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Himachal Pradesh|state=expanded}}
{{Himachal Pradesh elections|state=collapsed}}

{{coord|31.37|76.64|display=title}}

[[Category:Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Ramanama

2026-04-17T14:30:26Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Put up initial page needs work!

{{Short description|Hindu practice of chanting the name of Rama}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:Anonymous - Enthroned Rama and Sita receive homage from their monkey and bear allies - 2018.117 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tiff|thumb|Painting of Rama and Sita, Cleveland Museum of Art]]
The '''ramanama''' ({{Langx|sa|रामनाम|lit=the name of Rama|translit=rāmanāma}}) is the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] practice of ritually chanting the name of the deity [[Rama]], an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ranganathananda |first=Swami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7UelDwAAQBAJ&dq=a&pg=PT18 |title=The Spiritual Life of Indian People |publisher=Advaita Ashrama (A publication branch of Ramakrishna Math, Belur Math) |pages=18 |language=en}}</ref> Rama's name is often chanted or sung within several traditions of Hinduism in the form of a ''[[japa]]'', or meditative repetition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glucklich |first=Ariel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfZNoX09XNAC&pg=PA193 |title=The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective |date=2008-05-09 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-531405-2 |pages=193 |language=en}}</ref>

== Literature ==
In the [[Ramcharitmanas|Ramacharitamanasa]], the ramanama is regarded to offer strength to [[Hanuman]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ludvik |first=Catherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&pg=PA50 |title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa |date=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1122-5 |pages=50 |language=en}}</ref>

According to a story based on the Ramayana, [[Pratardana]], the king of [[Kāśī (kingdom)|Kashi]], had insulted [[Vishvamitra]], and was hence attacked by the arrows of Rama. The king was advised to chant the name of Rama by [[Hanuman]], who subsequently saved him from the arrows.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lutgendorf |first=Philip |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195309225.001.0001 |title=Hanuman's Tale |date=2007-01-25 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York |isbn=0-19-530922-7 |pages=62–64}}</ref>

In the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the sacred book and current guru of [[Sikhism]], the name of Rama is the second most commonly used name for the formless God after the name [[Hari]].

In the [[Vishnu Sahasranama]], a popular verse indicates the significance of the name of Rama.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devananda |first=Vishnu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JgnTT0eqwIoC&pg=PA67 |title=Meditation and Mantras |date=1999 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1615-2 |pages=67 |language=en}}</ref> In the [[Padma Purana]], [[Shiva]] recites the verse to his consort [[Parvati]]:<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bhatt |first1=Dr G. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWXxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3324 |title=The Padma-Purana Part 10: Ancient Indian Tradition and Mythology Volume 48 |last2=Deshpande |first2=Dr N. A. |date=2013-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3915-1 |pages=3324 |language=en}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=''Śrī rāma rāma rāmeti rame rāme manorame sahasranāma tat-tulyaṁ rāma-nāma varānane''}}{{Blockquote|text=O you charming one, O you of an excellent face, I, saying 'Rama, Rama' am interested in Rama. Rama's name is equal to the one thousand names (of Vishnu).|source=Chapter 254|title=Padma Purana}}

==In popular culture==
The [[mantra]] was often used by [[Mahatma Gandhi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vandana |first1=Sister |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B09-QDlLRnoC&pg=PA114 |title=Nama Japa: The Prayer of the Name |last2=Mataji |first2=Vandana |date=September 1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |isbn=978-81-208-1286-4 |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Neem Karoli Baba]] encouraged the constant repetition of "Ram" in order to become closer to God, saying: "By taking the name of Ram, everything is accomplished."

A popular mantra is ''Shri Rama Jaya Rama Jaya Jaya Rama''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Manjunath.R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cFblEAAAQBAJ&dq=om+sri+ramaya+namah&pg=PA191 |title=Beyond the Temples: Unraveling the Mysteries of Hindu Gods |date=2023-11-24 |publisher=Manjunath.R |pages=191 |language=en}}</ref> (often prefixed with "Om"), which was popularised in western India by [[Samarth Ramdas]]. [[Swami Ramdas]] is said to have attained [[nirvana]] through the constant repetition of this mantra. He established [[Anandashram]], where this mantra is chanted continuously from morning to night.

"Ramanama satya hai" ({{Translation|The name of Rama is the truth}}) is a Hindi phrase commonly chanted by Hindus while carrying a dead body to be [[cremated]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSaxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA147 |title=Homo Ritualis: Hindu Ritual and Its Significance for Ritual Theory |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-026263-1 |pages=147 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GfO7k7scSsC |title=Ayodhya Imbroglio |date=1995 |publisher=Ashish Publishing House |isbn=978-81-7024-679-4 |pages=90 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Tyagaraja]],popular composer of Carnatic music, chanted ramanama 96 crore times in his lifetime and mentioned the ramanama quite often in his compositions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=William Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZBnppBQgOsC&pg=PA115 |title=Tyāgarāja and the Renewal of Tradition: Translations and Reflections |date=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1146-1 |pages=115 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Namasamkirtana]]
* [[Bhajan]]
* ''[[Hari Om]]''

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramanama}}
[[Category:Bhakti movement]]
[[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]]
[[Category:Hindu mantras]]

Madhira Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T12:35:39Z

AntoniettaWhitco: put up a data

{{Short description|Constituency of the Telangana legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Madhira
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Telangana (114-Madhira highlighted).png
| map_caption = Location of Madhira Assembly constituency within Telangana
| mla = [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]] {{Small|[[ Deputy Chief Minister of Telangana]]}}
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| state = [[Telangana]]
| district = [[Khammam district|Khammam]]
| established = 1951
| reservation = SC
| incumbent_image = Portrait of Telangana Deputy CM Bhatti Vikramarka Mallu (13 December 2024).jpg
| electors = 2,09,945
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 114
| loksabha_cons = [[Khammam Lok Sabha constituency|Khammam]]
}}

'''Madhira Assembly Constituency''' is a scheduled caste reserved constituency of [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]], [[India]]. It is one among ten constituencies in [[Khammam district]]. [[Madhira]] is a place in [[Khammam district]]. It comes unders [[Khammam Lok Sabha constituency]].

[[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]], current deputy Floor Leader of [[Indian National Congress]] in [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]], is representing the constituency for the fourth time.

==Mandals==
The Assembly Constituency presently comprises the following Mandals:

{{srn}}
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"
!Mandal
|-
| [[Madhira mandal|Madhira]]
|-
| [[Mudigonda]]
|-
| [[Chintakani]]
|-
| [[Bonakal]]
|-
| [[Yerrupalem mandal|Yerrupalem]]
|}

==Members of Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year!! Member Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
! colspan=4| [[Hyderabad State (1948–1956)| Hyderabad State]]
|-
| [[1952 Hyderabad Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
|Kondabolu Venkaiah
|{{Full party name with color|People's Democratic Front (Hyderabad)}}
|-
! colspan=4| [[United Andhra Pradesh]]
|-
| [[1957 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
|B. Satyanarayan Rao
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=6}}
|-
| [[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|rowspan=2| Duggineni Venkaiah
|-
| [[1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|-
| [[1972 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| Duggineni Venkatravamma
|-
| [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| Bandaru Prasada Rao
|-
| [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
| Seelam Siddha Reddy
|-
| [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|rowspan=3 | [[Bodepudi Venkateswara Rao]]
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|-
| [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
|-
| [[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
| Kondabala Koteswara Rao ||{{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|-
| [[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
|Katta Venkata Narasaiah
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}
|-
| [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
|rowspan=4 | [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress |rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
|-
| [[2018 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
|-
|[[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|-
|}

==Election results==

=== Telangana Legislative Assembly election, 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|Telangana Assembly Elections, 2023]]: Madhira (Assembly constituency)}}{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
| votes =1,08,970
| percentage =55.49
| change =
}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Telangana Rashtra Samithi|candidate=Kamal Raju Lingala|votes=73,518|percentage=37.44|change=}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=Paladugu Bhaskar|votes=6,575|percentage=3.35|change=}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=Perumarpally Vijaya Raju|votes=2,021|percentage=1.03|change=}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the Above]]|votes=1,453|percentage=0.74|change=}}{{Election box majority|votes=35,452|percentage=18.05|change=}}{{Election box turnout|votes=1,96,364|percentage=|change=}}{{Election box hold with party link
| winner =Indian National Congress
|loser =Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| swing =
}}{{Election box end}}

=== Telangana Legislative Assembly election, 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2018 Telangana Legislative Assembly election]]: Madhira}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
| votes = 80,598
| percentage = 43.12
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| candidate = Kamal Raju Lingala
| votes = 77,031
| percentage = 41.21
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = BLFP
| candidate = Rambabu Kota
| votes = 23,030
| percentage = 12.32
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = None of the above
| candidate = [[None of the Above]]
| votes = 1,011
| percentage = 0.54
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 3,567
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,86,943
| percentage = 91.98
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Telangana Rashtra Samithi
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===Telangana Legislative Assembly election, 2014 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|Telangana Assembly Elections, 2014]]: Madhira (Assembly constituency)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=997&cid=114 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304135250/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=997&cid=114 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=4 March 2016 |title=Madhira Assembly Election 2014, Andhra Pradesh |publisher=Empoweringindia.org |access-date=2016-12-01}}</ref>
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
| votes = 65,135
| percentage = 36.81%
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
| candidate = Kamal Raju Lingala
| votes = 52,806
| percentage =29.84%
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Telugu Desam Party
| candidate = [[Motkupalli Narasimhulu]]
| votes = 46,044
| percentage = 26.02%
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 12,329
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,76,950
| percentage = 91.06%
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election, 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election, 2009]]: Madhira (Assembly constituency)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=997&cid=114 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304135250/http://www.empoweringindia.org/new/constituency.aspx?eid=997&cid=114 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=4 March 2016 |title=Madhira Assembly Election 2014, Andhra Pradesh |publisher=Empoweringindia.org |access-date=2016-12-01}}</ref>
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Indian National Congress
| candidate = [[Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka]]
| votes = 59,394
| percentage = 37.1%
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
| candidate = Kamal Raju Lingala
| votes = 57,977
| percentage = 36.2%
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| party = Trilinga Praja Pragathi Party
| candidate = [[Manda Krishna Madiga]]
| votes = 21,779
| percentage = 13.6%
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority
| votes = 1,417
| percentage =
| change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
| votes = 1,55,715
| percentage = 97.3%
| change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
| winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
| swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of Telangana Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Telangana}}

{{coord|16.92|80.37|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Telangana]]
[[Category:Khammam district]]
[[Category:Politics of Telangana]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]

Bicholim Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:29:22Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created the details and citations

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Goa State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Bicholim
| mla = Dr. [[Chandrakant Shetye]]
| party = [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| state = [[Goa]]
| district = [[North Goa district|North Goa]]
| loksabha_cons = [[North Goa (Lok Sabha constituency)|North Goa]]
| established = 1963
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:28231}}<ref name=results2022/>{{update after|2027|5}}
| type= SLA | constituency_no =3
| map_image = File:Bicholim constitution.svg
}}

'''Bicholim Assembly constituency''' is one of the 40 [[Goa Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Goa]] state in [[India]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |pp=110–114 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref> Bicholim is also one of the 20 constituencies falling under [[North Goa Lok Sabha constituency]].

It is part of [[North Goa district]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[1963 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election|1963]]
| Kusumakar Kaskade<ref name=result1963>{{cite web |url=https://www.ceogoa.nic.in/pdf/PER/Assembly%20Election%20-%201963.pdf |title=Assembly Election - 1963 |publisher=Chief Election Commissioner of Goa |access-date=27 December 2021 |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830123222/https://www.ceogoa.nic.in/pdf/PER/Assembly%20Election%20-%201963.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party|rowspan=4}}
|-
|[[1967 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Chopdenkar Dattaram<ref name=results1967>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3842-goa-1967/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 1967 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[1972 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election|1972]]<ref name=results1972>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3843-goa-1972/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 1972 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
|rowspan=2|[[Shashikala Kakodkar]]
|-
|[[1977 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election|1977]]<ref name=results1977>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3844-goa-1977/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 1977 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[1980 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election|1980]]<ref name=results1980>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3845-goa-1980/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 1980 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
|rowspan=2 | Harish Zantye
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (politician)}}" |
| [[Independent (politician)|Independent]]
|-
|[[1984 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election|1984]]<ref name=election1984>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3847-goa-1984/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 1984 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 29 November 2021}}</ref>
|style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| [[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1989 Goa Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|[[Pandurang Raut]]<ref name=results1989>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3849-goa-1989/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 1989 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party}}
|-
|[[1994 Goa Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
|Pandurang Bhatale<ref name=results1994>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3850-goa-1994/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 1994 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1999 Goa Legislative Assembly election|1999]]<ref name=results1999>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3852-goa-1999/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 1999 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
| Pandurang Raut
|{{Full party name with color|Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party}}
|-
|[[2002 Goa Legislative Assembly election|2002]]<ref name=results2002>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3853-goa-2002/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 2002 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
|rowspan=2 |[[Rajesh Patnekar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2007 Goa Legislative Assembly election|2007]]<ref name=results2007>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3855-goa-2007/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 2007 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 31 May 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[2012 Goa Legislative Assembly election|2012]]<ref name="Goa Election Results 2012: Full list of winners of all constituencies in assembly elections of Goa and how it can change in 2017">{{cite news|last1=The Indian Express|title=Goa Election Results 2012: Full list of winners of all constituencies in assembly elections of Goa and how it can change in 2017|url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/goa-assembly-elections-2017/goa-election-results-2012-full-list-of-winners-of-all-constituencies-in-assembly-elections-of-goa-and-how-it-can-change-in-2017-4560713/|accessdate=12 December 2023|date=8 March 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212055138/https://indianexpress.com/elections/goa-assembly-elections-2017/goa-election-results-2012-full-list-of-winners-of-all-constituencies-in-assembly-elections-of-goa-and-how-it-can-change-in-2017-4560713/|archivedate=12 December 2023|language=en}}</ref>
|[[Naresh Sawal]]
|{{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
|[[2017 Goa Legislative Assembly election|2017]]<ref name="Goa elections result 2017: Full list of constituencies and their winners">{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/goa-assembly-elections-2017/goa-election-results-full-list-of-constituencies-and-candidates-winner-list-4562578/|title=Goa elections result 2017: Full list of constituencies and their winners|last1=The Indian Express|date=9 March 2017|accessdate=12 December 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212054256/https://indianexpress.com/elections/goa-assembly-elections-2017/goa-election-results-full-list-of-constituencies-and-candidates-winner-list-4562578/|archivedate=12 December 2023|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Goa Election Results 2017: Full list of winners from all constituencies in assembly elections of Goa">{{cite news|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/elections/goa-election-results-2012-full-list-of-winners-from-all-constituencies-in-assembly-elections-of-goa-and-how-is-it-expected-in-2017-exit-polls-opinion-polls-580376/|title=Goa Election Results 2017: Full list of winners from all constituencies in assembly elections of Goa|last1=Financial Express|date=11 March 2017|accessdate=12 December 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212054407/https://www.financialexpress.com/elections/goa-election-results-2012-full-list-of-winners-from-all-constituencies-in-assembly-elections-of-goa-and-how-is-it-expected-in-2017-exit-polls-opinion-polls-580376/|archivedate=12 December 2023|language=en}}</ref>
| Rajesh Patnekar<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3862-goa-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 2017 |access-date= 7 June 2021}}</ref>
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|[[2012 Goa Legislative Assembly election|2022]]<ref name="Goa election result 2022: Full list of winners">{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/goa-assembly-election/goa-assembly-polls-2022-winners-list-bjp-vs-congress-vs-aap-full-list-of-leading-candidates-101646882087437.html|title=Goa election result 2022: Full list of winners|last1=Hindustan Times|date=10 March 2022|accessdate=12 December 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212054030/https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/goa-assembly-election/goa-assembly-polls-2022-winners-list-bjp-vs-congress-vs-aap-full-list-of-leading-candidates-101646882087437.html|archivedate=12 December 2023|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Goa Election Result: Full list of winning candidates">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/goa-assembly-polls-2022/story/goa-election-2022-latest-result-full-list-leading-candidates-winners-party-wise-1922756-2022-03-10|title=Goa Election Result: Full list of winning candidates|last1=India Today|date=10 March 2022|accessdate=12 December 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212054126/https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/goa-assembly-polls-2022/story/goa-election-2022-latest-result-full-list-leading-candidates-winners-party-wise-1922756-2022-03-10|archivedate=12 December 2023|language=en}}</ref>
|Dr. [[Chandrakant Shetye]]
|{{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
|}

== Election results ==
===Assembly Election 2022===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2022 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref name=results2022>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14168-goa-general-legislative-election-2022/ |title=Goa General Legislative Election 2022 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 17 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceogoa.nic.in/pdf/ELECTION/Voter%20Turnout%20GE-2022.pdf |title=General Elections 2022 to Goa Legislatie Assembly - AC wise Voter Turnout |access-date=23 January 2025}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Chandrakant Shetye|Dr. Chandrakant Shetye]] |party=Independent politician |votes=9,608 |percentage=37.05% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Naresh Sawal]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=9,290 |percentage=35.82% |change={{decrease}}7.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Rajesh Patnekar]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=5,141 |percentage=19.82% |change={{decrease}}25.89 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Meghashyam Vaman Raut |party=Indian National Congress |votes=913 |percentage=3.52% |change={{decrease}}4.04 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Anish Avinash Naik |party=Revolutionary Goans Party |votes=593 |percentage=2.29% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=341 |percentage=1.31% |change={{increase}}0.37 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=318 |percentage=1.23% |change= {{decrease}}1.63 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=25,936 |percentage=90.49% |change= {{increase}}2.09 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 28,231 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.76 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}8.67 }}
{{Election box end}}

* AAP is supporting the independent candidate [[Chandrakant Shetye|Dr. Chandrakant Shetye]].<ref name="AAP Goa list">{{cite news |title=Goa Assembly Election 2022: Full list of AAP candidates and their constituencies |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/goa-assembly-election-2022-full-list-of-aap-candidates-and-their-constituencies/2405089/ |access-date=28 January 2022 |work=The Financial Express |language=en}}</ref>
===Assembly Election 2017===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2017 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Successful Candidates|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2017/Goa/01ListOfSuccessfulCandidates.xlsx|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|format=Xlsx|accessdate=22 April 2017}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Rajesh Patnekar]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=10,654 |percentage=45.71% |change={{increase}}19.99 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Naresh Sawal]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=9,988 |percentage=42.86% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manohar Pandurang Shirodkar |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,761 |percentage=7.56% |change={{decrease}}23.49 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sainath Patekar |party=Aam Aadmi Party |votes=358 |percentage=1.54% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pandurang Raut]] |party=Goa Praja Party |votes=324 |percentage=1.39% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=221 |percentage=0.95% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=666 |percentage=2.86% |change= {{decrease}}5.69 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=23,306 |percentage=89.78% |change= {{increase}}1.74 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 25,958 |ref = |change= {{increase}}8.64 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Independent politician |swing= {{increase}}6.11 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2012===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2012 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite report|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2012, to the Legislative Assembly of Goa|publisher=Election Commission of India|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3856-goa-2012/}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Naresh Sawal]] |party=Independent politician |votes=8,331 |percentage=39.60% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Rajesh Patnekar]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=6,532 |percentage=31.05% |change={{decrease}}5.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Manohar Pandurang Shirodkar |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=5,411 |percentage=25.72% |change={{decrease}}25.10 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pandurang Raut]] |party=All India Trinamool Congress |votes=720 |percentage=3.42% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,799 |percentage=8.55% |change= {{decrease}}6.09 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=21,037 |percentage=87.86% |change= {{increase}}8.65 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 23,894 |ref = |change= {{increase}}3.10 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}11.22 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2007===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2007 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2007 to the Legislative Assembly of Meghalaya |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/StatReport_AS_2007_GOA_after_IC.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007042153/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2007/StatReport_AS_2007_GOA_after_IC.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Rajesh Patnekar]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=9,352 |percentage=50.82% |change={{decrease}}3.42 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Naresh Sawal]] |party=Indian National Congress |votes=6,657 |percentage=36.18% |change={{increase}}31.37 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pandurang Raut]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=2,092 |percentage=11.37% |change={{decrease}}27.38 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gad Vivekanand |party=Save Goa Front |votes=267 |percentage=1.45% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,695 |percentage=14.65% |change= {{decrease}}0.85 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=18,401 |percentage=79.25% |change= {{increase}}1.08 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 23,176 |ref = |change= {{increase}}9.89 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Bharatiya Janata Party |swing= {{decrease}}3.42 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 2002===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2002 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2002 to the Legislative Assembly of Meghalaya |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_se2002_GA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007072027/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2002/Stat_rep_se2002_GA.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Rajesh Patnekar]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=8,960 |percentage=54.24% |change={{increase}}21.79 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pandurang Raut]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=6,400 |percentage=38.75% |change={{increase}}5.71 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Parab Arjun Shrirang |party=Indian National Congress |votes=794 |percentage=4.81% |change={{decrease}}23.00 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gad Vivekanand Sukdo |party=Nationalist Congress Party |votes=354 |percentage=2.14% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,560 |percentage=15.50% |change= {{increase}}14.91 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=16,518 |percentage=78.27% |change= {{increase}}5.18 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 21,090 |ref = |change= {{increase}}0.14 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Bharatiya Janata Party |loser=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |swing= {{increase}}21.21 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1999===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1999 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Meghalaya |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReportof%20Goa-99.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007115355/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReportof%20Goa-99.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pandurang Raut]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=5,089 |percentage=33.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Rajesh Patnekar]] |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=4,999 |percentage=32.45% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Harish Zantye |party=Indian National Congress |votes=4,284 |percentage=27.81% |change={{decrease}}6.78 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gaonkar Rajaram Arjun |party=Shiv Sena |votes=1,030 |percentage=6.69% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=90 |percentage=0.58% |change= {{decrease}}1.56 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=15,404 |percentage=73.13% |change= {{decrease}}4.11 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 21,060 |ref = |change= {{increase}}9.59 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}1.55 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1994===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1994 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1994 to the Legislative Assembly of Meghalaya |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StaticialReportGOA94.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006094522/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StaticialReportGOA94.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Pandurang Bhatale |party=Indian National Congress |votes=5,135 |percentage=34.59% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pandurang Raut]] |party=Independent politician |votes=4,817 |percentage=32.45% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Adv. Parab Kalidas Vithoba |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=4,127 |percentage=27.80% |change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Beig Hasham Nur Mohamad |party=Independent politician |votes=258 |percentage=1.74% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Misal Dari Babu |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=185 |percentage=1.25% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=318 |percentage=2.14% |change= {{decrease}}9.70 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=14,846 |percentage=75.57% |change= {{decrease}}0.53 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 19,217 |ref = |change= {{increase}}12.87 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |swing= {{decrease}}14.23 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1989===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1989 Goa Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1994 to the Legislative Assembly of Meghalaya |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20Goa%201989.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006124346/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20Goa%201989.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pandurang Raut]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=6,465 |percentage=48.81% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Harish Zantye |party=Indian National Congress |votes=4,897 |percentage=36.98% |change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Lawanis Rajanikant Gajanan |party=Independent politician |votes=879 |percentage=6.64% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Phadtye Anirudha |party=Gomantak Bahujan Samaj Parishad |votes=279 |percentage=2.11% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Desai Ramnath Purushottam |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=221 |percentage=1.67% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,568 |percentage=11.84% |change= {{decrease}}12.52 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=13,244 |percentage=74.83% |change= {{increase}}1.54 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 17,026 |ref = |change= {{decrease}}17.32 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= {{decrease}}6.00 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1984===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1984 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1998 to the Legislative Assembly of Meghalaya |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-MGH98.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324144917/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-MGH98.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2018 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Harish Zantye |party=Indian National Congress |votes=8,607 |percentage=54.82% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Naik Vinayak Vasudeo |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=4,782 |percentage=30.46% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Teli Anant Ramchandra |party=Independent politician |votes=441 |percentage=2.81% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gadekar Kamlakant Krishna |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=429 |percentage=3.24% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Malik Prabhakar Anant |party=Independent politician |votes=265 |percentage=2.00% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Naik Gopi Dattaram |party=Independent politician |votes=192 |percentage=1.45% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Raut Vaman Gopal |party=Independent politician |votes=168 |percentage=1.27% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,825 |percentage=24.36% |change= {{increase}}8.27 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=15,701 |percentage=73.00% |change= {{decrease}}6.56 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 20,592 |ref = |change= {{increase}}15.60 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Independent politician |swing= {{decrease}}1.82 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1980===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1980 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Goa |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Goa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114095835/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Goa.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Harish Zantye |party=Independent politician |votes=8,354 |percentage=56.64% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Shashikala Kakodkar]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=5,981 |percentage=40.55% |change=}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,373 |percentage=16.09% |change= {{decrease}}9.17 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=14,750 |percentage=80.47% |change= {{increase}}9.75 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 17,813 |ref = |change= {{increase}}5.36 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Independent politician |loser=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |swing= {{increase}}1.05 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1977===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1977 to the Legislative Assembly of Goa, Daman and Diu |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Goa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114095835/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Goa.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Shashikala Kakodkar]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=6,866 |percentage=55.59% |change={{decrease}}8.81 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Naik Vinayak Vasudev |party=Indian National Congress |votes=3,746 |percentage=30.33% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rane Jaysingrao Abasaheb |party=Janata Party |votes=1,488 |percentage=12.05% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=3,120 |percentage=25.26% |change= {{decrease}}15.75 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=12,351 |percentage=71.93% |change= {{decrease}}8.25 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 16,906 |ref = |change= {{increase}}34.36 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |loser=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |swing= {{decrease}}8.81 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1972===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1972 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Goa, Daman and Diu |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisticalRep_GOA_72.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114075126/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisticalRep_GOA_72.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Shashikala Kakodkar]] |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=6,589 |percentage=64.40% |change={{increase}}1.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=S. Ramesh Narayan |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,393 |percentage=23.39% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chopdekar Dattaram Keshav |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=678 |percentage=6.63% |change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Vaz George |party=Communist Party of India (Marxist) |votes=189 |percentage=1.85% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Shivajirao G. Desai |party=Samyukta Socialist Party |votes=126 |percentage=1.23% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dubhashi Shivaji Ravaji |party=United Goans Party (Sequeira Group) |votes=97 |percentage=0.95% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,196 |percentage=41.01% |change= {{decrease}}9.11 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=10,231 |percentage=80.04% |change= {{increase}}6.68 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 12,583 |ref = |change= {{increase}}6.57 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |loser=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |swing= {{increase}}1.24 }}
{{Election box end}}
===Assembly Election 1967===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1967 Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative Assembly election]] : Bicholim<ref>{{cite web|website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Goa, Daman and Diu |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statisticall%20Report%20Goa%201967.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117085800/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statisticall%20Report%20Goa%201967.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012 |access-date=15 February 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=C. D. Keshav |party=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |votes=5,565 |percentage=63.16% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=S. S. Sakharam |party=Independent politician |votes=1,149 |percentage=13.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=P. G. M. Gangaram |party=Independent politician |votes=444 |percentage=5.04% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Da. Shivaji |party=United Goans Party (Sequeira Group) |votes=365 |percentage=4.14% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=P. S. Deu |party=Praja Socialist Party |votes=255 |percentage=2.89% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=M. A. Dhaktoo |party=Independent politician |votes=242 |percentage=2.75% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=P. G. Babi |party=Independent politician |votes=127 |percentage=1.44% |change= ''New''}}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=4,416 |percentage=50.12% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=8,811 |percentage=70.39% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 11,807 |ref = |change= }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Record of all Goa Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/71-goa/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=14 March 2022}}

{{coord|15.59|73.96|display=title}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Goa}}

[[Category:North Goa district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Goa]]
[[Category:Politics of Goa]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1963]]
[[Category:1963 establishments in Goa, Daman and Diu]]

2021–22 Churchill Brothers FC season

2026-04-15T13:51:54Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created first article w/ sources

{{Short description|Indian football club season}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox football club season
|club = [[Churchill Brothers FC Goa|Churchill Brothers]]
|season = 2021–22
|chairman = Valanka Alemao
|chrtitle = CEO
|manager = [[:es:Antonio Jesús Rueda Fernández|Antonio Rueda]]
|mgrtitle = Head coach
|stdtitle =
|stadium =
|league = [[2021–22 I-League|I-League]]
|league result = 4th
|league2 =
|league2 result =
|cup1 =
|cup1 result =
|league topscorer = [[Kenneth Ikechukwu]] (10)
|season topscorer =
|highest attendance =
|lowest attendance =
|average attendance =
| pattern_la1 =
| pattern_la2 =
| pattern_b1 =
| pattern_b2 =
| pattern_ra1 =
| pattern_ra2 =
| leftarm1 = FF0000
| leftarm2 = 8CD1FF
| body1 = FF0000
| body2 = 8CD1FF
| rightarm1 = FF0000
| rightarm2 = 8CD1FF
| shorts1 = FF0000
| shorts2 = 8CD1FF
| socks1 = FF0000
| socks2 = 8CD1FF
|prevseason = [[2020–21 Churchill Brothers FC Goa season|2020–21]]
|nextseason = [[2022–23 Churchill Brothers FC Goa season|2022–23]]
}}

The '''2021–22 season''' was the 34th season of [[Churchill Brothers FC Goa|Churchill Brothers]] in existence and thirteenth in the [[I-League]].<ref>https://thebridge.in/i-league/i-league-2021-22-kolkata-22454 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627161658/https://thebridge.in/i-league/i-league-2021-22-kolkata-22454 |date=27 June 2021}}.</ref> A new coach for the team, [[:es:Antonio Jesús Rueda Fernández|Antonio Rueda]], was appointed on 19 February 2022.<ref name="Rueda">{{cite web |title=New head coach Rueda promises attractive football from Churchill Brothers |url=https://i-league.org/new-head-coach-rueda-promises-attractive-football-from-churchill-brothers |publisher=i-league.org |access-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510024209/https://i-league.org/new-head-coach-rueda-promises-attractive-football-from-churchill-brothers |archive-date=10 May 2022}}</ref>

== Transfers ==
{{col-start}}
{{col-2}}
'''In'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Date
! Pos.
! Name
! From
! Fee
! Ref.
|-
|29 June 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Varun Thokchom
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[NEROCA FC|NEROCA]]
| None
|
|-
|26 July 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|GUI}} [[Sekou Sylla (footballer, born 1992)|Sekou Sylla]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|VIE}} [[Haiphong FC|Haiphong]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://footballexpress.in/churchill-brothers-rope-in-guinean-forward-sekou-sylla-i-league/|title=CHURCHILL BROTHERS FC GOAChurchill Brothers rope in Guinean forward Sekou Sylla|website=footballexpress.in|date=13 July 2021|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref>
|-
|20 August 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|LBN}} [[Shadi Skaf]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|LBN}} [[Bourj FC|Bourj]]
| None
| <ref name="newsignings">{{cite web |title=Churchill Bros prepare for I-League season ahead with two new foreigners |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/churchill-bros-prepare-for-i-league-season-ahead-with-two-new-foreigners/articleshow/86212803.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=10 May 2022 |language=en |date=15 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
|21 August 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Afdal Varikkodan]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}}
| None
|
|-
|21 August 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kapil Hoble]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[FC Goa]]
| None
|
|-
|15 September 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Guilherme Escuro]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Retrô Futebol Clube Brasil|Retrô]]
| None
| <ref name="newsignings"/>
|-
|27 September 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Faheem Ali]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala United FC]]
| None
|
|-
|28 September 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Aaron Barretto]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Salgaocar FC|Salgaocar]]
| None
|
|-
|11 October 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|NGA}} [[Kenneth Ikechukwu]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|BAN}} [[Saif SC]]
| None
| <ref>{{cite news |title=Churchill rope in Nigerian striker Kenneth |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/churchill-rope-in-nigerian-striker-kenneth/articleshow/86949741.cms |access-date=9 May 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=12 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 29 January 2022
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|TJK}} [[Komron Tursunov]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]]
| None
| <ref name="Tursunov">{{cite news |last1=Lopes |first1=Flavio |title=I-League: Churchill sign Tajik striker Tursunov |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/i-league-churchill-sign-tajik-striker-tursunov/articleshow/89210732.cms |access-date=10 May 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=30 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

{{col-2}}
'''Out'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Exit date
! Pos.
! Name
! To
! Fee
! Ref.
|-
| 16 June 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|HON}} [[Clayvin Zuniga]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|SLV}} [[C.D. FAS|FAS]]
| None
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://footballexpress.in/i-league-churchill-brothers-sc-star-striker-clayvin-zuniga-set-to-join-cd-fas|title = Churchill Brothers SC star striker Clayvin Zúñiga set to join CD FAS|date = July 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 16 June 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|SVN}} [[Luka Majcen]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[FC Bengaluru United|Bengaluru United]]
| None
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/2021/aug/26/fc-bengaluru-united-sign-foreign-strikers-luka-majcen-pedro-manzi-2350169.html|title=FC Bengaluru United sign foreign strikers Luka Majcen, Pedro Manzi}}</ref>
|-
| 16 June 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|CIV}} [[Bazie Armand]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|LBY}} [[Abu Salem SC|Abu Salem]]
| None
|
|-
| 16 June 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|LBN}} [[Hamza Kheir]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|LBN}} [[Al Ahed FC|Ahed]]
| None
|
|-
| 4 August 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Suresh Meitei]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Army Red (football team)|Army Red]]
| None
|
|-
| 4 July 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Shibinraj Kunniyil]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}}[[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| None
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.cpdfootball.de/2021/07/04/sreenidhi-fc-sign-experienced-goalkeeper-shibin-raj-kunniyil/|title = Sreenidhi FC sign experienced goalkeeper Shibin Raj Kunniyil|date = 4 July 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 4 August 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Fredsan Marshall]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| None
|
|-
| 4 August 2021
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Israil Gurung]]
| style="text-align:left;"|
| None
| <ref>{{cite news |last1=Lopes |first1=Flavio |title=Israil quits Churchill for new challenge {{!}} Goa News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/israil-quits-churchill-for-new-challenge/articleshow/85052163.cms |access-date=10 May 2022 |work=The Times of India |date=5 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 12 January 2022
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|LBN}} [[Shadi Skaf]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|LBN}} [[Nejmeh SC|Nejmeh]]
| None
| <ref name="Tursunov"/>
|-
|}
{{col-end}}

== I-League ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!Date
!Opponents
!H / A
!Result F–A
!Scorers
|- style="background:#ffdddd"
|26 December 2021
|[[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
|A
|[https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/sports-news-isl-2021-22-defending-champions-gokulam-kerala-beat-churchill-brothers-1-0/406857 0–1]
|
|- style="background:#ffffdd"
|4 March 2022
|[[RoundGlass Punjab FC|RoundGlass Punjab]]
|A
|[https://i-league.org/churchill-brothers-and-roundglass-punjab-fight-out-an-exciting-2-2-draw 2–2]
|[[Sekou Sylla (footballer, born 1992)|Sylla]] 16', [[Kenneth Ikechukwu|Ikechukwu]] 44'
|- style="background:#ffdddd"
|8 March 2022
|[[Sudeva Delhi FC|Sudeva Delhi]]
|H
|[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/i-league-sudeva-stun-churchill-bros/articleshow/90085965.cms 0–1]
|
|- style="background:#ffdddd"
|12 March 2022
|[[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
|A
|[https://theprint.in/sport/trau-fc-register-first-win-of-i-league-season-defeating-churchill-brothers-2-0/870795 0–2]
|
|- style="background:#ddffdd"
|16 March 2022
|[[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|A
|[https://www.news18.com/news/football/i-league-churchill-brothers-stun-high-flying-mohammedan-sc-to-notch-first-win-4881632.html 2–1]
|Ikechukwu 2', 62'
|- style="background:#ffdddd"
|21 March 2022
|[[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]]
|A
|[https://www.news18.com/news/football/i-league-rajasthan-united-ease-past-churchill-brothers-to-make-it-4-clean-sheets-in-a-row-4894808.html 0–2]
|
|- style="background:#ddffdd"
|24 March 2022
|[[Aizawl FC|Aizawl]]
|H
|[https://www.news18.com/news/football/i-league-churchill-brothers-edge-past-aizawl-fc-to-record-much-needed-win-4906109.html 2–1]
|Ikechukwu 44', [[Komron Tursunov|Tursunov]] 45+3'
|- style="background:#ffffdd"
|28 Match 2022
|[[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
|A
|[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/i-league-churchill-bros-fight-hard-for-1-1-draw-against-sreenidi/articleshow/90504216.cms 1–1]
|Tursunov 62'
|- style="background:#ddffdd"
|1 April 2022
|[[NEROCA FC|NEROCA]]
|A
|[https://i-league.org/churchill-brothers-bring-emphatic-end-to-nerocas-unbeaten-start 4–2]
|Saurav Mandal 9', Tursunov 28', Ikechukwu 57' ([[Penalty kick (association football)|pen.]]), [[Gnohere Krizo|Krizo]] 89'
|- style="background:#ddffdd"
|6 April 2022
|[[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
|A
|[https://theprint.in/sport/i-leauge-late-kingslee-stunner-helps-churchill-brothers-down-real-kashmir/905841 1–0]
|[[Kingsley Fernandes|Fernandes]] 90'
|- style="background:#ddffdd"
|10 April 2022
|[[Kenkre FC|Kenkre]]
|A
|[https://theprint.in/sport/i-league-churchill-brothers-come-from-behind-to-defeat-kenkre-fc/910799 2–1]
|Tursunov 75', Ikechukwu 81'
|- style="background:#ddffdd"
|18 April 2022
|[[Indian Arrows]]
|A
|[https://thebridge.in/football/i-league-last-minute-goal-churchill-brothers-pip-indian-arrows-2-1-30787 2–1]
|Tursunov 47', Momo Cisse 90+4'
|- style="background:#ddffdd"
|26 April 2022
|[[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]]
|H
|[https://theprint.in/sport/churchill-brothers-beat-rajasthan-united-2-1-for-fifth-straight-win-in-i-league/931963 2–1]
|Tursunov 23', [[Tarif Akhand|Akhand]] 45+2' ([[Own goal#Association football|o.g.]])
|- style="background:#ffffdd"
|30 April 2022
|[[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
|H
|[https://theprint.in/sport/i-league-gokulam-keralas-title-charge-halted-by-churchill-brothers/938216 1–1]
|Ikechukwu 15'
|- style="background:#ddffdd"
|3 May 2022
|[[RoundGlass Punjab FC|RoundGlass Punjab]]
|H
|[https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/football/story/i-league-churchill-brothers-beat-roundglass-punjab-fc-2-1-1945060-2022-05-03 2–1]
|[[Bryce Miranda|Miranda]] 25', Krizo 85'
|- style="background:#ffdddd"
|6 May 2022
|[[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|A
|[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/i-league-churchills-unbeaten-run-come-to-an-end/articleshow/91384460.cms 0–2]
|
|-
|9 May 2022
|[[NEROCA FC|NEROCA]]
|A
|[https://i-league.org/ngwoke-fires-churchill-brothers-to-win-over-neroca 3–1]
|Cisse 36', Ikechukwu 40', 76'
|- style="background:#ffdddd"
|14 May 2022
|[[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
|H
|[https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=11284 0–1]
|
|}

==Current squad==

===First team squad===
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player|no=1|pos=GK|nat=IND|name=[[Shilton Paul]]|other=[[Captain (association football)|captain]]}}
{{Fs player|no=3|pos=DF|nat=IND|name=[[Mamit Vanlalduatsanga]]}}
{{Fs player|no=4|pos=DF|nat=IND|name=[[Suresh Meitei]]}}
{{Fs player|no=5|pos=DF|nat=IND|name=[[Vikas Singh Saini]]}}
{{Fs player|no=6|pos=MF|nat=IND|name=[[Quan Gomes]]}}
{{Fs player|no=7|pos=MF|nat=BRA|name=Guilherme Escuro}}
{{Fs player|no=8|pos=MF|nat=IND|name=[[Kingsley Fernandes]]}}
{{Fs player|no=10|pos=FW|nat=NGA|name=[[Kenneth Ikechukwu]]}}
{{Fs player|no=11|pos=FW|nat=IND|name=[[Vinil Poojary]]}}
{{Fs player|no=14|pos=FW|nat=IND|name=[[Kapil Hoble]]}}
{{Fs player|no=15|pos=FW|nat=GIN|name=[[Sekou Sylla (footballer, born 1992)|Sekou Sylla]]}}
{{Fs player|no=17|pos=MF|nat=IND|name=[[Shubert Pereira]]}}
{{Fs player|no=18|pos=MF|nat=IND|name=[[Bryce Miranda]]}}
{{Fs player|no=19|pos=FW|nat=IND|name=[[Lamgoulen Hangshing]]}}
{{fs mid}}
{{Fs player|no=22|pos=DF|nat=IND|name=Wendell Savio Coelho}}
{{Fs player|no=23|pos=DF|nat=SEN|name=Momo Cisse}}
{{Fs player|no=26|pos=GK|nat=IND|name=[[Debnath Mondal]]}}
{{Fs player|no=27|pos=FW|nat=IND|name=Saurav Mandal}}
{{Fs player|no=28|pos=FW|nat=IND|name=Aaron Barretto}}
{{Fs player|no=29|pos=MF|nat=IND|name=[[Joseph Clemente]]}}
{{Fs player|no=30|pos=DF|nat=IND|name=Asif Ali Molla}}
{{Fs player|no=32|pos=FW|nat=IND|name=Afdal Varikkodan}}
{{Fs player|no=33|pos=MF|nat=IND|name=[[Richard Costa]]}}
{{Fs player|no=37|pos=DF|nat=IND|name=[[Jovel Martins]]}}
{{Fs player|no=40|pos=GK|nat=IND|name=[[Nora Fernandes]]}}
{{Fs player|no=47|pos=FW|nat=CIV|name=[[Gnohere Krizo]]}}
{{Fs player|no=77|pos=FW|nat=TJK|name=[[Komron Tursunov]]}}
{{Fs player|no=|pos=FW|nat=IND|name=Faheem Ali}}
{{fs end}}

==Technical staff==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Position
! Name
|-
| Head coach
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[:es:Antonio Jesús Rueda Fernández|Antonio Rueda]]<ref name="Rueda"/>
|-
| Assistant coach
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mario Soares (footballer)|Mario Soares]]
|-
| Assistant coach
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mateus Costa]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 November 2020|author=Flavio Lopes |title=Churchill Brothers start training, coach Varela lands in Goa|url=
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/churchill-brothers-start-training-coach-varela-lands-in-goa/articleshow/79136634.cms|website=[[Times of India]]|language=en|access-date=17 January 2021}}</ref>
|}

==Competitions==

===I-League===
{{main|2021–22 I-League}}

== Squad statistics ==
Churchill Brothers used a total of 26 players during the 2021–22 season and there were seven different goalscorers. [[Lamgoulen Hangshing]] and [[Richard Costa]] played in all 18 matches with former starting in all of them, the latter in 14. [[Kenneth Ikechukwu]] was the highest scorer with ten goals.

;Key
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''No.''' = Squad number

'''Pos.''' = Playing position

'''Apps''' = Appearances

'''GK''' = [[Goalkeeper (association football)|Goalkeeper]]

'''DF''' = [[Defender (association football)|Defender]]
{{col-2}}
'''MF''' = [[Midfielder]]

'''FW''' = [[Forward (association football)|Forward]]

[[File:Yellow card.svg|12px|alt=|Yellow cards]] = Yellow cards

[[File:Red card.svg|12px|alt=|Red cards]] = Red cards
{{col-end}}

''Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as [[substitute (association football)|substitute]]. Players with name struck through and marked {{dagger|alt=Left club during playing season}} left the club during the playing season.''

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!rowspan="2" valign="bottom"|No.
!rowspan="2" valign="bottom"|Pos.
!rowspan="2" valign="bottom"|Name
|-
!Apps!!Goals!![[File:Yellow card.svg|13px]]!![[File:Red card.svg|13px]]
|-
|align="left"|1||align="left"|GK||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shilton Paul]]
|14||0||3||0
|-
|align="left"|1||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|LBN}} <s>[[Shadi Skaf]]</s> {{dagger|alt=Left club during playing season}}
|1||0||0||0
|-
|align="left"|3||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mamit Vanlalduatsanga]]
|0||0||0||0
|-
|align="left"|4||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Suresh Meitei]]
|17||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|5||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vikas Singh Saini]]
|4 (6)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|6||align="left"|MF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Quan Gomes]]
|8 (4)||0||2||0
|-
|align="left"|7||align="left"|MF||align="left"|{{flagicon|BRA}} Guilherme Escuro
|2||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|8||align="left"|MF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kingsley Fernandes]]
|17||1||4||0
|-
|align="left"|10||align="left"|FW||align="left"|{{flagicon|NGA}} [[Kenneth Ikechukwu]]
|18||10||1||0
|-
|align="left"|11||align="left"|FW||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vinil Poojary]]
|1 (8)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|14||align="left"|MF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kapil Hoble]]
|6 (2)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|15||align="left"|FW||align="left"|{{flagicon|GUI}} [[Sekou Sylla (footballer, born 1992)|Sekou Sylla]]
|5 (3)||0||0||0
|-
|align="left"|17||align="left"|MF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shubert Pereira]]
|2 (5)||0||0||0
|-
|align="left"|18||align="left"|MF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Bryce Miranda]]
|11 (6)||1||0||0
|-
|align="left"|19||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Lamgoulen Hangshing]]
|18||0||2||0
|-
|align="left"|20||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Meldon D'Silva]]
|3 (3)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|22||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} Wendell Savio Coelho
|0 (2)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|23||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|SEN}} Momo Cisse
|15||2||3||0
|-
|align="left"|26||align="left"|GK||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Debnath Mondal]]
|1||0||0||0
|-
|align="left"|27||align="left"|FW||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} Saurav Mandal
|9 (5)||1||2||0
|-
|align="left"|28||align="left"|FW||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} Aaron Barretto
|0 (3)||0||0||0
|-
|align="left"|29||align="left"|MF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Joseph Clemente]]
|8 (1)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|30||align="left"|DF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} Asif Ali Molla
|1 (1)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|32||align="left"|FW||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Afdal Varikkodan]]
|0 (4)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|33||align="left"|MF||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Richard Costa]]
|14 (4)||0||1||0
|-
|align="left"|40||align="left"|GK||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Nora Fernandes]]
|3||0||0||0
|-
|align="left"|47||align="left"|FW||align="left"|{{flagicon|CIV}} [[Gnohere Krizo]]
|4 (5)||2||4||0
|-
|align="left"|77||align="left"|FW||align="left"|{{flagicon|TJK}} [[Komron Tursunov]]
|16||6||3||0
|-
|align="left"|—||align="left"|GK||align="left"|{{flagicon|IND}} Pratheesh Dinkan
|0||0||0||0
|}

Source:<ref>{{cite web |title=Football: Churchill Brothers - squad |url=https://www.flashscore.in/team/churchill-brothers/E11bNKv8/squad |publisher=flashscore.in |access-date=15 May 2022 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=India - Churchill Brothers FC Goa - Results, fixtures, squad, statistics, photos, videos and news - Soccerway |url=https://uk.soccerway.com/teams/india/churchill-brothers-sc/3344 |website=uk.soccerway.com |access-date=15 May 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Churchill Brothers FC Goa}}
{{2021–22 in Indian football}}

[[Category:Churchill Brothers FC seasons]]
[[Category:2021–22 I-League by team]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:2021-22 Churchill Brothers FC Goa season}}

Aloe

2026-04-13T18:48:20Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created new entry w/ sources

{{Short description|Genus of succulent flowering plants}}
{{other uses}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| taxon = Aloe
| image = Aloe arborescens on Monte Vumba (4387600468).jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Aloe arborescens]]''
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name=POWO/>
| display_parents = 2
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = See [[#Species|Species]]
| type_species = ''[[Aloe perfoliata]]''
| type_species_authority = L.
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="POWO"/>
| synonyms = {{Species list|hidden=yes
|Agriodendron|Endl.
|× Alamaealoe|P.V.Heath
|× Alchamaloe|G.D.Rowley
|× Aleptoe|G.D.Rowley
|× Allauminia|G.D.Rowley
|× Allemeea|P.V.Heath
|× Aloella|G.D.Rowley
|Aloinella|(A.Berger) Lemée
|× Aloptaloe|P.V.Heath
|Atevala|Raf.
|× Bleckara|P.V.Heath
|Busipho|Salisb.
|Chamaealoe|A.Berger
|× Chamaeleptaloe|Rowley
|Guillauminia|A.Bertrand
|× Lemeea|P.V.Heath
|× Leminia|P.V.Heath
|Leptaloe|Stapf
|× Leptaloinella|G.D.Rowley
|× Leptauminia|G.D.Rowley
|× Lomataloe|Guillaumin
|Lomatophyllum|Willd.
|Pachidendron|Haw.
|Phylloma|Ker Gawl.
|Rhipidodendrum|Willd.
}}
}}
[[File:Split Aloe.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Succulent plant]]s, such as this aloe, store water in their enlarged fleshy leaves, stems, or roots, as shown in this split aloe leaf. This allows them to survive in arid environments.]]
[[File:Aloe Vera houseplant.jpg|thumb|alt=Aloe Vera houseplant|Spikes on an Aloe Vera houseplant]]

'''''Aloe''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|oʊ|(|i|)|,_|ə|ˈ|l|oʊ|i}};<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aloe | title=Definition of ALOE | date=9 August 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/aloe|title=aloe noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com|accessdate=6 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/aloe|title=ALOE | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary|accessdate=6 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=aloe | title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Aloe }}</ref> also written '''''Aloë''''') is a [[genus]] containing over 650 [[species]] of [[flowering plant|flowering]] [[succulent plant|succulent]] [[plant]]s.<ref name="WFO">WFO (2022): Aloe L. Published on the Internet;http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4000001341. Accessed on: 06 Nov 2022</ref> The most widely known species is ''[[Aloe vera]]'', or "true aloe". It is called this because it is cultivated as the standard source for assorted pharmaceutical purposes.<ref name=NIH>{{cite web |url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/aloe-vera |title=Aloe Vera: Science and Safety |publisher=NIH National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health |date=April 2012 |access-date=31 March 2013}}</ref> Other species, such as ''[[Aloe ferox]]'', are also cultivated or harvested from the wild for similar applications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Salehi|first1=Bahare|last2=Albayrak|first2=Sevil|last3=Antolak|first3=Hubert|last4=Kręgiel|first4=Dorota|last5=Pawlikowska|first5=Ewelina|last6=Sharifi-Rad|first6=Mehdi|last7=Uprety|first7=Yadav|last8=Tsouh Fokou|first8=Patrick Valere|last9=Yousef|first9=Zubaida|last10=Amiruddin Zakaria|first10=Zainul|last11=Varoni|first11=Elena Maria|date=2018-09-19|title=Aloe Genus Plants: From Farm to Food Applications and Phytopharmacotherapy|journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences|volume=19|issue=9|page=2843|doi=10.3390/ijms19092843|issn=1422-0067|pmc=6163315|pmid=30235891|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The [[APG IV system]] (2016) places the genus in the family [[Asphodelaceae]], subfamily [[Asphodeloideae]]. Within the subfamily it may be placed in the tribe [[Aloeae]].<ref name=APweb>Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards). "[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#aspasphodelaceae Asphodelaceae]". ''Angiosperm Phylogeny Website''. Retrieved 2016-06-09.</ref> In the past, it has been assigned to the family [[Aloaceae]] (now included in the Asphodeloidae) or to a broadly [[Circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscribed]] family [[Liliaceae]] (the lily family). The plant ''[[Agave americana]]'', which is sometimes called "American aloe", belongs to the [[Asparagaceae]], a different family.

The genus is native to tropical and southern [[Africa]], [[Madagascar]], [[Jordan]], the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[India]] and various islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] ([[Mauritius]], [[Réunion]], [[Comoros]], etc.). A few species have also become naturalized in other regions ([[Mediterranean]], [[Australia]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], [[Hawaiian Islands]], etc.).<ref name="POWO">{{cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30106039-2 |title=''Aloe'' |date=2022 |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |access-date=16 December 2022}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The genus name ''Aloe'' is derived from the [[Arabic]] word ''al'uluh'', meaning "bitter and shiny substance" or from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|אוהלים}} ''ahalim'', plural of {{lang|he|אוהל}} ''ahal''.<ref name="oed">{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/aloe |title=Aloe |last1=Harper |first1=Douglas |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=1 July 2021 |date=2021}}</ref><ref name="guo">{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Xiaoqing |last2=Mei |first2=Nan |title=Aloe vera: A review of toxicity and adverse clinical effects |journal=J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev |date=2 April 2016 |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=77–96 |doi=10.1080/10590501.2016.1166826 |pmid=26986231 |pmc=6349368 |bibcode=2016JESHC..34...77G }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.balashon.com/2008/03/aloe.html |title=aloe |last1=Curwin |first1=David |date=16 March 2008 |website=Balashon - Hebrew Language Detective |access-date=16 December 2022 }}</ref>

== Description ==

Most ''Aloe'' species have a [[rosette (botany)|rosette]] of large, thick, fleshy [[Leaf|leaves]]. ''Aloe'' [[flower]]s are tubular, frequently yellow, orange, pink, or red, and are borne, densely clustered and pendant, at the apex of simple or branched, leafless stems. Many species of ''Aloe'' appear to be stemless, with the rosette growing directly at ground level; other varieties may have a branched or unbranched [[plant stem|stem]] from which the fleshy leaves spring. They vary in color from grey to bright-green and are sometimes striped or [[mottle]]d. Some aloes native to South Africa are tree-like (arborescent).<ref name=RoddStackhouse>{{cite book|last=Rodd|first=Tony|title=Trees: a Visual Guide|year=2008|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520256507|page=131|author2=Stackhouse, Jennifer}}</ref>

==Systematics==

The [[APG IV system]] (2016) places the genus in the family [[Asphodelaceae]], subfamily [[Asphodeloideae]].<ref name=APweb/> In the past it has also been assigned to the families [[Liliaceae]] and Aloeaceae, as well as the family Asphodelaceae [[sensu stricto]], before this was merged into the Asphodelaceae [[sensu lato]].

The [[circumscription (taxonomy)|circumscription]] of the genus has varied widely. Many genera, such as [[Lomatophyllum]],<ref name="WCSP_280369">{{cite web |title=''Lomatophyllum'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=280369 |access-date=2013-02-25}}</ref> have been brought into [[synonym (taxonomy)|synonymy]]. Species at one time placed in ''Aloe'', such as ''[[Agave americana]]'', have been moved to other genera.<ref name="WCSP_297041">{{cite web |title=''Aloe americana'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=297041 |access-date=2013-02-25}}</ref> [[Molecular phylogenetics|Molecular phylogenetic studies]], particularly from 2010 onwards, suggested that as then circumscribed, ''Aloe'' was not [[Monophyly|monophyletic]] and should be divided into more tightly defined genera. In 2014, [[John Charles Manning]] and coworkers produced a phylogeny in which ''Aloe'' was divided into six genera: ''[[Aloidendron]]'', ''[[Kumara (plant)|Kumara]]'', ''[[Aloiampelos]]'', ''Aloe'', ''[[Aristaloe]]'' and ''[[Gonialoe]]''.<ref name=MannBoatDaruMaur14/>

=== Species ===
{{main article|List of Aloe species|l1=List of ''Aloe'' species}}
Over 600 species are accepted in the genus ''Aloe'', plus even more synonyms and unresolved species, subspecies, varieties, and hybrids. Some of the accepted species are:<ref name="WFO"/>

{{div col|colwidth=266px}}
*''[[Aloe aculeata]]'' Pole-Evans 
*''[[Aloe africana]]'' Mill. 
*''[[Aloe albida]]'' (Stapf) Reynolds 
*''[[Aloe albiflora]]'' Guillaumin 
*''[[Aloe arborescens]]'' Mill. 
*''[[Aloe arenicola]]'' Reynolds 
*''[[Aloe argenticauda]]'' Merxm. & Giess 
*''[[Aloe bakeri]]'' Scott-Elliot 
*''[[Aloe ballii]]'' Reynolds 
*''[[Aloe ballyi]]'' Reynolds 
*''[[Aloe brevifolia]]'' Mill. 
*''[[Aloe broomii]]'' Schönland 
*''[[Aloe buettneri]]'' A.Berger
*''[[Aloe camperi]]'' Schweinf. 
*''[[Aloe capitata]]'' Baker 
*''[[Aloe comosa]]'' Marloth & A.Berger 
*''[[Aloe cooperi]]'' Baker
*''[[Aloe corallina]]'' Verd. 
*''[[Aloe dewinteri]]'' Giess ex Borman & Hardy 
*''[[Aloe erinacea]]'' D.S.Hardy 
*''[[Aloe excelsa]]'' A.Berger 
*''[[Aloe ferox]]'' Mill. 
*''[[Aloe forbesii]]'' Balf.f. 
*''[[Aloe helenae]]'' Danguy 
*''[[Aloe hereroensis]]'' Engl. 
*''[[Aloe inermis]]'' Forssk. 
*''[[Aloe inyangensis]]'' Christian 
*''[[Aloe jawiyon]]'' S.J.Christie, D.P.Hannon & Oakman ex A.G.Mill. 
*''[[Aloe jucunda]]'' Reynolds 
*''[[Aloe khamiesensis]]'' Pillans
*''[[Aloe kilifiensis]]'' Christian 
*''[[Aloe maculata]]'' All.
*''[[Aloe marlothii]]'' A.Berger 
*''[[Aloe mubendiensis]]'' Christian
*''[[Aloe namibensis]]'' Giess 
*''[[Aloe nyeriensis]]'' Christian & I.Verd. 
*''[[Aloe pearsonii]]'' Schönland 
*''[[Aloe peglerae]]'' Schönland 
*''[[Aloe perfoliata]]'' L. 
*''[[Aloe perryi]]'' Baker 
*''[[Aloe petricola]]'' Pole-Evans 
*''[[Aloe polyphylla]]'' Pillans 
*''[[Aloe rauhii]]'' Reynolds 
*''[[Aloe reynoldsii]]'' Letty 
*''[[Aloe scobinifolia]]'' Reynolds & Bally 
*''[[Aloe sinkatana]]'' Reynolds 
*''[[Aloe squarrosa]]'' Baker ex Balf.f. 
*''[[Aloe striata]]'' Haw. 
*''[[Aloe succotrina]]'' Lam. 
*''[[Aloe suzannae]]'' Decary 
*''[[Aloe thraskii]]'' Baker 
*''[[Aloe vera]]'' (L.) Burm.f. 
*''[[Aloe viridiflora]]'' Reynolds 
*''[[Aloe wildii]]'' (Reynolds) Reynolds 
{{div col end}}

In addition to the species and hybrids between species within the genus, several hybrids with other genera have been created in cultivation, such as between ''Aloe'' and ''[[Gasteria]]'' ([[× Gasteraloe|× ''Gasteraloe'']]), and between ''Aloe'' and ''[[Astroloba]]'' (''[[×Aloloba]]'').
[[File:Aloe diversity.jpg|thumb|Multiple ''Aloe'' species with a variety of growth forms. [[Mildred E. Mathias Botanical Garden|UCLA Botanical Garden]] ]]

==Uses==
Aloe species are frequently cultivated as ornamental plants both in gardens and in pots. Many aloe species are highly decorative and are valued by collectors of succulents. ''Aloe vera'' is used both internally and externally on humans as [[folk medicine|folk]] or [[alternative medicine|alternative]] medicine.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Woźniak |first1=Anna |last2=Paduch |first2=Roman |date=2012-02-01 |title=Aloe vera extract activity on human corneal cells |journal=Pharmaceutical Biology |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=147–154 |doi=10.3109/13880209.2011.579980 |issn=1388-0209 |pmid=22338121|s2cid=40123094 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The ''Aloe'' species is known for its medicinal and cosmetic properties.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Fentaw|first1=Eshetu|last2=Dagne|first2=Kifle|last3=Wondimu|first3=Tigist|last4=Demissew|first4=Sebsebe|last5=Bjorå|first5=Charlotte S.|last6=Grace|first6=Olwen M.|date=2020-11-11|title=Uses and perceived sustainability of Aloe L. (Asphodelaceae) in the central and northern Highlands of Ethiopia|journal=South African Journal of Botany|volume=147 |pages=1042–1050 |language=en|doi=10.1016/j.sajb.2020.11.001|s2cid=228929133|issn=0254-6299|doi-access=free}}</ref> Around 75% of ''Aloe'' species are used locally for medicinal uses.<ref name=":0" /> The plants can also be made into types of special soaps or used in other skin care products (see [[natural skin care]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Radha |first1=Maharjan H. |last2=Laxmipriya |first2=Nampoothiri P. |date=2015-01-01 |title=Evaluation of biological properties and clinical effectiveness of Aloe vera: A systematic review |journal=Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=21–26 |doi=10.1016/j.jtcme.2014.10.006 |issn=2225-4110 |pmc=4488101 |pmid=26151005}}</ref>

Numerous cultivars with mixed or uncertain parentage are grown. Of these, ''Aloe'' 'Lizard Lips' has gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]].<ref name = RHSPF>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/249001/i-Aloe-i-Lizard-Lips/Details
| title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Aloe'' 'Lizard Lips'
| publisher=Royal Horticultural Society | date=2012 | access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref>

''Aloe variegata'' has been planted on graves in the belief that this ensures eternal life.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Klopper |first1=Ronell |last2=Smith |first2=Gideon |title=Aloe genus L. |url=http://pza.sanbi.org/aloe-genus |website=PlantZAfrica |access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>

===Historical uses===
[[File:Aloe, Juliana Anicia Codex.jpg|thumb|Depiction of Aloe, labeled in Greek "ΑΛΟΗ" (Aloë) from the [[Juliana Anicia Codex]], a copy, written in [[Constantinople]] in 515 AD, of [[Dioscorides]]' 1st century AD work.<ref name="Folio 15 Juliana Anicia Codex">Folio 15 [[Juliana Anicia Codex]]</ref>]]
Historical use of various aloe species is well documented. Documentation of the clinical effectiveness is available, although relatively limited.<ref name=NIH/><ref>{{cite book|title=Aloes: the Genus ''Aloe'' |year=2004 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |isbn=978-0-415-30672-0 |editor=Tom Reynolds}}</ref>

Of the 500+ species, only a few were used traditionally as [[herbal medicine]]s, ''Aloe vera'' again being the most commonly used species. Also included are ''A. perryi'' and ''A. ferox''. The Ancient Greeks and Romans used ''Aloe vera'' to treat wounds. In the Middle Ages, the yellowish liquid found inside the leaves was favored as a [[purgative]].<ref name="Folio 15 Juliana Anicia Codex"/> Unprocessed aloe that contains [[aloin]] is generally used as a laxative, whereas processed juice does not usually contain significant aloin.<ref name=AloeSideEffects>{{cite web|url=http://www.superfoodliving.com/aloe-vera-juice-how-to-make-it-and-its-side-effects|title=Aloe Vera Juice - How to Make it and its Side Effects|date=November 20, 2015}}</ref>

According to [[Cancer Research UK]], a potentially deadly product called T-UP is made of concentrated aloe, and promoted as a cancer cure. They say "there is currently no evidence that aloe products can help to prevent or treat cancer in humans".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/aloe-vera
|title=Aloe
|publisher=[[Cancer Research UK]]
|access-date=30 August 2013
|archive-date=6 August 2014
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806214058/http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/aloe-vera
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

===Aloin in OTC laxative products===
On May 9, 2002, the US Food and Drug Administration issued a final rule banning the use of aloin, the yellow sap of the aloe plant, for use as a laxative ingredient in [[over-the-counter drug]] products.<ref name="pmid12001972">{{cite journal |title=Status of certain additional over-the-counter drug category II and III active ingredients. Final rule |journal=Fed Regist |volume=67 |issue=90 |pages=31125–7 |year=2002 |pmid=12001972 |publisher= Food and Drug Administration, HHS|last1=Food Drug Administration |first1=HHS }}</ref> Most aloe juices today do not contain significant aloin.

=== Chemical properties ===
According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes of aloins are recognized: (1) nataloins, which yield [[picric acid|picric]] and [[oxalic acid]]s with [[nitric acid]], and do not give a red coloration with nitric acid; and (2) [[barbaloin]]s, which yield aloetic acid (C7H2N3O5), chrysammic acid (C7H2N2O6), picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, being reddened by the acid. This second group may be divided into a-barbaloins, obtained from Barbados ''Aloe'', and reddened in the cold, and b-barbaloins, obtained from ''Aloe Socotrina'' and Zanzibar ''Aloe'', reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when warmed or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin (2C17H13O7·H2O) forms bright-yellow scales, barbaloin (C17H18O7) [[Prism (geometry)|prism]]atic crystals. ''Aloe'' species are used in essential oils as a safety measure to dilute the solution before they are applied to the skin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Orchard|first1=Ané|last2=Kamatou|first2=Guy|last3=Viljoen|first3=Alvaro M.|last4=Patel|first4=Namita|last5=Mawela|first5=Patricia|last6=van Vuuren|first6=Sandy F.|date=2019-01-14|title=The Influence of Carrier Oils on the Antimicrobial Activity and Cytotoxicity of Essential Oils|journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine|volume=2019|pages=1–24|doi=10.1155/2019/6981305|issn=1741-427X|pmc=6348851|pmid=30733812|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Flavoring ===
''Aloe perryi'', ''A. barbadensis'', ''A. ferox'', and hybrids of this species with ''A. africana'' and ''A. spicata'' are listed as natural flavoring substances in the US government ''Electronic Code of Federal Regulations''.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=3a096fd1d813e0b6f476ecd1470e7e4a&node=pt21.3.172&rgn=div5#se21.3.172_1510| title = §172.510 Natural flavoring substances and natural substances used in conjunction with flavors e-CFR}}</ref> ''Aloe socotrina'' is said to be used in yellow [[Chartreuse (liqueur)|Chartreuse]].<ref>John Tellman (1900) [https://archive.org/details/practicalhotelst01tell ''The Practical Hotel Steward''], The Hotel Monthly, Chicago</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Aloe vossii - plant (aka).jpg|''[[Aloe vossii]]''
File:Aloe rubroviolacea2.jpg|''[[Aloe rubroviolacea|A. rubroviolacea]]''
File:Aloe albiflora flowers.png|Not all aloes only have tublar flowers
File:Aloe africana 1.jpg|''[[Aloe africana]]'' (Uitenhage aloe)
File:Gardenology-IMG 5394 hunt10mar.jpg|''[[Aloe marlothii]]'' (flat-flowered aloe)
File:Aloe pluridens (3).jpg|''[[Aloe pluridens]]'' (French aloe)
File:Aloe excelsa at Mount Coot-tha.JPG|''[[Aloe excelsa]]'' (Zimbabwe aloe)
File:Aloe rupestris, vroeë bloeiwyse, Pretoria.jpg|''[[Aloe rupestris]]'' (bottlebrush aloe)
File:Aloe speciosa - tilt head aloe.jpg|''[[Aloe hexapetala]]'' (tilt-headed aloe)
File:Blooming aloes wide view alternate, with bright sun behind.jpg|Blooming ''[[Aloe arborescens]]''
File:Aloe cooperi in flower IMG 1702e.JPG|''Aloe cooperi'' (''Kumara plicatilis'' in background on the right)
File:Aloe hereroensis Auob C15.JPG|''[[Aloe hereroensis]]''
File:Aloe molederana.jpg|''Aloe molederana''
File:Aloe dijboutiensis whole plant.jpg|''Aloe dijboutiensis''
File:Aloe peglerae01.jpg|''[[Aloe peglerae]]''
File:Aloe saponaria 1.jpg|''[[Aloe maculata]]'' - prev. ''A. saponaria'' (soap aloe)
File:Aloe reitzii flowers.jpg|''[[Aloe reitzii]]''
File:Aloe arborescens leaf cross section.jpg|''Aloe arborescens'' leaf cross section
File:Aloe karasbergensis young plant.jpg|''Aloe karasbergensis'' - Plant 2023-0010-3
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[List of Aloe species|List of ''Aloe'' species]]
* [[List of ineffective cancer treatments]]
* [[List of Southern African indigenous trees]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=MannBoatDaruMaur14>{{Cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=John |last2=Boatwright |first2=James S. |last3=Daru |first3=Barnabas H. |last4=Maurin |first4=Olivier |last5=Bank |first5=Michelle van der |date=2014 |title=A Molecular Phylogeny and Generic Classification of Asphodelaceae Subfamily Alooideae: A Final Resolution of the Prickly Issue of Polyphyly in the Alooids? |journal=Systematic Botany |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=55–74 |doi=10.1600/036364414X678044 |bibcode=2014SysBo..39...55M |s2cid=86714657 |name-list-style=amp }}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|title=Aloes : the definitive guide|date=2011|publisher=Kew Pub|last1=Carter|first1=Susan|others=British Cactus and Succulent Society|isbn=9781842464397|location=Richmond, Surrey, UK|oclc=670480354}}
* {{Cite book|title=Guide to the aloes of South Africa|last1=Ben-Erik|first1=Van Wyk|last2=Smith|first2=Gideon|isbn=9781920217389|edition=Third|location=Pretoria, South Africa|oclc=897036340|year = 2014}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
{{AfricanPlants|Aloe}}

{{Herbs used as laxatives}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q127134}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Aloe| ]]
[[Category:Asphodelaceae genera]]
[[Category:Laxatives]]
[[Category:Cosmetics chemicals]]
[[Category:Succulent plants]]

Appanaickenpalayam

2026-04-09T03:42:55Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created first entry v1

{{Short description|Neighbourhood in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Appanaickenpalayam
|native_name =
|native_name_lang = ta
|other_name =
|settlement_type = Neighbourhood
|image_skyline =
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|pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
|pushpin_label_position = right
|pushpin_map_alt =
|pushpin_map_caption = Appanaickenpalayam, [[Coimbatore district]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
|coordinates = {{coord|11.0769|N|76.9225|E|display=inline,title}}
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[States and Territories of India|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[File: TamilNadu Logo.svg|23x16px|border|alt=Tamil Nadu]] [[Tamil Nadu]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Coimbatore district|Coimbatore]]
|established_title = <! -- Established -->
|government_type =
|government_body =
|unit_pref = Metric
|area_footnotes =
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|elevation_m = 491.61
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|demographics_type1 = [[Language|Languages]]
|demographics1_title1 = [[Office|Official]]
|demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[English language|English]]
|demographics1_title2 = [[Speech]]
|demographics1_info2 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[English language|English]]
|timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|utc_offset1 = +5:30
|postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
|postal_code = 641017
|area_code_type = [[Telephone|Telephone code]]
|area_code = +91422*******
|registration_plate =
|blank1_name_sec1 = [[Neighbourhood|Other Neighbourhoods]]
|blank1_info_sec1 = [[Thudiyalur]], [[Goundampalayam]], [[Somayampalayam]], [[Vadavalli]]
|blank2_name_sec1 = [[Corporation]]
|blank2_info_sec1 = [[Coimbatore Municipal Corporation]]
|blank3_name_sec1 = [[District Magistrate|District Collector]]
|blank3_info_sec1 =
|blank4_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha|LS]]
|blank4_info_sec1 = [[Coimbatore Lok Sabha constituency|Coimbatore]]
|blank5_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha|VS]]
|blank5_info_sec1 = [[Kavundampalayam Assembly constituency|Kavundampalayam]]
|blank6_name_sec1 = [[Member of Parliament|MP]]
|blank6_info_sec1 =
|blank7_name_sec1 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
|blank7_info_sec1 =
|website =
|footnotes =
}}

'''Appanaickenpalayam''' is a neighbourhood in [[Coimbatore district]] of [[Tamil Nadu]] state in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Appanaickenpalayam |url=https://geoiq.io/places/Appanaickenpalayam/PpiGy5DoEy |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=geoiq.io}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=N. Sai Charan |date=16 November 2022 |title=Appanaickenpalayam residents demand better infrastructure |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/appanaickenpalayam-residents-demand-better-infrastructure/article66143962.ece |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=The Hindu |language=en-IN}}</ref>

{{Location map many | India Tamil Nadu
| width = 200
| float = middle
| label1 = Appanaickenpalayam
| pos1 = right
| bg1 = cyan
| label1_width = 8
| mark1size = 6
| coordinates1 = {{coord|11.0769|N|76.9225|E}}
}}
== Religion ==
There is a [[Hindu temple]], Mariamman shrine, situated in Appanaickenpalayam. It is maintained under the control of [[Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department]], [[Government of Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arulmigu Mariamman Temple, Appanaickenpalayam, Pannimadai - 641017, Coimbatore District [TM010935].,Arulmigu Mariamman,Arulmigu Mariamman |url=https://hrce.tn.gov.in/hrcehome/index_temple.php?tid=10935 |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=hrce.tn.gov.in}}</ref>

== Politics ==
Appanaickenpalayam neighbourhood falls under the [[Kavundampalayam Assembly constituency]]. Also, this area belongs to [[Coimbatore Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coimbatore District 20 Parliamentary Constituency |url=https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/PS26032019/dt13/English/AC117.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226074817/https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/PS26032019/dt13/English/AC117.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2024 |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=www.elections.tn.gov.in}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Coimbatore district]]

{{Coimbatore-geo-stub}}

Gulab Singh Yadav

2026-04-06T01:30:42Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Starting the bio added tags

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Gulab Singh Yadav
| honorific_suffix =
| image =
| alt =
| constituency = [[Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)|Matiala]]
| office = [[Delhi Legislative Assembly|Member of the Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 14 February 2015
| term_end = 2025
| predecessor = [[Rajesh Gahlot]]
| successor = [[Sandeep Sehrawat]]
| constituency2 =
| office2 =
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| constituency3 =
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| constituency5 =
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| constituency6 =
| office6 =
| term_start6 =
| term_end6 =
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| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1978|10|30}}<ref name="Member Profile">{{cite news|title=Member Profile|publisher=Legislative Assembly official website|accessdate=November 22, 2015|url=http://delhiassembly.nic.in/aspfile/whos_who/VIthAssembly/WhosWho/GulabSingh.htm}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Delhi]], [[India]]<ref name="Member Profile"/>
| death_date =
| death_place =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| birth_name =
| party = [[Aam Aadmi Party]]<ref name="Member Profile"/>
| other_party =
| partner =
| relations =
| alma_mater = [[National Institute of Open Schooling]]<ref name="Candidate affidavit">{{cite news|title=Candidate affidavit|publisher=My neta.info|accessdate=November 22, 2015|url=http://myneta.info/delhi2015/candidate.php?candidate_id=50}}</ref>
| occupation =
| profession = Businessman & politician
| cabinet =
| committees =
| portfolio =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| website =
| footnotes =
| blank1 =
| data1 =
}}
'''Gulab Singh Yadav''' is an Indian politician and a former MLA from the [[Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)|Matiala (Delhi Assembly) constituency]].<ref name="Member Profile"/><ref name="Candidate affidavit"/> He represented the [[Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)|Matiala]] constituency as a member of the [[Aam Aadmi Party]].<ref name="2015 Election Results">{{cite news|title=2015 Election Results|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] website|accessdate=November 22, 2015|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2012/Stats_Report_UP2012.pdf}}</ref><ref name="All MLAs from constituency">{{cite news|title=All MLAs from constituency|publisher=elections.in|accessdate=November 22, 2015|url=http://www.elections.in/delhi/assembly-constituencies/matiala.html}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Gulab Singh Yadav was born in Delhi. He attended the [[National Institute of Open Schooling]] and is educated till [[twelfth grade]].<ref name="Member Profile"/><ref name="Candidate affidavit"/>

== Political career ==
Gulab Singh Yadav is a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] for two terms. He represents the [[Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)|Matiala]] constituency and is a member of the [[Aam Aadmi Party]] political party. On 21 November 2022, he was beaten in a public gathering by his own party workers accusing him of selling the coveted tickets for contesting MCD elections.<ref name="Member Profile"/><ref name="Candidate affidavit"/>

==Posts held==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! # !! From !! To !! Position !! Comments
|-
| 01 || 2015|| 2025 || Member, [[Sixth Legislative Assembly of Delhi]] ||
|-
|}

==Electoral Performance ==
{{transcluded section|source=Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)}}
{{#section:Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)|Assembly Election 2013}}
{{#section:Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)|Assembly Election 2015}}
{{#section:Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)|Assembly Election 2020}}

==See also==

* [[Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Matiala (Delhi Assembly constituency)]]
* [[Sixth Legislative Assembly of Delhi]]

{{Portal bar|India|Politics}}

== References ==

{{Reflist|colwidth=40em}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|in-la}}
{{IN Assembly succession box
| state= Delhi
| constituency= Matiala
| before= [[Rajesh Gahlot]] (BJP)
| after= [[Sandeep Sehrawat]] (BJP)
| years= [[2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly election|2015]]– 2025 }}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Gulab}}
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Aam Aadmi Party politicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:Delhi MLAs 2015–2020]]
[[Category:Delhi MLAs 2020–2025]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Politicians from New Delhi]]

Saranda forest

2026-03-29T11:26:19Z

AntoniettaWhitco: adjust formatting for clarity and corrected details for consistency

{{Short description|Forest in Jharkhand, India}}
{{Infobox forest
| name = Saranda forest
| alt_name =
| iucn_category =
| iucn_ref =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| map = India Jharkhand#India
| map_width =
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Jharkhand
| relief = yes
| location = [[West Singhbhum district|West Singhbhum]], [[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]], [[Jharkhand]], India
| coordinates = {{coord|22.2|N|85.35|E|display=inline,title}}
| coords_ref =
| area = {{convert|820|km2}}
| status = Reserve Forest
| established = 1882
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| authority = Jharkhand Forest Department
| species = [[Shorea robusta]]
| website = http://www.sarandaforest.in/
}}

'''Saranda forest''' is a dense forest in the hilly region of [[West Singhbhum district|West Singhbhum]], [[East Singhbhum district|East Singhbhum]], [[Saraikela]] district in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Jharkhand]]. This area used to be the private hunting reserve of the Singh Deo family (the erstwhile rulers of Saraikela). The forest covers an area of 820 km².<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.india9.com/i9show/Saranda-Forest-16431.htm | title = Saranda Forest | accessdate = 2008-03-06 | last = | first = | publisher = india9.com }}</ref> Saranda (Serengda) literally means "700 hills" in local language.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://blog.360.yahoo.com/blog-_lh4Bb0ibqvWvz6z2OwBn_ORgqfEjydBmA--?cq=1&p=26 | title = Forest in the Light and Shade | accessdate = 2008-03-06 | last = | first = | publisher = yahoo.com}}</ref>

The perennial rivers, [[South Karo River|Karo]] and [[Koina River|Koina]], pass through these forested areas supporting a diverse floral and faunal resource. [[Sal tree|Sal]] (Shorea robusta) is the most important tree in the forest. Although sal is a deciduous tree and sheds its leaves in early summer, the forest undergrowth is generally evergreen, which has such trees as [[Mango]]es, [[Jambul|Jamun]], [[Jackfruit]], and [[Guava|Piar]]. Other important trees are [[Madhuca longifolia|Mahua]], kusum, [[Wendlandia|Tilai]], Harin hara ([[Armossa rohitulea]]), Gular ([[Ficus glomerata]]), and [[Terminalia elliptica|Asan]].<ref>Prasad, Hem Chandra, ''Bihar'', 1983/2003, p. 13, National Book Trust, New Delhi, {{ISBN|81-237-0151-9}}</ref>

The reserved forests hosts many animals. Wild [[elephant]]s are common in Saranda and [[Porahat]] forests. It is an important overlapping habitat of the elephants from adjacent [[Kendujhar|Kedunjhar]] (Keonjhar) district of Odisha. Herds of [[Sambar Deer|Sambar]] and [[Chital]] roam about the forests. [[Bison]] is still found. [[Tiger]]s were never numerous. [[Leopard]]s are more common.<ref>[[John Wardle Houlton|Sir John Houlton]], ''Bihar: The Heart of India'', 1949, p. 169, Orient Longmans, Kolkata.</ref>

The [[iron ore]] mining towns including [[Gua, Jharkhand|Gua]], [[Chiria]], [[Kiriburu]] and [[Noamundi]]. The area was previously disturbed by Maoist and Naxal influences, but problems have subsided in recent years, and it has turned out to be a major tourist hub. There are many tourist places in the Manoharpur region. The peak season between October and March is now brimming with tourists.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uniindia.com/asia-s-biggest-sal-reserve-awaits-your-arrival/developing-india-mirror/fullstory/938327.html|title=Asia's biggest sal reserve awaits your arrival}}</ref>

Thalkobad is a scenic village at a height of {{convert|550|m|abbr=on}} in the heart of the forest.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.india9.com/i9show/Saranda-Forest-16431.htm | title = Saranda Forest | accessdate = 2008-03-06 | last = | first = | publisher = india9.com }}</ref> Thalkobad is about {{convert|89|km|abbr=on}} from [[Chakradharpur]], {{convert|46|km|abbr=on}} from [[Manoharpur]], and about {{convert|160|km|abbr=on}} from [[Jamshedpur]].

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Kolhan Division topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saranda Forest}}
[[Category:West Singhbhum district]]
[[Category:Forests of India]]
[[Category:Geography of Jharkhand]]

Saudi Arabia

2026-03-26T19:08:35Z

AntoniettaWhitco: slightly fix information for accuracy additionally and improved wording

{{short description|Country in West Asia}}
{{hatnote|"KSA" and "Saudi Arab" redirect here. For other uses, see [[KSA (disambiguation)]] and [[Saudi (disambiguation)|Saudi]].}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}

{{Use Oxford spelling|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| common_name = Saudi Arabia
| native_name = {{native name|ar|المملكة العربية السعودية}} {{nowrap|{{transliteration|ar|al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya}}}}
| image_flag = Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg
| image_coat = Emblem of Saudi Arabia.svg
| symbol_type = [[Emblem of Saudi Arabia|Emblem]]
| national_motto = {{lang|ar|لَا إِلهَ إِلَّا اللَّهُ، مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ}} {{transliteration|ar|Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh}} (''[[Shahada]]'') "There is no god but [[God in Islam|God]]; [[Muhammad]] is the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|messenger]] of [[God in Islam|God]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/facts_and_figures/ |title=About Saudi Arabia: Facts and figures |publisher=The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington, DC|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417231457/http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/facts_and_figures/ |archive-date=17 April 2012 }}</ref>{{efn|The ''[[Shahada|Shahādah]]'' (Statement of faith) is sometimes translated into English as 'There is no god but Allah', using the [[romanization]] of the [[Arabic]] word ''[[Allah|Allāh]]'' instead of its translation. The word ''Allāh'' ({{langx|ar|اللَّٰه}}) literally translates as ''God''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |title=God |work=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=PBS |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-date=27 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>'Islam and Christianity', ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as ''Allah''.</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Allah |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |author=L. Gardet}}</ref>}}
| national_anthem = {{lang|ar|النشيد الوطني السعودي}} [[Chant of the Saudi Nation|{{transliteration|ar|''an-Našīd al-Waṭaniyy as-Suʿūdiyy''}}]] "Chant of the Saudi Nation" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Saudi Arabian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga|center]]</div>
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Saudi Arabia (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Saudi Arabia - Location Map (2013) - SAU - UNOCHA.svg|frameless]]|Show map of Saudi Arabia|default=1}}
| capital = [[Riyadh]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|24|39|N|46|46|E|type:city_region:SA}}
| largest_city = Riyadh
| official_languages = [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]<ref name="BLG"/>
| regional_languages =
| religion = [[Islam in Saudi Arabia|Sunni Islam]] ([[State religion|official]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/171744.pdf |website=U.S. Department of State |quote=According to the basic law, Sunni Islam is the official religion and the country's constitution is the Qur'an and the Sunna (traditions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad).}}</ref>
| demonym = {{unbulleted list |[[Saudis|Saudi]]|Saudi Arabian}}
| government_type = Unitary Islamic [[absolute monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[King of Saudi Arabia|King]]
| leader_name1 = [[Salman of Saudi Arabia|Salman]]
| leader_title2 = [[Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia|Crown Prince]] and [[Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Mohammed bin Salman]]
| legislature = [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia|Consultative Assembly]]{{efn|The Consultative Assembly or Shura Council has no real legislative power,<ref>{{cite book|first1=Robert W.|last1=Hefner|title=Remaking Muslim Politics: Pluralism, Contestation, Democratization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MmmVMCBej8oC&q=Saudi%2520%2522consultative%2520assembly%2522%2520no%2520legislative%2520power&pg=PA202|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2009|isbn=978-1-4008-2639-1|page=202}}</ref> as its role is only consultative.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2021-06-06|title=Analysts: Saudi Arabia Nervous About Domestic Discontent|publisher=VoA News – English|url=https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/analysts-saudi-arabia-nervous-about-domestic-discontent|website=Voice of America|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606143218/https://www.voanews.com/middle-east/analysts-saudi-arabia-nervous-about-domestic-discontent|url-status=dead}}</ref>
}}
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Saudi Arabia|Establishment]]
| established_event1 = [[First Saudi state|Emirate of Diriyah]]
| established_date1 = 22 February 1727
| established_event2 = [[Second Saudi state|Emirate of Nejd]]
| established_date2 = 1824
| established_event3 = [[Emirate of Riyadh]]
| established_date3 = 13 January 1902
| established_event4 = [[Emirate of Nejd and Hasa]]
| established_date4 = 15 January 1913
| established_event5 = [[Sultanate of Nejd]]
| established_date5 = 29 November 1921
| established_event6 = [[Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd]]
| established_date6 = 8 January 1926
| established_event7 = [[Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia|Unification and Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]]
| established_date7 = 23 September 1932
| established_event8 = [[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Current constitution]]
| established_date8 = 31 January 1992
| area_km2 = 2,149,690<ref name="CIA World Factbook" />
| area_rank = 12th
| area_sq_mi = 830,000 
| percent_water = 0.7
| population_census = {{increaseNeutral}} 33,702,731<ref name="2024 Saudi census">{{cite web | title=Population Estimates Statistics 2024 EN| website=stats.gov.sa| date=2026-01-14 | url=https://www.stats.gov.sa/documents/20117/2435273/Population+Estimates+Statistics+2024+EN.xlsx/6703cee3-3703-18e0-fc1b-956a76d75847?t=1738828776975| language=en| access-date=2026-01-14}}</ref>
| population_census_year = 2024
| population_census_rank = 42nd
| population_density_km2 = 15
| population_density_sq_mi = 38.8 
| population_density_rank = 218th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $2.690 trillion<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2025: Edition (Saudi Arabia) |url=https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/issues/2025/10/14/world-economic-outlook-october-2025 |publisher=October 14, 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 17th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $74,670<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2025: Edition (Saudi Arabia) |url=https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/issues/2025/10/14/world-economic-outlook-october-2025 |publisher=October 14, 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 19th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.270 trillion<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2025: Edition (Saudi Arabia) |url=https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/issues/2025/10/14/world-economic-outlook-october-2025 |publisher=October 14, 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank = 19th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $35,230<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2025: Edition (Saudi Arabia) |url=https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/issues/2025/10/14/world-economic-outlook-october-2025 |publisher=October 14, 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 37th
| Gini = 45.9 
| Gini_year = 2013
| Gini_change = steady
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ |title=The World Factbook |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |website=CIA.gov |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319180722/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.900 
| HDI_year = 2023
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 37th
| currency = [[Saudi riyal]] (SR){{efn|[[Pegged currency|Pegged]] to the [[United States dollar]] (USD) at 3.75 riyals per USD since 1986<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/saudi-currency-peg-idUSL5N17U54R |title= Saudi riyal peg pressure eases, but not gone |last= Strohecker |first= Karin |date= 27 April 2016 |website= reuters.com |publisher= [[Reuters]] |access-date= 30 September 2023 |quote= |archive-date= 3 October 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231003014257/https://www.reuters.com/article/saudi-currency-peg-idUSL5N17U54R |url-status= live }}</ref>}}
| currency_code = SAR
| time_zone = [[Saudi Arabia Standard Time|SAST]]
| utc_offset = +3
| drives_on = Right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Saudi Arabia|+966]]
| cctld = {{unbulleted list |[[.sa]] |[[AlSaudiah|السعودية.]]}}
| today =
}}

'''Saudi Arabia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Saudi Arabia-3.ogg|ˌ|s|aʊ|d|i|_|ə|ˈ|r|eɪ|b|i|ə}} {{respell|SOW|dee|_|ə|RAY|bee|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Saudi Arabia-2.ogg|usalso|ˌ|s|ɔː|d|i|_|-|}} {{respell|SAW|dee|_-}}; {{langx|ar|ٱلسُّعُودِيَّة|translit=as-Suʿūdiyya}}, {{IPA|ar|s.su.ʕuː.dij.ja}}.}} officially the '''Kingdom of Saudi Arabia''' ('''KSA'''),{{efn|{{langx|ar|ٱلْمَمْلَكَة ٱلْعَرَبِيَّة ٱلسُّعُودِيَّة|translit=al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya|links=no}}, {{IPA|ar|lmam.la.ka‿l.ʕa.ra.bij.ja‿s.su.ʕuː.dij.ja}}, {{audio|Ar-Kingdom Saudi Arabia.oga|pronunciation}}.}} is a country in [[West Asia]]. Located in the centre of the [[Middle East]], it covers the bulk of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and has a land area of about {{cvt|2150000|km2|sqmi|comma=}}, making it the [[List of Asian countries by area|fifth-largest country]] in [[Asia]], the largest in the Middle East, and the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|twelfth-largest]] in the world. It is bordered by the [[Red Sea]] to the west; [[Jordan]], [[Iraq]], and [[Kuwait]] to the north; the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] to the east; [[Oman]] to the southeast; and [[Yemen]] to [[Saudi Arabia–Yemen border|the south]]. The [[Gulf of Aqaba]] in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]].<ref>{{Citation |title=World Statistics Pocketbook 2023 |chapter=Total, all countries or areas |date=2023-09-09 |series=World Statistics Pocketbook (Ser. V) |pages=3 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.18356/9789210025249c004 |access-date=2025-08-11 |publisher=United Nations |doi=10.18356/9789210025249c004 |isbn=978-92-1-002524-9}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Binder |first=Clemens |title=Border Disputes Through Ill-Defined Borders: Maritime Territorial Conflicts and Their Impact on Security |date=2016-12-10 |work=Border Politics |pages=33–50 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46855-6_3 |access-date=2025-08-11 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-46855-6_3 |isbn=978-3-319-46854-9|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Arabian Gulf]], and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and mountains. The capital and largest city is [[Riyadh]]; other major cities include [[Jeddah]] and the two holiest cities in [[Islam]], [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. With a population of almost 32.2 million, Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in the [[Arab world]].

[[Pre-Islamic Arabia]], the territory that constitutes modern-day Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the [[Archaeology of the Arabian Peninsula|archaeological study]] of the [[Prehistoric Arabia|prehistory of Saudi Arabia]] has identified some of the earliest traces of human activity outside [[Africa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/04/saudi-arabia-finger-human-migration-homo/ |title=88,000-Year-Old Finger Bone Pushes Back Human Migration Dates |work=National Geographic}}</ref> [[Islam]] emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia in the early [[7th century|seventh century]]. Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] united the population of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded Muslim rule beyond Arabia, [[Early Muslim conquests|conquering]] territories in [[North Africa]], [[Central Asia|Central]], [[South Asia]] and [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] within decades.<ref name="Abbas"/><ref name="Reichl"/><ref name="Barber"/> Arab dynasties originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia founded the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] (632–661), [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750), [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] (750–1517), and [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] (909–1171) caliphates, as well as [[List of Muslim states and dynasties|numerous other Muslim states]] in Asia, [[Islam in Africa#History|Africa]], and [[Islam in Europe#Western Europe and the Mediterranean Region|Europe]].

Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by [[Ibn Saud|King Abdulaziz]], who united [[Hejaz]], [[Najd]], parts of [[Eastern Arabia]] and [[South Arabia]] ([[Asir]]) into a single state through [[Unification of Saudi Arabia|a series of military and political campaigns]] beginning in 1901. The country has since been governed as an [[absolute monarchy]] under the [[House of Saud]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Alhussein |first=Eman |title=Saudi Arabias centralized political structure: prospects and challenges |date=2023 |work=Handbook of Middle East Politics |pages=144–157 |url=https://www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap/book/9781802205633/book-part-9781802205633-14.xml |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-80220-563-3}}</ref> In its [[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Basic Law]], Saudi Arabia defines itself as a sovereign Arab [[Islamic state]] with [[Islam in Saudi Arabia|Islam as its official religion]] and [[Arabic]] as its official language. The ultraconservative [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] religious movement within [[Sunni Islam]] was the prevailing political and cultural force until the 2000s.<ref name="HT2003: 14">[[#HT2003|Tripp, ''Culture Shock'', 2003]]: p. 14</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Malbouisson|Malbouisson]], p. 23</ref> The Saudi government has attracted criticism for various policies such as its [[Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war|intervention in the Yemeni Civil War]], restrictions on political and civil liberties, and poor [[Human rights in Saudi Arabia|human rights record]].<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2020 |title=Saudi Arabia has carried out 800 executions since 2015, says rights group |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-executions-death-toll-human-rights-king-salman-a9466741.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421171202/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-executions-death-toll-human-rights-king-salman-a9466741.html |archive-date=21 April 2020 |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=[[Independent.co.uk]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Death Penalty Worldwide |url=http://www.deathpenaltyworldwide.org/country-search-post.cfm?141-9chk=on&hideinfo=on |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616025908/http://www.deathpenaltyworldwide.org/country-search-post.cfm?141-9chk=on&hideinfo=on |archive-date=16 June 2019}}</ref><ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2025-07-26/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/normalization-with-israel-the-saudi-crown-prince-has-much-bigger-plans/00000198-4531-df14-a99c-c77929620000 Normalization with Israel: The Saudi Crown Prince has much bigger plans]</ref> Since the mid-2010s, Saudi Arabia has instituted limited and gradual reforms to liberalize social, cultural, and religious life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=French |first=Nathan |date=2023-09-05 |title=Saudi reforms are softening Islam's role, but critics warn the kingdom will still take a hard line against dissent |url=http://theconversation.com/saudi-reforms-are-softening-islams-role-but-critics-warn-the-kingdom-will-still-take-a-hard-line-against-dissent-210537 |access-date=2025-10-02 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref>

Saudi Arabia is considered both a [[Regional power|regional]] and [[Middle power|middle]] power,<ref name="The United States and the Great Powers">{{cite book |last=Buzan |first=Barry |title=The United States and the Great Powers |publisher=Polity Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7456-3375-6 |place=Cambridge |page=71}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 November 2013 |title=The erosion of Saudi Arabia's image among its neighbours |url=http://www.middleeastmonitor.com/articles/middle-east/8207-the-erosion-of-saudi-arabias-image-among-its-neighbours |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109115032/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/articles/middle-east/8207-the-erosion-of-saudi-arabias-image-among-its-neighbours |archive-date=9 November 2013 |website=[[Middle East Monitor]]}}</ref> in addition to being a [[major non-NATO ally]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bragg |first=Julianna |date=November 18, 2025 |title=Trump designates Saudi Arabia as major non-NATO ally |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/11/19/trump-crown-prince-saudi-arabia-mbs-military-nato |website=[[Axios.com]]}}</ref> Since [[petroleum]] was [[Dammam No. 7|discovered in the country in 1938]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Caryl|first1=Sue|title=1938: Oil Discovered in Saudi Arabia|url=http://nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar3/oil-discovered-saudi-arabia/|website=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic Society|access-date=27 November 2016|date=20 February 2014|archive-date=12 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212182621/http://nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar3/oil-discovered-saudi-arabia/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Learsy|first1=Raymond|title=Oil and Finance: The Epic Corruption|date=2011|page=89}}</ref> the kingdom has become the world's [[List of countries by oil production|second-largest oil producer]] and leading [[List of countries by oil exports|oil exporter]], controlling the world's [[List of countries by proven oil reserves#Countries|second-largest oil reserves]] and [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|sixth-largest gas reserves]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=International – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=production |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507100155/http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=production |archive-date=7 May 2015 |access-date=27 March 2015 |work=eia.gov}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is categorized as a [[World Bank high-income economy]] and is the only Arab country among the [[G20]] major economies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wynbrandt |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99M0zoSqsF0C&pg=PA242 |title=A Brief History of Saudi Arabia |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4381-0830-8 |page=242 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035240/https://books.google.com/books?id=99M0zoSqsF0C&pg=PA242 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author1=Soldatkin, Vladimir |author2=Astrasheuskaya, Nastassia |date=9 November 2011 |title=Saudi Arabia to overtake Russia as top oil producer-IEA |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/russia-energy-iea-idUSL6E7M93XT20111109 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018144332/https://www.reuters.com/article/russia-energy-iea-idUSL6E7M93XT20111109 |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=5 July 2021 |work=Reuters}}</ref> The [[Economy of Saudi Arabia|Saudi economy]] is the [[Economy of the Middle East|largest in the Middle East]] and the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nineteenth-largest by nominal GDP]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|seventeenth-largest by PPP]]. Ranking very high in the [[Human Development Index]],<ref name="UNDR2014">{{cite book |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2014 |date=2013 |publisher=United Nations |page=159 |access-date=13 October 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223104449/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia offers [[Higher education in Saudi Arabia|free university tuition]], no personal income tax,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tax in Saudi Arabia {{!}} Saudi Arabia Tax Guide – HSBC Expat |url=https://www.expat.hsbc.com/expat-explorer/expat-guides/saudi-arabia/tax-in-saudi-arabia/ |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=www.expat.hsbc.com |language=en-gb |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517174634/https://www.expat.hsbc.com/expat-explorer/expat-guides/saudi-arabia/tax-in-saudi-arabia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Health care in Saudi Arabia|free universal health care]]. With its [[Foreign workers in Saudi Arabia|dependence on foreign labour]], Saudi Arabia has the world's [[List of sovereign states by immigrant and emigrant population|third-largest immigrant population]], with foreign-born residents comprising roughly 40% of the population.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-31 |title=Saudi population at 32.2 million, 63% of Saudis under 30 years old, census shows |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/saudi-population-322-mln-median-age-29-years-old-general-authority-statistics-2023-05-31/ |access-date=2025-10-02 |work=Reuters |language=en}}</ref> [[Saudis|Saudi Arabians]] are among [[Youth in Saudi Arabia|the world's youngest people]], with approximately half being under 25 years old.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portal.saudicensus.sa/portal/public/1/15/45?type=DASHBOARD|title=بوابة الهيئة - الصفحة الرئيسية|website=portal.saudicensus.sa|language=ar|access-date=7 June 2023|archive-date=3 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003010040/https://portal.saudicensus.sa/portal/public/1/15/45?type=DASHBOARD|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://investsaudi.sa/en/node-1140/|title=Why Saudi Arabia|website=Invest Saudi|access-date=17 February 2019|archive-date=13 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213113722/http://investsaudi.sa/en/node-1140/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is a member of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]], [[United Nations]], [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], [[Arab League]], and [[OPEC]], as well as a dialogue partner of the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]].

== Etymology ==

{{See also|House of Saud|Arab (etymology)}}

Following the amalgamation of the [[Kingdom of Hejaz]] and [[Sultanate of Nejd|Nejd]], [[Ibn Saud|Abdulaziz]] issued a royal decree on 23 September 1932 naming the new state ''al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya'' ([[Arabic]] {{lang|ar|المملكة العربية السعودية}}), which is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,<ref name="US State Dept Saudi Arabia">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm |title=Background Note: Saudi Arabia |publisher=U.S. State Department |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609125313/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> but literally means "the '''Saudi Arab Kingdom'''",<ref>{{cite book|title=The Crisis of Islam |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-679-64281-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/crisisofislamhol00lewi/page/23 xx] |publisher=Modern Library |url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofislamhol00lewi }}</ref> or "the '''Saudi Kingdom of Arabia'''" (compare [[the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]]).

The word "Saudi" is derived from the element ''as-Suʿūdīyya'' in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a ''[[Nisba (onomastics)|nisba]],'' formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, the [[House of Saud|Al Saud]] ({{langx|ar|آل سعود}}). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: the coming storm |author=Wilson, Peter W. |author2=Graham, Douglas |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56324-394-3 |page=46 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_c9FOeeuewC&pg=PA46 |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143855/https://books.google.com/books?id=K_c9FOeeuewC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name= Kamrava>{{cite book |title=The Modern Middle East: A Political History Since the First World War |first=Mehran |last=Kamrava |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-520-26774-9 |page=67 |publisher=University of California Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkLHZCzMEJkC&pg=PA67 |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143723/https://books.google.com/books?id=CkLHZCzMEJkC&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Al Saud'' is an [[Arabic name]] formed by adding the word ''Al'', meaning "family of" or "House of",<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Saudi Arabia |first1=James |last1=Wynbrandt |first2=Fawaz A. |last2=Gerges |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8160-7876-9 |page=xvii |publisher=Infobase |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofsa0000wynb }}</ref> to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of Al Saud, this is [[Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin]], the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder, [[Muhammad bin Saud]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The heritage of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |first1=Wahbi |last1=Hariri-Rifai |first2=Mokhless|last2=Hariri-Rifai|year=1990 |isbn=978-0-9624483-0-0 |page=26|publisher=GDG Exhibits Trust }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Saudi Arabia}}

=== Prehistory ===
[[File:Pergamon-Museum - Anthropomorphe Stele 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Anthropomorphic stela (4th millennium BC), sandstone, 57x27 cm, from El-Maakir-Qaryat al-Kaafa ([[National Museum of Saudi Arabia]], [[Riyadh]])]]

There is evidence that human habitation in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] dates back to about 125,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110127/full/news.2011.55.html |title=Early human migration written in stone tools : Nature News |journal=Nature |date=27 January 2011 |doi=10.1038/news.2011.55 |last1=Callaway |first1=Ewen |access-date=25 November 2016 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405065926/http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110127/full/news.2011.55.html |url-status=live | issn = 0028-0836 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left [[Africa]] about 75,000 years ago across the [[Bab-el-Mandeb]] connecting the [[Horn of Africa]] and Arabia.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hints Of Earlier Human Exit From Africa |journal=Science |volume=331 |issue=6016 |pages=453–456 |doi=10.1126/science.1199113 |pmid=21273486 |publisher=Science News |year=2011 |last1=Armitage |first1=S. J. |last2=Jasim |first2=S. A. |last3=Marks |first3=A. E. |last4=Parker |first4=A. G. |last5=Usik |first5=V. I. |last6=Uerpmann |first6=H.-P. |bibcode=2011Sci...331..453A |s2cid=20296624 }}</ref> The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of humanity. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the [[Quaternary]] that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia's rich [[Lower Paleolithic]] record, marked by numerous [[Oldowan]]-like sites, indicates a significant role in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia.<ref>{{citation|last=Mirazon Lahr, M.|year=2010|title=Out of Africa I: The First Hominim Colonization of Eurasia|editor1=Fleagle, J.G.|display-editors=etal|chapter=Saharan Corridors and their role in the Evolutionary Geography of ‘Out of Africa I’|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CO5zfl460CEC&dq=%22Given+that%C2%A0there+is%C2%A0undisputed+evidence+of+hominins+in+Eurasia%22&pg=PA37|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-9035-5|pages=27–46|access-date=28 March 2024|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143727/https://books.google.com/books?id=CO5zfl460CEC&dq=%22Given+that%C2%A0there+is%C2%A0undisputed+evidence+of+hominins+in+Eurasia%22&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q=%22Given%20that%C2%A0there%20is%C2%A0undisputed%20evidence%20of%20hominins%20in%20Eurasia%22&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[Neolithic]] period, prominent cultures such as [[Al-Magar]], whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://paleolithic-neolithic.com/overview/al-magar//|title=Al Magar – Paleolithic & Neolithic History|website=paleolithic-neolithic.com|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817112321/http://paleolithic-neolithic.com/overview/al-magar/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sylvia|first1=Smith|title=Desert finds challenge horse taming ideas|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-21538969|access-date=13 November 2016|publisher=BCC|date=26 February 2013|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814053949/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-21538969|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=John|first1=Henzell|title=Carved in stone: were the Arabs the first to tame the horse?|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/art/carved-in-stone-were-the-arabs-the-first-to-tame-the-horse-1.655413/|access-date=12 November 2016|agency=thenational|publisher=thenational|date=11 March 2013|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713185744/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/art/carved-in-stone-were-the-arabs-the-first-to-tame-the-horse-1.655413/|url-status=live}}</ref> Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-08-27 |title=Discovery points to roots of arabian breed – Features |url=https://www.horsetalk.co.nz/2011/08/28/discovery-points-to-roots-of-arabian-breed/ |access-date=2022-05-07 |website=Horsetalk.co.nz |language=en-US |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519055638/https://www.horsetalk.co.nz/2011/08/28/discovery-points-to-roots-of-arabian-breed/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the [[Canaan Dog]]) were discovered in northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than 8,000 years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/these-may-be-world-s-first-images-dogs-and-they-re-wearing-leashes|title=These may be the world's first images of dogsand they're wearing leashes|magazine=Science Magazine|first=David|last=Grimm|date=16 November 2017|access-date=18 June 2018|archive-date=4 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104080835/https://www.science.org/content/article/these-may-be-world-s-first-images-dogs-and-they-re-wearing-leashes|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered the [[Bronze Age]]; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours.<ref>طرق التجارة القديمة، روائع آثار المملكة العربية السعودية pp. 156–157</ref>

In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a 350,000-year-old [[Acheulean]] site named An Nasim in the [[Ḥaʼil Province|Hail region]] could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. [[Paleolithic]] artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the [[An Nafud|Nefud Desert]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scerri|first1=Eleanor M. L.|last2=Frouin|first2=Marine|last3=Breeze|first3=Paul S.|last4=Armitage|first4=Simon J.|last5=Candy|first5=Ian|last6=Groucutt|first6=Huw S.|last7=Drake|first7=Nick|last8=Parton|first8=Ash|last9=White|first9=Tom S.|last10=Alsharekh|first10=Abdullah M.|last11=Petraglia|first11=Michael D.|date=2021-05-12|title=The expansion of Acheulean hominins into the Nefud Desert of Arabia|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=10111|doi=10.1038/s41598-021-89489-6|pmid=33980918|pmc=8115331|bibcode=2021NatSR..1110111S|issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-12|title=Saudi Arabia discovers new archaeological site dating back to 350,000 years|url=http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/606576|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Saudigazette|language=English|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517125158/https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/606576|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-13|title=Saudi Arabia discovers a 350,000-year-old archaeological site in Hail|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-arabia-discovers-a-350-000-year-old-archaeological-site-in-hail-1.1221864|access-date=2021-05-17|website=The National|language=en|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517125138/https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-arabia-discovers-a-350-000-year-old-archaeological-site-in-hail-1.1221864|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ancient site in Nefud Desert offers glimpse of early human activity in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1858031/saudi-arabia|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Arab News|date=13 May 2021 |language=en|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513063910/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1858031/amp|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Pre-Islamic ===
{{main|Pre-Islamic Arabia}}

[[File:Statue at National Museum of Korea.jpg|thumb|upright|The "Worshipping Servant" statue (2500 BC), above {{convert|1|m|spell=in}} in height, is much taller than any possible Mesopotamian or Harappan models. Photo courtesy of the [[National Museum of Korea]].<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180">Roads of Arabia p. 180</ref>]]

The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to the [[Ubaid period]] at [[Dosariyah]]. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium.<ref>Roads of Arabia p. 176.</ref> The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of [[Dilmun]] in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from [[Uruk]] refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]], notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that [[Tarout Island]] was the main port and the capital of Dilmun.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180" /> Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in the early period of Dilmun, a hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BC). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180" />

By 2200 BC, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180"/>

[[File:Qasr al Farid.JPG|thumb|left|''Qaṣr Al-Farīd'', the largest of the 131 [[Rock cut architecture|rock-cut]] monumental tombs built from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD, with their elaborately ornamented façades, at the extensive ancient [[Nabatean]] archaeological site of [[Hegra (Mada'in Salih)|Hegra]] located in the area of [[Al-'Ula]] within [[Al Madinah Region]] in the [[Hejaz]]. A UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] since 2008.]]

By the late [[Bronze Age]], a historically recorded people and land ([[Midian]] and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred in [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabouk]], it stretched from [[Wadi Arabah]] in the north to the area of [[al-Wajh]] in the south.<ref>Koenig 1971; Payne 1983: Briggs 2009</ref> The capital of Midian was Qurayyah,<ref name="ArnoldStrawn2016">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e9xrDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT462 The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143857/https://books.google.com/books?id=e9xrDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT462#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Baker Publishing Group; 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-4934-0574-9}} p. 462.</ref> it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants.<ref name="Coogan2001">Michael D. Coogan. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gM-tZeEO4wgC&pg=PA110 The Oxford History of the Biblical World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143909/https://books.google.com/books?id=gM-tZeEO4wgC&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Oxford University Press; 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-19-988148-2}}. p. 110.</ref> The Bible recounts [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Israel]]'s [[Midian war|two wars]] with Midian, in the early 11th century BC. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appear to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements.<ref>Knauf, 1988</ref> It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref name="Midian p. 163">Midian, Moab and Edom: The History and Archaeology of Late Bronze and Iron Age Jordan and North-West Arabia p. 163.</ref> The nomadic [[Midianites]] were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region.<ref name="Midian p. 163" />

[[File:Statue of a man at National Museum of Korea 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Colossal statue from [[Al-'Ula]] in the [[Hejaz]] (6th–4th century BC), it followed the standardized artistic sculpting of the [[Lihyan]]ite kingdom. The original statue was painted with white. ([[Louvre|Louvre Museum]], [[Paris]])<ref>{{Cite web |last=Farag |first=Mona |date=2022-09-07 |title=Louvre Museum in Paris to display Saudi Arabia's ancient AlUla statue |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf-news/2022/09/07/louvre-museum-in-paris-to-display-saudi-arabias-ancient-alula-statue/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=The National |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924152322/https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf-news/2022/09/07/louvre-museum-in-paris-to-display-saudi-arabias-ancient-alula-statue/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of [[Lihyan]].<ref name="Lihyan p. 192">The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective – p. 192</ref><ref>J. Schiettecatte: [https://www.academia.edu/29477825/2016_-_The_political_map_of_Arabia_and_the_Middle_East_in_the_third_century_AD_revealed_by_a_Sabaean_inscription._Arabian_Archaeology_and_Epigraphy_27.2_176-196/ The political map of Arabia and the Middle East in the third century AD revealed by a Sabaean inscription] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709184656/https://www.academia.edu/29477825/2016_-_The_political_map_of_Arabia_and_the_Middle_East_in_the_third_century_AD_revealed_by_a_Sabaean_inscription._Arabian_Archaeology_and_Epigraphy_27.2_176-196 |date=9 July 2023 }} – p. 183</ref> During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain.<ref name="Lihyan p. 192" /> In the early 3rd century BC, with bustling economic activity between the south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road.<ref>The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective</ref> The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from [[Medina|Yathrib]] in the south and parts of the Levant in the north.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan/|title=Lion Tombs of Dedan|date=19 September 2017|website=Saudi Arabia Tourism Guide|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120022655/http://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan/|url-status=live}}</ref> In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired.<ref name="HiltonHilton1996">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XL-uCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153 Discovering Lehi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143724/https://books.google.com/books?id=XL-uCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153 |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Cedar Fort; 1996. {{ISBN|978-1-4621-2638-5}}. p. 153.</ref>

The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the [[Nabataeans]] around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to [[Tayma]], and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the [[Roman Empire]], which renamed it [[Arabia Petraea]], and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jane|title=Petra|publisher=Aurum Press Ltd|year=2005|isbn=978-9957-451-04-2|location=London|pages=25–31}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages and rise of Islam ===
{{Main|Caliphate}}

[[File:Umayyad750ADloc.png|thumb|left|At its greatest extent, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750) covered {{cvt|11100000|km2|sqmi|-5|comma=gaps}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Rein |last=Taagepera |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=September 1997 |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=475–504 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |jstor=2600793 |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |access-date=26 September 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and 62 million people (29 per cent of the world's population),<ref name=Blankinship>{{citation |last=Blankinship |first=Khalid Yahya |year=1994 |title=The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7 |page=37 }}</ref> making it one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]] in both area and proportion of the world's population. It was also larger than any previous empire in history.]]

Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rise of Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord |url-access=registration |first=Matthew |last=Gordon |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32522-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord/page/4 4]|publisher=Greenwood Publishing }}</ref> Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 [[Common Era|CE]]. In the early 7th century, [[Muhammad]] united the [[Tribes of Arabia|various tribes of the peninsula]] and created a single Islamic religious polity.<ref name="James E. Lindsay 2005 33">{{cite book |last=Lindsay |first=James E. |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/33 |title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32270-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/33 33]}}</ref> Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west, to parts of Central and South Asia in the east, in a matter of decades.<ref name="Abbas">{{cite book |last=Abbas |first=Tahir |author-link= |date=March 2011 |title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FxrGBQAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |page= |chapter=Preface and Introduction |isbn=9781136959592 |quote=The unprecedented initial expansion of Islam led to half of the known world being conquered with huge swathes of territory… |access-date=21 January 2024 |archive-date=28 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328014315/https://books.google.com/books?id=FxrGBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Reichl">{{cite book |editor-last=Reichl |editor-first=Karl |author-link= |date=2012 |title=Medieval Oral Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PhoMdAIfp-EC |location= |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |page=633 |isbn=9783110241129 |quote=With the unprecedented victorious spread of Islam within only a few years over a huge territory… |access-date=21 January 2024 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143858/https://books.google.com/books?id=PhoMdAIfp-EC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Barber">{{cite book |last= Barber|first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Barber |date=August 2, 2012 |title=The Crusader States |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bz_O7-Lb_CsC |location= |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page= |chapter=Chapter 2: Syria and Palestine |isbn= 9780300189315 |quote=After his [Muhammad's] death in 632, his successors, driven by what had become a dynamic new religion, committed themselves to an unprecedented territorial expansion.}}</ref> Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands.<ref name="James E. Lindsay 2005 33" />

[[Arab]]s originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the [[Hejaz]] in particular, founded the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] (632–661), [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750), [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] (750–1517), and the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the [[Sharif of Mecca]], but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]] or [[Istanbul]]. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.<ref name="Britannica history">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia |title=History of Arabia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 January 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503091224/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The changing map of Asia |author=William Gordon East |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-416-16850-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/changingmapofasi0000east/page/75 75–76] |publisher=Methuen |url=https://archive.org/details/changingmapofasi0000east/page/75 }}</ref>

[[File:Siyer-i Nebi - Imam Ali und Hamza bei dem vorgezogenen Einzelkampf in Badr gegen die Götzendiener.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Battle of Badr]], 13 March 624 CE]]
For much of the 10th century, the [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]]-Shi'ite [[Qarmatians]] were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the [[Black Stone]].<ref>Glassé, Cyril (2008). ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam''. Walnut Creek CA: AltaMira Press p. 369</ref> In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named [[Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni]] defeated the Qarmatians in [[Eastern Arabia|Bahrain]] and [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|al-Hasa]] with the help of the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuq Empire]] and founded the [[Uyunid dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Commins|first=David|title=The Gulf States: A Modern History|year=2012|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84885-278-5|page=28}}</ref><ref>C.E. Bosworth, ''The New Islamic Dynasties'', (Columbia University Press, 1996), 94–95.</ref> The [[Uyunid Emirate]] later underwent expansion, with its territory stretching from Najd to the [[Syrian Desert]].<ref name="Safa Khulusi">{{Cite journal |last=Khulusi |first=Safa |author-link=Safa Khulusi |volume=6 |pages=91–102 |jstor=41223173 |year=1975 |title=A Thirteenth Century Poet from Bahrain |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies }} {{Registration required}}</ref> They were overthrown by the [[Usfurids]] in 1253.<ref>Joseph Meri, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization'', Taylor and Francis, 2006, p. 95</ref> Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of [[Ormus|Hormuz]] captured Bahrain and [[Qatif]] in 1320.<ref>Curtis E. Larsen. ''Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society'' University Of Chicago Press, 1984 pp66-8</ref> The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia [[Jarwanid dynasty]] came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century.<ref name=JuanCole>{{Cite book |author=Juan Ricardo Cole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntarP5hrza0C&pg=PA35 |title=Sacred space and holy war: the politics, culture and history of Shi'ite Islam |page=35 |year=2002 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |access-date=27 September 2017 |isbn=978-1-86064-736-9 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328144403/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntarP5hrza0C&pg=PA35 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uv.es/EBRIT/macro/macro_5000_24_15.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222053120/http://www.uv.es/EBRIT/macro/macro_5000_24_15.html|title=Arabia|archive-date=22 February 2012}}</ref> The [[Jabrids]] took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay [[tribute]] in 1507.<ref name=JuanCole /> [[Al-Muntafiq]] tribe later took over the region and came under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[suzerainty]]. The [[Bani Khalid (tribe)|Bani Khalid tribe]] later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control.<ref>Zāmil Muḥammad al-Rashīd. ''Suʻūdī relations with eastern Arabia and ʻUmān, 1800–1870'' Luzac and Company, 1981 pp. 21–31</ref> Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.<ref>Yitzhak Nakash (2011)[https://books.google.com/books?id=a43C-4RKGcgC&pg=PA21 Reaching for Power: The Shi'a in the Modern Arab World] p. 22</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45995 "Arabia, history of."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829110204/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45995 |date=29 August 2006 }} Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30 November 2007.</ref>

=== Ottoman Hejaz and Portuguese era ===
{{Main|Ottoman era in the history of Saudi Arabia|Mamluk–Portuguese conflicts|Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations}}

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, [[Aseer]] and [[Eastern Arabia|Al-Ahsa]]) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to [[Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1538–1560)|thwart Portuguese attempts]] to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Bernstein">Bernstein, William J. (2008) ''A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World''. Grove Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ePiReZWp0NwC&pg=PA191 pp. 191 ff] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230807000647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ePiReZWp0NwC&pg=PA191 |date=7 August 2023 }}</ref> The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority.<ref>{{cite book |title=Muddle of the Middle East, Volume 2 |author=Chatterji, Nikshoy C. |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-391-00304-0 |page=168|publisher=Abhinav Publications }}</ref>{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=68}} These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the [[Occupation of Ma'an|inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an]], including the cities of [[Ma'an]] and [[Aqaba]].

=== Saud dynasty and unification ===
{{See also|Unification of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:The First Saudi State Greatest Extent.png|thumb|Expansion of the [[Emirate of Diriyah|first Saudi State]] in 1810|left]]
The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of [[Diriyah]] in central Arabia with the accession as [[emir]] of [[Muhammad bin Saud]] on 22 February 1727.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-27|title=Saudi Arabia to commemorate 'Founding Day' on Feb. 22 annually: Royal order|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/01/27/Saudi-Arabia-to-commemorate-Founding-Day-on-Feb-22-annually-Royal-order|access-date=2022-02-15|website=Al Arabiya English|language=en|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001180301/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/01/27/Saudi-Arabia-to-commemorate-Founding-Day-on-Feb-22-annually-Royal-order|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=History of the Kingdom {{!}} kingdom of Saudi Arabia – Ministry of Foreign Affairs|url=https://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/aboutKingDom/Pages/CountryDevelopment36143.aspx|access-date=2022-02-15|website=www.mofa.gov.sa|archive-date=2 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302002523/https://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/aboutKingDom/Pages/CountryDevelopment36143.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leader [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]],{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=69–70}} founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.<ref>{{cite book |title=Contemporary Religions: A World Guide |first1=Ian |last1=Harris |first2=Stuart|last2=Mews|first3=Paul|last3=Morris|first4= John |last4= Shepherd |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-582-08695-1 |page=369|publisher=Longman }}</ref> This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Future of Islam in the Middle East |first=Mahmud A. |last=Faksh |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-275-95128-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/futureofislaminm0000faks/page/89 89–90] |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |url=https://archive.org/details/futureofislaminm0000faks/page/89 }}</ref>

The [[Emirate of Diriyah]] established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|sacking Karbala]] in 1802, and [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|capturing Mecca]] in 1803. In 1818, it was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mohammed Ali Pasha]].<ref>"[http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316131703/http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |date=16 March 2017 }}". Library of Congress Country Studies.</ref> The much smaller [[Emirate of Nejd]] was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the [[Rashidi dynasty|Al Rashid]], who ruled the [[Emirate of Jabal Shammar]]. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.<ref name="Britannica history"/>

[[File:Churchill and King Abd al-Aziz of Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Ibn Saud]], the founding father and first king of Saudi Arabia, in [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]] in 1945]]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers,<ref name= Murphy>{{cite book |title=The Arab Revolt 1916–18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze |first=David |last=Murphy |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84603-339-1 |pages=5–8|publisher=Bloomsbury USA }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Politics in an Arabian Oasis: The Rashidis of Saudi Arabia |author=Madawi Al Rasheed |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86064-193-0 |page=81|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref> with the [[Sharif of Mecca]] having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Middle East: Geography and Geopolitics |first=Ewan W. |last=Anderson |author2=William Bayne Fisher |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-07667-8 |page=106|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> In 1902, [[Abdul Rahman bin Faisal|Abdul Rahman]]'s son, Abdulaziz—later known as [[Ibn Saud]]—recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating the [[Emirate of Nejd and Hasa|third "Saudi state"]].<ref name="Britannica history" /> Ibn Saud gained the support of the [[Ikhwan]], a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by [[Faisal Al-Dawish]], and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912.<ref>{{cite book|title=Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World |author=R. Hrair Dekmejian |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8156-2635-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islaminrevolutio00dekm/page/131 131] |publisher=Syracuse University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminrevolutio00dekm/page/131 }}</ref> With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913.

In 1916, with the encouragement and support of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] (which was fighting the Ottomans in [[World War I]]), the Sharif of Mecca, [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Hussein bin Ali]], led a pan-[[Arab Revolt]] against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of World War I |first=Spencer |last=Tucker |author2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-85109-420-2 |page=565|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> Although the revolt failed in its objective, [[Allies of World War I|the Allied]] victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became [[Kingdom of Hejaz|King of Hejaz]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |first=Albert |last=Hourani |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-571-22664-1 |pages=315–319|publisher=Faber & Faber }}</ref>

Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title [[Sultanate of Nejd|Sultan of Nejd]] in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Saudi Arabia |first1=James |last1=Wynbrandt |first2=Fawaz A. |last2=Gerges |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8160-7876-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofsa0000wynb/page/182 182] |publisher=Infobase |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofsa0000wynb/page/182 }}</ref> For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units.<ref name="Britannica history" />

After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the [[Battle of Sabilla]], where their leaders were massacred.<ref>{{cite book |title=Inside the Kingdom |first=Robert |last=Lacey |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-09-953905-6 |pages=15–16|publisher=Arrow }}</ref> On Ibn Saud's behalf, [[Faisal bin Abdulaziz al Saud|Prince Faisal]] declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Britannica history" /> That date is now a national holiday called [[Saudi National Day]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866 |title=History of Saudi Arabia. ( The Saudi National Day 23, Sep ) |website=Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University |access-date=21 September 2018 |archive-date=6 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206142313/https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 20th century ===
{{Main|Modern history of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Dammam No. 7 on March 4, 1938.jpg|thumb|The oil well ''[[Dammam No. 7]]'' on March 4, 1938, the day it struck oil in commercial quantities, becoming the first in Saudi Arabia to do so]]
The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.<ref>{{cite book |title=Afluence and Poverty in the Middle East |author=Mohamad Riad El-Ghonemy |author-link=Mohamad Riad El-Ghonemy|year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-10033-5 |page=56|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> [[Dammam No. 7|In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered]] in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled [[Saudi Aramco|Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company)]]. Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally.<ref name="Britannica history" /> Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of [[foreign workers in Saudi Arabia]] in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for [[xenophobia]]. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.<ref name="Britannica history" /> In 1953, [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]] succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]], after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil.<ref name="BBC timeline">{{cite web |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703523.amp |title= Saudi Arabia profile - Timeline |author=  |date= 4 October 2019 |website= bbc.com |publisher= [[BBC News]] |access-date= 21 September 2023 |quote= |archive-date= 29 September 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230929075327/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703523.amp |url-status= live }}</ref> In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an [[1973 oil crisis|oil boycott]] against the Western countries that supported Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]] against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices.<ref name="Britannica history" /> In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince [[Faisal bin Musaid]] and was succeeded by his half-brother [[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|King Khalid]].<ref name="Al-Rasheed 136-137">[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], pp. 136–137</ref>[[File:Nasser_and_Faisal.jpg|alt=Nasser and Faisal|thumb|230x230px|Faisal (left) with Egypt's President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in Cairo, 1969]]
By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=Human Resources Development in Saudi Arabia: Multinationals and Saudization |author=Joy Winkie Viola |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-88746-070-8 |page=37|publisher=International Human Resources Development Corporation }}</ref> Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;<ref name="Britannica history" /> in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.<ref name="Al-Rasheed 136-137" /> In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government<ref>{{cite book |title=The Muslim world after 9/11 |author=Rabasa, Angel |author2=Benard, Cheryl |author3=Chalk, Peter |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8330-3712-1 |page=42|publisher=Rand Corporation }}</ref> and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the [[Iranian Revolution|Iranian Islamic Revolution]]. It was feared that the country's [[Shi'a Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shi'ite minority]] in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the [[1979 Qatif Uprising]].<ref name="Toby Craig Jones 2010 218–219">{{cite book |title=Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia |author=Toby Craig Jones |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-674-04985-7 |pages=218–219|publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref> The second event was the [[Grand Mosque Seizure]] in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government.<ref name="Toby Craig Jones 2010 218–219" /> The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the [[ulema]] a greater role in government.<ref name="Hegghammer24">[[#Hegghammer|Hegghammer]], p. 24</ref> Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-275-98091-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/174 174] |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/174 }}</ref>

[[File:Saudi Arabia 2003 CIA map.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Saudi Arabian administrative regions and roadways]]
In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.<ref>{{cite book|title=Oil, Dollars, Debt, and Crises: The Global Curse of Black Gold|first1=Mahmoud A. |last1=El-Gamal |author2=Amy Myers Jaffe |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-72070-0|page=41}}</ref> King Khalid died in 1982 and was succeeded by his brother, [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]]. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.<ref name="Britannica history"/> The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family<ref name="Britannica history" /> leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.{{sfn|Abir|1993|p=114}}

In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and [[Kuwait]] spent $25 billion in support of [[Saddam Hussein]] in the [[Iran–Iraq War]] (1980–1988);<ref>Robert Fisk (2005) ''[[The Great War For Civilisation]]''. Fourth Estate. p. 23. {{ISBN|978-1-4000-7517-1}}</ref> however, Saudi Arabia condemned the [[invasion of Kuwait]] in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene.<ref name="Britannica history" /> King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of [[Yemen]] and [[Jordan]] because of their governments' support of [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]]. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as the [[Gulf War]] (1990–1991).<ref name="BBC timeline" />

Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to [[List of militant incidents in Saudi Arabia|an increase in Islamist terrorism]] in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. [[Osama bin Laden]] was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the [[1998 United States embassy bombings|1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in East Africa and the 2000 [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]] near the port of [[Aden]], Yemen. 15 of [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|the hijackers]] involved in the [[September 11 attacks]] were Saudi nationals.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations |first=Christopher |last=Blanchard |publisher=United States Congressional Research Service|year=2009 |pages=5–6}}</ref> Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies.<ref>[[#Hegghammer|Hegghammer]], p. 31</ref>

Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "[[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Basic Law]]", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."<ref name="Britannica history"/>

In 1995, Fahd suffered a stroke, and the Crown Prince, [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|Abdullah]], became ''de facto'' regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "[[Sudairi Seven]]").<ref>[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], p. 212</ref>

=== 21st century ===
Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar.<ref name="Cordesman 2009">{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: National Security in a Troubled Region |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-313-38076-1 |pages=50–52|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> In February–April 2005, [[2005 Saudi Arabian municipal elections|the first-ever nationwide municipal elections]] were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part.<ref name="Britannica history" />

In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited [[deregulation]], encouragement of foreign investment, and [[privatization]]. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the [[Islamic religious police|Mutaween]] (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister.<ref name="Britannica history" /> On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in [[Jeddah]] in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people.<ref name="Montreal">{{cite news|url=https://montrealgazette.com/news/Flood+sparks+rare+action/4189873/story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201053307/http://www.montrealgazette.com/news/Flood%2Bsparks%2Brare%2Baction/4189873/story.html |archive-date= 1 February 2011 |title=Flood sparks rare action |date=29 January 2011 |work=Reuters via [[The Gazette (Montreal)|Montreal Gazette]] |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:President Trump's Trip Abroad globe cropped.jpg|thumb|[[President of Egypt|Egyptian President]] [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] with King Salman, U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] and First Lady [[Melania Trump|Melania]] participating in the inaugural opening of the [[Global Center to Combat Extremism]], Sunday, May 21, 2017]]

Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own [[2011–13 Saudi Arabian protests|Arab Spring protests]].<ref name="Fisk_troops">{{cite news|first=Robert |last=Fisk |title=Saudis mobilise thousands of troops to quell growing revolt |date=5 May 2011 |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudis-mobilise-thousands-of-troops-to-quell-growing-revolt-2232928.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110306080218/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudis-mobilise-thousands-of-troops-to-quell-growing-revolt-2232928.html |archive-date= 6 March 2011 |url-status=live |place=London }}</ref> In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/oilprices/8344421/Saudi-ruler-offers-36bn-to-stave-off-uprising-amid-warning-oil-price-could-double.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/oilprices/8344421/Saudi-ruler-offers-36bn-to-stave-off-uprising-amid-warning-oil-price-could-double.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Saudi ruler offers $36bn to stave off uprising amid warning oil price could double |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=24 February 2011 |place=London }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/saudi-king-gives-billion-dollar-cash-boost-housing-jobs--382623.html |title=Saudi king gives billion-dollar cash boost to housing, jobs – Politics & Economics |newspaper=Arabian Business |publisher=Bloomberg via ArabianBusiness.com |date=23 February 2011 |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702061357/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/saudi-king-gives-billion-dollar-cash-boost-housing-jobs--382623.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.us-sabc.org/custom/news/details.cfm?id=957 |title=King Abdullah Returns to Kingdom, Enacts Measures to Boost the Economy |publisher=U.S.-Saudi Arabian Business Council |date=23 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024630/http://www.us-sabc.org/custom/news/details.cfm?id=957 |archive-date=28 September 2013 }}</ref> No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.<ref name="AlJazeeraEnglishBenefits">{{cite news |title=Saudi king announces new benefits |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011223105328424268.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=23 February 2011 |access-date=15 March 2011 |archive-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806003657/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011223105328424268.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Abdullah also announced a package of $93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating {{gaps|60|000}} new security jobs.<ref name="theguardian1">{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/18/saudi-arabia-job-housing-package |title=Saudi Arabia's king announces huge jobs and housing package |work=The Guardian |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018122601/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/18/saudi-arabia-job-housing-package |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Donna |last=Abu |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-18/saudi-arabian-king-abdullah-boosts-spending-as-protests-sweep-arab-world.html |title=Saudi King to Spend $67 Billion on Housing, Jobs in Bid to Pacify Citizens |publisher=Bloomberg |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150126050910/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-18/saudi-arabian-king-abdullah-boosts-spending-as-protests-sweep-arab-world.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Although male-only [[Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2011|municipal elections were held in 2011]],<ref name="alawsat_details">{{cite news |first=Abeed |last=al-Suhaimy |title=Saudi Arabia announces municipal elections |date=23 March 2011 |publisher=[[Asharq al-Awsat]] |url=http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&id=24616 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501185625/http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=14 December 2012 }}</ref><ref name="bloom_women">{{cite news|first=Donna |last=Abu-Nasr |title=Saudi Women Inspired by Fall of Mubarak Step Up Equality Demand |date=28 March 2011 |publisher=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-28/saudi-women-inspired-by-revolt-against-mubarak-go-online-to-seek-equality.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110402043759/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-28/saudi-women-inspired-by-revolt-against-mubarak-go-online-to-seek-equality.html |archive-date= 2 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the [[Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2015|2015 municipal elections]], and also to be nominated to the [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia|Shura Council]].<ref name="oman_observer_electionday">{{cite news|title=Saudis vote in municipal elections, results on Sunday |date=30 September 2011 |work=[[Oman Observer]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119050656/http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Saudi Arabia Topography.png|upright=1.3|thumb|left|Saudi Arabia topography]]
[[File:Harrat Khaybar Space.jpg|thumb|left|[[Harrat Khaybar]] seen from the [[International Space Station]]. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://insidesaudi.com/the-tourists-guide-to-the-10-amazing-volcanoes-in-saudi-arabia/|title=The Tourists Guide To The 10 Amazing Volcanoes in Saudi Arabia|website=insidesaudi.com|access-date=2021-01-09|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414012152/https://insidesaudi.com/the-tourists-guide-to-the-10-amazing-volcanoes-in-saudi-arabia/|url-status=live}}</ref> Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest [[alkali basalt]] regions, covering some {{convert|180000|km2}}.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200602/volcanic.arabia.htm|title=VOLCANIC ARABIA: It started with tremors|website=archive.aramcoworld.com|access-date=2021-01-09|archive-date=11 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211015935/https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200602/volcanic.arabia.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] (the world's largest peninsula),<ref name= Stokes605>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1 |first=Jamie |last=Stokes |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-7158-6 |page=605|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> lying between latitudes [[16th parallel north|16°]] and [[33rd parallel north|33° N]], and longitudes [[34th meridian east|34°]] and [[56th meridian east|56° E]]. Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with the [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Oman]] are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined.<ref name=Stokes605 /> The [[United Nations Statistics Division]] estimates {{cvt|2149690|km2|sqmi|0|comma=gaps}} and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|12th]] largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East and on the [[Arabian Plate]].<ref>{{cite book|author=University Microfilms|title=Dissertation Abstracts International: The sciences and engineering|date=2004|page=23}}</ref>

Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the [[Arabian Desert]], associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The {{cvt|647500|km2|sqmi|0|comma=gaps}} [[Rub' al Khali]] ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert.<ref name=Britannica /><ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia: an environmental overview|year=2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-41387-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vacv2wy3yd8C&pg=PA141|author=Vincent, Peter|page=141|access-date=27 December 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328144244/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vacv2wy3yd8C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Though there are lakes in the country, Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world by area with no permanent rivers. [[Wadis]], non-permanent rivers, however, [[List of wadis of Saudi Arabia|are very numerous throughout the kingdom]]. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.<ref name=Britannica /> There are [[List of islands of Saudi Arabia|approximately 1,300 islands]] in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2017 |title=VIDEO: Do you know there are 1,300 islands in Saudi Arabia? |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/life-style/art-and-culture/2017/05/02/Saudi-Arabia-s-1000-islands-.html |access-date=2019-10-26 |website=Al Arabiya |first1=Lamiaa |last1=ElKholy |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922203932/https://english.alarabiya.net/en/life-style/art-and-culture/2017/05/02/Saudi-Arabia-s-1000-islands-.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the [[Nejd]] and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the [[Tihamah]], parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of [[Aseer]] is mountainous and contains the {{cvt|3015|m|ft|0|comma=gaps}} [[Jabal Soudah]], which is the highest point in the country.<ref name="Britannica" /> Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes.<ref name="auto1" /> Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest [[alkali basalt]] regions, covering some {{convert|180000|km2}}.<ref name="auto" />

Except for the southwestern regions such as Aseer, Saudi Arabia has a [[desert climate]] with very high day-time temperatures during the summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around {{cvt|113|°F|0|order=flip}} but can be as high as {{cvt|129|°F|0|order=flip}}. In the winter the temperature rarely drops below {{cvt|32|°F|0|order=flip}} with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions of [[Tabuk Province]], is not uncommon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stepfeed.com/snow-city-saudi-arabia-s-tabuk-region-dresses-in-white-to-mesmerize-people-0481|title=Snow City: Saudi Arabia's Tabuk region dresses in white to mesmerize people|website=Step Feed |first1=Reem |last1=Mehio |date=13 January 2020|access-date=2021-01-09|archive-date=18 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218064544/https://stepfeed.com/snow-city-saudi-arabia-s-tabuk-region-dresses-in-white-to-mesmerize-people-0481|url-status=live}}</ref> The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), was measured in [[Turaif]].<ref name="SaudiCC">{{cite web |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/saunc2.pdf |title=Second National Communication: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |publisher=UNFCCC |page=2 |access-date=24 October 2016 |archive-date=24 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024231824/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/saunc2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the Gulf states, Saudi Arabia is likely to experience snowfalls most frequently.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-10 |title=Saudi Arabia experiences more frequent snowfalls than its Gulf neighbours: Arabia Weather |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/saudi-arabia-experiences-more-frequent-snowfalls-than-its-gulf-neighbours-arabia-weather-1.1731231006756 |access-date=2024-11-10 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>

In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around {{cvt|84|°F|0|order=flip}}. Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean [[monsoons]], usually occurring between October and March. An average of {{cvt|300|mm|0}} of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of the annual precipitation.<ref name="weather">{{cite web |url=http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/climate/Saudi-Arabia.htm |title=Saudi Arabia |publisher=Weather Online |access-date=24 January 2011 |archive-date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116235230/http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/climate/Saudi-Arabia.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{main|Wildlife of Saudi Arabia}}

{{Multiple image
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| direction = vertical
| image1 = Arabian Leopard Nimr (8454247265).jpg
| caption1 = The critically endangered [[Arabian leopard]]
| image2 = Halterstandingshotarabianone.jpg
| caption2 = The [[Arabian horse]] is native to Arabia, and an important element of traditional Arabian folklore.
}}
Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: [[Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert]], [[Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna]], [[Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands]], [[Arabian Desert]], and [[Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Wildlife includes the [[Arabian leopard]],<ref name="Judas et al., 2006">{{cite journal |author1=Judas, J. |author2=Paillat, P. |author3=Khoja, A. |author4=Boug, A. |year=2006 |title=Status of the Arabian leopard in Saudi Arabia |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/leopard/Judas_et_al_2006_Status_of_the_Arabian_Leopard_in_Saudi_Arabia.pdf |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=11–19 |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003095616/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/leopard/Judas_et_al_2006_Status_of_the_Arabian_Leopard_in_Saudi_Arabia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Spalton et al., 2006">{{cite journal |author1=Spalton, J.A. |author2=Al-Hikmani, H.M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=The Leopard in the Arabian Peninsula – Distribution and Subspecies Status |journal=Cat News |issue=Special Issue 1 |pages=4–8 |url=http://www.yemenileopard.org/files/cms/reports/Cat_News_Special_Issue_1_-_Arabian_leopard.pdf |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-date=16 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216011835/http://www.yemenileopard.org/files/cms/reports/Cat_News_Special_Issue_1_-_Arabian_leopard.pdf |url-status=usurped }}</ref> [[Arabian wolf]], [[striped hyena]], [[mongoose]], [[baboon]], [[Cape hare]], [[sand cat]], and [[jerboa]]. Animals such as gazelles, [[oryx]], leopards and [[Asiatic cheetah|cheetahs]]<ref name=Nowell1996>{{cite book |author1=Nowell, K. |author2=Jackson, P. |chapter=Asiatic cheetah |title=Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |chapter-url=http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |year=1996 |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group |place=Gland, Switzerland |isbn=978-2-8317-0045-8 |pages=41–44 |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-date=29 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050529182212/http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> were relatively numerous until the 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. The culturally important [[Asiatic lion]] occurred in Saudi Arabia until the late 19th century before it was hunted to extinction in the wild.<ref name="Nader_al1989">{{cite book |last=Nader |first=I. A. |year=1989 |chapter=Rare and endangered mammals of Saudi Arabia |pages=220–228 |editor1-last=Abu-Zinada |editor1-first=A. H. |editor2-last=Goriup |editor2-first=P. D. |editor3-last=Nader |editor3-first=L. A |title=Wildlife conservation and development in Saudi Arabia |publisher=National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development Publishing |number=3 |location=[[Riyadh]] |chapter-url=http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/N_and_O/Nader_1989_Rare_and_endangered_mammals_of_Saudi_Arabia.pdf |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126113847/http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/N_and_O/Nader_1989_Rare_and_endangered_mammals_of_Saudi_Arabia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, [[sandgrouse]], and [[bulbul]]s. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Domesticated animals include the legendary [[Arabian horse]], [[Arabian camel]], sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, chickens, etc.

The Red Sea is a rich and diverse [[ecosystem]] with more than [[List of fishes in the Red Sea|1,200 species of fish]]<ref name="fishbase">{{cite web|url=http://www.fishbase.org/TrophicEco/FishEcoList.php?ve_code=5|title=FishBase|last=Froese|first=Ranier|author2=Pauly, Daniel|access-date=12 March 2009|year=2009|archive-date=17 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217070339/http://www.fishbase.org/TrophicEco/FishEcoList.php?ve_code=5|url-status=live}}</ref> around 10% of which are [[Endemism|endemic]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Siliotti|first=A.|title=Fishes of the red sea|editor=Verona, Geodia|year=2002|publisher=Geodia Edizioni Internazionali |isbn=978-88-87177-42-8}}</ref> This also includes 42 species of [[List of deep water fish of the Red Sea|deep water fish]].<ref name="fishbase" /> The rich diversity is partly owed to the {{cvt|2000|km|mi|-1|comma=gaps}} of coral reef extending along the coastline; these [[fringing reef]]s are largely formed of stony [[acropora]] and [[porites]] corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the [[Blue Hole (Red Sea)|Blue Hole]] at [[Dahab]]). These coastal reefs are also visited by [[Pelagic zone|pelagic]] species, including some of the [[List of sharks in the Red Sea|44 species of shark]]. There are many offshore reefs including several [[atoll]]s. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.

Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm (''[[Phoenix dactylifera]]'') is widespread, and is a national symbol.<ref name="Britannica" />

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Saudi Arabia}}

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Salman of Saudi Arabia - 2020 (49563590728) (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Salman of Saudi Arabia|Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]] [[King of Saudi Arabia|King]]
| image2 = 2025 Crown Prince and Prime Minister Mohammed bin Salman Al Saud of Saudi Arabia on November 18 (cropped).jpg
| caption2 = [[Mohammed bin Salman]] [[Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia|Crown Prince]] and [[Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia|Prime Minister]]
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Saudi Arabia is an [[absolute monarchy]];<ref name=Cavendish78>{{cite book |title=World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/78 78] |url=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/78 }}</ref> however, according to the [[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia]] adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with [[Sharia]] (Islamic law) and the [[Quran]], while the Quran and the [[Sunnah]] (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution.<ref name= Gerhard>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of world constitutions, Volume 1 |first=Gerhard |last=Robbers |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8160-6078-8 |page=791|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> No political parties or national elections are permitted.<ref name=Cavendish78/> While some critics consider it to be a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] state,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bandow |first1=Doug |title=Time to Cut Off Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.cato.org/commentary/time-cut-saudi-arabia |website=[[Cato Institute]] |access-date=19 March 2022 |date=19 May 2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329043129/https://www.cato.org/commentary/time-cut-saudi-arabia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alkhaled |first1=Sophia |title=Women's entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia: Feminist solidarity and political activism in disguise? |journal=Gender, Work & Organization |date=27 January 2021 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=950–972 |doi=10.1111/gwao.12626 |doi-access=free}}</ref> others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schlager, Weisblatt |first1=Neil, Jayne |title=World Encyclopedia of Political Systems and Parties |last2=A. Faksh, Hendrickson |first2=Mahmud, Mary |publisher=Facts on File |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8160-5953-9 |edition=4th |location=New York City |page=1171 |chapter=Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |quote=Saudi Arabia is not totalitarian. Travel outside the country is common, political crimes and violence are rare, people are not in constant fear of the police, and the state does not try to take over all existing organizations, such as philanthropic, religious, commercial, and industrial groups. Saudi rulers still see themselves in a parental role, much like a sheikh of a tribe who is in close touch with the concerns of his tribesmen and keeps those concerns in balance. For so long a time, a relatively benign monarchy has ruled over this populace that it has become used to being looked after in this manner. Therefore, until recently, calls for a more open, representative political system did not win wide support.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Oliver Collin, L. Martin |first=Richard, Pamela |title=An Introduction to World Politics |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4422-1803-1 |location=United Kingdom |pages=269}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=A. Dobratz |first1=Betty |title=Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology |last2=K. Waldner |first2=Lisa |last3=Buzzel |first3=Timothy |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-205-48629-8 |location=NY 10017, New York, USA |page=50 |chapter=2: Role of the state}}</ref> ''[[The Economist]]'' ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022 [[Democracy Index]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Democracy Index 2022: Frontline democracy and the battle for Ukraine |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/DI-final-version-report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203184337/https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/DI-final-version-report.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2023 |website=[[Economist Intelligence Unit]] |page=11 |language=en-GB}}</ref> and [[Freedom House]] gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it a score of 8 out of 100 for 2023.<ref name="FH2019">{{cite web |date=2023 |title=Freedom House. Saudi Arabia |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/saudi-arabia/freedom-world/2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530191015/https://freedomhouse.org/country/saudi-arabia/freedom-world/2023 |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=Freedom House }}</ref> According to the 2024 [[V-Dem Democracy Indices]], Saudi Arabia is the least [[Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa|democratic country in the Middle East]], as well as the most closed autocratic country in Asia.<ref name="vdem_dataset">{{cite web |last=V-Dem Institute |date=2023 |title=The V-Dem Dataset |url=https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |access-date=14 October 2023 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208183458/https://www.v-dem.net/data/the-v-dem-dataset/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, according to [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|International IDEA]]'s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Saudi Arabia performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation, including credible elections, inclusive suffrage and effective parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/saudi-arabia |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global State of Democracy Indices {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/gsod-indices |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/ |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int}}</ref>

In the absence of national elections and political parties,<ref name=Cavendish78/> politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.<ref name= Noreng97>{{cite book |title=Crude power: politics and the oil market |first=Oystein |last=Noreng |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84511-023-9 |page=97}}</ref> Participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and business elite on major decisions.<ref name=Britannica/> This process is not reported by the Saudi media.<ref>[[#Long|Long]], p. 85</ref>
[[File:Sadat_and_Khalid.jpg|alt=Sadat and Khalid|thumb|[[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|King Khalid]] (right) meeting Egypt's president [[Anwar Sadat]] with crown prince [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|Fahd]] in the background at [[Cairo International Airport|Cairo Airport]] in 1975]]
By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the ''[[majlis]]''.<ref name="Cavendish92">{{cite book |title=World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/92 92–93] |url=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/92 }}</ref> In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation. Tribal sheikhs continue to exert a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.<ref name="Britannica" /> In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.<ref name="Al-Rasheed242">[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], pp. 180, 242–243, 248, 257–258</ref> In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the [[Allegiance Council]] was created to regulate the succession.<ref name="Al-Rasheed242" /> In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post;<ref>{{cite news |date=15 February 2009 |title=Saudi king speeds reforms |newspaper=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/31b61bc4-fb3a-11dd-bcad-000077b07658 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/31b61bc4-fb3a-11dd-bcad-000077b07658.html |archive-date=10 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=27 March 2009 |title=Prince Naif appointed deputy Saudi PM |newspaper=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/2c0d7fcc-1b1b-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/2c0d7fcc-1b1b-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac.html |archive-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.<ref>{{cite news |date=30 September 2010 |title=Reform in Saudi Arabia: At a snail's pace |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2010/09/30/at-a-snails-pace |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=14 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014041446/http://www.economist.com/node/17149062?story_id=17149062&fsrc=rss |url-status=live }}</ref>

The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the [[Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shi'ite minority]]—particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal/[[Regionalism (politics)|regionalist]] opponents (for example in the Hejaz).<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ondrej |last=Barenek |year=2009 |title=Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia |journal=Middle East Brief |issue=33 |url=http://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf |access-date=3 December 2010 |archive-date=19 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219111054/http://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in [[List of terrorist incidents in Saudi Arabia|violent incidents in the country]].<ref name="Cordesman 2009" /> However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-10-26 |title=Open sectarianism in Saudi Arabia frightens Shi'ites |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/cnews-us-saudi-shiites-idCAKCN0SK2C520151026 |access-date=2022-05-07 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003010120/https://www.reuters.com/article/cnews-us-saudi-shiites-idCAKCN0SK2C520151026 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Monarchy and royal family ===
{{Main|House of Saud}}

[[File:Ivana Trump shakes hands with Fahd of Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|King [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|Fahd]] with US President [[Ronald Reagan]] and future US President [[Donald Trump]] in 1985. The US and Saudi Arabia [[Operation Cyclone|supplied money and arms]] to the anti-Soviet ''[[mujahideen]]'' fighters in Afghanistan.]]
The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions,<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/525348/Saudi-Arabia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Saudi Arabia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=28 May 2023 |access-date=25 January 2011 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225161108/https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia |url-status=live }}</ref> with royal decrees forming the basis of the country's legislation.<ref name= Campbell>{{cite book|title=Legal Aspects of Doing Business in the Middle East|first=Christian|last=Campbell|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4303-1914-6|page=265|publisher=Lulu Enterprises Incorporated|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20jmw1C3H5UC&pg=PA265|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117132432/https://books.google.com/books?id=20jmw1C3H5UC&pg=PA265|url-status=live}}</ref> The prime minister presides over the [[Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia]] and [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia]]. The king has usually been also the prime minister, with two exceptions: Crown Prince [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|Faisal]], who was prime minister during the reign of [[Saud of Saudi Arabia|King Saud]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Saud Names His Brother Prime Minister of Nation|work=[[The New York Times]]|agency=[[Associated Press]]|date=17 August 1954|location=Jeddah|id={{ProQuest|112933832}}}}</ref> and Crown Prince [[Mohammed Bin Salman]], the current prime minister since 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince to become Kingdom's Prime Minister: Royal decree |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/09/27/Saudi-Arabia-s-Crown-Prince-to-become-Kingdom-s-Prime-Minister-Royal-decree |access-date=27 September 2022 |website=Al Arabiya English |date=27 September 2022 |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927172139/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/09/27/Saudi-Arabia-s-Crown-Prince-to-become-Kingdom-s-Prime-Minister-Royal-decree |url-status=live}}</ref> The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allows it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement at all levels of government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Saudi_Arabia.pdf|title=Country Profile: Saudi Arabia|author=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|year=2006|access-date=10 December 2010|archive-date=28 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628183858/http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Saudi_Arabia.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The number of princes is estimated to be at least {{gaps|7|000}}, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud.<ref name="FT Saud">{{cite news |title=The House of Saud: rulers of modern Saudi Arabia |url=http://peakoil.com/publicpolicy/the-house-of-saud-rulers-of-modern-saudi-arabia |newspaper=Financial Times |date=30 September 2010 |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402124656/http://peakoil.com/publicpolicy/the-house-of-saud-rulers-of-modern-saudi-arabia |url-status=live }}</ref> The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family,<ref name=Cavendish78 /> as are the 13 regional governorships.{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=15}}

[[File:Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel walks with Saudi Deputy Minister of Defense Prince Fahd bin Abdullah before departing Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, on April 24, 2013 130424-D-BW835-179.jpg|thumb|left|As many as 500 princes, government ministers, and business people, including Prince [[Fahd bin Abdullah bin Mohammed Al Saud|Fahd bin Abdullah]], were arrested by Saudi Arabian authorities as part of the [[2017 Saudi Arabian purge]].]]
The Saudi government<ref>{{cite book |title=The Middle East reader |first=Michael |last=Curtis |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-88738-101-0 |page=235|publisher=Transaction Books }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Security issues in the post-cold war world |author= M. Jane Davis |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-85898-334-9 |page=81|publisher= Edward Elgar }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Middle Eastern leaders and Islam: a precarious equilibrium |first=Sonia |last=Alianak |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8204-6924-9 |page= 67|publisher=Peter Lang }}</ref> and the royal family<ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia and its royal family |first=William |last=Holden |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8184-0326-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaitsro00powe/page/154 154–156] |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaitsro00powe/page/154 |publisher=Secaucus, N.J. : L. Stuart }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Royal Family |author=Jennifer Bond Reed |first2=Brenda |last2=Lange |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7910-9218-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saudiroyalfamily00reed_0/page/14 14] |publisher=Chelsea House |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiroyalfamily00reed_0/page/14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The corrupt, feudal world of the House of Saud |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-corrupt-feudal-world-of-the-house-of-saud-538468.html |newspaper=The Independent |date=14 May 2003 |place=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010181738/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-corrupt-feudal-world-of-the-house-of-saud-538468.html |archive-date=10 October 2011}}</ref> have often been accused of corruption over many years,{{sfnm|1a1=Abir|1y=1993|1p=73|2a1=Bowen|2y=2007|2p=108}} and this continues into the 21st century.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-275-98091-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/47 47, 142] |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/47 }}</ref> In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them,<ref name= Kamrava /> the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred.<ref name="FT Saud"/> The extent of corruption has been described as systemic<ref>{{cite book |title=September 11 and the U.S. war: beyond the curtain of smoke |first1=Roger |last1=Burbach |first2=Ben|last2=Clarke|year=2002 |isbn=978-0-87286-404-7 |page=32|publisher=City Lights Publishers }}</ref> and endemic,<ref>{{cite book |title= Freedom in the Middle East and North Africa: A Freedom in the World Special Edition |author= Freedom House |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-3775-0 |page=63|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref> and its existence was acknowledged<ref>{{cite news |title=A Nation Challenged: The Plots; Saudi Arabia Also a Target Of Attacks, U.S. Officials Say |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/nation-challenged-plots-saudi-arabia-also-target-attacks-us-officials-say.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=9 October 2001 |first=Lowell |last=Bergman |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-date=14 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614195125/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/nation-challenged-plots-saudi-arabia-also-target-attacks-us-officials-say.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and defended<ref>{{cite book|title=The King's Messenger. Prince Bandar Bin Sultan and America's Tangled Relationship with Saudi Arabia |first=David |last=Ottaway |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8027-1690-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/kingsmessengerpr00otta_0/page/162 162] |url=https://archive.org/details/kingsmessengerpr00otta_0/page/162 |publisher=Walker & Company }}</ref> by [[Bandar bin Sultan|Prince Bandar bin Sultan]] (a senior member of the royal family)<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi bribe claims delay £20bn fighter deal |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article1899614.ece |newspaper=The Times |date=7 June 2007 |place=London |first=David |last=Robertson |access-date=29 June 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117132440/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> in an interview in 2001.<ref name= PBS>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/terrorism/interviews/bandar.html |title=Interview: Bandar Bin Sultan |year=2001 |publisher=PBS |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331223114/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/terrorism/interviews/bandar.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In its [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] for 2010, [[Transparency International]] gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2010|publisher=Transparency International|date=15 December 2010|access-date=2 December 2010|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226144223/https://www.transparency.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance, but nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country; the enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. As many as 500 people, including prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, were [[2017–2019 Saudi Arabian purge|arrested in an anti-corruption campaign]] in November 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-waleed-bin-talal.html |title= Saudi Arabia Arrests 11 Princes, Including Billionaire Alwaleed bin Talal |first= David |last= Kirkpatrick |date= 4 November 2017 |work= The New York Times |author-link= David D. Kirkpatrick |access-date= 28 March 2024 |archive-date= 8 November 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171108003504/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-waleed-bin-talal.html |url-status= live }}</ref>

=== Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema ===
[[File:Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh Senate of Poland 02.JPG|thumb|[[Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh]] with [[Bogdan Borusewicz]] in the [[Polish Senate]], 26 May 2014]]

Saudi Arabia is unique in giving the [[Ulama|ulema]] (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government.<ref name= Goldstein118>{{cite book |title=Religion and the State |url=https://archive.org/details/religionstate0000gold |url-access=registration |first=Natalie |last=Goldstein |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8160-8090-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/religionstate0000gold/page/118 118]|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> The preferred ulema are of the [[Salafi movement]]. The ulema have been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the [[1973 oil crisis|oil embargo in 1973]] and the [[Gulf War|invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990]].<ref name="meforum.org">{{cite journal |first=Nawaf E. |last=Obaid |date=September 1999 |title=The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders |journal=Middle East Quarterly |volume=VI |issue=3 |pages=51–58 |url=http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders |access-date=8 December 2010 |archive-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806023223/http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems<ref>{{cite book |title=Modernity and tradition: the Saudi equation |first=Fouad |last=Farsy |year=1992 |isbn=978-1-874132-03-5 |page=29|publisher=Knight Communications }}</ref> as well as a monopoly of authority over socio-religious affairs.<ref name= Hassner>{{cite book|title=War on sacred grounds |author=Ron Eduard Hassner |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8014-4806-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waronsacredgroun00hass/page/143 143] |url=https://archive.org/details/waronsacredgroun00hass/page/143 |publisher= Cornell University Press }}</ref>

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were underway, and the power of the ulema was in decline.<ref>[[#Abir1987|Abir (1987)]], p. 30</ref> However, this changed following the [[Grand Mosque seizure|seizure of the Grand Mosque]] in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.{{sfn|Abir|1993|p=21}} The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:<ref name= Hegghammer24 /> in particular, they were given greater control over the education system{{sfn|Abir|1993|p=21}} and were allowed to enforce the stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.<ref name= Hegghammer24 /> After his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.<ref name="NYT Abdullah">{{cite news |title=Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=29 November 2010 |first=Nada |last=Bakri |author-link=Nada Bakri |access-date=29 June 2011 |archive-date=27 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727045836/http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ulema have historically been led by the [[Al ash-Sheikh]],<ref>[[#Abir1987|Abir (1987)]], p. 4</ref> the country's leading religious family.<ref name= Hassner /> The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]], the 18th-century founder of [[Wahhabism]] which dominates Saudi society.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: the coming storm |author=Wilson, Peter W. |author2=Graham, Douglas |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56324-394-3 |page=16|publisher=M.E. Sharpe }}</ref> The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)<ref name= Long11>[[#Long|Long]], p. 11</ref> with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"<ref name="IBP">{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia King Fahd Bin Abdul Aziz Al-Saud Handbook |publisher=International Business Publications |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7397-2740-9}}</ref> and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.<ref name="meforum.org" /> The pact, which persists to this day,<ref name=IBP /> is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters while upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority<ref>{{cite book |title=Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States |first=Richard F.|last=Nyrop|year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4344-6210-7 |page=50|publisher=Wildside Press LLC }}</ref> thereby using its religious-[[moral authority]] to legitimize the royal family's rule.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bligh, Alexander |year=1985 |title=The Saudi religious elite (Ulama) as participant in the political system of the kingdom |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=17 |pages=37–50 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800028750|s2cid=154565116 }}</ref> Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,<ref name= Mattar>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East & North Africa: Vol. 1 A–C |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo00phil_0 |url-access=registration |first=Philip|last=Mattar|year=2004 |isbn=978-0-02-865770-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo00phil_0/page/101 101]|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}</ref> they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.<ref name= Hassner/>

=== Legal system ===
{{main|Legal system of Saudi Arabia}}

{{see also|Crime in Saudi Arabia}}
[[File:Iqra.jpg|thumb|Verses from the Quran. The Quran is the official constitution of the country and a primary source of law. Saudi Arabia is unique in enshrining a religious text as a political document.{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=13}}]]
The primary source of law is the Islamic [[Sharia]] derived from the teachings of the [[Quran]] and the [[Sunnah]] (the traditions of Muhammad).<ref name= Campbell /> Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, allowing judges to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Thus, divergent judgments arise even in apparently identical cases,<ref name="Sharia Inc Courts">[[#Otto|Otto]], pp. 161–162</ref> making predictability of legal interpretation difficult.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gMPjxHzG1xQC&pg=PA202 |title=The Report: Saudi Arabia |publisher=Oxford Business Group |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-902339-00-9 |page=202 |quote=it is not always possible to reach a conclusion on how a Saudi court or judicial committee would view a particular case [because] decisions of a court or a judicial committee have no binding authority with respect to another case, [and] in general there is also no system of court reporting in the Kingdom.}}</ref> Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the [[Hanbali]] [[Madhhab|school of jurisprudence]] (''[[fiqh]]'') found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and [[hadith]].<ref name= Haffner58>{{cite book |title=Shari'a Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World |first=Robert W.|last=Hefner|year=2011 |isbn=978-0-253-22310-4 |page=58|publisher=Indiana University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |author=Juan Eduardo Campo |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |page=288|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> In 2021, Saudi Arabia announced judicial reforms to entirely [[Codification (law)|codify its laws]] and eliminate discrepancies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turak |first=Natasha |title=Saudi Arabia announces major legal reforms, paving the way for codified law |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/09/saudi-arabia-announces-legal-reforms-paving-the-way-for-codified-law.html |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=CNBC |date=9 February 2021 |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304041106/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/09/saudi-arabia-announces-legal-reforms-paving-the-way-for-codified-law.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as ''regulations'' rather than ''laws'' because they are subordinate to Sharia.<ref name= Campbell /> Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labour, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.<ref>[[#Otto|Otto]], p. 157</ref> Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islam and politics |first=John L.|last=Esposito|year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8156-2774-6 |pages=110–112|publisher=Syracuse University Press }}</ref> Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the king, and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.<ref name= Campbell268>{{cite book |title=Legal Aspects of Doing Business in the Middle East |first=Christian|last=Campbell|year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4303-1914-6 |pages=268–269|publisher=Lulu Enterprises Incorporated }}</ref>

Retaliatory punishments, or [[Qisas]], are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye.<ref name="Economist Cruel">{{Cite news |date=14 June 2001 |title=Saudi Arabian justice: Cruel, or just unusual? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/international/2001/06/14/cruel-or-just-unusual |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=8 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408031800/https://www.economist.com/node/656147 |url-status=live }}</ref> Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of [[diyya]] (blood money), by the perpetrator.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudis Face Soaring Blood-Money Sums |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/26/AR2008072601785.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=27 July 2008 |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-date=12 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112180004/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/26/AR2008072601785.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Regions of Saudi Arabia|Governorates of Saudi Arabia}}

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 [[regions]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arab.net/saudi/sa_admindivisions.htm |title=Saudi Arabia: Administrative divisions |publisher=arab.net |access-date=13 May 2008 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109155349/http://www.arab.net/saudi/sa_admindivisions.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ({{langx|ar|مناطق إدارية}}; ''manatiq idāriyya'', sing. منطقة إدارية; ''[[mintaqah]] idariyya''). The regions are further divided into 118 [[Governorates of Saudi Arabia|governorates]] ({{langx|ar|محافظات}}; ''muhafazat'', sing. محافظة; ''[[muhafazah]]''). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities ({{langx|ar|أمانة}}; ''amanah'') headed by mayors ({{langx|ar|أمين}}; ''amin''). The governorates are further subdivided into sub-governorates ({{langx|ar|مراكز}}; ''[[Markaz (country subdivision)|marakiz]]'', sing. مركز; ''markaz'').

{{center|{{Saudi Arabia Prv}}}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia}}

The foreign policy of Saudi Arabia is officially focused on cooperation with the oil-exporting [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf States]], the unity of the [[Arab World|Arab world]], [[Ummah|Islamic solidarity]], and support for the [[United Nations]] and multilateralism. It joined the UN in 1945<ref name="US State Dept Saudi Arabia" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml |title=United Nations Member States |publisher=United Nations |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230101646/http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> and is a founding member of the [[Arab League]], [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|Gulf Cooperation Council]], [[Muslim World League]], and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].{{efn|Formerly the Organisation of the Islamic Conference.}}<ref name="Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs">{{cite web |url=http://www.mofa.gov.sa/SITES/MOFAEN/ABOUTKINGDOM/KINGDOMFOREIGNPOLICY/Pages/KingdomPolicy34645.aspx |title=The foreign policy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |date=5 July 2005 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Saudi Arabia |access-date=31 July 2011 |archive-date=19 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219093153/http://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/aboutKingDom/KingdomForeignPolicy/Pages/KingdomPolicy34645.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2005 and plays a prominent role in the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[the World Bank|World Bank]], and the [[G20]].<ref name="US State Dept Saudi Arabia" /> Although part of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], Saudi Arabia is generally considered pro-Western.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ménoret |first=Pascal |url=https://archive.org/details/saudienigmahisto0000meno/page/22 |title=The Saudi enigma: a history |publisher=Zed Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84277-605-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saudienigmahisto0000meno/page/22 22]}}</ref>

Since co-founding [[OPEC]] in 1960, Saudi Arabia's oil pricing policy has officially aimed to stabilize the world oil market and moderate sharp price movements so as not to jeopardize Western economies.<ref name="US State Dept Saudi Arabia" /><ref>{{cite web|title=OPEC : Brief History|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm|website=OPEC.org|publisher=Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|access-date=20 May 2015|archive-date=28 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228051108/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed an [[oil embargo]] against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, and other Western nations that supported Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The Arab Oil Threat |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/23/archives/the-arab-oil-threat.html |work=The New York Times |date=23 November 1973 |access-date=22 July 2019 |archive-date=22 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722073135/https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/23/archives/the-arab-oil-threat.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The embargo caused an [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis]] with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/oil/|title=The price of oil – in context|date=18 April 2006 | work=CBC News| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070609145246/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/oil/| archive-date= 9 June 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Saudi Arabia–United States relations|Saudi Arabia and the United States]] are strategic allies;<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |title=How strained are US-Saudi relations? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36083990 |work=BBC News |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=17 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417112848/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36083990 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi-US Relations {{!}} The Embassy of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.saudiembassy.net/saudi-us-relations |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.saudiembassy.net |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203045622/https://saudiembassy.net/saudi-us-relations |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=United States-Saudi Arabia Relationship: Eight Decades of Partnership |url=https://www.state.gov/united-states-saudi-arabia-relationship-eight-decades-of-partnership/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=United States Department of State |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223065251/https://www.state.gov/united-states-saudi-arabia-relationship-eight-decades-of-partnership/ |url-status=live}}</ref> the U.S. has been the most influential foreign power in the kingdom since the end of World War II.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-13 |title=Saudi Arabia - Foreign Affairs, GCC, Oil {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Foreign-affairs |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 [[Gulf War]], particularly the stationing of American troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic activism: a social movement theory approach |first=Quintan|last=Wiktorowicz|year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-34281-2 |page=255|publisher=Indiana University Press }}</ref> As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S.; for example, it refused to support or participate in the U.S.-led [[Iraq War|invasion of Iraq]] in 2003.<ref name="Britannica" /> Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia remains a key strategic ally of the U.S. and a leading importer of American arms.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-04-19 |title=How strained are US-Saudi relations? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36083990 |access-date=2025-05-14 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> In 2017, American President [[Donald Trump]] and King Salman signed a series of letters of intent for Saudi Arabia to [[2017 United States–Saudi Arabia arms deal|purchase arms from the United States]] totalling $350 billion over 10 years.<ref name="cnbc-20170520">{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/20/us-saudi-arabia-seal-weapons-deal-worth-nearly-110-billion-as-trump-begins-visit.html|title=US-Saudi Arabia ink historic 10-year weapons deal worth $350 billion as Trump begins visit|last=David|first=Javier E.|date=20 May 2017|website=CNBC|access-date=28 October 2018|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521165657/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/20/us-saudi-arabia-seal-weapons-deal-worth-nearly-110-billion-as-trump-begins-visit.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The truth about President Trump's $110 billion Saudi arms deal |language=en |work=ABC News |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/truth-president-trumps-110-billion-saudi-arms-deal/story?id=47874726 |access-date=2021-07-28 |archive-date=7 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607005940/http://abcnews.go.com/International/truth-president-trumps-110-billion-saudi-arms-deal/story?id=47874726 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[China–Saudi Arabia relations|China and Saudi Arabia]]'s relationship has grown significantly in recent decades. A significant number of Saudi Arabians have also expressed a positive view of [[China]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=YouGov Cambridge Globalism 2019/20 |url=https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/kkh07ajgn8/Globalism2020%20TBI%20China%20Reputation%20Annual%20Comparison.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921092811/https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/kkh07ajgn8/Globalism2020%20TBI%20China%20Reputation%20Annual%20Comparison.pdf |archive-date=2021-09-21 |website=[[YouGov]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-04 |title=China's Alliance With Russia Weakens Its Position in Eastern Europe |url=https://pro.morningconsult.com/instant-intel/china-alliance-with-russia-weakens-position-in-eastern-europe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214150028/https://pro.morningconsult.com/instant-intel/china-alliance-with-russia-weakens-position-in-eastern-europe |archive-date=2024-02-14 |website=[[Morning Consult]] |language=en |quote=Besides Russia, the five countries with the most favorable views of China are Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Peru and Colombia, just ahead of two of China's major fossil fuel sources, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=November 2020|title=Fewer global citizens believe China will have positive influence on world affairs in coming decade|work=[[Ipsos]]|url=https://www.ipsos.com/en-ch/fewer-global-citizens-believe-china-will-have-positive-influence-world-affairs-coming-decade|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002160222/https://www.ipsos.com/en-ch/fewer-global-citizens-believe-china-will-have-positive-influence-world-affairs-coming-decade|archive-date=2021-10-02}}</ref> In February 2019, Crown Prince Mohammad defended China's [[Xinjiang internment camps]] for [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]] [[Islam in China|Muslims]].<ref>{{cite news|date=22 February 2019|title=Saudi Arabia's Mohammed bin Salman Defends China's Use of Concentration Camps for Muslims During Visit to Beijing|work=[[Newsweek]]|url=https://www.newsweek.com/saudi-arabia-mohammad-bin-salman-defends-china-concentration-camps-muslims-1340592|access-date=10 March 2019|archive-date=10 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010075307/https://www.newsweek.com/saudi-arabia-mohammad-bin-salman-defends-china-concentration-camps-muslims-1340592|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=23 February 2019|title=Saudi crown prince defends China's right to fight 'terrorism'|work=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al-Jazeera]]|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/saudi-crown-prince-defends-china-fight-terrorism-190223104647149.html|access-date=10 March 2019|archive-date=19 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619044243/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/02/saudi-crown-prince-defends-china-fight-terrorism-190223104647149.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In July 2019, 22 mostly Western nations signed a letter addressed to the president of the [[UN Human Rights Council]] criticizing China's treatment of the Uyghur Muslims. 37 other countries, including Saudi Arabia and many other Muslim-majority states, responded by submitting a letter defending China's policies. According to ''[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]]'', Saudi Arabia's human rights record has "come under frequent attack abroad and so defending China becomes a roundabout way of defending themselves".<ref>{{cite news |date=15 July 2019 |title=Which Countries Are For or Against China's Xinjiang Policies? |url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |quote=For other states, such as Russia, Saudi Arabia, and North Korea, their own human rights records at home have come under frequent attack abroad and so defending China becomes a roundabout way of defending themselves. |access-date=19 July 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011225715/https://thediplomat.com/2019/07/which-countries-are-for-or-against-chinas-xinjiang-policies/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saudi Arabia has traditionally sought to preserve the regional status quo by using its financial, diplomatic, and military resources to limit the effects of revolutionary uprisings in neighbouring countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-13 |title=Saudi Arabia - Gulf War, Foreign Policy, Middle East {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Foreign-policy-since-the-end-of-the-Persian-Gulf-War |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> It has engaged in a [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict|proxy conflict with Iran]] since the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]], which had called for the overthrow of monarchies and Sunni dominance. The rivalry between Iran and Saudi Arabia can be seen as the geopolitical extension of the wider Sunni-Shia conflict, with both sides being the flagship state for their respective sides. The consequences of the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the [[Arab Spring]] (2010–2012) led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of [[Iran]]'s influence in the region.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/17/world/middleeast/wikileaks-saudi-arabia-iran.html WikiLeaks Shows a Saudi Obsession With Iran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125201955/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/17/world/middleeast/wikileaks-saudi-arabia-iran.html |date=25 January 2017 }}". ''The New York Times''. 16 July 2015.</ref> These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah,<ref name="NYT Abdullah" /> who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia urges US attack on Iran to stop nuclear programme |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/28/us-embassy-cables-saudis-iran |newspaper=The Guardian |date=28 November 2010 |place=London |first1=Ian |last1=Black |first2=Simon |last2=Tisdall |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=16 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216223407/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/28/us-embassy-cables-saudis-iran |url-status=live }}</ref> However, tensions between the rivals have cooled in recent years due to diplomatic dialogue. Despite being allies with The [[UAE]] on several organizations, they have been locked in a proxy war over the [[Yemeni civil war (2014–present)]] in which the Emiratis have supported secessionists against the pro-Saudi central government.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-20 |title=After Yemen rift, Saudi Arabia aims to oust UAE from wider region |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2026/01/20/saudi-arabia-uae-yemen-red-sea/ |access-date=2026-01-20 |work=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>

[[File:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict.png|thumb|Major [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict]] locations

Iran shown in green, KSA shown in orange]]
Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]], periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]] and condemning [[Hezbollah]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present |author=Watson, Mark |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-18257-4 |page=2|publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}</ref>

In 2017, as part of [[Nuclear power in Saudi Arabia|its nuclear power]] [[Nuclear program of Saudi Arabia|programme]], Saudi Arabia planned to extract uranium domestically, taking a step towards self-sufficiency in producing [[nuclear fuel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/19/mike-pompeo-alleged-saudi-arabia-uranium-facility-yellowcake-china-democrats|title=Pompeo pressed on claims China is helping build Saudi uranium facility|access-date=19 August 2020|website=The Guardian|date=19 August 2020|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819114802/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/19/mike-pompeo-alleged-saudi-arabia-uranium-facility-yellowcake-china-democrats|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, the kingdom has been exploring foreign partnerships for constructing its first civil nuclear reactors, including with the United States, China, Russia, South Korea, and France.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Explainer: Why does Saudi Arabia want a civil nuclear deal with the US? |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/why-does-saudi-arabia-want-civil-nuclear-deal-with-us-2025-05-08/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508205125/https://www.reuters.com/world/why-does-saudi-arabia-want-civil-nuclear-deal-with-us-2025-05-08/ |archive-date=8 May 2025 |access-date=2025-05-14 |work=Reuters |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saudi Arabia has sought to build greater relations with other Asian countries as well, particularly [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[South Korea]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Bangladesh]]. Saudi Arabia sees South Korea as a key business partner in multiple core sectors and has signed a mutual defence agreement with [[Pakistan]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Saudi-Pakistan Mutual Defence Pact: Implications for India, IMEC, and US Influence in the Gulf |url=https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/saudi-pakistan-mutual-defence-pact-implications-for-india-imec-and-us-influence-in-the-gulf-217398 |access-date=2026-01-20 |website=ISPI |language=en-US}}</ref> Despite having close relations with Pakistan for decades, India has emerged as another key economic partner with Saudi Arabia.<ref name=":8" />

====Allegations of sponsoring global terrorism====
{{Main|Saudi Arabia and state-sponsored terrorism}}

Saudi Arabia has been accused of sponsoring Islamic terrorism.<ref>{{cite web |author=Edward Clifford |date=2014-12-06 |title=Financing Terrorism: Saudi Arabia and Its Foreign Affairs |url=http://www.brownpoliticalreview.org/2014/12/financing-terrorism-saudi-arabia-and-its-foreign-affairs/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018060915/http://www.brownpoliticalreview.org/2014/12/financing-terrorism-saudi-arabia-and-its-foreign-affairs/ |archive-date=18 October 2015 |access-date=19 September 2015 |work=brownpoliticalreview.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Declan |date=2010-12-05 |title=WikiLeaks cables portray Saudi Arabia as a cash machine for terrorists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215023137/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding |archive-date=2016-12-15 |access-date=2016-12-11 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> According to former Iraqi Prime Minister [[Nouri al-Maliki]] in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial, and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maliki: Saudi and Qatar at war against Iraq|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/maliki-saudi-qatar-at-war-against-iraq-20143823436553921.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=14 September 2015|archive-date=1 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001142113/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/maliki-saudi-qatar-at-war-against-iraq-20143823436553921.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, former President of Syria [[Bashar al-Assad]] noted in 2015 that the sources of the extreme ideology of the terrorist organization [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]] and other such [[Salafi jihadism|Salafist extremist]] groups are the Wahabism that has been supported by the royal family of Saudi Arabia.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yiC4w7Erz8I "Syria conflict: BBC exclusive interview with President Bashar al-Assad" with Jeremy Bowen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216150810/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yiC4w7Erz8I |date=16 February 2020 }} (9 February 2015)</ref>

Relations with the U.S. became strained following [[September 11 attacks|9/11 terror attacks]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Saudi Arabia |first=Madawi |last=Al-Rasheed |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-74754-7 |page=233|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a ''[[jihadist]]'' culture.<ref>{{cite book |title=Great powers and regional orders: the United States and the Persian Gulf |first=Markus |last=Kaim |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7546-7197-8 |page=68|publisher=Ashgate Publishing }}</ref> According to former U.S. Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] in December 2010, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the [[Taliban]], [[LeT]] and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide."<ref name="Guardian_05122010">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding |first=Declan |last=Walsh |date=5 December 2010 |title=WikiLeaks cables portray Saudi Arabia as a cash machine for terrorists |newspaper=The Guardian |place=London |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=15 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215023137/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding |url-status=live }}</ref> The Saudi government denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism.<ref>[[#Malbouisson|Malbouisson]], p. 27</ref> In September 2016, the U.S. Congress passed the [[Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act]] that would allow relatives of victims of the 11 September attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for [[Alleged Saudi role in the September 11 attacks|its government's alleged role in the attacks]].<ref>"[https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/09/23/obama-veto-terrorism-lawsuit-bill-setting-up-override-battle/90407496/ Why Obama doesn't want 9/11 families suing Saudi Arabia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113073608/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/09/23/obama-veto-terrorism-lawsuit-bill-setting-up-override-battle/90407496/ |date=13 January 2019 }}". ''USA Today''. 23 September 2016.</ref> In 2014, [[Abdulaziz Al Sheikh|Sheikh Abdulaziz bin Abdullah Al-Sheikh]], the [[Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia]] and Chairman of the [[Council of Senior Scholars (Saudi Arabia)|Council of Senior Scholars]], issued a [[fatwa]] explicitly prohibiting joining or supporting terrorist organizations such as [[Islamic State|ISIS]] and [[al-Qaeda]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-09-17 |title="هيئة كبار العلماء" السعودية تحرم الالتحاق "بالقاعدة" وتنظيم "الدولة الإسلامية" |url=https://www.france24.com/ar/20140917-السعودية-فتوى-تحريم-التحاق-قتال-القاعدة-داعش |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=فرانس 24 / France 24 |language=ar}}</ref> According to the [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]], "Saudi Arabia plays an important role in working toward a peaceful and prosperous future for the region and is a strong partner in security and counterterrorism efforts and in military, diplomatic, and financial cooperation."<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Relations With Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-saudi-arabia/ |access-date=2024-08-10 |website=United States Department of State |language=en}}</ref> A significant Saudi counterterrorism success was the foiling of a 2010 [[2010 transatlantic aircraft bomb plot|cargo plane bomb plot]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Borger |first1=Julian |last2=McGreal |first2=Chris |last3=Finn |first3=Tom |date=2010-11-01 |title=Cargo plane bomb plot: Saudi double agent 'gave crucial alert' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/01/cargo-plane-plot-saudi-agent-gave-alert |access-date=2024-08-10 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In December 2015, Saudi Arabia announced the formation of the [[Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition]], an alliance of Muslim-majority countries aimed at combating terrorism and extremism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia forms Islamic anti-terror coalition – DW – 12/15/2015 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/saudi-arabia-says-it-will-head-muslim-counterterrorism-coalition/a-18917666 |access-date=2024-08-10 |website=Deutsche Welle |language=en}}</ref>

Since 2016 the kingdom has started to back off from exporting Islamic fundamentalism.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Khalilzad|first=Zalmay|title='We Misled You': How the Saudis Are Coming Clean on Funding Terrorism|url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/09/saudi-arabia-terrorism-funding-214241/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=Politico Magazine|date=14 September 2016|language=en|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019043523/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/09/saudi-arabia-terrorism-funding-214241/|url-status=live}}</ref> Several reforms took place including curbing the powers of [[Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia)|religious police]],<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|date=2016-04-13|title=Saudi cabinet curbs powers of religious police|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-police-idUSKCN0XA24Y|access-date=2021-10-11|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011053057/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-police-idUSKCN0XA24Y|url-status=live}}</ref> and no longer funding the construction of mosques abroad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-25|title=Saudi Arabia to stop funding mosques in foreign countries|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200125-saudi-arabia-to-stop-funding-mosques-in-foreign-countries/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=[[Middle East Monitor]]|language=en-GB|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011053057/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200125-saudi-arabia-to-stop-funding-mosques-in-foreign-countries/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Saudi Arabian Military Forces}}

{{see also|List of wars involving Saudi Arabia}}
{{Multiple image
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| image1 = Partner Nations Conduct Training during Eager Lion 2022 220914-A-XQ828-461.jpg
| caption1 = [[M1 Abrams]] of the [[Royal Saudi Land Forces]]
| image2 = Royal Saudi Navy frigate Al Dammam (816) in May 2014.JPG
| caption2 = [[Al Riyadh-class frigate|''Al-Riyadh''-class frigate]] of the [[Royal Saudi Navy]]
| image3 = RSAF Typhoon at Malta - Gordon Zammit.jpg
| caption3 = [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] of the [[Royal Saudi Air Force]]
}}

The [[Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia]] are under the [[Ministry of Defence (Saudi Arabia)|Ministry of Defence]] and consist of the [[Saudi Arabian Army|Royal Saudi Land Forces]] (including the [[Saudi Royal Guard Regiment|Royal Guard]]), the [[Royal Saudi Air Force|Air Force]], the [[Royal Saudi Navy|Navy]], the [[Royal Saudi Air Defense Forces|Air Defence]], and the [[Royal Saudi Strategic Missile Force|Strategic Missile Force]]; the [[Saudi Arabian National Guard]], which is under the [[Ministry of National Guard]], is made up of tribal forces loyal to the Saudi royal family and plays a role in both domestic security and foreign defence.<ref name="iiss2023">{{Cite book |author=IISS |author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |date=2023 |title=The Military Balance 2023 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-032-50895-5 |pages=351–354 }}</ref><ref name="CIAfactbook">{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/#military-and-security |work=CIA World Factbook |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319180722/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia#military-and-security |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2025-07-29 |title=Saudi Arabia - Politics, Processes, Reforms {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Political-process |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Additionally, the kingdom has several paramilitary forces under the [[Ministry of Interior (Saudi Arabia)|Minister of Interior]], including the [[General Directorate of Border Guard|Saudi Arabian Border Guard]], Facilities Security Force, and Coast Guard.<ref name=":5" /> The primary [[special operations]] and [[Counter-terrorism|counterterrorism]] units are the Special Security Force and the [[Saudi Emergency Force|Emergency Force]] under the [[Presidency of State Security]], which combines all counterterrorism and intelligence services and reports directly to the king. As of 2023, there are 127,000 active personnel in the Armed Forces, 130,000 in the National Guard, and 24,500 in the paramilitary security forces.

Saudi Arabia has one of the [[List of countries with highest military expenditures|world's highest military expenditures]] in both proportional and absolute terms, at approximately US$80.3 billion (roughly 7% of GDP) according to a 2024 estimate by the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI); this places the country seventh in the world, behind the United States, China, Russia, Germany, India, and the United Kingdom. Spending on defence and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$78.4 billion as of 2019.<ref name=":23">[https://www.iiss.org/blogs/military-balance/2020/02/global-defence-spending Global defence spending: the United States widens the gap] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725224454/https://www.iiss.org/blogs/military-balance/2020/02/global-defence-spending |date=25 July 2020 }} ([[International Institute for Strategic Studies|IISS]]) – 14 February 2020</ref> A 2023 estimate by SIPRI ranked Saudi Arabia fourth in the world in [[List of countries with highest military expenditure per capita|per capita military spending]]. The kingdom was the world's second largest arms importer from 2019 to 2023.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Nan |last2=Lopes Da Silva |first2=Diego |last3=Liang |first3=Xiao |last4=Scarazzato |first4=Lorenzo |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2023 |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/2024/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2023 |website=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |date=April 2024 |access-date=4 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wezeman |first1=Pieter D. |last2=Djokic |first2=Katarina |last3=George |first3=Mathew |last4=Hussain |first4=Zain |last5=Wezeman |first5=Siemon T. |title=Trends in International Arms Transfers |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/2024/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-international-arms-transfers-2023 |website=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |date=March 2024 |access-date=4 February 2025}}</ref> According to the [[Bonn International Centre for Conflict Studies|BICC]], Saudi Arabia is the 28th most militarized country in the world and possesses the second-best military equipment qualitatively in the region, after Israel.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2019 |title=Global Militarisation Index 2019 |url=https://www.bicc.de/uploads/tx_bicctools/BICC_GMI_2019_EN.pdf |journal=BICC |pages=8 and 14 |access-date=28 July 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806002150/https://www.bicc.de/uploads/tx_bicctools/BICC_GMI_2019_EN.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations.<ref name="Library of Congress 2006">{{Cite web |title=About this Collection | Country Studies | Digital Collections | Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/ |website=Library of Congress |access-date=9 August 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213014814/https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saudi Arabia has security relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, which provide training and weapons;<ref name="defensenews20152">{{cite web |date=26 March 2015 |title=Saudi Arabia: The Gulf's Best-Equipped Military |url=https://www.defensenews.com/global/mideast-africa/2015/03/26/saudi-arabia-the-gulf-s-best-equipped-military/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328144301/https://www.defensenews.com/global/mideast-africa/2015/03/26/saudi-arabia-the-gulf-s-best-equipped-military/ |archive-date=28 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |work=[[Defense News]]}}</ref> the kingdom is the largest recipient of U.S. arms in the world, accounting for 12 percent of all U.S. arms exports in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-10 |title=Ukraine the world's biggest arms importer; United States' dominance of global arms exports grows as Russian exports continue to fall {{!}} SIPRI |url=https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2025/ukraine-worlds-biggest-arms-importer-united-states-dominance-global-arms-exports-grows-russian |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=www.sipri.org |language=en}}</ref> Saudi Arabia has a [[Pakistan–Saudi Arabia relations#Security relations|long-standing military relationship with Pakistan]] and is speculated to have secretly funded the latter's [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|atomic bomb programme]] with the intention of purchasing its atomic weapons;<ref name="QV">{{cite book|title=Allah's Bomb: The Islamic Quest for Nuclear Weapons|first=Al J.|last=Venter|pages=[https://archive.org/details/allahsbombislami0000vent/page/150 150–153]|year=2007|publisher=Globe Pequot|isbn=978-1-59921-205-0|url=https://archive.org/details/allahsbombislami0000vent/page/150}}</ref><ref name="SPO">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/EK07Ak01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031107031736/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/EK07Ak01.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=7 November 2003 |title=Saudi Arabia's nuclear gambit |work=Asia Times |date=7 November 2003}}</ref> in September 2025, both countries entered into a [[Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement|mutual defence pact]]. Since 2018, Saudi Arabia has repeatedly expressed willingness to acquire or develop nuclear weapons in the event that its chief regional rival, Iran, develops one.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Playing With Proliferation: How South Korea and Saudi Arabia Leverage the Prospect of Going Nuclear |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/03/playing-with-proliferation-how-south-korea-and-saudi-arabia-leverage-the-prospect-of-going-nuclear?lang=en |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=DiChristopher |first=Tom |date=2018-03-15 |title=Saudi crown prince threatens to develop a nuke as kingdom seeks foreign nuclear technology |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/15/saudi-crown-prince-threatens-to-build-nuke-as-kingdom-seeks-nuclear-tech.html |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

In March 2015, Saudi Arabia mobilized 150,000 troops and 100 fighter jets to support its [[Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war|intervention in the civil war]] in neighbouring [[Yemen]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Yemen Crisis: Saudi Arabia Masses 150,000 Troops to Support Airstrikes |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/saudi-arabia-masses-150-000-troops-support-airstrikes-yemen-n330416 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=26 March 2015 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204185727/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/saudi-arabia-masses-150-000-troops-support-airstrikes-yemen-n330416 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="HRW_2015-11-26_WMT">{{cite news|date=26 November 2015 |title=What Military Target Was in My Brother's House – Unlawful Coalition Airstrikes in Yemen |url=https://www.hrw.org/node/283702 |url-status=live |publisher=Human Rights Watch |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6dM5mYROt?url=https://www.hrw.org/node/283702 |archive-date=27 November 2015}} ({{cite web |title=PDF download |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/yemen1115_4up.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6dM5EnSsE?url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/yemen1115_4up.pdf |archive-date=27 November 2015}})</ref> By early 2016, Saudi ground forces and their coalition allies captured [[Aden]] and parts of southwest Yemen, though the Houthis continued to control northern Yemen and the capital city [[Sanaa]]. From there the Houthis launched successful attacks across the border into Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Almeida, Alex; Knights, Michael |title=Gulf Coalition Operations in Yemen (Part 1): The Ground War |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-1-ground-war |work=[[The Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] |date=25 March 2016 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=6 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206195626/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/gulf-coalition-operations-in-yemen-part-1-the-ground-war |url-status=live }}</ref> The Saudi military has also carried out an aerial bombing campaign and a naval blockade aimed at stopping weapons shipments to the Houthis.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Knights, Michael |title=Gulf Coalition Operations in Yemen (Part 2): The Air War |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-2-air-war |work=[[The Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] |date=25 March 2016 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204200459/https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-2-air-war |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Pollak, Nadav; Knights, Michael |title=Gulf Coalition Operations in Yemen (Part 3): Maritime and Aerial Blockade |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-3-maritime-and-aerial-blockade |work=[[The Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] |date=25 March 2016 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204200459/https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-3-maritime-and-aerial-blockade |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2024, Saudi Arabia had 2,500 troops actively participating in the conflict in Yemen.<ref>{{Cite book |author=IISS |author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |date=2024 |title=The Military Balance 2024 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-032-78004-7 |page=385 }}</ref>

=== Human rights ===
{{main|Human rights in Saudi Arabia}}

{{see also|Capital punishment in Saudi Arabia}}

The Saudi government, which mandates Muslim and non-Muslim observance of Sharia law under the absolute rule of the House of Saud, has been denounced by international organizations and governments for violating human rights.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41731.htm|title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 2004|author=Unattributed|date=28 February 2005|access-date=2 June 2008|publisher=US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labour|archive-date=7 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107004858/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41731.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The authoritarian regime is consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" in [[Freedom House]]'s [[Freedom in the World|annual survey of political and civil rights]].<ref>[https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/inline_images/Worst%20of%20the%20Worst%202010.pdf Worst of the Worst 2010. The World's Most Repressive Societies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024180123/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/inline_images/Worst%20of%20the%20Worst%202010.pdf |date=24 October 2021 }}. freedomhouse.org</ref> According to [[Amnesty International]], security forces torture and ill-treat detainees to extract confessions to be used as evidence against them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/middle-east-and-north-africa/saudi-arabia/report-saudi-arabia/|title=SAUDI ARABIA 2016/2017|access-date=4 November 2017|archive-date=15 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815175129/https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/middle-east-and-north-africa/saudi-arabia/report-saudi-arabia/|url-status=live}}</ref> Saudi Arabia abstained from the UN vote adopting the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], saying it contradicted Sharia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nisrine Abiad |title=Sharia, Muslim states and international human rights treaty obligations: a comparative study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dex7TKuoUhgC |year=2008 |publisher=BIICL |isbn=978-1-905221-41-7 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dex7TKuoUhgC&pg=PA60 60–65] |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=18 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118134309/https://books.google.com/books?id=dex7TKuoUhgC |url-status=live }}</ref> Mass executions, such as those carried out [[2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution|in 2016]],<ref>{{cite web | title=Mass Execution is Part of Saudi Arabia's Long History of Horrors | date=6 January 2016 | url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/saudi-arabia-mass-execution-history_n_568c43e1e4b0cad15e625f74 }}</ref> [[2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution|2019]],<ref name="wsj">{{cite web | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/saudi-arabia-executes-37-citizens-drawing-fire-from-rights-groups-11556046085 | title=Saudi Arabia Executes 37 Citizens, Drawing Fire from Rights Groups | publisher=[[The Wall Street Journal]] | date=23 April 2019 | accessdate=24 April 2019 | author=Rory Jones}}</ref> and [[2022 Saudi Arabia mass execution|2022]],<ref name="apnews1" /> have been condemned by international rights groups.

Since 2001, Saudi Arabia has engaged in [[Censorship in Saudi Arabia#The Internet|internet censorship]]. Most censorship falls into two categories: "immoral" content (mostly pornographic and LGBT-supportive sites along with sites promoting any religion other than Sunni Islam) and blacklisted political content critical of the regime, as dictated by [[Ministry of Media (Saudi Arabia)|Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Media]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2018 |title=Saudi Arabia |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2018/saudi-arabia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222220534/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2018/saudi-arabia |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=31 March 2019 |website=freedomhouse.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alisa |first1=Shishkina |last2=Issaev |first2=Leonid |date=14 November 2018 |title=Internet Censorship in Arab Countries: Religious and Moral Aspects |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/9/11/358/pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331181346/https://res.mdpi.com/religions/religions-09-00358/article_deploy/religions-09-00358.pdf?filename=&attachment=1 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |access-date=31 March 2019 |journal=Religions|volume=9 |issue=11 |page=358 |doi=10.3390/rel9110358 |doi-access=free }} [[iarchive:religions-09-00358|Alt URL]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi internet rules, 2001 |url=https://al-bab.com/saudi-internet-rules-2001 |access-date=31 March 2019 |website=al-bab.com |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331182424/https://al-bab.com/saudi-internet-rules-2001 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Dira Square.JPG|thumb|right|[[Deera Square]], central Riyadh. It is a former site of public beheadings.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=al-Omar|first1=Asmaa|last2=Hubbard|first2=Ben|date=2021-08-13|title=For a Crime at 14, He Faces Death in a Case Casting Doubt on Saudi Reforms|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/13/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-execution.html|access-date=2022-01-19|issn=0362-4331|quote=A former site of public executions in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia's capital.|archive-date=3 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003010148/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/13/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-execution.html|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Saudi Arabian law does not recognize [[LGBT rights in Saudi Arabia|sexual orientations]] or religious freedom, and the public practice of non-Muslim religions is actively prohibited.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/nea/136079.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315154836/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/nea/136079.htm |archive-date=15 March 2010 |title=2009 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia |publisher=[[United States Department of State]]}}</ref> The justice system regularly engages in [[capital punishment]], which has included public executions by [[decapitation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde23/004/1993/en/|title=Saudi Arabia: An upsurge in public executions|website=Amnesty International|date=30 June 1993 |access-date=2018-11-21|archive-date=2018-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122054039/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde23/004/1993/en/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Rights group condemns Saudi beheadings|date=14 October 2008|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27184784|publisher=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=14 October 2008|archive-date=4 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104031323/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27184784/|url-status=live}}</ref> In line with Sharia in the [[Legal system of Saudi Arabia|Saudi justice system]], the death penalty can theoretically be imposed for a range of offences,<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi system condemned |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/aug/09/saudiarabia.brianwhitaker |newspaper=The Guardian |date=9 August 2003 |access-date=27 July 2011 |location=London |first=Brian |last=Whitaker |archive-date=13 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313062308/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/aug/09/saudiarabia.brianwhitaker |url-status=live }}</ref> including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, [[apostasy]],<ref name= BBCexecutioner>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2966790.stm |title=Saudi executioner tells all |date=5 June 2003 |work=BBC News |access-date=11 July 2011 |archive-date=1 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401233508/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2966790.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> adultery,<ref name= FRD306>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia A Country Study |last=Federal Research Division |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4191-4621-3 |page=304}}</ref> and [[witchcraft]].<ref name= Miethe>{{cite book |title=Punishment: a comparative historical perspective |last=Miethe |first=Terance D. |author2=Lu, Hong |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-60516-8 |page=63|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> It can be carried out by beheading with a sword,<ref name= BBCexecutioner/> [[stoning]] or by firing squad,<ref name= FRD306/> followed by [[Crucifixion#Legal execution in Islamic states|crucifixion]] (exposure of the body after execution).<ref name= Miethe/> In 2022, the Saudi Crown Prince stated that capital punishments will be removed "except for one category mentioned in the Quran", namely [[Qisas#Traditional jurisprudence|homicide]], under which certain conditions must be applied.<ref name="apnews1">{{Cite web |date=2022-03-12 |title=Saudi Arabia puts 81 to death in its largest mass execution|author-first1=Jon|author-last1=Gambrell|url=https://apnews.com/article/islamic-state-group-saudi-arabia-al-qaida-dubai-united-arab-emirates-a1984eab0faadefa0152d5c138525d80 |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=AP NEWS |language=en |quote=Well about the death penalty, we got rid of all of it, except for one category, and this one is written in the Quran |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024081433/https://apnews.com/article/islamic-state-group-saudi-arabia-al-qaida-dubai-united-arab-emirates-a1984eab0faadefa0152d5c138525d80 |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2020, Saudi Supreme Court issued a directive to eliminate the punishment of flogging from the court system, being replaced by imprisonment or fines.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-52420307|title=Saudi Arabia to abolish flogging – supreme court|date=24 April 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=24 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424214438/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-52420307|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/gulf/2020/04/24/Saudi-courts-ordered-to-stop-use-of-lashing-as-punishment-Okaz-report.html|title=In landmark decision, Saudi Arabia to eliminate flogging punishment|date=24 April 2020|website=Al Arabiya English|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=28 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428151858/https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/gulf/2020/04/24/Saudi-courts-ordered-to-stop-use-of-lashing-as-punishment-Okaz-report.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historically, Saudi women have faced [[discrimination]] in many aspects of their lives and were effectively treated as [[minor (law)|legal minors]] under the [[Wali (Islamic legal guardian)|male guardianship system]].<ref name="HRW2016">{{cite journal| title =Boxed In — Women and Saudi Arabia's Male Guardianship System| journal =[[Human Rights Watch]] | date =16 July 2016| url =https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/07/16/boxed/women-and-saudi-arabias-male-guardianship-system | access-date =22 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826080422/https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/07/16/boxed/women-and-saudi-arabias-male-guardianship-system |archive-date=26 August 2016}}</ref> The treatment of women has been referred to as "[[sex segregation]]"<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.hri.ca/pdfs/HRT%20Spring,%20Volume%208,%20No.%201,%202001.pdf
|access-date=21 August 2007
|title=Human Rights Tribune – ed. Spring 2001
|work=Human Rights Tribune
|date=Spring 2001
|publisher=International Human Rights Documentation Network
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002083608/http://www.hri.ca/pdfs/HRT%20Spring%2C%20Volume%208%2C%20No.%201%2C%202001.pdf
|archive-date=2 October 2008
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nostatusquo.com/ACLU/dworkin/WarZoneChaptIIIA.html
|title=A Feminist Looks at Saudi Arabia
|year=1978
|author=Andrea Dworkin
|publisher=Andrea Dworkin on nostatusquo.com
|access-date=2 June 2008
|archive-date=29 August 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829142441/http://www.nostatusquo.com/ACLU/dworkin/WarZoneChaptIIIA.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> and "gender [[apartheid]]".<ref name=Handrahan>{{cite journal |author=Handrahan LM |title=Gender Apartheid and Cultural Absolution: Saudi Arabia and the International Criminal Court |publisher=Human Rights Internet |journal=Human Rights Tribune' |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=Spring 2001}} {{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/the-australian-who-has-become-a-prisoner-of-gender-apartheid-20091113-ier0.html|title=The Australian who has become a prisoner of gender apartheid|date=14 November 2009|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=6 March 2010|archive-date=17 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217045604/http://www.smh.com.au/world/the-australian-who-has-become-a-prisoner-of-gender-apartheid-20091113-ier0.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the 2000s, the kingdom has made several attempts to improve the status of women in order to elevate their global standing. As of June 2023, the kingdom has reportedly reversed its ban on women "becoming lawyers, engineers, or geologists" and established "aggressive [[affirmative action]] programmes", doubling the female labour force participation rate. It has added "its first female newspaper editors, diplomats, TV anchors and public prosecutors", with a female head of the Saudi stock exchange and member on the board of [[Saudi Aramco]].<ref name="GFOELLER 5 June 2023">{{cite news |last1=GFOELLER |first1=MICHAEL |last2=RUNDELL |first2=DAVID H. |date=5 June 2023 |title=Saudi Arabia and the U.S. Are More Than Just Oil and Water |agency=Newsweek |url=https://www.newsweek.com/saudi-arabia-us-are-more-just-oil-water-opinion-1804607 |access-date=6 June 2023 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606002230/https://www.newsweek.com/saudi-arabia-us-are-more-just-oil-water-opinion-1804607 |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2018, the Saudi government issued a law allowing women to drive.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-44576795.amp | title=Saudi Arabia's ban on women driving officially ends | date=23 June 2018 }}</ref> However, an investigation by ''[[The Guardian]]'' newspaper in 2025 found that the ''[[Dar al-Reaya]]'', officially "care homes", continued to be effectively "jails" for women whose families wished to institutionalize them for disobedience, extramarital sexual relations or being absent from home. Some women are sent to Dar al-Reaya to protect a family's reputation after a woman is sexually abused by a brother or father. Treatment was reported to be "hellish": with solitary confinement, flogging, and no family contact.<ref name=levitt>{{cite news |last1=Levitt |first1=Tom |last2=Parent |first2=Deepa |date=28 May 2025 |title=Revealed: Saudi Arabia's secretive rehabilitation 'prisons' for disobedient women |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/may/28/saudi-arabia-women-girls-rehabilitation-prisons-dar-al-reaya |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

Saudi Arabia is a notable destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of [[slavery|slave]] labour and sexual exploitation.<ref name="factbook">{{cite web |title=Trafficking In Persons |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2196.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208041651/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2196.html |archive-date=8 December 2015 |access-date=4 December 2015 |website=cia.gov |publisher=[[The World Factbook]]}}</ref> Migrants from Asia and Africa are employed in the country's construction, hospitality, and domestic work sectors under the [[kafala system]], which human rights groups say is linked to [[Slavery in Saudi Arabia|slavery]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 16, 2022 |title=Saudi Arabia: "It's like we are not human": Forced returns, abhorrent detention conditions of Ethiopian migrants in Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde23/5826/2022/en/ |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=[[Amnesty International]] |page=6 |language=en |quote=Under Saudi Arabia's repressive sponsorship (kafala) system, migrant workers are only able to obtain a work permit or residency through an employer, and they are only able to terminate their contracts or change employers under certain conditions without the consent of their employer. Those who lose their residency status, either because they leave their jobs without the consent of the employer or overstay their work permits, and those who are unable to find employment in the formal sector are at risk of arbitrary detention, deportation to their home country by the authorities, as well as abuses such as forced labour and physical and sexual assault. |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314062320/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde23/5826/2022/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2021 |title=French prosecutors probe slavery claims against Saudi prince |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/saudi-arabia-prince-accused-modern-day-slavery-french-prosecutors |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=[[Middle East Eye]] |language=en |quote=Human rights groups have often criticised Saudi Arabia's kafala system, a policy they say is exploitative and a form of modern slavery. |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314062320/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/saudi-arabia-prince-accused-modern-day-slavery-french-prosecutors |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2025, Saudi Arabia broke its record for annual executions for the second consecutive year. Many human rights groups condemned the kingdom, calling it the "bloodiest year of executions in the kingdom since monitoring began".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-21 |title=Saudi Arabia: Rights groups condemn new record number of executions in 2025 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg5m49j14pyo |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:KAFD January 2025.jpg|right|thumb|[[King Abdullah Financial District]] is one of the largest investment centres in the Middle East, located in Riyadh.]]
With [[Nominal GDP|gross domestic product (GDP)]] at over $1.1 trillion [[Nominal GDP|nominally]], and more than $2.3 trillion by [[Purchasing power parity|purchasing power parity (PPP)]], Saudi Arabia has the second largest [[Economy of the Middle East|economy in the Middle East]] (after [[Turkey]]), the largest in the [[Arab world]], and the 18th largest in the world.<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> It has the world's [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|second-largest proven reserves of petroleum]], of which it is [[List of countries by oil production|third largest producer]] and the [[List of countries by oil exports|largest exporter]];<ref name="autogenerated1995">{{cite web|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/169.htm |title=Saudi Arabia |publisher=OPEC |date=1 January 1995 |access-date=28 September 2012}}</ref><ref>[https://www.npr.org/2011/06/08/137065443/opec-decides-not-to-increase-oil-production "OPEC Decides Not To Increase Oil Production"], Jeff Brady. NPR. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 19 August 2011</ref> the country also has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|sixth-largest proven natural gas reserves]].<ref name=":0" /> Saudi Arabia is considered an "[[energy superpower]],"<ref name=undp>{{cite web
|url=http://arabstates.undp.org/subpage.php?spid=31&sscid=142
|title=Saudi Arabia's first step towards clean energy technologies
|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]]
|access-date=5 February 2012
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528085109/http://arabstates.undp.org/subpage.php?spid=31&sscid=142
|archive-date=28 May 2012
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Global Energy Geopolitics and Iran |journal=Uluslararası İlişkiler |author=Balamir Coşkun, Bezen |volume=5 |issue=20 |pages=179–201 |date=Winter 2009 |url=http://www.uidergisi.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Global-Energy-Geopolitics-and-Iran.pdf |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401102351/http://www.uidergisi.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Global-Energy-Geopolitics-and-Iran.pdf |archive-date=1 April 2014 }}</ref> having the third highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$34.4 trillion in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.investopedia.com/articles/markets-economy/090516/10-countries-most-natural-resources.asp|title=10 Countries With The Most Natural Resources|date=12 September 2016|last=Anthony|first=Craig|website=[[Investopedia]]}}</ref>

Saudi Arabia has a [[command economy]] based largely on petroleum; the oil industry accounts for roughly 63%<ref>{{cite news |author1=By Nayla Razzouk and Claudia Carpenter |title=Saudi Arabia Sees Higher Oil Revenue as OPEC Cuts Boost Prices |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-19/saudi-arabia-sees-higher-oil-revenue-as-opec-cuts-boost-prices |newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=19 December 2017 }}</ref> of budget revenue, 67%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau/|title=OEC – Saudi Arabia (SAU) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners|website=oec.world|access-date=15 August 2019}}</ref> of export earnings, and 45% of nominal GDP compared with 40% from the private sector. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers, with about 80% of private sector employees being non-Saudi.<ref name="coy-employ">{{cite journal|author=Coy, Peter |title=Online Education Targets Saudi Arabia's Labor Problem, Starting With Women|journal=Bloomberg Businessweek|date=16 July 2014|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-07-16/can-online-classes-fix-saudi-arabias-broken-labor-market|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717192344/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-07-16/can-online-classes-fix-saudi-arabias-broken-labor-market|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2014|quote=Saudi citizens account for two-thirds of employment in the high-paying, comfortable public sector, but only one-fifth of employment in the more dynamic private sector, according to the International Monetary Fund (PDF).}}</ref><ref name="McDowall">Economists "estimate only 30–40 percent of working-age Saudis hold jobs or actively seek work," the official employment rate of around 12 percent notwithstanding: {{cite news|first=Angus|last=McDowall|title=Saudi Arabia doubles private sector jobs in 30-month period|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/business/2014/01/20/Saudi-Arabiya-doubles-number-of-citizens-in-private-sector-jobs.html|agency=Reuters|date=19 January 2014}}</ref> Challenges to the economy include halting or reversing the decline in per-capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, and diminishing corruption and inequality.<ref name="HT2009: 150" />

[[File:Aramco Tower.jpg|thumb|left|Tower of [[Saudi Aramco]], a majority state owned oil company and a main source of revenue for the state]]
The [[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves". Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about {{convert|100|Goilbbl|m3}} between 1987 and 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/crudeoilreserves.xls |title=Crude Oil Reserves |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122123445/http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/crudeoilreserves.xls |archive-date=22 November 2010}}</ref> [[Matthew Simmons]] has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see [[peak oil]]).<ref>{{Cite book|title= Twilight in the Desert: The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy|first= Matthew|last= Simmons|author-link= Matthew Simmons|publisher= Wiley|isbn= 978-0-471-73876-3|year= 2005|orig-year= 10 June 2005|url= https://archive.org/details/twilightindesert00simm_0}}</ref>

[[File:Oil and Gas Infrastructure Persian Gulf (large).gif|thumb|Map of [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] pipelines in the Middle-East|left]]
From 2003 to 2013, "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities."<ref name="Aluwaisheg">{{cite journal|author=Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg|title=When privatization goes wrong|journal=Arab News|date=29 September 2014|url=http://www.arabnews.com/news/464657}}</ref> In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the [[World Trade Organization]]. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established the [[Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority]] to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission/distribution over time. The government has also made an attempt at "[[Saudization|Saudizing]]" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success.<ref name="house-161">[[#House|House]], p. 161: "Over the past decade, the government has announced one plan after another to 'Saudize' the economy, but to no avail. The foreign workforce grows, and so does unemployment among Saudis. .... The previous plan called for slashing unemployment to 2.8% only to see it rise to 10.5% in 2009, the end of that plan period. Government plans in Saudi are like those in the old Soviet Union, grandiose but unmet. (Also, as in the old Soviet Union, nearly all Saudi official statistics are unreliable, so economists believe the real Saudi unemployment rate is closer to 40%)"</ref>

[[File:As pilgrims prepare to return to their homes, Saudi authorities begin to prep for next year's Hajj - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|upright=1|thumb|The ''[[hajj]]'' is an annual [[Islam]]ic [[pilgrimage]] to [[Mecca]], the [[Holiest sites in Islam|holiest city]] for Muslims.<ref name="Modarresi">{{cite book |author=Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi |author-link=Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi |title=The Laws of Islam |date=26 March 2016 |publisher=Enlight Press |isbn=978-0-9942409-8-9 |url=http://almodarresi.com/en/books/pdf/TheLawsofIslam.pdf |access-date=22 December 2017 |ref=Modarresi |language=en |page=471 |archive-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802163247/http://almodarresi.com/en/books/pdf/TheLawsofIslam.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ]]
In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi has a significant gold mining sector in the [[Mahd adh Dhahab]] region and significant other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on vegetables, fruits, dates etc. and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual ''[[hajj]]'' pilgrims.<ref name="HT2009: 150">[[#HT2009|Tripp, ''Culture Shock'', 2009]]: p. 206</ref> Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g. [[King Abdullah Economic City]]) to diversify the economy and provide jobs.

Saudi Arabia is increasingly activating its ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China in addition to oil transport. To this end, ports such as Jeddah Islamic Port or King Abdullah Economic City are being rapidly expanded, and investments are being made in logistics. The country is historically and currently part of the [[Maritime Silk Road]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationthailand.com/international/30341660|title=Ancient silk road port found in Saudi Arabia|date=24 March 2018|website=nationthailand}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/979341/saudi-arabia|title=How Saudi Arabia revived the ancient Silk Road|date=3 September 2016|website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/china-to-boost-belt-and-road-links-with-saudi-arabia|title=China to Boost Belt and Road Links with Saudi Arabia|website=The Maritime Executive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.business.hsbc.ae/en-gb/insights|title=Insights|website=www.business.hsbc.ae|date=25 March 2022 }}</ref>

Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/05/19/136439885/poverty-hides-amid-saudi-arabias-oil-wealth |title=Poverty Hides Amid Saudi Arabia's Oil Wealth |website=NPR |date=19 May 2011 |last1=Nelson |first1=Soraya Sarhaddi }}</ref> The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlSBqgW5xx0 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020014206/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlSBqgW5xx0| archive-date=2011-10-20|title=Mal3ob 3alena : Poverty in Saudi Arabia English Version |publisher=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2011/12/04/132112/saudi-dissidents-turn-to-youtube.html |title=Saudi dissidents turn to YouTube to air their frustrations |first=Roy|last=Gutman|newspaper=McClatchy Newspapers|date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/23/feras-boqna-saudi-arabia-poverty | place=London |work=The Guardian |first=Amelia |last=Hill | title=Saudi film-makers enter second week of detention |date=23 October 2011}}</ref> Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lebanonspring.com/2011/10/19/plot-to-show-foreign-poverty-in-foreign-saudi-arabia-arab-spring-youtube-video/ |title=A foreign Saudi plot to expose foreign poverty in foreign Saudi |work=Lebanon Spring |date=19 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103204944/http://lebanonspring.com/2011/10/19/plot-to-show-foreign-poverty-in-foreign-saudi-arabia-arab-spring-youtube-video/ |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous<ref>{{cite web|url=http://observers.france24.com/content/20081028-poverty-exists-saudi-arabia |title=Poverty exists in Saudi Arabia too | The Observers |publisher=France 24 |date=28 October 2008}}</ref> because of the risk of being arrested.

The unexpected impact of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia|COVID-19 pandemic]] on the economy, along with Saudi Arabia's poor human rights records, laid unforeseen challenges before the development plans of the kingdom, where some of the programmes under '[[Saudi Vision 2030|Vision 2030]]' were also expected to be affected.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-29/saudi-prince-mbs-s-vision-2030-confronts-coronavirus-oil-shock|title=Saudi Prince's Year of Prestige Is Unraveling in Front of Him|access-date=29 April 2020|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=29 April 2020 }}</ref> In May 2020, the [[Ministry of Finance (Saudi Arabia)|Finance Minister of Saudi Arabia]] admitted that the country's economy was facing a severe economical crisis for the first time in decades, because of the pandemic as well as declining global oil markets.

In July 2024 Saudi Arabia's Renewable Energy Localisation Company (RELC) has formed three joint ventures with Chinese companies to advance the kingdom's clean energy infrastructure. As part of Saudi Arabia's 2030 targets, the [[Public Investment Fund]] is actively promoting the localization of renewable energy components. RELC, a division of the sovereign fund, facilitates partnerships between global manufacturers and Saudi private sector firms to strengthen local supply chains. These initiatives aim to localize up to 75% of the components used in Saudi Arabia's renewable projects by 2030, positioning the country as a major global exporter of renewable technologies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-17 |title=Saudi Arabia, China sign three renewable energy deals |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/energy/saudi-arabia-china-sign-three-renewable-energy-deals-1.1721217886262 |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
{{Main|Agriculture in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Al-Ahsa Palm Oasis 2023.jpg|thumb|left|[[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]] is known for its palm trees and dates. Al-Hasa has over 30 million palm trees which produce over 100 thousand tons of dates every year.]]

Saudi Arabia's predominantly arid environment, poor soil, and traditional nomadic lifestyle have long favoured [[pastoralism]], particularly of camels, sheep, and goats; agricultural production has historically been localized and oriented towards [[Subsistence agriculture|basic subsistence]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2025-07-29 |title=Saudi Arabia - Oil, Trade, Investment {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Economy |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Less than two percent of the total land area is used for crops, with agriculture constituting only a fraction of GDP (2.5 percent) and employing a similar proportion of the workforce.<ref>[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?locations=SA Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (% of GDP) - Saudi Arabia | Data] World Bank Group</ref><ref name=":6" />

Initial attempts to develop dairy farming on a commercial scale occurred in the [[Al Kharj]] District south of Riyadh during the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wippel |first=Steffen |author-link= |date=October 4, 2023 |title=Branding the Middle East: Communication Strategies and Image Building from Qom to Casablanca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lh3TEAAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |page= |isbn=9783110741155}}</ref> Serious large-scale agricultural development began in the 1970s,<ref>{{cite book |author-link= |date= December 1992|title=Foreign Agriculture 1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgmYhVo2VkEC |location= |publisher= [[Foreign Agricultural Service]]|page= 118}}</ref> particularly with wheat,<ref>{{cite book |last=Roberts |first=David B. |author-link= |date=April 18, 2023 |title= Security Politics in the Gulf Monarchies: Continuity Amid Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QdWTEAAAQBAJ |location= |publisher= [[Columbia University Press]]|page= |isbn=9780231555913}}</ref> with the government launching an extensive programme to promote modern farming technology; establish rural roads, irrigation networks and storage and export facilities; and encourage agricultural research and training institutions. The kingdom has continued prioritizing domestic food production through subsidies and generous incentives.<ref name=":6" />

Owing to these efforts, there has been substantial growth in the production of all basic foods: Although it still imports the bulk of its food needs, Saudi Arabia is self-sufficient in several commodities, particularly wheat, meat, milk, and eggs. The country exports dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Dates, which are indigenous to Saudi Arabia and a traditional staple of its diet, are now mainly grown for global humanitarian aid; the kingdom is the world's [[Date palm#Production|second largest producer]] after Egypt, producing 1.6 million tonnes as of 2022. Another indigenous crop, the olive, is also heavily cultivated: The [[Al-Jawf Province|Al Jouf region]] has millions of olive trees—including the world's largest olive farm at 7,713 hectares<ref>{{cite web |author= |date=2024-07-08 |title=Largest modern olive farm |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/512111-largest-olive-farm#:~:text=The%20largest%20modern%20olive%20farm,northern%20region%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia. |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=guinnessworldrecords.com |publisher=Guinness World Records |location=}}</ref>—and the number is expected to increase to 20 million trees.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 May 2018 |title=Inside the Saudi olive farm, the largest in the world |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/business/economy/2018/05/03/Saudi-olive-tree-farm-sets-Guinness-Records-for-largest-in-the-world.html |access-date=8 October 2018 |publisher=[[Al Arabiya English]] |location=[[Dubai]]}}</ref> Saudi farmers also grow substantial amounts of other grains such as barley, sorghum, and millet.

Saudi Arabia has some of the most modern and largest dairy farms in the Middle East; milk production boasts a productive annual rate of {{convert|1,800|USgal|L|order=flip|abbr=off}} per cow, one of the highest in the world. Saudi dairy company [[Almarai]] is the largest vertically integrated dairy company in the Middle East,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elopak.com/site/cms.jsp?node=11449|title=Innovation Drive Al-Marai|publisher=Elopak|access-date=3 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113093305/http://www.elopak.com/site/cms.jsp?node=11449|archive-date=13 November 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the largest dairy firm in the world by volume;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Frank |date=2023-04-03 |title=Saudi Arabia achieves dairy self-sufficiency in less than 50 years {{!}} Dairy Business Middle East & Africa - No.1 Dairy Industry Website & Magazine |url=https://dairybusinessmea.com/2023/04/03/saudi-arabia-achieves-dairy-self-sufficiency-in-less-than-50-years/ |access-date=2025-07-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> it operates the world's largest dairy farm at Al Safi.<ref>{{Cite journal |journal= Middle East Notes and Comment|date=2010-04-15 |title=Dairy Kingdom: Saudi Arabia Makes the Desert Moo |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/dairy-kingdom-saudi-arabia-makes-desert-moo |language=en}}</ref>

Following an end to domestic wheat production in 2016 to preserve water,<ref>{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia ends domestic wheat production program |url=https://www.world-grain.com/articles/6275-saudi-arabia-ends-domestic-wheat-production-program |access-date=8 October 2018}}</ref> Saudi Arabia encouraged small famers to produce wheat in 2019 through a domestic production programme established under the Saudi Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA).<ref name=":7">[https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Grain%20and%20Feed%20Annual_Riyadh_Saudi%20Arabia_SA2025-0003#:~:text=Since%20MY%202019/2020%2C%20small,wheat%20supply%20situation%20as%20needed. Grain and Feed Annual: Saudi Arabia] (March 20, 2025) U.S. Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service.</ref> In 2025, wheat production is forecast to more than double the five-year average.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAO GIEWS Country Brief on Saudi Arabia - |url=https://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=SAU#:~:text=Wheat%20production%20forecast%20at%20above,stocks%20to%20ensure%20food%20security. |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>

Consuming nonrenewable groundwater resulted in the loss of an estimated four-fifths of the total groundwater reserves by 2012.<ref>{{cite web |date=19 December 2012 |title=Saudi Arabia Stakes a Claim on the Nile – Water Grabbers – National Geographic |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/12/121217-saudi-arabia-water-grabs-ethiopia/ |access-date=16 September 2015}}</ref> About half the arable land is cultivated through [[Dryland farming|rain-fed dry farming]] (mostly in [[Asir]]), two-fifths through the planting of local tree crops (namely dates and olives), and the remainder by irrigation, mostly by underground water.

As part of the Saudi Green Initiative, which seeks to restore vegetation cover and ecological sustainability, the kingdom aims to plant 100 million [[mangrove]]s; as of 2024, the National Centre for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification announced it had planted 13 million seedlings.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-24 |title=Saudi Arabia plants 13 million mangrove seedlings |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/saudi-arabia-plants-13-million-mangrove-seedlings-1.103589232 |access-date=2024-07-24 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Water supply and sanitation ===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia|Irrigation in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Musk Lake 1.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Musk Lake]] close to Jeddah]]
One of the main challenges for Saudi Arabia is [[water scarcity]]. Substantial investments have been undertaken in seawater [[desalination]], water distribution, sewerage and [[wastewater treatment]]. Today about 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater, and 10% from surface water in the mountainous southwest of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1410576|title=Desalination in Saudi Arabia: An attractive investment opportunity|date=25 November 2018|website=Arab News}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers and a resultant break down and disintegration of its agriculture as a consequence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.revealnews.org/article/what-california-can-learn-from-saudi-arabias-water-mystery/|title=What California can learn from Saudi Arabia's water mystery|date=22 April 2015|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/freshwater/saudi-arabia-water-use/|title=Saudi Arabia's Great Thirst|date=10 January 2017|website=National Geographic|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref> As a result of the catastrophe, Saudi Arabia has bought agricultural land in the United States,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eAE2QEaF3A0|title=Saudi Farmers Buy Up US Land After Drying Out Theirs|last=RYOT|date=9 November 2015|access-date=26 March 2019|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead YouTube link|date=February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/business/property/2014/03/09/Saudi-dairy-giant-Almarai-buys-agricultural-land-in-USA-.html|title=Saudi dairy giant Almarai buys agricultural land in USA|website=english.alarabiya.net|date=9 March 2014|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref> Argentina,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/story/2011-12-25/argentina-farmland-saudi-arabia/52142448/1|title=Saudi firm buys farmland in Argentina to secure animal feed|website=USA Today|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20111225160434/https://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/story/2011-12-25/argentina-farmland-saudi-arabia/52142448/1|archive-date=2011-12-25}}</ref> and Africa.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2009/05/21/outsourcings-third-wave|title=Outsourcing's third wave|date=21 May 2009|access-date=26 March 2019|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/07/15/why-is-saudi-arabia-buying-up-african-farmland/|title=Why is Saudi Arabia buying up African farmland?|first=Michael|last=Wilkerson|date=15 July 2009 |access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://greenprophet.com/2012/06/africa-land-grab-middle-east/|title=African Land Grab Continues – Middle East Is Major Buyer|first=Arwa|last=Aburawa|website=Green Prophet|date=26 June 2012|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/05/21/rich-countries-are-buying-up-farmland-from-poorer-ones-around-the-world/ |title=An incredible image shows how powerful countries are buying up much of the world's land |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2015-05-21 |access-date=2019-03-26}}</ref> Saudi Arabia ranked as a major buyer of agricultural land in foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/transnational-land-deals-india-china-2012-5|title=These 14 Countries Are Buying Incredible Amounts Of Foreign Land In Deals You Never Hear About|first=Sanya|last=Khetani|website=Business Insider|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-china-foreign-farmland-20140329-story.html|title=China looks abroad for greener pastures|first=Barbara|last=Demick|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=29 March 2014|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref>
[[File:Water Stress, Top Countries (2020).svg|thumb|Saudi Arabia is the third most water stressed country in the world.<ref>[[FAO]]. 2023. ''[https://www.fao.org/3/cc8166en/cc8166en.pdf World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023]''. Rome. p. 41–42</ref>]]
According to the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme]] (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of the [[WHO]] and [[UNICEF]], the latest reliable source on access to water and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is the 2004 census. It indicates that 97% of the population had access to an improved source of drinking water and 99% had access to [[improved sanitation]]. For 2015, the JMP estimates that access to sanitation increased to 100%. Sanitation was primarily through on-site solutions, and about 40% of the population was connected to sewers.<ref name="JMP">{{Cite web |url=http://www.wssinfo.org/ |title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program |access-date=2007-10-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216075751/http://www.wssinfo.org/ |archive-date=2008-02-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, 886,000 people lacked access to "improved" water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/saudi-arabia/summary/|title=WASHWatch Saudi Arabia|website=washwatch.org|language=en|access-date=2017-03-22}}</ref><ref>WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Rijal Almaa at Night 2019.jpg|thumb|[[Rijal Almaa]] Heritage Village in [[Aseer]]]]

In 2019, Saudi Arabia adopted a general tourism [[travel visa]] to allow non-Muslims to visit.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hiltner |first=Stephen |date=2024-06-05 |title=Surprising, Unsettling, Surreal: Roaming Through Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/05/travel/saudi-arabia-tourism.html |access-date=2024-06-05 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Although most tourism largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to the [[World Bank]], approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, making it the world's 19th-most-visited country.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21607898-can-kingdom-attract-more-visitors-wish-you-were-here Tourism in Saudi Arabia: Wish you were here], economist.com.</ref> Tourism is an important component of the [[Saudi Vision 2030]], and according to a report conducted by [[BMI Research]] in 2018 both religious and non-religious tourism have significant potential for expansion.<ref>[http://www.arabianbusiness.com/travel-hospitality/387984-tourism-key-to-saudi-arabias-vision-2030-plans Tourism key to Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 plans], arabianbusiness.com</ref>

The kingdom offers an electronic visa for foreign visitors to attend sports events and concerts.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-visa/saudi-arabia-to-offer-visitor-visa-for-special-events-from-december-idUSKCN1M51LD|title=Saudi Arabia to offer visitor visa for special events from December|work=Reuters|access-date=25 September 2018}}</ref> In 2019, the kingdom announced its plans to open visa applications for visitors, where people from about 50 countries would be able to get tourist visas to Saudi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mirrorherald.com/tourist-visa-to-saudi-arabia/|title=Tourist Visa to Saudi Arabia: Revising Age-Old Policies for Visitors|access-date=8 September 2019|website=Mirror Herald|archive-date=3 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003010758/https://mirrorherald.com/tourist-visa-to-saudi-arabia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2020 it was announced that holders of a US, UK or [[Schengen Area|Schengen]] visa are eligible for a Saudi electronic visa upon arrival.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-04|title=Saudi visa on arrival for tourists with UK, US, EU visas|url=https://arab.news/prnxs|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arab News|language=en}}
</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Saudi Arabian people|Demographics of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Saudi Arabia population density 2010.png|thumb|Saudi Arabia population density (people per km2)]]
Saudi Arabia's reported population is 32,175,224 as of 2022,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-31 |title=Saudi Arabia's population crosses 32 million, census results show |url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/article/632956/SAUDI-ARABIA/Saudi-Arabias-population-crosses-32-million-census-results-show |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Saudigazette |language=English}}</ref> making it the fourth most populous country in the [[Arab world]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=@stats_saudi |url=https://twitter.com/stats_saudi/status/1663858269553668096?s=46&t=H4EEcLIw0913BHpEdhZ33w |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Twitter |language=en}}</ref> Close to 42% of its inhabitants are immigrants,<ref name="CIA2">{{cite web |date=December 21, 2021 |title=The World Factbook: Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319180722/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia |archive-date=March 19, 2021 |access-date=January 4, 2022 |website=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> mostly from the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thiollet |first=Hélène |date=2021-08-02 |title=Migrants and monarchs: regime survival, state transformation and migration politics in Saudi Arabia |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-03329591 |journal=Third World Quarterly |language=en |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=1645–1665 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2021.1948325 |s2cid=238794883}}</ref>

The Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950, when it was estimated at 3 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/Panel_profiles.htm |title=World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision |access-date=7 December 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507035406/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/Panel_profiles.htm |archive-date=7 May 2011 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> For much of the 20th century, the country had one of the highest population growth rates in the world, at around 3% annually;<ref name="long-27">[[#Long|Long]], p. 27</ref> it continues to grow at a rate of 1.62% per year,<ref name="CIA2"/> slightly higher than the rest of the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, the Saudi [[Youth in Saudi Arabia|people are quite young]] by global standards, with over half the population under 25 years old.<ref>One journalist states that 51% of the Saudi population is under the age of 25: {{cite web |author=Caryle Murphy |date=7 February 2012 |title=Saudi Arabia's Youth and the Kingdom's Future |url=http://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2012/02/saudi-arabias-youth-and-the-kingdoms-future/ |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars' Environmental Change and Security Program}} Two other sources state that 60% is under the age of 21: {{cite news |date=3 March 2012 |title=Out of the comfort zone |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2012/03/03/out-of-the-comfort-zone |newspaper=The Economist}}, [[#House|House]], p. 221</ref>

Ethnically, 90% of citizens are [[Arab]] with 10% holding [[Afro-Arab]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260118101507/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 January 2026|title=Saudi Arabia |work=The World Factbook |date=8 February 2022 |publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> Most Saudis are concentrated in the southwest; Hejaz, which is the most populated region,<ref>{{cite web |title=Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214002857/https://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp |archive-date=14 December 2018 |access-date=8 July 2014 |quote=The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the pilgrims to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.}}</ref> is home to one-third of the population, followed by neighbouring Najd (28%) and the Eastern Province (15%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf |title=Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic) |page=11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115051640/http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2013}}</ref> As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century, the kingdom has urbanized rapidly: as of 2023, about 85% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas—specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam.<ref>[[#House|House]], p. 69: "Most Saudis only two generations ago eked out a subsistence living in rural provinces, but ... urbanization over the past 40 years [so now] .... fully 80% of Saudis now live in one of the country's three major urban centers – Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam."</ref><ref>[[#HT2003|Tripp, ''Culture Shock'', 2003]]: p. 31</ref> As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at {{gaps|300|000}}.<ref>Willem Adriaan Veenhoven and Winifred Crum Ewing (1976) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tIfYPppdbeYC&pg=PA452 Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey]'', Brill, p. 452. {{ISBN|978-90-247-1779-8}}</ref> [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|Slavery]] was officially abolished in 1962.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_8.shtml |title=Religion & Ethics – Islam and slavery: Abolition |publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Slavery |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201010846/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |archive-date=1 February 2012}}</ref>

{{Largest cities
| country = Saudi Arabia
| stat_ref = Data.gov.sa (2013/2014/2016)
| list_by_pop = List of cities and towns in Saudi Arabia
| div_link = Regions of Saudi Arabia{{!}}Regions
|city_1 = Riyadh |div_1=Riyadh Region{{!}}Riyadh |pop_1=<ref>{{cite web|title=About ArRiyadh|url=http://www.arriyadh.com/Eng/Ab-Arriyad/Content/getdocument.aspx?f=%2Fopenshare%2FEng%2FAb-Arriyad%2FContent%2FRiyadh-in-year-2013.doc_cvt.htm|work=High Commission for the Development of Ar-Riyadh|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=6 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206134021/http://www.arriyadh.com/Eng/Ab-Arriyad/Content/getdocument.aspx?f=%2Fopenshare%2FEng%2FAb-Arriyad%2FContent%2FRiyadh-in-year-2013.doc_cvt.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> 6,506,700
|city_2 = Jeddah |div_2=Makkah Region{{!}}Mecca |pop_2=<ref name="Makkah Al-Mokarramah">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Makkah Al-Mokarramah Region, 2014 A.D.|url=https://www.stats.gov.sa/sites/default/files/cdsi_data/yb50/Tabels/Chapter2/Table2-3.htm|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302154408/https://www.stats.gov.sa/sites/default/files/cdsi_data/yb50/Tabels/Chapter2/Table2-3.htm|archive-date=2 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> 3,976,400
|city_3 = Mecca |div_3=Mecca Province{{!}}Mecca |pop_3=<ref name="Makkah Al-Mokarramah"/> 1,919,900
|city_4 = Medina |div_4=Medina Province (Saudi Arabia){{!}}Medina |pop_4=<ref name="Al-Madinah Al-Monawarah">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Al-Madinah Al-Monawarah Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/53/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183628/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/53/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 1,271,800
|city_5 = Hofuf |div_5=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_5=<ref name="Eastern Region">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Eastern Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/65/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183625/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/65/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 1,136,900
|city_6 = Ta'if |div_6=Mecca Province{{!}}Mecca |pop_6=<ref name="Makkah Al-Mokarramah"/> 1,109,800
|city_7 = Dammam |div_7=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_7=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 975,800
|city_8 = Buraidah |div_8=Al-Qassim Region{{!}}Al-Qassim |pop_8=<ref name="Al-Qaseem">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Al-Qaseem Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/55/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183620/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/55/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 658,600
|city_9 = Khobar |div_9=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_9=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 626,200
|city_10 = Tabuk, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Tabuk |div_10=Tabuk Region{{!}}Tabuk |pop_10=<ref name="Tabouk">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Tabouk Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/75/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112235000/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/75/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 609,000
|city_11 = Qatif |div_11=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_11=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 559,300
|city_12 = Khamis Mushait |div_12=Asir|pop_12=<ref name="Aseer">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Aseer Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/61/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183622/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/61/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 549,000
|city_13 = Ha'il |div_13=Ha'il Region{{!}}Ha'il |pop_13=<ref name="Hail">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Hail Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/67/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125210933/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/67/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 441,900
|city_14 = Hafar al-Batin |div_14=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_14=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 416,800
|city_15 = Jubail |div_15=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_15=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 411,700
|city_16 = Kharj |div_16=Riyadh Region{{!}}Riyadh |pop_16=<ref name="Al-Riyad">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Al-Riyad Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/57/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183619/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/57/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 404,100
|city_17 = Abha |div_17=Asir |pop_17=<ref name="Aseer"/> 392,500
|city_18 = Najran |div_18=Najran Region{{!}}Najran |pop_18=<ref name="Najran">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Najran Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/57/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183619/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/57/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 352,900
|city_19 = Yanbu |div_19=Al Madinah Region{{!}}Al Madinah |pop_19=<ref name="Al-Madinah Al-Monawarah"/> 320,800
|city_20 = Al Qunfudhah |div_20=Mecca Province{{!}}Mecca |pop_20=<ref name="Makkah Al-Mokarramah"/> 304,400
}}

=== Language ===
The official language is [[Arabic]].<ref name="CIA World Factbook">[https://web.archive.org/web/20260118101507/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ Saudi Arabia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref><ref name="BLG">{{cite web |title=Basic Law of Governance |url=https://www.moe.gov.sa/en/TheMinistry/AboutKSA/Pages/System-of-Governance.aspx |access-date=1 September 2020 |website=Ministry of Education |publisher=Ministry of Education – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |archive-date=5 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205091610/https://www.moe.gov.sa/en/TheMinistry/AboutKSA/Pages/System-of-Governance.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are four main regional dialect groups spoken by Saudis: [[Najdi Arabic|Najdi]] (about 14.6 million speakers<ref>[[:ethnologue:ars|Arabic, Najdi Spoken]]. Ethnologue</ref>), [[Hejazi Arabic|Hejazi]] (about 10.3 million speakers<ref>[[:ethnologue:acw|Arabic, Hijazi Spoken]]. Ethnologue</ref>), [[Gulf Arabic|Gulf]] (about 0.96 million speakers<ref>[[:ethnologue:afb|Arabic, Gulf Spoken]]. Ethnologue</ref>), and Southern Hejaz-Tihama<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prochazka |first1=Theodore |title=Saudi Arabian dialects |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=9781138981294 |page=3 |edition=First issued in paperpack}}</ref> dialects. [[Faifi language|Faifi]] is spoken by about {{gaps|50|000}}. The [[Mehri language]] is also spoken by around {{gaps|20|000}} [[Mehri people|Mehri]] citizens.<ref>{{cite news |last1=الحيدري |first1=فيصل |title=20 ألف سعودي يتحدثون "المهرية" |url=https://www.alwatan.com.sa/article/142226 |access-date=19 September 2022 |work=Watanksa |date=20 June 2012 |language=Arabic}}</ref> [[Saudi Sign Language]] is the principal language of the deaf community, amounting to around {{gaps|100|000}} speakers. The large expatriate communities have brought their languages as well, the most numerous of which, according to 2018 data, are [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (~1 {{gaps|500|000}}), [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (~{{gaps|900|000}}), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (~{{gaps|800|000}}), [[Urdu]] (~{{gaps|740|000}}), [[Egyptian Arabic]] (~{{gaps|600|000}}), [[Rohingya language|Rohingya]], [[North Levantine Arabic]] (both ~{{gaps|500|000}})<ref>{{Cite web|title=Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/SA/status|access-date=2021-01-19|website=Ethnologue}}</ref> and [[Malayalam]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Basheer |first1=K P M |title=Market for Malayalam films unfolding in Saudi |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cinema-returns-to-saudi-arabia/article21599013.ece |access-date=17 November 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=14 September 2017}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Masjid Quba Mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Quba Mosque]] in [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]] is considered to be one of the [[List of the oldest mosques|oldest mosques]], dating to the lifetime of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]].{{efn|The [[Mosque of the Companions, Massawa|Mosque of the Companions]] in the [[Eritrea]]n city of [[Massawa]] dates to approximately the same period, the 7th century CE.<ref name="Reid2012Massawa">{{cite book |last=Reid |first=Richard J. |title=A History of Modern Africa: 1800 to the Present |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]] |chapter=The Islamic Frontier in Eastern Africa |page=106 |isbn=978-0-470-65898-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=US6RQtYwasUC |date=12 January 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref>}}]]

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Saudi Arabia (ARDA 2020 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=196c|title=Religions in Saudi Arabia | Arda|website=www.thearda.com|access-date=14 January 2026}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Sunni]]
| value1 = 80.07
| color1 = Green
| label2 = [[Shia]]
| value2 = 8.89
| color2 = Light Green
| label3 = [[Islam|Other Muslim]]
| value3 = .45
| color3 = Dark Green
| label4 = [[Catholic]]
| value4 = 6.52
| color4 = Light Blue
| label5 = [[Christianity|Other Christian]]
| value5 = .46
| color5 = Dark Blue
| label6 = [[Hinduism]]
| value6 = 2.03
| color6 = Orange
| label7 = [[Buddhism]]
| value7 = .33
| color7 = Yellow
| label8 = [[Irreligion|None]]
| value8 = .71
| color8 = Black
| label9 = Other
| value9 = 0.54
| color9 = White
}}

Virtually all Saudi inhabitants [[Islam in Saudi Arabia|are Muslim]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108194815/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|title=Mapping the World Muslim Population|archive-date=8 November 2009}}</ref><ref name=PewForump.17>[http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf Mapping the World Muslim Population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619214725/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf |date=19 June 2018 }}(October 2009), Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. p. 16 (p. 17 of the PDF).</ref><ref>Data for Saudi Arabia comes primarily from general population surveys, which are less reliable than censuses or large-scale demographic and health surveys for estimating minority-majority ratios.</ref> as by law Saudi citizens are Muslim. Estimates of the [[Sunni]] population range between 85% and 90%, with the remaining 10 to 15% being [[Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shia Muslim]],<ref name=PF2009>{{cite web|title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population. Countries with More Than 100,000 Shia Muslims |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/|website=Pew Forum|access-date=12 March 2015|date=7 October 2009|quote=Saudi Arabia ... Approximate Percentage of Muslim Population that is Shia .... 10–15}}</ref><ref name=bbc-shia>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7959531.stm |title=Saudi Arabia's Shia press for rights|publisher= bbc|first1=Anees|last1=al-Qudaihi |date=24 March 2009 |quote=Although they only represent 15% of the overall Saudi population of more than 25 million ...}}</ref><ref name=cfr-shiite>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html|title=Shia Muslims in the Mideast|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations|first1=Lionel|last1=Beehner|date=16 June 2006|access-date=12 March 2015|quote=Small but potentially powerful Shiite are found throughout the Gulf States ... Saudi Arabia (15 percent)|archive-date=11 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411123648/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Nasr2006 p. 236">Nasr, ''Shia Revival'', (2006) p. 236</ref> practicing either [[Twelver Shi'ism]] or [[Sulaymani|Sulaymani Ismailism]]. [[Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shia Muslims in Saudi Arabia]] are largely found in the [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]], particularly in [[Qatif]] and [[Al-Ahsa Governorate|Al–Ahsa]].<ref name="ibnghannam">{{cite book |last=Ibn Ghannam |first=Hussien |title=Tarikh najd |year=1961 |location=Cairo |page=438}}</ref> The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam is [[Salafism]], commonly known as [[Wahhabism]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wSVQI3Ya2EC&pg=PA54|title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam: Second Edition|last=Esposito|first=John L.|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press, US|isbn=978-0-19-979413-3|page=54}}</ref><ref name="The Daily Star">[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=4&article_id=121904 The Daily Star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127003849/http://dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=4&Article_id=121904 |date=27 November 2010 }}| Lamine Chikhi| 27 November 2010.</ref>{{efn|Proponents prefer the name ''Salafist'', considering ''Wahhabi'' derogatory.}} which was founded in the Arabian Peninsula by [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] in the 18th century. Other denominations, including [[Shia Islam]], are systematically suppressed by the state apparatus.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2009/09/03/saudi-arabia-treat-shia-equally |title=Saudi Arabia: Treat Shia Equally |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=3 September 2009 |access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref> Atheism and apostasy are punishable by death or by life imprisonment.

[[Christianity in Saudi Arabia|Christianity is the second largest religion in Saudi Arabia]], estimated at around 2.1 million, of whom the vast majority are foreign workers.<ref>{{cite book|author=House, Karen Elliott|title=On Saudi Arabia : Its People, past, Religion, Fault Lines and Future|publisher=Knopf|year=2012|page=235}}</ref> Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as temporary foreign workers but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. There are officially no Saudi citizens who are Christians,<ref>{{cite web | author = Central Intelligence Agency |date=28 April 2010 |title=Saudi Arabia |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260118101507/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 January 2026 |access-date=22 May 2010}}</ref> as Saudi Arabia forbids religious conversion from Islam ([[Apostasy in Saudi Arabia|apostasy]]) and punishes it by death.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of religious freedom|last=Cookson|first=Catharine|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-94181-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse/page/207 207]|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse/page/207}}</ref> There are over 708,000 [[Hinduism in Saudi Arabia|Hindus in Saudi Arabia]], comprising the third largest religion; like other minority faiths in the country, with all of them coming from South Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/saudi-arabia/ |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}</ref> There may be a significant fraction of [[Atheism|atheists]] and [[Agnosticism|agnostics]],<ref name="Gallup">WIN-Gallup 2012 [http://redcresearch.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/RED-C-press-release-Religion-and-Atheism-25-7-12.pdf Global Index of Religion and atheism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812210929/http://redcresearch.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/RED-C-press-release-Religion-and-Atheism-25-7-12.pdf |date=12 August 2012 }}</ref><ref>Fisher, M. & Dewey, C. (2013) [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/05/23/a-surprising-map-of-where-the-worlds-atheists-live/ A surprising map of where the world's atheists live]. Washington Post, online</ref> although they are officially designated as "terrorists".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-declares-all-atheists-are-terrorists-in-new-law-to-crack-down-on-political-dissidents-9228389.html|title=All atheists are terrorists, Saudi Arabia declares|date=1 April 2014|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref> In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Saudi Arabia a [[Country of Particular Concern]], denoting systematic, ongoing, and egregious violations of religious freedom.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report, 2017|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2017.USCIRFAnnualReport.pdf|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref>

[[Najran]] was once home to sizeable historical local [[Christian community of Najran|Christian]] and [[History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia|Jewish communities]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Assegaf |first=Faisal |date=2022-10-27 |title=I am among a few Jews originated from Saudi Arabia still alive |url=https://albalad.co/wawancara/2022A12466/i-am-among-a-few-jews-originated-from-saudi-arabia-still-alive/ |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=albalad.co |language=en-US}}</ref> Before the founding of [[Israel]], Najran had over 7,000 Jews,<ref>{{Cite web |title=رتبها |url=https://rattibha.com/thread/1254881982942756869 |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=rattibha.com}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> predominantly of [[Yemenite Jews|Yemenite Jewish]] background.<ref name=":2" /> Following the [[establishment of Israel]] and the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948 Arab–Israeli war]], Jews began leaving for Israel via [[Yemen]].<ref name=":2" /> By the 1970s, there were no Jews left in the country.

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:KAUST laboratory buildings and town mosque.jpg|thumb|Laboratory buildings at [[KAUST]]]]
Education is free at all levels, although [[Higher education in Saudi Arabia|higher education]] is restricted to citizens only.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/the-saudi-education-system-education-essay.php|title=Saudi Education System|website=UKEssays.com|date=14 July 2017 |access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref> The school system is composed of [[List of schools in Saudi Arabia|elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools]]. Classes are segregated by sex. At the secondary level, students are able to choose from three types of schools: general education, vocational or [[List of technical colleges in Saudi Arabia|technical]], and religious.<ref>{{Cite web |title=K 12 Education System of Saudi Arabia Classes 1 to 12 |url=https://www.saudiarabiaeducation.info/k12/saudi-arabia-k-12-education-system.html |access-date=2022-06-21 |website=www.saudiarabiaeducation.info}}</ref> The rate of literacy is 99% among males and 96% among females in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Literacy rate, adult male (% of males ages 15 and above) {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.MA.ZS |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above) {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.FE.ZS |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Youth literacy rose to approximately 99.5% for both sexes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Literacy rate, youth male (% of males ages 15–24) – Saudi Arabia {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.MA.ZS?locations=SA|access-date=2022-01-16|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15–24) – Saudi Arabia {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.FE.ZS?locations=SA|access-date=2022-01-16|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>

[[File:Kings Saud University Entrance Gate, Riyadh.jpg|thumb|left|The entrance gate of [[King Saud University]], the kingdom's oldest university, founded in 1957]]

Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of [[List of universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia|universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000]]. Institutions of higher education include [[King Saud University]] at Riyadh, the [[Islamic University of Madinah|Islamic University]] at Medina, and the [[King Abdulaziz University]] in Jeddah. [[Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University|Princess Norah University]] is the largest women's university in the world. [[King Abdullah University of Science and Technology]], known as KAUST, is the first mixed-gender university campus in Saudi Arabia and was founded in 2009. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula in sciences and [[Educational technology in Saudi Arabia|technology]], military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions.<ref name=Britannica />
[[File:UIS literacy rate Saudi Arabia population plus15 1990-2015.png|thumb|[[UNESCO Institute for Statistics|UIS]] literacy rate Saudi Arabia population, 15 plus, 1990–2015]]
The ''[[Academic Ranking of World Universities]]'', known as Shanghai Ranking, ranked five Saudi institutions among its 2022 list of the 500 top universities in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shanghai Ranking's Academic Ranking of World Universities |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2022 |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=www.shanghairanking.com}}</ref> The [[QS World University Rankings]] lists 14 Saudi universities among the 2022 world's top universities and 23 universities among the top 100 in the [[Arab world]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=QS Arab Region University Rankings 2022 |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/arab-region-university-rankings/2022 |access-date=2022-06-21 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref> The 2022 list of [[U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking]] ranked King Abdulaziz University among the top 50 universities in the world and [[KAUST]] among the top 100 universities in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=King Abdulaziz University Wins Global 'Zero Project Award' for 2024 |url=https://english.aawsat.com/node/4877301 |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=english.aawsat.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 2018, Saudi Arabia ranked 28th worldwide in terms of high-quality research output according to the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]].''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.natureindex.com/annual-tables/2018/country/all|title=2018 tables: Countries/territories|work=Nature Index|access-date=23 August 2018|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019214046/https://www.natureindex.com/annual-tables/2018/country/all|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saudi Arabia spends 9% of its gross domestic product on education, compared with the global average of 5%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1503356/business-economy|title=Saudi Arabia most improved economy for business|date=28 May 2019|website=Arab News|access-date=28 May 2019}}</ref> Saudi Arabia was ranked 46th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025, up from 68th in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/saudi-arabia |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging [[Islamic terrorism]], leading to reform efforts.<ref name="Reforming Saudi Education">[http://www.slate.com/id/2226874/entry/2226875/ Reforming Saudi Education] Slate 7 September. 2009.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=Eli|last=Lake|date=25 March 2014 |title=U.S. Keeps Saudi Arabia's Worst Secret |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/25/u-s-keeps-saudi-arabia-s-worst-secret.html |work=[[The Daily Beast]]}}</ref> Following the 9/11 attacks, the government aimed to tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a modern economy, by slowly modernizing the education system through the "Tatweer" reform programme.<ref name="Reforming Saudi Education" /> The Tatweer programme is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyse and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally based training.<ref name="chronicle.com">[http://chronicle.com/article/Saudi-Arabias-Education/124771/ "Saudi Arabia's Education Reforms Emphasize Training for Jobs"] ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', 3 October 2010.</ref><ref>Al-Kinani, Mohammed [http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=2008081814710 SR9 billion Tatweer project set to transform education] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511114309/http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=2008081814710 |date=11 May 2011 }}. The Saudi Gazette.</ref>

In 2021, the ''[[Washington Post]]'' reported on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] and [[Sexism|sexist]]. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of [[homosexuality]] or same-sex relations have been deleted, as well as the expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Antisemitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the [[Anti-Defamation League]], said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians, and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down. The U.S. State Department expressed in an e-mail that it welcomed the changes. The Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs supports a training programme for Saudi teachers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/gdpr-consent/?next_url=https%3a%2f%2fwww.washingtonpost.com%2fworld%2fmiddle_east%2fsaudi-arabia-textbooks-education-curriculum%2f2021%2f01%2f30%2f28ebe632-5a54-11eb-a849-6f9423a75ffd_story.html|title=Saudi Arabia scrubs school textbooks of some offensive text|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=30 January 2021}}</ref>

=== Health care ===
{{Main|Health in Saudi Arabia|Health care in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Sauditwins 17.jpg|thumb|Saudi twins receiving care from doctors at [[King Abdulaziz Medical City]] in [[Riyadh]]]]

Saudi Arabia has a national health care system in which the government provides free health care services through government agencies. Saudi Arabia has been ranked among the 26 best countries in providing high quality healthcare.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Al-Hanawi|first1=Mohammed Khaled|last2=Khan|first2=Sami A.|last3=Al-Borie|first3=Hussein Mohammed|date=2019-02-27|title=Healthcare human resource development in Saudi Arabia: emerging challenges and opportunities—a critical review|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=40|issue=1|article-number=1|doi=10.1186/s40985-019-0112-4|pmid=30858991|pmc=6391748|issn=2107-6952 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Ministry of Health (Saudi Arabia)|Ministry of Health]] is the major government agency entrusted with the provision of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative health care. The ministry's origins can be traced to 1925, when several regional health departments were established, with the first in Makkah. The various healthcare institutions were merged to become a ministerial body in 1950.<ref>{{cite book|author=David E. Long|title=Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long|url-access=registration|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32021-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long/page/15 15]}}</ref> The Health Ministry created a friendly competition between each of the districts and between different medical services and hospitals. This idea resulted in the creation of the "Ada'a" project launched in 2016. The new system is a nationwide performance indicator, for services and hospitals. Waiting times and other major measurements improved dramatically across the kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia's 937 Service Center received 80,007 calls last week |date=15 October 2018 |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1387831/saudi-arabia |publisher=[[Arab News]]}}</ref>

[[File:Life_expectancy_in_Saudi Arabia.svg|thumb|left|Historical development of life expectancy in Saudi Arabia]]

A new strategy has been developed by the ministry, known as Diet and Physical Activity Strategy or DPAS for short,<ref>{{cite web |title=It's time to tip the scale against Saudi Arabia's obesity problem |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1349476 |publisher=Arab News |date=1 August 2018}}</ref> to address bad lifestyle choices. The ministry advised that there should be a tax increase on unhealthy food, drink, and cigarettes. This additional tax could be used to improve healthcare offerings. The tax was implemented in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shalhoub |first1=Lulwa |title=New tax doubles the price of cigarettes, energy drinks in Saudi Arabia |date=12 June 2017 |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1113771/saudi-arabia |publisher=[[Arab News]]}}</ref> As part of the same strategy, calorie labels were added in 2019 to some food and drink products. Ingredients were also listed as an aim to reduce obesity and inform citizens with health issues to manage their diet.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gillett |first1=Katy |title=Saudi Arabia brings in mandatory calorie labels on menus |date=2 January 2019 |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/health/saudi-arabia-brings-in-mandatory-calorie-labels-on-menus-1.808556 |publisher=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]}}</ref> As part of the ongoing focus on tackling obesity, women-only gyms were allowed to open in 2017. Sports offered in each of these gyms include bodybuilding, running and swimming to maintain higher standards of health.<ref>{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Charles |title=Saudi Arabia to allow women to use gyms to lose weight |url=https://metro.co.uk/2017/02/13/saudi-arabia-to-allow-women-to-use-gyms-to-lose-weight-6446103/ |publisher=[[Metro (British newspaper)|Metro]] |date=13 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Fitness First confirms launch of ladies-only gyms in KSA |date=4 March 2017 |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1063326/corporate-news |publisher=[[Arab News]]}}</ref>

[[Smoking in Saudi Arabia|Smoking in all age groups]] is widespread. Before 2010, Saudi Arabia had no policies banning or restricting smoking.

The MOH has been awarded "Healthy City" certificates by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) for the cities of [[Unayzah]] and [[Riyadh Al Khabra]] as 4th and 5th Healthy Cities in Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite tweet |title=#WHA72: Dr Al-Mandhari presented #HealthyCity certificates to Dr Hani Jokhadar @jokhdarh Undersecretary @SaudiMOH to award Unayzah & Riyadh Al Khabra as 4th and 5th healthy cities in The cities were qualified after successful evaluation by @WHO & external experts in March 2019. |user=whoemro |number=1131318112073203712 |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref>
The WHO had earlier classified three Saudi Arabian cities, [[Ad Diriyah]], [[Jalajil]], and Al-Jamoom as "Healthy city", as part of the WHO Healthy Cities Programme. Recently [[Al-Baha]] has also been classified as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization.<ref>{{cite tweet |title=سمو أمير منطقة #الباحة يتسلم شهادة #المندق الصحية من معالي وزير الصحة بعد تصنيفها كمدينة صحية لتنضم إلى قائمة المدن الصحية العالمية المعتمدة من منظمة الصحة العالمية. وكانت كل من #الدرعية و #جلاجل و #الجموم و #عنيزة و #رياض_الخبراء قد أعلن عنها سابقًا كمدن صحية. |language=ar |trans-title=His Highness, the Emir of Al-Baha region, receives the Al-Mandaq health certificate from His Excellency the Minister of Health after classifying it as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization. Al-Diriyah, Jalajil, Al-Jumum, Onaizah, and Riyadh Al-Khubra were previously declared healthy cities. |user=SaudiMOH |number=1312783064595079170 |publisher=Ministry of Health}}</ref>

In May 2019, the then Saudi Minister of Health [[Tawfiq bin Fawzan AlRabiah]] received a global award on behalf of the Kingdom for combating smoking through social awareness, treatment, and application of regulations.<ref name="smokingaward">{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia receives global anti-smoking award |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1501311/saudi-arabia |publisher=Arab News |date=24 May 2019}}</ref> The award was presented as part of the 72nd session of the [[World Health Assembly]], held in Geneva in May 2019. After becoming one of the first nations to ratify the [[WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control]] in 2005, it plans to reduce tobacco use from 12.7% in 2017, to 5% in 2030.<ref name="smokingaward" />

Saudi Arabia has a life expectancy of 78 years (77 for males and 80 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2022 from the World Bank.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=SA&most_recent_value_desc=true|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Saudi Arabia {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=14 December 2019}}</ref> Infant mortality in 2022 was 6 per 1000 (6 for males and 5 for females).<ref name=":1" /> In 2022, 71.8% of the adult population was overweight and 40.6% was obese.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gho/ncd/risk_factors/overweight_obesity/obesity_adults/en/|title=Overweight and obesity|website=World Health Organization|access-date=25 August 2018}}</ref>

=== Foreigners ===
{{See also|Foreign workers in Saudi Arabia|Migrant workers in the Gulf region|Kafala system}}

The Central Department of Statistics & Information estimated the foreign population at the end of 2014 at 33% (10.1 million).<ref name="CDSI">{{cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/news/697371 |title=KSA population is 30.8m; 33% expats|date=31 January 2015 |publisher=ArabNews.com | access-date=6 November 2015}}</ref> The CIA Factbook estimated that {{as of|2013|lc=on}} foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21% of the population.<ref name="CIA World Factbook" /> Other sources report differing estimates.<ref name="alriyadh.com">{{cite web |author=جريدة الرياض |title=جريدة الرياض : سكان المملكة 27 مليوناً بينهم 8 ملايين مقيم |work=جريدة الرياض |url=http://www.alriyadh.com/2010/08/05/article549461.html |publisher=Alriyadh.com}}</ref> [[Indians in Saudi Arabia|Indian]]: 1.5 million, [[Pakistanis in Saudi Arabia|Pakistani]]: 1.3 million,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/number-pakistani-expats-exceeds-15-m |title=Number of Pakistani expats exceeds 1.5 m |publisher=Arabnews.com |date=29 August 2012}}</ref> Egyptian: {{gaps|900|000}}, Yemeni: {{gaps|800|000}}, [[Bangladeshis in Saudi Arabia|Bangladeshi]]: {{gaps|400|000}}, [[Filipinos in Saudi Arabia|Filipino]]: {{gaps|500|000}}, Jordanian/Palestinian: {{gaps|260|000}}, [[Indonesians in Saudi Arabia|Indonesian]]: {{gaps|250|000}}, Sri Lankan: {{gaps|350|000}}, Sudanese: {{gaps|250|000}}, [[Syrians in Saudi Arabia|Syrian]]: {{gaps|100|000}} and [[Turks in Saudi Arabia|Turkish]]: {{gaps|80|000}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/EGM_Ittmig_Arab/P02_Kapiszewski.pdf |title=Arab versus Asian migrant workers in the GCC countries |page=10}}</ref>

According to ''[[The Guardian]]'', {{as of|2013|lc=yes}} there were more than half a million [[Migrant domestic workers|foreign-born domestic workers]]. Most have backgrounds in poverty and come from Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.<ref name="the guardian1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/13/saudi-arabia-treatment-foreign-workers |date=13 January 2013 |title=Saudi Arabia's treatment of foreign workers under fire after beheading of Sri Lankan maid |last=Chamberlain |first=Gethin |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=14 January 2013 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140307/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/13/saudi-arabia-treatment-foreign-workers |url-status=live }}</ref> To go to work in Saudi Arabia, they must often pay large sums to recruitment agencies in their home countries. The agencies then handle the necessary legal paperwork.<ref name="humanrightswatch1">{{cite web |author=Human Rights Watch |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=printdoc&docid=412ef32a4 |title='Bad Dreams:' Exploitation and Abuse of Migrant Workers in Saudi Arabia |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=14 July 2004 |access-date=14 January 2013 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312095552/https://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=printdoc&docid=412ef32a4 |url-status=live }}</ref>

As the Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country.<ref>{{cite web |author1=P.K. Abdul Ghafour |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/395511 |title=3 million expats to be sent out gradually |date=21 October 2011 |access-date=7 December 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108233041/http://www.arabnews.com/node/395511 |archive-date=8 November 2011 |quote="Nearly three million expatriate workers will have to leave the Kingdom in the next few years as the Labour Ministry has put a 20% ceiling on the country's guest workers" }}</ref> Saudi Arabia expelled {{gaps|800|000}} Yemenis in 1990 and 1991<ref>"[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/01/yemen-guantanamo-al-qaida Yemen's point of no return]". ''The Guardian''. 1 April 2009.</ref> and has built a [[Saudi–Yemen barrier]] against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hiiraan.com/news2/2008/jan/saudi_authorities_erect_barriers_on_yemeni_border.aspx |title=Saudi authorities erect barriers on Yemeni border |first=Mohammed|last=al-Kibsi|date=12 January 2008 |newspaper=Yemen Observer}}</ref> In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticized Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.persecutionofahmadis.org/saudi-arabia-amnesty-international-calls-for-end-to-arrests-and-expulsions/ |title=Saudi Arabia: Amnesty International calls for end to arrests and expulsions "Persecution of Ahmadiyya Muslim Community |publisher=Persecutionofahmadis.org}}</ref>

Over {{gaps|500|000}} [[Illegal immigration to Saudi Arabia|undocumented migrant workers]]—mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen—have been detained and deported since 2013.<ref>"[https://www.vice.com/en/article/dogs-are-better-than-you-saudi-arabia-accused-of-mass-abuses-during-migrant-worker-crackdown/ 'Dogs Are Better Than You': Saudi Arabia Accused of Mass Abuses During Migrant Worker Crackdown]". [[Vice News]]. 11 May 2015.</ref> An investigation led by ''[[The Sunday Telegraph]]'', exposed the condition of African migrants who were detained in Saudi Arabia allegedly for containing [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] in the kingdom. They were beaten, tortured, and electrocuted. Many of the migrants died due to heatstroke or by attempting suicide, after being severely beaten and tortured. The migrants lack proper living conditions, provision of food and water.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/investigation-african-migrants-left-die-saudi-arabias-hellish/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/investigation-african-migrants-left-die-saudi-arabias-hellish/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Investigation: African migrants 'left to die' in Saudi Arabia's hellish Covid detention centres|access-date=30 August 2020|website=The Telegraph|date=30 August 2020|last1=Brown|first1=Will|last2=Zelalem|first2=Zecharias}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Foreigners cannot apply for [[permanent residency]], though a specialized [[Premium Residency]] visa became available in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia Charges Foreigners $213,000 for Permanent Residency |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-23/saudi-arabia-charges-foreigners-213-000-for-permanent-residency |work=Bloomberg |date=23 June 2019}}</ref> Only Muslims can naturalize as Saudi citizens.<ref>{{cite book|first=Eleanor|last=Doumato|editor-first1=Sameena|chapter=Saudi Arabia|editor-last1=Nazir|editor-first2=Leigh|editor-last2=Tomppert|title=Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Citizenship and Justice|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5spje12_is4C&q=Only%2520a%2520muslim%2520can%2520be%2520a%2520saudi%2520citizen&pg=PA259|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|date= 2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-4992-0|page=259}}</ref> Foreigners who have resided in the kingdom and hold degrees in various scientific fields may apply for Saudi citizenship,<ref>{{Cite web|title=تفاصيل النظام|url=https://laws.boe.gov.sa/BoeLaws/Laws/LawDetails/d9f183b6-3afc-4405-834f-a9a700f18571/1|access-date=2021-06-06|website=laws.boe.gov.sa}}</ref><ref>2004 law passed by Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers. {{cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=58980&d=14&m=2&y=2005 |title=Expatriates Can Apply for Saudi Citizenship in Two-to-Three Months |publisher=Arabnews.com |date=14 February 2005}}</ref> and exception made for Palestinians who are excluded unless married to a male Saudi national, because of [[Arab League]] instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Saudi Arabia is not a signatory to the [[Convention relating to the Status of Refugees|1951 UN Refugee Convention]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/12/saudi-arabia-says-reports-of-its-syrian-refugee-response-false-and-misleading |title=Saudi Arabia says criticism of Syria refugee response 'false and misleading' |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=12 September 2015}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Masjid Nabawi The Prophet's Mosque, Madina.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mosque of the Prophet]] in [[Medina]] containing the tomb of [[Muhammad]]]]
Saudi Arabia has millennia-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from [[History of the Arabs|Arab civilization]]. Some of the major factors that influence the culture are Islamic heritage and [[Arab]] traditions as well as its historical role as an ancient trade centre.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sacm.org.au/culture-traditions-and-art/|title=Culture, Traditions and Art|website=Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission {{!}} SACM|access-date=24 April 2019|archive-date=24 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424202018/https://sacm.org.au/culture-traditions-and-art/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kingdom also has a very family-oriented culture<ref>{{cite book |author-link= |editor= Rodrigo Basco, Andrea Calabrò, Albert E. James, Jeremy Cheng, Luis Díaz Matajira, Nupur Pavan Bang, Georges Samara|date= May 13, 2022|title= Family Business Case Studies Across the World |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=O-VvEAAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |page= |isbn= 9781800884250}}</ref> with an emphasis on preserving family traditions and kinship ties.<ref>{{cite news |last= Jambi|first=Rahaf |date=October 3, 2023 |title= Maintaining family traditions and ties plays an important role in Riyadh social life |url= https://www.arabnews.com/node/2382811/saudi-arabia |work=[[Arab News]] |location=[[Riyadh]] |access-date=October 25, 2023}}</ref>

=== Religion in society ===
Religion is a core aspect of everyday life in Saudi Arabia; it plays a dominant role in the country's governance and legal system, and deeply influences culture and daily life, although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Dadouch |first=Sarah |date=3 August 2021 |title=Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed seeks to reduce influential clerics' power |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudi-clerics-crown-prince-mohammed/2021/08/02/9ae796a0-e3ed-11eb-88c5-4fd6382c47cb_story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803102359/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudi-clerics-crown-prince-mohammed/2021/08/02/9ae796a0-e3ed-11eb-88c5-4fd6382c47cb_story.html |archive-date=3 August 2021 |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> The [[Hejaz]] region, where the [[holiest sites in Islam|Islamic holy cities]] of Mecca and Medina are located, is the destination of the [[Hajj|Ḥajj]] pilgrimage, and often deemed to be the cradle of Islam.<ref name="Arabia: the Cradle of Islam">[http://www.muhammadanism.org/Zwemer/arabia/arabia_cradle_islam.pdf Arabia: the Cradle of Islam], 1900, S.M.Zwemmer</ref>{{efn|A number of Muslims, using justifications from the Quran,<ref>{{qref|2|7-286|b=y}}</ref><ref>{{qref|3|96|b=y}}</ref><ref>{{qref|22|25-37|b=y}}</ref> insist that Islam did not begin with [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]], but that it represents even previous [prophet]]s such as [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]],<ref name="Esposito1998">{{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.) |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511234-4 |pages=9, 12}}</ref><ref name="Esposito2002b">Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.</ref><ref name="Peters2003">{{cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9 9] |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9 }}</ref><ref name="Alli2013">{{cite book |last=Alli |first=Irfan |title=25 Prophets of Islam |publisher=eBookIt.com |isbn=978-1-4566-1307-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5nRJK9sLjLsC |date=26 February 2013}}</ref> who is credited with having established the sanctuary of Mecca.<ref name="Michigan C 1986">{{cite book |author=Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies |editor1=Goss, V.P. |editor2=Bornstein, C.V. |title=The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades |publisher=Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University |volume=21 |page=208 |isbn=978-0-918720-58-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ |year=1986}}</ref><ref name="Abu Sway 2011">{{cite news |author=Mustafa Abu Sway |title=The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Qur'an, Sunnah and other Islamic Literary Source |publisher=[[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] |url=http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Abusway_0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728001911/http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Abusway_0.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Dyrness2013">{{cite book |author=Dyrness, W.A. |title=Senses of Devotion: Interfaith Aesthetics in Buddhist and Muslim Communities |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock]] Publishers |volume=7 |page=25 |isbn=978-1-62032-136-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=inJNAwAAQBAJ |year=2013}}</ref>}}

Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia. There is no law that requires all citizens to be Muslim, but non-Muslims and many foreign and Saudi Muslims whose beliefs are deemed not to conform with the government's interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and, for foreigners, deportation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Saudi Arabia|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2013/nea/222311.htm|access-date=2021-11-03|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> Neither Saudi citizens nor guest workers have the right of [[freedom of religion]].<ref name=depstate>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2004|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2004/35507.htm|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=22 September 2012}}</ref> The dominant form of Islam in the kingdom—Wahhabism—arose in the central region of Najd, in the 18th century. Proponents call the movement "[[Salafism]]",<ref name="The Daily Star" /> and believe that its teachings purify the practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of Muhammad and [[Sahaba|his companions]].<ref>[https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21695.pdf 'The Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya'], US Congressional Research Service Report, 2008, by Christopher M. Blanchard available from the Federation of American Scientists website</ref> The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor of [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] because of the funding of the Wahhabi ideology which denounces the Shia faith.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/alastair-crooke/isis-wahhabism-saudi-arabia_b_5717157.html|title=You Can't Understand ISIS If You Don't Know the History of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia|website=[[HuffPost]]|date=27 August 2014}}</ref><ref name=syedjaffar>{{cite web|last=syedjaffar|title=The Persecution of Shia Muslims in Saudi Arabia|url=http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1015700|work=4 August 2013|publisher=CNN Report|access-date=1 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123095434/http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1015700|archive-date=23 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Prince [[Bandar bin Sultan]], Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them."<ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/iraq-crisis-how-saudi-arabia-helped-isis-take-over-the-north-of-the-country-9602312.html Iraq crisis: How Saudi Arabia helped Isis take over the north of the country]," ''[[The Independent]],'' 13 July 2014.</ref>

[[File:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|left|Supplicating [[Pilgrimage#Islam|pilgrim]] at ''[[Great Mosque of Mecca|Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām]]'' (The Sacred Mosque) in [[Mecca]]. The [[Kaaba]] (the holiest site of Islam) is the cubic building in front of the pilgrim.]]

Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that have "[[Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia)|religious police]]" (known as ''Haia'' or ''Mutaween''), who patrol the streets "[[enjoining good and forbidding wrong]]" by enforcing [[Clothing laws by country|dress codes]], strict [[sex segregation|separation of men and women]], attendance at prayer (''[[salat]]'') five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects of ''Sharia.'' However, since 2016 the power of religious police was curbed, which barred them from pursuing, questioning, requesting identification or arresting suspects.<ref name="france24.com">{{Cite web |date=2022-01-14 |title=Changing times for Saudi's once feared morality police |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220114-changing-times-for-saudi-s-once-feared-morality-police |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> In the privacy of homes, behaviour can be far looser, and reports from [[WikiLeaks]] indicate that low ranked members of the ruling Saudi Royal family indulge in parties with alcohol, drugs, and prostitutes.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/07/wikileaks-cables-saudi-princes-parties WikiLeaks cables: Saudi princes throw parties boasting drink, drugs and sex]. ''The Guardian'' (7 December 2010). Retrieved on 9 May 2012. "Royals flout puritanical laws to throw parties for young elite while religious police are forced to turn a blind eye."</ref>

=== Women in society ===
{{See also|Women's rights in Saudi Arabia|Women's education in Saudi Arabia}}

Throughout history, women did not have equal rights to men in the kingdom; the [[U.S. State Department]] considers the Saudi Arabian government's discrimination against women a "significant problem" and notes that women have few political rights because of the government's discriminatory policies.<ref name= State2010>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154472.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412164532/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154472.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 April 2011 |title=2010 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia |date=8 April 2011 |publisher=U.S. State Department |access-date=11 July 2011}}</ref> However, since Mohammed bin Salman was appointed Crown Prince in 2017, a series of social reforms have been witnessed regarding women's rights.

Under previous Saudi law, all females were required to have a male guardian ({{transliteration|ar|[[Wali (Islamic legal guardian)|wali]]}}), typically a father, brother, husband, or uncle ({{transliteration|ar|mahram}}). In 2019, this law was partially amended to exclude women over 21 years old from the requirement of a male guardian.<ref name=":22">{{Cite news |last=Chulob |first=Martin |date=2019-08-03 |title='We feel empowered': Saudi women relish their new freedoms |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/03/we-feel-empowered-saudi-women-relish-new-freedoms |access-date=2019-08-03 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The amendment also granted women rights in relation to the guardianship of minor children.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |date=2019-08-02 |title=Saudi Arabia to allow adult women to travel, register divorce |url=https://nation.com.pk/02-Aug-2019/saudi-arabia-to-allow-adult-women-to-travel-register-divorce |access-date=2019-08-03 |website=The Nation |language=en}}</ref> Previously, girls and women were forbidden from travelling, conducting official business, or undergoing certain medical procedures without permission from their male guardians.<ref name="hrw-permission">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/saudi-arabia |title=World Report 2013 – Saudi Arabia |date=9 January 2013 |work=Human Rights Watch |access-date=22 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109161037/http://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/saudi-arabia |archive-date=9 January 2014}}</ref> In 2019, Saudi Arabia allowed women to travel abroad, register for divorce or marriage, and apply for official documents without the permission of a male guardian.

In 2006, [[Wajeha al-Huwaider]], a leading Saudi feminist and journalist said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone."<ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Writer and Journalist Wajeha Al-Huwaider Fights for Women's Rights|url=http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=ia&ID=IA31206|publisher=[[MEMRI]] | first= Aluma | last= Dankowitz | date= December 28, 2006 }}</ref> Following this, Saudi Arabia implemented the anti-[[Domestic violence in Saudi Arabia|domestic violence]] law in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Saudi Arabia launches powerful ad campaign against domestic violence |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/05/01/saudi-arabia-launches-powerful-ad-campaign-against-domestic-violence/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |date= 1 May 2013 | first= Caitlin | last= Dewey}}</ref> Furthermore, between 2017 and 2020, the country addressed issues of mobility, sexual harassment, pensions, and employment-discrimination protections.<ref>{{Cite book |date=2020 |title=World Bank's Women, Business and the Law 2020 report |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/32639/9781464815324.pdf |author=World Bank | author-link= World Bank | isbn = 978-1-4648-1533-1 | doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-1532-4 | lccn= 2020901241 | place=Washington, DC | publisher= World Bank Publications | page=11|hdl=10400.14/39334 |s2cid=214418106 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-01-14 |title=Saudi Arabia leads in women's legal gains at work, World Bank says |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-global-women-work-trfn-idUSKBN1ZD2NV |access-date=2020-01-16 | author1= Ellen Wulfhorst}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Nadworny |first1=Katie |date=2019-10-18 |title=Saudi Arabia's Legal Reforms Help Women in the Workforce |url=https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/legal-and-compliance/employment-law/pages/global-saudi-arabia-legal-reforms-women-workforce.aspx |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=Society for Human Resources Management |language=en-US |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814135751/https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/legal-and-compliance/employment-law/pages/global-saudi-arabia-legal-reforms-women-workforce.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> al-Huwaider and other female activists have applauded the general direction in which the country was headed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 26, 2017 |title='I am so happy': Activist reacts to end of ban on female drivers in Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-tuesday-edition-1.4307609/i-am-so-happy-activist-reacts-to-end-of-ban-on-female-drivers-in-saudi-arabia-1.4308348 |access-date=December 16, 2021 |website=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref>

[[File:Princess Reema Remarks.jpg|thumb|left|[[Reema bint Bandar Al Saud|Princess Reema bint Bandar]], the [[List of ambassadors of Saudi Arabia to the United States|Saudi Ambassador to the United States of America]], delivering an address at an event honouring the 75th anniversary of [[Saudi Arabia–United States relations|Saudi-US relations]]]]

Women face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women [[Legal system of Saudi Arabia#Family law|in family and inheritance law]].<ref name= State2010 /> Polygamy is permitted for men,<ref>[[#Long|Long]], p. 66</ref> and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives ([[Divorce (Islamic)|talaq]]) without needing any legal justification.<ref name= Otto164>[[#Otto|Otto]], p. 164</ref> Historically, a woman could only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her;<ref name="Otto163">[[#Otto|Otto]], p. 163</ref> however, in 2022, women were granted the right to initiate divorce without the approval of a legal guardian under the new Personal Status Law.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-09 |title=Saudi Arabia Reforms Marriage Laws To Empower Women |url=https://www.abouther.com/node/47421/people/leading-ladies/saudi-arabia-reforms-marriage-laws-empower-women |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=About Her |language=en}}</ref> With regard to inheritance law, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to the ''Qur'anic heirs''<ref name= Otto165>[[#Otto|Otto]], p. 165</ref> and generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.<ref name=Otto165 />

=== Heritage sites ===
{{See also|Mecca|Medina|Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|Tourism in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Heritage Preservation Society}}
[[File:The old city of Adummatu.jpg|thumb|right|The 3000-year-old ancient historical city of [[Dumat al-Jandal]] in [[Al Jawf Province]]]]

Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to [[Shirk (Islam)|'shirk']] (idolatry), and the most significant historic Muslim sites (in Mecca and Medina) are located in the western Saudi region of the Hejaz.<ref name="Arabia: the Cradle of Islam" /> As a consequence, under Saudi rule an estimated 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|have been demolished]] for religious reasons.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-destruction-of-mecca-saudi-hardliners-are-wiping-out-their-own-heritage-501647.html 'The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage'], ''The Independent'', 6 August 2005. Retrieved 17 January 2011</ref> Critics claim that over the last 50 years, 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost,<ref>[http://www.islamicpluralism.org/764/islamic-heritage-lost-as-makkah-modernises 'Islamic heritage lost as Makkah modernises'] Center for Islamic Pluralism</ref> leaving fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.<ref name="independent.co.uk">[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/shame-of-the-house-of-saud-shadows-over-mecca-474736.html 'Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca'], The Independent, 19 April 2006</ref> Demolished structures include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter [[Fatima bint Muhammad|Fatima]], and other mosques founded by [[Abu Bakr]] (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first [[caliph]]), [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]] (the second caliph), [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]] (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth caliph), and [[Salman al-Farsi]] (another of Muhammad's companions).<ref>[http://theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/articles/saudi_destruction_of_muslim_historical_sites/ Destruction of Islamic Architectural Heritage in Saudi Arabia: A Wake-up Call] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323135558/http://theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/articles/saudi_destruction_of_muslim_historical_sites/ |date=23 March 2012 }}, The American Muslim. Retrieved 17 January 2011
Other historic buildings that have been destroyed include the house of [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadijah]], the wife of Muhammad, the house of [[Abu Bakr]], now the site of the local [[Hilton hotel]]; the house of Ali-Oraid, the grandson of Muhammad, and the Mosque of Abu-Qubais, now the location of the King's palace in Mecca. (source: [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/shame-of-the-house-of-saud-shadows-over-mecca-474736.html 'Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca'], ''The Independent'', 19 April 2006)</ref>[[File:MasjidNabawi.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Mosque of the Prophet]] in [[Medina]] containing the tomb of [[Muhammad]]]]Eight cultural sites in Saudi Arabia are designated as [[UNESCO World Heritage Sites]]: Al-Hijr Archaeological Site ([[Mada'in Saleh|Madâin Sâlih]]);<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293/|title=Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> the [[Turaif district]] in Diriyah;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1329/|title=At-Turaif District in ad-Dir'iyah|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Mecca;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1361/|title=Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Makkah|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> [[Al-Ahsa Oasis]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1563/|title=Al-Ahsa Oasis, an Evolving Cultural Landscape|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> [[Rock Art in the Ha'il Region|Rock Art in the Hail Region]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1472/|title=Rock Art in the Hail Region of Saudi Arabia|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> [[Bir Hima Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions|Ḥimā Cultural Area]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1619 |title=Ḥimā Cultural Area|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=12 August 2021}}</ref> [['Uruq Bani Ma'arid]];<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1699 |title='Uruq Bani Ma'arid |author= |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2024-03-12 }}</ref> and [[Qaryat al-Faw]]. Ten other sites submitted requests for recognition to UNESCO in 2015.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/sa/ KSA Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List (4)], Unesco, 2017</ref> There are six elements inscribed on [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state|title=UNESCO – Saudi Arabia|website=ich.unesco.org|access-date=24 April 2019|archive-date=20 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520153604/https://ich.unesco.org/en/state|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Al-Qatt Al-Asiri]], female traditional interior wall decoration in Asir; [[Almezmar in Saudi Arabia|Almezmar]], drumming and dancing with sticks; [[Falconry]], a living human heritage; [[Arabic coffee]], a symbol of generosity; [[Majlis]], a cultural and social space; [[Alardah Alnajdiyah]], dance, drumming and poetry in Saudi Arabia.

In June 2014, the Council of Ministers approved a law that gives the [[Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage]] the means to protect Saudi Arabia's ancient relics and historic sites. Within the framework of the 2016 National Transformation Programme, also known as [[Saudi Vision 2030]], the kingdom allocated 900 million euros to preserve its historical and cultural heritage.<ref>[http://ksamissioneu.net/en/saudi-arabia-to-spend-1bn-on-cultural-heritage/ Saudi Arabia to Spend $1Bn On Cultural Heritage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903164543/http://ksamissioneu.net/en/saudi-arabia-to-spend-1bn-on-cultural-heritage/ |date=3 September 2017 }}, KSA Mission EU, 30 June 2016</ref> Saudi Arabia also participates in the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas, created in March 2017, with a contribution of 18.5 million euros.<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/archeo-paleo/archeologie/destruction-du-patrimoine-une-resolution-historique-du-conseil-de-securite_111642 Destruction du patrimoine : une résolution historique du Conseil de Sécurité], Sciences et Avenir, 28 March 2017</ref>

In 2017, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman promised to return Saudi Arabia to the "moderate Islam" of the era before the 1979 Iranian revolution.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chulov |first=Marin |date=24 October 2017 |title=I will return Saudi Arabia to moderate Islam, says crown prince |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/24/i-will-return-saudi-arabia-moderate-islam-crown-prince |work=The Guardian|access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> A new centre, the King Salman Complex for the Prophet's Hadith, was established that year to monitor interpretations of Muhammad's hadiths to prevent them being used to justifying terrorism.<ref>{{cite news |last=Al Wasmi |first=Naser |date=20 June 2018 |title=Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman's dynamic year of reform |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/gcc/saudi-crown-prince-mohammed-bin-salman-s-dynamic-year-of-reform-1.742510 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref>

In March 2018, the Crown Prince met the Archbishop of Canterbury during a visit to the UK, pledging to promote interfaith dialogue. In Riyadh the following month King Salman met the head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Catholic cardinal meets Saudi King in historic visit to Riyadh|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-saudi-vatican/catholic-cardinal-meets-saudi-king-in-historic-visit-to-riyadh-idUKKBN1HP1T5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527090408/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-saudi-vatican/catholic-cardinal-meets-saudi-king-in-historic-visit-to-riyadh-idUKKBN1HP1T5 |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 May 2018 |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> In July 2019, UNESCO signed a letter with the Saudi Minister of Culture in which Saudi Arabia contributed US$25 million to UNESCO for the preservation of heritage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/news/saudi-arabia-commits-us25-million-unesco-protection-heritage|title=Saudi Arabia commits US$25 million to UNESCO for the protection of heritage|date=12 July 2019|website=UNESCO|access-date=18 July 2019}}</ref>

On November 5, 2024, archeologists published the news of an ancient city discovered in the Saudi oasis of [[Khaybar]]. The city named [[al-Natah]], that dates back some 4,000 years, was inhabited during the Bronze Age around 2,400 BC, and had about 500 houses. Not far, a cluster of graves was found, within them metal weapons.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-05 |title=Archaeology breakthrough! 4,000-year-old fort city found hidden in Saudi oasis |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/saudi-arabia-oasis-fort-city-b2641611.html |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>

=== Dress ===
[[File:Bisht Being Sewn.jpg|thumb|Bisht Being Sewn in [[Al-Ahsa Governorate|Al-Ahsa]]]]
Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of [[hijab]] (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear a white ankle-length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as a [[thawb]]), with a [[keffiyeh]] (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by an [[Agal (accessory)|agal]]) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of a finer cotton, also held in place by an [[Agal (accessory)|agal]]) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak ([[bisht (clothing)|bisht]]) over the top. In public, women are required to wear a black [[abaya]] or other black clothing that covers everything under the neck with the exception of their hands and feet, although most women cover their head in respect of their religion. This requirement applies to non-Muslim women too and failure to abide can result in police action, particularly in more conservative areas of the country. Women's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thelovelyplanet.net/traditional-dress-of-the-kingdom-of-saudi-arabia/ |title=Traditional dress of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |date=29 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018115808/http://www.thelovelyplanet.net/traditional-dress-of-the-kingdom-of-saudi-arabia/ |archive-date=18 October 2015 }}</ref>

=== Arts and entertainment ===
{{Main|Saudi Arabian art|Cinema of Saudi Arabia|Music of Saudi Arabia|Theatre in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:King Abdullah in his youth.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|King Abdullah practising [[falconry]], a traditional pursuit in the country]]

During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the kingdom although they were seen as contrary to Wahhabi norms.<ref name="Return of cinema in Saudi Arabia provokes critics">[http://worldfocus.org/blog/2009/01/05/return-of-cinema-in-saudi-arabia-provokes-critics/3473/ World Focus]. 5 January 2009</ref> During the [[Islamic revival]] movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theatres. However, with King Abdullah and King Salman's reforms, cinemas re-opened,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2008/12/saudi-arabia--1.html |work=Los Angeles Times |title=Babylon & Beyond |date=23 December 2008}}</ref> including one in [[King Abdullah University of Science and Technology|KAUST]].

From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric]], [[Arabesque|floral]], and abstract designs and by [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]]. With the advent of the oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the [[Rebab|rabābah]], an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). The national dance is a native sword dance known as [[ardah]]. Originating from Najd, it involves lines or circles of men and singing poetry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://embassies.mofa.gov.sa/sites/usa/EN/ABOUTSAUDIARABIA/CountryInformation/Pages/Curlture.aspx|title= Folk Music & Dance|author= |website=embassies.mofa.gov.sa|publisher=The Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Washington, DC|access-date=19 July 2025}}</ref> Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is popular.<ref name=Britannica />

Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several [[List of Saudi Arabian writers|Saudi novelists and poets]] have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world—albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These include [[Ghazi Algosaibi]], [[Mansour al-Nogaidan]], [[Abdelrahman Munif]], [[Turki al-Hamad]], and [[Rajaa al-Sanea]].<ref name="Guardian2410">{{cite news |first=Trevor |last=Mostyn |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/aug/24/ghazi-algosaibi-obituary |title=Ghazi al-Gosaibi obituary |newspaper=The Guardian |date=24 August 2010 |place=London}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050411140638/http://www.time.com/time/europe/magazine/article/0,13005,901050117-1015836,00.html "Triumphant Trilogy"], by Malu Halasa, ''Time'', 17 January 2005</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070711094317/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article2041373.ece "Sex and the Saudi Girl"]. ''[[The Times]]''. 8 July 2007</ref> In 2016, the General Entertainment Authority (GEA) was formed to oversee the expansion of the Saudi entertainment sector.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Saudi Arabia allows concerts—even country music |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2017/06/01/saudi-arabia-allows-concerts-even-country-music |newspaper=The Economist |date=1 June 2017 |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref>
The first concerts in Riyadh for 25 years took place the following year.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Mohammed Abdu to perform live in Riyadh |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/978866/saudi-arabia |work=[[Arab News]] |date=2 September 2016 |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> Other events since the GEA's creation have included comedy shows, professional wrestling events, and monster truck rallies.<ref>{{cite news |last1= Mazzetti |first1= Mark |last2= Hubbard |first2= Ben |date=15 October 2016 |title= Rise of Saudi Prince Shatters Decades of Royal Tradition |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/16/world/rise-of-saudi-prince-shatters-decades-of-royal-tradition.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> In 2018 the first public cinema opened after a ban of 35 years, with plans to have more than {{gaps|2|000}} screens running by 2030.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reid |first=David |date=11 December 2011 |title= Saudi Arabia to reopen public cinemas for the first time in 35 years |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/11/saudi-arabia-to-open-public-cinemas-for-the-first-time-in-35-years.html |work=CNBC |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref>

Developments in the arts in 2018 included Saudi Arabia's debut appearances at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and the [[Venice Biennale]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Nick |first=Vivarelli |date=9 April 2018 |title=Saudi Arabia to Debut at Cannes With Its First National Pavilion |url=https://variety.com/2018/film/news/saudi-arabia-debut-cannes-first-national-film-industry-pavilion-1202747397/ |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref>

=== TV and media ===
{{Main|Mass media in Saudi Arabia|Television in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Saad Khadr from left and right Mohammad Al-Ali in 1979 in Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|[[Saad Khader]] (left) and [[Mohammad Al-Ali]] (right) in 1979]]

Television was introduced in Saudi Arabia in 1954. Saudi Arabia is a major market for [[Pan-Arab States|pan-Arab]] satellite and [[Pay television|pay-TV]]. It controls the largest share of the pan-Arab broadcasting market; among the major Saudi-owned broadcasting companies are the [[MBC Group|Middle East Broadcasting Centre]], [[Rotana Group|Rotana]], and the [[Saudi Broadcasting Authority]].<ref name="obg">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gMPjxHzG1xQC&pg=PA173 |title=The Report: Saudi Arabia 2008 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-902339-00-9 |page=173}}</ref> The Saudi government [[Censorship in Saudi Arabia|closely monitors media and restricts it]] under official state law. Changes have been made to lessen these restrictions; however, some government-led efforts to control information have also drawn international attention. As of 2022, [[Reporters Without Borders]] rates the kingdom's press a "very serious" situation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Index {{!}} RSF |url=https://rsf.org/en/index |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=rsf.org |language=en}}</ref>

Most of the early newspapers in the Persian Gulf region were established in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="aarti">{{cite news |author=Aarti Nagraj |date=26 March 2013 |title=Revealed: 10 Oldest Newspapers In The GCC |magazine=Gulf Business |url=http://gulfbusiness.com/2013/03/revealed-10-oldest-newspapers-in-the-gcc/#.UtWFDmRdWi8 |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-date=11 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011095915/http://gulfbusiness.com/2013/03/revealed-10-oldest-newspapers-in-the-gcc/#.UtWFDmRdWi8 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first newspaper founded in the country and in the Persian Gulf area is ''[[Al Fallah]]'', which was launched in 1920,<ref name="aarti" /> and the first English-language newspaper is ''[[Arab News]]'', which was launched in 1975.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Arab News, Saudi Arabia's first English-language newspaper, was born |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1661641/amp |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref> All of the [[List of newspapers in Saudi Arabia|newspapers published in Saudi Arabia]] are privately owned.<ref>{{cite web |title=Arab Media Influence Report |url=http://www.newsgroup.ae/swfs/AMIR-Master-Base.swf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912115714/http://www.newsgroup.ae/swfs/AMIR-Master-Base.swf |archive-date=12 September 2014 |access-date=12 September 2014 |publisher=AMIR |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

According to [[World Bank]], as of 2020, 98% of the population of Saudi Arabia are internet users which puts it in the 8th rank among countries with the highest percentage of internet users.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Individuals using the Internet (% of population) – Saudi Arabia {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS?locations=SA |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Saudi Arabia has one of the fastest [[5G]] internet speeds in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-19 |title=Saudi 5G Is Fast, and New Spectrum Allocations Should Make it Faster |url=https://www.ookla.com/articles/saudi-5g-q1-2021 |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=Ookla – Providing network intelligence to enable modern connectivity |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-20 |title=This country has the world's fastest 5G download speed |url=https://zeenews.india.com/technology/saudi-arabia-has-fastest-5g-download-speed-s-korea-second-full-list-of-15-countries-2318863.html |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref> The kingdom is the 27th largest market for [[e-commerce]] with a revenue of US$8 billion in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=Jun 8, 2022 |title=The eCommerce market in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ecommercedb.com/en/markets/sa/all |access-date=Jun 8, 2022 |website=ecommerceDB}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Saudi Arabian cuisine|Arab cuisine}}

[[File:ArabicCoffee.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|[[Arabic coffee]] is a traditional beverage in Arabian cuisine.]]

[[Saudi Arabian cuisine]] is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula and the wider Arab world, and has influenced and been influenced by Turkish, Indian, Persian, and African food. [[Islamic dietary laws]] are enforced: pork is not allowed, and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with [[halal]]. [[Kebab]]s and [[falafel]] are popular, as is [[shawarma]], a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. [[Kabsa]], a rice dish with lamb, chicken, fish, or shrimp, is among the national dishes as is [[mandi (food)|mandi]]. Flat, unleavened [[taboon bread]] is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates, fresh fruit, yoghurt, and hummus. Coffee, served in the [[Arabic coffee|Arabic style]], is the traditional beverage, but tea and various fruit juices are popular as well.<ref name=Britannica /> The earliest substantiated evidence of either [[history of coffee|coffee drinking]] or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the 15th century, in the [[Sufi]] monasteries of Arabia.

=== Sport ===
{{Main|Sport in Saudi Arabia}}

{{see also|Saudi Arabia at the Olympics}}
[[File:King Fahd International Stadium, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, April 2014.jpg|thumb|left|[[King Fahd International Stadium]] in [[Riyadh]].]]
[[Football in Saudi Arabia|Football]] is the national sport in Saudi Arabia. The [[Saudi Arabia national football team]] is among Asia's strongest, having reached a joint record six [[AFC Asian Cup]] finals, winning three of those finals ([[1984 AFC Asian Cup final|1984]], [[1988 AFC Asian Cup final|1988]], and [[1996 AFC Asian Cup final|1996]]) and [[Saudi Arabia at the FIFA World Cup|having qualified for the World Cup]] four consecutive times ever since debuting at the 1994 tournament. In the [[1994 FIFA World Cup]] under the leadership of [[Jorge Solari]], Saudi Arabia beat both Belgium and Morocco in the group stage before failing to defeat Sweden in the round of 16. During the [[1992 King Fahd Cup|1992 FIFA Confederations Cup]], which was played in Saudi Arabia, the country reached the [[1992 King Fahd Cup Final|final]], losing 1–3 to Argentina. Since 2023, Saudi Arabia's [[Public Investment Fund]] has brought many elite footballers to the country's league, such as [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], [[Roberto Firmino]], [[Neymar]], [[Sadio Mané]], [[Jordan Henderson]] and [[Kalidou Koulibaly]]. Even domestic competitions from Spain and Italy have been held in Saudi Arabia during the 2020s. In December 2024, Saudi Arabia was confirmed as host of the [[2034 FIFA World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=MacInnes |first=Paul |date=2024-12-11 |title=Saudi Arabia confirmed as 2034 World Cup host despite human rights concerns |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2024/dec/11/saudi-arabia-confirmed-as-2034-world-cup-host-despite-human-rights-concerns |access-date=2024-12-11 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Developments of stadiums to be used for the event are ongoing. There are reportedly 11 new stadiums being built and airports are scheduled to be expanded to accommodate the expected influx of passengers.<ref>{{cite web |date=2024-08-01 |title=Saudi 2034 plans include stadium 350m above ground |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/articles/cqqlnel9z32o |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=BBC}}</ref>

Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing, and basketball (which is played by both men and women) are also popular with the [[Saudi Arabia national basketball team|Saudi Arabian national basketball team]] winning bronze at the [[1999 ABC Championship|1999 Asian Championship]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saudiembassy.net/files/PDF/Publications/Magazine/1998-Winter/slamdunk.htm |title=Saudi Arabian Slam Dunk, Fall 1997, Winter 1998, Volume 14, Number 4, Saudi Arabia |publisher=Saudiembassy.net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028000423/http://saudiembassy.net/files/PDF/Publications/Magazine/1998-Winter/slamdunk.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Joud |last=Al |url=http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article463435.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120102128/http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article463435.ece |archive-date=20 January 2012 |title=Saudi women show greater interest in sports and games |newspaper=Arab News }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Todor |last=Krastev |url=http://todor66.com/basketball/Asia/Men_1999.html |title=Men Basketball Asia Championship 1999 Fukuoka (JPN)- 28.08–05.09 Winner China |publisher=Todor66.com |date=21 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118115942/http://todor66.com/basketball/Asia/Men_1999.html |archive-date=18 January 2012 }}</ref> More traditional sports such as [[horse racing]] and [[camel racing]] are also popular. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport's most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. [[Falconry]] is another traditional pursuit.<ref name="Britannica" />

[[File:Sarah Attar Rio2016.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sarah Attar]] competing at the [[2012 Summer Olympics]] as one of the first two females representing Saudi Arabia|232x232px]]
[[Women's sport in Saudi Arabia|Women's sport]] is controversial because of the suppression of female participation in sport by conservative Islamic religious authorities,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/saudi-women-push-for-right-play-sports-447831.html |title=Saudi women push for right to play sports – Sport |newspaper=Arabian Business |publisher=ArabianBusiness.com |date= 1 March 2012}}</ref> however the restrictions have eased.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-arabia-opens-first-sports-centre-for-women-1.1192220 |title=Saudi Arabia opens first sports centre for women|publisher=GulfNews.com |date=3 June 2013 |access-date=28 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/05/05/world/meast/saudi-arabia-girls-sports |title=Saudi government sanctions sports in some girls' schools |publisher=CNN |date= 5 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Arabia: No women on Asian Games Team|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/09/17/saudi-arabia-no-women-asian-games-team|website=Human Rights Watch|date=18 September 2014}}</ref> Until 2018 women were not permitted in sport stadiums. Segregated seating, allowing women to enter, has been developed in three stadiums across major cities.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Grinberg and Hallam|first1=Emanuella and Jonny|title=Saudi Arabia to let women into sports stadiums|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/10/29/middleeast/saudi-arabia-women-sports-arenas/index.html|website=CNN/2017/10/29/middleeast/saudi-arabia-women-sports-arenas/index.html|date=30 October 2017|publisher=CNN|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref> Since 2020, the progress of women's integration into the Saudi sport scene began to develop rapidly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-05 |title=Empowered through sports, Saudi females take the sector by storm |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/views/2021/12/05/Empowered-through-sports-Saudi-females-take-the-sector-by-storm |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=Al Arabiya English |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-08 |title=Saudi women's sport grows by leaps and bounds |url=https://arab.news/2pd2a |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref> 25 Saudi sport federations established a national women's team,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Female athletes change the game in Saudi |url=https://www.visitsaudi.com/en/do/lifestyle/female-athletes-change-the-game-in-saudi |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=www.visitsaudi.com |language=en}}</ref> including a national [[Saudi Arabia women's national football team|football]] and [[Saudi Arabia women's national basketball team|basketball team]]. In November 2020, the [[Saudi Arabian Football Federation]] announced the launch of the first nationwide [[Saudi Women's Premier League|Saudi women's premier league]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia stages first-ever nationwide women's league |url=https://www.fifa.com/womens-football/news/origin1904-p.cxm.fifa.comsaudi-arabia-stages-first-ever-nationwide-womens-league |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=www.fifa.com |language=en}}</ref>

In its vision for modernization, the nation has introduced many international sporting events, bringing sports stars to the kingdom. However, in August 2019, the kingdom's strategy received criticism for appearing as a method of [[Sportswashing in Saudi Arabia|sportswashing]] soon after Saudi's US-based 2018 lobbying campaign foreign registration documentations got published online. The documents showed Saudi Arabia as allegedly implementing a sportswashing strategy, including meetings and official calls with authorities of associations like [[Major League Soccer]], [[WWE in Saudi Arabia|World Wrestling Entertainment]], and the [[National Basketball Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/sep/02/sportswashing-saudi-arabia-sports-mohammed-bin-salman|title=Sportswashing: how Saudi Arabia lobbies the US's largest sports bodies|access-date=2 September 2019|website=The Guardian|date=2 September 2019}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Saudi Arabia|Asia|Middle East|Islam}}
* [[Outline of Saudi Arabia]]{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |ref=Abir1987|title=Saudi Arabia in the oil era: regime and elites : conflict and collaboration |last=Abir |first=Mordechai |year=1987 |publisher=Croom Helm |isbn=978-0-7099-5129-2}}
* {{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia: Government, Society, and the Persian Gulf Crisis |last=Abir|first =Mordechai |year=1993 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-09325-5}}
* {{cite book|ref=Al-Rasheed |title=A History of Saudi Arabia |author=Al-Rasheed, Madawi |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-74754-7}}
* {{cite book |title=The History of Saudi Arabia |last=Bowen|first=Wayne H. |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-34012-3}}
* {{cite book |ref=Hegghammer|title=Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism Since 1979 |author=Hegghammer, Thomas |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-73236-9}}
* {{Cite book|ref=House|title=On Saudi Arabia: Its People, Past, Religion, Fault Lines—and Future|last=House |first=Karen Elliott|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-307-27216-4}}
* {{cite book|ref=Long |title=Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia |last=Long |first=David E. |year=2005 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-313-32021-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long }}
* {{cite book |ref=Malbouisson|title=Focus on Islamic issues |last=Malbouisson |first=Cofie D. |year=2007 |publisher=Nova Publishers |isbn=978-1-60021-204-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present|ref=Otto |last=Otto |first=Jan Michiel |year=2010 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8728-057-4}}
* {{cite book|title=CultureShock! A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Saudi Arabia
|last1=Tripp
|first1=Harvey
|last2=North
|first2=Peter
|edition=3rd
|date=2009
|publisher=Marshall Cavendish
|url=https://archive.org/stream/CultureShockSaudiArabia/Culture%20Shock!%20Saudi%20Arabia_djvu.txt|ref=HT2009}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Tripp
|first1=Harvey
|last2=North
|first2=Peter
|title=Culture Shock, Saudi Arabia. A Guide to Customs and Etiquette
|date=2003
|publisher=Times Media Private Limited
|place=Singapore; Portland, Oregon
|ref=HT2003}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|d=Q851|mw=no|species=no|m=no|voy=Saudi Arabia|collapsible=collapsed}}
* [https://www.saudi.gov.sa/ Saudi Arabia]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930005408/https://www.saudi.gov.sa/ |date=30 September 2021 }} official government website.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20260118101507/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ Saudi Arabia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14702705 Saudi Arabia profile] from the [[BBC News]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Saudi Arabia}}
* {{GovPubs|saudiarabia}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=SA Key Development Forecasts for Saudi Arabia] from [[International Futures]]

{{Saudi Arabia topics}}
{{Navboxes
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Odisha Pradesh Congress Committee

2026-03-21T21:40:10Z

AntoniettaWhitco:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}{{short description|Indian political party}}
{{Redirect|OPCC|Offices of the Police and Crime Commissioner in England and Wales|Police and crime commissioner}}
{{Infobox Indian Political Party
|colorcode = {{party color|Indian National Congress}}
| party_name = Odisha Pradesh Congress([[Indian National Congress|INC]])
| native_name=
| party_logo =[[File:Indian National Congress hand logo.svg|180px]]
| president= [[Bhakta Charan Das]]
| chairman = [[Rama Chandra Kadam]]
| headquarters = Congress Bhawan, Unit-2, [[Bhubaneswar ]]-751009, [[Odisha]]
| ideology = {{ubl|[[Populism]]|[[Social liberalism]]|[[Democratic socialism]]|[[Social democracy]]|[[Secularism]]}}
|youth = Odisha Youth Congress
|women = Odisha Pradesh Mahila Congress Committee
| loksabha_seats = {{Composition bar|1|21|hex=#00BFFF}}
| rajyasabha_seats = {{Composition bar|0|10|hex=#00BFFF}}
| state_seats_name = [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| state_seats= {{Composition bar|11|147|hex=#00BFFF}}
| website =
|symbol = [[File:Hand_INC.svg|150px]]
|eci= A State Unit of [[Indian National Congress]]
|students=National Students' Union of India - Odisha
}}
{{Indian National Congress sidebar}}
The '''Odisha Pradesh Congress Committee''' is the unit of the [[Indian National Congress]] for the state of [[Odisha]]. It is responsible for organizing and coordinating the party's activities and campaigns within the state, as well as selecting candidates for local, state, and national elections in Odisha.

The head office of the organisation is the ''Congress Bhawan'', situated at Master Canteen circle in [[Bhubaneswar]].

[[Bhakta Charan Das]] was appointed president of the committee in 2025 following the 2024 general elections and currently serves as the Odisha Pradesh Congress Committee(OPCC) President.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-02-11 |title=Bhakta Charan Das appointed Odisha Congress president |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bhakta-charan-das-appointed-odisha-congress-president/articleshow/118150577.cms |access-date=2025-12-10 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Niranjan Patnaik appointed Odisha Congress president |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/niranjan-patnaik-appointed-odisha-congress-president/article23608326.ece |access-date=12 August 2018 |work=The Hindu |date=20 Apr 2018 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180812111531/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/niranjan-patnaik-appointed-odisha-congress-president/article23608326.ece |archive-date=12 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mohapatra |first1=Debabrata |title=Congress removes Prasad, appoints Niranjan Patnaik as new Odisha president |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/congress-removes-prasad-appoints-niranjan-patnaik-as-new-odisha-president/articleshow/63831241.cms |access-date=12 August 2018 |agency=TNN |work=The Times of India |date=19 Apr 2018 |location=Bhubaneswar |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Patnaik |first1=Sampad |title=Niranjan Patnaik appointed Odisha Congress President for second time |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/niranjan-patnaik-appointed-odisha-congress-president-for-second-time-5144333/ |access-date=12 August 2018 |publisher=The Indian Express |date=20 Apr 2018 |location=Bhubaneswar}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Mohanty |first1=Debabrata |title=Congress revamps Odisha unit, appoints Niranjan Patnaik as new chief |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/congress-revamps-odisha-unit-appoints-niranjan-patnaik-as-new-chief/story-TLT7g4n5ML7LhSoVqMVssK.html |access-date=12 August 2018 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=19 Apr 2018 |location=Bhubaneswar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2025-02-12 |title=Bhakta Das appointed OPCC chief; Moquim, Srikant Jena ignored |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bhubaneswar/2025/Feb/12/bhakta-das-appointed-opcc-chief-moquim-srikant-jena-ignored |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sahoo |first=Akshaya Kumar |date=2025-02-11 |title=Bhakta Charan Das appointed Odisha Pradesh Congress Committee president |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/bhakta-charan-das-appointed-odisha-pradesh-congress-committee-president-1860686 |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref>

The house and floor leader of the Odisha Pradesh Congress Committee MLA cohort is [[Rama Chandra Kadam]] (Congress Legislative Party Leader) along with deputy Congress Legislative party leader [https://prsindia.org/mlatrack/ashok-kumar-das Ashok Kumar Das] elected from [[Pottangi Assembly constituency|Pottangi]] and [[Basudevpur Assembly constituency|Basudevpur]] respectively into the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Seventeenth Assembly]] of the legislature. Currently the state unit has only one elected Member of Parliament in the Lok Sabha who is [[Saptagiri Sankar Ulaka]] having been elected twice consecutively.

The current Social Media Department of the Odisha Pradesh Congress Committee is also Chaired by a elected tribal lawmaker [[Satyajeet Gomango]] & co-chaired by former Zilla Parishad candidate Santosh Pradhan and is purviewed by a national co-coordinator of the [[All India Congress Committee|AICC]] Department of Social Media & Digital Platforms & Assets Dr Sumit Dubey.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian National Congress |url=https://inc.in/ |access-date=2025-12-29 |website=Indian National Congress |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Congress |first=Odisha |date=July 9, 2025 |title=AICC National Coordinator Dr Sumit Dubey i/c Odisha Social Media & Digital Platform is welcomed by OPCC Co-Chairman |url=https://x.com/INCOdisha/status/1942946606866682100 |url-status=live |website=X formerly knowns Twitter}}</ref>

== List of district congress committee presidents ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | S. No
! style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Name
! style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | District
! style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Term

|-
| 1.
| Sunil Pradhan
| Angul
| 2025
|-
| 2.
| Satya Shiba Das
| Balasore
| 2025
|-
| 3.
| Hardeep Singh
| Bargarh
| 2025
|-
| 4.
| Nalini Kanta Mohanty
| Bhadrak
| 2025
|-
| 5.
| Prakash Chand Jena
| Bhubaneshwar
| 2025
|-
| 6.
| Anil Meher
| Bolangir
| 2025
|-
| 7.
| Bindhya Bini Sahu
| Boudh
| 2025
|-
| 8.
| Pradipta Kumar Das
| Cuttack
| 2025
|-
| 9.
| Giribala Behera
| Cuttack City
| 2025
|-
| 10.
| Sem Hemram
| Deogarh
| 2025
|-
| 11.
| Chabbiraj Biswal
| Dhenkanal
| 2025
|-
| 12.
| [[Dasarathi Gomango]]
| Gajapati
| 2025
|-
| 13.
| Rashmi Ranjan Patnaik
| Ganjam East
| 2025
|-
| 14.
| [[Ramesh Chandra Jena (politician) |Ramesh Chandra Jena]]
| Ganjam West
| 2025
|-
| 15.
| Debaprasad Nayak
| Jagatsinghpur
| 2025
|-
| 16.
| Maguni Batakrushna Jena
| Jajpur
| 2025
|-
| 17.
| Jeevan Sarthak Das
| Jharsuguda
| 2025
|-
| 18.
| Jalandhar Naik
| Kalahandi
| 2025
|-
| 19.
| Chandra Sekhar Parida
| Kandhamal
| 2025
|-
| 20.
| Debasmita Sharma
| Kendrapara
| 2025
|-
| 21.
| Manoj Kumar Jena
| Keonjhar
| 2025
|-
| 22.
| Rajeeb Kumar Pattanaik
| Khordha
| 2025
|-
| 23.
| Rupak Turuk
| Koraput
| 2025
|-
| 24.
| G. Shrinivas Rao
| Malkangiri
| 2025
|-
| 25.
| Purna Chandra Biswal
| Mayurbhanj East
| 2025
|-
| 26.
| Bhushan Bihari Sahu
| Mayurbhanj West
| 2025
|-
| 27.
| Lipika Majhi
| Nabarangpur
| 2025
|-
| 28.
| Ranajit Das
| Nayagarh
| 2025
|-
| 29.
| Ghasi Ram Majhi
| Nuapada
| 2025
|-
| 30.
| Rajesh Kumar Mishra
| Puri
| 2025
|-
| 31.
| [[Kadraka Appala Swamy |Appala Swamy Kadraka]]
| Rayagada
| 2025
|-
| 32.
| Sabir Hussain
| Rourkela
| 2025
|-
| 33.
| Amit Kumar Guru
| Sambalpur
| 2025
|-
| 34.
| Binod Patra
| Subamapur
| 2025
|-
| 35.
| Nirmal Chand Naik
| Sundargarh
|2025
|-
|}

==History==

=== Pre-Independence 1920-1947 ===
Until 1920, there was no separate provincial committee for Odisha. Congress organisation in Odisha was under Bihar And Orissa Provincial Congress committee .<ref name="Mishra 1986 p.192 ">{{cite book | last=Mishra | first=C. | title=Freedom Movement in Sambalpur, 1827-1947 | publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation | year=1986 | isbn=978-81-7018-357-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QYuAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2020-02-25 | page=192}}</ref> The Nagpur Session of the [[Indian National Congress]], held in December 1920, which finally passed the Non Co-operation resolution was attended by a number of delegates from Orissa such as Pandit Gopabandhu Das, [[Bhagirathi Mahapatra]], Jagabandhu Singh, Jadumani Mangaraj, Mukunda Prasad Das, Niranjan Patnaik and [[Harekrushna Mahatab]]. This session of the Congress decided to form the Provincial Congress Committees on linguistic basis. As a result, a separate Provincial Congress Committee was formed for Orissa even though Orissa had not yet became a separate province. Soon after the Nagpur Congress session, the Utkal Union Conference was held at [[Chakradharpur]] under the Presidency of Jagabandhu Singh. In this Conference Gopabandhu Das suggested a modification in the outlook of the Utkal Union Conference.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Review|first=Odisha|title=Participation of Odia leaders in the Indian National Congress|publisher=Government of Odisha|pages=12–15}}</ref>

This led to the formation Utkal Pradesh Congress Committee uniting representation of all Odia speaking tracts, consisting of British administered [[Madras Presidency]], [[Central Provinces and Berar|Central Province]], [[Bengal Presidency]] and the pre 1936 [[Bihar and Orissa Province]].<ref name="Devi 1992 p. 193-194">{{cite book | last=Devi | first=B. | title=Some Aspects of British Administration in Orissa, 1912-1936 | publisher=Academic Foundation | year=1992 | isbn=978-81-7188-072-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBQQHizn788C&pg=PA193 | access-date=2020-02-25 | pages=193–194}}</ref> With its first President being Utkalamani [[Gopabandhu Das]] the formation of [[Utkal Pradesh Congress Committee]] (UPCC) gave impetus to formation of Odisha state. This also gave boost to Congress activities in the Odia speaking areas.<ref name="Acharya 2008 p. 49">{{cite book | last=Acharya | first=P. | title=National Movement and Politics in Orissa, 1920-1929 | publisher=SAGE Publications | series=SAGE Series in Modern Indian History | year=2008 | isbn=978-81-321-0001-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LoaHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 | access-date=2020-02-25 | page=49}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Experts|first=Arihant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBrzDwAAQBAJ&dq=utkal+congress+gopabandhu+das&pg=PA45|title=Know Your State Odisha|date=2019-06-04|publisher=Arihant Publications India limited|isbn=978-93-131-9327-2|language=en}}</ref>

The Utkal Pradesh Congress Committee deputed the following twelve members to represent [[Orissa Province|Orissa]] at the All India Congress Committee. They were Gopabandhu Das, Jagabandhu Singh, Nilakantha Das, [[Gopabandhu Choudhuri|Gopabandhu Choudhury]], Niranjan Pattanaik, Harekrushna Mahatab, Bhagirathi Mahapatra, Dharanidhar Mishra Banaprastha, Nilakantha Das Choudhury, Atal Bihari Acharya, Brajamohan Panda and Jamini Kanta Biswas.

UPCC gave boost to formation of Orissa state. In 1931 UPCC adopted a resolution moved by [[Harekrushna Mahatab]], that urged the Government of India to establish a separate Orissa state. It also established a committee to take the matter further and cooperate with the British administration without compromising Congress principles.<ref name="Devi 1992 p. 202">{{cite book | last=Devi | first=B. | title=Some Aspects of British Administration in Orissa, 1912-1936 | publisher=Academic Foundation | year=1992 | isbn=978-81-7188-072-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBQQHizn788C&pg=PA202 | access-date=2020-02-26 | page=202}}</ref>

==List of presidents==
{{see also|List of state presidents of the Indian National Congress|List of presidents of the Indian National Congress}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | S.no
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | President
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Portrait
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" colspan=2 | Term
| Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Duration
|-
!1.
|[[Gopabandhu Das]]
|[[File:Gopabandhu Das 1964 stamp of India.jpg|100px]]
|1920
|1928
|-
!2.
|[[Harekrushna Mahatab]]
|[[File:Harekrushna Mahatab 2000 stamp of India.jpg|100px]]
|1930
|1931
|-
!3.
|[[Nilakantha Das]]
|[[File:Pandit Nilakantha Das.png|100px]]
|1934
|1939
|-
!4.
|[[Banamali Patnaik]]
|[[File:Banamali Patnaik.jpg|100px]]
|1953
|1954
|-
!5.
|[[Binayak Acharya]]
|
|1967
|1972
|-
!6.
|[[Nilamani Routray]]
|[[File:Nilamani-Routray.jpg|100px]]
|1972
|1977
|-
!7.
|[[Nityananda Misra]]
|
|1977
|1980
|-
!8.
|Kunj Bihari Nayak
|
|1980
|1984
|-
!9.
|[[Hemananda Biswal]]
|[[File:Hemananda-Biswal.jpg|100px]]
|1984
|1989
|-
!10.
|[[Sarat Pattanayak]]
|
|1989
|1994
|-
!(9).
|[[Hemananda Biswal]]
|[[File:Hemananda-Biswal.jpg|100px]]
|1994
|1998
|-
!11.
|[[Niranjan Patnaik]]
|
| 1998
| 2000
|-
!12.
|[[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
|[[File:J B Pattnaik, Governor of Assam.jpg|100px]]
|2000
|2001
|-
!13.
|[[Giridhar Gamang]]
|[[File:Giridhar-Gamang.jpg|100px]]
|2001
|2004
|-
!(12).
|[[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
|[[File:J B Pattnaik, Governor of Assam.jpg|100px]]
|2004
|2004
|-
!14.
|[[Jayadev Jena]]
|
|26 June 2004
|28 January 2009
|'''{{ayd|2004|6|26|2009|1|28}}'''
|-
!15.
|[[Kamakhya Prasad Singh Deo]]
|
|28 January 2009
|7 June 2011
|'''{{ayd|2009|1|28|2011|6|7}}'''
|-
!(11).
|[[Niranjan Patnaik]]
|
| 7 June 2011
| 13 May 2013
|'''{{ayd|2011|6|7|2013|5|13}}'''
|-
!(14).
|[[Jayadev Jena]]
|
|13 May 2013
|15 December 2014
|'''{{ayd|2013|5|13|2014|12|15}}'''
|-
!16.
|[[Prasad Kumar Harichandan]]
|[[File:Prasad Harichandan (cropped).JPG|100px]]
|15 December 2014
|19 April 2018
|'''{{ayd|2014|12|15|2018|4|19}}'''
|-
!(11).
| [[Niranjan Patnaik]]
|
| 19 April 2018
| 23 May 2022
| '''{{ayd|2018|4|19|2022|5|23}}'''
|-
!(10).
| [[Sarat Pattanayak]]
|
| 23 May 2022
| 11 February 2025
|'''{{age in years and days|2022|5|23|2025|2|11}}'''
|-
!17.
|[[Bhakta Charan Das]]
|
|11 February 2025
|'''Incumbent'''
|'''{{Ayd|2025|2|11}}'''
|}

==Electoral performance==

=== Odisha Legislative Assembly election ===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Year
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Party leader
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Seats won
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Change in seats
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Outcome
|-
|[[1952 Orissa Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Nabakrushna Choudhury]]
|{{Composition bar|67|140|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|New
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1957 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1957]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Harekrushna Mahatab]]
|{{Composition bar|56|140|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Decrease}} 11
|{{Yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1961 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1961]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Biju Patnaik]]
|{{Composition bar|82|140|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Increase}} 26
|{{Yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1967 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Sadashiva Tripathy]]
|{{Composition bar|31|140|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Decrease}} 6
|{{No2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[1971 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1971]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Nandini Satpathy]]
|{{Composition bar|51|140|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 20
|{{No2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[1974 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
|{{Composition bar|69|140|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Increase}}18
|{{Yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1977 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Binayak Acharya]]
|{{Composition bar|26|140|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Decrease}}25
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[1980 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
|{{Composition bar|118|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Increase}} 87
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1985 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|{{Composition bar|117|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 1
|{{Yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1990 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1990]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Hemananda Biswal]]
|{{Composition bar|10|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Decrease}} 107
|{{No2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[1995 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]]
|{{Composition bar|80|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Increase}} 70
|{{Yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[2000 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2000]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Hemananda Biswal]]
|{{Composition bar|26|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Decrease}} 54
|{{No2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[2004 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Narasingha Mishra]]
|{{Composition bar|38|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Increase}} 12
|{{No2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[2009 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Bhupinder Singh (politician)|Bhupinder Singh]]
|{{Composition bar|27|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Decrease}} 11
|{{No2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[2014 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| rowspan="1" |Jayadev Jena
|{{Composition bar|16|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Decrease}}11
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[2019 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Niranjan Patnaik]]
|{{Composition bar|9|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Decrease}} 7
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[2024 Odisha Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Sarat Pattanayak]]
|{{Composition bar|14|147|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Increase}} 5
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|}

===Lok Sabha elections===
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|+[[File:Lok Sabha.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert|100px]] [[Lok Sabha]] Elections
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|Year
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|Lok Sabha
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|Seats contested
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|Seats won
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|(+/-) in seats
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|% of votes
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|Vote swing
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|Popular vote
!style="background-color:#00BFFF;color:white"|Outcome
|-
|[[1951 Indian general election|1951]]
|[[1st Lok Sabha|1st]]
|18
|{{Composition bar|11|20|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{new}}
|42.51%
|{{new}}
|15,55,787
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
|[[2nd Lok Sabha|2nd]]
|20
|{{Composition bar|7|20|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 4
|40.01%
|{{decrease}} 2.50
|17,76,767
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|[[3rd Lok Sabha|3rd]]
|20
|{{Composition bar|14|20|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 7
|55.53%
|{{increase}} 15.52
|10,93,297
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
|[[4th Lok Sabha|4th]]
|20
|{{Composition bar|6|20|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 8
|33.33%
|{{decrease}} 22.20
|13,53,704
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|[[5th Lok Sabha|5th]]
|19
|{{Composition bar|15|20|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 9
|38.46%
|{{increase}} 5.13
|17,16,021
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|[[6th Lok Sabha|6th]]
|20
|{{Composition bar|4|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 11
|38.18%
|{{decrease}} 0.28
|20,59,490
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|[[7th Lok Sabha|7th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|20|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}}}
|{{increase}} 16
|56.07%
|{{increase}} 17.89
|34,51,255
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|[[8th Lok Sabha|8th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|20|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|57.46%
|{{increase}} 1.39
|46,92,933
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|[[9th Lok Sabha|9th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|3|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 17
|38.41%
|{{decrease}} 19.05
|42,98,516
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|[[10th Lok Sabha|10th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|13|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 10
|44.05%
|{{increase}} 5.64
|45,98,809
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|[[11th Lok Sabha|11th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|16|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 3
|44.90%
|{{increase}} 0.85
|58,50,025
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|[[12th Lok Sabha|12th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|5|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 11
|41.04%
|{{decrease}} 3.86
|54,77,410
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|[[13th Lok Sabha|13th]]
|20
|{{Composition bar|2|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 3
|36.94%
|{{decrease}} 4.10
|49,01,186
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|[[14th Lok Sabha|14th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|2|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|40.43%
|{{increase}} 3.49
|68,45,738
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[15th Lok Sabha|15th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|6|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 4
|32.75%
|{{decrease}} 7.68
|58,16,904
|{{yes2|Government}}
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|[[16th Lok Sabha|16th]]
|21
|{{Composition bar|0|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{decrease}} 4
|25.97%
|{{decrease}} 6.78
|55,91,380
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|[[17th Lok Sabha|17th]]
|18
|{{Composition bar|1|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{increase}} 1
|13.99%
|{{decrease}} 11.98
|32,85,339
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|[[18th Lok Sabha|18th]]
|20
|{{Composition bar|1|21|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}}}
|{{Steady}}
|12.52%
|{{decrease}} 1.47
|31,30,056
|{{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|}

==Political affairs committee==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | No
! Style="background-color:#00BFFF; color:white" | Name
|-
!1.
|[[Ajay Kumar Lallu]]
|-
!2.
|[[Bhakta Charan Das]]
|-
!3.
|[[Rama Chandra Kadam]]
|-
!4.
|[[Saptagiri Ulaka]]
|-
!5.
|[[Niranjan Patnaik]]
|-
!6
|[[Jayadev Jena]]
|-
!7.
|[[Sarat Pattanayak]]
|-
!8.
|[[Prasad Harichandan]]
|-
!9.
|[[Srikant Jena]]
|-
!10.
|Nagendra Pradhan
|-
!11.
|Jaganath Patnaik
|-
!12.
|Amar Chandra Pradhan
|-
!13.
|Sushila Tiriya
|-
!14.
|A. P. Sethi
|-
!15.
|[[Ramachandra Khuntia]]
|-
!16.
|Sarat Raut
|-
!17.
|Assaf Ali Khan
|-
!18.
|[[Tara Prasad Bahinipati]]
|-
!19.
|Ramesh Jena
|-
!20.
|[[C. S. Raazen Ekka]]
|-
!21.
|Debashish Patnaik
|-
!22.
|[[Santosh Singh Saluja]]
|-
!23.
|Md. Moquim
|-
!24.
|Biswaranjan Mohanty
|-
!25.
|Sasmita Behera
|-
|}

==See also==
* [[Indian National Congress]]
* [[Congress Working Committee]]
* [[All India Congress Committee]]
* [[Pradesh Congress Committee]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Twitter|INCOdisha}}
*Odisha Pradesh Congress Committee on [https://www.facebook.com/INCOdisha Facebook]

[[Category:Indian National Congress by state or union territory]]
[[Category:Politics of Odisha]]

Farrukhsiyar

2026-03-20T14:05:58Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Structure improved and content revised

{{Short description|Mughal emperor from 1713 to 1719}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Farrukhsiyar فرخ‌سیار
| title = {{noitalic|{{ubl|[[Padishah]]|[[Imperial and royal titles of the Mughal emperors|Al-Sultan Al-Azam]]}}}}
| image = Muhhamad_Farukhsiyar.jpg
| caption = Emperor Farrukhsiyar holding a jewel {{circa|1717}}
| succession = [[Mughal Emperor]]
| reign = 11 January 1713 – {{Nowrap|28 February 1719}}
| predecessor = [[Jahandar Shah|Jahāndār Shāh]]
| successor = [[Rafi ud-Darajat|Rafī-ud-Darajāt]]
| spouse = {{Ubl|
Fakhr-un-Nissa Begum
|{{marriage|[[Indira Kanwar]]|27 September 1715}}
|{{marriage|Bhup Devi|3 July 1717}}}}
| issue = {{Ubl|[[Badshah Begum]] |
Farkhunda Bakht |
Jahan Murad Shah|
Jahangir Shah }}
| full name = Mirza Abu'l Muzaffar Muīn-ud-dīn Muhammad Shāh Farrukhsiyar Alim Akbar Sāni Wālā Shāh Pādshāh-i-bahr-u-bar
| posthumous name = Shahid-i-Marhum ({{literal|The martyr received into mercy'}})
| dynasty = [[Timurid Dynasty]]
| module = {{Infobox military person
| embed = yes
| battles = {{plainlist|
*[[Siege of Gurdaspur|Siege of Gurdaspur (1715)]]
* [[Battle of Gurdas Nangal|Battle of Gurdas Nangal (1715)]]}}
}}
| house = [[Mughal Dynasty]]
| father = [[Azim-ush-Shan|Azīm-ush-Shān]]
| mother = Sahiba Niswan
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1683|08|20|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]], [[Ahmadnagar Subah]], [[Mughal Empire]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1719|04|09|1683|08|20|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Shahjahanabad]], [[Delhi]], [[Mughal Empire]]
| death_cause = [[Execution]] by [[Immurement]]
| burial_place = [[Humayun's Tomb]], [[Delhi]], [[India]]
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]] ([[Hanafi]])|
}}

'''Farrukhsiyar''' ({{langx|fa|فرخ‌سیار|rtl=yes}}, {{IPA|fa|faɾ.ˈɾux saj.ˈjɑːɾ}}; 20 August 1683 – 9 April 1719), also spelled as '''Farrukh Siyar''', was the tenth [[Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]] from 1713 to 1719. He rose to the throne after deposing his uncle [[Jahandar Shah]].<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |pages=193}}</ref> He was an emperor only in name, with all effective power in the hands of the two courtiers, [[Sayyid brothers]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=71h7DgAAQBAJ&dq=barha+sayyid+dynasty&pg=PA198 |title=Europe's India |date=2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674977556}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Muhammad Farrukhsiyar was born on 20 August 1683 (9th [[Ramadan|Ramzan]] 1094 [[Anno Hegirae|AH]]) in the city of [[Aurangabad]] on the [[Deccan Plateau]], to a Kashmiri mother, Sahiba Niswan.<ref name="Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal">{{cite book |title= Journal and Proceedings Volume 73, Parts 1-3 |page= 306 |date= 1907 |publisher= Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal }}</ref> He was the second son of [[Azim-ush-Shan]], the grandson of emperor [[Bahadur Shah I]] and a great-grandson of emperor [[Aurangzeb]].

In 1696, Farrukhsiyar accompanied his father on his campaign to [[Bengal]]. Aurangzeb recalled Azim-ush-Shan from Bengal in 1707 and instructed Farrukhsiyar to take charge of the province. Farrukhsiyar spent his early years governing [[Dhaka]] (in present-day [[Bangladesh]]) the capital city of Bengal Subah.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=198}}

In 1712 Azim-ush-Shan anticipated Bahadur Shah I's death and a struggle for power, and recalled Farrukhsiyar. He was marching past [[Azimabad]] (present-day [[Patna]], [[Bihar]], India) when he learned of the Mughal emperor's death. On 21 March, Farrukhsiyar proclaimed his father's accession to the throne, issued coinage in his name and ordered ''[[khutba]]'' (public prayer).{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=198}} On 6 April, he learned of his father's defeat to an alliance orchestrated by [[Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung]] between Jahandar Shah, and his younger brothers [[Rafi-ush-Shan|Rafi-us-Shan]] and [[Jahan Shah (Mughal prince)|Jahan Shah]]. Although the prince considered suicide, he was dissuaded by his friends from Bengal.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=199}}

== Deposing Jahandar Shah ==
[[File:Farrukhsiyar receiving Husain Ali Khan ca. 1715 British Library.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A seated Farrukhsiyar, with an attendant behind him, receives Hussain Ali Khan|Farrukhsiyar receiving Hussain Ali Khan, {{Circa|1715}}]]

In 1712, [[Jahandar Shah]] (Farrukhsiyar's uncle) ascended the throne of the [[Mughal Empire]] by defeating Farrukhsiyar's father, Azim-ush-Shan. Farrukhsiyar wanted revenge for his father's death and was joined by Hussain Ali Khan (the ''[[subahdar]]'' of Bengal) and Abdullah Khan, his brother and the ''subahdar'' of [[Allahabad]].{{sfn|Asiatic Society of Bengal|2009|p=273}}

When they reached [[Allahabad]] from Azimabad, Jahandar Shah's military general Syed Abdul Ghaffar Khan Gardezi and 12,000 troops clashed with Abdullah Khan, resulting in Abdullah retreating to the [[Allahabad Fort]]. However, Gardezi's army fled when they learned about his death. After the defeat, Jahandar Shah sent general Khwaja Ahsan Khan and his son Aazuddin. When they reached Khajwah (present-day [[Fatehpur district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India), they learned that Farrukhsiyar was accompanied by Hussain Ali Khan and Abdullah Khan. With Abdullah Khan commanding the [[vanguard]], Farrukhsiyar began the attack. After a night-long artillery fight, Aazuddin and Khwaja Ahsan Khan fled and the camp fell to Farrukhsiyar.{{sfn|Asiatic Society of Bengal|2009|p=273}}

On 10 January 1713, Farrukhsiyar and Jahandar Shah's forces met at Samugarh, {{convert|9|mi|km|order=flip}} east of [[Agra]] in present-day Uttar Pradesh. Jahandar Shah was defeated and imprisoned, and the following day Farrukhsiyar proclaimed himself the Mughal emperor.{{sfn|Asiatic Society of Bengal|2009|p=274}} On 12 February, Farrukhsiyar marched to the Mughal capital of [[Delhi]], capturing the [[Red Fort]] and the citadel. Jahandar Shah's head, mounted on a bamboo rod, was carried by an executioner on an elephant and his body was carried by another elephant.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=255}}

== Reign ==
=== Hostility towards the Sayyid Brothers ===

[[File:Farrukhsiyar Procession in front of the Great Mosque of Delhi.png|thumb|Farrukh Siyar arrives at the Friday congregation in Delhi.]]
[[File:Silver Rupee struck in the name of Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar, minted in Itawa, AD 1714, photographed by Yogabrata Chakraborty on October 23, 2024.jpg|thumb|200px|Silver Rupee struck in the name of Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar, minted in Itawa, AD 1714.]]

Farrukhsiyar defeated [[Jahandar Shah]] with the aid of the [[Sayyid brothers]], and one of the brothers, Abdullah Khan, wanted the post of ''[[List of Mughal grand viziers|wazir]]'' (prime minister). His demand was rejected, since the post was promised to Ghaziuddin Khan, but Farrukhsiyar offered him a post as [[regent]] under the name of ''wakil-e-mutlaq''. Abdullah Khan refused, saying that he deserved the post of ''wazir'' since he led Farrukhsiyar's army against Jahandar Shah. Farrukhsiyar ultimately gave in to his demand, and Abdullah Khan became ''wazir''.<ref>Tazkirat ul-Mulk by Yahya Khan p.122</ref> His brother Hussain Ali Khan became the ''[[Mir Bakhshi]]'' or Commander-in-Chief.

According to historian [[William Irvine (historian)|William Irvine]], Farrukhsiyar's close aides [[Mir Jumla III]] and Khan Dauran sowed seeds of suspicion in his mind that they might usurp him from the throne. Learning about these developments, the other Sayyid brother (Hussain Ali Khan) wrote to Abdullah Khan: "It was clear, from the Prince's talk and the nature of his acts, that he was a man who paid no regard to claims for service performed, one void of faith, a breaker of his word and altogether without shame".{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=282}} Hussain Ali Khan felt it necessary to act in their interests "without regard to the plans of the new sovereign".{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=283}} Farrukhsiyar could not confront them, as the Sayyid Brothers maintained control of the strongest part of the army, and thus the latter became de facto rulers of the empire.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bhKMDwAAQBAJ&dq=so+he+could+not+confront+the+Sayyid+brothers.+Further,+they+threatened+to+enthrone&pg=PA212 |title= A Short History of the Mughal Empire |page=212 |author= Michael Fischer |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |date=2015 |isbn= 9780857727770 }}</ref>

=== Campaign against Ajmer ===
[[Ajit Singh of Marwar|Maharaja Ajit Singh of Marwar]] captured [[Ajmer]] with the support of the Marwari nobles and expelled Mughal diplomats from his state. Farrukhsiyar sent [[Sayyid Hussain Ali Khan Barha|Hussain Ali Khan]] to subjugate him. However, the anti-[[Sayyid brothers]] faction in the Mughal emperor's court compelled him to send secret letters to Ajit Singh assuring him of rewards if he defeated Hussain Ali Khan.<ref>The Cambridge Shorter history of India p.456</ref> Hussain Ali Khan left Delhi for Ajmer on 6 January 1714, accompanied by Sarbuland Khan and Afrasyab Khan. As his army reached Sarai Sahal, Ajit Singh sent diplomats who failed to negotiate a peace. As Hussain Ali Khan advanced to Ajmer via [[Jodhpur]], [[Jaisalmer]] and [[Merta City|Merta]], Ajit Singh retreated to the deserts hoping to dissuade the Mughal general from a battle. Ajit Singh surrendered at Merta.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=288–290}} As a result, Mughal authority was restored in [[Rajasthan|Rajputana]]. Ajit Singh gave his second daughter, Kunwari [[Indira Kanwar]], as a bride to Farrukhsiyar.{{sfn|Fisher|p=78}} His son, Kunwar [[Abhai Singh of Marwar|Abhai Singh]], was compelled to accompany him to see the Mughal emperor his brother-in-law.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=290}}

=== Campaign against the Jats ===
[[File:Farrúkh Síyár on horseback with attendants.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Colourful painting of Farrukhsiyar on horseback, surrounded by three attendants on foot|Farrukhsiyar on horseback with attendants]]
Due to [[Aurangzeb]]'s 25-year campaign on the [[Deccan Plateau]], Mughal authority weakened in [[North India]] with the rise of local rulers. Taking advantage of the situation, the [[Jats]] advanced.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=322}} In early 1713, Farrukhsiyar unsuccessfully sent ''[[subahdar]]'' of [[Agra Subah|Agra]], Chabela Ram to defeat the Jat leader [[Churaman]]. However, his successor, Samsamud Daulah Khan, compelled Churaman to negotiate with the Mughal emperor. Raja Bahadur Rathore accompanied him to the Mughal court, where negotiations with Farrukhsiyar failed.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=323}}

In September 1716 Raja [[Jai Singh II]] undertook a campaign against Churaman, who lived in Thun (in present-day [[Rajasthan]], India). By 19 November, Jai Singh II began besieging the Thun fort.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=324}} In December, Churaman's son, [[Muhkam Singh]], marched from the fort and battled Jai Singh II; the Raja claimed victory. With the Mughals running out of ammunition, Syed Muzaffar Khan was ordered to bring gunpowder, rockets and mounds of lead from the arsenal at Agra.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=325}}

By January 1718, the siege had lasted for more than a year. With rain coming late in 1717, prices of commodities increased and Raja Jai Singh II found it difficult to continue the siege. He wrote to Farrukhsiyar for reinforcement, saying that he had overcome "many encounters" with the Jats. This failed to impress Farrukhsiyar, so Jai Singh II (via his agent in Delhi) informed Hussain Ali Khan that he would give three million rupees to the government and two million rupees to the minister if he championed his cause to the emperor. With negotiations between Hussain Ali Khan and Farrukhsiyar successful, he accepted his demands and dispatched Syed Khan Jahan to bring Churaman to the Mughal court. Farrukhsiyar issued a [[Firman|''farman'']] (royal decree) to Raja Jai Singh II, thanking him for the siege.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=326}}

On 19 April 1718, Churaman was presented to Farrukhsiyar; they negotiated for peace, with Churaman accepting Mughal authority. Khan Jahan was given the title of ''Bahadur'' ("brave"). It was decided that Churaman would pay five million rupees in cash and goods to Farrukhsiyar via Syed Abdullah.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=327}}

=== Campaign against the Sikhs ===
[[Banda Singh Bahadur]] was a [[Sikh]] leader who, by early 1710s, had captured parts of the [[Punjab|Punjab region]].<ref name="Banda">{{cite web|title=Marathas and the English Company 1707–1800|url=http://www.san.beck.org/2-10-Marathas1707-1800.html|publisher=San Beck|access-date=18 March 2017|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225084030/http://www.san.beck.org/2-10-Marathas1707-1800.html%20|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mughal emperors [[Bahadur Shah I]] and [[Jahandar Shah]] failed to suppress Banda's uprising.{{sfn|Richards|1995|p=258}}

In 1714, the Sirhind ''[[faujdar]]'' (garrison commander) Zainuddin Ahmad Khan attacked the Sikhs near [[Ropar]]. In 1715, Farrukhisyar sent 20,000 troops under Qamaruddin Khan, Abdus Samad Khan and [[Zakariya Khan Bahadur]] to defeat Bahadur.<ref name="Banda" /> After an eight-month siege at [[Gurdaspur]], Banda Singh Bahadur surrendered after he ran out of ammunition. Banda Singh Bahadur and his 200 companions were arrested and brought to Delhi; he was paraded around the city of [[Sirhind]].{{sfn|Singha|p=15}}

Banda Singh Bahadur was put into an iron cage and the remaining Sikhs were chained.<ref>{{cite book|last=Duggal|first=Kartar|title=Maharaja Ranjit Singh: The Last to Lay Arms|year=2001|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=9788170174103|page=41}}</ref> They were pressured to give up their faith and become Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Gurbaksh|title=The Khalsa Generals|year=1927|publisher=Canadian Sikh Study & Teaching Society|isbn=0969409249|page=12}}</ref> Although the emperor promised to spare the Sikhs who [[conversion to Islam|converted to Islam]], according to William Irvine "not one prisoner proved false to his faith". On their firm refusal all were ordered to be executed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jawandha|first=Nahar|title=Glimpses of Sikhism|year=2010|publisher=Sanbun Publishers|isbn=9789380213255|page=89}}</ref> The Sikhs were brought to Delhi in a procession with the 780 Sikh prisoners, 2,000 Sikh heads hung on spears, and 700 cartloads of heads of slaughtered Sikhs used to terrorise the population.<ref>{{cite book|last=Johar|first=Surinder|title=Guru Gobind Singh|year=1987|publisher=Enkay Publishers|location=The University of Michigan|isbn=9788185148045|page=208}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Sastri|first=Kallidaikurichi|title=A Comprehensive History of India: 1712–1772|year=1978|publisher=Orient Longmans|location=The University of Michigan|page=245}}</ref> When Farrukhsiyar's army reached the [[Red Fort]], the Mughal emperor ordered Banda Singh Bahadur, [[Baj Singh]], [[Fateh Singh (Sikh warrior)|Fateh Singh]] and their companions to be imprisoned in [[Tripolia Gates|Tripolia]].{{sfn|Singha|p=16}} After three months of confinement,<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Ganda|title=Life of Banda Singh Bahadur: Based on Contemporary and Original Records|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.514005|year=1935|publisher=Sikh History Research Department|page=229}}</ref> on 19 June 1716 Farrukhsiyar had Banda Singh Bahadur and his followers executed, despite the wealthy [[Khatri]]s of Delhi offering money for his release.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=319}} Banda Singh Bahadur's eyes were [[Eye-gouging|gouged]] out, his limbs were severed, his skin removed, and then he was killed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Kulwant|title=Sri Gur Panth Prakash: Episodes 1 to 81|year=2006|publisher=Institute of Sikh Studies|isbn=9788185815282|page=415}}</ref>

=== Campaign against rebels at the Indus River ===
[[Shah Inayat Shaheed|Shah Inayat]] was the leader of poor peasants of [[Sindh]] who led a decisive movement against [[zamindars]] of Sindh and redistributed land among poor peasants and tillers. He was executed on the order of Farrukhsiyar in 1718.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ansari |first=Sarah F. D. |title=Sufi saints and state power : the pirs of Sind, 1843-1947 |date=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-40530-0 |location=Cambridge [England] |oclc=23694258}}</ref><ref name=bio>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA3941 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot|author= Mohan Lal |page= 3941|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=9788126012213|date=1991 }}</ref>

=== Reimposition of Jizya ===
Farrukhsiyar gave power to a number of [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri nobles]] such as [[Inayatullah Kashmiri]], an old Alamgiri noble, and Muhammad Murad Kashmiri, who he was related to by marriage. This was because he needed a close party of supporters who were directly related to him in dealing with the Sayyid brothers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f_RtAAAAMAAJ&q=About+this+time+it+was+learnt+that+Shaista+Khan+,+the+maternal+uncle+of+the+late+Farrukhsiyar+,+was+raising+troops+and |title= The Forgotten Mughals:A History of the Later Emperors of the House of Babar, 1707-1857 |author= G. S. Cheema |date= 2002 |page=142|publisher= Manohar Publishers & Distributors |isbn= 9788173044168 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dohDAAAAYAAJ&q=The+emperor+felt+the+need+of+raising+the+old+%27+Alamgiri+nobles+%27+as+a+counterpoise+to+the+Sayyids |title= A Study of Eighteenth Century India: Political history, 1707-1761 |date= 1976 |publisher= Saraswat Library }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dohDAAAAYAAJ&q=farrukhsiyar+chose+khan+dauran |title= A Study of Eighteenth Century India: Political history, 1707-1761 |date= 1976 |author= Jagadish Narayan Sarkar |publisher= Saraswat Library }}</ref><ref name="Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal"/> Inayatullah Khan was appointed the Diwan-i-Tan-o Khalisa, and the governor of [[Mughal Kashmir|Kashmir]] in 1717. He set fire to the Hindu area of [[Srinagar]] and forbade the Pandits from wearing turbans.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDFuAAAAMAAJ&q=Inayatullah+Khan+,+a+Kashmiri+who+was+appointed+governor+in+1717+,+set+fire+to+the+Hindu+area+of+Srinagar+and+the+Pandits+were+not+allowed+to |title=Kashmir in Conflict:India, Pakistan and the Unending War |page=23 |author=Victoria Schofield |date=1996 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9781860640360 }}</ref> Inayatullah Khan was further responsible for the re-imposition of Jizyah in the Mughal Empire after the death of Aurangzeb. Farrukhsiyar said to the Hindus:<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DLQeSBLpUwsC&dq=farrukhsiyar+jizya&pg=PA174 |title= Rajasthan Through the Ages |page= 174 |author= R.K. Gupta, S.R. Bakshi |date= 2008 |publisher= Sarup & Sons |isbn= 9788176258418
}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|"Inayatullah has placed before me a letter from the [[Sharif of Mecca]] urging that the collection of jizya is obligatory according to our Holy book. In a matter of faith, I am powerless to interfere."}}

=== Trade concession in Bengal ===

[[File:Farrukhsiyar.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Farrukhsiyar smoking a hookah with a female attendant|upright|Moonlit portrait of Farrukhsiyar smoking a hookah with a female attendant]]
In 1717, Farrukhsiyar issued a ''farman'' giving the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] the right to reside and trade in the Mughal Empire. They were allowed to trade freely, except for a yearly payment of 3,000 [[Coinage of India#Later Mughal Emperors (c. 1555–1857 CE)|rupees]], in gratitude for [[William Hamilton (surgeon)|William Hamilton]], a surgeon associated with the company, curing Farrukhsiyar of a disease.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Samaren Roy|title=Calcutta: Society and Change 1690–1990|date=May 2005|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-34230-3|page=29}}</ref> The company was given the right to issue ''[[Dastak (trade permit)|dastak]]'' (passes) for the movement of goods, which was misused by company officials for personal gain.<ref>{{cite book|title=History and Civics |author1=Vipul Singh |author2=Jasmine Dhillon |author3=Gita Shanmugavel |publisher=Pearson India|isbn=978-81-317-6320-9|page=73}}</ref> The ''farman'' allowed the British East India company to carry out duty-free trade in the [[Bengal Subah|province of Bengal]]. The improper use of ''dastaks'' for company officials' own private trade angered the [[Nawabs of Bengal|Nawab of Bengal]], [[Alivardi Khan]], which eventually led to future conflicts of the Nawabs of Bengal with the British East India company.

=== Final struggle with the Sayyid Brothers ===
[[File:Portret van Farruk Siyar te paard, RP-T-1991-5.jpg|thumb|left]]
By 1715, Farrukhsiyar had given [[Mir Jumla III]] the power to sign documents on his behalf: "The word and seal of Mir Jumla are my word and seal". Mir Jumla III began approving proposals for ''[[jagirdar|jagirs]]'' and ''[[mansabdar|mansabs]]'' without consulting Syed Abdullah, the prime minister.{{sfn|Chandra|2007|p=476}} Syed Abdullah's deputy Ratan Chand accepted bribes for him to do work and was involved in [[Farm (revenue leasing)|revenue farming]], which was forbidden by the Mughal emperor. Taking advantage of the situation, Mir Jumla III told Farrukhsiyar that the Sayyids were unfit to hold office and accused them of insubordination. Hoping to depose the brothers, Farrukhsiyar began making military preparations and increased the number of soldiers under Mir Jumla III and Khan Dauran.{{sfn|Chandra|2007|p=477}}

After Syed Hussain learned about Farrukhsiyar's plans, he felt that their position could be cemented by controlling "important provinces". He asked to be appointed viceroy of the Deccan, instead of [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Asaf Jah I]]; Farrukhsiyar refused, transferring him to the Deccan instead. Fearing attack by Farrukhsiyar's supporters, the brothers began making military preparations. Although Farrukhsiyar initially considered giving the task of crushing the brothers to Mohammad Amin Khan (who wanted the position of prime minister in return), he decided against it because removing him would be difficult.{{sfn|Chandra|2007|p=478}}

Arriving at the Deccan, Syed Hussain made a treaty with [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] ruler [[Shahu I]] in February 1718. Shahu was allowed to collect ''[[sardeshmukhi]]'' in Deccan, and received the lands of [[Berar Subah|Berar]] and Gondwana to govern. In return, Shahu agreed to pay one million rupees annually and maintain an army of 15,000 horses for the Sayyids. This agreement was reached without Farrukhsiyar's approval,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ram Sivasankaran|title=The Peshwa: The Lion and the Stallion|date=22 December 2015|publisher=Westland|isbn=978-93-85724-70-1|page=5}}</ref> and he was angry when he learned about it: "It was not proper for the vile enemy to be overbearing partners in matters of revenue and government."{{sfn|Chandra|2007|p=481}}

=== State of the Mughal Empire ===
==== Appointments ====
Farrukhsiyar appointed Sayid Abdullah Khan as chief minister and placed Muhammad Baqir Mutamid Khan in charge of the [[Exchequer]]. The title of ''[[Bakhshi (Mughal Empire)|bakshi]]'' was first conferred on [[Sayyid brothers|Hussain Ali Khan]] (with the titles of Umdat-ul-Mulk, Amir-ul-umara and Bahadur Firuz Jung) and then to [[Chin Qilich Khan]] and Afrasayab Khan Bahadur.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=258}}

The following were governors of the provinces; the governor of [[South India]] was Chin Qilich Khan, who appointed deputy governors:{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=261}}{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=262}}{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=263}}
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" |North India
! colspan="2" |South India
|-
! Province !! Governor/Chief Minister !! Province !! Deputy governor
|-
| [[Agra Subah|Agra]] || [[Khan Dowran VII|Shams ud Daula Shah Khan-i Dauran]] || [[Berar Subah|Berar]] || [[Khwaja Kamal|Iwaz Khan]]
|-
| [[Ajmer Subah|Ajmer]] || Syed Muzaffar Khan Barha || [[Bidar district|Bidar]] ||Amin Khan
|-
| [[Allahabad district|Allahabad]] || Khan Jahan Barha || [[Bijapur district, Karnataka|Bijapur]] ||Mansur Khan
|-
| [[Awadh Subah|Awadh]] || [[Muhammad Muradyab Khan (Nawab Sarbuland Khan)|Sarbuland Khan]] ||[[Khandesh Subah|Khandesh]] || Shukrullah Khan
|-
| [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]] || Farkhunda Bakht || [[Hyderabad district, India|Hyderabad]] || Yusuf Khan
|-
| [[Bihar Subah|Bihar]] || [[Sayyid Hussain Ali Khan Barha]] || [[Carnatic Subah|Carnatic]] || [[Saadatullah Khan I|Saadatullah Khan Nawayath]]
|-
| [[Delhi]] || Muhammad Yar Khan
|-
| [[Gujarat Subah|Gujarat]] || Shahamat Khan
|-
| [[Kabul Province|Kabul]] || Bahadur Nasir Jang
|-
| [[Kashmir Subah|Kashmir]] || Saadat Khan
|-
| [[Subah of Lahore|Lahore]] || [[Abd al-Samad Khan]]
|-
| [[Malwa Subah|Malwa]] || [[Jai Singh II|Raja Jai Singh of Amber]]
|-
| [[Subah of Multan|Multan]] || [[Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha|Qutb-ul-Mulk Barha]]
|-
| [[Odisha|Orissa]] || [[Murshid Quli Khan]]
|}

== Personal life ==
=== Family ===
Farrukhsiyar's first wife was Fakhr-Un-Nissa Begum, also known as Gauhar-Un-Nissa, the daughter of Mir Muhammad Taqi (known as Hasan Khan and then Sadat Khan). Taqi, from the Persian province of [[Mazandaran]], married the daughter of Masum Khan Safawi; if she was the mother of Fakhr-un-nissa, this would account for her daughter's selection as the prince's wife.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|pp=400–401}}

His second wife was Bai [[Indira Kanwar]], the daughter of Maharajah Ajit Singh.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=400}} She married Farrukhsiyar on 27 September 1715, during the fourth year of his reign, and they had no children. After Farrukhsiyar's deposition and death she left the imperial harem on 16 July 1719, she returned to her father with her property and lived her remaining years in Jodhpur.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=401}}

Farrukhsiyar's third wife was Bai Bhup Devi, daughter of Jaya Singh (the Raja of [[Kishtwar]], who had converted to Islam and received the name of Bakhtiyar Khan). After Jaya Singh's death he was succeeded by his son, Kirat Singh. In 1717, in response to a message from the [[Mufti]] of [[Delhi]], her brother Kirat Singh sent her to Delhi with her brother Mian Muhammad Khan. Farrukhsiyar married her, and she entered the imperial harem on 3 July 1717.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=401}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Proceedings – Punjab History Conference – Volumes 29-30|publisher=Punjabi University|year=1998|page=85}}</ref>

=== Titles ===
His full name was Abul Muzaffer Muinuddin Muhammad Farrukhsiyar Badshah.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=398}}
Posthumously, he was known as ''"Shahid-i-marhum"'' (the martyr received with mercy).{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=399}}

=== Coinage ===
{{Multiple image
|direction=vertical
|align=left
|width=180
|image1=Silver rupee coin of Farrukhsiyar, issue from Etawah.jpg
|alt1=Two sides of a silver coin
|footer=Silver rupee and gold mohur from the reign of Farrukhsiyar
|footer_align=center
|image2=Gold Mohur des Farrukh Siyar.jpg
|alt2=Two sides of a gold coin
}}
On coins issued during Farrukhsiyar's reign, the following phrase was inscribed: ''"Sikka zad az fazl-i-Haq bar sim o zar/ Padshah-i-bahr-o-bar Farrukhsiyar"'' (By the grace of the true God, struck on silver and gold, the emperor of land and sea, Farrukhsiyar).{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=399}}
There are 116 coins from his reign on display at the [[Lahore Museum]] and the [[Indian Museum]] in [[Kolkata]]. The coins were minted in [[Kabul]], [[Kashmir]], [[Ajmer]], [[Allahabad]], [[Bidar]] and [[Berar Subah|Berar]].{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=399}}

== Deposition and death ==
[[File:Portret van de grootmogol Farrukhsiyar, RP-T-1996-76.jpg|thumb]]
In the middle of 1718, a serious conflict broke out at the Mughal court. The emperor and his top minister had been at odds for a long time, but tensions grew when the emperor broke an earlier agreement by appointing new officials in the Deccan region. In response, the minister canceled these appointments. Furious, the emperor tried and failed to eliminate the minister, Abdullah Khan, which led to a gathering of powerful nobles and troops against him. Soon, the emperor found himself with only a small force of Rajput soldiers by the side of Jai Singh Kachhwaha.<ref name="Eaton Persianate Age">{{Cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |year=2020 |publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-0-14-198539-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WpCMEAAAQBAJ |language=en |pages=344–346}}</ref><ref name="Chandra Parties and Politics">{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court (1707–1740) |year=1972 |publisher=People’s Publishing House |location=New Delhi |pages=139–141}}</ref><ref name="Richards Mughal Empire">{{harvnb|Richards|1995|pp=170–174}}</ref> Abdullah Khan then called on his brother, Husain Ali Khan, to bring reinforcements from the Deccan. In October, Husain Ali Khan marched north with a large force of cavalry, infantry armed with matchlocks, and artillery. He was joined by [[Balaji Vishwanath]], a Maratha chief minister, who added Maratha horsemen to the army. Although they claimed they were coming to negotiate an exchange of important hostages, their real purpose was to show that the emperor could be replaced with another who would be easier to control.<ref name="Chandra Parties and Politics"/><ref name="Eaton Persianate Age"/> In February 1719, Husain Ali Khan made a dramatic entrance into Delhi, ignoring the formal court rules. Under pressure, the emperor, Farrukhsiyar, removed several key officials, including [[Jai Singh II]]. When the emperor refused to give up control of the palace fortress, an angry confrontation took place in the court. Abdullah Khan eventually removed the emperor's guards and seized control of the palace.<ref name="Chandra Parties and Politics"/><ref name="Richards Mughal Empire"/><ref name="Eaton Persianate Age"/>

As news spread through the city, Farrukhsiyar was forced to hide in the women's quarters. The next day, loyal commanders gathered to march on the palace, but they clashed with Husain Ali Khan's [[Marathi people|Maratha]] forces. Seeing that they could not simply install one of their own, the powerful [[Sayyid brothers]] chose to replace the emperor with a young and manageable prince. After a failed attempt to capture Prince Bidar Dil, they crowned Prince Rafi-ud-darjat as the new ruler. Later that night, Farrukhsiyar was captured, blinded, and eventually killed in prison.{{sfn|Irvine|2006|p=390}}<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdmcAAAAQBAJ&dq=ajit+singh+1719&pg=PA186|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|page=186|author=Kenneth Pletcher| date=April 2010 |isbn=978-1615302017}}</ref> Upon his death, Ajit Singh reclaimed his widowed daughter along with dowry and returned to [[Jodhpur]].<ref>{{cite book|isbn=9789004300569|title=Royal Umbrellas of Stone: Memory, Politics, and Public Identity in Rajput Funerary Art|page=176|author=Melia Belli Bose|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dR0CgAAQBAJ&dq=Ajit+Singh+killed+farrukhsiyar&pg=PA176|publisher=Brill}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
The town of [[Farrukhnagar]] in [[Gurgaon district]], {{convert|32|km}} south of [[Delhi]], was named for him. During his reign, he built a ''Sheesh Mahal'' (palace) and a [[Jama Masjid]] (mosque) there.

The town of [[Farrukhabad]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] was also named after him.

== References ==
<references />

== Bibliography ==
{{Commons category}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Bangash Nawabs of Fakkuhkabad |journal=[[The Asiatic Society|Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal]] |volume=47 |date=18 August 2009 |publisher=Bishop's College Press|ref={{sfnref|Asiatic Society of Bengal|2009}} }}
* {{citation|first=Satish|last= Chandra|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughal Empire|date= July 2007|publisher=Har Anand Publications Pvt Ltd.|isbn=978-81-241-1269-4}}
* {{citation|title=The Later Mughals|author-link=William Irvine (historian)|first=William|last=Irvine|year=2006 |isbn=81-7536-406-8|publisher=Low Price Publications}}
* {{citation|first=Michael H. |last=Fisher|title=A Short History of the Mughal Empire|date=1 October 2015|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0-85772-976-7|ref={{harvid|Fisher}} }}
* {{citation|first=John F.|last=Richards|author-link=John F. Richards|url=https://archive.org/details/the-new-cambridge-history-of-india-volume-1-part-5|title=The New Cambridge History of India: Part I, Volume V - The Mughal Empire|year=1995|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521566032}}
* {{citation|first=H.S.|last= Singha|title=Sikh Studies, Book 6|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Hemkunt Press|isbn=978-81-7010-258-8|ref={{harvid|Singha}} }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Timurid dynasty]]||}}
{{succession box|title=[[Mughal Emperor]]|before=[[Jahandar Shah]]|after=[[Rafi Ul-Darjat]]|years=1713–1719}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{Mughal Empire}}

[[Category:Emperors of the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Murdered Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:1683 births]]
[[Category:1719 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Aurangabad]]
[[Category:People from Marathwada]]
[[Category:18th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:People murdered in 1719]]
[[Category:18th-century murders in India]]
[[Category:18th-century Mughal Empire people]]

Arnav

2026-03-16T16:54:37Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created some stub v1...

{{wiktionary|Arnab|arnab}}
'''Arnav, Arnab''', or '''Arnov''' is a first name popular in India, and means "ocean" in [[Sanskrit]]. Arnab is the [[Bengalis|Bengali]], [[Odia people|Odia]], and [[Assamese people|Assamese]] form of the name. It also means "rabbit" in [[Arabic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Notable people with the name include:

* [[Arnab Basu]] (fl. 2000s), game designer, video-games producer; known for Tomb Raider series
* [[Arnab Chakrabarty]] (born 1980), classical musician and sarod player
* [[Arnab Chanda]] (born 1981), English born actor, writer, and director
* [[Arnab Das Sharma]] (born 1987), Indian footballer
* [[Arnab Goswami]] (born 1973), Indian journalist
* [[Arnab Mondal]] (born 1989), Indian footballer
* [[Arnab Nandi]] (born 1987), Indian first-class cricketer
* [[Arnab Rai Choudhuri]] (born 1956), Indian scientist
* [[Arnav (TV actor)]] (born Amjath Khan, 1989), Tamil television actor
* [[Arnav Kapur]] (fl. 2010s–2020s), computer scientist and engineer at MIT
* [[Arnav Sinha]] (born 1995), Indian cricketer

== Films ==

==See also==
* [[El Arnab]], traditional Arab solitaire
* [[Arnave]], commune in the Ariège department of southwestern France

{{given name}}

[[Category:Indian masculine given names]]
[[Category:Masculine given names]]
[[Category:Hindu given names]]

Chatta Masjid

2026-03-16T14:12:22Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Starting some stub basic info

{{Short description|Congregational mosque in Gaya, Bihar, India}}
{{Infobox religious building
| building_name = Chatta Masjid
| native_name = {{native name|hi|छत्ता मस्जिद}} {{native name|ur|{{Nastaliq|چھتہ مسجد}}}}
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| religious_affiliation = [[Islam]]
| image = Chatta Masjid Gaya.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Entrance to the Chatta Masjid, 2021.
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| coordinates = {{Coord|24|47|44|N|85|0|29|E|type:city_region:SA|display=inline,title}}
| map_size = 200
| map_caption = Location in Gaya, Bihar, India
| location = [[Gaya, India|Gaya]]
| municipality = Gaya Nagar Nigam
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'''Chatta Masjid''' ({{Langx|hi|छत्ता मस्जिद}}, [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: {{lang|hi-Latn|Chattā Masjida}}; {{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|چھتہ مسجد}}|Chatta Masjid}}), also spelled as '''Chhatta Masjid''', is a [[congregational mosque]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=रमजान के अंतिम जुमे को घरों में पढ़ी जोहर की नमाज|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/gaya/story-ramadan-39-s-last-rites-were-recited-in-homes-3231884.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Hindustan|language=hindi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=नमाज में महामारी से मुक्ति की मांगी दुआ|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/gaya/story-prayer-for-freedom-from-pandemic-in-namaz-3111552.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Hindustan|language=hindi}}</ref> located in Dulhingunj neighborhood of [[Gaya, India|Gaya]], [[Bihar]], [[India]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=चार घंटे तक जाम में बिलबिलाते रहे बच्चे|url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/gaya-16751621.html|access-date=2021-10-23|website=Dainik Jagran|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=आज घरों में अदा होगी बकरीद की नमाज|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/gaya/story-today-bakrid-prayers-will-be-performed-in-homes-3388585.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Hindustan|language=hindi}}</ref> close to [[Phalgu|Falgu river]]. Popular for being situated at a bustling [[marketplace]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=शहर की थोक मंडी में खुलीं किराना की दुकानें|url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/gaya-grocery-shops-opened-in-the-citys-wholesale-market-21689977.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Dainik Jagran|language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=दिखा चांद, ईद आज|url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/gaya-10633568.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Dainik Jagran|language=hi}}</ref> the mosque also serves as a landmark for nearby [[Bakery|bakeries]] that sell traditional [[Bakarkhani|''bakarkhanis'']]<ref>{{Cite web|title=गया की बकरखानी के विदेशी भी कायल|url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/gaya-gaya-bakarkhani-like-also-other-country-19281784.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Dainik Jagran|language=hi}}</ref> and [[Sheermal|''sheermals'']]<ref>{{Cite web|title=گیا: شرمال اور باقرخانی کی فروخت میں کمی|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/urdu/national/state/bihar/further-decline-in-food-sales-in-gaya/na20210720223149118|access-date=2021-10-24|website=ETV Bharat News}}</ref> besides wholesale shops that import [[Date palm|dates]] from the [[Middle East]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=گیا بہار: کھجور کی فروخت میں 40 فیصد کمی|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/urdu/national/city/patna/gaya-bihar-40-percent-decline-in-date-sales/na20210421093533176|access-date=2021-10-24|website=ETV Bharat News}}</ref> The mosque usually gets crowded during [[Shab-e-barat|Shab-e-Barat]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=शब-ए-बरात पर चौकसी, मस्जिद व दरगाह पर जवानों की रही तैनाती|url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/gaya-attention-mosque-and-shabebarat-the-deployment-of-soldiers-at-the-shrine-20177742.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Dainik Jagran|language=hi}}</ref> and serves as a local ''[[eidgah]]'' during the festive seasons of [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=ईद की नमाज में मुल्क में अमन व भाईचारे की मांगी दुआ|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/gaya/story-prayer-sought-for-peace-and-brotherhood-in-the-country-of-eid-prayers-2562222.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Hindustan|language=hindi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=گیا: عیدگاہوں میں عیدالاضحیٰ کی نماز کی اجازت نہیں|url=https://www.etvbharat.com/urdu/national/state/bihar/gaya-eid-ul-adha-prayers-are-not-allowed-at-eidgah/na20210719182136062|access-date=2021-10-24|website=ETV Bharat News}}</ref>

== COVID-19 lockdown and subsequent closures ==
After the outbreak of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]], the [[Government of Bihar]] announced a complete state-wise lockdown from 22 March 2020 till 31 March 2020,<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 22, 2020|title=Bihar announces lockdown in urban areas till March 31|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/bihar-announces-lockdown-in-urban-areas-till-march-31-1658511-2020-03-22|access-date=2020-05-13|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref> and two days later on the evening of 24 March 2020, the [[Indian government]] announced nation-wide lockdown for the next 21 days till 14 April 2020.<ref name="NYTimes">{{Cite news|last1=Gettleman|first1=Jeffrey|last2=Schultz|first2=Kai|date=24 March 2020|title=Modi Orders 3-Week Total Lockdown for All 1.3 Billion Indians|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/24/world/asia/india-coronavirus-lockdown.html|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Chatta Masjid's nearby marketplace remained closed till late May 2021<ref name=":0" /> while the premises of the mosque remained closed for visitors till late August 2021<ref>{{Cite web|title=136 दिनों बाद खुले धार्मिक स्थल, पूजा व इबादत शुरू|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/gaya/story-religious-places-open-after-136-days-worship-and-worship-started-4445607.html|access-date=2021-10-24|website=Hindustan|language=hindi}}</ref> when Bihar government eased restrictions during the [[COVID-19 lockdown in India|Unlock 6.0 phase]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=bihar unlock guidelines: Latest News & Videos, Photos about bihar unlock guidelines {{!}} The Economic Times - Page 1|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/topic/bihar-unlock-guidelines|access-date=2021-10-24|website=The Economic Times}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}{{Mosques in India}}
[[Category:Mosques in Bihar]]
[[Category:Indo-Islamic mosques]]
[[Category:Year of establishment unknown]]
[[Category:Mosque buildings with minarets in India]]
[[Category:Gaya, India]]

History of Bihar

2026-03-13T08:22:55Z

AntoniettaWhitco:

{{Short description|History of Indian state of Bihar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{History of Bihar}}
<div class="toccolours" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 300px; font-size: 90%; background: #f8f9fa; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1;">

<div style="background: #eaecf0; text-align: center; padding: 8px; font-weight: bold; font-size: 110%; border-bottom: 1px solid #a2a9b1;">
Empires of Bihar
</div>

<div style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;">
[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|280px|center]]
</div>
<div style="padding: 2px 5px 8px; text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #c8ccd1; font-size: 95%;">
'''Mahajanapada Period''' Magadha among the 16 great ancient kingdoms.
</div>

<div style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;">
[[File:Magadha Expansion (6th-4th centuries BCE).png|280px|center]]
</div>
<div style="padding: 2px 5px 8px; text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #c8ccd1; font-size: 95%;">
'''Haryanka Dynasty''' Early territorial expansion under Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.
</div>

<div style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;">
[[File:Nanda Empire, c.325 BCE.png|280px|center]]
</div>
<div style="padding: 2px 5px 8px; text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #c8ccd1; font-size: 95%;">
'''Nanda Empire''' Magadha's dominance over Northern India.
</div>

<div style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;">
[[File:Magadha_Expansion_1.gif|280px|center]]
</div>
<div style="padding: 2px 5px 8px; text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #c8ccd1; font-size: 95%;">
'''Maurya Empire''' Pan-Indian expansion originating from Pataliputra.
</div>

<div style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;">
[[File:Shunga Empire.jpg|280px|center]]
</div>
<div style="padding: 2px 5px 8px; text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #c8ccd1; font-size: 95%;">
'''Shunga Empire''' Post-Mauryan dynasty controlling central and eastern India.
</div>

<div style="text-align: center; padding: 5px;">
[[File:Map of the Gupta Empire.png|280px|center]]
</div>
<div style="padding: 2px 5px 8px; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;">
'''Gupta Empire''' The Classical Age centered in Magadha.
</div>

</div>

The '''History of Bihar''' is one of the most varied in India. Bihar consists of three distinct regions, each has its own distinct history and culture. They are [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]], [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] and [[Bhojpuri region|Bhojpur]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WYiHAwAAQBAJ&q=mithila+magadh+bhojpur&pg=PA212 | title=India's 2004 Elections: Grass-Roots and National Perspectives | access-date=13 April 2017 | pages=212 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414081057/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WYiHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA212&dq=mithila+magadh+bhojpur&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjD78_3m6LTAhXFCsAKHdfwBDsQ6AEIJDAC#v=onepage&q=mithila%20magadh%20bhojpur&f=false | archive-date=14 April 2017| isbn=9788132101109 | last1=Roy | first1=Ramashray | last2=Wallace | first2=Paul | date=6 February 2007 | publisher=SAGE Publications }}</ref> [[Chirand]], on the northern bank of the [[Ganga River]], in [[Saran district]], has an archaeological record dating from the [[Neolithic age]] (c. 2500 – 1345 BC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/destinations/bihar_a_quick_guide_to_saran/|title=BIHAR: A QUICK GUIDE TO SARAN|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323054404/http://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/destinations/bihar_a_quick_guide_to_saran/|archive-date=23 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/1100925/jsp/bihar/story_12980021.jsp|title=Oldest hamlet faces extinction threat|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323053759/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1100925/jsp/bihar/story_12980021.jsp|archive-date=23 March 2017}}</ref> Regions of Bihar—such as Magadha, Mithila and [[Anga]]—are mentioned in religious texts and epics of ancient India. [[Mithila, India|Mithila]] is believed to be the centre of Indian power in the Later [[Vedic period]] (c. 1100 – 500 BC). Mithila first gained prominence after the establishment of the ancient [[Videha|Videha Kingdom]].<ref>[[Michael Witzel]] (1989), Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, pages 13, 17 116-124, 141-143</ref> The kings of the Videha were called [[Janaka]]s. A daughter of one of the Janaks of Mithila, [[Sita]], is mentioned as consort of [[Rama|Lord Rama]] in the [[Hindu epic]] ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref>[[Michael Witzel]] (1989), Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, pages 13, 141-143</ref> The kingdom later became incorporated into the [[Vajjika League]] which had its capital in the city of [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], which is also in Mithila.<ref>Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.85-6</ref>

Magadha was the centre of Indian power, learning and culture for about a thousand years. One of India's greatest empires, the [[Maurya Empire]], as well as two major [[Ahimsa|pacifist]] religions, [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], arose from the region that is now Bihar.<ref>Mishra Pankaj, ''The broblem'', Seminar 450 - February 1997</ref> Empires of the Magadha region, most notably the Maurya unified large parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]] under their rule.<ref>{{cite web| title =The History of Bihar| publisher =Bihar Government website| url =http://gov.bih.nic.in/Profile/history.htm| url-status =live| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140331063547/http://gov.bih.nic.in/Profile/history.htm| archive-date =31 March 2014}}</ref> Their capital [[Pataliputra]], adjacent to modern-day [[Patna]], was an important political, military and economic centre of Indian civilisation during the ancient and classical periods of Indian history. Many ancient [[Indian literature|Indian texts]], aside from religious epics, were written in ancient Bihar. The play ''[[Abhijñānaśākuntala]]'' being the most prominent.

The present-day region of Bihar overlaps with several pre-Mauryan kingdoms and republics, including Magadha, Anga and the Vajjika League of [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]]. The latter was one of the world's earliest known republics and had existed in the region since before the birth of [[Mahavira]] (c. 599 BC).<ref name="p2.www.britannica.com">[http://p2.www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048151/Licchavi "Licchavi", ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223185727/http://p2.www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048151/Licchavi |date=23 December 2008 }}</ref><ref name="eb-vaisali">[http://p2.www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074639/Vaisali "", ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223225431/http://p2.www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074639/Vaisali |date=23 December 2008 }}</ref>

The [[Pala Empire]] also made their capital at Pataliputra once during [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]'s rule. After the Pala period, Bihar came under the control of various kingdoms. The [[Karnat dynasty]] came into power in the Mithila region in the 11th century and they were succeeded by the [[Oiniwar dynasty]] in the 14th century. Aside from Mithila, there were other small kingdoms in medieval Bihar. The area around Bodh Gaya and much of Magadha came under the Buddhist [[Pithipatis of Magadha]]. The [[Khayaravala dynasty]] were present in the southwestern portions of the state until the 13th century.<ref name=Chakrabarty10>{{cite book |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=Dilip |title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=47–48 |isbn=978-0-19-908832-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&dq=the+focus+of+the+history+of+bihar+in+the+eleventh+and+twelfth+century+is+on+Mithila&pg=PT115}}</ref> For much of the 13th and 14th centuries, parts of Western Bihar were under the control of the [[Jaunpur Sultanate]]. These kingdoms were eventually supplanted by the Delhi Sultanate who in turn were replaced by the [[Sur Empire]]. After the fall of the Suri dynasty in 1556, Bihar came under the [[Mughal Empire]] and later was the staging post for the British colonial [[Bengal Presidency]] from the 1750s and up to the war of 1857–58. On 22 March 1912, Bihar was carved out as a separate province in the [[British Indian Empire]]. Since 1947 independence, Bihar has been an original state of the Indian Union.<ref>Gopal, S. (2017). Mapping Bihar: From Medieval to Modern Times. United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.</ref>

== Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC) ==
{{See also|Timeline for Bihar}}
The earliest proof of human activity in Bihar is [[Mesolithic]] habitational remains at [[Munger]].

[[Prehistoric]] [[rock painting]]s have been discovered in the hills of [[Kaimur Range|Kaimur]], [[Nawada]] and [[Jamui]]. It was the first time that a [[Neolithic]] settlement was discovered in the thick of the [[alluvium]], over the bank of the [[Ganges]] at [[Chirand]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://yac.bih.nic.in/Da-01.htm |title=Directorate of Archaeology - Page 1 |access-date=2015-11-23 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181914/http://yac.bih.nic.in/Da-01.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016}} [[Prehistoric]] era in Bihar</ref> The rock paintings depict a prehistoric lifestyle and natural environment. They depict the Sun, the Moon, stars, animals, plants, trees, and rivers, and it is speculated that they represent love for nature. The paintings also highlight the daily life of the early humans in Bihar, including activities like hunting, running, dancing and walking.<ref>http://discoverbihar.bih.nic.in/pages/art_craft.htm#Rock%20Paintings {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205000953/http://discoverbihar.bih.nic.in/pages/art_craft.htm |date=5 February 2009 }} Rock painting at [[Kaimur Range|Kaimur]]</ref> The rock paintings in Bihar are not only identical to those in central and [[South India|southern India]] but are also akin to those in [[Europe]] and [[Africa]]. The rock paintings of Spain's [[Cave of Altamira|Alta Mira]] and France's [[Lascaux]] are almost identical to those found in Bihar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kaimur.com/ |title=Kaimur Hills - Home to Prehistoric Tales |access-date=2008-12-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202172246/http://kaimur.com/ |archive-date=2 February 2009}} discovery of rock paintings</ref>

== Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC) ==

=== Parallel to Indus Valley Civilization ===
In 2017 bricks dated to the mature [[Harappan architecture|Harappan]] period was discovered from the outskirts of the ancient city of [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318129330|title=Harappan Civilization and Vaishali Bricks|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/bihar/harappa-signs-in-bricks-of-raghopur/cid/1375856|title=Harappa signs in bricks of Raghopur|website=telegraphindia.com|language=en|access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> Any in-depth research which may establish definite links between [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley Civilization]] and Bihar is yet to be conducted. A round seal excavated from Vaishali dated 200 BC-200 AD has three inscribed letters which according to [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley Civilization]] scholar [[Iravatham Mahadevan]] represents formulas inscribed on the Indus seals and dates it to the earliest layers of excavation i-e 1100 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mahadevan|first=Iravatham|date=March 1999|title=Murukan in the Indus script|url=http://rmrl.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/papers/22.pdf|journal=Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies|volume=XVI|pages=3–39|access-date=17 July 2020|archive-date=19 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219025911/http://www.rmrl.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/papers/22.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[[Iravatham Mahadevan|I. Mahadevan]] (1999)</ref>

=== Rigvedic period ===
[[Kikata kingdom|Kikata]] was an ancient kingdom in what is now India, mentioned in the [[Vedas]]. Some scholars have believed that they were the forefathers of [[Magadha kingdom|Magadhas]] because Kikata is used as a synonym for Magadha in the later texts.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Macdonell|first1=Arthur Anthony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6TVLlPvuMAC&q=kikata&pg=PA159|title=Vedic Index of Names and Subjects|last2=Keith|first2=Arthur Berriedale|date=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=9788120813328|language=en}}</ref> It probably lay to the south of Magadha Kingdom in a hilly landscape.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chandra|first=A. n|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.131443|title=The Rig Vedic Culture and the Indus Civilisation|date=1980}}</ref> A section in the [[Rigveda]] (RV 3.53.14) refers to the {{IAST|Kīkaṭa}} 's (Sanskrit:कीकट), a tribe which most scholars have placed in present-day southwestern Bihar (Magadha) such as Weber and Zimmer<ref name="Vedic Index 1964">e.g. McDonell and Keith 1912, Vedic Index; Rahurkar, V.G. 1964. The Seers of the Rgveda. University of Poona. Poona; Talageri, Shrikant. (2000) [[The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis]]</ref> while some scholars such as Oldenburg and Hillebrandt dispute that. According to [[Puranas|Puranic literature]] Kikata is placed near [[Gaya, India|Gaya]]. It is described as extending from Caran-adri to Gridharakuta ([[Vulture Peak|vulture peak]]), [[Rajgir]]. Some scholar such as A. N. Chandra places Kikata in a hilly part of the Indus Valley based on the argument that countries between Magadh and the Indus Valley are not mentioned such as Kuru, Kosala etc. Kikatas were said to be Anarya or non-vedic people who didn't practice Vedic rituals like soma, According to [[Sayana]], Kikatas didn't perform worship, were infidels and {{transliteration|hi|[[Āstika and nāstika|nastikas]]}}. The leader of Kikatas has been called Pramaganda, a usurer.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6inYJea_ggC&q=kikata&pg=PA350|title=Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, Their Religion and Institutions: Inquiry whether the Hindus are of Trans-Himalayan origin, and akin to the western branches of the Indo-European race. 2d ed., rev. 1871|date=1871|publisher=Trübner|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rig-Veda|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_YnWsR5wvYn0C|title=Rig-Veda Sanhitá a Collection of Ancient Hindú Hymns Translated from the Original Sanskrit by H.H. Wilson: Third and fourth ashtakas or books of the Rig-Veda|date=1857|publisher=Wm. H. Allen and Company|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_YnWsR5wvYn0C/page/n112 86]|language=en|quote=kikata rigveda.}}</ref> It is unclear whether Kikatas were already present in Magadh during the Rigvedic period or they migrated there later.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&q=kikata+rigveda&pg=PT230|title=The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts|date=2014-04-15|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9788184757637|language=en}}</ref> Like Rigveda attributes of Kikatas, Atharvaveda also speaks about southeastern tribes like Magadhas and Angas as hostile tribe who lived on the borders of Brahmanical India.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6inYJea_ggC&q=kikata&pg=PA350|title=Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, Their Religion and Institutions: Inquiry whether the Hindus are of Trans-Himalayan origin, and akin to the western branches of the Indo-European race. 2d ed., rev. 1871|date=1871|publisher=Trübner|language=en}}</ref> [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagvata Purana]] mentions about the birth of Buddha among Kikatas.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6inYJea_ggC&q=kikata&pg=PA350|title=Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, Their Religion and Institutions: Inquiry whether the Hindus are of Trans-Himalayan origin, and akin to the western branches of the Indo-European race. 2d ed., rev. 1871|date=1871|publisher=Trübner|language=en}}</ref>  

Some scholars have placed the [[Kikata kingdom|Kīkaṭa kingdom]], mentioned in the [[Rigveda]], in [[Bihar]] ([[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]]) because Kikata is used as a synonym for Magadha in the later texts;<ref name="Vedic Index 1964" /> however, according to [[Michael Witzel]], Kīkaṭa was situated south of [[Kurukshetra]] in eastern Rajasthan or western Madhya Pradesh.<ref name="Witzel1995">M. Witzel. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=OZ0gAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA333 Rigvedic history: poets, chieftains, and polities]," in ''The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity.'' ed. G. Erdosy (Walter de Gruyer, 1995), p. 333</ref> The placement in Bihar is also challenged by historical geographers Mithila Sharan Pandey (who argues they must have been near [[Western Uttar Pradesh]]),<ref>Mithila Sharan Pandey, [https://books.google.com/books?id=F80BAAAAMAAJ ''The Historical Geography and Topography of Bihar''] (Motilal Barnarsidass, 1963), p.101</ref> and O.P. Bharadwaj (who places them near the [[Sarasvati River]]),<ref>O.P. Bharadwaj [https://books.google.com/books?id=_5MtAAAAMAAJ ''Studies in the Historical Geography of Ancient India''] (Sundeep Prakashan, 1986), p.210</ref> and historian [[Ram Sharan Sharma]], who believes they were probably in Haryana.<ref>R.S. Sharma, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll3vDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 ''Sudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A.D. 600''] (Motilal Banarsidass, 1990), p.12</ref>

==== Northern black polished ware ====
Urbanization in the Gangetic plains began with the appearance of [[Northern Black Polished Ware|Northern black polished ware]] period and archaeologists trace the origin of this pottery in [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadh]] region of Bihar. The oldest dated site of NBWP is in Juafardih, [[Nalanda]], which is carbon dated to 1200 BC.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tewari|first=Rakesh|title=EXCAVATION AT JUAFARDIH, DISTRICT NALANDA|publisher=ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA|year=2016|pages=6–8|quote=Layers 13 the uppermost deposit of Period I, has provided a C14 date of 1354 BCE it may thus be seen that the C14 dates of Period I and II are consistent and justifiably indicate that the conventional date bracket for NBPW requires a fresh review at least for the sites in Magadh region.}}</ref>

== Iron Age (1500–200 BC) ==
=== Mahajanapadas ===
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
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File:Ancient india.png|[[Anga]], [[Vajjika League|Vajji]] and [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] on map of the [[Mahajanapadas]].
File:Buddha's ashes Stupa, Vaishali, Bihar.jpg|5th century BCE stupa built by the [[Licchavis of Vaishali]] to house the relics of the [[Buddha]] after his death
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<gallery>
File:Ascetic Bodhisatta Gotama with the Group of Five.jpg|[[Gautama Buddha]] undertaking ascetic practices before his enlightenment under the [[Bodhi Tree]], on the bank of [[Phalgu]], [[Bodh Gaya]].
File:Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of Mahavira, from the Kalpa Sutra, c.1375-1400. gouache on paper. Indian.jpg|Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of [[Mahavira]] (the 24th [[Jain]] [[Tirthankara]]), from the [[Kalpasutra (Jain)|Kalpa Sutra]], c. 1375–1400.
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{{Main|Mahajanapadas}}
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city-states, dominated what is now Bihar. Many of these states have been mentioned in Buddhist and [[Jainism|Jaina]] literature as far back as 1000 BC. By 500 BC, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the ''[[Mahajanapadas]]'' – [[Kasi kingdom|Kasi]], [[Kosala]], [[Anga]], Magadha, [[Vajjika League|Vajji]] (or Vriji), [[Malla (tribe)|Malla]], [[Chedi kingdom|Chedi]], [[Vatsa]] (or Vamsa), [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]], [[Panchala]], [[Matsya (tribe)|Matsya]] (or Maccha), [[Surasena]], [[Assaka]], [[Avanti (India)|Avanti]], [[Gandhara]] and [[Kamboja kingdom|Kamboja]] – stretched across the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]] from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharashtra.

The [[Vajjika League|Vajji]] covered the modern [[North Bihar]], [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] covered South-western Bihar while [[Anga]] covered South-eastern Bihar. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BC, that is by the time of [[Siddhartha Gautama]]. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha.<ref>{{cite book | author= Krishna Reddy | title = Indian History | year = 2003 | publisher = Tata McGraw Hill | location = New Delhi | isbn = 0-07-048369-8 | pages = A107 }}</ref> In 537 BC, Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]] in [[Bodh Gaya]], Bihar. Many of the Buddha's chief disciples and contemporaries had their origins in modern-day Bihar including [[Śāriputra]], [[Maudgalyayana]]<ref name=Brill>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Berezkin |first=Rostislav |date= |title=Maudgalyāyana (Mulian) |url= https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/ENBO/COM-2083.xml?language=en|encyclopedia= Brill's Encyclopaedia of Buddhism|location= |publisher=BRILL |access-date=}}</ref> and [[Mahākāśyapa]].<ref name=Princeton>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Lopez |first=Donald |date=2014 |title=Mahākāśyapa |url= https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190681159.001.0001/acref-9780190681159-e-2507|encyclopedia= Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|location= |publisher= Princeton University Press |access-date=}}</ref>

Around the same time, [[Mahavira]] was born to the [[Nāya]] tribe in modern-day Bihar near [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]]. He was the 24th [[Jain]] [[Tirthankara]], propagated a similar theology, that was to later become Jainism.<ref>Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I. B. Tauris : London {{ISBN|1-86064-148-2}} - '' Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BCE. Page 114 ''</ref> However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The [[Vedas]] are believed to have documented a few Jain Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement.<ref>Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I. B. Tauris : London {{ISBN|1-86064-148-2}} - '' "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira." Page 115 ''</ref> The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism and were preached in [[Prakrit]], which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with namely, [[vegetarianism]], prohibition of animal slaughter and [[ahimsa]] ([[non-violence]]).

[[File:Lomas Rishi entrance.jpg|thumb|Entrance to the [[Lomas Rishi cave]], 5th century BCE, Barabar hills.]]

===Vajjika league===
{{Main|Vajjika League}}
[[File:The eastern Gangetic plain before Ajatasattu's, Vidudabha's and Udayana's conquests.jpg|thumb|The Vajjika league at its peak around the 5th century BCE]]
The Vajjika League was a league of republican tribal states under the leadership of the [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavikas]] centred around the city of [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vesālī]]. The other members of the league were the [[Videha|Vaidehas]] in the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] region, the [[Nāya|Nāyika]]s of [[Kuṇḍapura]], and the [[Vajji (tribe)|Vajji]] tribe proper, who were dependencies of the Licchavikas. The [[Malla (tribe)|Mallakas]], who were organised into two separate republics, were also part of the Vajjika League, although they were not dependencies of the Licchavikas and therefore maintained their independence and sovereign rights within the confederation, hence why Jain sources considered the Licchavikas and the neighbouring [[Malla (tribe)|Mallakas]] of [[Kusinārā]] and [[Pāvā]] to be the republican states of [[Kingdom of Kashi|Kāsī]]-[[Kosala]].{{sfn|Sharma|1968|p=81-84}}{{sfn|Sharma|1968|p=169-181}}
=== Early Magadha Empire ===
{{Main|Magadha}}
According to both Buddhist texts and Jain texts, one of Pradyota tradition was that the King's son would kill his father to become the successor. During this time, it was reported that there were high crimes in Magadha. The people rose up and elected [[Shishunaga]] to become the new king, who destroyed the power of the Pradyotas and created the [[Shishunaga dynasty]]. [[Shishunaga]] (also called King [[Sisunaka]]) was the founder of a dynasty collectively called the [[Shishunaga dynasty]]. He established the [[Shishunaga dynasty|Magadha empire]] (in 684 BC). Due in part to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the emergence of the Shishunaga dynasty. This empire, with its original capital in [[Rajgir|Rajgriha]], later shifted to [[Pataliputra]] (both currently in the Indian state of Bihar). The Shishunaga dynasty was one of the largest empires of the [[Indian subcontinent]].

{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
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; Magadha
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[[File:Magadha.GIF|thumb|center|[[Pataliputra]] as a capital of the Kingdom of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (6th{{ndash}}4th centuries BC).]]
<gallery>
File:Magadha_Expansion_(6th-4th_centuries_BCE).png|Approximate extent of the [[Haryanka dynasty]] and [[Shaishunaga dynasty]].
File:Nanda Empire, c.325 BCE.png|The [[Nanda Empire]] at its greatest extent under [[Dhana Nanda]] c. 323 BC.
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<gallery>
File:Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE 2.png|The [[Maurya Empire]] at its largest extent under [[Ashoka]].
File:SungaEmpireMap.jpg|The [[Shunga Empire]] at its greatest extent - c. 185 BC.
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The Hariyanka dynasty king [[Bimbisara]] was responsible for expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and conquest.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=271}}<ref name="Datta 1988">{{Cite book|last=Datta|first=Amaresh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&dq=Shrenika&pg=PA1779|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti|date=1988|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1194-0|language=en}}</ref> The land of [[Kosala]] fell to Magadha in this way. Estimates place the territory ruled by this early dynasty at 300 leagues in diameter and encompassing 80,000 small settlements. [[Bimbisara]] is contemporary with the Buddha, and is recorded as a lay disciple. Bimbisara (543–493 BC) was imprisoned and killed by his son who became his successor, [[Ajatashatru]] (491–461 BC), under whose rule, the dynasty reached its largest extent.

Licchavi was an ancient—before the birth of [[Mahavira]]— [[republic]] in what is now the Bihar state of India.<ref name="eb-vaisali" /> [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]] was the capital of Licchavi and the [[Vajjika League]]. The [[Mahavamsa]] tells that a courtesan in that city, [[Ambapali]], was famous for her beauty, and helped in large measure in making the city prosperous.<ref>Vin.i.268</ref>

[[Ajatashatru]] went to war with the Licchavi several times. Ajatashatru is thought to have ruled from 551 BC to 519 BC and moved the capital of the Magadha kingdom from [[Rajagriha]] to [[Pataliputra]].{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=42}} The [[Mahavamsa]] tells that Udayabhadra eventually succeeded his father, Ajatashatru, and that under him Pataliputra became the largest city in the world. He is thought to have ruled for sixteen years. The kingdom had a particularly bloody succession. Anuruddha eventually succeeded Udaybhadra through assassination, and his son Munda succeeded him in the same fashion, as his son [[Nagadasaka]].<ref>{{citation |title=Royal patronage of Buddhism in ancient India |last=Hazra |first=Kanai Lal |page=39 |year=1984 |publisher=D.K. Publications |oclc=10590550 }}</ref>{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=273}}

This dynasty lasted until 424 BC when it was overthrown by the [[Nanda dynasty]]. This period saw the development in Magadha of two of India's major religions. [[Gautama Buddha]] in the 6th or 5th century BC was the founder of Buddhism, which later spread to East Asia and [[Southeast Asia]], while [[Mahavira]] revived and propagated the ancient [[Śramaṇa|sramanic]] religion of Jainism.

The [[Nanda Dynasty|Nanda dynasty]] was established by an illegitimate son of King [[Mahanandin]] from the previous [[Shishunaga dynasty]]. The [[Nanda dynasty]] ruled Magadha during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. At its greatest extent, the Nanda Empire extended from [[Burma]] in the east, [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] in the west and probably as far south as [[Karnataka]].<ref>Radha Kumud Mookerji, ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'', 4th ed. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988 [1966]), 31, 28–33.</ref> [[Mahapadma Nanda]] of the Nanda dynasty, has been described as the destroyer of all the [[Kshatriya]]s. He defeated the [[Ikshvaku dynasty]], as well as the [[Panchala]]s, [[Kasi kingdom|Kasis]], [[Haihayas]], [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalingas]], [[Asmaka kingdom|Asmakas]], [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]]s, Maithilas, [[Surasena]]s and the Vitihotras. He expanded his territory to the south of [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. [[Mahapadma Nanda]] died at the age of 88 and, therefore, he ruled during most of the period of this dynasty, which lasted 100 years.

In 321 BC, exiled general [[Chandragupta Maurya]], with the help of [[Chanakya]], founded the [[Maurya dynasty]] after overthrowing the reigning Nanda king [[Dhana Nanda]] to establish the [[Maurya Empire]]. The Maurya Empire (322–185 BC), ruled by the [[Mauryan dynasty]], was geographically extensive, powerful and a political-military empire in [[history of India|ancient India]]. During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. The exceptions were present-day [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]] (which was a [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil kingdom]] at that time). The empire had its capital city at [[Pataliputra]] (near modern [[Patna]]). The Mauryan empire under Chandragupta Maurya would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, defeating and conquering the [[satrap]]s left by [[Alexander the Great]] but also push its boundaries into [[Persia]] and Central Asia, conquering the [[Gandhara]] region. Chandragupta Maurya then defeated an invasion led by [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus I]], a Greek general from Alexander's army. Chandragupta Maurya's minister, [[Kautilya Chanakya]], wrote the ''[[Arthashastra]]'', a treatise on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war and religion.

Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son, [[Bindusara]], who expanded the kingdom over most of present-day India, other than the extreme south and east. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the [[Himalayas]], and to the east stretching into what is now [[Assam]]. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] and much of what is now [[Afghanistan]]. The Empire was extended into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and [[Bindusara]], but it excluded the republic of Kalinga.

The Maurya Empire was inherited by [[Bindusara]]'s son, [[Ashoka The Great|Ashoka]]. Ashoka initially sought to expand his kingdom but in the aftermath of the carnage caused during the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or [[ahimsa]] after converting to Buddhism. Following the conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka ended the military expansion of the empire and led the empire through more than 40 years of relative peace, harmony and prosperity. Ashoka's response to the Kalinga War is recorded in the [[Edicts of Ashoka]],<ref>The [[Edicts of Ashoka]] is a collection of 33 inscriptions on the [[Pillars of Ashoka]]</ref> one of the oldest preserved historical documents of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://history-world.org/indian_empire.htm |title=The First Indian Empire |publisher=History-world.org |access-date=2012-08-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515101903/http://history-world.org/indian_empire.htm |archive-date=15 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=4,2658,0,0,1,0 |title=Archaeology Gandhara's wonders |access-date=2008-12-04 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202223151/http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=4,2658,0,0,1,0 |archive-date=2 February 2009}} [[Edicts of Ashoka]] at Shahbaz Garhi are among the oldest historical "documents" found on the subcontinent.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html |title=KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times |access-date=2006-11-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028175927/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html |archive-date=28 October 2013}} [[Edicts of Ashoka]], which comprise the earliest decipherable corpus of written documents from India, have survived throughout the centuries because they are written on rocks and stone pillars.</ref>

According to Rock Edicts of Ashoka: {{blockquote|text="Beloved-of-the-Gods [Ashoka], King Priyadarsi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. 150000 were deported, 100000 were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma and instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas."|sign=Ashoka|source=[http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html S. Dhammika, ''The Edicts of King Ashoka''], Kandy, Buddhist Publications Society (1994) {{ISBN|955-24-0104-6}}
}}
 The Mauryan Empire under Ashoka was responsible for the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia. Under Ashoka, India was a prosperous and stable empire of great economic and military power whose political influence and trade extended across Asia and into Europe. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka embraced Buddhism. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. The ''[[Lion Capital of Ashoka]]'' at [[Sarnath]], is the [[emblem of India]]. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of [[Northern Black Polished Ware]] (NBPW). The ''Arthashastra'', the Edicts of Ashoka and [[Ashokavadana]] are primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times.

Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. [[Brihadrata]], the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith.

== Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – 1206 AD) ==
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}}{{Main|Shunga Empire|Kanva dynasty|Pala Empire}}
{{See also|Magadha}}{{multiple image
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| caption1 = [[Aryabhata]] came to [[Pataliputra|Kusumapura]] (modern Patna) for higher studies and lived here. (PictureStatue of [[Aryabhata]] at [[Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics|IUCAA]])<ref>{{cite book|last=Cooke|first=Roger|title=The history of mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook|url-access=registration|year=1997|chapter=The Mathematics of the Hindus|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/204 204]|publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780471180821 |quote=Aryabhata himself (one of at least two mathematicians bearing that name) lived in the late 5th and the early 6th centuries at [[Kusumapura]] (Pataliutra, a village near the city of Patna) and wrote a book called ''Aryabhatiya''.}}</ref>
| image3 = Mahabodhitemple.jpg
| caption3 = The current structure of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE.Palas.
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| caption4 = [[Nalanda]] is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the centre of Buddhist learning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE. It reached its height under the
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=== Shunga Dynasty ===
The [[Shunga dynasty]] was established in 185 BCE, about fifty years after the Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the [[Mauryan]] [[armed forces]], [[Pushyamitra Shunga]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Raychaudhuri |first1=Hem Chandra |title=Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty |date=1923 |publisher=Calcutta, Univ. of Calcutta |page=216}}</ref>

Pushyamitra Shunga was a Brahmin who then took over the throne and established the Shunga dynasty. [[Decline of Buddhism in India#The Shungas|Buddhist records]] such as the Ashokavadana write that the assassination of Brihadrata and the rise of the Shunga empire led to a wave of [[Decline of Buddhism in India#The Shungas|persecution of Buddhists]],<ref>According to the Ashokavadana.</ref> and a resurgence of [[Hinduism]]. According to [[John Marshall]],<ref>Sir John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, {{ISBN|81-85204-32-2}}, pg.38</ref> Pushyamitra Shunga may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings [[Shunga Empire#Buddhism|seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism]]. Other historians, such as [[Etienne Lamotte]]<ref>E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958)</ref> and [[Romila Thapar]],<ref>Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200</ref> partially support this view.

=== Gupta Dynasty ===
The [[Gupta dynasty]] ruled from around 240 to 579 CE. The dynasty was established by [[Gupta]], succeeded by [[Ghatotkacha (Gupta Ruler)|Ghatotkacha]] (c. 280–319) AD, had a son named [[Chandra Gupta I]] (Not to be confused with [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (340–293 BC), founder of the Mauryan Empire). In a breakthrough deal, Chandra Gupta I was married to a woman from Lichchhavi—the main power in Magadha.

[[Samudragupta]] succeeded Chandra Gupta I in 335, and ruled for about 45 years, until he died in 380. He attacked the kingdoms of Shichchhatra, Padmavati, [[Malwa]]s, the [[Yaudheyas]], the [[Arjunayanas]], the [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Maduras]] and the [[Abhiras]], and merged them in his kingdom. By his death in 380, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm, his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river [[Narmada River|Narmada]] and from the [[Brahmaputra river|Brahmaputra]] to the [[Yamuna river|Yamuna]]. He gave himself the titles ''King of Kings'' and ''World Monarch''. He is considered the ''Napoleon of India''. Chandra Gupta I performed ''[[Ashwamedha Yajna]]'' to underline the importance of his conquest.

[[Chandra Gupta II]], the Sun of Power (''[[Vikramaditya]]''), ruled from 380 until 413. Only marginally less successful than his father, Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the [[Saka]] [[Western Kshatrapas]] of [[Malwa]], [[Gujarat]] and [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] in a campaign lasting until 409. Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son [[Kumara Gupta I|Kumaragupta I]]. Known as the ''Mahendraditya'', he ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the [[Pushyamitras]], rose in power to threaten the empire.

[[Skandagupta]] is generally considered the last of the great rulers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/547260/Skanda-Gupta |title=Skanda Gupta (Gupta ruler) - Britannica Online Encyclopaedia |publisher=Britannica.com |access-date=2012-08-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307082712/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/547260/Skanda-Gupta |archive-date=7 March 2014}}</ref> He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading [[Hephthalite]]s or [[Huna (people)|Huna]], from the northwest. He repulsed a ''Huna'' attack c. 477. [[Skandagupta]] died in 487 and was succeeded by his son [[Narasimhagupta]] ''Baladitya''.

The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in [[History of India|ancient India]]. The [[Gupta period]] is referred to as the Classical Age of India by most historians. The time of the Gupta Empire was an "[[Golden Age of India|Indian Golden Age]]" in Indian [[Science and technology in ancient India|science, technology]], [[List of Indian inventions and discoveries|engineering]], [[Indian art|art]], [[Languages of India|dialectic]], [[Indian literature|literature]], [[Indian logic|logic]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]], [[Indian religion|religion]] and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]].<ref>[http://www.flonnet.com/fl2422/stories/20071116504306400.htm] [[Golden Age of India]] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204045434/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2422/stories/20071116504306400.htm|date=4 December 2008}}</ref>

The difference between the Gupta Empire's and Mauryan Empire's administration was that in the Mauryan administration power was centralised but in the Gupta administration power was more decentralised. The empire was divided into provinces and the provinces were further divided into districts. Villages were the smallest units. The kingdom covered [[Gujarat]], [[North-East India]], south-eastern Pakistan, [[Odisha]], northern [[Madhya Pradesh]] and eastern India with capital at [[Pataliputra]], modern [[Patna]]. All forms of worship were carried out in [[Sanskrit]].

Rapid strides were made in [[astronomy]] during this period. [[Aryabhata]] and [[Varahamihira]] were two great astronomers and [[mathematicians]]. Aryabhata stated that the Earth moved around the Sun and rotated on its axis. Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to come up with the concept of [[zero]], postulated the theory that [[heliocentrism|the Earth moves round the Sun]], and studied solar and lunar [[eclipse]]s. Aryabhata's most famous work was ''Aryabhatiya''. [[Varahamihira]]'s most important contributions are the encyclopaedic [[Brihat-Samhita]] and ''[[Pancha-Siddhantika]]'' (''{{IAST|Pañcasiddhāntikā}}''). Metallurgy also made rapid strides. The proof can be seen in the Iron Pillar of [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiaheritage.org/creative/creative_metal_work.htm |title=Creative Metal Work, Metal Origins History, Metal Work Techniques |publisher=Indiaheritage.org |access-date=2012-08-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217104250/http://www.indiaheritage.org/creative/creative_metal_work.htm |archive-date=17 February 2012}}</ref> and near [[Mehrauli]] on the outskirts of [[Delhi]], which was brought from Bihar.<ref>''Story of the Delhi Iron Pillar''. By R. Balasubramaniam. Published by Foundation Books, 2005. {{ISBN|9788175962781}}</ref>

This period is also very rich in [[Sanskrit literature]]. The material sources of this age were [[Kalidasa]]'s works. [[Raghuvamsa]], [[Malavikagnimitram]], [[Meghadūta]], [[Abhijñānaśākuntala]] and [[Kumārasambhava]], [[Mṛcchakatika]] by [[Shudraka]], [[Panchatantra]] by [[Vishnu Sharma]], [[Kama Sutra]] (the principles of pleasure) and 13 plays by [[Bhasa]] were also written in this period.

In medicine, the Guptas were notable for their establishment and patronage of free hospitals. Although progress in physiology and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies, which discouraged dissection and anatomy, Indian physicians excelled in pharmacopoeia, caesarean section, bone setting, and skin grafting. Indeed, Hindu medical advances were soon adopted in the [[Arab]] and Western worlds. [[Ayurveda]] was the main medical system.

According to some historian's work, {{blockquote|The Gupta Empire is considered by many scholars to be the "classical age" of Hindu and Buddhist art and literature. The Rulers of the Gupta Empire were strong supporters of developments in the arts, architecture, science, and literature. The Gupta Empire circulated a large number of gold coins, called dinars, with their inscriptions. The Gupta Dynasty also left behind an effective administrative system. During times of peace, the Gupta Empire system was decentralised, with only taxation flowing to the capital at Pataliputra. During times of war, however, the government realigned and fought its invaders. The system was soon extinguished in fighting off the Hunnic Invasions.<ref>Omalley L S S, History of Magadh, Veena Publication, 2005, {{ISBN|81-89224-01-8}}</ref><ref>''Cultural Pasts: Essays in Early Indian History'', 2003; Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-566487-6}}</ref>}}

===Later Gupta dynasty===
{{Main|Later Gupta dynasty}}
[[File:Archer type coinage of King Mahasenagupta of the Later Gupta dynasty.png|thumb|Archer type coinage of King Mahasenagupta of the Later Gupta dynasty, c. 6th century CE]]
The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the [[Gupta Empire|imperial Guptas]] as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families.<ref>{{cite book |author=Karl J. Schmidt |title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ |isbn=9781317476818 |page=26}}</ref> The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sailendra Nath Sen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA246 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |publisher=New Age |year=1999 |isbn=9788122411980 |page=246}}</ref>

=== Pala Dynasty ===
The [[Pala Empire]] was a Buddhist dynasty that ruled from the [[Bengal]] region of the Indian subcontinent. The name ''Pala'' ([[pa language|Modern]] {{langx|bn|পাল}} ''pal'') means ''protector'' and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the [[Mahayana]] and [[Tantra|Tantric]] schools of Buddhism. [[Gopala (Pala king)|Gopala]] was the first ruler of the dynasty. He came to [[power (sociology)|power]] in 750 in [[Gaur, West Bengal|Gaur]] by a [[democracy|democratic]] [[election]]. This event is recognised as one of the first [[democratic election]]s in [[South Asia]] since the time of the [[Mahajanapadas|Mahā Janapadas]]. He reigned from 750 to 770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of [[Bengal]] as well as parts of [[Bihar]]. The Buddhist [[dynasty]] lasted for four centuries (750–1120 CE).

The empire reached its peak under [[Dharmapala of Bengal|Dharmapala]] and [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the subcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of [[South Asia]] and beyond. His empire stretched from [[Assam]] and [[Utkala kingdom|Utkala]] in the east, [[Kamboja kingdom|Kamboja]] (modern-day [[Afghanistan]]) in the north-west and [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription, Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the [[Hun clan|Huna]], and humbled the lords of [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratiharas]], [[Gurjar]]a and the [[Dravidian people|Dravidas]].

The Palas created many temples and works of art as well as supported the Universities of [[Nalanda]] and [[Vikramashila]]. Both [[Nalanda University]] and [[Vikramshila University]] reached their peak under the Palas. The universities received an influx of students from many parts of the world. Bihar and Bengal were invaded by the south Indian Emperor [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola dynasty]] in the 11th century.<ref>The Making of India by A. Yusuf Ali p.60</ref><ref>The Cambridge Shorter History of India p.145</ref> The [[Pala Empire]] eventually disintegrated in the 12th century under the attack of the [[Sena dynasty]]. [[Pala Empire]] was the last empire of [[Middle kingdoms of India|middle kingdoms]] whose capital was once in [[Pataliputra]] (modern [[Patna]]) under Devapala's rule.

== Medieval Period (1206–1526) ==
{{Multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = Udyanacharya Sanskrit Vidyalaya.jpg|caption1=11th-century Hindu philosopher [[Udayana]]<ref name=Prasad1974>{{cite book |last1=Prasad Sinha |first1=Bindeshwari |title=Comprehensive History Of Bihar, Volume 1, Part 2 |date=1974 |publisher=KP Jayaswal Research Institute |pages=375–403 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.534083/page/n397/mode/2up}}</ref>
| image2 = Shantipa.jpg|caption2=11th-century [[Vajrayana]] [[Buddhist]] philosopher, [[Ratnākaraśānti]]<ref name= Prasad1974 />
| image3 = Shantirakshita - Google Art Project.jpg|caption3= 8th-century Buddhist Abbot of [[Nalanda]], [[Śāntarakṣita]]<ref name= Prasad1974 />
| image4 = Kamalashila .jpg|caption4=8th-century Buddhist philosopher of [[Nalanda]], [[Kamalaśīla]]<ref name= Prasad1974 />
}}
[[File:Vikramshila 2012-08-10-17.48.36.jpg|thumb|The main stupa at the monastery of [[Vikramashila]]]]
[[File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Nalanda.jpeg|thumb|Palm leaf painting from medieval [[Nalanda]]]]
{{Further|Decline of Buddhism in India}}
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During the medieval period, Bihar was controlled by various small kingdoms and principalities. Bihar also experienced its first encounter with foreign aggression from the West and Muslim armies came to approach its border.<ref name="Scott">{{cite journal
| last = Scott
| first = David
| title = Buddhism and Islam: Past to Present Encounters and Interfaith Lessons
| journal = Numen
| volume = 42
| issue = 2
| pages = 141–155
| date = May 1995
| doi=10.1163/1568527952598657
| jstor = 3270172
}}</ref> With the advent of foreign aggression and eventual foreign subjugation of India, Bihar passed through very uncertain times during the medieval period. [[Muhammad of Ghor]] attacked this region of the Indian subcontinent many times. [[Muhammad of Ghor]]'s armies destroyed many Buddhist structures, including the great Nalanda University.<ref>Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions By C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren page 381</ref><ref name= Chakrabarty10 />

The Buddhism of Magadha was finally swept away by the Islamic invasion under [[Bakhtiyar Khalji|Muhammad Bin Bakhtiar Khilji]], one of [[Qutb-ud-din Aybak|Qutb-ud-Din]]'s generals destroyed monasteries fortified by the [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] armies, during which many of the [[viharas]] and the famed universities of [[Nalanda]] and [[Vikramshila]] were destroyed, and thousands of Buddhist monks were massacred in the 12th century.<ref>Gopal Ram, Rule [https://books.google.com/books?id=wVr_f_gXOX4C&dq=Muhammad+Bin+Bakhtiar+Khilji+Nalanda&pg=PA20 Hindu Culture During and After Muslim], pp. 20, "Some invaders, like Bakhtiar Khilji, who did not know the value of books and art objects, destroyed them in large numbers and also the famous Nalanda ..."</ref><ref>The Maha-Bodhi By Maha Bodhi Society, Calcutta (page 8)</ref><ref>Omalley L.S.S., ''History of Magadha'', Veena Publication, Delhi, 2005, pp. 35.</ref><ref>Smith V. A., ''Early history of India''</ref><ref>Islam at War: A History By Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda (page 226)</ref><ref name= Chakrabarty10 />{{Excessive citations inline|date=January 2025}}

However, North Bihar/Mithila maintained its autonomy for longer than the rest of Bihar and was under the control of native dynasties until at least the sixteenth century.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}}

===Mithila===
====Karnat dynasty (1097-1324)====
{{Main|Karnat dynasty}}
[[File:Pillar at Simroungarh.jpg|thumb|Pillar from the Karnat capital of [[Simraungadh (medieval city)|Simraungadh]]]]
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in [[Darbhanga]] and [[Simraungadh|Simraongadh]]. The dynasty was established by [[Nanyadeva]], a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the [[Maithili language|Maithili]] language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the [[Varna Ratnakara]] being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into [[Nepal]]. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of [[Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=CPN |title=Origin of the Karnatas of Mithila - A Fresh Appraisal |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1969 |volume=31 |pages=66–72 |jstor=44138330 }}</ref><ref name= Chakrabarty10 />

====Oiniwar dynasty (1325-1526)====
{{Main|Oiniwar dynasty}}
The Oiniwar dynasty emerged after the fall of the Karnats and ruled North Bihar as vassals of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Under the king, Shiva Singh, they declared independence ,even repulsing invasions from the neighboring [[Jaunpur Sultanate]] and [[Bengal sultanate]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=Vijayakanta |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108245 |title=Cultural Heritage Of Mithila |date=1979}}</ref>
<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thakur Upendra. |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.505783 |title=History Of Mithila (1956) |date=1956 |publisher=Bhola Nath Mishra Acharya At Sudhakar Press.}}</ref>[[File:ShivaSimhaSingh.png|thumb|300x300px|Maharaja Shiva Simha Singh in a war against Mohammedan Kings|left]] They were contemporaries of the [[Jaunpur Sultanate]].<ref name="Jha2018">{{cite book|author=Pankaj Jha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8xl9DwAAQBAJ|title=A Political History of Literature: Vidyapati and the Fifteenth Century|date=20 November 2018|publisher=OUP India|isbn=978-0-19-909535-3|pages=4–7}}</ref>

===Rest of Bihar===
====Pithipatis (1120-1290)====
{{Main|Pithipatis of Magadha}}
During the late Pala period, the area of Magadha was ruled by Buddhist kings with the title of Pīṭhīpati. They were patrons of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] and referred to themselves as ''magadhādipati'' (rulers of Magadha). They maintained a presence in the region until at least the 13th century.<ref name=Balogh2021>{{cite book |last1=Balogh |first1=Daniel |title=Pithipati Puzzles: Custodians of the Diamond Throne |date=2021 |publisher=British Museum Research Publications |pages=40–58 |isbn=9780861592289 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lk0NzgEACAAJ}}</ref><ref name= Chakrabarty10 />

====Cheros====
{{Main|Chero dynasty}}
After the fall of the Pala empire, the [[Chero]]s established a tribal polity that ruled some parts of southern Bihar extending into modern-day [[Jharkhand]] from the 12th century to the 16th century until [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rule after which they were reduced to chieftains/Zamindars.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=399UDwAAQBAJ&q=chero+dynasty&pg=PT71|title=Bihar General Knowledge Digest|isbn=9789352667697|last1=Singh|first1=Pradyuman|date=19 January 2021|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan }}</ref>

====Khayaravala dynasty (11th-13th centuries)====
{{Main|Khayaravala dynasty}}

The Khayaravalas were the ruling dynasty of the [[Son river]] valley in South Bihar and Jharkhand during the 11th to 13th centuries. Notable kings of this dynasty include [[Pratapdhavala]] and [[Shri Pratapa]]. They were also involved in the construction of [[Rohtas Fort, India|Rohtasgarh fort]].<ref name="THE KHAYARAVĀLA DYNASTY">{{Cite journal|jstor = 44303949|title = The Khayaravāla Dynasty|last1 = Niyogi|first1 = Rama|journal = Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|year = 1951|volume = 14|pages = 117–122}}</ref>

====Jaunpur Sultanate (1394–1493)====
{{Main|Jaunpur Sultanate}}
The Jaunpur Sultanate emerged in 1394 and controlled much of Western Bihar. Many coin hoards and inscriptions from the Jaunpur period have been found in Bihar.<ref name=Hussain2017>{{cite book |last1=Hussain |first1=Ejaz |title=Shiraz-i Hind: A History of Jaunpur Sultanate |date=2017 |publisher=Manohar |pages=76–78 |url=https://www.academia.edu/36986170}}</ref>

== Early modern period (1526–1757) ==

=== Sur Empire ===
{{Main|Sur Empire}}
Medieval Bihar saw a period of glory lasting about six years during the rule of [[Sher Shah Suri]], who hailed from [[Sasaram]]. [[Sher Shah Suri]] built the longest road of the Indian subcontinent, the [[Grand Trunk Road]], which started at [[Calcutta]] (Bengal) and ended at [[Peshawar]], now Pakistan. The economic reforms carried out by Sher Shah, such as the introduction of the Rupee and Custom Duties, are still used in the Republic of India. He revived the city of Patna, where he built his headquarters.<ref>Omalley L.S.S., ''History of Magadha'', Veena Publication, Delhi, 2005, pp. 36, "Sher Shah on his return from Bengal, in 1541, came to Patna, then a small town dependent on Bihar, which was the seat of the local government. He was standing on the ban of the Ganges, when, after much reflection, he said to those who were standing by, "If a fort were to be built in this place, the waters of the Ganges could never flow far from it, and Patna would become one of the great towns of this country." The fort was completed. Bihar for that time was deserted, and fell to ruin; while Patna became one of the largest cities of the province. In 1620 we find Portuguese merchants at Patna; and Tavernier's account shows that a little more than a century after its foundation it was the great entrepot of Northern India "the largest town in Bengal and the most famous for trade..."</ref><ref>Elliot, History of India, Vol 4</ref>

[[Hemu]], the Hindu Emperor, the son of a food seller, and himself a vendor of [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]] at [[Rewari]],<ref name="RFME">Tripathi, R. P. "Rise and Fall of Mughal Empire", Allahabad (1960), p,.158</ref> rose to become Chief of Army and [[Prime Minister]]<ref name="TEM">De Laet, "The Empire of the Great Mogul", pp.140-41</ref><ref name="TA">Ahmed, Nizamuddin. "Tahaqat-i-Akbari", Vol.II, p.114</ref> under the command of [[Muhammad Adil Shah (died 1557)|Adil Shah Suri]] of the [[Suri Dynasty]]. He had won 22 battles against the Afghans, from [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] to [[Bengal]] and had defeated Akbar's forces twice, at [[Agra]] and Delhi in 1556,<ref>Bhardwaj, K. K. "Hemu-Napoleon of Medieval India", Mittal Publications, New Delhi, p.25</ref> before succeeding to the throne of Delhi and establishing a 'Hindu Raj' in [[North India]], albeit for a short duration, from [[Purana Quila]] in Delhi. He was killed in the [[Second Battle of Panipat]].

=== Zamindars of Bihar and the Mughals ===
{{See also|Bihar Subah|Zamindars of Bihar}}

During the period of Mughal rule, much of Bihar was under the sway of local [[Zamindars of Bihar|Zamindars]] or chieftains who maintained their armies and territories. These chieftains retained much of their power until the arrival of the British East India Company.<ref name="Ansari2019">{{cite book|author=Tahir Hussain Ansari|title=Mughal Administration and the Zamindars of Bihar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUueDwAAQBAJ|date=20 June 2019|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-00-065152-2|page=2}}</ref>

In 1576, after the [[Battle of Tukaroi]], Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]] conquered [[Bengal Sultanate]] and added it to his empire domain. He divided Bihar and Bengal each into one of his original twelve [[subah]]s (imperial top-level provinces; [[Bihar Subah]] with its seat at [[Patna]]) and the region passed through uneventful provincial rule during much of this period. Bihar was left under Mughal control until the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757.<ref>Omalley L.S.S., ''History of Magadha'', Veena Publication, Delhi, 2005, pp. 37</ref>

Bihar passed into the control of [[Nawab of Bengal|Nawabs of Bengal]] under British suzerainty.

Prince [[Azim-us-Shan]], the grandson of [[Aurangzeb]] was appointed as the governor of Bihar in 1703.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://drdapatna.bih.nic.in/patna_at_glance.html |title=Patna at a Glance |publisher=Drdapatna.bih.nic.in |access-date=2012-08-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102194628/http://drdapatna.bih.nic.in/patna_at_glance.html |archive-date=2 January 2014}}</ref> Azim-us-Shan renamed Pataliputra or Patna as [[Azimabad]], in 1704.<ref name="encyclopedia.com">[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O209-Patna.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205020923/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O209-Patna.html|date=5 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.patnadaily.com/readerswrite/2007/feb/najam_gilani2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517122452/http://www.patnadaily.com/readerswrite/2007/feb/najam_gilani2.html |archive-date=2008-05-17 |title=Thus Spoke Laloo Yadav |first=Najam |last=Gilani |date=2007-02-07}}</ref>[[File:Kunwarsingh.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Veer Kunwar Singh]], during India's [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|First War of Independence]] in 1857, he led a select band of armed soldiers against the troops under the command of the British [[East India Company]].]]

== Colonial Period (1757–1947) ==
{{Main|Colonial India}}

=== British East India Company ===
{{See also|1781 revolt in Bihar|Veer Kunwar Singh|Siege of Arrah|Battle of Chatra}}

After the [[Battle of Buxar|Battle of Buxar, 1764]], which was fought in [[Buxar]], hardly 115 km from Patna, the Mughals as well as the [[Nawabs of Bengal]] lost effective control over the territories then constituting the province of Bengal, which currently comprises [[Bangladesh]] and the Indian [[States and territories of India|states]] of [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]]. The [[British East India Company]] was accorded the [[Diwan (title)|diwan]]i rights, that is, the right to administer the collection and management of revenues of the province of Bengal, and parts of [[Oudh]], currently comprising a large part of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. The Diwani rights were legally granted by [[Shah Alam II|Shah Alam]], who was then the sovereign Mughal emperor of India. During the rule of the [[British East India Company]] in Bihar, Patna emerged as one of the most important commercial and trading centres of eastern India, preceded only by [[Kolkata]].{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

The first seeds of resentment against British rule emerged when [[Maharaja]] [[Fateh Bahadur Sahi]], the chieftain of Huseypur in [[Saran district]], initiated a struggle against the East India Company in 1767. His revolt escalated in 1781 when various other zamindars and chiefs in South Bihar began to join his revolt including [[Raja Narain Singh]] and [[Mayi clan|Akbar Ali]].<ref name="YangYang1989">{{cite book|author1=Anand A. Yang|author2=Professor and Chair and Professor Golub Professor of International Studies Anand A Yang|title=The Limited Raj: Agrarian Relations in Colonial India, Saran District, 1793-1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck4jmD7H34UC&pg=PA67|date=1 January 1989|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05711-1|pages=63–68}}</ref> The British were able to successfully put down the revolt.

[[Kunwar Singh|Babu Kunwar Singh]] of Jagdishpur and his army, as well as countless other persons from Bihar, contributed to the [[Indian rebellion of 1857|India's First War of Independence]] (1857), also called the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Mutiny]] by some historians. [[Babu Kunwar Singh]] (1777–1858) one of the leaders of the Indian uprising of 1857 belonged<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shvoong.com/humanities/1764116-veer-kunwar-singh-hero-1857/ |title=Veer Kunwar Singh - Hero of 1857 revolts against British imperialists. (By Ankur Bhadauria) |publisher=Shvoong.com |access-date=2012-08-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223075459/http://www.shvoong.com/humanities/1764116-veer-kunwar-singh-hero-1857/ |archive-date=23 February 2012}}</ref> to a royal [[Rajput]] house of [[Jagdispur]], currently a part of [[Bhojpur District, Bihar|Bhojpur district]] of Bihar. By that time [[Bihar]] had many feudal estates or [[zamindars]]. Most notably [[Tekari Raj]], [[Raj Darbhanga]], [[Bettiah Raj]], [[Hathwa Raj]], [[Kharagpur Raj]], [[Banaili|Banaili Estate]] and the [[Surajpura Raj]]. At the age of 80 years, during India's First War of Independence, he actively led a select band of armed soldiers against the troops under the command of the East India Company and also recorded victories in many battles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bhojpur.bih.nic.in/d_history.htm |title=History of Bhojpur |publisher=Bhojpur.bih.nic.in |access-date=2012-08-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614200657/http://bhojpur.bih.nic.in/d_history.htm |archive-date=14 June 2012 }}</ref>{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 270
| caption_align = center
| align = right
| image1 = BengalPartition1905 Map.png
| caption1 = [[Bihar]] as part of [[Bengal Presidency]] (1776-1912)[Note 1]
| image2 = Bihar and Orissa province.jpg
| caption2 = [[Bihar and Orissa Province]] (1912-1936)
| image3 = Bihār. 7-69. LOC gm70003327.jpg
| caption3 = [[Bihar Province]] (Pre-independence ) [[Bihar Jharkhand bifurcation|Bihar State]] (Post-independence ) 1936-2000
| image4 = Bihar locator map.svg
| caption4 = [[Bihar]] after Bihar Jharkhand bifurcation post 2011
| header = [[Bihar]] from 1776
| header_background = Silver
| footer = '''[Note 1] ''' ''': '''1905 map of [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
| footer_background = Silver
}}

=== The British Raj ===
Under the [[British Raj]], Bihar particularly Patna gradually started to attain its lost glory and emerged as an important and strategic centre of learning and trade in India. From this point, Bihar remained a part of the [[Bengal Presidency]] of the British Raj until 1912, when the province of [[Bihar and Orissa Province|Bihar and Orissa]] was carved out as a separate province. When the Bengal Presidency was partitioned in 1912 to carve out a separate province, Patna was made the capital of the new province. The city limits were stretched westwards to accommodate the administrative base, and the township of [[Bankipore]] took shape along the Bailey Road (originally spelt as Bayley Road, after the first Lt. Governor, [[Charles Stuart Bayley]]). This area was called the ''New Capital Area''. The houses of the English residents were all at the west end at Bankipore. The greater part of the English residences were on the banks of the river, many of them being on the northern side of an open square, which formed the parade ground, and racecourse (present [[Gandhi Maidan]]). There was also the [[Golghar]] a wondrous bell-shaped building, one hundred feet high, with a winding outer staircase leading to the top, and a small entrance door at the base, which was intended for a granary, to be filled when there was the expectation of famine. It was initially considered to be both politically and materially impracticable.

To this day, locals call the old area the City whereas the new area is called the New Capital Area. The [[Patna Secretariat]] with its imposing clock tower and the [[Patna High Court]] are two imposing landmarks of this era of development. Credit for designing the massive and majestic buildings of colonial Patna goes to the architect, I. F. Munnings. By 1916–1917, most of the buildings were ready for occupation. These buildings reflect either [[Indo-Saracenic]] influence (like [[Patna Museum]] and the state Assembly), or overt [[Renaissance]] influence like the Raj Bhawan and the High Court. Some buildings, like the General Post Office (GPO) and the Old Secretariat, bear pseudo-Renaissance influence. Some say the experience gained in building the new capital area of Patna proved very useful in building the imperial capital of [[New Delhi]].

The British built several educational institutions in Patna like [[Patna College]], [[Patna Science College]], [[Bihar College of Engineering]], [[Patna Medical College and Hospital|Prince of Wales Medical College]] and the [[Bihar Veterinary College]]. With government patronage, the Biharis quickly seized the opportunity to make these centres flourish quickly and attain renown. In 1935, certain portions of Bihar were reorganised into the separate province of [[Odisha|Orissa]]. Patna continued as the capital of Bihar province under the British Raj.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}}

=== Independence movement ===
[[File:Dr Rajendra Pd. DR.Anugrah Narayan Sinha.jpg|thumb|186px|(Sitting L to R) ''Deshratna'' Dr.[[Rajendra Prasad]] and ''Bihar Vibhuti'' [[Anugrah Narayan Sinha]] during [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s 1917 Champaran Satyagraha]]Bihar played a major role in the [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence struggle]]. Most notable were the [[Champaran]] movement against the Indigo plantation and the [[Quit India Movement]] of 1942. Leaders like [[Chandradeo Prasad Verma]],<ref name=verma>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiapress.org/election/archives/lok11/biodata/11bi02.php|title=Chandradeo Verma|website=India Press|access-date=22 July 2023|archive-date=3 January 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050103134929/http://www.indiapress.org/election/archives/lok11/biodata/11bi02.php|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ajit Kumar Mehta]],<ref name="4-ls">{{cite web |title= Lok Sabha Members Bioprofile- |url= http://164.100.47.194/loksabha/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/2458.htm |accessdate= 13 December 2017 |archive-date= 13 December 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171213143014/http://164.100.47.194/loksabha/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/2458.htm |url-status= live }}</ref> [[Swami Sahajanand Saraswati]],<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/freedom/congress/c127.htm
|title = Great freedom Fighters
|author = Kamat
|publisher = Kamat's archive
|access-date = 2006-02-25
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060220003547/http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/freedom/congress/c127.htm
|archive-date = 20 February 2006}}
</ref> Shaheed [[Baikuntha Shukla]], [[Sri Krishna Sinha]], [[Anugrah Narayan Sinha]], Mulana Mazharul Haque, ''Loknayak'' [[Jayaprakash Narayan]], [[Basawon Singh (Sinha)]], [[Yogendra Shukla]], [[Sheel Bhadra Yajee]], [[Pandit Yamuna Karjee]], [[Dr. Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi]] and many others who worked for India's independence and worked to lift up the underprivileged masses. [[Khudiram Bose]], Upendra Narayan Jha "Azad" and [[Prafulla Chaki]] were also active in revolutionary movement in Bihar.

After his return from South Africa, it was from Bihar that [[Mahatma Gandhi]] launched his pioneering civil-disobedience movement, [[Champaran Satyagraha]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Brown
| title = Gandhi's Rise to Power, Indian Politics 1915-1922: Indian Politics 1915-1922
| publisher = Cambridge University Press Archive
| location = New Delhi
| year = 1972
| isbn = 978-0-521-09873-1
| page = 384
}}</ref> [[Raj Kumar Shukla]] drew Mahatma Gandhi's attention to the exploitation of the peasants by the European [[indigo]] planters. Champaran Satyagraha received the spontaneous support from many Biharis, including [[Brajkishore Prasad]], [[Rajendra Prasad]] (who became the first [[President of India]]) and [[Anugrah Narayan Sinha]] (who became the first [[Deputy Chief Minister of Bihar|Deputy Chief Minister]] and [[Finance Minister]] of Bihar).<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Alpha/DR.A.N.%20SINGH
|title = First Bihar Deputy CM cum Finance Minister; Dr. A. N. Sinha
|author = Indian Post
|publisher = official Website
|access-date = 2008-05-20
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081202161527/http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Alpha/DR.A.N.%20SINGH
|archive-date = 2 December 2008}}</ref>

In India's struggle for independence, the Champaran Satyagraha marks a very important stage. Raj Kumar Shukla drew the attention of [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who had just returned from South Africa, to the plight of the peasants suffering under an oppressive system established by European indigo planters. Besides other excesses, they were forced to cultivate indigo on 3/20 part of their holding and sell it to the planters at prices fixed by the planters. This marked Gandhi's entry into India's independence movement. On arrival at the district headquarters in [[Motihari]], Gandhi and his team of lawyers—Dr. [[Rajendra Prasad]], Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Brajkishore Prasad and Ram Navami Prasad, whom he had handpicked to participate in the [[satyagraha]]—were ordered to leave by the next available train. They refused to do this, and Gandhi was arrested. He was released and the ban order was withdrawn in the face of a "Satyagraha" threat. Gandhi conducted an open inquiry into the peasant's grievances. The Government had to appoint an inquiry committee with Gandhi as a member. This led to the abolition of the system.

[[Raj Kumar Shukla]] has been described by Gandhi in his ''Atmakatha'', as a man whose suffering gave him the strength to rise against the odds. In his letter to Gandhi he wrote "Respected Mahatma, You hear the stories of others everyday. Today please listen to my story.... I want to draw your attention to the promise made by you in the [[Lucknow]] Congress that you would come to Champaran. The time has come for you to fulfill your promise. 1.9 million suffering people of Champaran are waiting to see you."

Gandhi reached Patna on 10 April 1917 and on 16 April he reached [[Motihari]] accompanied by [[Raj Kumar Shukla]]. Under Gandhi's leadership the historic "Champaran Satyagraha" began. The contribution of Raj Kumar Shukla is reflected in the writings of Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, [[Acharya Kriplani]] and Mahatma Gandhi. Raj Kumar Shukla maintained a diary in which he gave an account of his struggle against the atrocities of the indigo planters, atrocities so movingly depicted by [[Dinabandhu Mitra]] in [[Nil Darpan]], a play that was translated by [[Michael Madhusudan Dutt]]. This movement by Mahatma Gandhi received the spontaneous support of a cross-section of people, including Dr. [[Rajendra Prasad]], Bihar Kesari [[Sri Krishna Sinha]], Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha and Brajkishore Prasad.

Shaheed [[Baikuntha Shukla]] was another nationalist from Bihar, who was hanged for murdering a government approver named Phanindrananth Ghosh. This led to the hanging of [[Bhagat Singh]], [[Sukhdev]] and [[Shivaram Rajguru|Rajguru]]. Phanindranath Ghosh hitherto a key member of the [[Democratic Revolutionary Peoples Party|Revolutionary Party]] had betrayed the cause by turning an approver and giving evidence, which led to his murder. Baikunth was commissioned to plan the murder of Ghosh. He carried out the killing successfully on 9 November 1932. He was arrested, tried, and convicted, and, on 14 May 1934, he was hanged in Gaya Central Jail. [[Karpoori Thakur]] also played an important role in the freedom struggle.<ref>SINGH, JAGPAL. “Karpoori Thakur: A Socialist Leader in the Hindi Belt.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 50, no. 3, 2015, pp. 54–60. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24481124. Accessed 28 July 2023.</ref>

In North and Central Bihar, a peasant movement was an important side effect of the independence movement. The Kisan Sabha movement started in Bihar under the leadership of [[Swami Sahajanand Saraswati]] who in 1929 had formed the [[Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha]] (BPKS) to mobilise peasant grievances against the [[zamindar]]i attacks their occupancy rights.<ref>{{cite book
| first = Śekhara
| last = Bandyopādhyāya
| title = From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India
| publisher = [[Orient Longman]]
| year = 2004
| isbn = 978-81-250-2596-2
| pages = 523 (at p 406)
}}</ref> Gradually the peasant movement intensified and spread across the rest of India. All these radical developments on the peasant front culminated in the formation of the [[All India Kisan Sabha]] (AIKS) at the [[Lucknow]] session of the [[Indian National Congress]] in April 1936, with [[Swami Sahajanand Saraswati]] elected as its first President.<ref>{{cite book
| first = Śekhara
| last = Bandyopādhyāya
| title = From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India
| publisher = [[Orient Longman]]
| year = 2004
| isbn = 978-81-250-2596-2
| pages = 523 (at p 407)
}}</ref> This movement aimed at overthrowing the feudal zamindari system instituted by the [[United Kingdom|British]]. It was led by [[Swami Sahajanand Saraswati]] and his followers [[Pandit Yamuna Karjee]], [[Rahul Sankrityayan]] and others. Pandit Yamuna Karjee along with Rahul Sankrityayan and other Hindi literary figures started publishing a [[Hindi]] weekly [[Hunkar (epic poem)|Hunkar]] from Bihar in 1940. Hunkar later became the mouthpiece of the peasant movement and the agrarian movement in Bihar and was instrumental in spreading the movement. The peasant movement later spread to other parts of the country and helped in digging out the British roots in the Indian society by overthrowing the [[zamindari]] system.

During the Quit India movement, in [[Saran district]] of Bihar, Chandrama Mahto received bullet injuries during a protest against the colonial authorities and was subsequently martyred on the same day. In [[Shahabad district]], Maharaj Koeri was wounded in police firing at Behea. Ramjas Koeri was arrested, and taken into confinement, he died in prison, presumably due to brutal assault by Police.<ref>{{cite book|title=WHO'S WHO OF INDIAN MARTYRS VOL|year=1969|place=India|publisher =Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|isbn=978-81-230-2180-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urqvDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA1894}}</ref> Noted revolutionary [[Chandradeo Prasad Verma]] was also arrested during Quit India movement, he underwent rigorous imprisonment for two years from 1943 to 1945. After his release from imprisonment, he restarted revolutionary activities once again and plotted a conspiracy to blast Bikram Airport in [[Patna]].<ref name=verma/> In [[Khagaria district]], [[Prabhu Narayan]] was shot by the colonial police white attempting to unfurl Indian flag during Quit India movement.<ref name=Hindustan>{{cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/khagaria/story-prabhunarayan-gave-martyrdom-in-just-21-years-for-the-country-39-s-independence-6882706.html|title=Prabhu Narayan gave martyrdom at the age of 21 for country|website=Hindustan|date=3 August 2022 |accessdate=7 May 2024|archive-date=7 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507061657/https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/khagaria/story-prabhunarayan-gave-martyrdom-in-just-21-years-for-the-country-39-s-independence-6882706.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Towards the end of 1946, between 30 October and 7 November, a massacre of Muslims in Bihar made [[Partition of India|Partition]] more likely. Begun as a reprisal for the [[Noakhali riot]], it was difficult for authorities to deal with because it was spread out over a large number of scattered villages, and the number of casualties was impossible to establish accurately: "According to a subsequent statement in the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]], the death-toll amounted to 5,000. ''[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]'''s estimate was between 7,500 and 10,000; the [[Indian National Congress|Congress party]] admitted to 2,000; Mr. [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] claimed about 30,000."<ref>Ian Stephens, ''Pakistan'' (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1963), p. 111.</ref>

The first [[Cabinet (government)|Cabinet]] of [[Bihar]] was formed on 2 April 1946, consisting of two members, Dr. [[Sri Krishna Sinha]] as the first [[List of Chief Ministers of Bihar|Chief Minister of Bihar]] and Dr. Anugrah Narayan Sinha as [[Deputy Chief Minister of Bihar|Deputy Chief Minister]] and Finance Minister of Bihar (also in charge of Labour, Health, Agriculture and Irrigation).<ref name="Shankar">{{cite web
|url=http://www.indiarightsonline.com/Sabrang/india7.nsf/38b852a8345861dd65256a980059289d/43f22a268865987a652570de007d9457?OpenDocument
|title=The Sri Babu-Anugrah babu government
|author=S Shankar
|publisher=website
|access-date=2005-04-08
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527160946/http://www.indiarightsonline.com/Sabrang/india7.nsf/38b852a8345861dd65256a980059289d/43f22a268865987a652570de007d9457?OpenDocument
|archive-date=27 May 2013
}}</ref><ref name="Kamat">{{cite web
|url = http://www.kamat.com/database/biographies/anugrah_narayan_sinha.htm
|title = Anugrah Narayan Sinha
|author = Kamat
|publisher = Kamat's archive
|access-date = 2006-11-25
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061109021214/http://www.kamat.com/database/biographies/anugrah_narayan_sinha.htm
|archive-date = 9 November 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQCRixJzOgsC&q=anugrah+babu&pg=PA123
| title=First Finance cum Labour Minister
|author=Dr. Rajendra Prasad's Letters to Anugrah Narayan Sinha
| publisher=Rajendra Prasad's archive
| access-date=2007-06-25
|isbn=978-81-7023-002-1
|year=1995
}}</ref> Other ministers were inducted later. The Cabinet served as the first [[Bihar]] Government after independence in 1947. In 1950, [[Rajendra Prasad|Dr. Rajendra Prasad]] from Bihar became the first [[President of India]].

== Post-Independence (1947–1990) ==
{{See also|Politics of Bihar|1970 Bhojpur uprising}}

The [[Indian National Congress]] dominated the state for much of the decades after independence except for a brief period in the 1960s and 70s when some of the backward caste leaders were successful in forming a non-Congress government in the state.<ref name="Radhakanta Barik 2006 85">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGNuAAAAMAAJ|title=Land and Caste Politics in Bihar|author= Radhakanta Barik|publisher=Shipra Publications|year=2006|isbn=8175413050|quote=It is not so as the political party led the national movement and controlled the government for almost 40 years in Bihar after Independence, it would be over-exaggeration to state that the Congress Party is a party of the upper castes.|page=85|access-date=10 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="Shyama Nand Singh 1991 45">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3raAAAAMAAJ|title=Reservation: Problems and Prospects|author=Shyama Nand Singh|publisher=Uppal Publishing House|year=1991|isbn=8185024901|quote=The victory of the Congress Party in 1972 arrested this trend. The political domination of the upper castes under the leadership of the Brahmans returned [...] The Coalition Government of five opposition parties in 1967 was led by Mahamaya Prasad Sinha, a Kayastha leader, who had newly formed a political party called the [...] Political power in Bihar was for long the privilege of the upper castes .|page=45|access-date=10 February 2021}}</ref> [[Satish Prasad Singh]] was the first [[Other Backward Class|OBC]] chief minister of the state for a very brief period, who succeeded [[Mahamaya Prasad Sinha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/bihar/one-week-cm-holds-real-nayak-flag/cid/1340070|title=One-week CM holds real Nayak flag – Ex-chief minister with many firsts recalls wonder days|date=8 July 2015|work=Nalin Verma|publisher=Telegraph India|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref> In the later period, the upper-caste remained active in politics but the backward caste were gradually becoming vocal in political space. The lead was taken by [[Upper Backward Castes]], who were the biggest beneficiaries of the land reform drive undertaken in the early decades of independence and were now becoming active in the politics of the state. A section of these upper-backwards also emulated the practices of erstwhile ''[[Zamindar]]s'' and committed atrocities against the [[Dalit]]s. The [[Naxalism|Naxalite]] uprising in the state also forced the upper caste to sell off their most vulnerable holdings, which were most often bought by the peasants of these upper backward communities.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sinha | first=A. | title=Nitish Kumar and the Rise of Bihar | page=80,81,82|publisher=Viking | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-670-08459-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rT2xWp_iTCYC&pg=PA81 | access-date=7 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="ndtv.com">{{Cite web|title=Caste wars: Bloody pages of Bihar's history|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/caste-wars-bloody-pages-of-bihars-history-486411|website=NDTV.com|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref> The naxal uprising in the state led to foundation of several caste-based private armies which perpetrated massacres of lower caste people on the charge of being the supporters of the Naxalites. [[Ranvir Sena]], [[Bhumi Sena]] and [[Kuer Sena]] were some of the most dreaded caste armies.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/a-lasting-signature-on-bihar-s-most-violent-years/957421/2|title=A lasting signature on Bihar's most violent years |work=Indian Express|access-date=18 December 2018}}</ref> The Bhojpur region remained the hotspot of the Naxalite movement in the Bihar, where [[Jagdish Mahto|Master Jagdish]] lead the uprising against the landlords.<ref name="Gail">{{cite book|title = Reinventing Revolution: New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India|first=Gail|last= Omvedt|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|pages=58–60|year=1993|isbn=0765631768|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wlxb0uacnRcC&dq=koeri+kills+rajput&pg=PA59|access-date=2020-06-16}}</ref> Some of the biggest massacres took place during this period in which both upper-caste and the Dalits remained the victims. The [[Upper Backward Castes]] were in two front confrontations with both the Dalits as well as upper castes.<ref>{{cite book|title =Beyond Ambedkar: Essays on Dalits in India|first=Nandu|last= Ram|publisher= Har Anand Publications|year=2009|isbn=978-8124114193
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BV0FuSXACbUC&q=koeri+caste+improved+economic+status&pg=PA32|access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Why The War Never Dies {{!}} Outlook India Magazine|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/why-the-war-never-dies/207230|website=outlookindia|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref>

The caste wars coincided with the rise of backward caste politics against upper-caste domination in Bihar and throughout North India after the implementation of the Mandal Commission report. The most numerous and powerful backward community were the Yadavs, and the 1990s saw the rise of the [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] (RJD) led by [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]]. This party held the Yadav/Muslim vote bank, a combination also held by the Samajwadi party, its UP counterpart. This allowed the RJD to sweep to power throughout the 1990s. His platform was one of social justice, increasing reservations for lower castes. However critics of the era have claimed it was a 'Jungle raj.'<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why the BJP Is Likely to 'Dump' Bihar CM Nitish Kumar in 2020|url=https://www.thequint.com/voices/opinion/bihar-assembly-elections-bjp-nitish-kumar-bjp-modi-lalu-yadav-corruption-unemployment|date=2020-05-13|website=The Quint|language=en|access-date=2020-05-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zA2rCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT173|title=Government of Peace: Social Governance, Security and the Problematic of Peace|chapter=Bihar 1990-2011|author=Ranabir Samaddar|date=3 March 2016|publisher=Routledge, 2016|isbn=978-1317125372|access-date=5 October 2020}}</ref>

==Contemporary period==
=== Lalu Prasad Yadav (1990–2005) ===
[[File:The Minister for Railways Shri Lalu Prasad with the students of Harvard and Wharton Schools, in New Delhi on December 27, 2006.jpg|thumb|[[Lalu Prasad Yadav]] with the students of Harvard and Wharton Schools, in New Delhi on 27 December 2006.]]
In 1989, in the [[1989 Indian general election|9th General election]] to the [[Lok Sabha]], the [[Janata Dal]] emerged as a serious challenge to the [[Indian National Congress]] party at the [[Lok Sabha|central level]]. The rise of Janata Dal also affected the state politics of [[Bihar]] which was dominated by the [[Forward Caste|upper castes]] for long who were controlling the Congress firmly in the state, a charge disputed by some scholars. The Janata Dal was composed of three different wings which drew its strength from different classes of society. The first wing was under the leadership of [[Chandra Shekhar]], who had reached out to the other [[Socialist]]s and also to one splinter group under [[Morarji Desai]]. The second faction consisted of some of the old congressmen including [[Arun Nehru]] and former [[Minister of Defence (India)|Defence Minister]] [[Vishwanath Pratap Singh]]. The third group drew its support from backward castes and middle peasantry, led by [[Charan Singh]]. Although Charan Singh was the leader of this faction, the actual leadership emerged after his death under the new generation of politicians like [[Lalu Prasad Yadav]], who was a product of student politics of the 1970s.<ref name="Zarhani">{{cite book|chapter= Elite agency and development in Bihar: confrontation and populism in the era of Garibon Ka Masiha|title=Governance and Development in India: A Comparative Study on Andhra Pradesh and Bihar after Liberalization|publisher=Routledge|first=Seyed Hossein|last= Zarhani|year=2018|isbn=978-1351255189|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3tqDwAAQBAJ&q=laloo+yadav+identity+politics&pg=PT200}}</ref><ref name="Radhakanta Barik 2006 85"/><ref name="Shyama Nand Singh 1991 45"/>

Yadav was appointed as the first [[Other Backward Class|OBC]] president of the Patna University student union in 1967.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} In 1974, he was appointed as the head of the Bihar student agitation committee which led the protest against the Congress-led government of the state during the [[Bihar Movement]] under the mentorship of [[Jay Prakash Narayan]]. According to Seyed Hossein Zarhani, throughout his leadership period at Patna University, his image was of a popular backward caste leader who fought against upper-caste dominance.<ref name="Zarhani"/>

In 1975, as an activist in the campaign against [[Indira Gandhi]], he was arrested and after the end of [[The Emergency (India)|National Emergency]], he was elected as [[Member of Parliament]] in 1977 from [[Chapra (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chhapra constituency]] on the ticket of [[Janata Party]]. In the 1980 and 1989 state assembly elections, Yadav was elected as [[Member of Legislative Assembly]] from [[Sonpur, Bihar|Sonepur]]. He was the successor of [[Karpoori Thakur]] as the leader of opposition in [[Bihar Legislative Assembly]] who finally assumed the post of [[Chief Minister]] in 1990. Yadav's appointment as Chief Minister changed the socio-political profile of the state and in the coming years he emerged as the undisputed leader in Bihar who controlled the politics of the state earlier himself and later through his wife, [[Rabri Devi]].<ref name="Zarhani"/>

Yadav followed the footsteps of his predecessors and Janta Dal under him indicated that it is the only party which is prepared to keep the backwards at the centre of the administration. Hence after assuming power, Lalu Yadav's government transferred 12 out of 13 Divisional Commissioners and 250 out of 324 Returning Officers in order to keep lower-caste people at the helm of all affairs at the local level. Many [[Other Backward Class|OBC]] bureaucrats were brought to the main departments from the sidelines and were given key positions such as the strategic posts of [[District Magistrate]]s and Deputy Divisional Commissioners to the extent that they became least equivalent to the upper-castes. Three years after Yadav assumed power, many upper-caste officials attained transfer to the centre to avoid the alleged humiliation and ill-treatment they suffered in Bihar. The ''Panchayati Raj Bill'' and the ''Patna University and Bihar University amendment bill'' passed by the state legislature in 1993 also paved the way for the entry of [[Scheduled Caste]]s, [[Scheduled Tribe]]s and [[Other Backward Class|OBC]]s in the state services in bulk.<ref name="Jaffrelot">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWms_1WzF1sC&pg=PA379 |title=India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India|author=Christophe Jaffrelot|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2003|isbn=8178240807|pages=379–380|access-date=1 January 2020}}</ref> According to [[Christophe Jaffrelot]]:

{{blockquote|Lalu Prasad Yadav has deliberately introduced a new style of politics, highlighting the rustic qualities of low castes of Bihar. For instance, he makes the point of speaking the Bhojpuri dialect or English with a strong Bhojpuri accent, to the horror of the upper classes. He was also adept at confronting them. One of his early slogans was, ''Bhurabal Hatao'', (wipe out [[Bhumihar]], [[Brahmin]], [[Rajput]] and Lala (''[[Kayasth]]'')). A few months after he became Chief Minister, he utilised his control of state media to describe the opposition to the Mandal as the conspiracy of the upper castes.<ref name="Jaffrelot"/> }}

=== Rise of Nitish Kumar (Post 1997) ===
{{Gallery
|align=left
|width=130 |The Union Minister for Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution Shri Sharad Yadav delivering his inaugural speech at Regional Seminar on National Food Agencies " Challenges of the New Millennium" in New Delhi on December 15.jpg| Former Union Minister for Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution Shri [[Sharad Yadav]] delivering his inaugural speech at Regional Seminar on National Food Agencies "Challenges of the New Millennium" in [[New Delhi]]
|The Union Minister of Chemicals & Fertilizers and Steel, Shri Ram Vilas Paswan addressing at "India Chem 2008" Industry meet in Mumbai on June 10, 2008.jpg|[[Ram Vilas Paswan]] as the Union Minister of Chemicals & Fertilizers and Steel, addressing at "India Chem 2008" Industry meet in [[Mumbai]] on 10 June 2008.
}}
{{Quote box
|width = 12em
|border = 1px
|align = right
|bgcolor =#D0F0C0
|fontsize = 85%
|title_bg =
|title_fnt =
|title =
|quote = "Ram Vilas Paswan was often seen with Mont Blanc pen, Cartier glasses and Rado prompting his critics to brand him a ‘five-star [[Dalit]]’. But in his pockets of influence in Bihar, his whirling helicopter was enough to make people chant, “Dharti Gunje Aasman, Ram Vilas Paswan.” Paswan was among the most popular faces when the social churn began in post-[[The Emergency (India)|Emergency]] Bihar. In 1983, he formed the Dalit Sena, on the lines of the Schedule Caste Federation of BR Ambedkar."
|salign = right
|source = — From, Remembering Ram Vilas Paswan: The champion of Dalit politics in Bihar by [[The Economic Times]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/remembering-ram-vilas-paswan-the-champion-of-dalit-politics-in-bihar/the-cop-who-became-a-neta/slideshow/78568810.cms |title=Remembering Ram Vilas Paswan: The champion of Dalit politics in Bihar|website=The Economic Times|access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref>
}}
The Janata Dal had survived the splits in past when leaders like George Fernandes and Nitish Kumar defected to form [[Samata Party]] in 1994, but it remained a baseless party after the decision of Yadav to form [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]] in 1997. The second split took place before the [[Rabri Devi]] assuming power which resulted in [[Janata Dal]] having only two leaders of any consequence in it, namely [[Sharad Yadav]] and [[Ram Vilas Paswan]]. Paswan was regarded as the rising leader of Dalits and had the credit of winning his elections with unprecedented margins. His popularity reached the national level when he was awarded the post of Minister of Railways in the [[United Front (India, 1996)|United Front]] government in 1996 and was subsequently made the leader of [[Lok Sabha]]. His outreach was witnessed in the western [[Uttar Pradesh]] too, when his followers organised an impressive rally at the behest of a newly floated organisation called ''Dalit Panthers''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ur6GAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA296|title= Divided We Stand: India in a Time of Coalitions|author1=Paranjoy Guha Thakurta|author2=Shankar Raghuraman|publisher=SAGE Publications India|year=2007|isbn=978-8132101642|pages=296–297|access-date=18 December 2020}}</ref> Sharad Yadav was also a veteran socialist leader but without any massive support base. In the 1998 Parliamentary elections, the Samata Party and Janata Dal, which was in a much weaker position after the formation of [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]] ended up eating each other's vote base. This made Nitish Kumar merge both the parties to form [[Janata Dal (United)]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_bzCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT170|title= The Making of Miracles in Indian States: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, and Gujarat|author1=M. Govinda Rao|author2=Arvind Panagariya|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2015|
isbn=978-0190236649|page=170|access-date=18 December 2020}}</ref>

In [[1999 Indian general election|1999 Lok Sabha elections]], Rashtriya Janata Dal received a setback at the hand of [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]+[[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]] combine. The new coalition emerged leading in 199 out of 324 assembly constituencies and it was widely believed that in the forthcoming election to Bihar state assembly elections, the Lalu-Rabri rule will come to an end. The RJD had fought the election in an alliance with the Congress but the coalition didn't work making state leadership of Congress believe that the maligned image of Lalu Prasad after his name was drawn in the [[Fodder Scam]] had eroded his support base. Consequently, the Congress decided to fight the [[2000 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2000 assembly elections]] alone. The RJD had to be satiated with the communist parties as the coalition partners but the seat-sharing conundrum in the camp of [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]] made Nitish Kumar pull his Samta Party out of the Sharad Yadav and Ram Vilas Paswan faction of the Janata Dal. Differences also arose between the BJP and Nitish Kumar who later wanted to be projected as the Chief Minister of Bihar but the former was not in favour. Even Paswan also wanted to be a [[Chief Minister|CM]] face. The Muslims and OBCs were too divided in their opinion. A section of Muslims, which included the poor communities like Pasmanda were of the view that Lalu only strengthened upper Muslims like Shaikh, Sayyid and Pathans and they were in search of new options.<ref name="Sanjay">{{cite book| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVxODwAAQBAJ&pg=PT85|title= Post-Mandal Politics in Bihar: Changing Electoral Patterns|chapter=Re-emergence of RJD: elections of 2000|author=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=SAGE publishing India|year=2018|isbn=978-9352805860|pages=85–86|access-date=19 December 2020}}</ref>

Yadav also alienated other dominant backward castes like [[Koeri]] and [[Kurmi]] since his projection as the saviour of Muslims. It is argued by Sanjay Kumar that the belief that, "the dominant OBCs like the twin caste of Koeri-Kurmi will ask for share in power if he (Yadav) seeks their support while the Muslims will remain satisfied with the protection during communal riots only" made Yadav neglect them. Moreover, the divisions in both camps made the political atmosphere in the state a charged one in which many parties were fighting against each other with no visible frontiers. JD(U) and BJP were fighting against each other on some of the seats and so was the Samta Party. The result was a setback for the BJP, which in media campaigns was emerging with a massive victory. RJD emerged as the single largest party and with the political maneuvere of Lalu Yadav, Rabri Devi was sworn in as the Chief Minister again. The media largely failed to gauge the ground-level polarisation in Bihar.<ref name="Sanjay" /> According to Sanjay Kumar:

{{Blockquote|there can be no doubt about one thing that the upper-caste media was always anti Lalu and it was either not aware of the ground level polarisation in the Bihar, or deliberately ignored it. If the election result did not appear as a setback for RJD, it was largely because of the bleak picture painted by the media. Against this background, RJD's defeat had appeared like a victory.<ref name="Sanjay"/>}}

Even after serving imprisonment in connection with the 1997 scam, Lalu seemed to relish his role as a lower-caste jester. He argued that corruption charges against him and his family were the conspiracy of the upper-caste bureaucracy and media elites threatened by the rise of peasant cultivator castes. In 2004, Lalu's RJD had outperformed other state-based parties by winning 26 Lok Sabha seats in Bihar. He was awarded the post of [[Minister of Railways (India)|Union Railway minister]] but the rising aspirations of the extremely backward castes unleashed by him resulted in JD(U) and BJP-led coalition to defeat his party in [[October 2005 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2005 Bihar Assembly elections]]. Consequently, Nitish Kumar a leader of OBC [[Kurmi]] caste was sworn in as the chief minister. During Lalu's time backward caste candidates came to dominate the Bihar assembly claiming half of the seats in it and it was the aspiration of this powerful social community which led to friction among the united backwards, leading to the rise of Nitish Kumar who made both social justice and development as his political theme.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07ONmXvnb2oC&pg=PA129|title= India and the World Bank: The Politics of Aid and Influence|author= Jason A. Kirk|publisher= Anthem Press|year=2010|isbn= 978-0857289513|page=129|access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref>

=== Nitish Kumar (2005 onwards) ===
{{See also|2008 attacks on North Indians in Maharashtra}}Thus, the 2005 Bihar assembly elections ended the 15 years of continuous [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]] rule in the state, giving way to [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]] led by [[Nitish Kumar]]. Bihari migrant workers have faced violence and prejudice in many parts of India, like [[Maharashtra]], [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] and [[Assam]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Kumod Verma|date=14 February 2008|title=Scared Biharis arrive from Mumbai|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Scared-Biharis-arrive-from-Mumbai/articleshow/2781266.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022092951/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-02-14/patna/27756096_1_mumbai-bound-trains-mns-activists-passenger-trains|url-status=live|archive-date=22 October 2012|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=2008-02-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Wasbir Hussain|author-link=Wasbir Hussain|title=30 Killed in Northeast Violence in India|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/11/AR2007081100464_pf.html|url-status=live|access-date=2006-02-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107005651/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/08/11/AR2007081100464_pf.html|archive-date=7 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=40 Bihari Workers Killed by ULFA Activists in Assam|url=http://www.patnadaily.com/news2007/jan/010507/biharis_killed_in_assam.html|author=Patnadaily|date=2007-01-06|publisher=Patnadaily.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211042318/http://www.patnadaily.com/news2007/jan/010507/biharis_killed_in_assam.html|archive-date=2009-02-11|access-date=2006-01-06}}</ref>

To mark the separation of Bihar from Bengal on 22 March 1912, the completion of 100 years of existence is being celebrated in the name of Bihar Shatabadi Celebration Utsav.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3009482.ece
|title = Bihar's growth brought down migration of labourers: Nitish
|author = The Hindu
|work = The Hindu
|access-date = 2012-03-20
|date = 20 March 2012
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120319150537/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article3009482.ece
|archive-date = 19 March 2012}}</ref> There was a [[2015 Bihar Political Crisis|political crisis]] over post of the chief minister during February 2015.

== Timeline for Bihar ==
{{Further|Timeline of Bihar}}

== Gallery ==

<gallery>
File:Bimbisarajail.jpg|''[[Bimbisara]]'s jail'', where King Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son [[Ajatashatru]], in [[Rajgir]].
File:Ajatashatru stupa at Rajgir.jpg|[[Ajatashatru]]'s [[stupa]] in [[Rajgir]], where his ashes were interred.
</gallery>

<gallery>
File:Ashoka pillar at Vaishali, Bihar, India.jpg|[[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]] was the [[Capital (political)|capital]] of [[Vajjika League]], believed to be the world's earliest [[republic]].<ref name="eb-vaisali" /><ref>{{cite book|title=India: Lonely planet Guide|last=Bindloss|first=Joe|author2=Sarina Singh|year=2007|publisher=[[Lonely Planet]]|isbn=978-1-74104-308-2|page=556|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T7ZHUhSEleYC&q=Vaishali&pg=PA556}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1-5|last=Hoiberg|first=Dale|author2=Indu Ramchandani|year=2000|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=0-85229-760-2|page=208|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPP7O3nb3g0C&q=Vaishali&pg=PA208}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A history of India|last=Kulke|first=Hermann|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-32919-1|page=57|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&q=Vaishali&pg=PA57}}</ref>
File:Buddha's ashes Stupa, Vaishali, Bihar.jpg|The [[Relic Stupa of Vaishali]], dated to the 5th century BCE.
</gallery>

<gallery>
File:MauryanCoin.JPG|Silver punch-mark coin of the [[Maurya Empire]], with symbols of a wheel and an elephant. 3rd century BC.
File:MauryaStatuettes.jpg|[[Mauryan]] [[sculpture]]s.
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Bengal]]
* [[History of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[Political history of medieval Karnataka]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
* {{citation |last=Shah |first=Natubhai |title=Jainism: The World of Conquerors |url={{Google books|qLNQKGcDIhsC|plainurl=yes}} |volume=I |date=2004 |orig-year=First published in 1998 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-1938-2 |ref={{sfnref|Natubhai Shah|2004}} }}
* {{citation |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Pearson PLC]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-81-317-1677-9 |ref={{sfnref|Upinder Singh|2016}} }}

== Further reading ==
* [[Swami Sahajanand Saraswati]] Rachnawali (Selected works of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati) in Six volumes published by Prakashan Sansthan, [[Delhi]], 2003.
* ''Swami Sahajanand and the Peasants of Jharkhand: A View from 1941'' translated and edited by [[Walter Hauser]] along with the unedited [[Hindi]] original (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005).
* ''Sahajanand on Agricultural Labour and the Rural Poor'' translated and edited by [[Walter Hauser]] (Manohar Publishers, paperback, 2005).
* ''Religion, Politics, and the Peasants: A Memoir of India's Freedom Movement'' translated and edited by [[Walter Hauser]] (Manohar Publishers, hardbound, 2003).
* [[Pandit Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma]], 1947, Bakasht Mahamari Aur Uska Achook Ilaaz (Bakasht Epidemic and its Infalliable Remedy) in Hindi, Allahabad.
* [[Indradeep Sinha]], 1969, Sathi ke Kisanon ka Aitihasic Sangharsha (Historic Struggle of Sathi Peasants), in Hindi, Patna.
* Das Arvind N., ''The republic of Bihar'', Penguin Books, 1992,
* {{cite book |title=Bihar Peasant Life|author=George A. Grierson |publisher=Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta |year=1885|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924072688025#page/n7/mode/2up }}
* Mishra Shree Govind, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-tO1AAAAIAAJ&q=History+Of+Bihar+1740-1772 ''History Of Bihar 1740–1772''], [[Munshiram Manoharlal]], 1970
* Verma B S, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZVtGQAACAAJ&q=Socio-religious+Economic+And+Literary+Condition+Of+Bihar ''Socio-religious Economic And Literary Condition Of Bihar (From ca. 319 A.D. to 1000 A.D.)''], Munshiram Manoharlal, 1962
* [[V.S. Naipaul|Naipaul V S]], ''[[India: A Wounded Civilization]]'', Picador, 1977
* Trevithick Alan, ''The Revival of Buddhist Pilgrimage at Bodh Gaya (1811–1949): Anagarika Dharmapala and the Mahabodhi Temple''
* Omalley L S S, ''History of Magadh'', Veena Publication, 2005, {{ISBN|81-89224-01-8}}
* [[Qeyamuddin Ahmad|Ahmad Qeyamuddin]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=W_J-HgAACAAJ&q=Patna+Through+The+Ages ''Patna Through The Ages: Glimpses of History, Society & Economy''], Commonwealth Publishers,1988
* Crindle John W Mc, [https://books.google.com/books?id=A3UIAAAAQAAJ&q=Ancient+India+As+Described+By+Ptolemy ''Ancient India As Described By Ptolemy''], Munshiram Manoharlal, 1927, {{ISBN|81-215-0945-9}}
* Patra C, ''Life in Ancient India: As Depicted in the Digha Nikaya'', Punthi Pustak, 1996, {{ISBN|81-85094-93-4}}
* Hazra Kanai Lal, ''Buddhism in India As Described by the Chinese Pilgrims AD 399-689'', Munshiram Manoharlal, 1983, {{ISBN|81-215-0132-6}}
* Mccrindle John W, ''Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian'', Munshiram Manoharlal
* [[Laurence Waddell|Waddell, Austine L.]], ''Report on the Excavations at Pataliputra (Patna) - The Palibothra of the Greeks'', Asian Publicational Services, Calcutta, 1903
* Brass Paul R., ''The politics of India since Independence'', Cambridge University Press, 1990
* Askari S. H., ''Medieval Bihar: Sultanate and Mughal Period'', [[Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library]], Patna, 1990
* Tayler William, ''Three Months at Patna during the Insurrection of 1857'', Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna, 2007
* Taylor P.J.O., ''What really happened during the Mutiny: A day by day account of the major events of 1857–1859 in India'', Oxford University Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-19-564182-5}}
* Basham A. L., ''The Wonder that was India'', Picador, 1954, {{ISBN|0-330-43909-X}}
* Nambisan Vijay, ''Bihar in the eye of the beholder'', Penguin Books, 2000, {{ISBN|978-0-14-029449-1}}
* Radhakanta Barik - ''Land & Caste Politics in Bihar'' (Shipra Publications, Delhi, 2006)
* {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=J. P. |url= |title=Republics in Ancient India, C. 1500 B.C.-500 B.C. |date=1968 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|E. J. Brill]] |isbn=978-9-004-02015-3 |location=[[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]] |page= |author-link=}}
{{History of India by State}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bihar, History}}
[[Category:History of Bihar| ]]

Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station

2026-03-10T09:15:21Z

AntoniettaWhitco: content update

{{Short description|Bus depot in India}}{{for|the metro station in same city|MG Bus Station metro station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station Imlibun Bus Station
| name_lang = en
| native_name = <hr/>Mahaatma Gaandhee Bas Steshan Imaleebun Bas Steshan
| type =
| native_name_lang = te & ur
| other_name = Central Bus Station Imlibun Bus Station
| style =
| image = Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station, Hyderabad - 1.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station
| address = Gowliguda, [[Hyderabad, Telangana]]
| country = India
| coordinates = {{Coords|17.378|78.484|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| line =
| other = {{ric|Hyderabad Metro}} {{rcb|Hyderabad Metro|Red|croute}} {{rcb|Hyderabad Metro|Green|croute}} [[MG Bus Station metro station|MG Bus Station]]
| structure =
| platforms = 79
| depth =
| levels =
| tracks =
| parking = Yes
| bicycle = Yes
| opened = 1930s
| closed =
| rebuilt = 1994
| electrified =
| accessible = yes
| code =
| owned = [[Telangana State Road Transport Corporation|TGSRTC]]
| zone =
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services =
| map_locator =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-custom = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-align=center|frame-width=300|frame-height=180|zoom=12|type=point|marker=bus|text=Srihari bus station (formerly central bus station)}}
}}
The '''Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station''' ('''MGBS'''), also known as the '''Imlibun Bus Station''' (Imlibun means "grove of [[tamarind]] trees"), is a bus station on the [[Musi River (India)|Musi River]] in the Imlibun area of southern [[Hyderabad]], [[India]]. It is owned by the [[Telangana State Road Transport Corporation]] (TGSRTC) and is India's fifth-largest bus station, covering {{convert|20|acre|m2}}, behind [[Chennai Mofussil Bus Terminus]], Bengaluru's [[Kempegowda Bus Station]], Vijayawada's [[Pandit Nehru Bus Station]] and Delhi's [[Millennium Park Bus Depot]].

==History==
The bus station was first built during the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]] era, and was owned by the [[Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway]] and known as the Central Bus Station.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/gowliguda-bus-stand-the-secular-marvel-near-musi/article19860987.ece|title=Gowliguda bus stand: the secular marvel near Musi}}</ref> It was built in the shape of a [[dome]] and was named Imlibun. It was a converted aircraft hangar, built during the 1930s by Butler and Company of the US to accommodate the Nizam’s fleet of public single- and [[double-decker bus]]es.<ref name="Nizam's Roadway,railway">{{cite web |title=The Secret History of Hyderabad State of the Nizam (South India; 1724 – 1948) |url=http://www.cabaltimes.com/2016/06/28/nizam/12/}}</ref>

In 1994, the Central Bus Stand was expanded and the present MGBS was built. The [[Musi River (India)|Musi river]] bed was partially filled for the new facility. 18 acres of Imlibun island was leased by GHMC to APSRTC for 99 years.The original bus stand was built with the "Misssisipi" hangar few metres away from Musi in 1953. After MGBS was built, the Central Bus Station was shifted to the new structure on the Imlibun island. <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/290916/imlibun-bus-station-is-a-threat-to-musi-river.html|title=Imlibun bus stand is threat to Musi river|newspaper=Deccan Chronicle|first=U Sudhakar|last=Reddy|date=2016-09-29|access-date=2026-02-18}}</ref> Although it used to be accessible by two major and two minor road bridges, it is presently accessible by four road bridges and two metro lines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/26/stories/2007122660610300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227071708/http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/26/stories/2007122660610300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2007-12-27|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=2007-12-26|title=Traffic goes for a toss at Imlibun station}}</ref>

The bus hangars which were also known as "Mississippi aircraft hangar" built in 1930s during the Nizam era collapsed in 2018. <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2018/Jul/05/nizam-era-mississippi-aircraft-hanger-comes-down-crashing-in-hyderabads-gowliguda-1838617.html|title=Nizam-era Mississippi aircraft hanger comes down crashing in Hyderabad's Gowliguda|newspaper=The New Indian Express|first=Ajay|last=Moses|date=2018-07-05|access-date=2026-02-18}}</ref>

=={{anchor|Services}}Service==
MGBS primarily serves [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]], and has daily service to [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Karnataka]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Odisha]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].

=={{anchor|Metro Connectivity}}Hyderabad Metro connectivity==
The MGBS is connected to the city by the [[Hyderabad Metro]]'s red and green lines, with a interlink station named "MG Bus" providing direct access to and from the Bus Terminus to the Metro station. [[Jubilee Bus Station]] (JBS), is also connected by the [[Hyderabad Metro]]'s green Line while also connecting [[Secunderabad]] and Hyderabad.<ref name="MGBS Ref 1">{{cite news |title=Hyderabad Metro's Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station-JBS Parade Ground line to be flagged off today |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2020/feb/07/hyderabad-metros-mahatma-gandhi-bus-station-jbs-parade-ground-line-to-be-flagged-off-today-2100205.html |access-date=10 February 2021 |work=The New Indian Express |publisher=The New Indian Express |date=7 February 2020}}</ref> Travel time between the cities is 16 minutes, compared to 45 minutes by road. The MG Bus station is India's largest metro station and Hyderabad's tallest;<ref name="MGBS Ref 1" /> its corridors{{snd}}Corridor 2 - Green (JBS to MGBS) and Corridor 1 - Red (Miyapur to LB Nagar){{snd}}are on separate levels. According to the metro company, the station is designed for 100 years of service and its concourse will contain retail stores and entertainment.<ref name="MGBS Ref 1" />

==Infrastructure==
The MGBS covers {{convert|20|acre|m2}} of a {{convert|8|ha|m2|adj=on}} complex, and was completed at a cost of {{INR}}13 [[crore]]. There are 150 platforms, a 7,380-square-meter waiting room, a 3,455-square-metre shopping complex and a 5,000-square-metre parking area.

Many [[Telangana State Road Transport Corporation|TGSRTC]] buses in Hyderabad use the station, one of two terminals in the city for long-distance bus service. Corporation buses include Palle Velugu, Express, Deluxe, Super Luxury, Rajadhani A/C, Garuda, Garuda Plus and Vennela A/C Sleeper.

== Platforms ==
[[File:Mgbsmetrocorridor.jpg|alt=Outdoor above-ground metro station, with parked buses|thumb|upright=1.35|MGBS metro station]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Platforms
! Buses
|-
| 1–5
| Garuda, Garuda Plus, Vennela, Amaravati, Airavat, Ambaari
|-
| 6, 7
| [[Bengaluru]] (TGSRTC)
|-
| 8
| Bengaluru ([[Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation|KSRTC]])
|-
| 9
| [[Anantapur]], Dharmavaram, Puttaparthi
|-
| 10, 11
| [[Suryapet]], [[Khammam]], Bhadrachalam, Manuguru
|-
| 12
| Sathupally, [[Rajamahendravaram]], Polavaram
|-
| 13
| Kunta, Bailadilla, Jagdalpur
|-
| 14, 15
| [[Nalgonda]], Miryalaguda, Kodad
|-
| 16, 17
| [[Guntur]], Narsaraopeta, Chilakaluripeta
|-
| 18–22
| [[Yadagirigutta]], [[Warangal]]
|-
| 23
| Srisailam
|-
| 24, 25
| Achampeta, Kalwakurthy
|-
| 26
| Raichur
|-
| 27–31
| [[Mahboobnagar]], Wanaparthy, Narayanpet, Hubli
|-
| 32–34
| Nagarkurnool, Kollapur, Shadnagar
|-
| 35, 36
| [[Vijayawada]], Tenali, Eluru (TGSRTC)
|-
| 37, 38
| Vijayawada, Tenali, Eluru ([[Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation|APSRTC]])
|-
| 39
| [[Visakhapatnam]], Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Parvathipuram, Amalapuram, Gudivada, [[Kakinada]] (TGSRTC)
|-
| 40
| [[Visakhapatnam]], Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, Parvathipuram, Amalapuram, Gudivada, [[Kakinada]] (APSRTC)
|-
| 41, 42
| Gadwal, [[Kurnool]], [[Tirupati]], Chittoor (TGSRTC)
|-
| 43–45
| Kurnool, Tirupati, Chittoor (APSRTC)
|-
| 46, 47
| Medak, Bansuwada, Bodhan
|-
| 48–52
| Zaheerabad, Narayankhed, Karad, Sholapur, [[Pune]], [[Mumbai]] (TGSRTC, [[Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation|MSRTC]])
|-
| 53–55
| Siddipet, [[Vemulawada, Rajanna Sircilla district|Vemulawada]], [[Karimnagar]], Mancherial, Asifabad
|-
| 56–58
| [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]], [[Adilabad]], [[Nagpur]], Amaravati, Nirmal
|-
| 59–61
| Macherla, Ongole, [[Nellore]], [[Chennai]]
|-
| 62
| Devarakonda
|-
| 63–65
| Parigi, Vikarabad, Tandur, Yadgir, Sedam
|-
| 66–75
| Arrivals
|-
| 76–79
| City buses
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{Commons category-inline}}
{{Hyderabad topics}}

[[Category:Transport in Telangana]]
[[Category:Bus stations in Telangana]]
[[Category:Transport in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Establishments in Hyderabad State]]

Neighbourhoods in the Kolkata metropolitan area

2026-03-09T13:39:14Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Put up a details w/ refs!

{{Short description|Towns in municipal Kolkata}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
The major municipal areas which are a part of the [[Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority]] or KMDA Kolkata conurbation are:<ref name="Kolkata">[http://www.metropolis.org/sites/default/files/metropolitan_regions/438_007_kolkata_eng.pdf ''Kolkata''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308102346/http://www.metropolis.org/sites/default/files/metropolitan_regions/438_007_kolkata_eng.pdf |date= 8 March 2012 }}. Metropolis.org.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter II – The Vision _ Evolution of Kolkata Metropolitan Area|url=http://jnnurmmis.nic.in/toolkit/KolkataCdp/CH-II.pdf|website=jnnurmmis.nic.in|access-date=18 May 2019|archive-date=11 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411001841/https://jnnurmmis.nic.in/toolkit/KolkataCdp/CH-II.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left;"
|-
!Kolkata
!North 24 Parganas
!South 24 Parganas
!Howrah
!Hooghly
!Nadia
|-
|
* [[Kolkata]]
|
* [[Baranagar]]
* [[Barasat]]
* [[Barrackpore]]
* [[Bhatpara]]
* [[Bidhannagar]]
* [[Dum Dum]]
* [[Garulia]]
* [[Halisahar]]
* [[Kamarhati]]
* [[Kanchrapara]]
* [[Khardaha]]
* [[Madhyamgram]]
* [[Naihati]]
* [[New Barrackpore]]
* [[North Barrackpur]]
* [[North Dumdum]]
* [[Panihati]]
* [[South Dumdum]]
* [[Titagarh]]
|
* [[Baruipur]]
* [[Budge Budge]]
* [[Jaynagar Majilpur]]
* [[Maheshtala]]
* [[Pujali]]
* [[Rajpur Sonarpur]]
|
* [[Howrah]]
* [[Uluberia]]
|
* [[Baidyabati]]
* [[Bansberia]]
* [[Bhadreswar, Hooghly|Bhadreswar]]
* [[Champdani]]
* [[Chandannagar]]
* [[Dankuni]]
* [[Hugli-Chuchura|Hugli Chuchura]]
* [[Konnagar]]
* [[Rishra]]
* [[Serampore]]
* [[Uttarpara Kotrung]]
|
* [[Gayespur]]
* [[Haringhata]]
* [[Kalyani, West Bengal|Kalyani]]
|-
|}

Many towns in [[Kolkata metropolitan area|Greater Kolkata]] are being incorporated within the Kolkata postal area, with their postal [[Postal Index Number|PIN code]]s being changed so that these areas can be identified with the larger metropolitan area.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rajarhat-Gopalpur Municipality merges with Bidhannagar Municipal Corporation|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/NDITA-merger-with-Bidhannagar-corporation-soon/articleshow/29126946.cms}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Bally Municipality is merged with Howrah Corporation|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/district/howrah-hoogly/bally-municipality-is-merged-with-howrah-corporation-1.132582}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{West Bengal topics}}
{{Kolkata topics}}
{{Kolkata neighbourhoods}}

{{coord|22.5411|N|88.3378|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

[[Category:Geography of Kolkata]]
[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Kolkata| ]]
[[Category:Lists of neighbourhoods in Indian cities|Kolkata]]

{{Kolkata-geo-stub}}

Nadi (film)

2026-03-04T09:14:19Z

AntoniettaWhitco: put up a pg

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Nadi
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[A. Vincent]]
| producer = Hari Pothan
| writer = [[P. J. Antony]] [[Thoppil Bhasi]] (dialogues)
| screenplay = [[Thoppil Bhasi]]
| starring = [[Prem Nazir]] [[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]] [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]] [[Kaviyoor Ponnamma]]
| music = [[G. Devarajan]]
| cinematography = P. N. Sundaram
| editing = G. Venkittaraman
| studio = Supriya
| distributor = Supriya
| released = {{Film date|1969|10|24|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
}}

'''''Nadi''''' ({{translation|The River}}) is a 1969 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language film, directed by A. Vincent and produced by Hari Pothan. The film stars [[Prem Nazir]], [[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]], [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]] and [[Kaviyoor Ponnamma]]. The film has musical score by [[G. Devarajan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=307|title=Nadi|accessdate=2014-10-14|publisher=www.malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?4480|title=Nadi|accessdate=2014-10-14|publisher=malayalasangeetham.info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spicyonion.com/title/nadhi-malayalam-movie/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304044533/http://spicyonion.com/title/nadhi-malayalam-movie/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=4 March 2016|title=Nadhi|accessdate=2014-10-14|publisher=spicyonion.com}}</ref> The film is best known for the performance by Prem Nazir,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2009/01/16/stories/2009011650650100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411071841/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2009/01/16/stories/2009011650650100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 April 2009|title=The evergreen hero|accessdate=11 March 2011|location=Chennai, India|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=16 January 2009}}</ref> and the songs.

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Prem Nazir]] as Johnny
*[[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]] as Stella
*[[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]] as Sunny
*[[Ambika Sukumaran|Ambika]] as Leela
*[[Sumathi (actress)|Baby Sumathi]] as Babymol
*[[P. J. Antony]] as Varkey
*[[T. R. Omana]] as Mariya
*[[Thikkurissy Sukumaran Nair]] as Thomachan
*[[Kaviyoor Ponnamma]] as Thresia
*[[Adoor Bhasi]] as Lasar
*[[Alummoodan]] as Paili
*[[Sankaradi]] as Ouseph
*[[Adoor Bhavani]] as Kunjeli
*Chachappan as Priest
*Jessy as Rosamma
*[[Nellikode Bhaskaran]] as Chacko
*[[Paravoor Bharathan]] as Neighbour
*Sankar Menon as Rappel
*T. K. Chellappan as Pareeth
*Kavara Sasankan
{{colend}}

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[G. Devarajan]] and the lyrics were written by [[Vayalar Ramavarma]]. The songs of the film became chartbusters, and are still popular in Kerala. The song ''Aayiram Padasarangal Kilungi'' sung by [[K. J. Yesudas]] was selected as the song heard most of times by Malayalis in a survey conducted as a part of the 50th anniversary of the formation of Kerala state in 2006.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! No. !! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length (m:ss)
|-
| 1 || "Aayiram Paadasarangal" || [[K. J. Yesudas]] || [[Vayalar Ramavarma]] ||
|-
| 2 || "Innee Vaasamenikkilla" (Bit) || [[C. O. Anto]] || Vayalar Ramavarma ||
|-
| 3 || "Kaayaampoo" (Bit) || K. J. Yesudas || Vayalar Ramavarma ||
|-
| 4 || "Kaayaampoo Kannil" || K. J. Yesudas || Vayalar Ramavarma ||
|-
| 5 || "Nithyavishudhayaam" || K. J. Yesudas, Chorus || Vayalar Ramavarma ||
|-
| 6 || "Panchathanthram Kadhayile" || [[P. Susheela]] || Vayalar Ramavarma ||
|-
| 7 || "Puzhakal Malakal" || K. J. Yesudas || Vayalar Ramavarma ||
|-
| 8 || "Thappukottaampuram" || P. Susheela, Chorus || Vayalar Ramavarma ||
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0214976|Nadhi}}

[[Category:1969 films]]
[[Category:1969 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by A. Vincent]]
[[Category:1969 Indian films]]

{{1960s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Dance Dance (film)

2026-03-03T23:50:03Z

AntoniettaWhitco: fix formatting to improve readability

{{Short description|1987 film by Babbar Subhash}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Dance Dance
| image = Dance Dance poster.jpg
| caption = Poster
| writer = Babbar Subhash
| starring = [[Mithun Chakraborty]] [[Smita Patil]] [[Mandakini (actress)|Mandakini]] [[Dalip Tahil]] [[Amrish Puri]] [[Om Shivpuri]] [[Shakti Kapoor]]
| director = [[Babbar Subhash]]
| producer = Babbar Subhash
| distributor = B Subhash Movie Unit
| cinematography = [[Radhu Karmakar]]
| editing =
| released = {{film date|1987|5|15|df=yes|India}}
| runtime = 153 min.
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| music = [[Bappi Lahiri]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Dance Dance''''' is a 1987 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[dance film]], directed and produced by [[Babbar Subhash]]. The film is a musical and stars [[Mithun Chakraborty]], [[Smita Patil]], and [[Mandakini (actress)|Mandakini]] . It also stars [[Amrish Puri]], [[Shakti Kapoor]], and [[Om Shivpuri]] in supporting roles. It is about a brother and sister who try to find success and become big singers.

Several scenes follow very closely those from the film ''[[Fast Forward (film)|Fast Forward]]'', directed by [[Sidney Poitier]].

==Plot==
Radha and Ramu are siblings. Their parents Shyam and Sita are singers. Once, Shyam and Sita go to perform in [[Jalpaiguri]] to earn some money, since they are in a poor status and they have to pay a monthly rent. While performing in Jalpaiguri wearing sexy and revealing clothes, Sita catches the eye of a rich and powerful man called A.M. Singh. He stops them mid-way home, kills Shyam and rapes Sita. Radha and Ramu are informed of their parents' deaths. The house proprietor banishes them and they become homeless. Years later, Radha and Ramu have achieved success and are popular singers now. Ramu falls in love with Janita and Radha marries Resham, who is their troupe member. They all sing and perform together. However, Resham becomes different and strange. He comes to abuse Radha. When Ramu discovers that, he tries to prevent him, but Radha does not allow him to do it. Radha finds out that she is pregnant. She comes to inform her husband and finds him with another woman in their bed. She reacts angrily and Resham beats her in such a cruel way, that she dies in the hospital. Ramu loses all interest in life, and even Janita, his new stage partner and lover, is not able to immediately pull him out of depression. In the name of Radha she succeeds. On the way to Jalpaiguri, where the next concert is to take place, Janita is attacked by Mr. Singh's minion, but she is saved by Sita. Having arrived in Jalpaiguri, Ramu recognizes his mother, who tells him what happened many years ago. Ramu organizes a big concert which will be dedicated to his sister. There, Singh appears and attempts to kill Ramu, but Resham, consumed by guilt, saves him and is shot. Singh attempts to kidnap Janita, but Ramu saves her just in time and takes revenge on Singh for his father's life and his mother's honor. Singh is arrested by the police.

== Cast ==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Mithun Chakraborty]] as Ramu "Romeo"
*[[Smita Patil]] as Radha
*[[Mandakini (actress)|Mandakini]] as Janita
*[[Dalip Tahil]] as Brijmohan/Binjo
*[[Amrish Puri]] as A.M. Singh
*[[Om Shivpuri]] as David Brown
*[[Shakti Kapoor]] as Resham
*[[Satish Kaul]] as Shyam, Ramu and Romeo's father
*[[Sarala Yeolekar]] as Sita, Ramu and Romeo's mother
*[[Chandrashekhar (actor)|Chandrashekhar Vaidya]] as S.K. Arora, the owner of Super Cassettes
*[[Gita Siddharth]] as the wife of S.K. Arora
*[[Yunus Parvez]] as a film producer, in an uncredited guest appearance
{{div col end}}

==Soundtrack==
The music for ''Dance Dance'' is inspired by the [[Italo disco]] style of the eighties and its well known artists such as [[Modern Talking]]. The main melody of "Zooby Zooby" copies that of the song "[[Brother Louie (Modern Talking song)|Brother Louie]]".<ref name="Sunday Guardian">{{Cite news |url=https://www.pressreader.com/india/the-sunday-guardian/20111023/282763468407760 |title=Talking modern with Brother |last=Kaur |first=Pawanpreet |date=23 October 2011 |work=[[The Sunday Guardian]] |access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref> The singer [[Alisha Chinai]] makes here one of her first [[Playback singer|playback singing]] steps in "Zooby Zooby". Themes from ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'' and ''[[Star Wars]]'' feature as [[incidental music]].<ref name="Sunday Guardian" /> The song "Dil Mera Todo Na" is heavily derived by the English band [[UB40]]'s "Don't Break My Heart".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/news/JLo-copies-Bappi-Lahiri/articleshow/7864799.cms|title=JLo copies Bappi Lahiri? - Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

The lyrics of all songs were written by [[Anjaan (lyricist)|Anjaan]], and music of all songs were composed by [[Bappi Lahiri]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindigeetmala.net/movie/dance_dance.htm|title=Dance Dance : Lyrics and video of Songs from the Movie Dance Dance (1987)|website=HindiGeetMala}}</ref>

In 2009, the song Zooby Zooby remake by [[Sourabhee Debbarma]] on her first album "''Meherbaan Sourabhee''" the music was remake by Harpeet Singh and Ajay Singha under label [[Sony Music India|Sony Music Entertainment India]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Zooby Zooby by Sourabhee on YouTube Music |url=https://music.youtube.com/watch?v=vx9T-xcxuFs |language=en |access-date=2022-08-30}}</ref>

Thirty years after the original release, the song "Zindagi Meri Dance Dance" was re-discovered and had a second lease of life in director [[Ashim Ahluwalia]]'s 2017 gangster film ''[[Daddy (2017 film)|Daddy]]'' starring [[Arjun Rampal]].<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2017/dec/31/9910|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215039/https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2017/dec/31/9910|url-status=live|archive-date=2 June 2021|title=Rewind 2017: The best Hindi film songs of the year|first=Mayur|last=Lookhar|website=Cinestaan}}</ref> The re-release of the song was a huge success, becoming one of the top tracks of the year.<ref name="auto1"/>

According to ''Cinestaan'', "In ''Daddy'', director [[Ashim Ahluwalia]] gave a fitting tribute to Bappi Lahiri's composition 'Zindagi Meri Dance Dance' from [[Babbar Subhash]]'s ''Dance Dance'' (1987)."<ref name="auto1"/>

Ironically ''[[Zindagi Meri Dance Dance]]'' was left out of the [[Babbar Subhash]] film ''Dance Dance'' although it featured on the vinyl album release at the time.<ref name="auto1"/>

Ahluwalia wanted an authentic 80s Bappi Lahiri sound and not an overproduced remix.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/reel/846122/daddy-song-zindagi-meri-dance-dance-brings-bappi-lahiris-discarded-tune-back-to-life|title='Daddy' song 'Zindagi Meri Dance Dance' brings Bappi Lahiri's discarded tune back to life|author=Scroll Staff|website=Scroll.in|date=4 August 2017 }}</ref> Norwegian producer Olefonken reworked the song to be more dynamic for contemporary sound systems but kept many of the original elements including the original vocals of [[Alisha Chinai]] and [[Vijay Benedict]] as well as the original synth and drum machines.<ref name="auto"/> The choreographer of Ahluwalia's first film ''[[Miss Lovely]]'', was ironically Kamal Nath, who had also worked on B. Subhash's disco film ''Dance Dance'' and ''[[Commando (1988 film)|Commando]]'' starring [[Mithun Chakraborty]], both of which feature Bappi Lahiri soundtracks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/norwegian-bollywood/article19620725.ece|title=Norwegian Bollywood|first=Manish|last=Gaekwad|newspaper=The Hindu|date=4 September 2017|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>

Another song from the Dance Dance soundtrack album "Zooby Zooby" was recreated by [[Rochak Kohli]] and sung by [[Sukriti Kakar]] in the film ''[[Naam Shabana]]'' (2017).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-03-25 |title=Taapsee Pannu's 'Naam Shabana' recreates 'Zooby zooby' with a spy twist |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/taapsee-pannus-naam-shabana-recreates-zooby-zooby-with-a-spy-twist/articleshow/57825687.cms |access-date=2025-02-05 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

In 2022, the song "Zooby Zooby" got a remake for film ''[[Dhokha: Round D Corner]]'', sung by Zahrah S Khan and [[Yash Narvekar]] with [[Tanishk Bagchi]] as composer and [[Kumaar]] as lyricist.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-30 |title=Dhokha song Zooby Zooby: Another needless remix |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/dhokha-song-zooby-zooby-another-needless-remix-video-8121241/ |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Dance Dance
| extra1 = [[Alisha Chinai]], [[Vijay Benedict]]
| length1 = 08:21

| title2 = Halwa Wala Aa Gaya
| extra2 = Uttara Kelkar, Vijay Benedict, Sarika Kapoor
| length2 = 09:01

| title3 = Dance With Pa Pa
| extra3 = Vijay Benedict
| length3 = 07:18

| title4 = Dil Mera Todo Na
| extra4 = Alisha Chinai
| length4 = 09:05

| title5 = [[Zindagi Meri Dance Dance]]
| note5 =
| extra5 = Alisha Chinai, Vijay Benedict
| length5 =07:10

| title6= Yaar Mera Kho Gaya
| extra6 = Alisha Chinai
| length6 = 07:44

| title7 = Aap Ke Saamne Pehli Baar
| extra7 = Alisha Chinai
| length7 = 02:34

| title8 = Zooby Zooby
| note8 =
| extra8 = Alisha Chinai
| length8 = 06:08

| title9 = Romeo
| extra9 = Alisha Chinai, Vijay Benedict
| length9 = 06:18

| title10 = Super Dancer
| extra10 = Alisha Chinai, [[Bappi Lahiri]]
| length10 = 06:28

| title11 = Aa Gaya Aa Gaya Halwa Wala Aa Gaya" (version 2)
| extra11 = [[Asha Bhosle]], Vijay Benedict

}}

== Release ==
The film was a hit at the box office and fourteenth highest-grossing movie of 1987. A Russian-dubbed version of Dance Dance was released all across the Soviet Union in 1989 by Soviet film company Gorki Film Studio <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/list/ls000028330/|title=Highest Grossing Hindi Movies of 1987|website=IMDb}}</ref><ref name="soviet">{{cite web|url=http://kinanet.livejournal.com/1469857.html|title=Зарубежные популярные фильмы в советском кинопрокате (Индия)|author=Sergey Kudryavtsev|author-link=Sergey Kudryavtsev (film critic)|date=3 August 2008}}</ref>
{{Cite web|url=https://vk.com/video-106427901_171779853|title=Танцуй, танцу (Индия, 1987, 2 серии)|website=VK.com}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|0317312}}

[[Category:1987 films]]
[[Category:1987 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1987 Indian films]]
[[Category:1980s romantic musical films]]
[[Category:1980s dance films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic musical films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Babbar Subhash]]
[[Category:Indian dance films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Bappi Lahiri]]
[[Category:Indian remakes of American films]]
[[Category:Indian pregnancy films]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:1987 musical films]]

Chidambaram (film)

2026-03-03T20:56:38Z

AntoniettaWhitco: slightly adjusted lead for accuracy further and updated info

{{short description|1985 film by G. Aravindan}}
{{About|the film||Chidambaram (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Chidambaram
| image = Chidambaram film.jpg

| caption = Promotional poster
| director = [[G. Aravindan]]
| producer = G. Aravindan
| screenplay = G. Aravindan
| story = [[C. V. Sreeraman]]
| narrator =
| starring = [[Bharath Gopi]] [[Smita Patil]] [[Sreenivasan]] Mohan Das
| music = G. Devarajan
| cinematography = [[Shaji N. Karun]]
| editing =
| studio = Sooryakanthi
| distributor = Saj Movies
| released = {{Film date|1985|3|8|df=y}}
| runtime = 100 min
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Chidambaram.''''' is a 1985 [[Malayalam]] film written, directed and produced by [[G. Aravindan]]. It is the film adaptation of a short story by [[C. V. Sreeraman]].<ref name="G.Aravindan: Chidambaram">{{cite web |url=http://www.cinemaofmalayalam.net/chidambaram.html |title=G.Aravindan: Chidambaram |publisher=Cinemaofmalayalam.net |accessdate=2010-09-21 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101211102423/http://www.cinemaofmalayalam.net/chidambaram.html |archivedate=11 December 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=1892|title=Chidambaram|accessdate=2014-10-22|publisher=www.malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?2651|title=Chidambaram|accessdate=2014-10-22|publisher=malayalasangeetham.info|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022211840/http://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?2651|archivedate=22 October 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spicyonion.com/title/chidambaram-malayalam-movie/|title=Chidambaram|accessdate=2014-10-22|publisher=spicyonion.com|url-status=usurped|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022221036/http://spicyonion.com/title/chidambaram-malayalam-movie/|archivedate=22 October 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The film explores various aspects of relations between men and women through the lives of three people living in a cattle farm. Themes of guilt and redemption are also dealt with. [[Bharath Gopi]], [[Smita Patil]], [[Sreenivasan]] and Mohan Das play the lead roles. It won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film]] and five [[Kerala State Film Awards]] including [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film|Best Film]] and [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Director|Best Direction]].

==Plot==
On a vast government-own farm situated in the Western Ghats, on the border of [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]], Muniyandi, a worker who tends to the farm's cattle, tells the superintendent, Shankaran that he is getting married and that he needs money. Shankaran agrees, but Jacob, the supervisor under him, is not particularly excited. He demands that Muniyandi return to the farm as soon as his wedding is over. Shankaran invites Muniyandi to drink with him, and when Jacob shows up, him as well; Jacob refuses, taking offense at drinking in the company of a "menial". Muniyandi falls at Shankaran's feet and sings a song about Shiva in repentance.

Shankaran travels to Muniyandi's village to attend the wedding and volunteers to take pictures. The couple go back to the farm on a bullock cart and then a jeep. Shivakami, Muniyandi's wife, is astounded by the lush landscape of Kerala. She discovers a flower garden and eagerly tells Muniyandi about her exploration of the farm. He takes it poorly, implying to Shivakami that she shouldn't wander the farm without him. Later, she decides to write a letter back home and approaches Shankaran to write the address on the envelope in English. Shankaran takes pictures of Shivakami, who gives up her typical reservations.

The actors Nedumudi Venu and Innocent show up at the farm for an event. Shankaran throws a picnic for them, which Jacob joins. Jacob passes a remark on Shivakami's character, which enrages Shankaran, who tries to punch Jacob.

Against Muniyandi's wishes, Jacob gives Shivakami a job in the estate's hay-making unit and moves Muniyandi's own shift to the night. That night, Muniyandi is startled by the sound of a motorbike heading towards the hay-making unit. Suspecting that Shivakami is cheating on him with Jacob, he goes in to check, only to find that it is his trusted Shankaran instead. Overcome with deception, he slashes Shivakami's face and hangs himself.

Shankaran runs away from the estate and ends up in the house of two of his colleagues. They do not understand what has happened. He eventually leaves and goes to the city where he becomes an alcoholic and finds a job in a printing press. His alcoholism eventually gets to his liver, at which point his doctor advises him to become religious to cure his addiction. After his attempts at reading Hindu scripture ends in vain, his doctor tells him to go on pilgrimages.

On a visit to the [[Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram|Thillai Nataraja Temple]], [[Chidambaram]], Shankaran finds Shivakami, her face slashed, now living off alms.

==Cast==
*[[Bharath Gopi]] as Shankaran
*[[Sreenivasan]] as Muniyaandi
*[[Smita Patil]] as Shivakaami
*[[Innocent (actor)|Innocent]] as himself
*[[Nedumudi Venu]] as himself
*[[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]] as Cheriyan
*Dr Mohandas as Jacob
*[[James (Malayalam actor)]] as Johnson

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[G. Devarajan]].
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! No. !! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics !! Length (m:ss)
|-
| 1 || Aattilepokum thanni || Seerkazhi Shivachidambaram || ||
|-
| 2 || Anithinudai (Bit) || || Traditional ||
|-
| 3 || Marghazhi (Bit) || || Traditional ||
|-
| 4 || Thalir || [[P. Madhuri]] || Traditional ||
|-
| 5 || Thonda randum || [[P. Madhuri]] || ||
|-
| 6 || Unnamulai umayaalodum || [[P. Madhuri]] || ||
|}

==Production==
[[G. Aravindan|Aravindan]] wanted to make a film adaptation of the story written by [[C. V. Sreeraman]]. For three years he unsuccessfully tried to get a producer for the project. Then he decided to produce the film himself. The film was made with a tight budget. Filming was primarily held in Mattupetty, near [[Munnar]] in [[Idukki District]].<ref name="Interview: Aravindan">{{cite web |url=http://www.cinemaofmalayalam.net/aravindan_df8.html |title=Interview: Aravindan |publisher=Cinemaofmalayalam.net |accessdate=2010-09-21 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101211102358/http://www.cinemaofmalayalam.net/aravindan_df8.html |archivedate=11 December 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Casting===
Unlike earlier films directed by Aravindan, Chidambaram featured a cast consisting of many popular actors. [[Smita Patil|Smitha Patil]], who had expressed her desire to work with Aravindan and [[Bharat Gopy|Gopy]] joined the project. More actors came forward after learning that Aravindan is producing the film himself. According to Aravindan, "Smita Patil had expressed her desire to act in one of my films much before this. Gopi was also willing to come. When they learned that it is my own production, many artists came forward to help. No one acted in the film expecting any financial returns from me. They did it for me."<ref name="Interview: Aravindan"/>

==Themes==

The film's two halves deal with two different major themes. The first half primarily explores man-woman relations. Even though Shivakami is loved by Muniyandi, she is drawn towards a more charismatic Shankaran. Shankaran is not too serious about his relation with Shivakami. According to Aravindan, "Shankaran's affinity to Shivakami at best is an infatuation. May be that is why he was unprepared and unable to face up to the eventualities."<ref name="Interview: Aravindan"/> The second half concentrates on Shankaran's response to the events after he runs away from the farm, and it deals with the themes of guilt and redemption. Then there are minor themes such as fading of caste barriers, represented by Shankaran with his relaxed attitude towards people from lower castes, like Muniyandi and Shivakami.

[[Chidambaram]] is a temple town located in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Shankaran finds Shivakami at Chidambaram in the end of his journey. The legend of [[Chidambaram temple]] revolves around a dance contest held between [[Lord Shiva]] and [[Goddess Kali]]. Kali, the reigning goddess of Thillai forest near Chidambaram witnessed the [[Ananda Thandava]] (dance of bliss, as depicted in the famous [[Nataraja]] posture) by Shiva and challenged him to a contest. Shiva, wishing to eliminate her arrogance agreed under the condition that whoever wins would become the Lord of Thillai. During the contest, Shiva performed the Urdhva Tandava (one leg pointed straight up), which Kali couldn't perform.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.davidgodman.org/asaints/gurunam1.shtml |title=Guru Namasivaya |publisher=Davidgodman.org |date=1945-12-06 |accessdate=2010-09-21}}</ref> Some legends suggest she was unable to do it out of modesty, and Shiva deliberately performed it with Kali's gender in mind.<ref name="G.Aravindan: Chidambaram"/> However, Kali conceded defeat, felt guilt for her arrogance and became a devotee for Shiva. Shankaran, the name of the protagonist is another name of Shiva. The name Shivakami means either one who loves Shiva or one who is loved by Shiva and is the name of the female deity in the Chidambaram Temple. The uneven relationship between Shiva and Kali is reflected in the relationship between Shankaran and Shivakami as well.

Various Shaivite musical pieces can be found in the movie's background. [[Gopalakrishna Bharati|Gopalakrishna Bharati's]] kritis "Margazhi Matham Thiruvathirai Naal" in Navroj, "Vazhi Maraithirikkudu" in Todi, and "Sivaloganathanai Kandu" in [[Mayamalavagowla]], and the [[Tevaram|Thevaram]] hymn "Thondar Anju Kalirum Adakki" (which discusses the [[Kedarnath Temple]]) are featured in the first half.

==Reception==
''Chidambaram'' was met with critical acclaim upon its release. Film critic Bikram Singh wrote, "''Chidambaram'' is without doubt Aravindan’s best film. The richness of visuals here surpasses even those in ''[[Pokkuveyil]]'', the suggestion of the inscrutable mystery at the heart of human affairs is conveyed unambiguously than in ''[[Esthappan|Estheppan]]''. If it were to be narrated in a few words, the story of ''Chidambaram'' would sound banal. It takes a genius to turn it into an occasion for solemn reflection upon love, life, nature and death."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chidambaram (1986) film featuring Bharat Gopy |url=https://bharatgopy.com/filmography/chidambaram-1986/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=Bharat Gopy |language=en-US}}</ref> Several renowned critics like Iqbal Masud and Ravindran praised the film.

''Chidambaram'', unlike Aravindan's earlier films was a commercial success. He attributed the popularity of the film to a "sustained story line" and the casting of well-known cine artistes.<ref name="Interview: Aravindan" /> However, Aravindan himself was surprised at the film's success and was often critical of the film saying that, " I don't know why people like the film so much, it isn't that great of a film. It isn't even my best work."<ref name="Interview: Aravindan" />

==Awards==
{{awards table}}
|-
| rowspan="5"|1985
| [[G. Aravindan]]
| [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[G. Aravindan]]
| [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Director]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[G. Aravindan]]
| [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Film]]<ref>[http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards2.htm Kerala State Film Awards] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091119014326/http://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/stateawards2.htm |date=19 November 2009 }}</ref>
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Bharath Gopi]]
| [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Actor]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[G. Devarajan]]
| [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Music Director]]
| {{won}}
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=0088907|title=Chidambaram}}

{{G. Aravindan}}
{{KeralaStateFilmAwardBestFilm}}
{{NationalFilmAwardBestFeatureFilm}}

[[Category:1985 films]]
[[Category:1985 drama films]]
[[Category:1985 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by G. Aravindan]]
[[Category:Films set on farms]]
[[Category:Best Feature Film National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Films based on short fiction]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]

Amal (2007 film)

2026-03-02T22:19:02Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created new details v1

{{Infobox film
| name = Amal
| image = Amal hindi.jpg
| caption = poster
| director = [[Richie Mehta]]
| producer = Steven Bray
| writer = [[Richie Mehta]] [[Shaun Mehta]]
| starring = [[Rupinder Nagra]] [[Naseeruddin Shah]] [[Seema Biswas]] [[Koel Purie]] [[Vik Sahay]] [[Roshan Seth]]
| music = [[Dr. Shiva]]<ref name=howell>[https://www.thestar.com/news/2009/02/11/littleknown_amal_snags_six_genie_nominations.html "Little-known Amal snags six Genie nominations"]. By Peter Howell, Feb. 11, 2009</ref>
| cinematography = Mitchell Ness
| editing = Stuart A. McIntyre
| distributor = [[Entertainment One|Seville Pictures]]
| released = {{Film date|2007|09|13|[[Toronto International Film Festival]]|2008|08|08|Canada}}
| runtime = 101 minutes
| country = Canada
| language = English Hindi
| budget = $5 million
}}
'''''Amal''''' ({{langx|hi|अमल}}) is a 2007 Canadian drama film directed and written by [[Richie Mehta]]. Set in modern-day [[New Delhi]], [[India]], it tells the story of a poor autorickshaw driver, Amal Kumar.

The film was originally released as a [[short film]] in 2004, with the same lead actor but a different cast, before it was adapted and expanded into a feature film after three years.<ref>[http://www.indianfilmfestival.org/press08/gr54_amal.pdf]{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Plot==
Amal Kumar ([[Rupinder Nagra]]) is an honest, punctual, hardworking sweet-natured autorickshaw driver who has two regular customers: the store merchant Pooja ([[Koel Purie]]) and a schoolboy who is the son of exacting lawyer Sapna Agarwal ([[Seema Biswas]]). While riding in Amal's autorickshaw, Pooja has her handbag snatched out of her hands by a beggar girl (Tanisha Chatterjee). Amal pursues the girl until she is hit by a car. Amal and Pooja take the girl to hospital. Amal visits the girl regularly, speaks to her doctor and reminds the nurses to take good care of her.

One day Amal offers his services to an old man, whose identity is revealed later in the film as local billionaire G.K. Jayaram ([[Naseeruddin Shah]]); Jayaram has been wandering the streets of New Delhi searching for an honest man. Jayaram asks Amal questions about his life, makes insulting comments about his driving skills, changes his destination, and finally pays the fare; he is surprised that Amal does not accept a three [[rupee]] tip.

Jayaram subsequently dies, leaving his entire estate to the one honest man he believes to have encountered – Amal. He dictates that his will is not to be read until Amal reports to Jayaram's lawyer, Sapna, who has no idea that Amal is her son's autorickshaw driver. If Amal is not found within a month, Jayaram's estate will be inherited by his family members. Sapna deploys Suresh ([[Roshan Seth]]), Jayaram's longtime companion, to find Amal, but Suresh and Jayaram's son Vivek hatch a plan to hinder the search in order to claim inheritance.

In the meantime, although Priya's condition improves, she is in need of surgery that would cost 50,000 rupees. Amal sells his autorickshaw to pay for the surgery, but Priya dies on the operating table. Amal then takes a janitor position at a local post office. Touched by Amal's kindness and self-sacrifice, Pooja uses some of the money she has been saving for her dowry to buy a carburetor, which she gives to Amal so that he can fix up an abandoned auto-rickshaw lying by his house.

Suresh finds Amal and witnesses his honesty and sweet nature first-hand. He is reluctant to notify Sapna, but finally does so the night before the deadline. When he informs Vivek that he is abandoning their original plan and is taking Amal to Sapna's the next day, Vivek attacks Suresh and chokes him to death.

The next morning, Sapna reads Suresh's notes and finds out that Amal is her son's autorickshaw driver. She brings Amal into the house to sign some papers. Amal, who is still unaware of the inheritance, opens G.K.'s letter and takes a long look at it. Sapna receives a phone call and asks Amal to wait in the living room; she is told that Suresh has died. Amal leaves the lawyer's house so as not to be late in meeting Pooja. Out on the sidewalk, he is approached by a homeless girl who asks him for a piece of paper to draw on. Amal hands her the letter and drives away.

The homeless girl approaches Sapna's son and tells him that the paper Amal has given her to draw on has writing on it and may be of some importance. Sapna's son replies that it would make no difference, as Amal cannot read. The movie ends with Amal picking up Pooja, the two smiling at each other, and a voiceover by G.K. saying that he could not imagine what the man who did not want three rupees would do with three hundred million rupees.<ref name="Maltin2014">{{cite book|author=Leonard Maltin|title=Leonard Maltin's 2015 Movie Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F60TAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT75|date=2 September 2014|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-698-18361-2|page=75}}</ref>

==Cast==
{{Cast listing|
*[[Rupinder Nagra]] as Amal Kumar
*[[Naseeruddin Shah]] as G.K. Jayaram
*[[Seema Biswas]] as Sapna Agarwal
*[[Koel Purie]] as Pooja Seth
*[[Vik Sahay]] as Vivek Jayaram
*[[Roshan Seth]] as Suresh
*Tanisha Chatterjee as Priya
*Siddhant Behl as Harish Jayaram
*[[Amardeep Jha]] as Radha Kumar
*Maya Mankotia as Simran Jayaram
*[[Dr. Shiva]] as Dr. Shiva
*Gurpreet Chana as the Tabla Guy
*Fenulla Jiwani as Poker Woman #2
*[[Ellora Patnaik]] as Casino Director
*[[Rajesh Tailang]] as Dhaba Owner
}}

==Screening and reception==
In 2007 the film was screened at the [[San Francisco International Asian American Film Festival]], winning the Best Narrative Award. It was shown at the 2008 [[Whistler Film Festival]], where [[Rupinder Nagra]] received an award for Best Actor and the film was named winner of the [[Whistler Film Festival Audience Award|Audience Award]].<ref>Michael Kissinger, "Whistler Film Festival a wrap; Moguls and movie-goers mingle at mountaintop meet-and-greet". ''[[Vancouver Courier]]'', December 5, 2007. Featured at Sundance Film Festival</ref>

''Amal'' was nominated for six [[Genie Award]]s in 2009.<ref name=howell /> The song "Rahi Nagufta" composed and sung in the film by Dr. Shiva, won a Genie for Best Original Song.<ref>[https://www.mississauga.com/whatson-story/3146287-amal-composer-wins-genie/ "Amal composer wins Genie"]. ''Mississauga News'', May 13, 2009 by Dominik Kurek</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/new-filmmaker-mehta-to-screen-debut-amal-at-tiff-1.659289 New filmmaker Mehta to screen debut Amal at TIFF]. ''[[CBC News]]''. September 10, 2007. Retrieved September 16, 2008
* [https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/the-last-good-man-1.697285 Film Review: The last good man] by Alison Gillmor. ''[[CBC News]]''. August 8, 2008. Retrieved September 16, 2008
* {{IMDb title|0907674|Amal}}
*{{Rotten Tomatoes|amal}}

[[Category:2007 films]]
[[Category:Canadian drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Richie Mehta]]
[[Category:2007 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:English-language Canadian films]]
[[Category:English-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Films set in Delhi]]
[[Category:2007 Canadian films]]

Veja-no-ness State

2026-02-28T16:38:45Z

AntoniettaWhitco: added data

{{Short description|Village in Gujarat state, India}}
{{citation style|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox former subdivision
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name =Veja-no-ness State
|common_name =Veja-no-ness
|nation = [[British India]]
|subdivision = [[Princely State]]
|era =
|year_start =
|date_start =
|event_start=
|year_end = 1948
|date_end =
|event_end= [[Independence of India|Accession to the Union of India]]
|event1 =
|date_event1 =
|p1 =
|s1 = India
|flag_p1 =
|flag_s1 = Flag of India.svg
|image_flag =
|image_coat =
|image_map =
|image_map_caption =
|stat_area1 =0.7511
|stat_year1 =1931
|stat_pop1 =206
|footnotes =
}}

'''Veja-no-ness State''', also spelled '''Vejanoness''' or '''Vijanones''', was a minor [[princely state]] during the [[British Raj]] in what is today [[Gujarat State]] India. It was administered by the [[Eastern Kathiawar Agency]] division of the [[Western India States Agency]]<ref>Memoranda On The Indian States 1940, p. 342
https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35376/page/n347/mode/2up</ref> The state had a population of 206 and an area of 0.29 sq miles.<ref>Memoranda On The Indian States 1935, p. 248, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.275347/page/n257/mode/2up</ref> Territorially it was the smallest Princely State in India.<ref>The British Empire at its Zenith by A. J. Christopher (1988), p. 160, https://archive.org/details/isbn_0709934181/page/160/mode/2up</ref> The state had an annual revenue of 500 rupees.<ref>East India constitutional reforms: report of the Indian states enquiry committee financial 1932, p. 226, https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.01796/page/225/mode/2up</ref>

==Rulers==
,
The Rulers had the title of Talukdar.

* Kathi Sura fl. 1896 <ref>The Hind Rajasthani : an annual of the native states of India, p. 321, https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.02572/page/321/mode/2up</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Princely states of the Baroda and Gujarat States Agency}}

{{coord missing|Gujarat}}

{{princely states topics}}

{{Short description|Former princely state in Gujarat, India}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{princely states topics}}

[[Category:Princely states of Gujarat]]
[[Category:1948 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1948]]

{{Gujarat-PrincelyState-stub}}

Pâwibâwia

2026-02-26T05:11:01Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Put up a entry first draft!

{{Short description|Eastern Mizo chief (c.1852-c.1892)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Pâwibâwia
| image =
| title = Chief of Sailam {{lang|lus|Sailam Lal}}
| caption =
| succession =
| reign =
| coronation =
| cor-type =
| predecessor = Lalphunga
| regent =
| reg-type =
| successor = Vanphunga
| suc-type =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{circa|1852}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{death date and age|1892|1852}}
| death_place =
| spouse =
| spouse-type = Spouse
| consort =
| issue =
| issue-link =
| regnal name =
| house = Sailo
| father = Lalphunga
| mother = Lalpuithluaii
| religion = [[Mizo religion|Sakhua]]
| type = chieftain
| burial_date =
| burial_place =
| signature =
| native_lang1 = [[Duhlien]]
}}
'''Pâwibâwia''' (1852-1892) was a Mizo chief of the eastern Lushai Hills (now [[Mizoram]]). He was the son of Lalphunga and grandson of [[Lalsavunga]]. He participated in the resistance against the British forces during the [[Lushai Expedition]] and once more in the [[Lushai Rising]] with [[Lalburha]].

==Early life==
Pâwibâwia is estimnated to have been twenty years old during the [[Lushai Expedition]] which would implies that his birth date is {{circa|1852}}. Pâwibâwia descended into a small family from his father Lalphunga and his mother Lalpuithluaii.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=1}}{{sfn|Sailo|2011|p=110}} During birth, his mother, desiring a blessing of fertility for a larger family gave birth to him in a {{lang|lus|Pawi}} ([[Lai people|Lai]]) household of a big family under a man known as Damritvunga. He was made to wear the bangle of a [[Bawi system|{{lang|lus|bawi|cat=no}}]] making him a nominal slave of the {{lang|lus|Pawi}} and hence his name Pâwibâwia.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=1}}

His father Lalphunga shifted and migrated his subjects and villages, making Pâwibâwia shift from Tualbung, Kawlkulh, Rabung, Lamzawl, Khuangphah and finally Ngopa. Lalphunga died in Ngopa, and Pâwibâwia was made chief.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=1}}

==Chieftainship==
Pâwibâwia migrated his village and grew his influence beyond that of his father Lalphunga.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=1}}

===Lushai Expedition===
{{main|Lushai Expedition}}
Pâwibâwia contributed to raiding of British estates and workers on the borders of the Lushai Hills. He collaborated with his cousin Chief [[Vanhnuailiana]] to raid the Kala Naga Police Station in February 1868 and looted the village. Pâwibâwia made another raid with Chief Vanpuilala on a [[Naga people|Naga]] village in the [[Manipur Kingdom]]. These raids were attributed to the expansion of tea estates in Assam, which encroached on the historical hunting grounds of the Lushais.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=2}}

After the capture of [[Mary Winchester (Zoluti)]] by Chief [[Bengkhuaia]], the British organised the [[Lushai Expedition]] of two columns. During the expedition, Pâwibâwia shifted his settlement to the village of Sailam while Vanpuilal was at Khawlian and [[Lalburha]] was at [[Champhai]]. Pâwibâwia sent an ultimatum for the British northern column to withdraw or else he would resist their entry into their lands. The British ignored the ultimatum and continued towards Sailam. Sailam was occupied by the British and overran the defences.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=3}}

===East-West War===
Following the events of the Lushai Expedition, Pâwibâwia settled his village at Khawruhlian but due to issues with Chief [[Khalkama]] he moved to Thingsul Tlangnuam and Sesawng and settling in Zawngin.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=3}}

However, the right to ownership of [[jhum]] farmlands led to the escalation of conflict.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=3}} Skirmishes began to emerge, and eventually war was officially started with Chief [[Lianphunga]] shooting men who attempted to clear him away from the land claimed.{{sfn|Lalthangliana|2005|p=18}} The eastern chiefs attempted to involve the British as mediators to the conflict but all talks were in vain. Eventually the [[mautam]] famine encouraged Pâwibâwia and Khalkam to make peace.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=4}}{{sfn|Mackenzie|1884|p=325}} However the war would continue after the famine recovered.{{sfn|Tribal Research Institute|1978|p=27}}

===Lushai Rising===
{{main|Lushai Rising}}
Lalburha, who was influential among the Eastern Lushai Chiefs, began to resist the British with the Eastern Lushai Rising. Pâwibâwia was one of the chiefs hostile to the paying of taxes, along with Lalburha and Buangtheuva.{{sfn|Chatterjee|1985|p=111}} Pâwibâwia attended a meeting of various chiefs held by Lalburha at Sesawng to plan the uprising.{{sfn|Lalthangliana|2005|p=40}}

[[Robert Blair McCabe]] moved against the village of Pâwibâwia and stormed it at over a high climb and captured it on 14 April 1892.{{sfn|Reid|1942|p=22}}

==Later life==
After the East-West war, Pâwibâwiamoved to Khawruhlian and gained prestige for one of the biggest villages in the hills and possessing two [[zawlbûk]]s. His prestige was also complimented with the presence of the [[pasalṭha|{{lang|lus|pasalṭha|cat=no}}]] [[Saizahawla]] in his village.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=4}} Pâwibâwia had seven sons and a daughter from his wives and mistresses. Namely, Vanphunga, Thangkâma, Lalzika, Khawzadala, Lalruaia, Dorawta, Thawngliana and Vanhnuaiseli.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=5}}

Pâwibâwia died in 1892 before R.B. McCabe made his second promenade of the chiefs.{{sfn|Lalthlengliana|2010|p=5}}
==Genealogy==
{{Vonolel Family tree}}
==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Suhas |date=1985 |title=Mizoram under British Rule |location=Delhi |publisher=Mittal Publications}}
*{{cite book |last1=Lalthangliana |first1=B. |title=Culture and Folklore of Mizoram |date=2005 |publisher=Publications Division |location=India |url=https://archive.org/details/CULTUREANDFOLKLOREOFMIZORAM/mode/2up |access-date=21 February 2025}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Lalthlengliana |first1=C. |title=Chief Pawibawia |journal=Historical Journal of Mizoram |date=2010 |volume=11 |issue=1 |url=https://historicaljournalmizoram.in/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/historical-journal-mizoram-volume-XI-NOV-2010.pdf |access-date=29 August 2025}}
*{{cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Alexander |date=1884 |title=History Of The Relations Of The Government With The Hill Tribes Of The North-east Frontier Of Bengal |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.501684/mode/1up?q=Lalchokla |location=Calcutta |publisher=Home Department Press }}
*{{cite book |last=Reid |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Reid (civil servant)|date=1942 |title=The Lushai Hills: culled from History of the frontier areas bordering on Assam from 1883-1941 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.16551/page/n5/mode/2up |location=Calcutta |publisher=Firma KLM |page=49}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Sailo |first1=Ngurthankima |title=Vanphunga Sailo: A Peculiar Chief (1868-1922) |journal=Historical Journal of Mizoram |date=2011 |volume=XII |issue=1 |url=https://historicaljournalmizoram.in/2011/11/ |access-date=5 September 2025}}
*{{cite book |last=Tribal Research Institute |date=1978 |title=The Lushais 1878-1889 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.16553/page/n1/mode/2up |location=Aizawl |publisher=Firma KLM Private Limited}}

{{Lushai frontier}}

[[Category:Eastern Lushai chiefs]]

Krishnarajapuram

2026-02-24T15:17:46Z

AntoniettaWhitco: brief enhance lead per standard format further and updated info for clarity

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Krishnarajapuram
| other_name = Krishnarajapura
| settlement_type = Suburb
| image_skyline = Cable-Bridge over Krishnarajapuram Railway station.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = A straight view of the hanging bridge built on the National Highway 75, right over the Krishnarajapuram Railway station
| nickname =
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Krishnarajapuram
| pushpin_map = India Bangalore
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Krishnarajapuram
| coordinates = {{coord|12.995|N|77.68|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bangalore Urban district|Bengaluru Urban]]
| subdivision_type3 = Metro
| subdivision_name3 = Bangalore
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder = Mummadi Krishna Raja Wodeyar
| named_for =
| government_type = Municipal Corporation
| governing_body = [[Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 187453
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 560016, 560036, 560048, 560049, 560067
| registration_plate = KA-53
| website =
| footnotes =
| official_name =
}}

'''Krishnarajapuram''' (also spelled as '''Krishnarajapura''' or '''Krishnaraja Pura''' and often abbreviated as '''KR Puram''' or '''KR Pura''') is an eastern suburb of [[Bangalore]], the capital of the [[Indian state]] of [[Karnataka]]. It is one of the [[Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike#Zones|zones]] of [[Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike|BBMP]]. It is {{cvt|15|km}} from [[Bangalore City railway station]]. The Old Madras Road passes through this locality. A lake called 'Vengayyana Lake' is in the heart of this area. The [[Yele Mallappa Shetty Lake]] near Medahalli, situated just outside the eastern limits of KR Puram, is one of the largest lakes in Bangalore.

Krishnarajapuram is also the headquarters of the Bangalore East taluk and houses certain central and state government offices. It is also a Karnataka Legislative Assembly constituency. B A Basvaraja of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] was elected as the Member of Legislative assembly from this constituency in the 2013 Karnataka Assembly election,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://bangalore.citizenmatters.in/articles/view/5263-assembly-elections-result-bangalore |title=Congress wins Karnataka, but no hard grip on Bengaluru - Citizen Matters, Bangalore News |access-date=8 May 2013 |archive-date=24 June 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130624204434/http://bangalore.citizenmatters.in/articles/view/5263-assembly-elections-result-bangalore |url-status=dead }}</ref> and re-elected in 2018. The area is also a part of the Bangalore North Lok Sabha constituency.

The area was named after [[Krishnaraja Wadiyar III]], who ruled the provincial state of Mysore from 1799 to 1869.<ref name="name_origin">{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/date-with-history-kr-purams-history-is-as-entangled-as-its-present-geography/articleshow/46619038.cms|access-date=7 October 2018|title=Date with History: KR Puram's history is as entangled as its present geography|newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref>

==Connectivity==
Krishnarajapuram is located at the junction of Old Madras Road and [[Outer Ring Road, Bengaluru|Outer Ring Road]]. The Krishnarajapuram Railway station falls on the [[Bengaluru City Railway Station|Bengaluru]] - [[Chennai Central|Chennai]] broad gauge line. The cable bridge on the junction of Old Madras Road and [[Outer Ring Road, Bengaluru|Outer Ring Road]] was built by [[Afcons]] for [[IRCON]] and inaugurated the by then [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] in 2003 and was subsequently declared as the Most Outstanding National Bridge by the Indian Institution of Bridge Engineers.<ref name="afconsbridge">{{cite web|url=http://www.afcons.com/Bridges/Brides_complited/BridgeAtKrishnarajapuram.html|title=Cable Stayed Bridge at Krishnarajapuram|publisher=[[Afcons]]|access-date=31 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513113915/http://www.afcons.com/Bridges/Brides_complited/BridgeAtKrishnarajapuram.html|archive-date=13 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="bestbridge">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bangalore/K-R-Puram-bridge-is-Indias-best/articleshow/4278778.cms|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103181842/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-03-17/bangalore/28007580_1_cable-stayed-bridge-bridge-engineers-outstanding-national-bridge-award|url-status=live|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=K R Puram bridge is India's best|date=17 March 2009|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=31 March 2012|location=Hubli}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="180px">
File:K.r.puram hanging bridge 2.jpg|Cable stayed bridge on Old Madras Road (NH-4), above [[Krishnarajapuram railway station]]
File:K.r.puram outer ring road.jpg|KR Puram Outer Ring Road flyover
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Navboxes
|list =
{{Bangalore topics|left}}
}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in East Bengaluru]]

Terrorism in India

2026-02-20T12:32:58Z

AntoniettaWhitco: updated

{{Short description|none}} 
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2013}}
[[File:20 year data on Terrorism in India Terror deaths per year 1994 to 2013.png|thumb|360px|Terrorism trend in India – Terror attack caused civilian and security personnel deaths per year from 1994 to 2013.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070607031214/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/indiafatalities.htm Terrorism Fatalities in India], SATP & Institute for Conflict Management (2014)</ref>]]
{{Terrorism}}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed floatright" style="text-align:right"
|- style="background:#ececec; vertical-align:top;"
|+Terrorist incidents in India<ref name=globalterrorismdb_0718dist>[[National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism]]. (2018). [[Global Terrorism Database]] ([https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/contact/ globalterrorismdb_0718dist.xlsx]). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland</ref><ref name=gtd1993_0718dist>[[National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism]]. (2018). [[Global Terrorism Database]] ([https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/contact/ gtd1993_0718dist.xlsx]). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland</ref>
! Year !! Number of incidents !! Deaths !! Injuries
|-
| align=center|2017||966||465||702
|-
| align=center|2016||1,025||467||788
|-
| align=center|2015||884||387||649
|-
| align=center|2014||860||490||776
|-
| align=center|2013||694||467||771
|-
| align=center|2012||611||264||651
|-
| align=center|2011||645||499||730
|-
| align=center|2010||663||812||660
|-
| align=center|2009||672||774||854
|-
| align=center|2008||534||824||1,759
|-
| align=center|2007||149||626||1,187
|-
| align=center|2006||167||722||2,138
|-
| align=center|2005||146||466||1,216
|-
| align=center|2004||108||334||949
|-
| align=center|2003||196||472||1,183
|-
| align=center|2002||184||599||1,186
|-
| align=center|2001||234||660||1,144
|-
| align=center|2000||180||671||761
|-
| align=center|1999||112||469||591
|-
| align=center|1998||61||398||411
|-
| align=center|1997||193||853||1,416
|-
| align=center|1996||213||569||952
|-
| align=center|1995||179||361||616
|-
| align=center|1994||107||389||405
|-
| align=center|1993||42||525||1,564
|-
| align=center|1992||237||1,152||917
|-
| align=center|1991||339||1,113||1,326
|-
| align=center|1990||349||907||1,042
|-
| align=center|1989||324||874||769
|-
| align=center|1988||358||966||1,033
|-
| align=center|1987||166||506||429
|-
| align=center|1986||96||340||163
|-
| align=center|1985||39||51||79
|-
| align=center|1984||159||195||364
|-
| align=center|1983||47||59||217
|-
| align=center|1982||13||64||102
|-
| align=center|1981||16||24||12
|-
| align=center|1980||10||17||13
|-
| align=center|1979||20||31||19
|-
| align=center|1978||0||0||0
|-
| align=center|1977||1||0||0
|-
| align=center|1976||1||0||0
|-
| align=center|1975||1||4||0
|-
| align=center|1974||0||0||0
|-
| align=center|1973||0||0||0
|-
| align=center|1972||1||0||0
|-
| align=center|1971||0||0||0
|-
| align=center|1970||0||0||0
|-
| align=center| Total ||12,002||19,866||30,544
|}{{Campaignbox India terrorism}}
[[File:Terrorist incidents map of India1970-2016.svg|370px|thumb|right|Terrorist incidents in South Asia (1970–2016).<ref name=globalterrorismdb_0718dist/>]]
[[File:Total terror attack caused deaths in select nations in 2012 per State Department of United States.png|thumb|260px|2012 [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] figures on the total civilian deaths by terror attacks in India and other countries.<ref name=sdousa>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/210288.pdf Country Reports on Terrorism 2012], Department of State, United States (May 2013).</ref>]]
Terrorism in India, according to the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]], poses a significant threat to the people of India. Compared to other countries, India faces a wide range of terror groups. Terrorism found in India includes [[Islamic terrorism|Islamist terrorism]], [[Nationalist terrorism|ultranationalist terrorism]], and [[left-wing terrorism]].<ref name=":0">{{cite report|url=http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2019/11/GTI-2019web.pdf|title=Global Terrorism Index 2019: Measuring the Impact of Terrorism|date=November 2019|publisher=Institute for Economics & Peace|location=Sydney|page=25|archive-date=4 September 2020|access-date=7 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904122139/http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2019/11/GTI-2019web.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=bh /><ref name=satp11lw /> India is one of the countries most impacted by terrorism.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/dominicdudley/2019/11/20/ten-countries-terrorism/|title=Terrorist Targets: The Ten Countries Which Suffer Most From Terrorism|last=Dudley|first=Dominic|website=Forbes|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref>

A common [[definition of terrorism]] is the systematic use or threatened use of violence to intimidate a population or government for political, religious, or [[Ideology|ideological]] goals.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |editor=John Philip Jenkins |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797 |title=Terrorism |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=11 August 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217170455/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797 |archive-date=17 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/T0122600.html |title=Terrorism |year=2000 |encyclopedia=[[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]] |edition=4th |publisher=Bartleby.com |access-date=11 August 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620095915/http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/T0122600.html |archive-date=20 June 2006}}</ref>

In 2022, India ranked 13th on the [[Global Terrorism Index]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan most impacted by terrorism for fourth straight year, India ranks 13th: Global Terrorism Index |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/world/global-terrorism-index-afghanistan-indian-8500823/ |work=The Indian Express |date=16 March 2023}}</ref> India continues to face a number of terror attacks from Islamist separatist groups in [[Kashmir]], [[Khalistan movement|Sikh separatists]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], and secessionist groups in [[Assam]].<ref name=":0" /> The regions with long term [[:terrorist]] activities have been [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], east-central and south-central India ([[Naxalite|Naxalism]]) and the [[Seven Sister States]]. In August 2008, National Security Advisor M K Narayanan said that as many as 800 [[terrorist cell]]s are operating in the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/800-terror-cells-active-in-country/articleshow/3356589.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025030436/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-08-12/india/27921564_1_external-group-or-module-terror-modules-copycat-systems |url-status=live |archive-date=25 October 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=800 Terror Cells Active in Country |date=12 August 2008}}</ref> As of 2013, 205 of the country's 608 districts were affected by terrorist activity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/index.html |title=India Assessment 2014 |access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref> Terror attacks caused 231 civilian deaths in 2012 in India, compared to 11,098 terror-caused deaths worldwide, according to the State Department of the United States; or about 2% of global terror fatalities while it accounts for 17.5% of the global population.<ref name=sdousa />

Reports have alleged and implicated terrorism in India to be sponsored by Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|title=Contemporary Pakistan|author=Nitin Prasad|date=20 February 2016|page=112|publisher=Vij Books India Private Limited |isbn=9789385505270|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FLufCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT112}}</ref><ref name=Speigel>{{cite news |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/spiegel-interview-with-pervez-musharraf-pakistan-is-always-seen-as-the-rogue-a-721110.html |title=SPIEGEL Interview with Pervez Musharraf: 'Pakistan is Always Seen as the Rogue' – SPIEGEL ONLINE |newspaper=Der Spiegel |date=4 October 2010 |publisher=Spiegel.de |access-date=11 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/nawaz-sharif-admits-pak-terrorists-carried-out-26-11-mumbai-attacks-1851224 |work=NDTV |title=Nawaz Sharif Admits Pak Terrorists Carried Out 26/11 Mumbai Attacks |date=12 May 2018}}</ref> In July 2016, the [[Government of India]] released data on a string of terror strikes in India since 2005 that claimed 707 lives and left over 3,200 injured.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Since-2005-terror-has-claimed-lives-of-707-Indians/articleshow/53234226.cms |title=Since 2005, terror has claimed lives of 707 Indians|website=[[The Times of India]]|date=16 July 2016 }}</ref>

== Definition ==
The 8th report on [[terrorism]] in India published in 2008 defined terrorism as the peacetime equivalent of war crime.<ref name=arc08 /> An act of terror in India includes any intentional act of violence that causes death, injury or property damage, induces fear, and is targeted against any group of people identified by their political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature. This description is similar to one provided by the [[United Nations]]' in 2000.<ref>[https://www.un.org/law/cod/sixth/55/current.htm General Assembly 55th Session] United Nations (2001)</ref>

The [[Indian government]] uses the following working definition of terrorism, same as one widely used by Western nations as well as the United Nations, proposed by Schmid and Jongman in 1988.<ref name=arc08>[http://arc.gov.in/8threport.pdf COMBATTING TERRORISM PROTECTING BY RIGHTEOUSNESS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209121437/http://arc.gov.in/8threport.pdf |date=9 December 2012 }} Administrative Reforms Commission, Government of India (June 2008)</ref>

{{blockquote|Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human '''victims of violence are generally chosen randomly''' (targets of opportunity) '''or selectively''' (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat and violence-based communication processes between terrorist organisation, victims, and main targets are used to manipulate the main target (audience(s)), turning it into a target of terror, a target of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion, or propaganda is primarily sought.|Alex Schmid and Albert Jongman<ref>Schmid & Jongman (1988), ''Political terrorism: a new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories and, literature''; {{ISBN|0-444-85659-5}}</ref>}}

India subdivides terrorism into four major groups:<ref name=arc08 /><ref name=satpaao>[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/document/index.html Acts and Ordinances] South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP) (2013)</ref>
# Ethno-[[nationalist terrorism]] – This form of terror focuses either (a) on creating a separate State within India or independent of India or in a neighboring country, or (b) on emphasising the views/response of one ethnic group against another. Violent Tamil Nationalist groups from India to address the condition of Tamils in Sri Lanka, as well as insurgent tribal groups in North East India are examples of ethno-nationalist terrorist activities.<ref name=bh>Hoffman B. (2006), Inside terrorism, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231126984}}</ref>
# [[Religious terrorism]] – This form of terror focuses on religious imperatives, a presumed duty or in solidarity for a specific religious group, against one or more religious groups. The Mumbai 26/11 terror attack in 2008 from an Islamist group in Pakistan is an example of religious terrorism in India. The examples are [[Hindu terrorism]], [[Islamic terrorism]], [[Right-wing terrorism]], etc<ref>[http://mea.gov.in/articles-in-foreign-media.htm?dtl/20137/Helping+India+fight+terrorism Helping India fight terrorism] Ministry of External Affairs, Govt of India (2012)</ref>
# [[Left-wing terrorism]] – This form of terror focuses on economic ideology, where all the existing socio-political structures are seen to be economically exploitative in character and a revolutionary change through violent means is essential.<ref name=bh /><ref>Enders & Sandler (2011), The political economy of terrorism, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|9781107004566}}</ref> The ideology of Marx, Engel, Mao, Lenin and others is considered as the only valid economic path. Maoist violence in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh are examples of left wing terrorism in India.<ref name=satp11lw>[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/document/papers/2011/Left_Wing_Extremist_Data.htm Left Wing Extremist (LWE) Data] SATP (2010)</ref>
# [[Narcoterrorism]] – This form of terror focuses on creating illegal narcotics traffic zones.<ref>Mishra, R. (2014), Understanding Terrorism in Relation to People’s Demand, ASIAN JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY STUDIES, 2(3)</ref> Drug violence in northwest India is an example of narco-terrorism in India.<ref name=sh13>Sharma (2013), Growing overlap between terrorism and organized crime in India: A case study, Security Journal, 26(1), 60-79</ref>

== Terror groups operating in India ==
{{See also|List of organisations banned by the Government of India}}
SATP (South Asia Terrorism Portal) has listed 180 terrorist groups that have operated within India over the last 20 years, many of them co-listed as transnational terror networks operating in or from neighboring South Asian countries such as [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]] and [[Pakistan]].<ref>[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/terroristoutfits/index.html India – Terrorist, insurgent and extremist groups] South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP) (2014)</ref> Of these, 38 are on the current list of terrorist organisations banned by India under its First Schedule of the UA(P) Act, 1967.<ref>[http://www.nia.gov.in/banned_org.aspx National Investigation Agency] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110115355/http://www.nia.gov.in/banned_org.aspx |date=10 January 2016 }} Ministry of Home Affairs, Govt of India (2013)</ref> As of 2012, many of these were also listed and banned by the United States and European Union.<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2011/195553.htm Chapter 6. Foreign Terrorist Organizations] US Department of State (2012)</ref>

== Chronology of major incidents ==
{{Main|List of terrorist incidents in India}}

== List of attacks ==

=== Andhra Pradesh ===

==== 2000 Church bombings of South India ====
{{Main|2000 Church bombings of South India}}
The 2000 Church bombings refers to the serial bombings of churches in the southern [[India]]n states of [[Karnataka]], [[Goa]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] by the [[Islamic extremism|Islamist extremist]] group [[Deendar Anjuman]] in the year 2000. On 21 May 2000, a Christian congregation at [[Machilipatnam]], Andhra Pradesh was bombed. On 8 July 2000, two churches were bombed in [[Andhra Pradesh]], Gewett Memorial Baptist Church in [[Ongole]] and the Mother Vannini Catholic Church in [[Tadepalligudem]] town. The blast in the Ongole church injured three persons.

==== Kurnool train crash ====
{{Main|Kurnool train crash}}
A passenger train derailed in [[Kurnool]] district in [[Andhra Pradesh]], on 21 December 2002.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-12-21 |title=Bangalore Exp derails in Kurnool; 30 dead |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Bangalore-Exp-derails-in-Kurnool-30-dead/articleshow/31957240.cms |access-date=2025-08-01 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> During the repair, it was discovered that one of the railway tracks had been deliberately severed, which caused the derailment. Later reports agreed that the crash was caused by sabotage. Thirteen months after the attack, police in Hyderabad arrested a man named Syed Abdul Nayeem, a [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] activist, who failed a 'brainwave fingerprinting test' after being questioned by Indian police. He was charged both in this case and a bombing which killed two people in the Sai Baba Temple.

=== Assam ===
After [[Nagaland]], Assam is the most volatile state in the region. Beginning in 1979, the indigenous people of Assam demanded that the illegal immigrants who had emigrated from [[Bangladesh]] to [[Assam]] be detected and deported. The movement led by the [[All Assam Students Union]] began non-violently with [[satyagraha]], boycotts, picketing, and courting arrests.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

Those protesting frequently came under police action. In 1983 an election was conducted, which was opposed by the movement leaders. The election led to widespread violence. The movement finally ended after the movement leaders signed an agreement (called the [[Assam Accord]]) with the central government on 15 August 1985.

Under the provisions of this accord, anyone who entered the state illegally between January 1966 and March 1971 was allowed to remain but was disenfranchised for ten years, while those who entered after 1971 faced expulsion. A November 1985 amendment to the Indian citizenship law allows non-citizens who entered Assam between 1961 and 1971 to have all the rights of citizenship except the [[right to vote]] for ten years.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

New Delhi also gave special administration autonomy to the [[Bodo people|Bodos]] in the state. However, the Bodos demanded a separate Bodoland, which led to a clash between the Bengalis, the Bodos, and the [[Military of India|Indian military]] resulting in hundreds of deaths.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

Several organisations advocate the independence of [[Assam]]. The most prominent of these is the [[United Liberation Front of Asom]] (ULFA). Formed in 1979, the ULFA has two main goals: the independence of [[Assam]] and the establishment of a socialist government.

The ULFA has carried out several terrorist attacks in the region targeting the Indian Military and non-combatants. The group assassinates political opponents, attacks police and other security forces, blasts railroad tracks, and attacks other infrastructure facilities. The ULFA is believed to have strong links with the ''Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN)'', [[Maoists]], and the [[Naxalites]].

It is also believed that they carry out most of their operations from the Kingdom of [[Bhutan]]. Because of ULFA's increased visibility, the Indian government outlawed the group in 1986 and declared [[Assam]] a troubled area. Under pressure from New Delhi, Bhutan carried out a massive operation to drive out the ULFA militants from its territory.

Backed by the [[Indian Army]], [[Thimphu]] was successful in killing more than a thousand terrorists and [[extradition|extraditing]] many more to India while sustaining only 120 casualties. The Indian military undertook several successful operations aimed at countering future ULFA terrorist attacks, but the ULFA continues to be active in the region. In 2004, the ULFA targeted a public school in [[Assam]], killing 19 children and 5 adults.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

[[Assam]] remains the only state in the northeast where terrorism is still a major issue. On 18 September 2005, a soldier was killed in Jiribam, Manipur, near the Manipur-Assam border, by members of the ULFA. On 14 March 2011, Bodo militants of the Ranjan Daimary-led faction ambushed patrolling troops of [[Border Security Force|BSF]] when on their way from Bangladoba in the Chirang district of Assam to Ultapani in Kokrajhar killing 8 jawans.<ref>{{cite web|title=8 BSF jawans killed by Bodo militants in Assam|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/8-bsf-jawans-killed-by-bodo-militants-in-assam/145952-3.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316051154/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/8-bsf-jawans-killed-by-bodo-militants-in-assam/145952-3.html|archive-date=16 March 2011|access-date=15 March 2011|publisher=CNN-IBN}}</ref>

On 5 August 2016, a terrorist attack was reported in the market area of Balajan Tinali of the city of [[Kokrajhar]] that resulted in the death of 14 civilians and injuries to 15 others. Three terrorists, suspected to be Bodo militants, were reported to have attacked using [[AK-47]] and a grenade.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Prabin Kalita|author2=Neeraj Chauhan|date=5 August 2016|title=14 killed, 15 injured in Assam's Kokrajhar after terrorists open fire in market|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/14-killed-15-injured-in-Assams-Kokrajhar-after-terrorists-open-fire-in-market/articleshow/53556034.cms|access-date=5 August 2016|work=The Times of India}}</ref> OP Singh. Director General of Police said in a press conference the terrorist from the Hizbul Mujahideen group arrested in the city of Kanpur was Qamar-uz-Zama. He is 37 years old and is a resident of Assam.<ref name="firstpost.com">{{cite web|title=UP Anti-Terrorism Squad arrests Hizbul terrorist in Kanpur for planning attack on Ganesh Chaturthi|url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/up-anti-terrorism-squad-arrests-hizbul-terrorist-in-kanpur-for-planning-attack-on-ganesh-chaturthi-5178971.html|website=Firstpost|date=13 September 2018}}</ref>

==== Brahmaputra Express Train bombing ====
{{Main|Brahmaputra Mail train bombing}}
The Brahmaputra Express Train bombing was a terrorist attack on a train travelling in [[Western Assam]] in Eastern [[India]] on 30 December 1996. Most of the passengers were believed to be vacationers heading for Delhi to celebrate the New Year.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title= At least 26 dead in India train bombing – Dec. 30, 1996|url=http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9612/30/india.bomb/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230171321/http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9612/30/india.bomb/|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 December 2020|access-date=2021-10-05|publisher=CNN}}</ref> The train was carrying an estimated 1,200 passengers.<ref name=":2" /> Police in Kokrajhar said a bomb planted on the rails went off shortly after the New Delhi-bound Brahmaputra Express left Kokrajhar in the jungle terrain of Assam state.<ref name=":2" /> "The blast took place at 7:15 p.m., a few minutes after the train left the Kokrajhar station for New Delhi." police said.<ref name=":2" /> The train's engine and its first coach car were derailed by the blast, and the next three rail cars were severely damaged, an official said.<ref name=":2" /> The bomb totally wrecked three carriages of the train and derailed six more, killing at least 33 people.<ref name=":2" /> No one has claimed responsibility, though the separatist Bodo rebel faction was believed to be involved.<ref name=":2" />

==== 2004 Dhemaji school bombing ====
{{Main|2004 Dhemaji school bombing}}
On the occasion of Independence Day, 15 August 2004, people, mostly were school children and their mothers, gathered at [[Dhemaji College]] ground for an Independence Day parade. At around 09:30 am, a bomb went off killing 18 schoolchildren and injuring 40. According to police, the bomb was planted near the college gate and triggered by a remote-controlled device. It exploded when the students and teachers of various schools were passing through the gate. Police blamed [[ULFA]], a banned Assamese militant group, which had initially called for a boycott of the event. But on 13 December 2009, [[Paresh Barua]], the C-in-C of the group, sought public apology and forgiveness for the blast. He stated in an e-mail that the ULFA leadership was misled by some of their cadres and junior leaders about the blast, which is why the leadership had to deny its involvement.

==== 2008 Assam bombings ====
{{Main|2008 Assam bombings}}

==== 2009 Assam bombings ====
{{Main|2009 Assam bombings}}

==== 2009 Guwahati bombings ====
{{Main|2009 Guwahati bombings}}

==== May 2014 Assam violence ====
{{Main|May 2014 Assam violence}}

==== December 2014 Assam violence ====
{{Main|December 2014 Assam violence}}

=== Bihar ===

==== 2002 Rafiganj train wreck ====
{{Main|Rafiganj train wreck}}

==== 2013 Bodh Gaya bombings ====
{{Main|Bodh Gaya bombings}}

==== 2013 Patna bombings ====
{{Main|2013 Patna bombings}}

=== Chhattisgarh ===

==== April 2010 Dantewada attack ====
{{Main|2010 Dantewada attack}}

==== May 2010 Dantewada bombing ====
{{Main|2010 Dantewada bombing}}

==== 2013 Naxal attack in Darbha valley ====
{{Main|2013 Naxal attack in Darbha valley}}

==== July 2013 Maoist attack in Dumka ====
{{Main|July 2013 Maoist attack in Dumka}}

==== 2014 Chhattisgarh attack ====
{{Main|2014 Chhattisgarh attack}}

==== 2018 Sukma attack ====
{{Main|2018 Sukma attack}}

==== 2021 Sukma-Bijapur attack ====
{{Main|2021 Sukma-Bijapur attack}}

=== Delhi ===

==== 1996 Lajpat Nagar Blast ====
{{Main|1996 Lajpat Nagar blast}}

A bomb blast occurred in [[Lajpat Nagar|Lajpat Nagar market]] in Delhi on 21 May 1996, killing 13 civilians and injuring 38 others.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2023-07-06 |title=1996 Lajpat Nagar blasts: Supreme Court sentences four men for life without remission |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/1996-lajpat-nagar-blasts-supreme-court/article67050067.ece |access-date=2025-07-31 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The blast was followed a day later by the [[1996 Dausa blast]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 2019 |title=SC stays execution of blast convict |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/sc-stays-execution-of-blast-convict/article30142311.ece |access-date=31 July 2025 |work=The Hindu |issn=0971-751X |agency=Press Trust of India}}</ref> Six members of the militant organisation [[Jammu Kashmir Islamic Front]] were convicted for the blasts. A police investigation discovered that the bombers were in close contact with the Pakistani [[Inter-Services Intelligence]]. In April 2012, the court awarded a death sentence to Mohammed Naushad, Mohammed Ali Bhatt and Mirza Nissar Hussain. Javed Ahmed Khan was sentenced to life imprisonment, while Farooq Ahmed Khan and Farida Dar were released by the court, adding that their imprisonment served during the trial was their punishment. In November 2012, the Delhi High Court acquitted Mohammed Ali Bhatt and Mirza Nissar Hussain and commuted the death penalty of Mirza Nissar Hussain to life imprisonment.{{Citation needed|date=July 2025}}

==== 2000 terrorist attack on Red Fort ====
{{Main|2000 terrorist attack on Red Fort}}

==== 2001 Attack on Indian parliament ====
{{Main|2001 Indian Parliament attack}}

Terrorists on 13 December 2001 attacked the [[Parliament of India]], resulting in a 45-minute gun battle in which 9 policemen and parliament staff were killed. All five terrorists were also killed by the security forces and were identified as Pakistani nationals. The attack occurred around 11:40 am (IST), minutes after both Houses of Parliament had adjourned for the day. The suspected terrorists dressed in commando fatigues entered Parliament in a car through the VIP gate of the building. Displaying Parliament and Home Ministry security stickers, the vehicle entered the Parliament premises. The terrorists set off massive blasts and used AK-47 rifles, explosives, and grenades for the attack. Senior Ministers and over 200 members of parliament were inside the Central Hall of Parliament when the attack took place. Security personnel sealed the entire premises, which saved many lives.

==== 2005 Delhi bombings ====
{{Main|29 October 2005 Delhi bombings}}

Three explosions went off in the [[India]]n capital of New Delhi on 29 October 2005, which killed more than 67 people and injured at least 200.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-02-16 |title=2005 Delhi serial blasts: One convicted, two let off |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2005-delhi-serial-blasts-one-convicted-two-let-off/articleshow/57186861.cms |access-date=2025-08-01 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> It was followed by four bomb blasts on 13 September 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-12 |title=Chronology of 2008 Delhi serial blasts |url=https://www.mid-day.com/news/india-news/article/chronology-of-2008-delhi-serial-blasts-23308716 |access-date=2025-08-01 |website=Mid-Day |language=en}}</ref>

==== 2008 Delhi bombings ====
{{Main|2008 Delhi bombings}}

==== 2008 Delhi bombing ====
{{Main|2008 Delhi bombing}}

==== 2011 High court bombing ====
{{Main|2011 Delhi bombing}}

The 2011 Delhi bombing took place in the [[India]]n capital [[Delhi]] on Wednesday, 7 September 2011 at 10:14 local time outside Gate No. 5 of the [[Delhi High Court]], where a suspected briefcase bomb was planted.<ref>{{cite news|date=7 September 2011|title=Terror strikes Delhi again, 11 dead in HC blast|publisher=[[CNN-IBN]]|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/terror-strikes-delhi-again-11-dead-in-hc-blast/182165-3.html|url-status=dead|access-date=7 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017164828/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/terror-strikes-delhi-again-11-dead-in-hc-blast/182165-3.html|archive-date=17 October 2012}}</ref> The blast killed 12 people and injured 76.

==== 2012 attacks on Israeli diplomats ====
{{Main|2012 attacks on Israeli diplomats}}

==== [[2025 Delhi car explosion]] ====
On 10 November 2025, a car exploded near the [[Red Fort]] in [[Delhi]], [[India]], killing at least 13 people and injuring more than twenty others. According to early police assessments, [[ANFO|ammonium nitrate fuel oil]] and other explosives were used in the vehicle, which triggered the blast that damaged multiple nearby vehicles.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-11-12 |title=Delhi Red Fort car blast: When, How & Who? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/delhi-red-fort-car-blast-when-how-who/photostory/125267471.cms |access-date=2025-11-16 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> It is alleged that it is a terrorist attack.

=== Gujarat ===

==== 2002 Akshardham Temple attack ====
{{Main|Akshardham Temple attack}}

==== 2008 Ahmedabad bombings ====
{{Main|2008 Ahmedabad bombings}}

=== Haryana ===

==== 1987 Lalru Bus Massacre ====
{{Main|1987 Lalru bus massacre}}

1987 Lalru bus massacre was a massacre of 38 [[Hindus]] by [[Khalistan]]i [[Sikh]] [[terrorist]]s.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|first1=Tavleen|last1=Singh |first2=Sreekant|last2=Khandekar|date=31 July 1987|title=Terrorists kill bus passengers in Punjab and Haryana mercilessly|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/19870731-terrorists-kill-bus-passengers-in-punjab-and-haryana-mercilessly-799092-1987-07-31|access-date=2021-10-05|website=India Today}}</ref> It occurred on 6 July 1987 at [[Lalru]], presently in [[Mohali District]], when a bus going from [[Dhilwan]] in [[Kapurthala district]] to [[Jalandhar]] was attacked by [[Punjab insurgency|Sikh militants]] in which thirty eight [[Hindu]] passengers were dragged out of the bus by the militants and then shot dead in Lalru in the northern state of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]].<ref name=":1" /> The goal of the terrorists behind the massacre was to drive out the 7 million Hindus living in Punjab and force the Sikhs living outside of the Punjab state to move in. This would have enabled the Sikh separatists to claim the Punjab state as a sovereign country of Khalistan.

==== 2007 Samjhauta Express bombings ====
{{Main|2007 Samjhauta Express bombings}}

=== Himachal Pradesh ===

==== Chamba massacre of 1998 ====
The [[1998 Chamba massacre]] was the killing of thirty-five Hindus by [[Hizbul Mujahideen]], in the [[Chamba district]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]] in India on 3 August 1998.

=== Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh ===

==== 2000 Amarnath pilgrimage massacre ====
August 2000, Kashmir massacre on 1 and 2 August was the [[massacre]] of at least 89 Hindu pilgrims (official count) to 105 (as reported by [[Press Trust of India|PTI]]) and injury to at least 62 people, in at least five different coordinated attacks by Kashmiri separatist militants in [[Anantnag district]] and [[Doda district]] of [[Kashmir Valley]] in India.

==== 2025 RSC battle ====
On 28 March 2025, a gun battle in the [[Kathua]] district of [[Jammu]], [[Kashmir|India-administered Kashmir]], resulted in the deaths of four police officers and two suspected terrorists. The clash occurred in a forested area near [[India–Pakistan border|India’s border with Pakistan]], following an ambush of a police patrol. The [[Indian Army|Indian army’s Rising Star Corps]] reported the elimination of the two rebels, with recovered arms, ammunition, and military equipment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Four policemen, two suspected rebels killed in India-administered Kashmir |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/29/four-policemen-two-suspected-rebels-killed-in-india-administered-kashmir |access-date=2025-04-01 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>

==== 2025 Pahalgam attack ====
{{Main|2025 Pahalgam attack}}

The 2025 Pahalgam attack was an attack on non-Muslim tourists by five armed militants near [[Pahalgam]] in the Indian-administered [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] in which 26 civilians were killed on 22 April 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pahalgam and Pakistan's two-nation delusion |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/pahalgam-and-pakistan-s-two-nation-delusion-3513370 |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last1=Director |first1=Danish Manzoor Bhat Editorial |last2=Member |first2=Asia Newsweek Is A. Trust Project |date=2025-04-22 |title=Kashmir massacre: Trump, Putin, Iran, Israel condemn Hindu tourist attack |url=https://www.newsweek.com/kashmir-massacre-trump-putin-iran-israel-condemn-jihadist-attack-hindu-tourists-2062760 |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}</ref> The militants mainly targeted Hindu tourists, which were singled out by checking their names, checking whether they were circumcised and by recitation of the Islamic ''[[Six Kalimas|kalima]]'' .<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-30 |title=Indian survivors of Kashmir attack say gunmen asked if they were Hindus and opened fire |url=https://apnews.com/article/kashmir-attack-india-pakistan-victims-a5492962cd86174262cb73b85c04c51a |access-date=2025-05-08 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Mashal |first1=Mujib |last2=Raj |first2=Suhasini |date=2025-04-23 |title=India Takes Aim at Pakistan After Slaughter of Civilians in Kashmir |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/23/world/asia/kashmir-attack-india-pakistan.html |access-date=2025-05-08 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> It was initially discovered that one of the terrorists, Hashim Musa, was a former regular of Pakistan Army's Para Forces who was dismissed from the forces for his links to [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] (LeT).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ranjan |first=Mukesh |date=2025-04-29 |title=Hashim Musa, ex-Pakistan Army Special Forces soldier, prime suspect in Pahalgam terror attack |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2025/Apr/29/hashim-musa-ex-pakistan-army-special-forces-soldier-prime-suspect-in-pahalgam-terror-attack |access-date=2025-06-26 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> In June 2025, Indian investigators said all three militants involved in the attack were Pakistani nationals from the UN-proscribed terrorist group LeT.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-23 |title=Kashmir: Indian investigators claim all Pahalgam attackers were Pakistani nationals |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c36xe95g06zo |access-date=2025-06-26 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

=== Karnataka ===

==== 2008 Bangalore Serial Blasts ====
The [[2008 Bangalore serial blasts]] occurred on 25 July 2008 in Bangalore, India. A series of nine bombs exploded in which two people were killed and 20 injured. According to the Bangalore City Police, the blasts were caused by low-intensity crude bombs triggered by timers.

==== 2010 Bangalore Stadium Bombing ====
The [[2010 Bangalore stadium bombing]] occurred on 17 April 2010 in M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore, India. Two bombs exploded in a heavily packed Cricket stadium in which fifteen people were injured. A third bomb was found and defused outside the stadium.

=== Kerala ===

==== 1993 Chekannur Maulavi Murder ====
{{Main|Chekannur Maulavi}}

==== 1994 Formation of National Development Front ====
{{Main|National Development Front}}

==== 2005 Kalamassery bus burning case ====

The NIA court sentences two people to 7 years in jail. The people had assembled on 8 September 2005 at Aluva Masjid and chalked out their plan, at the instance and instigation of accused Majid Parambai and Sufia, to set fire to a Tamil Nadu government owned bus.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/india/kalamassery-bus-burning-case-nia-court-sentences-two-persons-to-7-years-of-jail | title=Kalamassery bus burning case: NIA court sentences two persons to 7 years of jail }}</ref>

==== 2006 Kozhikode twin blast case ====

The explosions occurred at the two bus stations on Mavoor Road within a gap of 10 minutes in the afternoon of 3 March. Explosions were triggered by timer devices. Two persons, including a police officer, were injured in the blasts. Initially, it was investigated by a special police team and the Crime Branch. NIA took over the case in 2009. Nazeer was arrested in 2009 from the India-Bangladesh border in Meghalaya.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/hc-acquits-self-styled-lashkar-e-taiba-leader-in-the-kozhikode-blast-case/article38333230.ece | title=HC acquits self-styled Lashkar-e-Taiba leader in the Kozhikode blast case | newspaper=The Hindu | date=27 January 2022 | last1=Gopakumar | first1=K. c. }}</ref>

==== 2010 [[Assault on T. J. Joseph]] ====
{{Main|Assault on T. J. Joseph}}

The ''' assault of T. J. Joseph''' occurred on 4 July 2010 at [[Muvattupuzha]] near [[Nirmala College, Muvattupuzha|Nirmala College]] in the [[Ernakulam]] district of [[Kerala]], India.<ref name="Express1">{{cite web|url=http://newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article164133.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106084316/http://newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/article164133.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 November 2013 |title=Controversial lecturer's palm chopped off |work=The New Indian Express |date=5 July 2010 |accessdate=12 May 2011}}</ref> T. J. Joseph, a professor of [[Malayalam]] at [[Newman College, Thodupuzha]], a Christian minority institution affiliated with [[Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala|Mahatma Gandhi University]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/06/stories/2010070657111100.htm |title=Two held for chopping off Ernakulam professor's palm |date=6 July 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |accessdate=12 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100708171158/http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/06/stories/2010070657111100.htm |archive-date=8 July 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> had his hand cut off at the wrist on allegation of [[Islam and blasphemy|blasphemy]] according to Quran verses, by members of [[Popular Front of India]], an Islamist organisation in India.<ref>*{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2010/aug/02kerala-one-more-arrested-in-lecturer-attack-case.htm |title=Kerala: One more arrested in lecturer attack case |work=Rediff.com |date=2 August 2010 |accessdate=12 May 2011}}
*{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Explosives-weapons-seized-near-Kerala-mosque/articleshow/6160395.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811094756/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-13/india/28296095_1_pfi-anti-terror-explosives | url-status=live | archive-date=11 August 2011 | title=Explosives, weapons seized near Kerala mosque | date=13 July 2010| work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date= 7 September 2010 }}
*{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6316966/Handsome-Muslim-men-accused-of-waging-love-jihad-in-India.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016080948/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6316966/Handsome-Muslim-men-accused-of-waging-love-jihad-in-India.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=16 October 2009 | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | first=Dean | last=Nelson | title=Handsome Muslim men accused of waging 'love jihad' in India | date=13 October 2009| accessdate= 7 September 2010 }}
*{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/22/stories/2010072253230700.htm |location=Chennai, India |title=Probe source of extremist funding: CPI |date=22 July 2010 |accessdate=7 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725165611/http://www.hindu.com/2010/07/22/stories/2010072253230700.htm |archive-date=25 July 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web|author=M.G. Radhakrishnan |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/site/Story/104821/hatreds-new-haven.html?complete=1 |title=Hatred's New Haven: STATES: India Today |work=India Today |date=10 July 2010 |accessdate=12 May 2011}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/Defending-the-front/652613 |title=Defending the front |work=The Indian Express |date=28 July 2010 |accessdate=12 May 2011}}
*{{cite web|url=http://news.rediff.com/report/2010/jul/07/islamic-court-ordered-chopping-of-profs-palm.htm |title=Islamic court ordered chopping of prof's palm – Rediff.com India News |work=Rediff.com |date=7 July 2010 |accessdate=12 May 2011}}
*{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-toi/special-report/Taliban-style-courts-in-Gods-Own-Country/articleshow/6182633.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103115849/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-18/special-report/28320578_1_pfi-taliban-style-thrissur | url-status=live | archive-date=3 November 2012 | title=Taliban-style courts in God's Own Country | date=18 July 2010| work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date= 3 August 2010 }}</ref>
The then [[Minister of Home Affairs]] of Kerala, [[Kodiyeri Balakrishnan]], made a statement that while government is aware that there is a local ''[[Dar-ul Khada]]'' set up by the Popular Front of India under the supervision of the [[All India Muslim Personal Law Board]], functioning to resolve civil disputes, there were no complaints received that it was passing "Taliban-model" orders.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Layout/Includes/TOINEW/ArtWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOIBG%2F2010%2F07%2F28&GZ=T&ViewMode=HTML&EntityId=Ar01302&AppName=1|title=TALIBAN IN KERALA? Kangaroo courts under lens|work=The Times of India|accessdate=2013-04-20|location=Trivandrum|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312225127/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Layout/Includes/TOINEW/ArtWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOIBG%2F2010%2F07%2F28&GZ=T&ViewMode=HTML&EntityId=Ar01302&AppName=1|archive-date=12 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/kerala/article536784.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=No report yet on 'Taliban-model' courts: Kodiyeri |date=28 July 2010 |accessdate=1 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100729160924/http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/kerala/article536784.ece |archive-date=29 July 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article187796.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131111740/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/article187796.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 January 2016 |title=Religious courts exist in Kerala: Kodiyeri |work=The New Indian Express |date=28 July 2010 |accessdate=12 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kaumudi.com/news/072810/kerala.stm#5 |title=Kaumudi Online – English Edition |publisher=Kaumudi.com |accessdate=12 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713140842/http://www.kaumudi.com/news/072810/kerala.stm#5 |archive-date=13 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== ISIS recruitment incidents in Kerala ====

'''2015:''' In 2015, Nimisha alias Fathima, a resident of [[Thiruvananthapuram]], along with her husband Isa Bexin Vincent, left India from Kerala with a group of 21 from Kerala and joined ISIS. Nimisha, a Hindu converted to Islam with her husband. They both worked for ISIS in Afghanistan and in Syria, and her husband died while working with the Islamist terrorist organization ISIS in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/police-vetting-video-of-keralite-is-woman-who-wants-to-return-home/article31081398.ece | title=Police vetting video of Keralite IS woman who wants to return home | newspaper=The Hindu | date=16 March 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kerala-woman-asks-court-allow-her-daughter-who-had-joined-isis-return-india-152960 | title=Kerala woman asks court to allow her daughter who had joined ISIS to return to India | date=26 July 2021 }}</ref>

'''2021:''' NIA filed chargesheet against 8 alleged ISIS terrorists for radicalizing, recruiting, organizing funds and grooming gullible Muslim youths from Kerala through different secured social media platforms to join global Islamist terrorist organizations. Deepthi Marla, Muhammad Waqar Lone, Mizha Sidheeque, Shifa Haris, Obaid Hamid Matta, Madesh Shankar, Ammar Abdul Rahiman and Muzamil Hassan Bhat were named in the charge sheet.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/nia-files-chargesheet-against-8-terrorists-in-isis-kerala-module-case/articleshow/89185620.cms | title=NIA files chargesheet against 8 terrorists in ISIS-Kerala module case | newspaper=The Economic Times }}</ref>

'''2021:''' Chief Minister of Kerala [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] revealed that around 100 people from Kerala had joined ISIS till 2019. 94 out of 100 are Muslims and the rest 6 are converted to Islam from Hindu and Christian religions in Kerala.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/news.php?id=646343&u=100-malayalis-joined-isis-all-except-six-born-into-muslim-community-says-cm-vijayan-646343 | title=100 Malayalis joined ISIS, all except six born into Muslim community, says CM Vijayan }}</ref>

'''2022:''' Najeeb Ali, a 23 year old engineering student who came from Kerala was killed in a suicide attack in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.oneindia.com/india/kerala-isis-terrorist-killed-in-afghanistan-why-india-s-no-return-policy-is-a-good-idea-3381891.html | title=Kerala ISIS terrorist killed in Afghanistan: Why India's no-return policy is a good idea | date=11 March 2022 }}</ref>

'''2022:''' ''[[Voice of Khorasan]]'', the Mouthpiece of IS in Afghanistan and the surrounding area, earlier introduced a story about Abu Bakr Al Hindi, "who was born in Kerala in a Christian family, converted to Islam by his Kerala Muslim friends when he was working at Middle east". He was killed while fighting for the Islamic State (IS) in [[Libya]]. He was an engineer by profession and joined IS when working at Gulf.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/world/islamic-state-s-mouthpiece-voice-of-khorasan-glorifies-operative-from-kerala-who-died-fighting-in-libya-snt-rgyr9m | title=Islamic State's mouthpiece 'Voice of Khorasan' glorifies operative from Kerala who died fighting in Libya }}</ref>

==== 2022 Ban on Popular Front of India ====

On 28 September 2022, with the inputs from intelligence agencies and evidence collected from [[National Investigation Agency|NIA]], central government banned [[Kerala]] based terror organization [[Popular Front of India]]. [[Bombay High Court]] ruled that popular front of India aims to transform 'India into an Islamic country by 2047'.<ref>{{Cite web | title=India bans Islamic organisation PFI for five years {{!}} Reuters | work=Reuters | url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-bans-islamic-organisation-pfi-five-years-2022-09-28/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928024041/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-bans-islamic-organisation-pfi-five-years-2022-09-28/ | access-date=2025-05-22 | archive-date=2022-09-28}}</ref>

==== 2023 Kalamassery Blast Case ====
{{Main article|2023 Kerala bombing}}

On 29 October 2023, a series of [[improvised explosive device]] (IED) blasts took place during a convention of [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] in [[Kalamassery]], a suburb of [[Kochi]], India. Five women, two men, and a child were killed and more than fifty other people were injured when the group was holding a Sunday morning session of their annual regional convention. Dominic Martin, a 57-year-old shortly surrendered at the [[Kodakara]] police station, claiming to be responsible for the blast. The motive of the blast is still under investigation.

=== Maharashtra ===

==== Mumbai ====
[[File:2008 Mumbai terror attacks Nariman House street.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Nariman House]], a Jewish center in Mumbai, after 26/11 terror attack in 2008. Six Jews were killed there, along with 158 people of other faiths elsewhere in Mumbai by terrorists.<ref name="wsj">Warren Kozak, [https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970204630904577055863900368528 Remembering the Terror in Mumbai] The Wall Street Journal (26 November 2011)</ref>]]
Mumbai has been a common target for [[List of terrorist organisations|terrorist organisations]], many operating with a base from Pakistan.<ref name="satpmaha">[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/maharashtra_Incidents.htm Terrorism-related Incidents in Maharashtra since 2006] South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP) (2014)</ref> Over the past few years there have been a series of attacks, including explosions in [[Mumbai Suburban Railway|Mumbai Suburban trains]] in July 2006, and the attacks of 26 November 2008, when two of the prime hotels, a landmark train station, and a Jewish [[Chabad]] house, in [[South Mumbai]], were attacked and sieged.<ref name="wsj" /><ref name="AP">[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/29/nyregion/29chabad.html?_r=0 Jewish Center Is Stormed, and 6 Hostages Die] The New York Times (28 November 2008)</ref>

[[List of terrorist incidents|Terrorist attacks]] in Mumbai include:<ref name="satpmaha" />
* 12 March 1993 – [[1993 Bombay bombings|13 bombs killed 257]]
* 6 December 2002 – [[6 December 2002 Mumbai bus bombing|A Bus bomb in Ghatkopar, killed 2]]
* 27 January 2003 – [[27 January 2003 Mumbai bombing|Bicycle bomb in Vile Parle, killed 1]]
* 13 March 2003 – [[13 March 2003 Mumbai train bombing|A train bomb in Mulund killed 10]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Singh |first=Vijay |date=14 March 2003 |title=Blast in Mumbai train, 10 killed |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/13mum.htm |access-date=1 August 2025 |work=Rediff}}</ref>
* 28 July 2003 – [[28 July 2003 Mumbai bus bombing|A Bus bomb in Ghatkopar, killed 4]]
* 25 August 2003 – [[25 August 2003 Mumbai bombings|Two Bombs near the Gateway of India and Zaveri Bazaar, killed 50]]
* 11 July 2006 – [[11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings|Seven train bombs killed 209]]
* 26 November 2008 to 29 November 2008 – [[2008 Mumbai attacks|Coordinated series of attacks, killed 172]].
* 13 July 2011 – [[2011 Mumbai bombings|Bomb explosions at three locations, killed 26]]

==== Pune ====

* 13 February 2010 – a [[2010 Pune bombing|bomb explosion]] at the German Bakery killed 17 people, and injured 64 others.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rashid |first=Atikh |date=2013-04-15 |title=2010 Pune bombing: German Bakery blast case verdict in Pune court today |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/2010-pune-bombing-german-bakery-blast-case-verdict-in-pune-court-today/ |access-date=2025-08-01 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
* 1 August 2012 – four [[2012 Pune bombings|bomb explosion]] at various locations on JM Road injured 1 person.<ref name="satpmaha" />

==== 1991 Kalyan Train Bomb Blast ====
{{Main|Kalyan Junction railway station}}

On 8 November 1991, a bomb exploded on a train when it reached [[Kalyan Junction railway station]]. Twelve people were killed and 65 injured in the explosion. Ravinder Singh alias Bittu who was linked to the [[Babbar Khalsa]], a Sikh militant organization was convicted in the case.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Agnihotri Chaba |first=Anju |date=2016-08-17 |title=1991 Kalyan Station Blast: Convict who jumped parole held in Punjab |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/1991-kalyan-station-blast-convict-who-jumped-parole-held-in-punjab-2979615/ |access-date=2025-08-01 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

==== 1993 Bombay bombings ====
{{Main|1993 Bombay bombings}}

A series of 12 terrorist bombings took place in [[Mumbai]], then known as Bombay, on 12 March 1993. The attacks resulted in 257 fatalities and 1,400 injuries.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-07-30 |title=How the 1993 blasts changed Mumbai forever |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-33713846 |access-date=2025-08-01 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

At 13:30 hours on 12 March 1993, a powerful [[car bomb]] exploded in the basement of the [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] building. The 28-story office building was severely damaged and many nearby office buildings also suffered damage. Reports indicate that 50 were killed by this explosion. About 30 minutes later, another car bomb exploded in front of the Mandvi branch of Corporation Bank near Masjid. From 13:30 hours to 15:40 hours a total of 12 bombs exploded throughout Mumbai. Most of the bombs were car bombs but some were in scooters. Three hotels – the Hotel Sea Rock, Hotel Juhu Centaur, and Hotel Airport Centaur – were targeted by suitcase bombs left in rooms booked by the perpetrators. Banks, the regional passport office, the [[Air India Building]], and a major shopping complex were also hit. Bombs exploded at Zaveri Bazaar and opposite it a jeep-bomb exploded at the Century Bazaar. [[Grenade]]s were thrown at [[Sahar International Airport]] and at Fishermen's Colony, apparently targeting certain citizens at the latter. A double-decker bus was very badly damaged in the deadliest explosion, with as many as 90 people killed.

On 10 July 2006, the Chief Minister of Maharashtra, [[Sharad Pawar]], admitted that he had "deliberately misled" people following the 1993 Mumbai bombings by saying there were "13 and not 12" explosions and had added the name of a Muslim-dominated locality to show that people from both communities had been affected. He attempted to justify this deception by claiming that it was a move to prevent communal riots by falsely portraying that both Hindu and Muslim communities in the city had been affected adversely. He also admitted to lying about evidence recovered and misleading people into believing that it pointed to the [[Tamil Tigers]] as possible suspects.

=== Manipur ===
Like its sister states in Northeast, Manipur has experienced years of insurgency and inter-ethnic violence while it was part of Assam and sought more rights.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/asia/2007/03/01/the-mayhem-in-manipur The mayhem in Manipur] The Economist (1 March 2007)</ref><ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/2007/03/09/a-safe-house-for-dangerous-men Manipur, India – A safe house for dangerous men] The Economist (9 March 2007)</ref> The state joined India on 21 September 1949, when [[Maharaja Budhachandra]] signed a Treaty of Accession merging the kingdom into India; this merger was disputed by various groups in Manipur as having been completed without consensus and under duress. Manipur was part of Assam after 1949, became a Union Territory in 1956.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution (Amendment)|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501011646/http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend7.htm|archive-date=1 May 2017|access-date=2011-11-19}}</ref> The first armed opposition group in Manipur, the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), was founded in 1964, which declared that it wanted to gain more rights or outright independence from India. After several rounds of negotiations, Manipur became a full state in 1972 along with several other sister states of the Northeast.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 December 2012 |title=The North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Amendment Act, 2012 |url=http://indiacode.nic.in/acts-in-pdf/392012.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630033602/http://indiacode.nic.in/acts-in-pdf/392012.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2017 |website=India Code}}</ref> Post statehood, more groups continued to form in Manipur, each with different goals, and deriving support from diverse ethnic groups in Manipur. For example, in 1977 the People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) was formed, the [[People's Liberation Army of Manipur|People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) was formed in 1978. In 1980, the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP) was formed. These groups began a spree of bank robberies and attacks on police officers and government buildings. The state government appealed to the central government in New Delhi for support in combating this violence.<ref name="hrwm">[https://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/india0908/2.htm Background: Conflict in Manipur] Human Rights Watch (2008)</ref> In 1980, the central government brought the entire state of Manipur under the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) because its state government claimed that the use of the Armed Forces in aid of the state and local police is necessary to prevent violent deaths and to maintain law and order.

The violence in Manipur includes significant inter-ethnic tribal rivalry. There is violence between the Meiteis, Nagas, Kukis and other tribal groups.<ref name="hrwm" /> They have formed splinter groups who disagree with each other. Other than UNLF, PLA and PREPAK mentioned above, other Manipuri insurgent groups include Revolutionary Peoples Front (RPF), Manipur Liberation Front Army (MLFA), Kanglei Yawol Khnna Lup (KYKL), Revolutionary Joint Committee (RJC), Peoples United Liberation Front (PULF), Kuki National Front (KNF), Kuki National Army (KNA), Kuki Defence Force (KDF), Kuki Democratic Movement (KDM), Kuki National Organisation (KNO), Kuki Security Force (KSF), Chin Kuki Revolutionary Front (CKRF), Kom Rem Peoples Convention (KRPC), Zomi Revolutionary Volunteers (ZRV), Zomi Revolutionary Army (ZRA), Zomi Reunification Organisation (ZRO), and Hmar Peoples Convention (HPC).<ref name="hrwm" />

According to SATP (the South Asia Terrorism Portal),<ref>{{cite web|author=South Asia Terrorism Portal – Terrorism Analysis in South Asia|title=Terrorism – South Asia Terrorism Portal|url=http://www.satp.org/|access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref> there has been a large decline in fatalities in Manipur in recent decades.<ref name="satp9413">[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/indiafatalities.htm State wise Indian fatalities, 1994–2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715000520/http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/indiafatalities.htm |date=15 July 2014 }} Militancy and Terrorism Database, SATP, New Delhi</ref> Since 2010, about 25 civilians have died in militant-related violence (about 1 per 100,000 people), dropping further to 21 civilian deaths in 2013 (or 0.8 per 100,000 people).<ref name="satp9413" /> Most of these deaths have been from inter-factional violence. Elections have been held regularly over recent decades. The last state assembly elections were held in 2012, with 79.2% voter turnout and the incumbent re-elected to power.<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2012/Stats_report_2012_MR.pdf STATISTICAL REPORT ON GENERAL ELECTION, 2012 TO THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF MANIPUR] Election Commission of India (2012)</ref>

=== Meghalaya ===

=== Mizoram ===
In 1947, Mizoram was part of Assam, and its districts were controlled by hereditary tribal chiefs. The educated elites among the Mizos campaigned against the tribal [[chiefdom]] under the banner of [[Mizo Union]]. As a result of their campaign, the hereditary rights of the 259 chiefs were abolished under the Assam-Lushai District (Acquisition of Chief's Rights) Act, 1954.<ref name="Suhas1994">{{cite book|last=Chatterjee|first=Suhas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GI-1rMckfpEC&pg=PA1|title=Making of Mizoram: Role of Laldenga|publisher=M.D. Publications|year=1994|isbn=978-81-85880-38-9|page=1|access-date=28 August 2013}}</ref><ref name="misai">Michael Sailo (2006), Administration of Justice in Mizoram, {{ISBN|978-8183240598}}, Chapter 2</ref> Village courts, which were disbanded by the colonial authorities during their re-structuring of Assam, were re-implemented in Mizo region. All of these regions were frustrated by these arrangements and centralized Assam governance. The Mizos were particularly dissatisfied with the government's inadequate response to the 1959–60 [[mautam]] famine. The Mizo National Famine Front, a body formed for famine relief in 1959, later developed into a new political organisation, the [[Mizo National Front]] (MNF) in 1961.<ref name="Braja1998">{{cite book|last=Kumāra|first=Braja Bihārī|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nKqF_AgDd4gC&pg=PA75|title=Small States Syndrome in India|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Concept|isbn=978-81-7022-691-8|page=75|access-date=28 August 2013}}</ref> A period of protests and armed insurgency followed in the 1960s, with MNF seeking independence from India.<ref name="dommen">Dommen, A. J. (1967), Separatist Tendencies in Eastern India, Asian Survey, Vol. 7, No. 10 (Oct. 1967), 726-739</ref>

In 1971, the government agreed to convert the Mizo Hills into a Union Territory, which came into being as Mizoram in 1972. Following the [[Mizoram Peace Accord]] (1986) between the Government and the MNF, Mizoram was declared a full-fledged state of India in 1987.<ref name="AlfredJuan2011">{{cite book|last1=Stepan|first1=Alfred|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kGUuOdeCiXQC&pg=PA105|title=Crafting State-Nations: India and Other Multinational Democracies|last2=Linz|first2=Juan J|last3=Yadav|first3=Yogendra|date=20 January 2011|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-9723-8|pages=105–|access-date=28 August 2013}}</ref> Mizoram got two seats in the [[Parliament of India|Parliament]], one each in the [[Lok Sabha]] and in the [[Rajya Sabha]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Baruah|first=Sanjib|title=Durable Disorder: Understanding the Politics of Northeast India|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007}}</ref> Per the accord, insurgents surrendered their arms. The first election of Mizoram Legislative Assembly was held on 16 February 1987.<ref name="misai" /> Elections have been held at 5 year intervals since then. The most recent [[2013 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|Mizoram elections]] were held for 40 seats of the legislative assembly on 25 November 2013. The voter turnout was 81%. The Indian National Congress led by [[Lal Thanhawla]] was re-elected to power.<ref>{{cite web|title=Assembly Elections December 2013 Results|url=http://eciresults.ap.nic.in|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215221429/http://eciresults.ap.nic.in/|archive-date=15 December 2013|work=ECI|publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref> The region has been peaceful in recent decades. Between 2006 and 2013, between 0 and 2 civilians died each year from any protest-related violence (or less than 0.2 people per 100,000).<ref>[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/index.html Mizoram Violence Statistics, India Fatalities 1994–2014] SATP (2014)</ref>

=== Nagaland ===
After the [[Indian independence movement|independence of India]] in 1947, the area remained a part of the province of Assam. Nationalist activities arose amongst a section of the Nagas. [[Angami Zapu Phizo|Phizo]]-led [[Naga National Council]] and demanded a political union of their ancestral and native groups. The movement led to a series of violent incidents, that damaged government and civil infrastructure, attacked government officials and civilians. The Union government sent the [[Indian Army]] in 1955, to restore order. In 1957, an agreement was reached between Naga leaders and the Indian government, creating a single separate region of the Naga Hills. The Tuensang frontier was united with this single political region, Naga Hills Tuensang Area (NHTA),<ref name="Nagaland Legislative Assembly">{{cite news|title=Naga Hills Tuensang Area Act, 1957|url=http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/727141/}}</ref> and it became a [[Union territory]] directly administered by the Central government with a large degree of autonomy. This was not satisfactory to the tribes, however, and agitation with violence increased across the state – including attacks on army and government institutions, and banks, as well as non-payment of taxes. In July 1960, following a discussion between the then [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] Nehru and the leaders of the Naga People Convention (NPC), a 16-point agreement was arrived at whereby the Government of India recognised the formation of Nagaland as a full-fledged state within the Union of India.<ref>{{cite web|title=The 16-point Agreement between the GOI & Naga People's Convention|url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/nagaland/documents/papers/nagaland_16point.htm|access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref>

Nagaland became the 16th state of the Indian Union on 1 December 1963.<ref>{{cite book|author=Suresh K. Sharma|title=Documents on North-East India: Nagaland|publisher=Mittal Publications|year=2006|isbn=9788183240956|pages=225–228}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The State Of Nagaland Act, 1962|url=http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/1490539/|access-date=28 December 2014}}</ref> After elections in January 1964, the first democratically elected [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly]] was constituted on 11 February 1964.<ref name="Nagaland Legislative Assembly" /><ref>{{cite web|last=Ovung|first=Albert|title=The Birth of Ceasefire in Nagaland|url=http://nagaland.net/spotlight_detail.php?id=1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728150315/http://nagaland.net/spotlight_detail.php?id=1|archive-date=28 July 2013|access-date=25 June 2014}}</ref> The rebel activity continued, in the form of banditry and attacks, motivated more by inter-factional tribal rivalry and personal vendetta than by political aspiration. In November 1975, the leaders of largest rebellion groups agreed to lay down their arms and accept the Indian constitution, a small group did not agree and continued their insurgent activity.<ref>Nagaland, ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2011)</ref><ref>[http://cq-publish.dev.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/state_human_develop_report_nagaland_full_report_2008.pdf Nagaland – State Human Development Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821073819/http://cq-publish.dev.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/state_human_develop_report_nagaland_full_report_2008.pdf|date=21 August 2014}} United Nations Development Programme (2005)</ref>

==== 1996 Dimapur car bombing ====
{{main|1996 Dimapur car bombing}}

On Christmas Day, 25 December 1996, the [[Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland|NSCN-IM]] detonated a powerful [[car bomb]] triggered by remote control in the Ara Mile neighbourhood of [[Dimapur]], Nagaland in an attempted assassination on [[Kihoto Hollohon]], the then Minister of Industries & Commerce of Nagaland. Hollohon escaped as he was not in the vehicle. The blast killed his wife, daughter, granddaughter, grandson and one other on the spot.

==== 2004 Dimapur bombings ====
{{main|2004 Dimapur bombings}}

On 2 October 2004, two powerful bombs were set off—one at the [[Dimapur railway station|Dimapur Railway Station]] and the other at the Hong Kong Market killing 30 and injuring over 100 others.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vinayak|first=G|url=https://m.rediff.com/news/2004/oct/02naga.htm|title=At least 30 killed in Nagaland blast|website=[[Rediff.com]]|date=2 October 2004|access-date=23 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2004/10/3/india-reels-after-deadly-blasts|title=India reels after deadly blasts|website=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|date=3 October 2004|access-date=23 August 2022}}</ref>

Over the 5 year of 2009 to 2013, between 0 and 11 civilians died per year in Nagaland from rebellion related activity (or less than 1 death per year per 100,000 people), and between 3 and 55 militant deaths per year in inter-factional killings (or between 0 and 3 deaths per 100,000 people).<ref>[http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/database/index.html Nagaland Violence Statistics, India Fatalities 1994–2014] SATP (2014)</ref> The most recent Nagaland Legislative Assembly election took place on 23 February 2013 to elect the Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) from each of the 60 Assembly Constituencies in the state. The voter turnout was 83% and Nagaland People's Front was elected to power with 37 seats.<ref>[http://ceonagaland.nic.in/ae2013/StatisticalReport_2013.pdf Nagaland elections 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808181708/http://ceonagaland.nic.in/ae2013/StatisticalReport_2013.pdf|date=8 August 2013}} Elections Commission of India, Government of India</ref>

=== Odisha ===

=== Punjab ===
In the 1980s, an insurgent movement turned to violence, seeking a separate state called [[Khalistan]], independent of India. They were led by Jarnail Singh [[Bhindranwale]] who was neutral on the establishment of a new state.<ref>Oberoi, H. S. (1987), From Punjab to" Khalistan": Territoriality and Metacommentary, Pacific Affairs, 26-41</ref>

In 1984, [[Operation Blue Star]] was conducted by the Indian government to confront the movement. It involved an assault on the Golden Temple complex, which Sant Bhindranwale had fortified in preparation of an army assault. [[Indira Gandhi]], [[India]]'s then prime minister, ordered the military to storm the temple, who eventually had to use tanks. After a 74-hour firefight, the army successfully took control of the temple. In doing so, it damaged some portions of the [[Akal Takht]], the [[Sikh Reference Library]], and the [[Harmandir Sahib|Golden Temple]] itself. According to Indian government sources, 83 army personnel were killed and 249 were injured. Militant casualties were 493 killed and 86 injured.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

During the same year, the assassination of [[Indira Gandhi]] by two Sikh [[bodyguard]]s, believed to be driven by the Golden Temple affair, resulted in widespread anti-Sikh riots, especially in New Delhi. Following [[Operation Black Thunder]] in 1988, [[Punjab Police (India)|Punjab Police]], first under Julio Ribeiro and then under [[Kanwar Pal Singh Gill|KPS Gill]], together with the [[Indian Army]], eventually succeeded in pushing the movement underground.

In 1985, Sikh terrorists bombed an [[Air India]] flight from Canada to India, killing all 329 people on board [[Air India Flight 182]]. It was the worst [[mass murder]] in Canadian history.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hrishikesh |first=Sharanya |date=2023-09-27 |title=Air India flight 182: 1985 bombing back in news after Canada row |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-66909820 |access-date=2025-07-31 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=14 July 2022 |title=A timeline of the Air India case, from the bombings to the death of an old suspect |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/air-india-bombing-timeline-1.6520841 |access-date=31 July 2025 |work=CBC News}}</ref>

The ending of Sikh militancy and the desire for a Khalistan catalysed when the then-Prime Minister of [[Pakistan]], [[Benazir Bhutto]], handed all intelligence material concerning Punjab militancy to the Indian government, as a goodwill gesture.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aziz |first=Shaikh |date=2015-07-12 |title=A leaf from history: The rise and fall of the Khalistan movement |url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1193181 |access-date=2025-07-31 |website=Dawn |language=en}}</ref> The Indian government used that intelligence to arrest those who were behind attacks in India and militancy.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

The ending of overt Sikh militancy in 1993 led to a period of relative calm, punctuated by militant acts (for example, the assassination of Punjab CM, Beant Singh, in 1995) attributed to half a dozen or so operating Sikh militant organisations. These organisations include [[Babbar Khalsa International]], [[Khalistan Commando Force]], [[Khalistan Liberation Force]], and [[Khalistan Zindabad Force]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/khalistan-zindabad-force-klf|title = Khalistan Zindabad Force (KLF)}}</ref>

==== 1991 Punjab killings ====
{{Main|1991 Punjab killings}}

The '''1991 Punjab killings''' was a massacre of train passengers that occurred on 15 June 1991 in the [[Ludhiana district]] of the Indian State of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]], where [[Sikh]] Khalistani militants killed at least 80 to 126 passengers travelling in two trains. The militants stopped the two trains about a kilometre from Ludhiana station by pulling their [[Emergency brake (train)#India|emergency cords, triggering emergency brakes]]. They proceeded to open fire inside the trains at around 9:35 p.m. ([[Indian Standard Time|IST]]), killing at least 80 passengers. On the second train, the Dhuri-Hisar passenger train, the militants fired indiscriminately. After the attackers fled, the train moved back to Badduwal station, where the rescue team arrived with doctors. Local villagers helped the survivors with food, water, medicine, and mental support. The attacks came less than five hours after polling closed in a national election already marred by violence and interrupted by the assassination of ex-Prime Minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] around a month prior.

=== Rajasthan ===

==== 1996 Dausa blast ====
{{Main|1996 Dausa blast}}

A bomb blast occurred on a bus near Samleti village in [[Dausa]] on 22 May 1996. The blast, which took place a day after the [[1996 Lajpat Nagar blast]], killed 14 people and injured 37 others. The chargesheet filed about the incident stated that the individuals responsible were associated with the [[Jammu and Kashmir Islamic Front]], and that some of the accused had been involved in the Sawai Man Singh Stadium blast. The district and sessions court in [[Bandikui]] sentenced Abdul Hamid, one of the accused, to death, and sentenced six others to life imprisonment, while acquitting the remaining individual charged with the incident for lack of evidence against him.

==== 2008 Jaipur Bombings ====
{{Main articles|Jaipur bombings}}

A series of nine bomb exploded in a synchronized manner within a span of 25 minutes on the eve of 13 May 2008 in [[Jaipur]], killing 71 people. The [[Indian Mujahideen]] claimed responsibility for the attacks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Jaykishan |date=2019-12-18 |title=4 convicted for Jaipur's night of horror when 9 bombs went off in 20 mins |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/jaipur/four-convicted-one-acquitted-for-2008-jaipur-blasts-that-claimed-71-lives/story-9HoeKWrcSWVQOskLTriflI.html |access-date=2025-08-01 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

=== Sikkim ===

=== Tamil Nadu ===
Militants belonging to the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE) were operating in the Tamil Nadu state up until the assassination of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. The LTTE had given many speeches in Tamil Nadu led by [[Velupillai Prabhakaran]], [[S. P. Thamilselvan]], and other Eelam members. The LTTE, now a banned organisation, had been receiving many donations and support from India in the past. The [[Tamil Nadu Liberation Army]] is a militant Tamil movement in India that has ties to LTTE.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}

==== Meenambakkam bomb blast ====
{{Main|Meenambakkam bomb blast}}

The [[Meenambakkam bomb blast]] occurred on 2 August 1984 at [[Meenambakkam]] International Airport in [[Chennai]], Tamil Nadu. 33 persons were killed and 27 others were injured. The [[Tamil Eelam Army]] was suspected. Several members were convicted in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Express Article|url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/news/ie/daily/19980208/03950624.html}}</ref>

==== Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi ====
{{Main|Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi}}

The [[assassination of Rajiv Gandhi]], former [[Prime Minister of India]], occurred as a result of a [[suicide bombing]] in [[Sriperumbudur]], [[Chennai]], in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]] on 21 May 1991.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Crossette|first=Barbara|date=1991-05-22|title=Assassination in INdia; Rajiv Gandhi Is Assassinated in Bombing at Campaign Stop; India Pus Off Rest of Voting|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/05/22/world/assassination-india-rajiv-gandhi-assassinated-bombing-campaign-stop-india-puts.html|access-date=2021-10-05|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> At least 14 others, in addition to [[Rajiv Gandhi]], were killed.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1991-05-21|title=1991: Bomb kills India's former leader Rajiv Gandhi|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/21/newsid_2504000/2504739.stm|access-date=2021-10-05}}</ref> It was carried out by Thenmozhi Rajaratnam (also known as Kalaivani Rajaratnam or Dhanu),<ref>{{Cite web|date=29 August 2005|title=Lady with the Poison Flowers|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/lady-with-the-poison-flowers/228400|access-date=2021-10-05|website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]}}</ref> a member of the [[Sri Lankan Tamil]] separatist organization [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE).

==== 1993 bombing of RSS office in Chennai ====
{{Main|1993 bombing of RSS office in Chennai}}

'''1993 bombing of the RSS office in Chennai''' refers to the bombing of the head office of the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] in [[Chennai]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] on 8 August 1993 by [[terrorists]]. The bombings left eleven people dead and seven others injured.

The special [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]] court tried eighteen of the accused under the now-defunct [[Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act]]. They had been earlier given life imprisonment by a TADA court in Chennai for their involvement in the blast on 8 August 1993 at the RSS office in Chennai. The CBI has announced a reward of Rs. 10 lakh for providing credible information about Mushtaq Ahmed, one of the main accused in the blast.

==== 1998 Coimbatore bombings ====
{{Main|1998 Coimbatore bombings}}

Tamil Nadu also faced terrorist attacks orchestrated by Muslim fundamentalists.

=== Telangana ===

==== Hyderabad ====
{{Main article|August 2007 Hyderabad bombings}}

The [[August 2007 Hyderabad bombings|25 August 2007 Hyderabad bombings]] consisted of two synchronised blasts. The first bomb exploded in an [[amphitheatre]] at Lumbini Amusement Park during a [[laser show]], killing 10 people. The second bomb exploded in Gokul Chat Bhandar, a popular restaurant, killing 32.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Verdict In 2007 Hyderabad Twin Bomb Blasts Today |url=https://www.ndtv.com/hyderabad-news/gokul-chat-lumbini-park-hyderabad-blasts-judgement-in-2007-hyderabad-twin-bomb-blasts-case-today-1906567 |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=NDTV |language=en |agency=Press Trust of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 September 2018 |title=After 11-year, court delivers verdict in Hyderabad twin blasts case; 2 convicted |url=https://www.newsbharati.com/Encyc/2018/9/4/Hyderabad-twin-blasts-case-verdict.amp.html |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=News Bharati |language=en}}</ref> The bombings were orchestrated by members of the [[Indian Mujahideen]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 September 2018 |title=2 Sentenced To Death For 2007 Hyderabad Blasts, Another Gets Life Term |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/two-sentenced-to-death-for-2007-twin-blasts-in-hyderabad-another-gets-life-term-1914365 |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=NDTV |language=en}}</ref> A third unexploded bomb was later found by police.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Muller |first=Natalie |date=4 September 2018 |title=India convicts two over 2007 Hyderabad blasts |url=https://www.dw.com/en/india-convicts-two-men-over-2007-hyderabad-bombings/a-45344693 |access-date=2025-06-25 |website=Deutsche Welle |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Mecca Masjid bombing]] occurred on 18 May 2007 inside the [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Mecca Masjid]], (or "Makkah Masjid") a mosque the old city area in [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]], capital of the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Telangana]] (then undivided [[Andhra Pradesh]])<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6668695.stm Article on BBC website]</ref> located very close to [[Charminar]]. The blast was caused by a [[cellphone]]-triggered [[pipe bomb]].<ref name="deccan">{{cite web|title=Homepage|url=http://deccan.com/home/homedetails.asp#Killer|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040221023023/http://www.deccan.com/home/homedetails.asp#Killer|archive-date=21 February 2004|access-date=28 December 2014|work=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> Fourteen people were reported dead in the immediate aftermath, of whom five (official record:disputed) were killed by the police firing after the incident while trying to quell the mob.<ref name="deccan" />

The [[2013 Hyderabad blasts]] occurred around 19:00 IST. The two blasts occurred in the Indian city of Hyderabad's Dilsukhnagar. The simultaneous blasts occurred near a bus stop and a cinema.

=== Tripura ===

==== Mandai massacre ====
[[Mandai massacre]] refers to the general massacre of the [[Bengalis]] of Mandai village near [[Agartala]] in the Indian state of Tripura on 8 June 1980, by tribal insurgents. According to official figures 255 Bengalis were massacred in Mandwi, while foreign presses, independent sources and eyewitnesses put the figure anywhere between 350 and 400. Many of the victims had their heads crushed and their limbs severed. The children were spiked through.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette – Google News Archive Search|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19800616&id=3E4NAAAAIBAJ&sjid=zm0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=3736,2460642|access-date=2021-10-05|website=news.google.com}}</ref> Pregnant women had their stomachs slit open. ''[[Amrita Bazar Patrika]]'' described the Mandwi massacre as [[My Lai Massacre|My Lai massacre]] put into shade.{{Clarify|reason=What does "put into shade" mean?|date=July 2025}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ghosh|first=Kamalini|title=Tribal Insurrection in Tripura: A Study in Relative Deprivation|year=1984|location=Hyderabad|pages=98}}</ref> According to Major R. Rajamani, the commander of the [[Indian Army]] contingent that arrived on 9 June, the My Lai massacre was not even half as gruesome as in Mandai.

=== Uttar Pradesh ===

==== 2010 Varanasi blasts ====
{{Main|2010 Varanasi bombing}}

On 7 December 2010, another blast occurred in Varanasi, that killed immediately a [[toddler]], and set off a [[stampede]] in which 20 people, including four foreigners, were injured.<ref name="Joyson">[https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/varanasi-bomb-blast-kills-toddler-1.934743 Varanasi bomb blast kills toddler] – CBC News, 7 December 2010</ref> The responsibility for the attack was claimed by the [[Islamist]] militant group [[Indian Mujahideen]].<ref name="Prabhu">[http://www.centralchronicle.com/viewnews.asp?articleID=53415 Child killed, 20 injured in Varanasi blast: IM claims responsibility]{{dead link|date=October 2015}}</ref>

==== 2006 Varanasi blasts ====
{{Main|2006 Varanasi bombings}}

A series of blasts occurred across the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] holy city of [[Varanasi]] on 7 March 2006. Fifteen people are reported to have been killed and as many as 101 others were injured. On 5 April 2006 the Indian police arrested six Islamic militants, including a cleric who helped plan bomb blasts. The cleric is believed to be a commander of a banned [[Bangladesh]]i Islamic militant group, Harkatul Jihad-al Islami, and is linked to the [[Inter-Services Intelligence]], the [[Pakistan]]i spy agency.<ref>{{cite news|date=5 April 2006|title=Indian Police Arrest Islamic Cleric for Blasts|agency=Reuters|url=http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&id=4412|access-date=5 October 2009}}</ref>

==== 2005 Ayodhya attacks ====
{{Main|2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack in Ayodhya}}

The long simmering Ayodhya crisis finally culminated in a terrorist attack on the site of the 16th century [[Babri Mosque|Babri Masjid]]. The ancient Masjid in [[Ayodhya]] was demolished on 5 July 2005. Following the two-hour gunfight between [[Lashkar-e-Toiba]] terrorists based in Pakistan and Indian police, in which six terrorists were killed, opposition parties called for a nationwide strike with the country's leaders condemning the attack, believed to have been masterminded by [[Dawood Ibrahim]].

==== 2022 Gorakhpur attack ====
In April 2022, a man armed with a dagger forcibly tried to enter the temple premises. Chanting religious slogans, the man identified as Ahmad Murtaza Abbasi approached the constables at the gate and attacked them as a result of which two constables were injured. As the police attempted to arrest him he evaded them for a while before being captured. Abbasi is an engineering graduate from [[IIT Bombay|IIT Mumbai]]. The temple had a sizeable crowd of devotees as it was a Sunday afternoon. However no civilians were harmed in the attack. The case is being investigated by the Uttar Pradesh Anti Terrorist Squad.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ranjan |first=Abhinav |date=2022-04-04 |title=Gorakhnath temple attack: Yogi govt hands over probe to UP Anti-Terrorism Squad |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/news/india/gorakhnath-temple-attack-yogi-adityanath-government-hands-over-probe-to-uttar-pradesh-ats-anti-terrorism-squad-2022-04-04-767582 |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=indiatvnews.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=IIT graduate attacks constables at Gorakhnath temple; ATS to probe |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/iit-graduate-attacks-constables-at-gorakhnath-temple-ats-to-probe-383647 |access-date=2022-04-05 |website=Tribuneindia News Service}}</ref>

=== Uttarakhand ===

==== 1991 Rudrapur bombings ====
{{Main|1991 Rudrapur bombings}}

Two bombs were exploded on 17 October 1991. The first bomb exploded when people were watching [[Ramlila]] on the public ground. After 15 minutes the second bomb went off near the hospital where injured were being taken. The bombings killed more than 40 people and injured 140 people. Later BSTK and the [[Khalistan]] National Army claimed the responsibility for the bombings.

=== West Bengal ===

==== 1993 Bowbazar bombing ====
{{Main|1993 Bowbazar bombing}}

The '''Bowbazaar bomb blast''' was an explosion which occurred in the central business district of [[Bowbazar]], Calcutta, on the night of 16 March 1993. In total, it claimed the lives of 69 people.

In 1993, Mohammed Rashid Khan ran gambling establishments in the Bowbazaar area and had a workshop above his office where he made small bombs. After the [[demolition of the Babri Masjid]] and the riots which followed, Khan and his accomplices made plans to bomb parts of the city in order to kill Hindu residents. He began stockpiling explosives. Preparations were made secretly until, on the night of 16 March, the entire stockpile blew up accidentally. If the blast had occurred in the daytime, the death toll would have been much higher. According to some witnesses, the sound of the blast could be heard 3 miles away.

Khan and five others were sentenced to life imprisonment in 2001 by the [[Calcutta High Court]] under the [[Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act|Terrorist And Disruptive (Prevention) Act (TADA)]].

== In popular culture ==
Terrorism has also been depicted in various [[Indian film]]s, prominent among them being [[Mani Ratnam]]'s ''[[Roja (film)|Roja]]'' (1992) and ''[[Dil Se..]]'' (1998), [[Govind Nihlani]]'s ''[[Drohkaal]]'' (1994), [[Santosh Sivan]]'s ''[[The Terrorist (1997 film)|The Terrorist]]'' (1999), [[Anurag Kashyap (director)|Anurag Kashyap]]'s ''[[Black Friday (2004 film)|Black Friday]]'' (2004) on the [[1993 Bombay bombings]], ''[[Fanaa (2006 film)|Fanaa]]'' (2006), and ''[[Sikandar (2009 film)|Sikandar]]'' (2009) on [[Terrorism in Kashmir]]. [[Raj Kumar Gupta]]'s ''[[Aamir (film)|Aamir]]'' (2008) and [[Amal Neerad]]'s ''[[Anwar (2010 film)|Anwar]]'' (2010), ''[[Hotel Mumbai]]'' (2018) and ''[[Blank (2019 film)|Blank]]'' (2019) are other examples.

== See also ==
* [[Communalism (South Asia)]]
* [[Islamic terrorism]]
* [[Saffron terror]]
* [[India and state-sponsored terrorism]]
* [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]]
* [[List of terrorism films#Terrorism in India|List of films about terrorism in India]]
* [[List of organisations banned by the Government of India]]
* [[List of massacres in India]]
* [[Naxalite–Maoist insurgency]]
* [[Operation Blue Star]]
* [[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[Khalistan movement]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Notes ==
* {{note|NIC}} "Sleeping over security". (26 August – 8 Sep) ''Business and Economy'', p 38

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* Vandana Asthana, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20100704154956/http://acdis.illinois.edu/publications/207/publication-cross-border-terrorism-in-india-counterterrorism-strategies-and-challenges.html Cross-Border Terrorism in India: Counterterrorism Strategies and Challenges]," ''ACDIS Occasional Paper'' (June 2010), Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University of Illinois
* [http://www.confluence.org.uk/2009/01/10/islam-women-and-the-violence-in-kashmir-between-india-and-pakistan/ Islam, Women, and the Violence in Kashmir between India and Pakistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303130215/http://www.confluence.org.uk/2009/01/10/islam-women-and-the-violence-in-kashmir-between-india-and-pakistan/ |date=3 March 2009 }}
* [http://www.ssrc.org/blogs/immanent_frame/category/mumbai-1126/ Scholars respond to the attacks in Mumbai] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090503151529/http://www.ssrc.org/blogs/immanent_frame/category/mumbai-1126/ |date=3 May 2009 }}
* [http://www.rfi.fr/actuen/articles/101/article_325.asp Inside a jihadi training camp in Azad Kashmir, Radio France Internatioinale in English]
* [http://ntsw3siisprod:6128/actuen/pages/001/page_42.asp Dossier on the Mumbai attacks by Radio France Internationale's English-language service]{{Dead link|date=June 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}
* [http://www.satp.org/ South Asia Terrorism Portal]
* [https://blog.politics.ox.ac.uk/isis-far-failed-india/ Why has “ISIS” so far Failed in India?], OxPol – The Oxford University Politics Blog, [[University of Oxford]]

{{Fugitives wanted by India}}
{{terror outfits}}
{{Social issues in India}}
{{Asia topic|Terrorism in|IL=Timeline of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict}}

[[Category:Terrorism in India| ]]
[[Category:Terrorism by country|India]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses in India]]

Karaj Gill

2026-02-17T08:36:38Z

AntoniettaWhitco: creating basic post first draft

{{short description|Indian film producer}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Karaj Gill
| image = Karaj Gill.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = Karaj Gill in 2019
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = 19 September<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gurshabad ਗੁਰਸ਼ਬਦ (@gurshabad) posted on Instagram: "ਜਨਮ ਦਿਨ ਮੁਬਾਰਕ @karajgill bhaji #godbless #happybirthday" |date=September 19, 2020 |url=https://www.instagram.com/p/CFTsVm7FTzS/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/gurshabad/2401458025267543250 |archive-date=26 December 2021 |url-access=registration|access-date=2020-09-19|website=Instagram|language=en}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
| birth_place =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| alma_mater = [[Khalsa College, Amritsar]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/singer-actor-amrinder-gill-launches-poster-of-punjabi-film-based-on-bhangra-1806107.html|title=Singer-actor Amrinder Gill Launches Poster of Punjabi Film Based on Bhangra|work=News18|date=9 July 2018|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref>
| other_names =
| occupation = Film producer
| title = President of Rhythm Boyz Entertainment
| years_active = 2013–present
| known_for =
| notable_works =
}}

'''Karaj Gill''' is an Indian film producer who makes [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]-language films and music. He owns a production house and distribution company Rhythm Boyz Entertainment. Gill began producing films in 2015, with a [[historical romance]] film ''[[Angrej]]''. He has been nominated for six [[Filmfare Punjabi Awards]], winning two for ''[[Bambukat]]'' (2016) and ''[[Lahoriye]]'' (2017), among [[#Awards and nominations|other accolades]].

== Career ==

Gill co-founded a Canadian production company Rhythm Boyz Entertainment with [[Amrinder Gill]] on 19 March 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.datalog.co.uk/browse/detail.php/CompanyNumber/CABC0965465/CompanyName/RHYTHM+BOYZ+ENTERTAINMENT+INC |title=Rhythm Boyz Entertainment Inc – A business based in Canada registered with British Columbia Corporate Registry|website=www.datalog.co.uk|access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> The company was named after their college time Bhangra group of same name.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.gabruu.com/versatility-at-its-best-pollywood-actors-who-turned-producers/|title=Versatility At Its Best: Pollywood Actors Who Turned Producers!|date=31 January 2018|work=Gabruu.com|access-date=23 August 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=23 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823112325/https://www.gabruu.com/versatility-at-its-best-pollywood-actors-who-turned-producers/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/no-dearth-of-money-in-the-industry-it-needs-sincerity-says-actor-singer-producer-amrinder-gill-3060772/|title=No dearth of money in the industry, it needs sincerity, says actor-singer-producer Amrinder Gill|date=2 October 2016|work=The Indian Express|access-date=23 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506110750/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/no-dearth-of-money-in-the-industry-it-needs-sincerity-says-actor-singer-producer-amrinder-gill-3060772/|archive-date=6 May 2019|language=en-US}}</ref> In 2014, a studio album ''[[Judaa 2]]'' by Amrinder Gill and [[Dr Zeus]] was produced by company.<ref>{{Citation|title=Judaa 2 by Amrinder Gill|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/judaa-2/806210216|language=en-us|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref> He made his debut as a film producer with ''[[Angrej]]'' in 2015. Conceived as a [[romantic comedy]] set in the [[Punjab Province (British India)|pre-partitioned Punjab]], the film was directed by [[Simerjit Singh]] and was written by [[Amberdeep Singh]], and starred Amrinder Gill, [[Sargun Mehta]], and [[Aditi Sharma (actress, born 1983)|Aditi Sharma]] in lead roles. It grossed {{INRConvert|307|m|year=2015}} in whole theatrical run, making it one of the [[List of highest-grossing Punjabi films|highest-grossing Punjabi films]] of all time.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=3828 |title=Top Punjabi Worldwide Grossers |date=5 April 2018 |publisher=[[Box Office India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141417/https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=3828 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |access-date=8 June 2018}}</ref> Also, the film was critically acclaimed and won ten awards at [[PTC Punjabi Film Awards]] including Best Film.<ref name="awards">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S3q3BtSX1FE&t=4s|title=PTC Punjabi Film Awards 2016 Part 1 of 3|publisher=[[PTC Punjabi]]|access-date=9 March 2018|date=26 June 2016}} {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhs68fCxyzY|title=PTC Punjabi Film Awards 2016 Part 2 of 3|publisher=[[PTC Punjabi]]|access-date=9 March 2018|date=26 June 2016}} {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWOu1XWP_-o|title=PTC Punjabi Film Awards 2016 Part 3 of 3|publisher=[[PTC Punjabi]]|access-date=9 March 2018|date=26 June 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312045340/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWOu1XWP_-o|archive-date=12 March 2018}}</ref> Gill in an interview disclosed that their team tries to produce family and meaningful films, and most of the films produced by him are "U" rated in India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://haanji.com.au/interview-latest-punjabi-movie-lahoriye-producer-karaj-gill/|title=Interview With Latest Punjabi Movie Lahoriye Producer Karaj Gill|date=13 May 2017|website=Radio Haanji|language=en-US|access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref>

== Filmography as producer ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Director
|-
| 2015
| ''[[Angrej]]''
| [[Simerjit Singh]]
|-
| rowspan="2"|2016
| ''[[Love Punjab]]''
| Rajiv Dhingra
|-
| ''[[Bambukat]]''
| [[Pankaj Batra]]
|-
| rowspan="3"|2017
| ''[[Lahoriye]]''
| [[Amberdeep Singh]]
|-
| ''[[Vekh Baraatan Challiyan]]''
| [[Ksshitij Chaudhary]]
|-
| ''Bhalwan Singh''
| Param Shiv
|-
| rowspan="3"|2018
| ''[[Golak Bugni Bank Te Batua]]''
| Ksshitij Chaudhary
|-
| ''[[Ashke]]''
| Amberdeep Singh
|-
|''[[Bhajjo Veero Ve]]''
| Amberdeep Singh
|-
| 2019
| ''[[Chal Mera Putt]]''
| [[Janjot Singh]]
|-
| 2020
| ''[[Chal Mera Putt 2]]''
| [[Janjot Singh]]
|-
| 2021
| ''[[Chal Mera Putt 3 ]]''
| [[Janjot Singh]]
|-
| 2022
| ''[[Chhalla Mud Ke Nahi Aaya]]''
| [[Amrinder Gill]]
|-
| rowspan="2"|2023
| ''[[Jodi (2020 film)|Jodi]]''
| Amberdeep Singh
|-
| ''[[Maurh]]''
| Jatinder Mauhar
|-
|2024
|Daaru Na Peenda Hove
|Rajiv Dhingra
|-
| 2024
| Mittran da Challeya Truck ni
| Rakesh Dhawan
|-
| 2025
| Chal Mera Putt 4
| Janjot Singh
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|8412645}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gill, Karaj}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Punjabi film producers]]

Shamgarh tehsil

2026-02-13T15:04:27Z

AntoniettaWhitco: added post

{{one source|date=August 2022}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Shamgarh tehsil
|native_name =
|native_name_lang =
|settlement_type = [[Tehsil]]
|image_skyline =
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| image =

|pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India
|pushpin_label_position = right
|pushpin_map_alt =
|pushpin_mapsize =
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|coordinates = {{coord|24.18|N|75.63|E|display=inline,title}}
|coordinates_footnotes = 
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flagcountry|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = Madhya Pradesh
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[mandsaur district]]
|government_type = [[Panchayat Samiti (Block)|Janpad Panchayat]]
|governing_body = [[Council]]

|area_footnotes =
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| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]

| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30

|postal_code_type = Postal code (PIN)
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|iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|MP-IN]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Shamgarh tehsil''' is a [[tehsil]] in [[Mandsaur district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]. It is also a subdivision of the administrative and revenue division of [[Ujjain district]] of Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref>

==Demographics==

{{Empty section|date=August 2022}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Tehsils of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Mandsaur district]]

{{MadhyaPradesh-geo-stub}}

V. Nanammal

2026-02-12T03:19:32Z

AntoniettaWhitco: added a info

{{Short description|Indian yoga teacher (1920–2019)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| pre-nominals=
| name = V. Nanammal
| image = V_Nanammal.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Nanammal in 2018
| birth_date = {{birth date|1920|02|24|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Coimbatore]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2019|10|26|1920|02|24}}
| death_place = Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
| resting_place =
| spouse =
| occupation = [[Yoga]] instructor
| awards = {{unbulleted list|[[Nari Shakti Puraskar]] (2016)|Yoga Ratna award (2017)|[[Padma Shri]] award (2018)}}
}}

'''V. Nanammal''' (24 February 1920 – 26 October 2019) was India's oldest [[yoga]] teacher. She trained one million students over 45 years and taught one hundred students daily. Six hundred of her students have become yoga instructors around the world.<ref name="TheHindu">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/fitness/nanammal-the-98-year-old-yoga-instructor-on-her-the-secret-of-her-energy/article19102766.ece|work=Online Edition of The Hindu, dated 19 June 2017|author=K Jeshi|title=Bend it like Nanammal|publisher=2017, thehindu.com|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619083727/http://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/fitness/nanammal-the-98-year-old-yoga-instructor-on-her-the-secret-of-her-energy/article19102766.ece|archive-date=19 June 2017|url-status=live|date=19 June 2017}}</ref>

Her work was honoured with [[India]]'s National [[Nari Shakti Puraskar]] in 2016<ref name="GovOfIndia2">{{cite web|url=http://wcd.nic.in/nari-shakti-awardees-ms-v-nanammal-tamil-nadu|work=Online Edition of Ministry of Women & Child Development|author=Government of India|title=Nari Shakti Puraskar 2016|publisher=2016, Government of India|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324224453/http://wcd.nic.in/nari-shakti-awardees-ms-v-nanammal-tamil-nadu|archive-date=24 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and the country's fourth highest civilian award the [[Padma Shri]] in 2018.<ref name="latestly">{{cite web|url=https://www.latestly.com/social-viral/v-nanammal-receives-padmashree-the-99-year-old-yoga-practitioner-continues-to-follow-a-lifestyle-close-to-nature-74666.html|work=latestly.com|author=Madhurima Sarkar|title=V Nanammal Receives Padma Shri; The 99-Year-Old Yoga Practitioner Continues to Follow A Lifestyle Close to Nature|publisher=2018, latestly.com|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324224612/https://www.latestly.com/social-viral/v-nanammal-receives-padmashree-the-99-year-old-yoga-practitioner-continues-to-follow-a-lifestyle-close-to-nature-74666.html|archive-date=24 March 2018|url-status=live|date=21 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://photogallery.indiatimes.com/news/india/padma-awards-2018-know-the-recipients/V-Nanammal/articleshow/63385962.cms|title=Padma Awards 2018, Know the recipients|date=20 March 2018|work=The Times of India|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502214547/https://photogallery.indiatimes.com/news/india/padma-awards-2018-know-the-recipients/V-Nanammal/articleshow/63385962.cms|archive-date=2 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Nanammal was born on 24 February 1920 in an [[agricultural]] family at Zameen Kaliayapuram, [[Coimbatore]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].<ref name="TOI"/> At the age of eight, she learnt yoga from her father, eventually mastering more than 50 [[asana]]s.<ref name="TOI">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/nanammal-the-yoga-grandma-wins-padma-shri/articleshow/62657160.cms|title=Nanammal, the yoga grandma, wins Padma Shri|date=26 January 2018|work=The Times of India|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325045220/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/nanammal-the-yoga-grandma-wins-padma-shri/articleshow/62657160.cms|archive-date=25 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Nanammal's father and grandfather were both 'Registered Indian Medicine Practitioners (RIMP)'. Yoga was their family tradition and they were not teaching yoga to anyone outside the family and it stayed within the group. During those days, the primary business of the family was traditional [[Siddha medicine]] and [[agriculture]]. Her family owned [[coconut]] and [[cashew]] farms in the [[Kerala]] state.<ref name="Quartz">{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1010262/international-yoga-day-indias-oldest-yogini-says-youre-doing-yoga-wrong-if-youre-working-up-a-sweat/|work=qz.com|author=Sushma UN|title=India's oldest yogini says you're doing yoga wrong if you're working up a sweat|date=21 June 2017 |publisher=2017, Quartz India|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325045019/https://qz.com/1010262/international-yoga-day-indias-oldest-yogini-says-youre-doing-yoga-wrong-if-youre-working-up-a-sweat/|archive-date=25 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Nanammal's husband was a [[Siddha]] practitioner and was into [[agriculture]] and [[Horticulture|cultivation]], with whom she moved to Negamam and later to [[Ganapathy, Coimbatore|Ganapathy]].<ref name="TOI"/><ref name="deccanchronicle"/> She cultivated a liking towards [[naturopathy]] after her marriage.<ref name="deccanchronicle"/> She has five children, 12 grand children and 11 great-grandchildren.<ref name="TOI"/>

==Yoga ==
[[File:The President, Shri Pranab Mukherjee presenting the Nari Shakti Puruskars for the year 2016 to Ms. V. Nanammal, Tamil Nadu, at a function, on the occasion of the International Women’s Day, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi.jpg|thumb|President [[Pranab Mukherjee]] presenting the [[Nari Shakti Puraskar]] to Nanammal in 2016 on [[International Women's Day]] at [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]]]]
Nanammal started practising yoga when she was 8 years old. According to Nanammal, her father knew [[martial arts]] and had taught her Yoga. She continued practising yoga throughout her life.<ref name="deccanchronicle"/>


In the year 1972 she established "Ozone Yoga centre" in [[Coimbatore]]. Nanammal and her family, follow the traditions passed over to the next generations. The centre taught their traditional style of yoga, which focuses more on ''[[Pranayama]] (Breath control)''.<ref name="TOI"/><ref name="Quartz"/> The 'Ozone Yoga school' was established by her and since then, Nanammal and her family have taught yoga to over 100,000 people.<ref name="Quartz"/>

Over her last five decades, Nanammal trained more than one million students and continued for the remainder of her life to teach 100 students daily at the 'Ozone Yoga Centre'. Around 600 of her students, including 36 members of her family, have become 'Yoga instructors' teaching students around the world.<ref name="deccanchronicle">{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/210816/v-nanammal-the-nonagenarian-yogini.html|work=[[Deccan Chronicle]]|author=Merin James|title=V Nanammal: The nonagenarian yogini|publisher=2016, deccanchronicle.com|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324225357/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/210816/v-nanammal-the-nonagenarian-yogini.html|archive-date=24 March 2018|url-status=live|date=20 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="TOI"/> According to her son Balakrishnan, she had trained over 60 family members as Yoga teachers in her lifetime.<ref name="TNIE">{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2019/oct/26/99-year-old-yoga-grandma-v-nanammal-passes-away-in-coimbatore-2053365.html|title=99-year-old 'Yoga Grandma' V Nanammal passes away in Coimbatore|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=29 October 2019|archive-date=29 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029093207/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2019/oct/26/99-year-old-yoga-grandma-v-nanammal-passes-away-in-coimbatore-2053365.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Later life and death==
Nanammal attempted to get on to the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] by teaching yoga to over 20,000 students and enthusiasts in [[Coimbatore]]. Her objective was to create awareness among women, mainly girl students, about yoga techniques by going to various educational institutions to solve several health-related problems, especially after marriage. She was also going to take part in Indian reality show 'India's Got Talent' as a contestant.<ref name="dailyhunt">{{cite web|url=https://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/yourstory-epaper-yourstory/nanammal+the+97+year+old+woman+from+tamil+nadu+who+teaches+yoga+to+100+students-newsid-66876813|work=dailyhunt.com|author=Staff|title=Nanammal: The 97-year-old woman from Tamil Nadu who teaches yoga to 100 students|publisher=2018, dailyhunt.com|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325045136/https://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/yourstory-epaper-yourstory/nanammal+the+97+year+old+woman+from+tamil+nadu+who+teaches+yoga+to+100+students-newsid-66876813|archive-date=25 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> She had gained popularity on YouTube which included videos of her performing difficult yoga positions in her usual attire, a pink sari.<ref name="India Today">{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/yoga-grandma-v-nanammal-passes-away-at-99-in-coimbatore-1613179-2019-10-26|title=Yoga grandma V Nanammal passes away at 99 in Coimbatore|last1=Nath|first1=Akshaya|date=26 October 2019|work=India Today|access-date=29 October 2019|language=en}}</ref>

Nannamal suffered a fall from her bed in the autumn of 2019 and was confined to bed thereafter.<ref name="TNIE" /><ref name="India Today" /> She died on 26 October 2019, in Coimbatore.<ref name="bbc" />

==Legacy==
She was affectionately known as Yoga Grandma.<ref name="bbc">{{cite news |title=India's 'yoga grandma' breathes her last at 99 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-50194850 |access-date=27 October 2019 |work=BBC |date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026222230/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-50194850 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> For her achievement, Nanammal was conferred with the following awards and citations:
*2016 – National [[Nari Shakti Puraskar]] award received from former [[President of India]] [[Pranab Mukherjee]]<ref name="GovOfIndia2"/>
*2016 – Shwaasa Yoga Organization's Yoga Ratna award<ref name="TheHindu"/>
*2018 – India's fourth highest civilian award the [[Padma Shri]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://padmaawards.gov.in/pdfs/Padma2018List.pdf|title=Padma Awards 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321063018/https://padmaawards.gov.in/PDFS/Padma2018List.pdf|archive-date=21 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="GovOfIndia">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2WAtRvNOcVg&list=PLGqF2Eq4iV7_F-9t5WubHUOk9fljiYBn-&index=19|work=Online Edition MyGov India|author=GovOfIndia|title=Story of Smt. V Nanammal, India's oldest Yoga teacher - Padma Awardee 2018|publisher=2018, MyGov India}}</ref><ref name="padmaawards">{{cite web|url=https://padmaawards.gov.in/Pimages/awardees2018/53.jpg|work=padmaawards.gov.in|author=Govt. of India|title=Padma Awards 2018: V. Nanammal|publisher=2018, padmaawards|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324224504/https://padmaawards.gov.in/Pimages/awardees2018/53.jpg|archive-date=24 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> ''News18'' reported her, being the oldest recipient of the award.<ref name="News18">{{cite news |title=At 98, Amma Nanammal, India's Oldest Yoga Guru, is Giving Us Some Serious Fitness Goals |url=https://www.news18.com/news/buzz/at-98-amma-nanammal-indias-oldest-yoga-guru-is-giving-us-some-serious-fitness-goals-1785493.html |access-date=29 October 2019 |work=News18 |archive-date=29 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029094131/https://www.news18.com/news/buzz/at-98-amma-nanammal-indias-oldest-yoga-guru-is-giving-us-some-serious-fitness-goals-1785493.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*2018 – [[Rotary club]]'s Lifetime achievement award<ref name="TheHindu2">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/in-coimbatore-today/article23316599.ece|work=thehindu.com|author=Special Correspondent V.S. Palaniappan|title=In Coimbatore Today|publisher=2018, thehindu.com|date=22 March 2018|access-date=24 March 2018|archive-date=28 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328150104/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/in-coimbatore-today/article23316599.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKvZAL_QXjw&list=PLGqF2Eq4iV7_F-9t5WubHUOk9fljiYBn-&index=2 #PeoplesPadma: President of India Confers Padma Awards 2018]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2WAtRvNOcVg&list=PLGqF2Eq4iV7_F-9t5WubHUOk9fljiYBn-&index=19 Story of Smt. V Nanammal, India's oldest Yoga teacher - Padma Awardee 2018]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aSxKpqfmqjg Documentary: Bend It Like Granny - BBC News]

{{Nari Shakti Puraskar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nanammal, V.}}
[[Category:1920 births]]
[[Category:2019 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Coimbatore]]
[[Category:Women from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian yoga teachers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in other fields]]
[[Category:Nari Shakti Puraskar winners]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women educators]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women educators]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian educators]]

Prameela

2026-02-09T06:14:03Z

AntoniettaWhitco: quick rework layout to improve readability additionally and improved wording per standard format

{{Short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Prameela
| image = Prameela.jpg
| birth_date = August 1956
| birth_place = [[Tiruchirappalli]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]
| occupation = [[Actor|Film Actress]]
| years_active = 1972–1990
| spouse = Paul Schlacta (m.1993)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mangalam.com/news/detail/430345-latest-news-prameela-opens-up.html|title=തമ്പുരാട്ടിയിലെ ഗ്ലാമര്&zwj; രംഗം സ്‌ക്രീനില്&zwj; തെളിഞ്ഞപ്പോള്&zwj; ഞാന്&zwj; തലകുനിച്ച് ഇരിക്കുകയായിരുന്നു}}</ref>
| children = No Children
| relatives = [[S. A. Ashokan]] (cousin) [[Vincent Asokan]] (nephew)
}}
'''Prameela''' ('''T. A. Prameela''') is a veteran Indian actress in South Indian films. She was a prominent lead actress during the 1970s and 1980s in [[Malayalam]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] films also acted in few Kannada and Telugu films as well. She was noted for her glamorous roles. She has acted more than 50 Malayalam movies. She made her debut through 1968 Malayalam movie "Inspector". She got her major breakthrough in the 1973 Tamil film ''[[Arangetram (1973 film)|Arangetram]]''. She is married to an American and settled in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]. She is a [[Roman Catholic (term)|Roman Catholic]] and her mother tongue is [[Tamil language|Tamil]].

== Personal life ==
She was born to Amal Das and Susheela as the second daughter among four children at [[Tiruchirappalli]], Tamil Nadu. She has an elder brother Caesar, a younger sister, Sweety and a younger brother Prabhu. The family shifted to [[Chennai]] for her film career. She did her primary education at Sharada Vidyalaya, Chennai. She completed schooling in Holy redeemers girls high school, Trichy. She debuted at the age of 12 in the movie [[Inspector (1968 film)|Inspector]] released in 1968. She acted around 250 movies in the four South Indian languages.

She is married to Paul Schlacta and settled in [[California]]. The couple has no children.<ref>{{Cite web|last=கணேஷ்|first=ஆ சாந்தி|title=சிவாஜி போட்டோ வெச்சிருந்ததுக்கு அடிவாங்கினவ, சிவாஜிக்கே ஹீரோயின் ஆனேன்!|url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/145853-actress-prameela-biography|access-date=2021-06-12|website=[[Ananda Vikatan]]|date=13 November 2018 |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Daily|first=Keralakaumudi|title=തമ്പുരാട്ടിയിലെ ഗ്ളാമർ രംഗംസ്ക്രീനിൽ തെളിഞ്ഞപ്പോൾ ഞാൻ തലകുനിച്ചു|url=https://keralakaumudi.com/news/news.php?id=405829&u=prameela|access-date=2021-06-12|website=Keralakaumudi Daily|language=en}}</ref>

== Filmography ==

=== Tamil ===
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
#''Vazhaiyadi Vazhai'' (1972) – Debut in Tamil
#''[[Arangetram (1973 film)|Arangetram]]'' (1973) as Lalitha
#''[[Komatha En Kulamatha (1973 film)|Komatha En Kulamatha]]'' (1973)
#''Malligai Poo '' (1973)
#''Valli Dheivanai'' (1973)
#''[[Radha (1973 film)|Radha]]'' (1973)
#''Sondham'' (1973)
#''[[Manidharil Manikkam]]'' (1973)
#''[[Anbu Sagodharargal]]'' (1973)
#''Veetu Mappilai'' (1973)
#''[[Thanga Pathakkam]]'' (1974) as Jagan's wife
#''Thaai Paasam'' (1974)
#''Penn Ondru Kanden'' (1974)
#''[[Paruva Kaalam]]'' (1974)
#''Kai Niraya Kaasu'' (1974)
#''Piriya Vidai'' (1975)
#''Madhana Maaligai'' (1976)
#''Vayilla Poochi'' (1976)
#''Deviyin Thirumanam'' (1977)
#''Bala Paritchai'' (1977)
#''Punidha Anthoniyar'' (1977)
#''[[Unnai Suttrum Ulagam]]'' (1977)
#''[[Sadhurangam (1978 film)|Sadhurangam]]'' (1978)
#''[[Paavathin Sambalam]]'' (1978)
#''[[Thanga Rangan]]'' (1978)
#''[[Ullathil Kuzhanthaiyadi]]'' (1978)
#''[[Shri Kanchi Kamakshi]]'' (1978)
#''Makkal Kural'' (1978)
#''[[Kavari Maan]]'' (1979)
#''[[Devathai]]'' (1979)
#''Jaya Nee Jeichuttey'' (1979)
#''Vedhanai Thediya Maan'' (1980)
#''[[Ratha Paasam (1980 film)|Ratha Paasam]]'' (1980)
#''[[47 Natkal]]'' (1983)
#''[[Villiyanur Matha]]'' (1983)
#''[[Soorakottai Singakutti]]'' (1983)
#''[[Rajathanthiram (1984 film)|Rajathanthiram]]'' (1984)
#''Pournami Alaigal'' (1985)
#''[[Ketti Melam]]'' (1985)
#''Naam'' (1985)
#''[[Iravu Pookkal]]'' (1986)
# ''Kaalamellam Unn Madiyil'' (1986)
#''[[Jallikattu (1987 film)|Jallikattu]]'' (1987)
#''[[Kavalan Avan Kovalan]]'' (1987)
#''[[En Thangai Kalyani]]'' (1988)
#''[[Athaimadi Methaiadi]]'' (1989)
#''Muthalaliyamma'' (1990)
{{div col end}}

=== Malayalam ===
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
#''[[Niyamam Yenthu Cheyyum]]'' (1990)
#''[[Akkare Akkare Akkare]]'' (1990) as Krishnan nairs wife
#''[[Shesham Screenil]]'' (1990)
#''[[Kali karyamaai]]: Crime Branch'' (1989) as Nurse Leelamma
#''[[Abkari]]'' (1988)
#''[[Mangalya Charthu]]'' (1987) as Susheela
#''[[Pidikittappulli]]'' (1986)
#''[[Niramulla Raavukal]]'' (1986)
#''[[Oppam Oppathinoppam]]'' (1986) as Meenakshi
#''[[Janakeeya Kodathi]]'' (1985)
#''[[Puzhayozhukum Vazhi]]'' (1985) as Prameela
#''[[Ulppathi]]'' (1984)
#''[[Oru Nimisham Tharoo]]'' (1984)
#''[[Thacholi Thankappan]]'' (1984) as Janaki
#''[[Vetta]]'' (1984)
#''[[Sreekrishnaparunthu]]'' (1984)
#''[[Belt Mathai]]'' (1983) as Mary
#''[[Kattaruvi]]'' (1983) as Chellamma
#''[[Sooryan (1982 film)|Sooryan]]'' (1982)
#''[[Sphodanam]]'' (1981) as Narayanapilla's wife
#''[[Pathirasooryan]]'' (1981) as Ayisha
#''[[Aakramanam]]'' (1981)
#''[[Sambhavam]]'' (1981)
#''[[Ariyappedatha Rahasyam]]'' (1981) as Santha
#''[[Pinneyum Pookkunna Kaadu]]'' (1981)
#''[[Choothaattam]]''(1981)
#''[[Lava (1980 film)|Lava]]'' (1980) as Janaki
#''[[Kari Puranda Jeevithangal]]'' (1980)
#''Ithikkara Pakki'' (1980)
#''[[Aswaradham]]'' (1980) as Sreedevi Kunjamma
#''[[Vedikkettu]]''(1980)
#''[[Prakadanam]]'' (1980) as Ammu
#''[[Karimbana]]''(1980) as madamma
#''[[Saraswatheeyaamam]]'' (1980)
#''Ottappettavar''(1979)
#''[[Ormayil Nee Matram]]'' (1979)
#''[[Lillyppookkal]]'' (1979)
#''[[Raathrikal Ninakku Vendi]]'' (1979)
#''Kallu Karthyaayani'' (1979)
#''[[Paapathinu Maranamilla]]'' (1979)
#''[[Vaaleduthavan Vaalaal]]'' (1979)
#''[[Driver Madhyapichirunnu]]'' (1979)
#''[[Aaravam]]'' (1978)
#''[[Thampuraatti]]'' (1978) as Ragini Thampuratti
#''[[Kudumbam Namukku Sreekovil]]'' (1978) as Parvathi
#''[[Thaalappoli]]'' (1977)
#''[[Amme Anupame]]'' (1977)
#''[[Yatheem]]'' (1977) as Jameela
#''[[Makam Piranna Manka]]'' (1977)
#''[[Angeekaaram]]'' (1977) as Malini
#''[[Maanasaveena]]'' (1976)
#''[[Ullaasayaathra]]'' (1975)
#''[[Bhaaryaye Aavashyamundu]]'' (1975)
#''[[Jesus (1973 film)|Jesus]]'' (1973)
#''[[Sambhavami Yuge Yuge]]'' (1972) as Manju
#''[[Line Bus]]'' (1971) as Priyamma
#''[[Marunnattil Oru Malayalai]]'' (1971) as Shoshamma
#''[[Madhuvidhu]]'' (1970)
#''[[Inspector (1968 film)|Inspector]]'' (1968){{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}
{{div col end}}

=== Telugu ===
#''Gandhi Puttina Desam'' (1973)
#''Nijam Cheppithe Nammaru'' (1973)
#''Jeevitha Rangamu'' (1974)
#''Inti Kodalu'' (1974)
#''Asthi Kosam'' (1975)
#''Abhimanavathi'' (1975)
#''[[47 Rojulu]]'' (1981)
#''[[Palnati Puli]]'' (1984) as Parvathi
# ''[[Driver Babu]]'' (1986)
# ''Prema Samrat'' (1987)
# ''Kaliyuga Rudrulu'' (1990)

=== Kannada ===
# ''[[Anna Attige]]'' (1974)
# ''[[Nagakanye]]'' (1975)
# ''[[Thayigintha Devarilla]]'' (1977)
# ''[[Parasangada Gendethimma]]'' (1978)
# ''Daaha'' (1979)
# ''Bhaktha Siriyala'' (1980)
# ''Bhaktha Gnanadeva'' (1982)
# ''[[Anveshane]]'' (1983)

== Television ==
* Vaishaka Sandhya – Malayalam serial

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb name|2978660}}
* [http://en.msidb.org/displayProfile.php?category=actors&artist=Prameela&limit=49 Prameela at MSI]

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses from Chennai]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam television]]
[[Category:Date of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:1956 births]]

Ameen Faheem

2026-01-31T01:28:18Z

AntoniettaWhitco:

{{short description|Pakistani politician}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2017}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Ameen Faheem
| native_name = {{nobold|{{nq|امين فہیم}}}}
| native_name_lang =
| honorific-suffix =
| image = Makhdoom Amin Faheem - Horasis Global Arab Business Meeting 2012.jpg
| imagesize =
| smallimage = 
| alt =
| caption = Faheem at the [[Horasis]] Global Arab Business Meeting in 2012
| order = [[Commerce Minister of Pakistan|Minister of Commerce and Chambers]]
| office =
| term_start = 3 November 2008
| term_end = 16 March 2013
| alongside = 
| vicepresident =
| viceprimeminister =
| deputy =
| lieutenant =
| monarch =
| president = [[Asif Zardari]]
| primeminister = [[Yousaf Raza Gillani]] [[Raja Pervez Ashraf]]
| taoiseach =
| chancellor =
| governor =
| governor-general =
| governor_general =
| predecessor2 = [[Mubashir Hassan]]
| successor2 = Incumbent
| constituency2 = 
| majority2 = 
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1940|08|04}}
| birth_place = [[Hala, Sindh|Hala]], [[Sind Province (1936–55)|Sind]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2015|11|21|1940|08|04}}
| death_place = [[Karachi]], [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]]
| death_cause = [[Leukemia]]
| restingplace = [[Hala, Sindh|Hala]], [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]]
| restingplacecoordinates =
| birthname = Makhdoom Muhammad Ameen Faheem
| nationality = [[British Raj|British India]] (1939–1947), [[Pakistani]] (1947–2015)
| party = [[Pakistan Peoples Party]]
| otherparty = 
| spouse = Nelofar
| partner = 
| relations =
| father = [[Makhdoom Zaman Talib-ul-Mola]]
| children = [[Makhdoom Jameeluz Zaman]] (son)

Makhdoom Shakil uz Zaman (son)

Makhdoom Aqueel uz Zaman (son)

Makhdoom Najib Zaman (son)

Makhdoom Naimatullah (son)

Makhdoom Habibullah (son)

Maliha Makhdoom (daughter)

Makhdoom Sindhyar (son)

Dr Maahroo Makhdooom (daughter)

Dr Shahroo Makhdooom (daughter)
| residence =
| alma_mater = [[University of Sindh]]
| occupation =
| profession =
| cabinet =
| committees =
| portfolio =
| religion =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| website =
| footnotes =
| blank1 =
| data1 =
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| data2 =
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| data5 = 
| nickname =
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'''Makhdoom Muhammad Ameen Faheem''' ({{langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|مخدوم محمد امین فہیم}}}}; ''alt. spelling'': Amin Fahim; 4 August 1940 – 21 November 2015) was a [[Pakistani]] populist [[Left-wing politics|left-wing political figure]] and poet.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thesindhtimes.com/pak/makhdoom-amin-fahim-passes-away/ |title=Seasoned politician, poet Makhdoom Amin Fahim passes away - the Sindh Times |access-date=21 November 2015 |archive-date=13 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613020251/http://www.thesindhtimes.com/pak/makhdoom-amin-fahim-passes-away/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> He was the senior vice-chairman of [[Pakistan Peoples Party]], chairman of [[Pakistan People's Party Parliamentarians]] and former chairman of [[Alliance for Restoration of Democracy]].

Earning Bachelor of Science in political science from the [[University of Sindh]] in 1961, he started his political activism in 1970 and contested successfully the [[1970 Pakistani general elections|1970 general elections]] and was a close ally of [[Benazir Bhutto]] during the 1990s. He was the spiritual figure of the [[Sufism|''Sarvari Jama'at'']]{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} as well as the prominent Sufi in his native province, [[Sindh]]. After successfully contesting the [[2008 Pakistani general elections|2008 general elections]], he notably stepped down for the candidacy of [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|prime minister]] office in favour of [[Yousaf Raza Gillani]].

==Early and personal life==

===Family roots and early years===
Makhdoom Muhammad Ameen Faheem was born in [[Hala, Sindh|Hala]] in [[Sindh]], which is located 200 km off the southern port city of [[Karachi]], on 4 August 1940.<ref name="Pakistan Herald">{{cite web|last=Staff Editorial |title=Details of Makhdoom Muhammad Ameen Fahim |url=http://www.pakistanherald.com/newprofile.aspx?hofid=141 |work=Pakistan Herald |accessdate=9 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227080552/http://www.pakistanherald.com/newprofile.aspx?hofid=141 |archivedate=27 February 2014 }}</ref> His father, [[Makhdoom Muhammad Zaman Talib-ul-Mola|Makhdoom Muhammad Zaman]] was the 17th spiritual leader of ''[[Sufism|Sarwari Jammat]]'' and as well a powerful feudal figure in the province. His father was one of the prominent 67 participants who laid the foundation of the [[Pakistan Peoples Party]] where he was made the senior vice-chairman of the party and PPP was founded at his house in Hala, Sindh. Makhdoom Muhammad Zaman 'Talib ul Mola' successfully contested the [[1970 Pakistani general elections|1970 general elections]] and stepped into the [[Parliament of Pakistan|national parliament]] as a member of parliament (MP). Makhdoom Muhammad Zaman was also offered many high-ranking posts in the time of General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], but he refused and chose to stay in Hala and look after his Sarwari Jamaat.

===Education and early career===
Amin Fahim completed his primary education in 1955 from Hala and did matriculation from a local high school in his native town [[Hala, Sindh|Hala]], in 1957.<ref name="Pakistan Leaders Online">{{cite web|last=Staff|title=Makhdoom Muhammad Ameen Faheem|url=http://www.pakistanileaders.com.pk/profile/Makhdoom_Muhammad_Ameen_Faheem|work=Pakistan Leaders Online|accessdate=9 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140217075554/http://www.pakistanileaders.com.pk/profile/Makhdoom_Muhammad_Ameen_Faheem|archive-date=17 February 2014|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> After passing the university entrance exams, Fahim enrolled in the [[University of Sindh]] as an undecided major and declared his major in 1958 at the department of social sciences.<ref name="Pakistan Leaders Online"/> Faheem declared his major in political science and gained a Bachelor of Science (with honours) in [[political science]] from the [[University of Sindh]] in 1961.<ref name="Pakistan Leaders Online"/><ref name="Dawn Newspapers, 2012">{{cite news|last=Staff|title=Makhdoom Muhammad Ameen Faheem|url=http://dawn.com/2012/06/25/makhdoom-muhammad-ameen-faheem/|accessdate=9 September 2012|newspaper=Dawn Newspapers, 2012|date=25 June 2012}}</ref>

=== Spirituality ===
Makhdoom Amin Fahim was also the leader of the largest spiritual group of people called the "Sarwari Jamaat" in Pakistan, consisting of millions of people across the world.

It was recorded that Sarwari Jamaat consisted of 900,000 people, 300 years ago and was titled as the 'No Lakhi Gadi' which means the Gaddi of 900,000 disciples.

=== Relationships and children ===
He was once married to Dina, elder sister of famous Bangladeshi singer [[Runa Laila]] who later died due to cancer. He was married thrice. He had 9 sons and 3 daughters from different wives.

==Political career==

=== Early career with the PPP ===
During the popular wave of [[Pakistan Peoples Party]] for the [[1970 Pakistani general elections|1970 general election]], Faheem joined the party as the junior member. He successfully contested the elections, securing his [[Constituencies of Pakistan|NA-Thatta]] constituency in [[Sindh Province|Sindh]]. He served in the [[Sindh Assembly]] on PPP platform, working on human rights affairs and educational development.

=== Rise to prominence ===
Since then, he has contested eight elections from elections held in 1977, 1988, 1990, 1993, 1997, 2002, 2008 and 2013, remaining undefeated and creating a national record. Makhdoom Amin Fahim, however, boycotted the non-party elections of 1985 held by General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]]-led military regime in line with the decision of his party. In 1993 he contested as MPA and MNA, and was the only Parliamentarian in Pakistan to win both seats unopposed. After that he gave up the MPA seat to his younger brother and he even came unopposed on it.

Makhdoom was offered the post of Prime Minister in 2002 by then President Gen. Pervez Musharraf, keeping in mind his party's leader [[Benazir Bhutto]]'s refusal to appoint Amin Fahim's son Makhdoom Jameel Zaman as the Chief Minister Sindh, though he was offered the post of Prime Minister thrice before 1988–1990 and 1993. He remained loyal to his party and did not accept offers from then Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]] and the military dictators.
Makhdoom Amin Fahim was the senior vice-chairman of PPP, and was also the Parliamentary Leader, (President) of the same party in the [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]]. He was twice the Federal Minister in tenure of [[Benazir Bhutto]]. He was Communications Minister from December 1988 to August 1990, Railways Minister from December 1988 to March 1989. In the next tenure, he was Minister for Housing and Works from January 1994 to November 1996.

=== Career after Benazir Bhutto assassination ===
Makhdoom Amin Fahim was mentioned as a possible chairman for the PPP, in the wake of the 27 December 2007 [[assassination of Benazir Bhutto]],<ref>David Rohde, [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/28/world/asia/28assess.html?ex=1356498000&en=5018468118d730c4&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss "Musharraf’s Political Future Appears Troubled"], ''The New York Times'', 28 December 2007.</ref> but [[Bilawal Bhutto Zardari]] and [[Asif Ali Zardari]] were named party co-chairs and he was considered the party's probable candidate for Prime Minister.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article3110390.ece "Revenge mission that will have to wait"]{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} ''The Times'' 31 December 2007</ref> However, the PPP hesitated to name Makhdoom as its candidate following its victory in the [[2008 Pakistani general election|February 2008 election]]. It was suggested that Benazir Bhutto's widower [[Asif Ali Zardari]], might be reluctant to nominate Makhdoom Amin Fahim as prime minister, because he was worried that Faheem could strengthen his political base in [[Sindh]] and threaten the influence of the Bhutto family there.<ref>Jo Johnson, [https://www.ft.com/content/3653db10-ec5b-11dc-86be-0000779fd2ac "Party fails to name PM candidate"], ''Financial Times'', 7 March 2008.</ref>

On 15 March 2008, Makhdoom Amin Fahim said that he did not understand why the PPP had still not named him as its candidate. According to Faheem, if Zardari wanted to take the position for himself, he would support him.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/03/15/asia/AS-GEN-Pakistan.php "Pakistan: Bhutto party says PM candidate to be named next week"], Associated Press ''International Herald Tribune'', 15 March 2008.</ref>

Later, the PPP nominated [[Yousaf Raza Gillani]] as Prime Minister on 22 March 2008. Although this was viewed as a snub to Amin Fahim, he said that he would not leave the PPP and had the "best wishes" for Gillani.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080326110156/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23757751/ "Bhutto's party names Pakistani PM candidate"] Associated Press (''MSNBC''), 22 March 2008.</ref> Amin Fahim, however, was made the [[Commerce Minister of Pakistan]] in November 2008 shuffle as a consolation.

== Other interests ==

=== Poetry ===
Initially, Makhdoom Amin Fahim was more interested in poetry than politics. However, he had no choice but to jump into the fray as the political heir of Makhdoom family.{{Citation needed|date=February 2018}}

He once said, "Poetry is my first love. I am still fond of saying verses and reading poetry of others. His forte is mystic poetry. His poetry speaks about love, [[Peace]], and [[simplicity]]."

"I have always been fond of the poetry of [[Maulana Rumi]], [[Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai]], and [[Sachal Sarmast]]. Their poetry has left a deep impact on my life. I have learned from them (Poets) to be loyal, to be loved, in good or rainy days."

He further said, "I don't believe in ruling the people. I believe in ruling their hearts. That is why my voters love me, and they never disappointed me."

== Death ==
Faheem died on 21 November 2015 from [[leukemia]] after being admitted to a hospital in [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]] under [[Intensive Care Unit|ICU]] at the age of 76.<ref>[http://www.dawn.com/news/1221270/senior-ppp-leader-makhdoom-amin-faheem-dies Senior PPP leader Makhdoom Amin Fahim dies]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Faheem, Ameen}}
[[Category:Commerce ministers of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Communications ministers of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Pakistani Marxists]]
[[Category:Pakistan People's Party politicians]]
[[Category:Pakistani democracy activists]]
[[Category:Pakistani expatriates in the United Arab Emirates]]
[[Category:Pakistani religious leaders]]
[[Category:People from Matiari District]]
[[Category:Sindhi politicians]]
[[Category:University of Sindh alumni]]
[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:2015 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from leukemia in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Makhdoom family]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 1977]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 1988–1990]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 1990–1993]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 1993–1996]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 1997–1999]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 2002–2007]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 2008–2013]]
[[Category:Pakistani MNAs 2013–2018]]
[[Category:Muslim socialists]]
[[Category:Sindhi-language poets]]

Glossary of Carnatic music

2026-01-23T08:56:00Z

AntoniettaWhitco: slightly expanded references per standard format and updated info

{{Short description|none}}
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{{Carnatic}}
'''[[Carnatic music]]''' terms are briefly described in this page. Major terms have their own separate article pages, while minor terms are defined / described here.

The order of terms is from basic to related terms, rather than alphabetic.
{{TOC right}}

==Main terms==
===Nāda===
''[[Nāda]]'' refers to music or musical sound.<ref name="sim2007">{{Citation|author=Prof. P Sambamoorthy|year=2005|title=South Indian Music - Vol I|publisher=The Indian Music Publishing House|publication-place=Chennai, India|pages=51–62}}</ref> It also refers to the tone of a musical instrument.<ref name="sim2007" />

====Anahata Nāda====
''Anāhata Nāda'' refers to the naturally occurring sounds (literally not struck).<ref name="sim2007" />

====Ahata Nāda====
''Ahata Nāda'' refers to generated sounds or sounds made by efforts of man (literally that which is heard). It is of 6 types.
1.shareeraja - it emanates from the human throat. Example: vocal singing
2.Dhanuja - is born from string instruments. Example: Violin, veena etc...
3.Vayuja - us born when air is passed through narrow pipe like instruments.
Example: Flute, nadaswaram etc...
4.Charmaja
5. Lohaja
6.Nakhaja <ref name="sim2007" />

===Śruti===
''[[Śruti (music)|Śruti]]'' is musical pitch. It is considered to be equivalent to [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] of western music. This is the pitch at which the ''[[drone (music)|drone]]'' is set, which is usually played by a ''[[Tanpura|tambura]]''.

===Sthayi===
In [[Carnatic music]], ''[[Sthayi]]'' refers to the octave. ''Madhyama sthayi'' refers to the middle octave, ''Tara sthayi'' refers to the upper octave and ''Mandra sthayi'' refers to the lower octave.
<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://chinmayaswaranjali.org/music_lesson_06.htm|title=Chinmaya Swaranjali ||access-date=31 October 2013|archive-date=17 September 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070917114606/http://www.chinmayaswaranjali.org/music_lesson_06.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Swaram===

''[[Swara]]m'' or ''Swara'' is a single note. Each swaram defines the position of note in relation to the Śruti.

===Rāga===

A ''[[raga|rāgam]]'' prescribes a set of rules for building a [[melody]] - very similar to the Western concept of [[Musical mode|mode]]. Different combination of swarams and swaram phrases form different rāgams.

===Ārōhanam===

''[[Arohana|Ārōhanam]]'' of a ragam is the ascending scale of the rāgam. It describes the rules for singing ascending notes of a rāgam, including the swarams to use and swaram patterns that form the rāgam.

===Avarōhanam===

''[[Avarohana|Avarōhanam]]'' of a rāgam is the descending scale of the rāgam. It describes the rules for singing descending notes of a rāgam.

===Melakartā===

A ''[[Melakarta|Melakartā]] rāgam'' is one which has all seven swarams, namely, ''Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni'' (''[[sampoorna raga|sampoorna rāgam]]''). The ārōhanam and avarōhanam of a ''melakartā'' ragam are strictly ascending and descending scales. It is also known as ''janaka rāgam'' (parent rāgam), because other rāgams are derived from it.

===Asampūrna Melakartā===
One of the 72 ''[[Melakarta (asampurna scheme)|parent rāgams]]'' first created by [[Venkatamakhin]] which did not have strict rules of ascending / descending scales, did not insist on inclusion of all 7 swaras nor disallow ''vakra prayogas'' (zig zag notes in scale).

===Chakra===

A ''[[Melakarta#Chakras|chakra]]'' consists of a group of 6 ''Melakartā rāgams'', which differ from each other only in the ''Dhaivatham'' and ''Nishadham''.

===Janya===

A ''[[Janya]] rāgam'' is one which is derived from a ''Melakartā'' rāgam. It may have (a) a subset of the seven swarams ''Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni'' (''[[janya#Varjya ragas|varjya rāga]]m''), (b) an external swaram (''anya'' swaram) not found in its parent or (c) ''vakra prayōgam'' of swarams in Ārōhanam or Avarōhanam (zig-zag sequence of notes, instead of strictly ascending or descending scales).

===Tālam===

''[[Tala (music)|Tāla]]m'' refers to the rhythm cycle or beat cycle for a particular song.

===Ālāpana===

''[[Alapana|Ālāpana]]'' is a preface to a song, which explores the rāgam of the song, without any lyrics. It is a slow improvisation with no ''[[#Tālam|tālam]]'' (rhythm).

===Niraval===

''[[Niraval|Sāhitya vinyāsam / Niraval]]'' or ''Neraval'' is the repeated singing of one or two lines of a song, with improvised exposition in each repetition. Sāhitya vinyāsam in Tamil language is referred as Neraval.

===Kalpanaswaram===

''[[Kalpanaswaram]]'' literally means ''imagined swarams''. It is the singing of swarams of the rāgam of a song, following the completion of the song. Though many phrases of the swarams may have been practiced, experienced artists may spontaneously play new phrases within the rāgam's rules - hence the term ''Kalpana''. It is an improvisation of the rāgam, by singing the swarams, namely Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.

===Tānam===
''Tānam'' is rhythmic / rhythm based improvisation of the rāgam. It is done with rhythm based syllables like ''tha, nam, thom and na''. It is usually included as second part in a ''[[Ragam Tanam Pallavi|Rāgam Tānam Pallavi]]''.

===Rāgamālika===
''Rāgamālika'', which literally means ''garland of rāgams'', is a composition that has different verses set to different ''rāgams''. ''Rāgamālika'' swarams refers to singing of ''[[#Kalpanaswaram|Kalpanaswarams]]'' in different rāgams.

===Rāgam Tānam Palavi===
''[[Ragam Tanam Pallavi|Rāgam Tānam Pallavi]]'' is a rendition of Carnatic music which lends to total improvisation, in different forms. It consists of ''Rāgam Ālāpana'' (rāgam), ''Tānam'' and a ''Pallavi'' line. The pallavi line is sung many times in different speeds, different ranges of the rāgam and different octaves. This is usually followed by ''[[#Kalpanaswaram|Kalpanaswaram]]s'', sometimes in multiple rāgams (''rāgamālika'').

===Ugābhōga===
''[[Ugabhoga|Ugābhōga]] (in Kannada)'' or ''[[Viruttam]] (in Tamil)'' is a devotional verse or phrase sung (without talam) in an imprompt choice of rāgam or rāgamālika usually before a song. The rāgam (or last rāgam in case of rāgamālika) is usually the same as that of the song that follows.

===Manōdharma===
''[[Manodharma|Manōdharma]]'' is the concept of imprompt or spontaneous improvisation, which is one of the important aspects of Carnatic music. There are many types of improvisations, like ''[[Alapana|Rāga Ālāpane]]'', ''Tāna'', ''Sāhityavinyāsa'', ''Ugābhōga'' and ''Kalpanāsvara''.

===Kalpita sangeetam===
''Kalpita sangeetam'' is music that is already composed, learnt and practiced. It is opposite of ''Manodharma sangeetam'', which complements ''Kalpita sangeetam''.

==Swarams==
The seven swarams in Carnatic music, then followed by other terms related to swaram.

===Shadjam===
The first swaram in the scale is ''Shadjam'' (Sa). It is invariant and is always included in all ragams.

===Rishabham===
The second swaram in the scale is ''Rishabham'' (Ri). It has three pitch possibilities, namely ''Suddha'', ''Chathusruti'' and ''Shatsruti''.

===Gandhara===
The third swaram in the scale is ''Gāndhāra'' (Ga). It has three pitch possibilities, namely Ś''uddha'', ''Sādhārana'' and ''Antara''.

===Madhyamam===
The fourth swaram in the scale is ''Madhyamam'' (Ma). It has two pitch possibilities, namely ''Suddha'' and ''Prati''.

===Panchamam===
The fifth swaram in the scale is 'Panchamam' (Pa). It is invariant.

===Dhaivatam===
The sixth [[Svara|swaram]] in the scale is ''Dhaivatam'' (Dha). It has three pitch possibilities, namely ''Suddha'', ''Chathusruti'' and ''Shatshruti''.

===Nishādham===
The seventh swaram in the scale is ''Nishādham'' (Ni). It has three pitch possibilities, namely ''Suddha'', ''Kaisiki'' and ''Kaakali''.

===Anya swaram===
''Anya swaram'' in a ''janya'' rāgam is a swaram that is not found in its parent rāgam (''melakartā'' rāgam). ''Anya'' means ''outside the set/ group''.

===Sthāyi===
''Sthāyi'' refers to an ''octave'' of music. There are 5 ''sthāyis'' in Carnaatic music, namely, ''Anumandara'' (lowest), ''Mandara'' (literally means chant, which means lower), ''Madhya'' (literally means middle), ''Taara'' (means higher) and ''Athitaara'' (meaning very high). Most artists sing over two octaves or two and a half octaves range (within Mandra, Madhya and Taara
sthaayis). Very few can sing well in bigger ranges of 3 or more octaves.

===Anga===
''Anga'' means part. In the context of a rāgam's scale, the terms ''poorvaanga'' (meaning former part, in this case first-half) and ''uttaraanga'' (latter part, or second-half) are used. ''Sa, Ri, Ga and Ma'' notes in a scale are referred are ''poorvaanga'', while ''Pa, Dha and Ni'' are referred as ''uttaraanga''

===Gamaka===
''Gamaka'' is the term used for variations of the ''swarams'' in a scale. It can refer to the shake of the note, grace around the note, decoration or embellishment of the swaram. It is an integral part of most rāgams, as it is not arbitrary but is essential part of the structure/ scale.

===Vādi===
''[[Vadi (music)|Vādi]] swaram'' in a rāgam is the main/ primary swaram of importance in it. A ''vādi'' swaram is repeated quite often in a rendition.

===Samvādi===
[[Samavadi|Samvādi]] ''swaram'' in a rāgam has a concordant effect with the ''vādi swaram''. It has a good effect to the ear (melody or pleasing) along with the ''vādi''. In Western music it is equivalent of the ''consonant''.

===Vivādi===
''[[Vivadi|Vivādi]] swaram'' in a rāgam has a discordant effect with the ''vādi swaram'' in it. It may not have a pleasing effect when sounded together, but composers use appropriate phrases so that such discordant effect is skipped or avoided. In Western music it is equivalent of the ''dissonant''.

===Anuvādi===
''Anuvādi swaram'' in a rāgam has neither concordant nor discordant effect with the ''vādi swaram''.

==Janthi rāgams==

===Prayōgam===
A musical notes phrase of a rāgam (series of swarams sung in a particular rāgam) is known as ''Prayōgam''.

===Vishesha Prayōgam===
''Vishesha'' means ''special''. Hence, important phrases of a rāgam are known as ''Vishesha Prayōgams''.

===Varjya===
Missing swarams in a ''janya'' rāgam, when derived from a ''melakartā'' rāgam are referred as ''varjya''. For example, ''Rishabham'' and ''Panchamam'' are ''varjya'' in ''[[Hindolam]]'' when derived from ''[[Natabhairavi]]''.

===Vakram===
Swarams are said to be ''vakram'' in a rāgam, if either the ''Ārōhanam'', ''Avarōhanam'' or both, do not follow a strictly ''ascending'' or ''descending'' order. They go up and down (example, 2 steps forward one step back). In such a rāgam, these swarams should always use the same order to give the unique melody of the rāgam.

===Upānga===
A ''janya rāgam'' is ''Upānga'' if all the swarams in its scale are strictly derived from its ''melakartā rāgam'' (parent). There are no ''anya'' swarams (external swarams).

===Bhāshānga===
A ''janya rāgam'' is ''Bhāshānga'' if an ''anya'' swaram is introduced in its scale, when derived from its ''melakartā rāgam'' (parent).

===Nishādhāntya===
A ''janya rāgam'' is ''Nishādhāntya'' if the highest note that can be played is the ''Nishādham''. The rules for such rāgams are that they should be played or sung within the single octave - ''Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni''. Examples are ''Naadanaa makriya'' and ''Punnāgavarāli'' rāgams.

===Dhaivatāntya===
A ''janya rāgam'' is ''Dhaivadhāntya'' if the highest note that can be played is the ''Dhaivatam''. The rules for such rāgams are that they should be played or sung within the single octave - ''Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha''. Example ''Kurinji'' rāgam.

===Panchamāntya===
A ''janya rāgam'' is ''Panchamāntya'' if the highest note that can be played is the ''Panchamam''. The rules for such rāgams are that they should be played or sung within the single octave - ''Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa''. Example ''Navroj'' rāgam.

===Madhyama sruti===
Tuning the ''sruti'' (tonic note) to ''Ma'' (and also changing ''Pa'' string of [[Tanpura|Tambura]] to ''Ma'') is called ''Madhyama sruti''. It is usually set for ''Panchamāntya'', ''Dhaivadhāntya'' and ''Nishādhāntya'' rāgams.

==Swaram counts==
The following terms are applicable to ascending scale (ārōhanam) of a rāgam, descending scale (avarōhanam) of a rāgam, or the rāgam as a whole.

===Sampūrna rāgam===
''[[Sampoorna raga|Sampurna rāgam]]'' is a rāgam that has all seven swarams, namely, ''Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni''.

===Shādava rāgam===
''Shādava rāgam'' is a rāgam that has only six of the seven swarams in its scale.

===Owdava rāgam===
''Owdava rāgam'' is a rāgam that has only five of the seven swarams in its scale. It is a pentatonic scale.

===Svarantara rāgam===
''Svaraantara rāagam'' is a rāgam that has only four of the seven swarams in its scale.

==Tālam components==

===Jathi===
''Jathi'' of a ''tālam'' specifies ''beat count'' of the rhythm cycle. It specifically applies to ''[[#Laghu|laghu]]'' component(s) of the tālam and not necessarily to the entire tālam. The different jathis are tisra (three beats in lagu), chathusra (four), khanda (five), misra (seven) and sankeerna (nine).

===Gati===
''Gati'' of a ''tālam'' specifies sub-divisions of a beat in a composition. It is also referred as ''Nadai''. ''Chathusra'' gati is the most common (four), followed by ''Tisra'' (three). Others are ''Khanda'', ''Misra'' and ''Sankeerna''.

===Laghu===
''Laghu'' is the component of a ''tālam'' which is the variant part. Its beat count is dependent on the ''jāti'' of the ''tālam''. The action for counting includes a tap / clap, followed by a count of sub-beats of the full rhythm cycle. Note that a tisra jāti laghu is actually 1 clap and 2 counts = 3 beats.

===Dhrutham===
''Dhrutham'' is the component of a ''tālam'' which is invariant and includes only two beats. Its action includes a tap / clap, followed by a ''veechu'' (wave).

===Anudhrutham===
''Anudhrutham'' is the component of a ''tālam'' which is invariant and includes only one beat. Its action is a tap / clap.

===Āvartanam===
''Āvartanam'' of a ''tālam'' refers to one cycle of the tālam. Most tālams have at least 1 laghu, except for the rare tālams ([[tala (music)|see tālam page]]).

===Graham===
''Graham'' or ''Eduppu'' (in Tamil) means ''start''. Eduppu denotes the point within the ''Āvartanam'' of a ''tālam'' when a composition or stanza in a composition begins. ''Onru'' (one beat later, meaning second beat), ''Onrarai'' (one and half beat later, meaning between 2nd and 3rd beat) are common, other than ''Samam'' (meaning equal) which starts in synchronization with the beginning of a ''tālam''.

==Tālams==

===Rūpaka tālam===
''Rūpaka tālam'' refers to the group of ''tālams'' that consist of 1 dhrutam, followed by 1 lagu. ''Rūpaka tālam'' also refers to ''chathusra-jathi rūpaka tālam'' as a default (2 + 4 = 6 beats in an āvartanam).

===Triputa tālam===
''Triputa tālam'' refers to the group of ''tālams'' that consist of 1 laghu, followed by 2 dhrutams. ''Triputa tālam'' also refers to ''tisra-jathi triputa tālam'' as a default (3 + 2 + 2 = 7 beats in an āvartanam).

===Dhruva tālam===
''Dhruva tālam'' refers to the group of ''tālams'' that consist of 1 lagu, followed by 1 dhrutam, followed by two lagus. ''Dhruva tālam'' also refers to ''chathusra-jathi dhruva tālam'' as a default (4 + 2 + 4 + 4 = 14 beats in an āvartanam), unless a different jathi is specified.

===Matya tālam===
''Matya tālam'' refers to the group of ''tālams'' that consist of 1 lagu, followed by 1 dhrutam, followed by 1 lagu. ''Matya tālam'' also refers to ''chathusra-jathi matya tālam'' as a default (4 + 2 + 4 = 10 beats in an āvartanam).

===Jhampa tālam===
''Jhampa tālam'' refers to the group of ''tālams'' that consist of 1 lagu, followed by 1 anudhrutam, followed by 1 dhrutam. ''Jhampa tālam'' also refers to ''misra-jathi jhampa tālam'' as a default (7 + 1 + 2 = 10 beats in an āvartanam).

===Ata tālam===
''Ata tālam'' refers to the group of ''tālams'' that consist of 2 lagus, followed by 2 dhrutams. ''Ata tālam'' also refers to ''khanda-jathi ata tālam'' as a default (5 + 5 + 2 + 2 = 14 beats in an āvartanam).

===Eka tālam===
''Eka tālam'' refers to the group of ''tālams'' that consist of 1 lagu only. ''Eka tālam'' also refers to ''chathusra-jathi eka tālam'' as a default (4 beats in an āvartanam).

===Ādhi tālam===
''Ādhi tālam'' refers to ''chathusra-jathi triputa tālam'' (4 + 2 + 2 = 8 beats in an āvartanam), which is very common in Carnatic music. This is the equivalent of 8 beat / 16 beat of Western music.

===Khanda chāpu tālam===
''Khanda chāpu'' refers to a tālam with 10 beat āvartanam (Khanda literally means 5) which does not fit into above classification of tālams.

===Misra chāpu tālam===
''Misra chāpu'' refers to a tālam with 14 beat āvartanam (Misra literally means 7) which does not fit into above classification of tālams.

===Desādhi tālam===
''Desādhi'' refers to ''[[#Ādhi tālam|ādhi tālam]]'' with (8 beat [[#Āvartanam|āvartanam]]), where the ''[[#Eduppu|eduppu]]'' is one and a half beats from beginning of ''āvaratanam'' (''onrarai'').

==Layā==
''Layā'' is the tempo or speed of a song. Carnatic music does not define a fixed layā to songs, but traditionally some songs have been sung fast or slow and hence are categorised that way. Typical classification of layā includes Vilambitha (delayed or slow), Madhyama (medium) and Dhuritha (fast). The term Chowka is also used to denote an extra slow tempo and Adi-Dhuritha is used to denote an extra fast one.

===Kāla===
''Kāla'' refers to the change of tempo during a rendition of song, typically doubling up the speed. Onnaam kaalam is 1st speed, Irandaam kaalam is 2nd speed and so on. Irandaam kaalam fits in twice the number of aksharaas (notes) into the same beat, thus doubling the tempo. Sometimes, Kāla is also used similar to Layā, for example Madhyama Kālam or Chowka Kālam.

==Learning exercises==


Learning Carnatic music involves most of the following exercises, mostly in the order listed below.

===Saraḷe varase===
''Saraḷe varase'' is used to learn the swarams in the octave, usually in ''[[Mayamalavagowla|Māyāmālavagowla]]'' ragam. It is learnt in simple straight ascending and descending fashion and a few variations. It is also learnt in multiple speeds (kalas).

===Svarāvaḷi===
''Avaḷi'' means ''row'' or ''arrangement''. ''Svarāvaḷi'' are exercises with different arrangements of swarams. It is shortened and referred as ''Saraḷe'', as in ''Saraḷe varise'' described above.

===Jaṇṭi varase===
''Jaṇṭi varase'' are exercises used to learn the swarams in the octave in twin fashion (sa sa ri ri ga ga and so on) and a few other combinations. It is also usually learnt in.There are total of 7-8 swarams.''Māyāmālavagowla'' rāgam.

===Dāṭu varase===
''Dāṭu'' (in Kannada) literally means to jump or to skip. ''Dāṭu varase'' are exercises used to learn the swarams in zig-zag fashion, so that more control of the notes and different combinations are achieved. Example, ''sa ma ri ga, sa ri ga ma'', and so on. Each of these exercises are set to different ''tālams'', so that different rhythm aspects are learnt.

===Alaṅkāra===
''[[Alankara|Alankāra]]'' means ''beautiful arrangement of swarams''. These exercises are groups or patterns of swarams, each of which are set to seven main ''tālams'', so that rhythm aspect is also learnt together with different rāgams.

==Types of composition==

===Geetham===
''[[Geetham]]'' means ''song'' or ''melody''. Geethams are the first songs that are learnt. They are very short and are the first exercises where singing ''lyrics'' along with their swaram patterns are learnt.

===Swarajati===
''[[Swarajati]]'' lead to learning bigger songs / compositions after learning ''Geethams''. They are set to different rāgams and lead towards learning ''[[varnam]]s'' and ''[[Kriti (music)|kritis]]''.

===Varnam===
''[[Varnam]]'' is a type of composition which is suited for vocal exercises of a wide variety of Carnatic music aspects, including slow and fast tempo of singing, both lyrics and swarams. It is the most complex of vocal exercises. In modern carnatic concerts, it is usually sung as a first song and is supposed to help warm-up.

===Keerthanam===
''Keerthanam'' or ''Kriti'' is the category of most compositions in Carnatic music. A concert consists mainly of Keerthanams with zero or one of ''Varnam'', ''Rāgam Thānam Pallavi'' and ''Thillānā'' included in appropriate order.

===Kriti===
For ''[[Kriti (music)|Kriti]]'', see ''[[#Keerthanam|Keerthanam]]'' above.

===Thillana===
''[[Thillana|Thillānā]]'' is a composition consisting of ''rhythm'' syllables, like ''Dheem, thom, tarana and thaani'' in first two stanzas, followed by a one or two line lyric. In instrumental performances, it is a melodic rhythmic piece.

==Parts of a composition==

===Pallavi===
''[[Pallavi]]'' is the first verse in a composition, especially varnams, ''Keerthanams'' or ''Kritis''.

===Anupallavi===
''[[Anupallavi (music)|Anupallavi]]'' is an optional verse that follows the ''pallavi'' in a composition, especially ''keerthanams'' or ''kritis''.

===Charanam===
''[[Charanam]]s'' are the verse(s) that follow the ''pallavi'' or ''anupallavi'' (if present).

===Chittaswaram===
''[[Chitta swara|Chittaswarams]]'' are set swaram phrases (solfa passages), in a composition, usually a ''kriti'', appended to enrich its beauty. It is sung at the end of the ''anupallavi'' and ''charanam''.

===Muktāyi swaram===
''Muktāyi swarams'' are the swaram phrases (solfa passage) that occur after the ''anupallavi'' in ''tāna varnams'' and which serves as the concluding part of the ''pūrvanga'' (first part). This is more related to the songs for dance performances, like ''[[Bharatanatyam]]''.

==Other==

===Tani avartanam===
''Tani avartanam'' refers to the extended solo that is played by the percussionists in a concert.

===Tukkada===
''Tukkadaas'' are compositions played towards the end of Carnatic concerts.

===Avadhana Pallavi===
''Avadhana Pallavi'' is a classical form of performing a composition set to two different talas.

===Konnakol===
''[[Konnakol]]'' is the art of performing percussion syllables vocally.

== References ==
{{reflist}}
#''A practical course in Carnatic music'' by Prof. P. Sambamurthy, 15th edition published 1998, The Indian Music publishing house
#''Ragas in Carnatic music'' by Dr. S. Bhagyalekshmy, Pub. 1990, CBH Publications
#''Raganidhi'' by P. Subba Rao, Pub. 1964, The Music Academy of Madras
#''South Indian music'', Books I, II and III, by Prof. P. Sambamurthy, 18th edition published 2005, The Indian Music publishing house

==External links==
{{Portal|India|Music}}
*[http://carnatica.net/onlinedictionary/onlinemain.htm Online dictionary within Carnatic music handbook from carnatica.net]
*[https://www.saigan.com/heritage/music/terms.htm Dictionary of some South Indian Musical terms]

[[Category:Carnatic music terminology| ]]
[[Category:Glossaries of music|Carnatic music]]
[[Category:Bharatpedia glossaries using subheadings]]

Australia A cricket team in India in 2025–26

2026-01-09T02:56:23Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created a bio w/ refs...

{{Short description|International cricket tour}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox cricket tour
| series_name = Australia A cricket team in India in 2025–26
| team1_image = Flag of India.svg
| team1_name = India A
| team2_image = Flag of Australia.svg
| team2_name = Australia A
| from_date = 16 September
| to_date = 5 October 2025
| team1_captain = [[Shreyas Iyer]]{{efn|[[Dhruv Jurel]] captained India A in the second unofficial Test.}}
| team2_captain = [[Nathan McSweeney]] (First-class) [[Jack Edwards (cricketer, born 2000)|Jack Edwards]]{{efn|[[Will Sutherland]] captained Australia A in the first unofficial ODI.}} (List A)
| no_of_FCs = 2
| team1_FCs_won = 1
| team2_FCs_won = 0
| team1_FCs_most_runs = [[Sai Sudharsan]] (248)
| team2_FCs_most_runs = [[Josh Philippe]] (212)
| team1_FCs_most_wickets = [[Gurnoor Brar]] (8) [[Manav Suthar]] (8)
| team2_FCs_most_wickets = [[Corey Rocchiccioli]] (6)
| player_of_FC_series =
| no_of_LAs = 3
| team1_LAs_won = 2
| team2_LAs_won = 1
| team1_LAs_most_runs = [[Riyan Parag]] (187)
| team2_LAs_most_runs = [[Cooper Connolly]] (147)
| team1_LAs_most_wickets = [[Nishant Sindhu]] (6)
| team2_LAs_most_wickets = [[Tanveer Sangha]] (7)
| player_of_LA_series = [[Riyan Parag]] (India A)
}}

The [[Australia A cricket team]] toured India in September and October 2025 to play against [[India A cricket team]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/australia-south-africa-mens-a-tour-india-2025-schedule/article69632623.ece |title=Australia & South Africa men’s A India tour 2025: Full schedule |work=[[Sportstar]] |access-date=2 September 2025}}</ref> The tour consisted of two [[First-class cricket|first-class]] and three [[List A cricket|List A]] matches.<ref>{{cite web |title=BCCI announces updated venues for Team India (Int'l home season) & South Africa A Tour of India |url=https://www.bcci.tv/articles/2025/news/55556221/bcci-announces-updated-venues-for-team-india-int-l-home-season-south-africa-a-tour-of-india |work=[[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] |access-date=2 September 2025}}</ref> In May 2025, the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] (BCCI) confirmed the fixtures for the tour.<ref>{{cite web |title=BCCI announces fixtures for Australia Women's, Australia Men's A and South Africa Men's A team tours of India |url=https://www.bcci.tv/bccilink/articles/42BP2q6u |work=[[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] |access-date=2 September 2025}}</ref>

==Squads==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin:auto"
|-
! colspan="2" |{{flagdeco|IND}} [[India A cricket team|India A]]
! colspan="2" |{{flagdeco|AUS}} [[Australia A cricket team|Australia A]]
|-
! First-class<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bcci.tv/bccilink/articles/eYPue2xk |title=India A squad for two multi-day matches against Australia A announced |work=[[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref>
! List A<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bcci.tv/bccilink/articles/gFqS6eIl |title=India A and Rest of India squads announced |work=[[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] |access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref>
! First-class<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cricket.com.au/news/4335477/sam-konstas-australia-a-tour-india-lucknow-test-border-gavaskar-2027-connolly-murphy-mcgurk-mcsweeney |title=Konstas in 'A' squad picked with eye to next BGT tour |work=[[Cricket Australia]] |access-date=2 September 2025}}</ref>
! List A<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/sam-konstas-oliver-peake-nathan-mcsweeney-in-australia-a-squad-for-india-tour-1498270 |title=Konstas, Peake, McSweeney named in Australia A squad for India tour |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=2 September 2025}}</ref>
|- style="vertical-align:top"
|
* [[Shreyas Iyer]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Dhruv Jurel]] ([[Captain (cricket)#Vice-captain|vc]], [[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Khaleel Ahmed]]
* [[Ayush Badoni]]
* [[Gurnoor Brar]]
* [[Harsh Dubey]]
* [[Abhimanyu Easwaran]]
* [[Narayan Jagadeesan]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Tanush Kotian]]
* [[Prasidh Krishna]]
* [[Nitish Kumar Reddy]]
* [[Devdutt Padikkal]]
* [[KL Rahul]]{{efn|name="Squad2"|In squad for second unofficial Test only.}}
* [[Sai Sudharsan]]
* [[Manav Suthar]]
* [[Mohammed Siraj]]{{efn|name="Squad2"}}
* [[Yash Thakur]]
|
* [[Shreyas Iyer]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Tilak Varma]] ([[Captain (cricket)#Vice-captain|vc]]){{efn|name="Squad2&3"|In squad for second and third unofficial ODI only.}}
* [[Rajat Patidar]]
* [[Priyansh Arya]]{{efn|name="Squad1"|In squad for first unofficial ODI only.}}
* [[Ayush Badoni]]
* [[Ravi Bishnoi]]
* [[Vipraj Nigam]]
* [[Riyan Parag]]
* [[Abhishek Porel]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Harshit Rana]]{{efn|name="Squad2&3"}}
* [[Abhishek Sharma]]{{efn|name="Squad2&3"}}
* [[Suryansh Shedge]]
* [[Nishant Sindhu]]
* [[Arshdeep Singh (cricketer)|Arshdeep Singh]]{{efn|name="Squad2&3"}}
* [[Gurjapneet Singh]]
* [[Prabhsimran Singh]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Yudhvir Singh (cricketer)|Yudhvir Singh]]
|
* [[Nathan McSweeney]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Xavier Bartlett]]
* [[Cooper Connolly]]
* <s>[[Brody Couch]]</s>
* [[Jack Edwards (cricketer, born 2000)|Jack Edwards]]
* <s>[[Aaron Hardie]]</s>
* [[Campbell Kellaway]]
* [[Sam Konstas]]
* <s>[[Lance Morris]]</s>
* [[Todd Murphy]]
* [[Fergus O'Neill]]
* [[Oliver Peake]]
* [[Josh Philippe]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Corey Rocchiccioli]]
* [[Liam Scott]]
* [[Will Sutherland]]{{efn|name="Squad2"}}
* [[Henry Thornton (cricketer)|Henry Thornton]]
|
* [[Jack Edwards (cricketer, born 2000)|Jack Edwards]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Cooper Connolly]]
* [[Harry Dixon (cricketer)|Harry Dixon]]
* [[Sam Elliott (cricketer)|Sam Elliott]]
* [[Jake Fraser-McGurk]]
* <s>[[Aaron Hardie]]</s>
* [[Mackenzie Harvey]]
* [[Todd Murphy]]
* [[Tanveer Sangha]]
* [[Liam Scott]]
* [[Lachlan Shaw (cricketer)|Lachlan Shaw]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Tom Straker]]
* [[Will Sutherland]]
* [[Henry Thornton (cricketer)|Henry Thornton]]
* <s>[[Callum Vidler]]</s>
|}

On 24 August, [[Lance Morris]] was ruled out of the unofficial Test series due to back surgery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/australia-news-lance-morris-ruled-out-for-up-to-12-months-after-opting-for-back-surgery-1500201 |title=Morris ruled out for up to 12 months after opting for back surgery |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=2 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cricket.com.au/news/4348904/lance-morris-back-surgery-injury-update-australia-western-australia-fast-bowler |title=Morris set for surgery, long stint on sidelines |work=Cricket Australia |access-date=2 September 2025}}</ref> He was replaced by [[Brody Couch]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thewest.com.au/sport/perth-scorchers/big-bash-league-brody-couch-the-early-frontrunner-to-replace-injured-perth-scorchers-star-lance-morris-c-19793836 |title=Big Bash League: Brody Couch the early frontrunner to replace injured Perth Scorchers star Lance Morris |work=[[The West Australian]] |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thechronicle.com.au/sport/cricket/brody-couch-in-frame-to-join-australia-a-squad-for-india-tour/news-story/f8f42b057d5b3da2d7b008af9db5d60f |title=Brody Couch in frame to join Australia A squad for India tour |work=The Chronicle |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref> Later, Couch was ruled out of the series due to a side strain and was replaced by [[Henry Thornton (cricketer)|Henry Thornton]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/sports/young-gun-callum-vidler-ruled-out-of-australia-a-tour-of-india-due-to-partial-fracture/ |title=Young gun Callum Vidler ruled out of Australia A tour of India due to partial fracture |work=[[The Tribune (India)|The Tribune]] |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref> On 8 September, [[Callum Vidler]] was ruled out of the unofficial ODI series due to a partial stress fracture and was replaced by Henry Thornton.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/callum-vidler-ruled-out-of-australia-a-tour-of-india-with-a-partial-stress-fracture-1502015 |title=Vidler ruled out of Australia A tour of India with a partial stress fracture |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=8 September 2025}}</ref> On 11 September, [[Aaron Hardie]] was ruled out of the tour due to a shoulder injury, and [[Will Sutherland]] was added to second unofficial Test.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cricket.com.au/news/4360679/aaron-hardie-shoulder-injury-australia-a-four-day-matches-india-tour-wa-sheffield-shield-sutherland |title=Hardie ruled out of 'A' tour with shoulder injury |work=Cricket Australia |access-date=11 September 2025}}</ref>

On 6 September, [[KL Rahul]] and [[Mohammed Siraj]] were added to the second unofficial Test.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/shreyas-iyer-to-lead-india-a-in-multi-day-matches-against-australia-a-1501788 |title=Shreyas Iyer to lead India A in multi-day matches against Australia A |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=6 September 2025}}</ref> On 22 September, [[Shreyas Iyer]] was ruled out of the second unofficial Test due to his personal reasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/135698/shreyas-iyer-to-miss-second-four-day-game-against-australia-a |title=Shreyas Iyer to miss second four-day game against Australia A |work=Cricbuzz |access-date=23 September 2025}}</ref>

==First-class series==
===1st Unofficial Test===
{{Two-innings cricket match
| date = 16–19 September 2025
| team1 = [[Australia A cricket team|Australia A]] {{flagdeco|AUS}}
| team2 = {{flagdeco|IND}} [[India A cricket team|India A]]

| score-team1-inns1 = 532/6[[Declaration and forfeiture#Declaration|d]] (73 overs)
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Josh Philippe]] 123[[not out|*]] (87)
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Harsh Dubey]] 3/141 (27 overs)

| score-team2-inns1 = 531/7[[Declaration and forfeiture#Declaration|d]] (141.4 overs)
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Devdutt Padikkal]] 150 (281)
| wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Corey Rocchiccioli]] 3/159 (36.1 overs)

| score-team1-inns2 = 56/0 (16 overs)
| runs-team1-inns2 = [[Sam Konstas]] 27[[not out|*]] (49)
| wickets-team1-inns2 =

| score-team2-inns2 =
| runs-team2-inns2 =
| wickets-team2-inns2 =

| result = Match drawn
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1488257.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Ekana Cricket Stadium]], [[Lucknow]]
| umpires = [[Ulhas Gandhe]] (Ind) and Anish Sahasrabudhe (Ind)
| motm =
| toss = Australia A won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain = Only 54.4 overs play was possible on day 4 due to rain.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cricket.com.au/news/4365492/australia-a-v-india-a-four-day-match-day-four-report-scores-lucknow-ekana-stadium-corey-rocchiccioli-devdutt-padikkal-draw |title=Rain the only winner as India A, Australia A share spoils |work=Cricket Australia |access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>
| notes =
}}

===2nd Unofficial Test===
{{Two-innings cricket match
| date = 23–26 September 2025
| team1 = [[Australia A cricket team|Australia A]] {{flagdeco|AUS}}
| team2 = {{flagdeco|IND}} [[India A cricket team|India A]]

| score-team1-inns1 = 420 (97.2 overs)
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Jack Edwards (cricketer, born 2000)|Jack Edwards]] 88 (78)
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Manav Suthar]] 5/107 (32 overs)

| score-team2-inns1 = 194 (52.5 overs)
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Sai Sudharsan]] 75 (140)
| wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Henry Thornton (cricketer)|Henry Thornton]] 4/36 (10 overs)

| score-team1-inns2 = 185 (46.5 overs)
| runs-team1-inns2 = [[Nathan McSweeney]] 85[[not out|*]] (149)
| wickets-team1-inns2 = [[Gurnoor Brar]] 3/42 (9 overs)

| score-team2-inns2 = 413/5 (91.3 overs)
| runs-team2-inns2 = [[KL Rahul]] 176[[not out|*]] (210)
| wickets-team2-inns2 = [[Todd Murphy]] 3/114 (28 overs)

| result = India A won by 5 wickets
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1488258.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Ekana Cricket Stadium]], [[Lucknow]]
| umpires = Keyur Kelkar (Ind) and Amit Rana (Ind)
| motm = [[KL Rahul]] (India A)
| toss = India A won the toss and elected to field.
| rain =
| notes =
}}

==List A series==
===1st Unofficial ODI===
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 30 September – 1 October 2025
| time = 13:30
| daynight = y
| team1 = [[India A cricket team|India A]] {{flagdeco|IND}}
| team2 = {{flagdeco|AUS}} [[Australia A cricket team|Australia A]]
| score1 = 413/6 (50 overs)
| runs1 = [[Shreyas Iyer]] 110 (83)
| wickets1 = [[Will Sutherland]] 2/73 (9 overs)
| score2 = 242 (33.1 overs)
| runs2 = [[Mackenzie Harvey]] 68 (62)
| wickets2 = [[Nishant Sindhu]] 4/50 (6.1 overs)
| result = India A won by 171 runs
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1488259.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Green Park Stadium]], [[Kanpur]]
| umpires = [[Ajitesh Argal]] (Ind) and [[Tanmay Srivastava]] (Ind)
| motm = [[Shreyas Iyer]] (India A)
| toss = Australia A won the toss and elected to field.
| rain = No play was possible on 30 September due to rain.
| notes = [[Gurjapneet Singh]] (India A) made his List A debut.
* [[Priyansh Arya]] (India A) scored his maiden century in List A cricket.
}}

===2nd Unofficial ODI===
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 3 October 2025
| time = 13:30
| daynight = y
| team1 = [[India A cricket team|India A]] {{flagdeco|IND}}
| team2 = {{flagdeco|AUS}} [[Australia A cricket team|Australia A]]
| score1 = 246 (45.5 overs)
| runs1 = [[Tilak Varma]] 94 (122)
| wickets1 = [[Jack Edwards (cricketer, born 2000)|Jack Edwards]] 4/56 (8.5 overs)
| score2 = 160/1 (16.4 overs)
| runs2 = [[Mackenzie Harvey]] 70[[not out|*]] (49)
| wickets2 = [[Nishant Sindhu]] 1/24 (2 overs)
| result = Australia A won by 9 wickets ([[Duckworth–Lewis–Stern method|DLS method]])
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1488260.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Green Park Stadium]], [[Kanpur]]
| umpires = [[Ajitesh Argal]] (Ind) and [[Tanmay Srivastava]] (Ind)
| motm = [[Mackenzie Harvey]] (Australia A)
| toss = India A won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain = The second innings was reduced to 25 overs due to rain and Australia A were set a revised target of 160 runs from 25 overs.
| notes =
}}

===3rd Unofficial ODI===
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 5 October 2025
| time = 13:30
| daynight = y
| team1 = [[Australia A cricket team|Australia A]] {{flagdeco|AUS}}
| team2 = {{flagdeco|IND}} [[India A cricket team|India A]]
| score1 = 316 (49.1 overs)
| runs1 = [[Jack Edwards (cricketer, born 2000)|Jack Edwards]] 89 (75)
| wickets1 = [[Arshdeep Singh]] 3/38 (10 overs)
| score2 = 322/8 (46 overs)
| runs2 = [[Prabhsimran Singh]] 102 (68)
| wickets2 = [[Todd Murphy]] 4/42 (10 overs)
| result = India A won by 2 wickets
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1488261.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Green Park Stadium]], [[Kanpur]]
| umpires = [[Ajitesh Argal]] (Ind) and [[Tanmay Srivastava]] (Ind)
| motm = [[Prabhsimran Singh]] (India A)
| toss = Australia A won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes =
}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/australia-a-in-india-2025-26-1488251 Series home at ESPN Cricinfo]

{{International cricket tours of India}}

[[Category:A team cricket]]
[[Category:2025 in Indian cricket]]
[[Category:2025 in Australian cricket]]
[[Category:International cricket competitions in 2025–26]]
[[Category:Long stubs with short prose]]

{{India-cricket-tour-stub}}

Assassination of Vangaveeti Mohana Ranga

2025-12-31T02:20:25Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Created new post basic info...

{{Short description|1988 murder in Vijayawada, India}}
{{AI-generated|date=October 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = Assassination of Vangaveeti Mohana Ranga
| location = [[Vijayawada]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| date = 26 December 1988
| target = [[Vangaveeti Mohana Ranga]]
| type = [[Assassination]]
| weapons = Axes, smoke bombs
| fatalities =
| perpetrator =
| motive =
}}

On 26 December 1988, [[Vangaveeti Mohana Ranga]], a prominent political leader in [[Andhra Pradesh]], India, and a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLA), was assassinated during a hunger strike in [[Vijayawada]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Hazarika |first=Sanjoy |date=28 December 1988 |title=India Sends Troops to Quell Riots in Southern State |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/28/world/india-sends-troops-to-quell-riots-in-southern-state.html |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230809202214/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/28/world/india-sends-troops-to-quell-riots-in-southern-state.html |archive-date=9 August 2023 |access-date=27 November 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=27 December 1988 |title=Death toll rises to 35 in Indian violence |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1988/12/27/Death-toll-rises-to-35-in-Indian-violence/1556599202000/ |access-date=27 November 2024 |website=[[United Press International]] |language=en}}</ref> His death triggered widespread riots and violence across the state, particularly in the [[Coastal Andhra|Coastal]] districts of Krishna, Guntur, East Godavari, and West Godavari.<ref name="violence">{{cite news |last=Menon |first=Amarnath K. |date=31 January 1989 |title=Congress(I) MLA murder triggers off caste violence in four Andhra Pradesh coastal districts |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/special-report/story/19890131-congressi-mla-murder-triggers-off-caste-violence-in-four-andhra-pradesh-coastal-districts-815673-1989-01-30 |access-date=27 November 2024 |newspaper=[[India Today]]}}</ref> The unrest resulted in 42 deaths, extensive property damage estimated at ₹200–300 [[crore]] (equivalent to ₹800–1200 crore in 2024) in Vijayawada alone,<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Reddi |first1=Agarala Easwara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vaxxeoPUuqsC&dq=Vangaveeti+Mohana+Ranga&pg=PA114 |title=State Politics in India: Reflections on Andhra Pradesh |last2=Ram |first2=D. Sundar |date=1994 |publisher=M. D. Publications |isbn=978-81-85880-51-8 |page=114 |language=en}}</ref> and a curfew in the city that lasted over 40 days.<ref name="violence" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=J. R. Shridharan |date=20 December 2015 |title=When Vijayawada became 'Beirut' on 'Boxing Day' |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/when-vijayawada-became-beirut-on-boxing-day/article8012260.ece |access-date=27 November 2024 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

The political fallout included the resignation of the state's [[Ministry of Home Affairs and Disaster Management|Home Minister]] and the [[director general of police]] (DGP). Although 44 individuals, including prominent political figures, were arrested, all surviving accused were acquitted by 2002 due to insufficient evidence.<ref name="rediff">{{cite news |last=Jafri |first=Syed Amin |date=5 March 2002 |title=All 33 accused in V M Ranga Rao murder acquitted |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/mar/05ap.htm |access-date=27 November 2024 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> Ranga's assassination remains a significant event in Andhra Pradesh's political history, underscoring deep-seated rivalries and its lasting impact on the state's socio-political fabric.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Sudhir |first=S. N. V. |date=28 December 2022 |title=34 years after his assassination, why does Vangaveeti Ranga still evoke such interest? |url=https://thesouthfirst.com/andhrapradesh/34-years-after-his-assassination-why-does-vangaveeti-ranga-still-evoke-such-interest/ |access-date=27 November 2024 |website=The South First |language=en}}</ref>

== Background ==

Vangaveeti Mohana Ranga Rao, a prominent political figure in Andhra Pradesh and leader of the [[Kapu (caste)|Kapu]] community, was known for his outspoken stance on social and political issues. His popularity was particularly strong among the masses.<ref name="violence" /> Ranga's political influence, however, led to tensions with rival factions. He was a rival of [[Devineni Nehru]], who was a politician of the [[Telugu Desam Party]] (TDP). Both of them rallied their respective communities behind them for support – the Kapu community for Ranga, and the [[Kamma (caste)|Kamma]] community for Nehru.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rao |first=G Venkataramana |date=12 August 2018 |title=When gangs ruled the roost in Bezawada |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/when-gangs-ruled-the-roost-in-bezawada/article24667239.ece |access-date=7 December 2024 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> On 10 March 1988, Nehru's younger brother Murali was murdered, allegedly by Ranga's henchmen.<ref name="violence" /> On 26 December 1988, Ranga was assassinated at the age of 41 while on a hunger strike in Vijayawada, where he was demanding land reforms and protesting against alleged police brutality. Ranga had previously accused local government officials affiliated with the Telugu Desam Party of plotting to kill him and had called for enhanced security.<ref name=":1" />

== Assassination ==
On the day of the assassination, 26 December 1988, Ranga was sitting under a canopy outside the city hall in Vijayawada when he and his aides were attacked with axes and knives. The murder was surrounded by controversy, with Ranga's supporters alleging a political conspiracy orchestrated by the ruling TDP. The assassination marked a significant turning point in the political climate of Andhra Pradesh.<ref name=":1" />

== Aftermath ==

=== Riots and violence ===
The murder of Ranga led to widespread violence across Andhra Pradesh, particularly in Vijayawada, Guntur, and the Godavari districts. Riots erupted, with Congress Party supporters clashing with police, vandalizing shops, and attacking the properties of rival party members, including stoning the homes of TDP ministers.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="violence" />

The unrest resulted in the deaths of at least 35 people by 27 December, with over 200 others injured. In response, the authorities imposed dusk-to-dawn curfews in 20 cities and towns<ref name=":2" /> and deployed over 2,700 security officers from Andhra Pradesh and neighboring states. Despite soldiers being stationed in Vijayawada, they were not actively deployed to quell the violence.<ref name=":1" />

By 27 December, a statewide general strike had been enforced by Congress Party activists, who attacked shops, state government offices, and vehicles. In Vijayawada, a mob attempted to storm the mortuary at the public hospital to retrieve the bodies of those killed by police gunfire during the riots. Police intervened, dispersing the crowd.<ref name=":1" />

The state government reported that 25 people were killed on 26 December, most of them by police gunfire. However, hospital sources stated that the morgue contained 32 bodies, with many deaths attributed to police shootings. Two additional deaths were linked to earlier mob attacks, and one TDP supporter was reportedly beaten to death by Congress Party activists. On 27 December, another death occurred, along with three additional injuries. Approximately 80 protesters were arrested in Vijayawada, and 300 more were detained in Hyderabad.<ref name=":1" />

The Congress Party accused the TDP of orchestrating Ranga's murder as part of a political conspiracy to eliminate rivals. The violence and rioting lasted for nearly two months, with mobs attacking properties associated with TDP supporters, particularly those from the Kamma community. Numerous establishments, including theatres, shopping complexes, bars, and restaurants, were destroyed. Public and private vehicles, as well as government offices, were also targeted.<ref name=":1" />

'''Key Incidents'''

The riots saw widespread arson and looting, with iconic establishments such as Alankar, Kalyana Chakravarthy, and Jai Hind theatres being set ablaze. Several businesses, including Roy Tyres, Mangaldeep, and Raymond's showrooms, were looted.<ref name=":4" /> Branded clothing, electronics, and consumer durables were stolen or destroyed. In one incident, a house owner in Patamata Lanka fired upon rioters in self-defense. Reports also emerged of some business owners setting fire to their own properties in an attempt to claim insurance fraudulently. Vehicles were similarly dismantled and burned for similar reasons.<ref name=":4" /> 269 buses were damaged during the riots, according to Andhra Pradesh officials.<ref name=":2" />

=== Economic impact ===
The total economic damage from the riots was estimated at ₹200–300 [[crore]] (equivalent to ₹800–1200 crore in 2024) in Vijayawada alone.<ref name=":3" /> Notably, property worth approximately ₹100 crore was reportedly destroyed or looted on a single street named after [[Annie Besant]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=K. Balagopal |author-link=K. Balagopal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nxohEQAAQBAJ&dq=Vangaveeti+Mohana+Ranga&pg=PA90 |title=Understanding Fascism: Writings on Class, Caste and the State |publisher=Hyderabad Book Trust |pages=93 |language=en}}</ref> Many shopkeepers, whose properties were uninsured, faced significant financial losses. In the aftermath of the violence, there was a surge in insurance registrations as business owners sought to protect themselves from future losses.<ref name=":4" />

== Response ==
The riots prompted the imposition of a curfew in Vijayawada for over 40 days. Shoot-at-sight orders were issued, and the [[Indian Army]] and [[Central Reserve Police Force]] (CRPF) were deployed to assist local police in restoring order.<ref name=":2" /> Despite these measures, the violence persisted for weeks.<ref name="violence" />

The political fallout included the resignation of Andhra Pradesh's home minister, Kodela Siva Prasada Rao, and the director general of police (DGP). Chief Minister Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao ordered the surrender of [[Devineni Nehru|Devineni Rajasekhar]] (Nehru), a TDP leader and rival of Ranga and key accused in the case.<ref name="violence" />

== Legal proceedings ==
A total of 44 individuals were charged with involvement in Ranga's murder. However, by 2002, the 33 accused who had survived were acquitted due to lack of evidence.<ref name="rediff2">{{cite news |last=Jafri |first=Syed Amin |date=5 March 2002 |title=All 33 accused in V M Ranga Rao murder acquitted |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/mar/05ap.htm |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> One of the accused, Chalasani Venkateswara Rao (Pandu), was murdered in 2010.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 September 2010 |title=Not many surprised as 'settlement Pandu' meets a violent end |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Not-many-surprised-as-settlement-Pandu-meets-a-violent-end/articleshow/6639262.cms?referral=PM |newspaper=The Times of India |agency=TNN}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
Ranga's assassination and the subsequent riots marked a turning point in Andhra Pradesh's politics. Statues and memorials dedicated to Ranga reflect his lasting influence on the region's political and cultural landscape. The violence also underscored the devastating consequences of political unrest, shaping the state's approach to governance and public security.<ref name=":0" />

== In popular culture ==
''[[Sahasame Naa Oopiri]]'', a 1989 film directed by [[Vijaya Nirmala]] and starring [[Krishna (Telugu actor)|Krishna]] in the lead role was based on the murder of Mohana Ranga.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rao |first=B. Srinivas Narayana |date=2019-06-27 |title=A power-house of talent |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/a-power-house-of-talent--541697 |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=[[The Hans India]] |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Assassinations in India]]
[[Category:1988 murders in India]]
[[Category:Vijayawada]]

Holotrichia serrata

2025-12-28T03:21:01Z

AntoniettaWhitco: creating new info v1

{{Short description|Beetle species}}
{{Cleanup|reason= English grammar needs fixing: Spelling, grammar (mainly non-use of articles); run-on sentences; jargon; verb tense, subject-verb agreements.|date=July 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
| image =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| genus = Holotrichia
| species = serrata
| authority = ([[Johan Christian Fabricius|Fabricius]], 1781)
| synonyms = {{Specieslist
|Lachnosterna serrata|(Fabricius)
|Melolontha serrata|Fabricius, 1781
|Phyllophaga serrata|(Fabricius)
}}
}}

'''''Holotrichia serrata''''', commonly known as the '''sugarcane white grub''', or '''cockchafer grub''', is a species of [[Melolonthinae|dung beetle]] found in [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Sri Lanka]].

==Description==
Adult female beetles lay white, almost round eggs. The first and second [[instars]] are translucent, whitish-yellow with a characteristic 'C' – shape. The third instar is a dirty white color with an average length of about 34 to 39 mm. The clearly marked brownish-orange colored head consists of strong mandibles. Slender antennae are long and brown. The instar period lasts for 60 to 70 days, and is followed by a short pre-pupal period of two days. Pupation is within an earthen chamber where the third instar burrowed deep into the soil and prepared a small earthen cell. This [[exarate]] pupa is about 25 to 27 mm in length where the pupal period is 13 to 19 days. After the onset of rain, beetles emerge within 3 to 4 days.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crop Protection :: Oil Seeds :: Pest of Groundnut |url=https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/groundnut/crop_prot_crop_insect_oil_ground%20nut_12.html |archive-date=2021-07-15 |access-date=2021-07-15 |website=TNAU Agritec Portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715160115/https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/crop_protection/groundnut/crop_prot_crop_insect_oil_ground%20nut_12.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Adult beetles are brown in color where females are larger than males with an average length about 23 to 25 mm. Adults can survive for 12 to 26 days in captivity.<ref name="serrata">{{Cite journal |first1=S.M. |last1=Dadmal |first2=P.A. |last2=Ghuge |first3=S.S. |last3=Khadakkar |first4=S.W. |last4=Khodke |title=Occurrence of Holotrichia serrata (Scarabaeidae: Melolonthinae) in Vidarbha |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317171332 |journal=Indian Journal of Entomology |year=2013 |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=354–355}}</ref>

==Biology==
The grub stage is considered as a serious pest on [[sugarcane]] where they can be controlled by management of using cultural, mechanical, biological, chemical and integrated methods.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} In biological method, grubs can be destroy by using the parasitoid fungus ''[[Metarhizium anisopliae]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=C. |last1=Thamarai Chelvi |first2=W. |last2=Richard Thilagaraj |first3=R. |last3=Nalini |title=Field efficacy of formulations of microbial insecticide Metarhizium anisopliae (Hyphocreales: Clavicipitaceae) for the control of sugarcane white grub Holotrichia serrata F(Coleoptera :Scarabidae) |url=http://www.jbiopest.com/users/lw8/efiles/vol_4_2_261c.pdf |archive-date=2020-08-19 |access-date=2021-07-15 |journal=Journal of Biopesticides |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=186–189 |year=2011 |doi=10.57182/jbiopestic.4.2.186-189 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819020021/http://www.jbiopest.com/users/LW8/efiles/Vol_4_2_261C.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Apart from that, many insecticides such as [[chlorpyrifos]], [[phorate]], [[quinalphos]] and [[carbofuran]] also used for eradication of grubs in sugarcane cultivation.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=S. |last1=Manisegaran |first2=S. M. |last2=Lakshmi |first3=V. |last3=Srimohanapriya |title=Field Evaluation of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin against Holotrichia serrata (Blanch) in sugarcane |url=http://www.jbiopest.com/users/lw8/efiles/vol_4_2_262c.pdf |archive-date=2020-08-19 |access-date=2021-07-15 |journal=Journal of Biopesticides |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=190–193 |year=2011 |doi=10.57182/jbiopestic.4.2.190-193 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819020022/http://www.jbiopest.com/users/LW8/efiles/Vol_4_2_262C.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In September 2012, an outbreak of the beetle was recorded from soybean, cotton and pigeon pea ecosystems in Vidarbha, India.<ref name="serrata" />

Apart from sugarcane, it is also a major pest on many vegetables, groundnut and coconut. The volatiles from ''[[Acacia nilotica]]'', ''[[Azadirachta indica]]'' leaf extract is known to elicited higher antennal response of adult beetles. Usually this antennal response to pheromone gland and host extracts is higher in males.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.jssas.2012.11.004 | title=Electrophysiological responses of chafer beetle, Holotrichia serrata (F.) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) | year=2013 | last1=Subaharan | first1=Kesavan | last2=Kumar | first2=A.R.V. | last3=Ganiger | first3=Prabhu | journal=Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences | volume=12 | issue=2 | pages=155–159 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Grubs are also known to parasitized by another entomopathogenic fungus ''[[Beauveria brongniartii]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s12355-012-0152-2 | title=Effect of Media Additives on the Production of Beauveria brongniartii, an Entomopathogenic Fungus of Holotrichia serrata | year=2012 | last1=Srikanth | first1=J. | last2=Santhalakshmi | first2=G. | journal=Sugar Tech | volume=14 | issue=3 | pages=284–290 | s2cid=106819 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF02943651 | title=Viability and virulence of selectedbeauveria brongniartii formulations against ''Holotrichia'' serrata | year=2006 | last1=Srikanth | first1=J. | last2=Santhalakshmi | first2=G. | last3=Tamizharasi | first3=V. | journal=Sugar Tech | volume=8 | issue=2–3 | pages=152–154 | s2cid=34102689 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Field efficacy and persistence of Beauveria brongniartii (Sacc.) Petch applied against Holotrichia serrata F. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) infesting sugarcane in southern India |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259620183 |access-date=2021-07-15 |journal= Sugar Cane International |year=2010 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=151–156 |first1=J. |last1=Srikanth |first2=S. |last2=Easwaramoorthy |first3=G. |last3=Santhalakshmi}}</ref> In Sri Lanka, grubs have been observed to feed on the tap roots of the [[teak]] seedlings, and finally the damaged plants wilt and die.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bandara |first=G. D. |title=Chemical control of cockchafer grub (Holotrichia serrata) in teak nurseries |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/abstract/19950606328 |archive-date=2022-06-20 |access-date=2021-07-15 |journal=Sri Lanka Forester |year=1990 |volume=19 |issue=3/4 |pages=47–50 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620155013/https://www.cabi.org/isc/abstract/19950606328 |url-status=live }}</ref> Grubs also can be removed from the cultivation land by cultural practises such as ploughing, harrowing, hoeing, flooding and fallowing of fields, trap cropping and crop rotation. Other than that, resistant crops such as sunflower and trap crops such as sorghum, maize, onion can be grown along with the cultivation.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Species Page: white grub (Holotrichia serrata) |url=https://www.plantwise.org/knowledgebank/datasheet/29633 |archive-date=2021-07-15 |access-date=2021-07-15 |website=Plantwise Knowledge Bank |doi=10.1079/pwkb.species.29633 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715161616/https://www.plantwise.org/knowledgebank/datasheet/29633 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 2009, many rice, chillies, sorghum and sugarcane cultivations in Maharashtra State, about 9,000,000 adult beetles were collected mechanically and destroyed after heavy infestations. Also ''[[Acacia arabica]]'' and neem tree extracts mixed with DDT also used for eradication.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/09670877609412368 | title=A Large Scale Campaign for the Control of White Grubs (Holotrichia serrata F.) in Maharashtra State | year=1976 | last1=Raodeo | first1=A. K. | last2=Deshpande | first2=S. V. | last3=Deshpande | first3=A. D. | last4=Puri | first4=S. N. | last5=Bilapate | first5=G. G. | journal=Pest Articles & News Summaries | volume=22 | issue=2 | pages=223–228 }}</ref> Apart from that, the bacterium ''[[Milky spore|Paenibacillus popilliae]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Holotrichia serrata (white grub) Data Sheet |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/29633 |archive-date=2021-07-15 |access-date=2021-07-15 |website=CABI |date=2021 |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.29633 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715160114/https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/29633 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and some entomopathogenic [[nematode]]s such as ''[[Heterorhabditis indica]]'', ''[[Heterorhabditis bacteriophora]]'', ''[[Steinernema glaseri]]'' and ''[[Steinernema riobrave]]'' can be used against pupae and adult beetles.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF02943567 | title=Biocontrol potential of entomopathogenic nematodes heterorhabditis and steinernema against pupae and adults of white grub ''Holotrichia'' serrata F | year=2006 | last1=Sankaranarayanan | first1=C. | last2=Somasekhar | first2=N. | last3=Singaravelu | first3=B. | journal=Sugar Tech | volume=8 | issue=4 | pages=268–271 | s2cid=20429946 }}</ref> The seed extract from ''[[Datura innoxia]]'' and ''[[Thevetia peruviana]]'' also show biopesticide properties against grubs.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

===Main host plants===
* ''[[Areca catechu]]''
* ''[[Arachis hypogaea]]''
* ''[[Cajanus cajan]]''
* ''[[Cocos nucifera]]''
* ''[[Gossypium arboreum]]''
* ''[[Hevea brasiliensis]]''
* ''[[Nicotiana tabacum]]''
* ''[[Oryza sativa]]''
* ''[[Pennisetum glaucum]]''
* ''[[Saccharum officinarum]]''
* ''[[Solanum tuberosum]]''
* ''[[Sorghum bicolor]]''
* ''[[Tectona grandis]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q2071564}}

[[Category:Holotrichia]]
[[Category:Beetles of India]]
[[Category:Beetles of Sri Lanka]]
[[Category:Beetles described in 1781]]
[[Category:Insect pests of millets]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Johan Christian Fabricius]]

Channa rara

2025-12-27T15:14:09Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Starting a pg added tags

{{Short description|Species of fish}}
{{Speciesbox
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref =
| genus = Channa
| species = rara
| authority = Britz, Dahanukar, Anoop & Ali, 2019
| range_map =
| range_map_caption =
}}

'''''Channa rara'''''  is a species of [[Anabantoidei|labyrinth]] fish of the [[snakehead (fish)|snakehead]] family ([[Channidae]]). It was described in 2019.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Britz |first1=Ralf |last2=Dahanukar |first2=Neelesh |last3=Anoop |first3=V. K. |last4=Ali |first4=Anvar |date=2019-10-10 |title=Channa rara, a new species of snakehead fish from the Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, India (Teleostei: Labyrinthici: Channidae) |journal=Zootaxa |volume=4683 |issue=4 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4683.4.8 |issn=1175-5334 |pmid=31715914 |url=https://www.checklistbank.org/dataset/25259 }}</ref>

==Distribution==
It is endemic to India. Common in the basin of the [[Jagbudi River]] in the state of [[Maharashtra]] in the west of the country.

==Description==
A small fish up to 9 cm long. The body is elongated, cylindrical with a large head. The color is blue-gray with oblique dark vertical stripes. A specific feature from other species of the gahua group is the presence of two spots. There are two black spots at the end of the dorsal fin, and 6-7 stripes on the pectoral fins.

==Lifestyle==
Occurs in various biotopes (large and medium-sized fast-flowing rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and canals). The soil can also be any. Leads a solitary lifestyle. Lives on the bottom among fallen branches and leaves or among stones (in fast rivers). It feeds on aquatic invertebrates and small fish. Spawning is paired. The male carries the eggs in his mouth. The fry also remain under the care of the male, who takes the babies into his mouth in case of danger or for the night.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2020-09-19 |title=Channa rara: Dahanukar, N. & Sidharthan, A. |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/173252290/173252306 |doi=10.2305/iucn.uk.2023-1.rlts.t173252290a173252306.en |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://novataxa.blogspot.com/2019/10/channa-rara.html Channa rara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017110902/http://novataxa.blogspot.com/2019/10/channa-rara.html |date=October 17, 2019 }} et Novotaxa
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20191223062442/http://www.aquaristclub.org/aquaristblog/?p=15945 Новый вид змееголова в Индии. A new species of snakehead in India. Channa rara.]}}

{{Taxobar|from=Q87700945}}

[[Category:Channa|rara]]
[[Category:Fish described in 2019]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of India]]

Allama Prabhu

2025-12-17T10:46:07Z

AntoniettaWhitco: expanded structure additionally and updated info per sources

{{Short description|12th-century Veerashaiva saint and Vachana poet}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| name = Allamaprabhu
| image =
| caption = Allamaprabhu, 12th-century Veerashaiva saint and Vachana poet
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| birth_date = Early 12th century<ref name=subram71>VK Subramanian (2007), 101 Mystics of India, Abhinav, {{ISBN|978-8170174714}}, page 71</ref>
| birth_place = [[Balligavi]], [[Shimoga district]], [[Karnataka]], Bharat
| death_date = 12th or 13th century
| resting_place = Mulgund near Gadag, Karnataka (gadduge)
| sect = [[Lingayat]]<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/biography/Basava Basava: Hindu religious leader], Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref>
| known_for = Lingayat/Sharana movement
| notable_works =
}}
{{quote box|width=22em|title=Quotation|quote=''Wherever one steps on earth is a pilgrim place''{{sfn|Ramanujan|1996|p=185}}}}
{{lingayatism}}
{{Saivism}}
'''Allamaprabhu''' was a 12th-century [[Lingayatism|Lingayat]]-saint and ''[[Vachana]]'' poet (called ''Vachanakara'') of the [[Kannada language]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-28 |title=Allamaprabhu: The Saint Who Made Sacrilege Worthy of Veneration |url=https://indianculturalforum.in/2020/03/28/allama-prabhu-the-saint-who-made-sacrilege-worthy-of-veneration/ |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Indian Cultural Forum |language=en-US}}</ref>{{sfn|Shipley|2007|p=527}} propagating the unitary consciousness of Self and [[Shiva]].<ref group=web name="shivayoga">[http://www.shivayoga.net/psychological-aspects-of-shiva-yoga_/ shivayoga.net, ''Psychological Aspects of Shiva-yoga'']</ref><ref>Patton Burchett (Editor: Knut Jacobsen, 2011), Yoga Powers, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004212145}}, page 370</ref> Allamaprabhu is one of the celebrated poets and the patron saint{{refn|group=note|''Prabhu'', ''lit'', "Master"),{{sfn|Subramanian|2005|p=213}}}} of the [[lingayatism|Lingayata]]{{refn|group=note|''lit'', "Devotees of the god [[Shiva]]}} movement that reshaped medieval [[Karnataka]] society and popular Kannada literature. He is included among the "Trinity of Lingayathism", along with [[Basavanna]], the founder of the movement, and [[Akka Mahadevi]], the most prominent woman poet.{{sfn|Subramanian|2005|page=16}}

Allamaprabhu used poetry, now part of ''Vachana Sahitya'' literature, to criticise rituals and social conventions, to break down social barriers and to emphasize moral values and devotional worship of [[Shiva]].<ref name="movement"/><ref name="ritual"/> It is well accepted that though Basavanna was the inspiration behind the Lingayath movement and earned the honorific "elder brother" (''anna'') at the "mansion of experience" ([[Anubhava Mantapa]]), Allama was the real [[guru]] who presided over it.{{sfn|Subramanian|2005|p=213}}{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|pp=144–145}}

According to the scholars K. A. Nilakanta Sastri and Joseph T. Shipley, Vachana literature comprises pithy pieces of poetic prose in easy to understand, yet compelling Kannada language.{{sfn|Shipley|2007|p=527}}{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=361}} The scholar E. P. Rice characterises ''Vachana'' poems as brief parallelistic allusive poems, each ending with one of the popular local names of the god Shiva and preaching the common folk detachment from worldly pleasures and adherence to devotion to the god Shiva (Shiva Bhakti).<ref name="bhakti">Rice E.P. in {{harvnb|Sastri|1955| p=361}}</ref>

==Biography==
The biographical details of Allamaprabhu that can be historically verified are scanty, and much that is known about him is from hagiographic legends.<ref name=subram71/> Some details of the early life of Allama are available in the writings of noted [[Hoysala]] poet [[Harihara (poet)|Harihara]], while other accounts are generally considered legendary.{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=143}} Allamaprabhu was born in Shivamogga district of Karnataka, India, in the 12th century, to Sujnani and Nirashankara.<ref>Roshen Dalal, Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0143423171}}, page 159</ref> He was a contemporary of the other famous Lingayat devotee-poets (''sharanas''), Basavanna and Akka Mahadevi.<ref name="ritual"/> According to Harihara's biography of Allama, the earliest account of the saint's life, he was a temple drummer in modern [[Shivamogga district]], Karnataka state, India. He came from a family of temple performers, was himself an expert at playing a type of drum called ''maddale'', and his father was a dance teacher.<ref name=skdas>{{cite book |author=Sisir Kumar Das |year=2005 |title=A History of Indian Literature, 500-1399: From Courtly to the Popular |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126021710 |pages=167–169}}</ref>

Allamaprabhu married a dancer named Kamalathe, but she died prematurely.{{sfn|Subramanian|2005|p=213}} The grief-stricken Allama wandered aimlessly, arriving at a cave temple, where he met the saint Animisayya (or Animisha, "the open eyed one").{{sfn|Subramanian|2005|p=213}} The saint gave him a [[linga]] icon, blessed him with knowledge on god, and, Allama was enlightened and transformed into a seeker of spirituality. Allama's pen name, (''ankita'' or ''mudra''), ''Guheshvara'' the god who stays with every one in the heart cave (also spelt ''Guheswara'' or ''Guhesvara'', ''lit'', "Lord of the caves"), which he used in most of his poems is said to be a celebration of his experience in the cave temple.<ref name="ritual"/>{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=144}}{{sfn|Shiva Prakash|1997|p=179}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.poetry-chaikhana.com/A/AllamaPrabhu/index.htm |title=Allamaprabhu |website=Poetry Chaikhana |access-date=6 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060827140307/http://www.poetry-chaikhana.com/A/AllamaPrabhu/index.htm |archive-date=27 August 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Allamaprabhu spread his message with songs, playing a [[lyre]] as he wandered from place to place.<ref name=skdas/> Most of his compositions were spontaneous and in vernacular language, but some were written in ''Sandhya Bhasha'' (a code filled language of secret doctrines understood by [[Yoga|Yogi]] Sidhas),<ref name=skdas/> a riddle-filled questions-packed poetry in the Vedic and Upanishadic tradition.{{sfn|Ramanujan|1996|pp=179-190}}

Allama died in Kadalivana near Srishila (Andhra Pradesh), and legend has it that he "became one with the ''linga''".{{sfn|Shiva Prakash|1997|p=179}}

Sadhguru referred to Allamaprabhu as one of a kind in the whole history of humanity. He was an extraordinary being.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Allama Mahaprabhu and the Yoga of Gentleness |url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/in/en/wisdom/article/allama-mahaprabhu-and-the-yoga-of-gentleness |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=isha.sadhguru.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Poems==
Allamaprabhu's poetic style has been described as mystic and cryptic, rich in paradoxes and inversions (''bedagu'' mode), staunchly against any form of symbolism, occult powers (''siddhis'') and their acquisition, temple worship, conventional systems and ritualistic practices, and even critical of fellow Veerashaiva devotees and poets. However, all his poems are non-sectarian and some of them even use straight forward language.<ref name="invert">{{harvnb|Shiva Prakash|1997|pp=178–179}}</ref> About 1,300 hymns are attributed to him.<ref name=subram71/>

According to the Kannada scholar [[H.S. Shivaprakash|Shiva Prakash]], Allama's poems are more akin to the ''Koans'' (riddles) in the Japanese Zen tradition, and have the effect of awakening the senses out of complacency.<ref name="zen">{{harvnb|Shiva Prakash|1997|p=180}}</ref> Critic Joseph Shipley simply categorises Allama's poems as those of a "perfect ''Jnani''" ("saint").{{sfn|Shipley|2007|p=527}} Some of Allama's poems are known to question and probe the absolute rejection of the temporal by fellow Veerashaiva devotees–even Basavanna was not spared. A poem of his mocks at Akka Mahadevi for covering her nudity with tresses, while flaunting it to the world at the same time, in an act of rejection of pleasures.<ref name="world">{{harvnb|Ramanujan|1973|p=145}}</ref> The scholar Basavaraju compiled 1321 [[Extant literature|extant]] poems of Allamaprabhu in his work ''Allamana Vachana Chandrike'' (1960). These poems are known to cover an entire range, from devotion to final union with God.{{sfn|Subramanian|2005|p=213}}{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=148}}

The poems give little information about Allama's early life and worldly experiences before enlightenment. In the words of the scholar Ramanujan, to a saint like Allama, "the butterfly has no memory of the caterpillar".<ref name="butter">{{harvnb|Ramanujan|1973|p=147}}</ref> His wisdom is reflected in his poems–only a small portion of which are on the devotee aspect (''bhakta'', poems 64–112). More than half of the poems dwell on the later phase (''sthala'') in the life of a saint, most are about union with god and of realization (''aikya'', poems 606–1321).{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=148}} His poems use the phrase "Lord of the caves" or "Guheswara" to refer to Shiva, and this practice states Subramanian is because Allamaprabhu received his enlightenment in a cave temple.{{sfn|Subramanian|2005|page=215 footnote}}{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|page=196}}

{{Quote|I saw the fragrance fleeing, when the bee came, What a wonder! I saw intellect fleeing, when the heart came. I saw the temple fleeing, when God came.|Allamaprabhu|{{harvnb|Shiva Prakash|1997|pp=179–180}}}}

{{Quote|The tiger-headed deer, the deer-headed tiger, Joined at the waist. Look, another came to chew close by When the trunk with no head grazes dry leaves, Look, all vanishes, O Guheswara.|Allamaprabhu in ''Bedagu mode''|{{harvnb|Shiva Prakash|1997|p=180}}}}

{{Quote|If the mountain feels cold, what will they cover it with? If the fields are naked, what will they clothe them with? If the devotee is wordly, what will they compare him with? O! Lord of the caves!|Allamaprabhu|{{harvnb|Subramanian|2005|p=219}}}}

{{Quote|Look here, the legs are two wheels; the body is a wagon, full of things Five men drive the wagon and one man is not like another. Unless you ride it in full knowledge of its ways the axle will break O Lord of Caves!|Allamaprabhu|{{harvnb|Ramanujan|1973|p=149}}}}

==Worldview==
===Lingayat and the vachanakaras===
Allama was devoted to the worship of Shiva.{{sfn|Subramanian|2005|p=15}} He used his vachanas to spread Lingayathism,{{sfn|Saravanan|2014}} which is monotheistic and nondualistic, and has a strong egalitarian message. Its philosophy and practice is presented in the ''[[Panchacaras]]'', five codes of conduct, and the ''[[Shatsthala]]'', six phases or steps toward unity with Shiva.{{sfn|Saravanan|2014}} For the ''vacanakaras'' (Vachana poets), "first-hand 'seeing' was more important to their poetry than theological formulations."{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}} Nevertheless, the Shatsthala system provides a narrative structure to the vachanas, portraying a progress toward the union with Shiva.{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}} Later anthologies, with the notable exception of the ''Shoonya Sampadane'', followed this scheme in their arrangement of the vachanas.{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}}

Although Allamaprabhu and the Vacanas have been qualified as bhakti poets,<ref>{{cite book |author=Michael Downes |title=Jonathan Harvey: Song Offerings and White as Jasmine |year=2009 |isbn=978-0754660224 |pages=76–77|publisher=Ashgate Publishing }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=A.K. Ramanujan |editor=Molly Daniels-Ramanujan |year=2004 |title=The Oxford India Ramanujan |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195664782 |pages=331–334}}</ref> D.R. Nagaraj notes that Allamaprabhu was not a bhakti poet. Nagaraj explains that Allama's "insistence on opaque and mysterious modes of metaphor is in stark contrast with the emotionally transparent model of bhakti."{{sfn|Nagaraj|2003|p=357}}

===Social concerns===
Allamaprabhu used poetry, now part of ''Vachana Sahitya'' literature, to criticise rituals and social conventions, to breakdown social barriers and to emphasize moral values and devotional worship of [[Shiva]].<ref name="movement">{{harvnb|Shiva Prakash|1997|pages=xLi, 170–179}}, Quote: "Devotees of Shiva, they emphasized the importance of moral values and condemned mere ritualism. They were critics of social evils. Basava, Allamaprabhu, Akka Mahadevi, Raghavanka and Harihar were among the best writers of this period."</ref><ref name="ritual">{{harvnb|Subramanian|2005|pages=16, 213}}, Quote: "Allamaprabhu, along with Basavanna and Mahadevi Akka, may be considered the pioneers of Veerasaivism, a movement devoted to the worship of Siva, preaching the breakdown of social barriers, conventions and external rituals."</ref> The vacanakaras, of which Allama was a prominent spokesman, rejected both the 'great' traditions of Vedic religion and the 'little' local traditions,{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=25}} and questioned and ridiculed "classical belief systems, social customs and superstitions, image worship, the caste system, the Vedic ritual of yajna, as well as local sacrifices of lambs and goats."{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=29-30}}

During the fifteenth century Virashaiva priests consolidated the Virashaiva lore, over-emphasizing the theological and meta-physical aspects, and ignoring the socio-political aspects. The ''[[Sunyasampadane|Shoonya Sampadane]]'' is a result of this consolidation, which is "a far cry from the socio-political pre-occupations of the twelfth-century movement."{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}}

===Philosophy and religiosity===
Allamaprabhu propagated the unitary consciousness of Self and Shiva,<ref group=web name="shivayoga">[http://www.shivayoga.net/psychological-aspects-of-shiva-yoga_/ shivayoga.net, ''Psychological Aspects of Shiva-yoga'']</ref> using poetry to express this unity. The vachanakaras regarded language as a limited means to express "the unitive experience of truth."{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}} Yet, the vachanas are seen as an expression of the Divine when, in Allama's words,
{{quote|All Language is the essence of beyond if one knows oneself. All language is ignorance if one is unaware of oneself.{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}}}}

Allama's poetry and spirituality is "intensely personal and experimental,"{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}} and the vachanas in general "bear [...] a highly complex relationship to other schools,"{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}} which makes it very difficult to trace and establish exact influences and independent developments.{{sfn|Shivaprakash|2010}} Nevertheless, Allama's philosophy is described as [[monism]]<ref name=skdas/>{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=76}}{{refn|group=note|William McCormack, quoting Ramanujan, states, "Allamaprabhu perhaps taught philosophical monism through his vacanas".{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=76}}}} and also as [[Nonduality (spirituality)|non-dualism]] ("advaita").{{sfn|Ishawaran|1992|p=129-130}}{{refn|group=note|Allama has been called an exponent of "nondualism", c.q "advaita":
* Ishawaran: "Allamaprabhu, a staunch exponent of non-dualism (advaita), convinced [[Siddheshwar|Siddharama]] that God was within himself. He chided him by saying, 'you who presume to place Him before you and converse with Him, do not have any understanding of Him!"{{sfn|Ishawaran|1992|p=129-130}}
The terms "nondualism" and "advaita" should not be confused with Shankara's [[Advaita Vedanta]], which follows the Vedas instead of the Agamas, although Allamaprabhu, and Lingayatism in general, has also been specifically characterized as showing similarities with Shankara's Advaita Vedanta:
* [[Surendranath Dasgupta]]: "It will be easy for us to show that Allama-Prabhu, the teacher of Basava, was thoroughly surcharged with the Vedantism of the [[Adi Shankara|Śaṇkara]] school."<ref>{{cite book |author=Surendranath Dasgupta |orig-year=1951 |title=A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 5: Southern Schools of Saivism |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=2012 |edition=Reprint |isbn=978-8120804166 |page=50}}</ref>
* According to S.C. Nandimath, as referred to by [[A.K. Ramanujan]], Lingayatism shows "philosophical similarities with the monism preached by the eighth-century Vedantin, [[Adi Shankara|Sankaracharya]]."{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=182-183}}
Although ''Advaita'' or nondualism nowadays is best-known from Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, it has a long history in Indian thought which is not confined to Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Dasgupta|Mohanta|1998|p=362}} Shankara's Advaita was influenced by [[Madhyamaka]] Buddhism and its notion of [[sunyata]], while [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]] may also have been responding to the oldest [[Upanishad]]ic teachings of the [[Chandogya Upanishad]],{{sfn|Gombrich|1990|p=12-20}} itself one of the sources of Shankara's teachings. Dasgupta and Mohanta also note that Buddhism and Shankara's Advaita Vedanta are not opposing systems, but "different phases of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic period to the time of Sankara."{{sfn|Dasgupta|Mohanta|1998|p=362}} This development did not end with Advaita Vedanta, but continued in Tantrism and various schools of Shaivism. Non-dual [[Kashmir Shaivism]], for example, was influenced by, and took over doctrines from, several orthodox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical traditions.{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=25}} These include Vedanta, Samkhya, Patanjali Yoga and Nyayas, and various Buddhist schools, including Yogacara and Madhyamika,{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=25}} but also Tantra and the Nath-tradition.{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=26}} In modern times, due to the influence of [[Western esotericism]], [[Universalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]] on Indian [[Neo-Vedanta]] and subsequent [[Hindu nationalism]],{{sfn|King|2002}} Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.{{sfn|King|2002}} Other traditions and religious persons, for example [[Ramana Maharshi]], are also labeled as "advaita," despite the fact that the Shaivite traditions have a different origin, history and textual basis. On the interplay between the various Indian traditions, and the development of the Advaitic hegemony, see:
* {{Citation | last =Samuel | first =Geoffrey | year =2010 | title =The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Nicholson | first =Andrew J. | year =2010 | title =Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History | publisher =Columbia University Press}}
* {{harvp|King|2002}}}} He de-emphasized the need to perfect difficult feats of [[Yoga]] and emphasized overcoming the boundaries between relative and absolute knowledge, between devotee and [[guru]] (teacher).{{sfn|Michael|1992|p=33-35, 127-128}} He used his poetry to teach others,{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=76}} voicing a spirituality that is ''Nirguna'' (without attributes, qualities), yet uses ''Saguna'' devotionalism in order to metaphorically express what is inexpressible:{{sfn|Ramanujan|1996|pp=186-187}}
{{Quote|
<poem>
Without the [[dualism (Indian philosophy)|duality]] – mind and mere bone,
For him who has merged his own Self with the Lord,
All actions are actions of ''linga'' alone.
With mind given rest from its usual toil,
For him who has merged his own Self with the Lord,
All thoughts of attainment his knowledge be spoil.
Himself into Self having joined with great yoke,
For him there's no dual, no unity broke,
O Lord of the Caves!
</poem>
|Allamaprabhu|Translated by R Blake Michael{{sfn|Michael|1992|p=33-35, 127-128}}}}

==Writings on Allamaprabhu==
Allamaprabhu was the protagonist of some important writings in the Kannada language. The [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] poet, Chamarasa, wrote ''Prabhulingalile'' (1430) in the court of King [[Deva Raya II]], giving an account of the life and teachings of Allamaprabhu. In this work, Allama is considered an incarnation of the Hindu god [[Ganapati]], and [[Parvati]], the consort of the god Shiva, takes the form of the princess of [[Banavasi]] to test his detachment from the material world.{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=363}} So popular was the work, that the king had it translated into [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] languages. Later, translations were made into [[Sanskrit]] and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] languages.{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=363}}{{sfn|Datta|1987|p=617}}

With the intent of re-kindling the spirit of the 12th century, the ''[[Sunyasampadane]]'' ("Achievement of nothingness" or "The mystical zero"), a famous anthology of ''Vachana'' poems and Veerashaiva philosophy was compiled during the Vijayanagara era. It was compiled in four versions starting with the anthologist Shivaganaprasadi Mahadevaiah in c. 1400. Other versions by Halage Arya (1500), Siddhalingayati (1560) and Siddaveerannodaya (1570) are considered refinements. With Allama as its central figure, these anthologies give a vivid account of his interaction, in the form of dialogues, with contemporary saints and devotees. The quality of the work is considered very high.{{sfn|Ramanujan|1973|p=144}}{{sfn|Datta|1987|pp=191, 199–200}}{{sfn|Shiva Prakash|1997|p=189}}
One of his work was translated in to Tamil by Karpanai Kalangiyam Sivaprakasa Swamigal as "Prabhu Linga Leelai".

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
===Print sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Dasgupta | first1 =Sanghamitra | last2 =Mohanta | first2 =Dilip Kumar |title=Some Reflections on the Relation Between Sankara And Buddhism | journal =Indian Philosophical Quarterly |volume=25 |issue=3 |date=July 1998 |pages=349–366 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last= Datta |editor-first= Amaresh |title= Encyclopaedia of Indian literature |series=Vol. 1, A-devo|year=1987|publisher= Sahitya Akademi |oclc=34346316 }}
* {{Citation | last =Gombrich | first =R.F. | year =1990 | chapter =Recovering the Buddha's Message | editor1-last =Ruegg | editor1-first =David Seyfort | editor2-last =Schmithausen | editor2-first =Lambert | title =Earliest Buddhism: Madhyamaka | publisher =BRILL }}
* {{Citation | last =Ishawaran | first =K. | year =1992 | title =Speaking of Basava: Lingayat Religion and Culture in South Asia | publisher =Westview Press | isbn =978-0813383897 }}
* {{Citation | last =King | first =Richard | year =2002 | title =Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East" | publisher =Routledge }}
* {{Citation | last =Michael | first =R. Blake | year =1992 | title =The Origins of Vīraśaiva Sects: A Typological Analysis of Ritual and Associated Patterns in the Śūnyasaṃpādane | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publ. }}
* {{Citation | last =Muller-Ortega | first =Paul E. | year =2010 | title =Triadic Heart of Siva: Kaula Tantricism of Abhinavagupta in the Non-Dual Shaivism of Kashmir | publisher =Suny press }}
* {{cite book |last=Nagaraj |first=D.R.|editor=Sheldon I. Pollock|title=Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia|chapter=Critical Tensions in the History of Kannada Literary Culture|orig-year=2003|year=2003|publisher=Berkeley and London: University of California Press|isbn=0-520-22821-9 }}
* {{Citation|last=Ramanujan|first=A.K.|author-link=A.K. Ramanujan|title=Speaking of Siva|year=1973|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=0-14-044270-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/speakingofiva0000rama}}
* {{cite book |last=Ramanujan |first=A.K. |year=1996 |title=Untying the Knot: On Riddles and Other Enigmatic Modes |editor1=[[Galit Hasan-Rokem]] |editor2=[[David Dean Shulman]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195108569}}
* {{Citation | last =Saravanan | first =V. Hari | year =2014 | title =Gods, Heroes and their Story Tellers: Intangible cultural heritage of South India | publisher =Notion Press }}
* {{cite book |last= Sastri|first= Nilakanta K.A. |author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri |title= A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|year=1955|publication-date=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-19-560686-8 }}
* {{cite book |last= Shipley|first= Joseph T.|title= Encyclopedia of Literature - Vol I |year= 2007|publisher= READ BOOKS|isbn= 978-1-4067-0135-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Shiva Prakash|first=H.S.|author-link=H.S. Shivaprakash|year=1997|chapter=Kannada |editor=Ayyappapanicker|title=Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=81-260-0365-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Shivaprakash|first=H.S.|year=2010 |title=I Keep Vigil of Rudra: The Vachanas |publisher=Penguin Classics|location= London|isbn= 9788184752830}}
* {{cite book |last= Subramanian|first= V.K.|title=Sacred Songs of India- Vol VI |year=2005|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn= 81-7017-419-8 }}
{{refend}}

===Web-sources===
{{reflist|group=web}}

==Further reading==
* {{Citation |last =Puranik |first =Basavaraj |year =1999 |title =Anupamacharita Allamaprabhudeva |publisher =Basava Samithi}}
* {{cite book |last= Rice|first=E.P. |title=Kannada Literature|orig-year=1921|year=1982|publisher=Asian Educational Services|location=New Delhi|isbn= 81-206-0063-0 }}
* {{cite book |last= Sadarangani|first=Neeti M|title=Bhakti Poetry in Medieval India |year=2004|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn= 81-7625-436-3 }}

==External links==
{{Wikisource|ಅಲ್ಲಮಪ್ರಭು}}
*[http://www.asvattha.org/Data/Article018.pdf Introducing Vacanas: Some poems of Allamaprabhu and other Virasaiva saints], MD Shirley
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844333 Lingayats as a Sect], William McCormack (1963), The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 93, No. 1, pages 59–71
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/1462945 Work as Worship in Vīraśaiva Tradition], R Blake Michael (1982), Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 50, No. 4, pages 605-619

{{Lingayatism topics}}
{{Shaivism}}
{{Karnataka topics}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Prabhu, Allama}}
[[Category:Lingayat poets]]
[[Category:Lingayatism]]
[[Category:Kannada poets]]
[[Category:Indian social reformers]]
[[Category:People from Shimoga district]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Advaita Shaivism]]
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Poets from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Lingayat saints]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian philosophers]]

Rahul Mehrotra

2025-12-01T14:03:08Z

AntoniettaWhitco: Put up the details w/ refs!

{{Short description|Indian architect}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}

{{Infobox architect
| name = Rahul Mehrotra
| practice =
| significant_buildings =
| significant_projects = {{Unbulleted list
|Restoration of the [[Chowmahalla Palace]]|}}
| alma_mater = [[Campion School Bombay]] [[CEPT University]] [[Harvard University]]
}}

'''Rahul Mehrotra''' is Founder Principal of architecture firm RMA Architects (founded in 1990 as Rahul Mehrotra Associates) of [[Mumbai]] + [[Boston]], and is Professor of [[Urban design|Urban Design]] and Planning and Chair of the Department of Urban Planning and Design at the [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]] (GSD) in [[Cambridge]], Massachusetts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sify.com/news/rahul-mehrotra-to-head-harvard-school-of-design-news-international-kkjv4ciaace.html |title=Rahul Mehrotra to head Harvard School of Design |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=9 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019234523/http://www.sify.com/news/rahul-mehrotra-to-head-harvard-school-of-design-news-international-kkjv4ciaace.html |archive-date=19 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

He has been one of the activists behind the declaration of urban precincts as conservation areas in Mumbai and one of the founder members of the [[Kala Ghoda]] area rejuvenation movement, the restoration of the [[Oval Maidan]], and the formulation of several citizens' associations in the historic [[Fort District]] in [[Mumbai]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-literaryreview/Celebrating-heritage/article15942139.ece | title=Celebrating heritage | date=5 July 2009 | newspaper=The Hindu | first=Ranvir | last=Shah | accessdate=8 October 2018 }}</ref> He was also executive director of the [[Urban Design Research Institute]] (1994-2004), where he is now a trustee. The UDRI is also actively involved in researching and influencing policy for the historic district, and the city more generally.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.udri.org/ |title=Home |website=udri.org}}</ref> He is also a founding board member of the Indian Institute for Human Settlement (IIHS).<ref>{{cite news| url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Layout/Includes/ETNEW/ArtWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=ETNEW&BaseHref=ETBG%2F2012%2F08%2F13&ViewMode=HTML&PageLabel=1&EntityId=Ar00103&AppName=1
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107003748/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Layout/Includes/ETNEW/ArtWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=ETNEW&BaseHref=ETBG%2F2012%2F08%2F13&ViewMode=HTML&PageLabel=1&EntityId=Ar00103&AppName=1
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=7 November 2017
| work=The Times Of India | title= Urban Landscape gets New Corner-Room Architects | date=2012-08-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/press-releases/iihs-receives-a-rs-50-cr-gift-from-nandan-rohini-nilekani-111062700129_1.html
| work=Business Standard | title= IIHS receives a Rs 50 cr gift from Nandan, Rohini Nilekani | date=2013-01-20}}</ref>

He graduated from [[CEPT University]] and [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://harvardmagazine.com/2012/05/designs-for-a-new-india| title = Architect Rahul Mehrotra balances teaching at Harvard and practice in India {{!}} Harvard Magazine| date = 25 April 2012}}</ref>

==Selected projects==
[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/childrens-museum-at-csmvs/ Children's Museum] at the [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya]] (Mumbai)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/cept-university-library/ CEPT University Library] (Ahmedabad)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/kasturbhai-lalbhai-gallery/ Kasturbhai Lalbhai Gallery] (Ahmedabad)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/hathigaon/ Hathigaon] (Jaipur)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/kmc-corporate-office/ KMC Corporate Office] (Hyderabad)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khatri |first=Aastha |title=KMC Corporate Office by Rahul Mehrotra: Modulation of light and air |url=https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/case-studies/a4093-kmc-corporate-office-by-rahul-mehrotra-modulation-of-light-and-air/ |website=Rethinking the Future}}</ref>

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/lab-in-a-courtyard/ Novartis Campus] (Basel, Switzerland)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/cappella-da-nossa-senhora-do-monte/ Capela da Nodda Senhora Do Monte] (Goa)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/visitors-center-at-the-prince-of-wales-museum/ Visitor Centre] at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (Mumbai)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-04-18 |title=CSMVS - Visitor Centre at the Prince of Wales Museum / RMA Architects |url=https://www.archdaily.com/361855/csmvs-visitor-centre-at-the-prince-of-wales-museum-rma-architects |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=ArchDaily |language=en-US}}</ref>

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/house-in-a-tea-garden/ House In A Tea Garden] (Conoor)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-02 |title=House in a Tea Garden / RMA Architects |url=https://www.archdaily.com/367017/house-in-a-tea-garden-rma-architects |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=ArchDaily |language=en-US}}</ref>

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/three-court-house/ Three Court House] (Alibaug)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/taj-mahal-visitor-centre/ Taj Mahal Visitor Centre] (with the [https://rmaarchitects.com/collaboration/taj-mahal-conservation-collaborative/ Taj Mahal Conservation Collective]) (Agra)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/hewlett-packard-software-campus/ Hewlett-Packard Software Campus] (Bengaluru)<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006 |title=HP Campus RMA Architects |url=https://www.indian-architects.com/nl/rma-architects-mumbai/project/hp-campus |access-date=March 28, 2023 |website=indian-architects}}</ref>

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/lmw-corporate-headquarters/ LMW Corporate Headquarters] (Coimbatore)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/restoration-of-the-chowmahalla-palace-complex/ Restoration Of The Chowmahalla Palace Complex] (Hyderabad)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007 |title=Restoration of the Chowmahalla Palace Complex |url=https://www.world-architects.com/en/rma-architects-mumbai/project/restoration-of-the-chowmahalla-palace-complex |access-date=March 29, 2023 |website=world-architects.com}}</ref>

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/campus-for-magic-bus/ Campus For Magic Bus] (Panvel)<ref>{{Cite web |title=A "Magic Bus" For City Kids |url=https://www.magicbus.org/blog-a-magic-bus-for-city-kids-122 |access-date=2023-03-29 |website=www.magicbus.org}}</ref>

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/community-toilets-for-sparc/ Community Toilets for SPARC] (The Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centers) (Mumbai)

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/extension-to-the-prince-of-wales-museum/ Extension to the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya] (Mumbai)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-10-26 |title=Prince of Wales Visitors Centre by RMA Architects |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2011/10/27/prince-of-wales-visitors-centre-by-rma-architects/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=Dezeen |language=en}}</ref>

[https://rmaarchitects.com/architecture/project-88/ Project 88] (Mumbai)

Gallery Maskara (Mumbai)

Bandhej Stores (Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Mumbai)

==Books==
“Taj Mahal: Multiple Narratives”, co-authored with Amita Baig and published by Om books International. 2017<ref>{{Cite web |title=Om Books International |url=https://www.ombooksinternational.com/view_press.php?id=26 |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=www.ombooksinternational.com}}</ref>

"Architecture in India since 1990," published by Pictor, Mumbai. 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rahul Mehrotra's 'Architecture in India Since 1990' |url=https://asiasociety.org/india/events/rahul-mehrotras-architecture-india-1990 |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=Asia Society |language=en}}</ref>

"Bombay Deco", co- authored with [[Sharada Dwivedi]] and published by Eminence Designs. 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mathew |first=Bhakti Bapat |date=2013-03-29 |title=Mumbai's art deco heritage a nod to a history of style |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/mumbai-s-art-deco-heritage-a-nod-to-a-history-of-style-1.295417 |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=The National |language=en}}</ref>

"Banganga and Malabar Hill", co –authored with Sharada Dwivedi, published by Eminence Designs, April 2006 ( new and revised edition)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Banganga: Sacred Tank on Malabar Hill {{!}} Eminence Publishing |url=http://eminencepublishing.com/shop/bombay-shelf/banganga-sacred-tank-on-malabar-hill/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

"A City Icon – Victoria Terminus Bombay 1887( now Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus 1996)" co- authored with Sharada Dwivedi and published by Eminence Designs. 2006.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mehrotra |first=Rahul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfXVAAAAMAAJ |title=A City Icon: Victoria Terminus Bombay, 1887 Now Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus Mumbai, 1996 |date=2006 |publisher=Eminence Designs |isbn=978-81-903821-0-6 |language=en}}</ref>

"Michigan Debates on Urbanism" vol 1: Everyday Urbanism, editor for volume, published by The [[University of Michigan]], A. Alfred Taubman College of Architect + Urban Planning. 2005<ref>{{Cite web |title=Everyday Urbanism {{!}} Taubman College of Architecture & Urban Planning |url=https://taubmancollege.umich.edu/architecture/publications/map/everyday-urbanism |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=taubmancollege.umich.edu}}</ref>

"Conservation After Legislation – Issues and Ideas for Bombay" Co-edited with [[Abha Narain Lambah]], published by the Urban Design Research Institute, Mumbai. 2004.<ref>{{Cite web |last=UDRI |title=CONSERVATION AFTER LEGISLATION |url=https://www.udri.org/portfolio-items/conservation-after-legislation/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=URBAN DESIGN RESEARCH INSTITUTE |language=en-US}}</ref>

"The [[Bombay High Court]] – The Story of the Building – 1878-2003" co-authored with Sharada Dwivedi, published by Eminence Design, Mumbai. 2003.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Bombay High Court ; The Story of the Building, 1878-2003 - Mehrotra, Rahul, Dwivedi, Sharada: 9788190060257 - AbeBooks |url=https://www.abebooks.com/9788190060257/Bombay-High-Court-Story-Building-8190060252/plp |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=www.abebooks.com |language=en}}</ref>

"World Architecture A Critical Mosaic 1900-2000 – Volume VIII, South Asia", Editor for book documenting canonical works of architecture of the century in South Asia, General editor Kenneth Frampton, published by the Architectural Society of China, Beijing and the Union of International Architects, Beijing. 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Architecture . A critical mosaic 1900 - 2000 . Volume 8 / VIII. South Asia, General editor : Kenneth Frampton . Volume editor : Rahul Mehrotra , by Frampton , K. / Mehrotra, R. (Edit.) {{!}} Johann Peter Hebel Antiquariat |url=https://www.abebooks.com/World-Architecture-critical-mosaic-1900-2000/13346949184/bd |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=www.abebooks.com |language=en}}</ref>

"Anchoring A City Line – The Western Railway Headquarters 1899-1999" Co-authored with Sharada
Dwivedi and published by Eminence Designs, Mumbai. 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anchoring a City Line 1899-1999. The history of the western suburban railway and its headquarters in Bombay {{!}} Eminence Publishing |url=http://eminencepublishing.com/shop/bombay-shelf/anchoring-a-city-line/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

"Fort Walks – 10 walks in Bombay's Historic City Center" Co-authored with Sharada Dwivedi and Published by Eminence Designs, Mumbai, 1999, (Reprinted in 2001).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fort Walks {{!}} Eminence Publishing |url=http://eminencepublishing.com/shop/bombay-shelf/fort-walks/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

"Bombay To Mumbai – Changing Perspectives" Co-edited with Pauline Rohatgi and Pheroza Godrej, published by [[Marg (magazine)|Marg magazine]], Mumbai, 1997 (Reprinted in 2001).<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.bibliopolis.com |title=Bombay to Mumbai: Changing Perspectives by Pratapaditya Pal, general on Mullen Books |url=https://www.mullenbooks.com/pages/books/168018/pratapaditya-pal-general/bombay-to-mumbai-changing-perspectives |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=Mullen Books |language=en-US}}</ref>

"Banganga – Sacred Tank" A book on the history of the Banganga Temple complex and Malabar Hill, Mumbai Co-author with Sharada Dwivedi and published by Eminence Designs, Mumbai. 1996.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Banganga: Sacred Tank on Malabar Hill {{!}} Eminence Publishing |url=http://eminencepublishing.com/shop/bombay-shelf/banganga-sacred-tank-on-malabar-hill/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

"Bombay – The Cities Within" A book on the urban history of Bombay, Co-author with Sharada Dwivedi and published by India Book House and Eminence Designs, 1995, (Reprinted in 1997, 2001).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bombay The Cities Within {{!}} Eminence Publishing |url=http://eminencepublishing.com/shop/bombay-shelf/bombay-the-cities-within/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

"The Fort Precinct In Bombay – Conserving an Image Center". A two volume publication on the Fort area co-edited and compiled with Gunter Nest and Sandhya Savant and published by the Goethe Institute. 1995.<ref>{{Cite web |last=UDRI |title=The Fort Precinct in Bombay: Conserving an Image Centre – Vol I |url=https://www.udri.org/portfolio-items/fort-precinct-bombay-conserving-image-centre-vol/ |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=URBAN DESIGN RESEARCH INSTITUTE |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Exhibitions==
"The State of Architecture" : practices and processes in India. 6 January-20 March 2016. [[National Gallery of Modern Art]], Mumbai.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The State of Architecture: Practices and Processes in India |url=https://worldarchitecture.org/articles/cehmg/the-state-of-architecture--practices-and-processes-in-india.html |access-date=2023-04-01 |website=World Architecture Community |language=en}}</ref>

"Kinetic City" Exhibition by RMA Research, [[British School at Rome]], 5–26 February 2013.

"Water – Curse or Blessing" exhibition featuring Hathigaon, Village for a hundred elephants, Aedes Gallery, Berlin, Germany, 9 September – 21 October 2011.

"Working in Mumbai" an exhibition on the works of RMA architects, Wolk Gallery, MIT, Cambridge, USA. 2008.

"Goa 2100" an exhibition on transforming Panjim City in Goa towards a sustainable future. Exhibition as part of Indian Team at the World Gas Conference, Tokyo, Japan. 2003.

"The Works of Rahul Mehrotra at the Shanghai Biennale" Exhibition on Contemporary Art and Architecture – organized by the [[Museum of Contemporary Art Shanghai|Contemporary Art Museum Shanghai]], China. 2002.

"Memories in Asbestos – an installation on interpretations of the Kalaghoda Art District in Bombay" Installation in collaboration with Mumbai artist [[Atul Dodiya]], 1–14 February 2000, at Chemould Art Gallery, Mumbai.

"The Buildings of the Kala Ghoda Art District- an exhibition on the historic buildings of the district together with some urban conservation strategies", in collaboration with the Urban Design Research Institute, 1–14 February 2000, at the Stuttgart Hall, Max Mueller Bhavan Bombay.

"Beginnings – projects of twelve young architects", June 1998 at the Municipality Contemporary Art Gallery, Ankara, Turkey.

"Architecture on the Horizon", an exhibition on emerging architects from around the World, Aug – Sept 1996 at the RIBA Architectural Centre, London.

== References ==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.rmaarchitects.com/home/ RMA Architects]
* [http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/#/people/rahul-mehrotra.html Rahul Mehrotra] at [[Harvard University]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mehrotra, Rahul}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian architects]]
[[Category:Indian urban planners]]
[[Category:Architecture educators]]
[[Category:Harvard Graduate School of Design faculty]]
[[Category:Conservation architects]]
[[Category:Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:University of Michigan faculty]]

Shamin Mannan

2025-11-24T05:28:38Z

AntoniettaWhitco: brief improve content and improved wording for clarity

{{Short description|Indian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Shamin Mannan
| image = Shamin Mannan (2018).jpg
| caption = Mannan in 2018
| birth_place = [[Dibrugarh]], [[Assam]], India
| birth_name =
| occupation = {{hlist|Actress|model}}
| relatives = Tamanna Mannan (sister)
}}
'''Shamin Mannan''' is an Indian actress who works in [[Hindi]] television. She is best known for playing Bhoomi Vaishnav in [[Colors TV]] drama series ''[[Sanskaar – Dharohar Apno Ki]]'' (2013–14).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://photogallery.indiatimes.com/tv/stars/shamin-mannan/Shamin-Mannans-pictures/articleshow/66080772.cms |title=Shamin Mannan teases cyberspace with her sultry pictures}}</ref><ref>{{
cite web
|title='Sanskaar - Dharohar Apnon Ki' TV serial on Colors TV|url=http://colors.in.com/in/shows/sanskaar-dharohar-apnon-ki-3594.html
|work=Official Website for Colors TV
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429191817/http://colors.in.com/in/shows/sanskaar-dharohar-apnon-ki-3594.html
|archive-date=29 April 2013
|accessdate=11 March 2013
}}</ref>

==Early and personal life==
Mannan was born in [[Dibrugarh]], [[Assam]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/I-pursued-acting-against-my-parents-wishes-Shamim-Mannan/articleshow/18237138.cms |title=I pursued acting against my parents' wishes: Shamim Mannan - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 January 2013 }}</ref> She has a younger sister, Tamanna, who is also a Hindi television actress, known for her work in Star Plus' ''[[Nazar (TV series)|Nazar]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/my-sister-is-my-bestie-shamin-mannan/articleshow/60902545.cms |title=Shamin mannan: My sister is my bestie: Shamin Mannan - Times of India |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=1 October 2017 |archive-date=11 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180211053434/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/my-sister-is-my-bestie-shamin-mannan/articleshow/60902545.cms |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Mannan is a [[Muslim]] and describes herself as "more spiritual than religious". In February 2016, she revealed that she has been in an eight-year long relationship with Atul Kumar.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maheshwari |first=Neha |date=2016-02-11 |title=Shamin Mannan: My boyfriend and I don't feel the the[sic] need to convert for marriage |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/shamin-mannan-my-boyfriend-and-i-dont-feel-the-the-need-to-convert-for-marriage/articleshow/50931561.cms |access-date=2024-10-26 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> On 3 December 2017, she married Kumar in a private ceremony in [[Kaziranga]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-14 |title=Actress Shamin Mannan ties the knot with beau Atul Kumar |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/video/actress-shamin-mannan-ties-the-knot-with-beau-atul-kumar-lifetv-1107445-2017-12-14 |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-15 |title=Banoo Main Teri Dulhan fame Shamin Manann's pre-wedding clicks are adorable |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/banoo-main-teri-dulhan-fame-shamin-mananns-pre-wedding-clicks-are-adorable/amp_etphotostory/61659451.cms |access-date=2024-10-26 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

==Career==
Shamin appeared in many TV commercials - Dabur Gulabari Rose Water, Bagh bakri tea, Dish TV, Sony Ericson, Polycrol antacid & McDonalds.<ref>{{cite web |title=Web Reference by Anupam Kher's acting school - Actor Prepares |url=http://www.actorprepares.net/news/shamin-mannan-in-the-latest-sony-ericsson-tvc/ |accessdate=11 March 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304230315/http://www.actorprepares.net/news/shamin-mannan-in-the-latest-sony-ericsson-tvc/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> She was most appreciated for [[Colors TV]]'s [[Sanskaar - Dharohar Apno Ki]] as Bhoomi.

==Web==
{| class="wikitable"
|-style="background:#fbb; "
! Title !! Channel !! Notes
|-
| ''Anjaan : Rural Myths'' || Netflix || Lead
|-
| ''Khade Hain Teri Raahon Mein'' || Hotstar || Lead
|}

==Television==
{| class="wikitable"
|-style="background:#fbb; "
! Title !! Channel !! Notes
|-
| ''[[Sanskaar - Dharohar Apno Ki]]'' ||[[Colors TV]] || Lead
|-
| ''Ram Pyaare Sirf Humare'' || [[Zee TV]] || Lead
|-
| ''[[Yeh Hai Aashiqui]]'' || [[Bindass]] || Lead
|-
| ''[[Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya (TV series)|Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya]]'' || [[Zing TV]] || Lead
|-
| ''[[Khidki]]'' || Sab TV || Lead
|-
| ''[[MTV Big F]]'' || [[MTV]] || Lead
|-
| ''[[Kasam Tere Pyaar Ki]]'' || [[Colors TV|Colors]] || Antagonist
|}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IMDb name|7667342}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mannan, Shamin}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian television actresses]]
[[Category:People from Assam]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian soap opera actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi television]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]

Koranad

2025-11-09T10:31:52Z

AntoniettaWhitco: creating first post first draft

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
'''Koranad''' (formerly known as '''Koorainadu )''' is an affluent commercial and residential neighbourhood in [[Mayiladuthurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. It is surrounded by Kamarajar colony in the North, [[Dharmapuram Adheenam|Dharmapuram]] in the East, Srinivasapuram in the South, and Sithkarkadu and Sholampettai in the West.

== Etymology ==
The name Koranad is derived from the older term ''Koorai-nadu''. Historically, this locality in [[Mayiladuthurai]], Tamil Nadu, was known for the production of [[Koorai silk saree|''koorai'' silk sarees]], a traditional silk-cotton blend sarees typically worn by brides during [[Hindus|Hindu]] weddings. The prominence of this textile craft led to the region being referred to as Koorai-nadu, meaning "land of koorai ([[Sari|sarees]])". Over time, the name underwent phonetic changes and evolved into the modern form Korand.<ref name="railwayguidep52">{{cite book|title=Illustrated guide to the South Indian Railway (Incorporated in England): including the Tanjore District Board, Pondicherry, Peralam-Karaikkal, Travancore State, Cochin State, Coimbatore District Board, Tinnevelly-Tiruchendur, and the Nilgiri Railways|pages=12|publisher=South Indian Railway Co. Ltd.|year=1926}}</ref>

The [[Koorainadu Punukeeswarar Temple|Punukeswarar Temple]] is located in Koranad.<ref name="placesofinterest">{{cite web|title=Places of Interest|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/mayiladuthurai/abcity_Place%20of%20interest.html|publisher=Mayiladuthurai Municipality|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920021144/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/mayiladuthurai/abcity_Place%20of%20interest.html|archivedate=2012-09-20}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|11|06|N|79|38|E|display=title|region:IN_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Mayiladuthurai]]

{{Mayiladuthurai-geo-stub}}

Shrikrishna Chandra Welinkar

2025-10-16T22:20:04Z

AntoniettaWhitco:

{{short description|Indian World War I pilot}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Shrikrishna Chandra Welinkar
| image = Shrikrishna Welinkar portrait.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name =
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| birth_date = {{Birth date|1894|10|23|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Bombay]], [[Bombay Presidency]], [[British Raj]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1918|06|30|1894|10|23|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Rouvroy-en-Santerre]], [[Somme (department)|Somme]], [[Picardy]], France
| placeofburial = [[Hangard Wood British Cemetery]]
| placeofburial_label =
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| allegiance = {{flag|British Empire}}
*{{flag|British Raj}}
*{{flag|United Kingdom}}
| branch = [[Imperial Service Troops]] [[British Army]] ([[Royal Flying Corps]]) [[Royal Air Force]]
| serviceyears = 1916–1918
| rank = [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|Lieutenant]]
| servicenumber = 
| unit = 3rd Gwalior Lancers [[Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry]] [[No. 23 Squadron RAF]]
| commands =
| battles =
{{tree list}}
* [[World War I]]
** [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]]{{KIA}}
{{tree list/end}}
| battles_label =
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| memorials =
| spouse = 
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}}

'''Shrikrishna Chandra Welinkar''' (23 October 1894 – 30 June 1918) was an Indian pilot who served in the [[Royal Flying Corps]] and [[Royal Air Force]] during the [[First World War]]. Among the first Indian military aviators, he was also the first to be killed in action.<ref name="Richards"/>

==Early life==
Welinkar was born in Bombay (now [[Mumbai]]) in October 1894.<ref name="jesus_college">{{cite web |url=https://www.jesus.cam.ac.uk/shrikrishna-chandra-welinkar |title=Shrikrishna Chandra Welinkar |author= |website=Jesus College, Cambridge |access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="cwgc">{{cite web |url=https://www.cwgc.org/history-and-archives/cwgc-archive/efiles/welinkar|title=Lieutenant Shri Krishna Chandra Welinkar |author= |website=Commonwealth War Graves Commission |access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref> A member of the Gwalior royal family's household,<ref name="remember">{{cite news |author= |title=SPECIAL: Remember the Indian Heroes of WWI |url=https://asianlite.com/news/uk-news/special-remember-the-indian-heroes-of-wwi/ |work=Asian Lite News |date=10 November 2017 |access-date=28 April 2020 }}</ref> he attended St. Xavier's High School in Bombay, after which he joined [[Jesus College, Cambridge]] in the Lent term of 1915 to read history and law.<ref name="jesus_college"/><ref name="cwgc"/>

==First World War==
After the outbreak of war, Welinkar was commissioned a lieutenant in the 3rd Gwalior Lancers, a [[Gwalior State]] regiment of the [[Imperial Service Troops]], and was on the staff of the [[Madho Rao Scindia|Maharaja of Gwalior]].<ref name="jesus_college"/> Becoming interested in aviation, he took lessons at a flying school at [[Hendon]] and obtained a [[Royal Aero Club]] certificate in August 1916.<ref name="cwgc"/> With 50 hours of flying time,<ref name="service_record"/> Welinkar then applied for a commission in the [[Royal Flying Corps]] on 22 November 1916, but he was refused a commission due to his ethnicity and instead encouraged to be a member of aircrew as a mechanic.<ref name="Richards">{{cite journal |last1=Richards |first1=Clive |year=2008 |title=The Origins of Military Aviation in India and the Creation of the Indian Air Force, 1910–1932 (Part Two: The RAF in India and the Creation of the Indian Air Force, 1918–1932) |url=https://www.raf.mod.uk/what-we-do/centre-for-air-and-space-power-studies/documents1/air-power-review-vol-11-no-1/ |journal=Royal Air Force Air Power Review |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=28 |access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref> After securing a recommendation from Brigadier-General [[Sefton Brancker]], Welinkar enlisted in the [[Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry]] on 13 February 1917, and was posted to No. 6 Officer Cadet Battalion of the RFC from the same date.<ref name="Richards"/>

On 24 May 1917, Welinkar was commissioned a temporary [[second lieutenant]] in the RFC,<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=30141|date=19 June 1917 |page=6149|supp=y}}</ref> and was confirmed in his rank on 22 June with the appointment of flying officer.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=30183|date=13 July 1917 |page=7074|supp=y}}</ref> He was injured in a crash the following month, but soon recovered and completed his flight training in early 1918,<ref name="remember"/> having 63 hours of flying experience with various aircraft.<ref name="service_record"/> In February 1918 Welinkar was passed fit by a medical board and posted to the Western Front.<ref name="Richards"/> He was promoted lieutenant in the newly established RAF on 1 April 1918.<ref name="service_record">{{cite web |url=http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/D8240090|title=Name Welinkar, Shirikrishna Chunda Date of Birth: 23 October 1894 |website=The National Archives (UK)|publisher=UK Government |access-date=29 April 2020}}</ref> Initially attached to [[No. 84 Squadron RAF]], on 10 April he transferred to No. 23 Squadron based at [[Bertangles]], which flew the [[Sopwith Dolphin]].<ref name="service_record"/>

==Death==
At 9:45 a.m. on 27 June 1918, Welinkar took off from Bertangles on a patrol, flying his Dolphin (No. D3691).<ref name="cwgc"/> He was last seen flying east at 11:15 a.m. fighting a two-seater German aircraft near [[Péronne, Somme]] at an altitude of 300 to 400 feet.<ref name="cwgc"/> Having failed to return from his patrol, Welinkar was declared missing the same day.<ref name="service_record"/> On 14 November 1918, three days after the Armistice, British authorities received a report that Welinkar had been shot down on 27 June. Having sustained bullet wounds and a leg fractured below the knee, he had died at a German field hospital in a town named "Rouvroy" on 30 June 1918.<ref name="cwgc"/><ref name="service_record"/> On 19 May 1919, Welinkar's record was updated, with his death "accepted for official purposes as having [been] caused in action."<ref name="service_record"/>

In March 1920, an RAF wing commander named Hilton unsuccessfully attempted to locate the exact "Rouvroy" where Welinkar had been buried. The following month, G. B. Barton, a retired [[Royal Engineers]] colonel acting on behalf of Welinkar's family, informed the British government that Welinkar had initially been buried in a cemetery at [[Rouvroy-en-Santerre]] under the name "Oberleutnant S.C. Wumkar" and that believing Welinkar to have been a German officer, the French authorities had reinterred his body in Maucourt German Cemetery.<ref name="service_record"/> On 7 September 1920, the grave believed to be Welinkar's was opened. Colonel Barton observed the exhumation and tentatively identified the remains as belonging to an RAF flying officer, based on the corpse wearing an airman's boots and watch. The body was reinterred in Hangard Communal Cemetery Extension, and in February 1921 was conclusively identified as that of Welinkar after a search of German military burial records.<ref name="service_record"/>

In March 1921, Welinkar's family solicitors posted a notice in the ''[[London Gazette]]'' on behalf of Welinkar's mother in Gwalior, advising creditors of Welinkar's death.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=32270 |supp=|page=2436|date=25 March 1921}}</ref> He left effects in England with a value of £136 0s. 6d. (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|136.025|1918|r=0}}}} in {{Inflation-year|UK}}{{Inflation-fn|UK|df=y}}) which remained unclaimed as late as 1927.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=33261 |supp=|page=2056|date=29 March 1927}}</ref> In May, Colonel Barton wrote the War Graves Commission with a request from Welinkar's mother that a suitable gravestone be placed on his grave with the inscription: "To the honoured memory of one of the Empire's bravest sons who made the great sacrifice."<ref name="service_record"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Welinkar, Shrikrishna Chandra}}
[[Category:1894 births]]
[[Category:1918 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian military aviators]]
[[Category:Indian World War I pilots]]
[[Category:Indian prisoners of war]]
[[Category:Royal Flying Corps officers]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:British military personnel killed in World War I]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:World War I prisoners of war held by Germany]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Alumni of Jesus College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Burials at Hangard Wood British Cemetery]]