Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Ramya Pandian

2026-05-07T07:45:54Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{short description|Indian actress (born 1990)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ramya Pandian
| image = Ramya Pandian.png
| caption = Ramya in 2018
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1990|08|13}}
| birth_place = [[Ilanji]], [[Tenkasi district|Tenkasi]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2009–present
| notable_works = ''[[Joker (2016 film)|Joker]]'', ''[[Aan Devathai]]'', ''[[Raame Aandalum Raavane Aandalum]]'', ''[[Nanpakal Nerathu Mayakkam]]''
| television = ''[[Cooku With Comali]]'', ''[[Bigg Boss Tamil]]''
| children =
| spouse = {{marriage|Lovel Dhawan|November 8, 2024}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/ramya-pandian-gets-married-to-lovel-dhawan-in-rishikesh/articleshow/115074953.cms|title=Ramya Pandian gets married to Lovel Dhawan in Rishikesh|website=[[Times Of India]]|date=November 9, 2024}}</ref>
| mother = Shanthy Duraipandiyan
| father = Durai Pandian
| relatives = [[Arun Pandian]] (uncle) [[Keerthi Pandiyan]] (cousin) [[Ashok Selvan]] (cousin-in-law)
| family =
}}

'''Ramya Pandian''' (born 13 August 1990) is an Indian actress who works in Tamil language films.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 August 2020 |title=Heartwarming gesture by fans leave Ramya Pandian overwhelmed. |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/heartwarming-gesture-by-fans-leave-ramya-pandian-overwhelmed-watch/articleshow/77540680.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102164239/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/heartwarming-gesture-by-fans-leave-ramya-pandian-overwhelmed-watch/articleshow/77540680.cms |archive-date=2 November 2020 |access-date=4 October 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> She is known for her role in ''[[Joker (2016 film)|Joker]]'' (2016) and ''[[Aan Devathai]]'' (2018). She was listed by the [[The Times of India|Chennai Times]] as the "Most Desirable Woman on Television 2020".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/chennai-times-most-desirable-woman-on-television-2020-ramya-pandian/articleshow/82911564.cms|title= Chennai Times Most Desirable Woman On Television 2020: Ramya Pandian|website= TimesofIndia.com|date=May 25, 2021}}</ref> In 2021, she participated in the reality show ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 4)|Bigg Boss 4]]'' and emerged as the 3rd runner-up.

== Career ==
Ramya Pandian received her bachelor's degree in Biomedical Engineering from [[College of Engineering, Guindy]] affiliated to [[Anna University]]. After graduation, she started working as a Research and Development Analyst before being promoted as a Business Development Manager.<ref name="A">{{Cite web |last=Lakshmi |first=V |date=16 August 2018 |title=Industry people didn't know I am from here, and it's my fault: Ramya Pandian |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/industry-people-didnt-know-i-am-from-here-and-its-my-fault-ramya-pandian/articleshow/65413632.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016170352/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/industry-people-didnt-know-i-am-from-here-and-its-my-fault-ramya-pandian/articleshow/65413632.cms |archive-date=16 October 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> She got the opportunity to work with [[Mani Ratnam]]'s assistant director, Shelley, on a short film title ''Maane Theyne Ponmaane''. She auditioned and landed a role in [[Balaji Sakthivel]]'s ''[[Ra Ra Rajasekhar]]'', but the film did not materialise during that time.<ref name="A" /> She subsequently went on to make her acting debut with the low budget ''[[Dummy Tappasu]]'' (2015).<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2020 |title=Ramya Pandian gets emotional about receiving unconditional love from fans |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/ramya-pandian-gets-emotional-about-the-unconditional-love-from-fans/articleshow/77543957.cms |access-date=2 November 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> The team of ''Ra Ra Rajasekhar'' recommended her to [[Raju Murugan]] who subsequently signed her up for ''[[Joker (2016 film)|Joker]]'' (2016).<ref name="A" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 April 2017 |title=Brave moves Guru Samasundaram (above) with Mu Ramaswamy (Left) and Ramya Pandian in Joker |url=https://www.pressreader.com/india/the-hindu/20170420/282875140663596 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615014734/https://www.pressreader.com/india/the-hindu/20170420/282875140663596 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=The Hindu}}</ref> She played a village belle in the film.<ref name="D">{{Cite web |last=Subramanian |first=Anupama |date=14 August 2018 |title=Ramya's acting and dubbing talent win her cash |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/140818/ramyas-acting-and-dubbing-talent-win-her-cash.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180827080852/https://deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/140818/ramyas-acting-and-dubbing-talent-win-her-cash.html |archive-date=27 August 2018 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>

[[Samuthirakani]] appreciated Ramya's performance in ''Joker'' and asked her if she was interested in doing a role in ''[[Aan Devathai]]'' (2018) as a mother who works for an [[Information technology|IT]] company.<ref name="D" /><ref name="aa">{{Cite news |title=Samuthirakani's next, a family Drama |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Samuthirakanis-next-a-family-Drama/articleshow/54378621.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407192844/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Samuthirakanis-next-a-family-Drama/articleshow/54378621.cms |archive-date=7 April 2019 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Ramya agreed to do the film after listening to the story.<ref name="A" /> In a review of the film, a critic from ''India Today'' noted that "Ramya Pandian is mostly convincing as the mother of two, struggling to balance between being a mother and pursuing her career".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Purushothaman |first=Kirubhakar |title=Aan Devathai movie review: Samuthirakani is on a pursuit of happiness in deeply problematic film |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/aan-devathai-movie-review-samuthirakani-is-on-a-pursuit-of-happiness-in-deeply-problematic-film-1366812-2018-10-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615015604/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/aan-devathai-movie-review-samuthirakani-is-on-a-pursuit-of-happiness-in-deeply-problematic-film-1366812-2018-10-12 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=India Today|date=12 October 2018 }}</ref>

She was a contestant on the cooking show, ''[[Cooku with Comali]]'' and a judge on the comedy television show, ''Kalakka Povathu Yaaru''.<ref name="E">{{Cite web |last=Pandiarajan |first=M. |date=26 February 2020 |title=செந்தமிழ்... சென்னை தமிழ்! - ரம்யா பாண்டியனிடம் 'கலகல' காதலை சொன்ன புகழ் #Video |trans-title=Classical Tamil ... Chennai Tamil! - Ramya Pandian and Pugazh, who expressed his love |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/television/ramya-pandian-and-pugazh-shares-their-cooku-with-comali-experience |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714000633/https://cinema.vikatan.com/television/ramya-pandian-and-pugazh-shares-their-cooku-with-comali-experience |archive-date=14 July 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=Vikatan |language=ta}}</ref><ref name="F">{{Cite web |date=6 February 2020 |title=Comedy show Kalakka Povadhu Yaaru Season 9 to premiere on February 9 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/comedy-show-kalakka-povadhu-yaaru-season-9-to-premiere-on-february-9/articleshow/73982397.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102164250/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/comedy-show-kalakka-povadhu-yaaru-season-9-to-premiere-on-february-9/articleshow/73982397.cms |archive-date=2 November 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=இடைவிடாத நகைச்சுவை! |trans-title=Continual humor! |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/538431-kalakka-povadhu-yaru.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207103936/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/538431-kalakka-povadhu-yaru.html |archive-date=7 February 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=Hindu Tamil Thisai |date=7 February 2020 |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rajasekhar |first=Gopinath |date=26 February 2020 |title='புகழ் என்ன பண்ணாலும் க்யூட்!' – ரம்யா பாண்டியன் |trans-title=Whatever Pugazh does is cute – Ramya Pandian |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/interview-with-ramya-pandian-and-pugazh |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713170631/https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/interview-with-ramya-pandian-and-pugazh |archive-date=13 July 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref> She was the second runner-up in ''Cooku with Comali''.<ref>{{Cite web |title='குக் வித் கோமாளி' நிகழ்ச்சி நிறைவு: ரம்யா பாண்டியன் நெகிழ்ச்சி |trans-title='Cook with clown' concludes: Ramya Pandian's adaptability |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/541174-ramya-pandian-post-about-cook-with-comali-show.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102164239/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/541174-ramya-pandian-post-about-cook-with-comali-show.html |archive-date=2 November 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=Hindu Tamil Thisai |date=24 February 2020 |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='குக் வித் கோமாளி' நிகழ்ச்சியின் வெற்றியாளராக வனிதா தேர்வு |trans-title=The winner of 'Cook with Comali' is Vanitha |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/541134-vanitha-vijayakumar-winner-of-cook-with-comali.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615020123/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/541134-vanitha-vijayakumar-winner-of-cook-with-comali.html |archive-date=15 June 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=Hindu Tamil Thisai |date=24 February 2020 |language=ta}}</ref> In 2020, she had participated as a contestant in the [[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 4)|fourth season]] of the reality show ''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil TV series)|Bigg Boss Tamil]]''. She was the only female finalist and emerged as the 2nd Runner-Up.<ref name="Bigg">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=4 October 2020|title=Bigg Boss Tamil Season 4 launch LIVE UPDATES: Ramya Pandiyan enters house|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/bigg-boss-tamil-season-4-grand-launch-live-updates-kamal-haasan-introduces-contestants-6634531/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201007013027/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/tamil/bigg-boss-tamil-season-4-grand-launch-live-updates-kamal-haasan-introduces-contestants-6634531/|archive-date=7 October 2020|access-date=4 October 2020|website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> She played the female lead in the web series ''[[Mugilan]]'', which released on [[ZEE5]] in October 2020.<ref name="M">{{Cite web |title=Ramya Pandian makes digital debut with ZEE5's Mugilan |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2020/oct/16/ramya-pandian-makes-digital-debut-with-zee5s-mugilan-20821.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019134705/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2020/oct/16/ramya-pandian-makes-digital-debut-with-zee5s-mugilan-20821.html |archive-date=19 October 2020 |access-date=17 October 2020 |website=[[Cinema Express]]|date=16 October 2020 }}</ref> She acted in ''[[Raame Aandalum Raavane Aandalum]]'' (2021), which was produced by [[Suriya]]'s [[2D Entertainment]]. Her upcoming project is a film produced by [[C. V. Kumar]]'s Thirukumaran Entertainment.<ref name="C">{{Cite web |date=1 April 2020 |title=Ramya Pandian signs two films |url=https://m.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2020/apr/01/ramya-pandian-signs-two-films-17835.amp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102164235/https://m.cinemaexpress.com/stories/news/2020/apr/01/ramya-pandian-signs-two-films-17835.amp |archive-date=2 November 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=Cinema Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2020 |title=சூர்யா தயாரிப்பில் ரம்யா பாண்டியன் |trans-title=Ramya Pandian in Suriya's Production |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/547218-ramya-pandian.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610171301/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/547218-ramya-pandian.html |archive-date=10 June 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=ta}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 April 2020 |title=Suriya to bankroll Ramya Pandian's upcoming film |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/suriya-to-bankroll-ramya-pandian-s-upcoming-film-1662058-2020-04-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408212322/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/suriya-to-bankroll-ramya-pandian-s-upcoming-film-1662058-2020-04-01 |archive-date=8 April 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=India Today}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Ramya Pandian is the daughter of former film director Durai Pandian (directed ''[[Uzhiyan]]''), and niece of actor [[Arun Pandian]], who works in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language films.<ref name="Di">{{Cite web |title=டம்மி டப்பாசு - முன்னோட்டம் |trans-title=Dummy Tappasu – Preview |url=https://cinema.dinamalar.com/movie-review/1393/Dummy-Tappasu/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102164237/https://cinema.dinamalar.com/movie-review/1393/Dummy-Tappasu/ |archive-date=2 November 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=Dinamalar |language=ta}}</ref><ref name="A" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lakshmi |first=V |date=9 September 2019 |title=There was no concept or idea behind this photoshoot and I'm surprised it has created a stir: Ramya Pandian |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/there-was-no-concept-or-idea-behind-this-photoshoot-and-im-surprised-it-has-created-a-stir-ramya-pandian/articleshow/71035283.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213052700/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/there-was-no-concept-or-idea-behind-this-photoshoot-and-im-surprised-it-has-created-a-stir-ramya-pandian/articleshow/71035283.cms |archive-date=13 February 2020 |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Her family is from [[Tirunelveli]].<ref name="aa" /> Her sister Sundari Divya is also an actress.<ref>https://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-cinema-news-16/ramya-pandians-sister-had-acted-along-with-these-bigg-boss-tamil-actresses-ft.html</ref> She has mentioned her interest in organic gardening.<ref>{{Cite web |title=தோட்டப்பிரியை ரம்யா பாண்டியன் |trans-title=Ramya Pandian is a gardener |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/127461-.html |access-date=14 July 2020 |website=Hindu Tamil Thisai |date=5 May 2018 |language=ta |archive-date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016200215/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/cinema/tamil-cinema/127461-.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2024, Ramya married [[yoga]] instructor and trainer Lovel Dhawan in [[Rishikesh]] along the [[Ganges river]] in a private [[Hindu]] wedding ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Nov/08/ramya-pandian-ties-the-knot-with-lovel-dhawan|title=Ramya Pandian ties the knot with Lovel Dhawan|website=www.cinemaexpress.com|date=November 9, 2024}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role(s)
! Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Dummy Tappasu]]''|| Sowmiya ||Debut film
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="Di" />
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Joker (2016 film)|Joker]]'' || Malliga || ||style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="A" />
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Aan Devathai]]'' || Jessica || ||style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="A" />
|-
| 2021
|''[[Raame Aandalum Raavane Aandalum]]''
| Veerayi
|Nominated JFW - Just For Women Movie Awards - Best Actress – Lead Role
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vani-bhojan-joins-ramya-pandians-female-centric-film/articleshow/80623463.cms |title=Vani Bhojan joins Ramya Pandian's female centric film |date=1 February 2021 |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=10 March 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201045828/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/vani-bhojan-joins-ramya-pandians-female-centric-film/articleshow/80623463.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|2023
|''[[Nanpakal Nerathu Mayakkam]]''
|Poonkuzhali
| Malayalam debut film
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite news|title=It's official: Ramya Pandian in Mammootty-Lijo Jose Pellisery film|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/its-official-ramya-pandian-in-mammootty-lijo-jose-pellisery-film/articleshow/88118265.cms|publisher=Times Of India|access-date=6 December 2021}}</ref>
|-
|2025
|''[[Kayilan]]''
|Shakunthala
|
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web|title=First look of 'Idumbankaari' released|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2021/sep/10/first-look-of-tamil-movie-idumbankaari-released-2356986.html|access-date=2022-02-23|website=The New Indian Express|date=10 September 2021 }}</ref>
|}

=== Web series ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Streaming Channel
!Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}
|-
| 2020 ||''[[Mugilan]]'' || Maheshwari ||[[ZEE5]]
|Debut Web Series||<ref name="M" />
|-
| 2023 ||''[[Accidental Farmer and Co]]'' ||Sheela || [[SonyLIV]]
|
|}

=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Channel
!Role
!Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}
|-
|2019
| ''Cooku with Comali Season 1''
| rowspan="9" | [[Star Vijay]]
| Contestant
| 2nd Runner-Up
|style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="E" />
|-
| 2020
|''Kalakka Povadhu Yaaru Season 9''
| Judge
|
|style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="F" />
|-
| 2020-2021
|''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 4)|Bigg Boss Tamil Season 4]]''
| Contestant
| 3rd Runner-Up
|style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Bigg" />
|-
| rowspan="3" |2021
|''Bigg Boss Season 4 Kondattam''
| rowspan="3" |Guest
|Celebration of Bigg Boss Season 4
|
|-
|''[[Cooku with Comali (season 2)]]''
|One Episode Only
|
|-
|''BB Jodigal''
|Grand Finale Episode Only
|
|-
|2022
|''[[Bigg Boss Ultimate (season 1)]]''
|Contestant
|2nd Runner-Up
|
|-
|2022
|''[[Bigg Boss (Tamil season 6)]]''
|Guest
|Grand launch episode
|
|-
|2025
|''[[Cooku with Comali season 6]]''
|Guest
|
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=‘Cooku With Comali 6’: Ramya Pandian to grace the upcoming episode as special guest|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/cooku-with-comali-6-ramya-pandian-to-grace-the-upcoming-episode-as-special-guest/articleshow/122794738.cms|access-date=2025-07-28|website=[[Times Of India]]|date=20 July 2025 }}</ref>
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Songs
!Year
!Title
!Notes
|-
|2023
|Thota
|Retro Song by Noise and Grains
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|8051850}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pandian, Ramya}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Cooku with Comali contestants]]
[[Category:1990 births]]

K. L. Nursey album

2026-05-01T21:01:37Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: Adding entry

{{orphan|date=May 2026}}
{{Short description|Rare collection of Indian independence struggle}}
The '''''K. L. Nursey album''''', or the '''Collections of Photographs of Old Congress Party: KL Nursey''', is a compilation of documentary photographs captured by an anonymous person. It contains 245 black-and-white photographs that cover the [[Civil Disobedience Movement]] of India. The album offers evidence that the movement involved counts of ordinary citizens, mostly women, of the then [[Bombay]], who acted out of their own accord through an organization called [[Desh Sevika Sangh]] and not entirely through [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s prod.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=Bombay’s other rebels |url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/unwind/bombays-other-rebels/articleshow/124196139.html |website=Mumbai Mirror |language=en}}</ref> The album is currently with the Alkazi Foundation for the Arts (AFA).<ref>{{cite web |title=Through an unknown lens: A new visual project at CSMVS revisits Mumbai’s role in India’s freedom struggle |url=https://www.mid-day.com/mumbai-guide/things-to-do/article/through-an-unknown-lens-a-new-visual-project-at-csmvs-revisits-mumbais-role-in-indias-freedom-struggle-23598559 |website=Mid-day |language=en |date=14 October 2025}}</ref>

The identity of K. L. Nursey is not known. According to historians, they could be Navin Khandwala, a Congress activist; the man who commissioned the photographs; or the person who curated and collated it into the album.<ref name="auto"/> According to Annalisa Mansukhani, Nursey could have been a staffer of ''[[The Times of India]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Watching History Unfold: Photography’s French Connections in India |url=https://asapconnect.in/post/541/singleevents/watching-history-unfold?post%2F541%2Fsingleevents%2Fwatching-history-unfold= |website=asapconnect.in}}</ref>

In October 2025, a few of the photos from the album were showcased in [[Durham, North Carolina]].<ref>{{cite web |title=“Disobedient Subjects: Bombay 1930–31” Opens at CDS on October 30 {{!}} Center for Documentary Studies |url=https://documentarystudies.duke.edu/news/disobedient-subjects-bombay-1930-31-opens-cds-october-30 |website=documentarystudies.duke.edu |language=en |date=23 October 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian independence movement]]
[[Category:Photographs of protests]]

Rebarthi

2026-05-01T19:18:10Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: info

{{Short description|Village in Telangana, India}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}{{Use Indian English|date=October 2023}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Rebarthi
| settlement_type = Village
| pushpin_map = India Telangana#India
| coordinates = {{coord|17|56|10|N|79|04|48|E|region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of mandals in Telangana|Mandal]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Telangana]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Siddipet district|Siddipet]]
| subdivision_name3 = Maddur
| government_type = [[Gram Panchayat]]
| area_total_km2 = 934
| elevation_m = 449
| population_total = 2875
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Local
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Urdu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 506367
| area_code = 08710
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbers in India|STD code]]
| registration_plate = TS-36
}}

'''Rebarthi''', or '''Rebarthy''', is a village in Maddur mandal, [[Siddipet district]], [[Telangana]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://mines.telangana.gov.in/MinesAndGeology/Documents/GO%27s/New%20District%20Gos/Siddipet.pdf |title=Formation/Reorganization of District, Revenue Divisions and Mandals in Siddipet District |publisher=Government of Telangana |page=11}}</ref> It is located to the southeast of the district headquarter [[Siddipet]], at an average elevation of 449 metres above the sea level.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rebarthi topographic map, elevation, terrain |url=https://en-gb.topographic-map.com/map-slt2s8/Rebarthi/ |access-date=2023-10-12 |website=Topographic maps |language=en}}</ref> The population of the village was 2,875 in 2011.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Population finder 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/population-finder |access-date=12 October 2023 |website=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Villages in Siddipet district]]

Parveen Shakir

2026-04-30T05:27:53Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: done

{{Short description|Pakistani poet (1952–1994)}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Parveen Shakir {{Nastaliq|پروین شاکر}}
| image = Parveen Shakir.jpg
| caption = Parveen Shakir
| pseudonym =
| birth_name = Parveen Shakir Syed
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1952|11|24}}
| birth_place = [[Karachi]], Pakistan
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1994|12|26|1952|11|24}}
| death_place = [[Islamabad]], Pakistan
| resting_place = [[H-8, Islamabad#Cemeteries|H-8 Graveyard]], Islamabad {{coord|33|41|19|N|73|3|52|E}}
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* [[Urdu poet|Poet]]
* teacher
* civil servant
}}
| nationality = [[Pakistani]]
| citizenship =
| education = [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Master of Arts|MA]], [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]]
| alma_mater = [[Harvard University]], [[University of Karachi]]
| period = 1976–1994
| genre = {{hlist|[[Ghazal]]|[[free verse]]|[[prose]]}}
| subject = [[Romance (love)|Romance]]
| movement = [[Urdu literature#Post-modernism|Post-modernism]]
| notableworks = {{Langx|ur|{{Nastaliq|خوشبو}}|translit=[[Khushbu (poetry)|Khushbu]]|label=none}} (1976)
| partner =
| relatives =
| awards = {{unbulleted list|{{awards|{{nobold|[[File:Pride of Performance (ribbon).gif|22px|border]] [[Pride of Performance]]}}|(1990)}}|{{awards|{{nobold|[[Adamjee Literary Award]]}}|(1976)}}}}
| signature =
| website = {{URL|perveenshakir.com}}
| portaldisp =
}}
'''Parveen Shakir''' {{post-nominals|country=PAK|PP|post-noms=}} ({{IPA|ur|ˈpəɾʋiːn ʃɑːkɪɾ|pron}}; 24 November 1952 – 26 December 1994) was a Pakistani poet and civil servant of the [[government of Pakistan]]. She is best known for her poems, which brought a distinctive feminine voice to [[Urdu literature]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Farooqi|first=Mehr Afshan|date=2019-06-02|title=COLUMN: A BOUQUET OF POETRY|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1486042|access-date=2020-07-05|website=DAWN.COM|language=en}}</ref>

Since her death in a road accident when she was only 42, the "Parveen Shakir Urdu Literature Festival" has been held every year in [[Islamabad]] in her memory.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Parveen Shakir Urdu Literature Festival commences|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/463392-parveen-shakir-urdu-literature-festival-commences|access-date=2020-07-07|website=www.thenews.com.pk|language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Shakir was born as Syeda Parveen Bano on 24 November 1952 into a Shia Syed family in [[Karachi]], Pakistan.<ref name="pv2" /> Her father Shakir Hussain Saqib, also a poet, was from [[Laheriasarai]] in the [[Darbhanga district]] of [[Bihar]] and had migrated to Karachi after the [[partition of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parveen Shakir |url=https://www.rekhta.org/poets/parveen-shakir/profile |website=[[Rekhta.org]]}}</ref>

She received two undergraduate degrees, one in [[English literature]] and the other in [[linguistics]] (from [[Sir Syed Government Girls College]]), and obtained [[Master of Arts|MA]] degrees in the same subjects from the [[University of Karachi]]. She also held a PhD, and another MA degree in Bank Administration.<ref name="Urdu" />

In 1982, Shakir qualified for the Central Superior Services (CSS) Examination. In 1991, she obtained an MA degree in [[public administration]] from [[Harvard University]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 February 2008 |title=Dunya News: Education:-Parveen Shakir being remembered today... |url=https://dunyanews.tv/en/Education/150833-Parveen-Shakir-being-remembered-today |access-date=2020-12-15 |website=dunyanews.tv}}</ref>

{{Contains special characters|Urdu}}

==Poetic career==
Shakir started writing at a very young age. She wrote both prose and poetry, contributed columns in [[Urdu]] newspapers, and a few articles in English dailies. Initially, she wrote under the pen-name "Beena".<ref name="Urdu" />

After teaching for nine years, she joined the [[Civil service of Pakistan|Civil Service of Pakistan]] in October 1982 and worked in the customs department. In 1986, she was appointed second secretary of the [[Central Board of Revenue]] (now [[Federal Board of Revenue]]) in [[Islamabad]], Pakistan.<ref name=Urdu/>

In 1976, Shakir published her first volume of poetry ''[[Khushbu (poetry)|Khushbu]]'' (''Fragrance'') to great acclaim. She was awarded one of the highest honours of Pakistan, the [[Pride of Performance]], for her outstanding contributions to literature.<ref name=Urdu>{{cite web|url=http://www.urdupoetry.com/profile/parveen.html |title=Profile of Parveen Shakir|publisher=urdupoetry.com website|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930072649/http://www.urdupoetry.com/profile/parveen.html |date=27 February 2002|archive-date=30 September 2013|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref> She subsequently published other volumes of poetry including ''Sad-barg'' (''Marsh Marigold'') in 1980, and ''Khud Kalāmi'' (''Soliloquy'') and ''Inkār'' (''Denial'') in 1990. These poetry books are collected in ''Māh-e-Tamām'' (''Full Moon''). She also published a collection of her newspaper columns, titled ''Gosha-e-Chashm'' (''Corner of the Eye''). ''Kaf-e-Āina'' (''The Mirror's Edge'') was released posthumously with works from her diaries and journals.<ref name=Urdu/>

== Death ==
[[File:Parveen Shakir (3823034555).jpg|thumb|Final resting place of Shakir in Islamabad]]
On 26 December 1994, Shakir's car collided with a truck while she was on her way to work in Islamabad. The accident resulted in her death.<ref name="Urdu" />

The road on which the accident took place is named after her as '''Parveen Shakir Road''' in sector F-7 Islamabad.<ref name="Dawn1">[https://epaper.dawn.com/DetailImage.php?StoryImage=27_12_2016_152_005 Parveen Shakir's death anniversary observed] Dawn (newspaper), 27 December 2016, Retrieved 1 June 2019</ref>

=== Style of poetry ===
The two main styles she wrote in were [[ghazal]] and ''āzād nazm'' ([[free verse]]) where she utilized several literary techniques and examined delicate topics to create a full image of the female experience.<ref name="delhi">{{Cite web|title=Perveen Shakir pioneered use of feminism in poetry|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/archive/print/208427-perveen-shakir-pioneered-use-of-feminism-in-poetry|access-date=2020-07-05|website=www.thenews.com.pk|language=en}}</ref>

===''Ghazliat''===
{{See also|Khushbu (poetry)#Ghazal}}
Shakir's ''ghazliāt'' are considered "a combination of classical tradition with modern sensitivity",<ref name="pv2">{{cite web|date=30 May 2013|title=Parveen Shakir birth anniversary|url=http://hamariweb.com/newsdetails.aspx?id=2184|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530220245/http://hamariweb.com/newsdetails.aspx?id=2184|archive-date=30 May 2013|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref> and mainly deal with the feminine perspective on love and romance, and associated themes such as beauty, intimacy, separation, break-ups, distances, distrust, infidelity and disloyalty.

Most of Shakir's ''ghazliāt'' contain five to ten couplets, often interrelated. Sometimes, two consecutive couplets may differ greatly in meaning and context, an example of this can be noted in the following couplets:<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=99 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
|{{centre|'''English translation'''}}
|{{centre|'''Urdu'''}}
|-
|That girl just like her home Fell victim to the flood perhaps

I see light when I think of you Remembrance, has become the moon perhaps
|{{Nastaliq|اپنے گھر کی طرح وہ لڑکی بھی نذرِ سیلاب ہو گئی شاید تجھ کو سوچوں تو روشنی دیکھوں یاد، مہتاب ہو گئی شاید}}
|}

The ''ghazliāt'' rely heavily on metaphors and similes, which are repeatedly and thought-provokingly used to bring force and lyricism in her works. A fine example of this is seen in one of her most famous couplets:<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=159 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
|{{centre|'''English translation'''}}
|{{centre|'''Urdu'''}}
|-
|He is fragrance, and shall diffuse in the winds, The trouble lies with the flower, where shall the flower go
|{{Nastaliq|وہ تو خوشبو ہے، ہوائوں میں بکھر جائے گا مسئلہ پھُول کا ہے، پھُول کدھر جائے گا}}
|}

Here, Shakir relates fragrance to an unfaithful lover, air to the unfaithful person's secret loves, and flower to the person being cheated. Other metaphors Shakir commonly uses are ''titlī'' (butterfly) for a Romeo, ''bādal'' (cloud) for one's love, ''bārish'' (rain) for affection, ''āṅdhī'' (storm) for difficulties and ''chāṅd'' (moon) for loneliness. An example with the central theme of loneliness using the moon as a metaphor is:<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=101 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
|{{centre|'''English translation'''}}
|{{centre|'''Urdu'''}}
|-
|All are passengers All share the fate I, alone here on Earth! He, alone there in the sky!
|{{Nastaliq|ایک سے مُسافر ہیں ایک سا مقدّر ہے میں زمین پر تنہا! اور وہ آسمانوں میں!}}
|}

Some of her ''ghazliāt'' have gained iconic status in [[Urdu]] literature. Another notable couplet that is often quoted to comment on the often surprising knowledge and awareness of the younger generation is:<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=239 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
|{{centre|'''English translation'''}}
|{{centre|'''Urdu'''}}
|-
|They insist upon catching the firefly in daylight The children of our age have grown wiser
|{{Nastaliq|جگنو کو دن کے وقت پرکھنے کی ضد کریں بچّے ہمارے عہد کے چالاک ہو گئے}}
|}

===Free verse===
Compared to her ''ghazliāt'', Shakir's free verse is much bolder and explores social issues and taboos, including gender inequality, discrimination, patriotism, deceit, prostitution, the human psyche, and current affairs. It is written in a way which was and is still considered modern in Pakistan.

Other than topics of femininity and female sexuality, Shakir also used free verse to write about topics related to economic disparities and the tendency of society to exploit the weak and poor. Several of her poems lament the harsh reality that many low-income laborers around the world face. For example, her poem "Steel Mills Worker" speaks about the deplorable conditions and long hours workers find themselves doing every day. The poem also describes how these workers are taken for granted and used as a means to an end by those who employ them.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|last=Tejaswani|first=K.|date=2 February 2013|title=Woman on Left; Woman on Rights: Poetic Sensibilities of Parveen Shakir|url=http://www.languageinindia.com/feb2013/tejaswanipraveenfinal.pdf}}</ref><ref name="kiran"/> The last lines of the poem paint this stark picture vividly.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1990 |title=اِنکار |trans-title=Refusal |language=ur |page=162 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-00-5}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:left;"
|-
|{{centre|'''English translation'''}}
|{{centre|'''Urdu'''}}
|-
|But perhaps he doesn't know this That upon this contract of suicide He has Consciously put his signature He is actually the fuel of this furnace!
|{{Nastaliq|لیکن شاید اس کو یہ نہیں معلوم کہ خودکشی کے اس معاہدے پر اُس نے بقائمی ہوش و حواس دستخط کئے ہیں اس بھٹّی کا ایندھن دَراصل وہ خود ہے!}}
|}

Another one of her poems, "We Are All Dr Faustus", delves deeper into this subject and directly addresses the prevalence of corruption in wealthy and powerful circles of people. She claimed that the rich achieve their goals but at a grave price, and used these arguments to critique economic systems such as [[capitalism]].<ref name="kiran">{{cite journal |last1=Kiran |first1=Sobia |date=20 April 2015 |title=A Tribute to Parveen Shakir: Translating Some of Her Poems |url=https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=036104118122118089071070018114079091118034032080036086072002117090126066118102029095039031120001116015022104017068108126002020061050017010060098002096074127127114007088053079114121089098000013124112002077001121109007124118100119088119101085009000009009&EXT=pdf |journal=International Journal of Arts & Sciences |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=293–302 |access-date=14 July 2020 |format=PDF }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The length of Shakir's free verse poems can range from a few to many lines. Most are written with a central theme while some are written in the mode of [[stream of consciousness]].

Parveen Shakir is known for her use of pop culture references and English words and phrases – a practice that is generally considered inappropriate and is criticised in Urdu poetry. An example is the poem ''Departmental Store Mein'' (In a Departmental Store), which is named thus despite the fact that the title could have been substituted with its Urdu equivalent. She also used words like "natural pink", "hand lotion", "shade", "scent" and "pack", and made references to cosmetics brands like Pearl, [[Revlon]], [[Elizabeth Arden]] and Tulip in the poem.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=149 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref> Other examples are her poems ''Ecstasy'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=31 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref> ''Nun'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=45 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref> ''Duty'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=102 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref> ''Flower show'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=140 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref> and ''Picnic''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=113 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref>

Shakir's free verse also contains a few credited works and poems that are translations of, or inspired by, other authors. Examples are "Wasteland", a poem inspired by [[T. S. Eliot|Eliot]]'s poem of the same name,<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=73 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref> "''Benasab Wirsay Ka Bojh''" (The Burden of Illegitimate Inheritance), a translation of [[W. B. Yeats|Yeats]]' "Leda and the Swan",<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=193 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref> and "''Banafshay Ka Phool''" (A Violet), inspired by [[William Wordsworth|Wordsworth]]'s "A Violet under a hidden rock".<ref>{{cite book |last=Shakir |first=Parveen |date=1976 |title=خشبو |trans-title=Fragrance |edition=2nd |language=ur |page=139 |location=Pakistan |publisher=Jahangir Books |isbn=969-8109-02-1}}</ref>

==Poetic themes==
Shakir's poems are known for their in-depth exploration of sensitive topics rarely talked about, especially for women. Her poems aimed to encompass all parts of being a woman, from the innocence to the start of being conscious of one's own sexuality, and more adult struggles as well.<ref name=":0" /> These include the hardships of love, the restrictions and social pressures faced uniquely by women, and the need for women to be more represented in all areas of society. One aspect of writing that Shakir is particularly known for is her introduction of female pronouns, both first person and third person, as a way to normalize femininity in poetry, specifically within the realm of Urdu poetry, a traditionally masculine field.

Through her ghazals in particular, she continued to embody a feminine voice through grammatical choices, giving a voice to females and the female experience.<ref name=":0" /> Shakir's personal life was extremely influential in the choice of style and topic that she chose to pursue. An example of this would be the tumultuous divorce between her and her husband, which resulted in her losing custody of her son due to [[Pakistani law]].<ref name=":13"/> This event was one of the reasons her writing focused heavily on women's issues in regards to their place in society.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Khan|first=Sharib|title='Adab Arz hai'|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/magazine/you/195907-Adab-Arz-hai|access-date=2020-07-05|website=www.thenews.com.pk|language=en}}</ref> Many of her poems lament the discrimination women face, especially as a divorcee living in a more conservative country.{{cn|date=March 2024}}

==Legacy==
Shakir's poetry was well-received, and after her untimely death she is now considered one of the best and "most prominent" modern poets Urdu language has ever produced. Hailed as a "great poetess," her poetry has drawn comparisons to that of Iranian poet [[Forough Farrokhzad]], and she is considered among the breed of writers "regarded as pioneers in defying tradition by expressing the 'female experience' in Urdu poetry."<ref name="pv2"/>

Her poems were unique in the sense that they exposed and even encouraged freedom of expression among women. She did not shy away from taboo themes; instead, she claimed them and used them to create provocative poems that challenge the dependency of women on men.<ref name="kiran"/> As influenced by her experience with Pakistani tradition, literary analysts suggest she tried to use her poems to offer a refuge for women fighting misogyny, specifically in South Asian culture.<ref name="kiran"/>

Her first and most well-known work, ''[[Khushbu (poetry)|Khushbu]]'', was specifically monumental in this regard. In Shakir's writing, she touched on the theme of separation. Shakir's book explored the theme not only in the sense of not only emotionally being alone, but also in regards to unjustly losing social capital as a woman in the absence of a man. Her poems allude to not only what a man provides of her emotionally and physically, but also financially and in terms of societal expectations.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Parhlo|title=Poet Parveen Shakir – Biography, Life, Personal and Professional Life!|url=https://www.parhlo.com/parveen-shakir/|access-date=2020-07-06|website=Parhlo|date=24 November 2016 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Shakir's work has been acknowledged by several other poets and the media in general. A source states, "Parveen ... seems to have captured the best of Urdu verse ... Owing to [her] style and range of expressions one will be intrigued and ... entertained by some soul-stirring poetry." Another praises "her rhythmic flow and polished wording".

Pakistan's noted literary figure [[Iftikhar Arif]] has praised Shakir for impressing "the young lot through her thematic variety and realistic poetry," for adding "a new dimension to the traditional theme of love by giving expression to her emotions in a simple and pellucid style," and using a "variety of words to convey different thoughts with varying intensities."<ref name="pv2"/>

''The Delhi Recorder'' has stated that Shakir "has given the most beautiful female touch to Urdu poetry."<ref name="delhi"/>

Shakir's work in writing, teaching, and government service inspired many women to follow suit. After learning about Shakir's pioneering career, many women decided to join work sectors that seldom contained women before, such as journalism and public service.<ref name=":3" />

The first substantial selection of Shakir's work translated into English was made by the poet Paiker-e-Hussain in 2011.<ref>[https://www.amazon.co.uk/After-Parveen-Shakir-Rehan-Qayoom/dp/129152956X''After Parveen Shakir'']</ref> In 2019, a collection of 100 selected poems of Shakir were translated into English by Naima Rashid and published by the Oxford University Press under the title "Defiance of the Rose".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/364427/100-poems-by-parveen-shakir-compiled-in-new-book-that-pays-rich-tribute-to-the-late-poetess/ |title=100 poems by Parveen Shakir compiled in new book that pays rich tribute to the late poetess|website=Daily Times|date=12 March 2019|access-date=14 July 2020}}</ref>

===Parveen Shakir Urdu Literature Festival===
Due to Shakir's far-reaching impact in the poetry world, the Parveen Shakir Trust was established in 1994. The trust now hosts the Parveen Shakir Urdu Literature Festival in [[Islamabad]] every year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Parveen Shakir's 67th Birthday|url=https://doodles.google/doodle/parveen-shakirs-67th-birthday/|access-date=2020-07-07|website=www.google.com|language=en}}</ref> During the festival, works from various poets, including Shakir, are displayed in an attempt to create awareness and interest in traditional Pakistani forms of writing and poetry.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Kazim|first=Aasma Mojiz {{!}} Syeda Shehrbano|date=2014-05-31|title=Lit Fest celebrates the giants of Urdu Literature|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1109684|access-date=2020-07-07|website=DAWN.COM|language=en}}</ref> The festival particularly targets youth in order to increase the amount of younger individuals dedicated to this type of study, although it welcomes those of all ages who attend. According to the organizers of the festival, the event serves as a way to honor past writers, continue the influence of their writing, and promote creativity among the general public.<ref name=":4" />

==Awards and accolades==
Shakir's first book, ''Khushboo'', was awarded the Adamjee Literary Award in 1976. Later, she was awarded the [[Pride of Performance]], one of [[Pakistan]]'s highest honours in 1990.<ref name=Urdu/><ref name=Tribune>{{cite web|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/712144/parveen-shakir-in-the-eyes-of-fatema-hassan/ |title=Parveen Shakir in the eyes of Fatema Hassan|author=Saadia Qamar|date=23 May 2014|publisher=The Express Tribune (newspaper)|access-date=1 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=Dawn1/>

Upon her death, the Parveen Shakir Trust was established by her close friend, Parveen Qadir Agha. The trust organises a yearly function and gives out the "Aks-e-Khushbu" award.

===Commemorative postage stamp===
In 2013, [[Pakistan Post|Pakistan Post Office]] issued a commemorative postage stamp of rupees 10 denomination to honor Shakir on the 19th anniversary of her death.<ref name=pp>[https://www.dawn.com/news/1075864 Postage Stamp to mark Parveen's death anniversary] Dawn (newspaper), 23 December 2013, Retrieved 1 June 2019</ref>

===Tribute===
On 24 November 2019, [[Google]] celebrated Shakir's 67th birthday with a [[Google Doodle]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://doodles.google/doodle/parveen-shakirs-67th-birthday/|title=Parveen Shakir's 67th Birthday|website=Google|date=24 November 2019}}</ref>

==Books==
Following is a list of Shakir's published books.<ref name=pp/><ref name=pv2/> English translation of each book's title follows in italics.

'''Volumes of Poetry'''
* {{Nastaliq|خوشبو}} • "''[[Khushbu (poetry)|Khushbu]]''" (1976) – ''Fragrance''
* {{Nastaliq|صد برگ}} • "''Sad-barg''" (1980) – ''Rosa Centifolia''
* {{Nastaliq|خود کلامی}} • "''Khud-kalaami''" (1990) – ''Soliloquy''
* {{Nastaliq|اِنکار}} • "''Inkaar''" (1990) – ''Denial''
* {{Nastaliq|ماہِ تمام}} • "''Maah-e-Tamaam''" (1994) – ''Full Moon'' (Compilation of the books above)
* {{Nastaliq|کفِ آئینہ}} • "''Kaf-e-Aa'ina''" – ''The Mirror's Edge'' (Posthumous release compiling works from diaries)

'''Prose'''
* {{Nastaliq|گوشہ چشم}} • "''Gosha-e-Chashm''" – ''Corner of the eye'' (Compilation of newspaper columns)

==See also==
{{portal|Poetry}}
*[[Ghazal]]
* [[Ada Jafri]]
* [[Fehmida Riaz]]
* [[Kishwar Naheed]]
* [[Forough Farrokhzad]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource|Author:Perveen Shakir}}
{{Commons category|Parveen Shakir}}

* {{IMDb name|1421773}}
* [https://rekhta.org/poets/parveen-shakir/ghazals/ Parveen Shakir Ghazals] – Parveen Shakir Ghazals on rekhta.org website
* [http://www.studybee.net/parveen-shakir-famous-poetry/ Parveen Shakir Selected Poetry] – The Website has research based segregation of Parveen Shakir's Poetry into Love, Sadness, Social, Political and Religious Poetry
* [http://www.urdustudies.com/pdf/08/20shakir.pdf] – Parveen Shakir: A Note and Twelve Poems, by C.M. Naim
* [http://www.cipherjournal.com/html/hashmi.html Hashmi – Five poems by Parveen Shakir, translated by Alamgir Hashmi]
* [http://www.beilharz.com/poetas/shakir/ Where am I? | Wo bin ich?], Retrieved 19 Jan 2016

{{Pride of Performance for Arts}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shakir, Parveen}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:1994 deaths]]
[[Category:Harvard Kennedy School alumni]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Pakistani poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Pakistani civil servants]]
[[Category:Pakistani feminist writers]]
[[Category:Poets from Karachi]]
[[Category:20th-century Pakistani poets]]
[[Category:Pakistani women writers]]
[[Category:20th-century women writers]]
[[Category:Road incident deaths in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Adamjee Literary Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pride of Performance]]
[[Category:University of Karachi alumni]]
[[Category:Pakistani people of Bihari descent]]
[[Category:Parveen Shakir]]

Madhubanti Bagchi

2026-04-28T14:35:07Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: done.

{{Short description|Indian playback singer}}
{{Mscn|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Madhubanti Bagchi
| image = Madhubanti_Wiki1.jpg
| caption = Bagchi in 2024
| birth_place = [[Balurghat]], [[West Bengal]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|composer|musician}}
| years_active = 2013–present
| module = {{Infobox musical artist
| embed = yes
| background = person
| genre = {{flatlist|
* [[Hindustani classical music]]
* [[Filmi]] [[Bollywood]]
}}
| instrument = Vocals
}}
}}

'''Madhubanti Bagchi''' <ref name="firstpost">{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/bollywood/disney-hotstar-releases-the-mesmerizing-song-album-of-masoom-10834401.html|title=Disney+ Hotstar releases the mesmerizing song album of Masoom|website=Firstpost|date=24 June 2022|access-date=27 July 2024}}</ref> is an Indian playback singer and composer.<ref name="indiatimes">{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/news/sanjay-leela-bhansalis-music-album-sukoon-unveiled/articleshow/96055089.cms|title=Sanjay Leela Bhansali's music album 'Sukoon' unveiled|website=Times of India|date=7 December 2022|access-date=27 July 2024}}</ref> Trained in the [[Agra gharana|Agra Gharana]] tradition, she works primarily in [[Bollywood]].<ref name="telegraphindia">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/vocalist-madhu-b-on-her-bombay-journey/cid/1748244|website=telegraphindia.com|title=Madhu B – The Mumbai journey|access-date=27 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/music/us-calling-for-singer-madhubanti-bagchi/articleshow/74588752.cms|title=US calling for singer Madhubanti Bagchi|work=The Times of India|date=12 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/tunes-from-kolkata/article5973274.ece |title=Tunes from Kolkata |website=The Hindu |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/meet-madhubanti-bagchi-the-aaj-ki-raat-singer-1814074 |title=Meet Madhubanti Bagchi, the ‘Aaj Ki Raat’ singer |website=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/stree-2-song-aaj-ki-raat-tamannaah-bhatia-director-amar-kaushik-cameo-9473571/ |title=Stree 2 song ‘Aaj Ki Raat’: Featuring Tamannaah Bhatia |website=The Indian Express |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/arnob-my-inspiration-2955056 |title=Arnob is my inspiration: Madhubanti Bagchi |website=The Daily Star |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref>

==Early life and training==
Madhubanti was born into a [[Bengali Hindus|Bengali Hindu Brahmin]] family in [[Balurghat]], [[West Bengal]], India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/meet-madhubanti-bagchi-the-aaj-ki-raat-singer-1814074|title=Meet Madhubanti Bagchi, the "aaj ki raat" singer|date=3 August 2024 }}</ref> She began her formal musical education early in childhood, training in the third standard under the noted [[Agra gharana]] exponent Shrimati [[Subhra Guha]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/tunes-from-kolkata/article5973274.ece |title=Tunes from Kolkata |website=The Hindu |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref> Her classical foundation strongly influences her contemporary playback style, especially her work in semi–classical and emotive genres.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/meet-madhubanti-bagchi-the-aaj-ki-raat-singer-1814074 |title=Meet Madhubanti Bagchi, the ‘Aaj Ki Raat’ singer |website=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/meet-madhubanti-bagchi-nazariya-ki-maari-heeramandi-sanjay-leela-bhansali-viral-song-9394881/ |title=Meet Madhubanti Bagchi: Voice behind viral ‘Nazariya Ki Maari’ |website=The Indian Express |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref>

Before her playback debut, she was a member of the Bengali band ''Mrittika''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/tunes-from-kolkata/article5973274.ece |title=Mrittika - The Bengali Band |work=The Hindu |date=4 May 2014 |access-date=4 May 2014}}</ref>

==Music Career==
Bagchi became active in Bollywood in the 2010s. She has recorded for leading Bollywood composers including [[Pritam]], [[Amit Trivedi]], [[Sachin–Jigar]], [[Debojyoti Mishra]], [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]], [[Shekhar Ravjiani]] and [[Shantanu Moitra]].<ref name="indiatimes2">{{cite web |date=10 May 2022 |title=Madhubanti sings for Shyam Benegal, gears up for US tour |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/music/madhubanti-sings-for-shyam-benegal-gears-up-for-us-tour/articleshow/91460276.cms |access-date=27 July 2024 |website=Times of India}}</ref> Her notable Hindi film songs include tracks from ''[[Uunchai]]'' (2022), ''[[Doctor G]]'' (2022), ''[[Good Luck Jerry]]'' (2022), ''[[Hum Do Hamare Do]]'' (2021), ''[[Laxmii]]'' (2020), ''[[Love Aaj Kal (2020 film)|Love Aaj Kal]]'' (2020), ''[[Stree 2]]'' (2024) and ''[[Heeramandi]]'' (2024).<ref>{{cite web |date=15 June 2024 |title=Meet Madhubanti Bagchi, who wooed the Internet with 'Nazariya Ki Maari' in 'Heeramandi' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/meet-madhubanti-bagchi-nazariya-ki-maari-heeramandi-sanjay-leela-bhansali-viral-song-9394881/}}</ref>

She has also worked in the Bengali film industry, contributing to films such as ''[[Kuler Achaar]]'' (2022), ''Boudi Canteen'' (2022), ''[[Shah Jahan Regency]]'' (2019), ''[[Ahare Mon]]'' (2018), ''[[Shob Bhooturey]]'' (2017), ''[[Gangster]]'' (2016), ''[[Shudhu Tomari Jonyo]]'' (2015) and ''[[Ami Aar Amar Girlfriends]]'' (2013).

In 2022, she appeared on [[Coke Studio Bangla]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/entertainment/music/news/arnob-my-inspiration-2955056|title=Coke Studio Bangla|date=6 February 2022}}</ref> Her song "Aaj Ki Raat" from ''Stree 2'' crossed 2 billion YouTube views.<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/stree-2-song-aaj-ki-raat-tamannaah-bhatia-director-amar-kaushik-cameo-9473571/
| title = Stree 2 song Aaj Ki Raat: Tamannaah Bhatia makes a cameo in Amar Kaushik’s film
| website = The Indian Express
| date = 12 November 2025
| access-date = 22 November 2025
}}</ref>

==Discography==
{{Main|Madhubanti Bagchi discography}}

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Notes
!Ref.
|-
|2025
|''[[Dhurandhar]]''
|Singer at wedding
|appears in the song "Shararat"
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2025 |title=After Dominating 2024–25, Madhubanti Bagchi Returns with “Shararat”: A Full-Blown Banger in Collaboration with Jasmine Sandlas |url=https://www.peepingmoon.com/entertainment-news/news/81420/After-Dominating--Madhubanti-Bagchi-Returns-with-Shararat-A-Full-Blown-Banger-in-Collaboration-with-Jasmine-Sandlas.html |access-date= |website=Peeping Moon |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 December 2025 |title=Dhurandhar’s Shararat brings Ayesha Khan and Krystle D’Souza together for a fiery dance number |url=https://mirchi.in/stories/music/dhurandhars-shararat-brings-ayesha-khan-and-krystle-dsouza-together-for-a-fiery-dance-number/153268484 |access-date= |website=mirchi.in |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=5627982}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/c/madhubantibagchi madhubantibagchi on YouTube]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bagchi, Madhubanti}}
[[Category:Women musicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Bengali people]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Balurghat]]
[[Category:Jadavpur University alumni]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-musician-stub}}

Apoorv Om

2026-04-24T07:00:13Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: started new post

{{Multiple issues|
{{Orphan|date=August 2024}}
{{Promotional|date=February 2024}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = Apoorv Om
| image = Apoorvom.jpg
| birth_date = 14 December 1994
| birth_place = New Delhi, India
| image_size = 240
}}

'''Apoorv Om''' is a [[deaf]] and Young Innovative artist and activist<ref>{{Citation|last=DD News|title=Good news India{{!}} 17/9/17|date=2017-09-17|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=et3zJcfki4E|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref> from [[New Delhi]] who advocates for deaf inclusion into the mainstream.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/disabled-artist-from-delhi-asks-unga-president-for-digital-revolution-of-inclusion-1186324-2018-03-10|title=Disabled artist from Delhi asks UNGA President for digital revolution of inclusion|website=India Today|language=en|access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref> Honoured as a Youth Activist for the [[United Nations|UN]] [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and invited to the Second International Conference on Youth Volunteering & Dialogue at [[UNESCO Headquarters|UNESCO's Headquarters]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/conference-youth-volunteering|title=Second International Conference on Youth Volunteering and Dialogue − 2017|website=UNESCO|date=2 March 2017 |language=en|access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref> Om was awarded [[India]]'s National Award for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities(Divyangjan) by [[President of India]] and [[Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment|Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Department of Emp. of PwDs]], [[Government of India]], on event of International Day of Persons with Disabilities at New Delhi on 3 December 2017 .<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.deshvani.in/news/national/60161.html|title=राष्ट्रपति ने 52 लोगों व संस्थानों को किया राष्ट्रीय दिव्यांग जन पुरस्कार से सम्मानित|date=26 July 2018|work=लेटेस्ट न्यूज़ ऑफ़ बिहार, झारखण्ड & नेपाल - Deshvani}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.unmultimedia.org/photo/detail.jsp?id=766/766518&key=79&query=*&sf=|title=Deputy Secretary-General Meets SDG Youth Advocate, National Awardee|work=United Nations Photo|access-date=2018-07-25|language=en}}</ref> The President of the UN [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]] invited him to [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC Youth Forum]] 2019 at [[United Nations]] headquarter, [[New York (state)|New York]]. Mr. Apoorv spoke about Climate action for paper recycling initiatives at all levels.<ref>{{Cite news|date=10 April 2019|title=Delhi boy goes to UN|page=Jagran|work=jagran|url=https://www.jagran.com/delhi/new-delhi-city-ncr-delhi-boy-goes-to-un-19118996.html}}</ref>

He advocates for using the many digital technologies already available, such as voice-to-text apps, to help disabled people and the wider population communicate with each other in real-time.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://newzhook.com/story/16796|title=Deaf artist Apoorv Om urges United Nations to promote a digital revolution of inclusion|access-date=2018-07-25|language=en}}</ref> Focusing on digital technology to foster inclusion is even better than using sign language, he says, because each country's version of sign language is different and thus creates further barriers to interacting with those who can hear and speak.<ref name="The Times of India">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/voice-of-the-disabled-gets-national-award-today/articleshow/61897735.cms|title=Voice of the disabled gets national award today - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref>

A yoga instructor, sketch artist and 2D/3D hanging model architect as well, Om meets with and presents his artwork to prominent figures around the world as he advocates for inclusion of [[Disability|disabled]] people.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/shortcomings/articleshow/62762918.cms|title=कमियों को अपूर्व हौसलों से किया पस्त-Navbharat Times|work=Navbharat Times|access-date=2018-07-25|language=hi-IN}}</ref> He has presented personalized portrait paintings to the President of [[United Nations General Assembly]], [[Miroslav Lajčák]], [[India]] [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]], former [[UN Secretary-General]] [[Ban Ki-moon]], [[United Nations Deputy Secretary-General]] [[Amina J. Mohammed]], [[cricket]] legend [[Sachin Tendulkar]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://thefangarage.com/articles/9746-gopi-t-and-monika-athare-win-the-idbi-new-delhi-marathon-2017|title=Gopi T And Monika Athare Win The IDBI New Delhi Marathon 2017 {{!}} The Fan Garage (TFG)|date=2017-02-27|work=thefangarage.com|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref> and President of the [[United Nations]] [[ECOSOC]], [[Marie Chatardová]] ([[Permanent representative|Permanent Representative]] of the [[Czech Republic]]).His innovative artwork-painting

of the [[International Court of Justice]], [[Peace Palace]] including portraits of all 15 judges of the [[World court|World Court]] accepted by Mr. [[Ronny Abraham|Rony Abraham]], President, and Mr. [[Dalveer Bhandari]], Judge ICJ and the painting currently exhibited at [[Peace Palace]] [[The Hague, Netherlands|The Hague]], Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://in.news.yahoo.com/unga-president-lajcak-says-best-inclusiveness-disabled-065606354.html|title=UNGA president Lajcak says he will do his best for inclusiveness of disabled|access-date=2018-07-25|language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India" />

His hanging 2D/3D models have been exhibited at the [[UNESCO Headquarters]] in [[Paris]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/shortcomings/articleshow/62762918.cms|title=कमियों को अपूर्व हौसलों से किया पस्त-Navbharat Times|work=Navbharat Times|access-date=2018-07-26|language=hi-IN}}</ref> and in the museum of the [[Supreme Court of India]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/voice-of-the-disabled-gets-national-award-today/articleshow/61897735.cms|title=Voice of the disabled gets national award today - Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref>

Apoorv was chosen as FIT India Ambassador in 2022 by FIT India, [[Sports Authority of India]], [[Govt of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 January 2023 |title=FIT INDIA Youth Affairs and Sports |url=https://fitindia.gov.in/fit-india-ambassador?page=2 |access-date=2023-01-08 |website=FIT India}}</ref>

==Work==
Apoorv Om work for making inclusive society for deaf including inclusive setting of educational institution, office and everywhere else. Apoorv Om advocates protecting the right of equality of person with disabilities from grass root level to International Platform like [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nation Headquarter]] at New York City, [[United Nations Office at Geneva|United Nation Office at Geneva]], [[UNESCO]] [[Paris]] and from several other places. While speaking to Times of India he told ""Apoorv wants to use his position as a UN volunteer to find to find ways to make conversations inclusive for those with hearing impairment anywhere".{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

He also raises the issues faced by disabled children even at the platform of the [[International Court of Justice|International court of Justice]].

He is also an artist and has created portrait drawings, some of which have been presented to notable individuals during in-person meetings. <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/voice-of-the-disabled-gets-national-award-today/articleshow/61897735.cms|title=Apoorv got National Award| website=[[The Times of India]] |date=3 December 2017 }}</ref> On the law day 26 November, the [[Chief Justice of India]] was receive a handmade portrait from deaf artist Mr. Apoorv Om including six more Chief Justices of the [[Supreme Court of India]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=CJI Delighted With Portrait Presented By Apoorv Om On Law Day|page=opensearch|work=opensearch|url=https://www.opensearch.co.in/tag/cji-delighted-with-portrait-presented-by-apoorv-om-on-law-day/|access-date=27 November 2021}}</ref>

He is also the innovator of hanging [[3D modeling|3-D model]] of buildings.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=et3zJcfki4E|title=Good news India| 17/9/17|via=www.youtube.com}}</ref>

He is a certified Yoga Trainers and provides free education of Yoga to children and youth coming from underprivileged society. He is making awareness about the benefit of [[Pranayama|Pranayam]], [[Meditation]] and [[Yoga|Yogic science]] for health and wellness of peoples.<ref name=":0" />

He also teaches art and craft to the children, freely.

He is also creating awareness among the people of the society about the value of natural resources like water and Gardens.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==Awards==
1. National Award for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (Divgangjan)-2017 awarded by the Honorable [[President of India]], Shri [[Ram Nath Kovind]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/voice-of-the-disabled-gets-national-award-today/articleshow/61897735.cms|title=National Award for Empowerment of PwD-2017| website=[[The Times of India]] |date=3 December 2017 }}</ref> in recognition of His/Her outstanding Performance as role Model among Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan) in the category of hearing impairment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of Winners of National Awards for the Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities, 2017 |url=https://disabilityaffairs.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/List%20of%20National%20Awardee-2017(1).pdf |website=disabilityaffairs.gov.in}}</ref>

2. National Gaurav Award-2017 for his achievements in the category of Brave Heart.

==Honours==
* Invited by the President of [[International Court of Justice]] on event of 70th anniversary of ICJ in [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/voice-of-the-disabled-gets-national-award-today/articleshow/61897735.cms|title=Invitation at International Court of Justice|work=Times of India}}</ref>
* Honoured by HH [[Irina Bokova]], the [[Director-General of UNESCO]] with award International artist, deaf student and [[UNESCO]] Youth volunteer, 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/shortcomings/articleshow/62762918.cms|title=Kamiyung ko Apoorv hoslung sai kiya Praast|work=Navbharat Times}}</ref>
* His innovative Artwork_hanging 3-D Model of UNESCO Headquarter building was accepted by [[Director-General of UNESCO|Director General of UNESCO]], HH [[Irina Bokova]] and placed in the main exhibition hall of UNESCO headquarter.
* Honoured by Mr. [[Michael Moorer|Michael Mooler]], [[Director general|Director General]] of [[United Nations Office at Geneva|United Nations Office]] at Geneva on 29 September 2017.
* Honoured by Mr. [[Miroslav Lajčák]], President [[United Nations General Assembly]] on 9 March 2018 at New York City, United States.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/disabled-artist-from-delhi-asks-unga-president-for-digital-revolution-of-inclusion-1186324-2018-03-10|title=Disabled artist from Delhi asks UNGA President for digital revolution of inclusion|work=India Today}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Om, Apoorv}}
[[Category:21st-century Indian male artists]]
[[Category:Indian disability rights activists]]
[[Category:Indian deaf people]]
[[Category:1994 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Deaf artists]]
[[Category:Deaf activists]]
[[Category:Indian activists with disabilities]]

Vedic Mathematics

2026-04-19T22:39:10Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: stub

{{Short description|1965 book by Bharati Krishna Tirtha}}
{{For|developments in mathematics in the Vedic period|Indian mathematics#Vedic period}}
{{good article}}
{{use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Vedic Mathematics
| image = Vedicmathematics.jpg
| author = [[Bharati Krishna Tirtha]]
| country = [[India]]
| subject = [[Mental calculation]]
| publisher = [[Motilal Banarsidass]]
| pub_date = 1965
| pages =
| isbn = 978-8120801646
| oclc = 217058562
| dewey =
| congress =
| wikisource =
}}
'''''Vedic Mathematics''''' is a book written by Indian ''[[Shankaracharya]]'' [[Bharati Krishna Tirtha]] and first published in 1965. It contains a list of mathematical techniques which were falsely claimed to contain advanced mathematical knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The history of mathematics : a brief course|last=Cooke|first=Roger L.|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|year=2013|isbn=978-1-118-46029-0|location=Hoboken, N.J.|page=212|chapter=Overview of Mathematics in India|oclc=865012817}}</ref> The book was posthumously published under its deceptive title by editor V. S. Agrawala,{{sfnp|Shukla|2019}} who noted in the foreword that the claim of Vedic origin, made by the original author and implied by the title, was unsupported.<ref name="SGDani1993">{{harvp|Dani|2006}}.</ref>

Neither Krishna Tirtha nor Agrawala were able to produce sources, and scholars unanimously note it to be a compendium of methods for increasing the speed of elementary mathematical calculations sharing no overlap with historical [[Indian mathematics#Vedic period|mathematical developments during the Vedic period]]. Nonetheless, there has been a proliferation of publications in this area and multiple attempts to integrate the subject into mainstream education at the state level by [[right-wing]] [[Hindu nationalist]] governments.<ref name="Varma-2015" /><ref name="The Hindu-2001" />

== Contents ==
The book contains [[metaphorical]] [[aphorisms]] in the form of sixteen ''[[sutra]]s'' and thirteen sub-sutras, which Krishna Tirtha states allude to significant mathematical tools.<ref name="SGDani1993" /> The range of their asserted applications spans from topic as diverse as [[statics]] and [[pneumatics]] to astronomy and financial domains.<ref name="SGDani1993" /><ref name="Hogendijk-2004">{{Cite journal|last=Hogendijk|first=Jan|author-link=Jan Hogendijk|date=March 2004|title=De Veda's en de berekeningen van goeroe Tirthaji|url=http://www.fi.uu.nl/wiskrant/artikelen/233/233maart_hogendijk.pdf|journal=Nieuwe Wiskrant|volume=23|issue=3|pages=49–52}}</ref> Tirtha stated that no part of advanced mathematics lay beyond the realms of his book and propounded that studying it for a couple of hours every day for a year equated to spending about two decades in any standardised education system to become professionally trained in the discipline of mathematics.<ref name="SGDani1993" />

[[Science and technology studies|STS]] scholar [[S. G. Dani]] in '''Vedic Mathematics': Myth and Reality''<ref name="SGDani1993" /> states that the book is primarily a compendium of "tricks"{{efn|{{harvp|Dani|2006}}: "The book really consists of a compilation of tricks in elementary arithmetic and algebra, to be applied in computations with numbers and polynomials. By a 'trick' I do not mean a sleight of hand or something like that; in a general sense a trick is a method or procedure which involves observing and exploring some special features of a situation, which generally tend to be overlooked; for example, the trick described for finding the square of numbers like 15 and 25 with 5 in the unit’s place makes crucial use of the fact of 5 being half of 10, the latter being the base in which the numbers are written."}} that can be applied in elementary, middle and high school arithmetic and algebra, to gain faster results. The sutras and sub-sutras are abstract literary expressions (for example, "as much less" or "one less than previous one") prone to creative interpretations; Krishna Tirtha exploited this to the extent of manipulating the same ''[[shloka]]'' to generate widely different mathematical equivalencies across a multitude of contexts.<ref name="SGDani1993" />

===Relationship with the Vedas===
According to Krishna Tirtha, the sutras and other accessory content were found after years of solitary study of the [[Vedas]]—a set of sacred ancient Hindu scriptures—in a forest. They were supposedly contained in the ''[[pariśiṣṭa]]''—a supplementary text/appendix—of the [[Atharvaveda]].<ref name="SGDani1993" /> He does not provide any more bibliographic clarification on the sourcing.<ref name="SGDani1993" /> The book's editor, V. S. Agrawala, argues that since the Vedas are defined as the traditional repositories of all knowledge, any knowledge can be assumed to be somewhere in the Vedas, by definition; he even went to the extent of deeming Krishna Tirtha's work as a ''pariśiṣṭa'' in itself.{{sfnp|Shukla|2019}}

However, numerous mathematicians and STS scholars (Dani, [[Kim Plofker]], K.S. Shukla, [[Jan Hogendijk]] et al.) note that the Vedas do not contain any of those sutras and sub-sutras.<ref name="SGDani1993" /><ref name="Bal-2010">{{Cite magazine|last=Bal|first=Hartosh Singh|date=12 August 2010|title=The Fraud of Vedic Maths|url=https://openthemagazine.com/art-culture/the-fraud-of-vedic-maths/|magazine=The Open|access-date=25 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Mathematics in India|title-link= Mathematics in India (book) |last=Plofker|first=Kim|date=18 January 2009|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=9780691120676|pages=16|chapter=Mathematical Thought In Vedic India|author-link=Kim Plofker|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHvThPNp9yMC}}</ref><ref name="Hogendijk-2004" /> When Shukla, a mathematician and historiographer of ancient Indian mathematics, challenged Krishna Tirtha to locate the sutras in the [[Parishishta]] of a standard edition of the [[Atharvaveda]], Krishna Tirtha stated that they were not included in the standard editions but only in a hitherto-undiscovered version, chanced upon by him; the foreword and introduction of the book also takes a similar stand.<ref name="SGDani1993" />{{sfnp|Shukla|2019}} Sanskrit scholars have observed that the book's linguistic style is not that of the [[Vedic period]] but rather reflects modern Sanskrit.<ref name="SGDani1993" />

Dani points out that the contents of the book have "practically nothing in common" with the mathematics of the [[Vedic period]] or even with subsequent developments in [[Indian mathematics]].<ref name="SGDani1993" /> Shukla reiterates the observations, on a per-chapter basis.{{sfnp|Shukla|2019}} For example, multiple techniques in the book involve the use of [[decimal fractions|decimals]]. These were unknown during the Vedic times and were introduced in India only in the sixteenth century;<ref name="Hogendijk-2004" /> works of numerous ancient mathematicians such as [[Aryabhata]], [[Brahmagupta]] and [[Bhaskara I|Bhaskara]] were based entirely on fractions.<ref name="SGDani1993" /> From a historiographic perspective, Vedic India had no knowledge of differentiation or integration.<ref name="SGDani1993" /> The book also claims that [[analytic geometry]] of [[Conic section|conics]] occupied an important tier in Vedic mathematics, which runs contrary to all available evidence.<ref name="SGDani1993" /><ref name="Hogendijk-2004" />

== Publication history and reprints ==
First published in 1965, five years after Krishna Tirtha's death, the work consisted of forty chapters, originally on 367 pages, and covered techniques he had promulgated through his lectures.<ref name="SGDani1993" /> A foreword by Tirtha's disciple Manjula Trivedi stated that he had originally written 16 volumes—one on each sutra—but the manuscripts were lost before publication, and that this work was penned in 1957.<ref name="Bal-2010" /><ref name="SGDani1993" /><ref name="WBFlorentin2006">{{cite book|url=https://arxiv.org/ftp/math/papers/0611/0611347.pdf|title=Vedic Mathematics: Vedic Or Mathematics: A Fuzzy and Neutrosophic Analysis|author1=W.B. Vasantha Kandasamy|author2=Florentin Smarandache|date=December 2006|publisher=American Research Press|isbn=978-1-59973-004-2|access-date=23 May 2013}}</ref>{{rp|10}}

Reprints were published in 1975 and 1978 to accommodate typographical corrections.<ref>Biographical sketch by Manjula Trivedi, 1965 in book Vedic Mathematics, pages x, xi.</ref> Several reprints have been published since the 1990s.<ref name="WBFlorentin2006" />{{rp|6}}

== Reception ==
[[S. G. Dani]] of the [[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]] (IIT Bombay) notes the book to be of dubious quality. He believes it did a disservice both to the pedagogy of mathematical education by presenting the subject as a collection of methods without any conceptual rigor, and to [[science and technology studies in India]] (STS) by adhering to dubious standards of historiography.<ref name="SGDani1993" />{{Efn|Dani's efforts to debunk the myth of Vedic Maths have been lauded by fellow mathematicians. Over {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eFFyBgAAQBAJ|title=Recent Trends in Ergodic Theory and Dynamical Systems|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Siddhartha|last2=Das|first2=Tarun|last3=Ghosh|first3=Anish|last4=Shah|first4=Riddhi|date=26 January 2015|publisher=[[American Mathematical Society]]|isbn=9781470409319|page=3}}, [[M. S. Raghunathan]] admires his efforts in this regard.}} He also points out that while Tirtha's system could be used as a teaching aid, there was a need to prevent the use of "public money and energy on its propagation" except in a limited way and that authentic Vedic studies were being neglected in India even as Tirtha's system received support from several government and private agencies.<ref name="SGDani1993" /> [[Jayant Narlikar]] has voiced similar concerns.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_l6eBQAAQBAJ|title=The Scientific Edge: The Indian Scientist from Vedic to Modern Times|last=Narlikar|first=Jayant V.|date=4 August 2003|publisher=[[Penguin UK]]|isbn=9789351189282}}</ref>

[[Hartosh Singh Bal]] notes that whilst Krishna Tirtha's attempts might be somewhat acceptable in light of his nationalistic inclinations during colonial rule—he had left his spiritual endeavors to be appointed as the principal of a college to counter [[Macaulayism]]—it provided a fertile ground for further ethnonationalist abuse of historiography by Hindu nationalist parties; [[Thomas Trautmann]] views the development of Vedic Mathematics in a similar manner.<ref name="Bal-2010" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.questia.com/read/125525910/languages-and-nations-conversations-in-colonial|title=Languages and Nations : Conversations in Colonial South India.|last=Trautmann|first=Thomas R.|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=2002|isbn=9780520931909|pages=45|oclc=476020847|access-date=21 October 2019|archive-date=21 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021152652/https://www.questia.com/read/125525910/languages-and-nations-conversations-in-colonial|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Meera Nanda]] has noted hagiographic descriptions of Indian knowledge systems by various right-wing cultural movements (including the BJP), which have deemed Krishna Tirtha to be in the same league as [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]].<ref name="Nanda-2000" />

Some have, however, praised the methods and commented on its potential to attract school-children to mathematics and increase popular engagement with the subject.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pandey|first=Pushp Deep|date=2003|title=Public engagement with mathematics in India|url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/php/show_article.php?volume=084&issue=07&titleid=id_084_07_0862_0863_0&page=0862|format=DjVu|journal=[[Current Science]]|volume=84|issue=7|pages=862–863|issn=0011-3891|jstor=24108037}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-in-school/everything-vedic-in-vedic-maths/article6508218.ece|title=Everything Vedic in 'Vedic Maths'|last1=Glover|first1=James|date=17 October 2014|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=4 January 2016|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCb7w5aTnt7YeXBcVCY0mgFw|title=tecmath|website=YouTube|language=en|access-date=2020-03-14}}</ref> Others have viewed the works as an attempt at harmonising religion with science.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crisman |first=Karl-Dieter |date=9 August 2019 |title=Reviews |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |volume=126 |issue=7 |pages=667–672 |doi=10.1080/00029890.2019.1606573 |issn=0002-9890 |s2cid=215770851}}</ref>

=== Originality of methods ===
Dani speculated that Krishna Tirtha's methods were a product of his academic training in mathematics{{efn|Krishna Tirtha had a [[Master of Arts]] in Mathematics.<ref name="SGDani1993" />}} and long-recorded habit of experimentation with numbers.<ref name="SGDani1993" /> Similar systems include the [[Trachtenberg system]] or the techniques mentioned in Lester Meyers's 1947 book ''High Speed Mathematics''.<ref name="SGDani1993" /> [[Alex Bellos]] points out that several of the calculation methods can also be found in certain European treatises on calculation from the [[early Modern period]].<ref name="alex">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cp8oyheDhfUC|title=Alex's Adventures in Numberland|last=Bellos|first=Alex|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury]]|year=2010|isbn=9781408808863|chapter=Something about nothing}}</ref>

=== Computation algorithms ===
Some of the algorithms have been tested for efficiency, with positive results.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kasliwal|first1=Prabha S.|last2=Patil|first2=B. P.|last3=Gautam|first3=D. K.|date=1 January 2011|title=Performance Evaluation of Squaring Operation by Vedic Mathematics|journal=IETE Journal of Research|volume=57|issue=1|pages=39–41|doi=10.4103/0377-2063.78327|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |doi-access=free|s2cid=120316446|issn=0377-2063}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=2013 International Multi-Conference on Automation, Computing, Communication, Control and Compressed Sensing (IMac4s)|last1=Huddar|first1=S. R.|last2=Rupanagudi|first2=S. R.|last3=Kalpana|first3=M.|last4=Mohan|first4=S.|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]]|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4673-5090-7|pages=465–469|chapter=Novel high speed vedic mathematics multiplier using compressors|doi=10.1109/iMac4s.2013.6526456|s2cid=11124644}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=2009 International Conference on Advances in Computing, Control, and Telecommunication Technologies|last1=Mehta|first1=Parth|last2=Gawali|first2=Dhanashri|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]]|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4244-5321-4|pages=640–642|chapter=Conventional versus Vedic Mathematical Method for Hardware Implementation of a Multiplier|doi=10.1109/ACT.2009.162|s2cid=6773150}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=2012 International Conference on Devices, Circuits and Systems (ICDCS)|last1=Kunchigi|first1=V.|last2=Kulkarni|first2=L.|last3=Kulkarni|first3=S.|publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]]|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4577-1546-4|pages=360–364|chapter=High speed and area efficient vedic multiplier|doi=10.1109/ICDCSyst.2012.6188747|s2cid=19077488}}</ref> However, most of the algorithms have higher [[time complexity]] than conventional ones, which explains the lack of adoption of Vedic mathematics in real life.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Sen|first1=Syamal K.|title=5 - Conclusions|date=1 January 2016|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081007747000053|work=Zero|pages=93–142|editor-last=Sen|editor-first=Syamal K.|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=978-0-08-100774-7|access-date=23 November 2019|last2=Agarwal|first2=Ravi P.|editor2-last=Agarwal|editor2-first=Ravi P.}}</ref>

== Integration into mainstream education ==
The book has been included in the school syllabus of the Indian states of [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]], soon after the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), a right-wing nationalist political party, came to power and remade the education system to emphasise historically dubious notions like that that Vedic Mathematics represented a genuinely ancient and inherently superior Indian and Hindu system of mathematics, knowledge, and thinking.<ref name="WBFlorentin2006" />{{rp|6}}<ref name="Nanda-2000">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkcuQFBXLFQC|title=The Sokal Hoax: The Sham that Shook the Academy|last=Nanda|first=Meera|publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]|year=2000|isbn=9780803219243|pages=206–213|chapter=The Science Wars in India|author-link=Meera Nanda}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Behera|first=Navnita Chadha|date=1 July 1996|title=Perpetuating the divide: Political abuse of history in South Asia|journal=Contemporary South Asia|volume=5|issue=2|pages=191–205|doi=10.1080/09584939608719789|issn=0958-4935}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Foreign Encounter in Myth and Religion: Modes of Foreign Relations and Political Economy|last=Pijl|first=Kees Van Der|publisher=[[Pluto Press]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-7453-2316-9|volume=2|pages=98|chapter=Warrior Heroes in the Indo-European Lineage|jstor=j.ctt183h05v.7|doi=10.2307/j.ctt183h05v.7}}</ref>

[[Dinanath Batra]] had conducted a lengthy campaign for the inclusion of Vedic Mathematics into the [[National Council of Educational Research and Training]] (NCERT) curricula.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=McComas|date=2 October 2014|title=Hindu Activism and Academic Censorship in India|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=37|issue=4|pages=717–725|doi=10.1080/00856401.2014.956679|s2cid=144408510|issn=0085-6401}}</ref> Subsequently, there was a proposal from NCERT to induct Vedic Mathematics, along with a number of fringe pseudo-scientific subjects (Vedic Astrology et al.), into the standard academic curricula. This was only shelved after a number of academics and mathematicians, led by Dani and sometimes backed by political parties, opposed these attempts based on previously discussed rationales and criticised the move as a politically guided attempt at [[saffronisation]].<ref name="Hogendijk-2004" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacw.net/DC/CommunalismCollection/ArticlesArchive/NoVedic.html|title=Neither Vedic Nor Mathematics |website=www.sacw.net|access-date=20 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="The Hindu-2001">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/legitimisation-of-vedic-mathematics-astrology-opposed/article27971872.ece|title=Legitimisation of Vedic mathematics, astrology opposed|date=14 August 2001|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=25 November 2019|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archives.peoplesdemocracy.in/2001/aug19/aug192k1_education1.htm|title=Stop this Fraud on our Children|website=archives.peoplesdemocracy.in|access-date=20 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314160716/https://archives.peoplesdemocracy.in/2001/aug19/aug192k1_education1.htm |archive-date=2016-03-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hasan|first=Mushirul|date=1 December 2002|title=The BJP's intellectual agenda: Textbooks and imagined history|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=25|issue=3|pages=187–209|doi=10.1080/00856400208723498|s2cid=143341141|issn=0085-6401}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.questia.com/read/117286858/a-place-at-the-multicultural-table-the-development|title=A place at the multicultural table the development of an American Hinduism|last=Kurien|first=Prema A.|publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|year=2007|isbn=9780813540559|pages=164|chapter=Re-visioning Indian History: Internet Hinduism|jstor=j.ctt5hj9tk|oclc=703221465|chapter-url=https://muse.jhu.edu/chapter/620190|chapter-format=PDF|url-access=subscription|access-date=21 October 2019|archive-date=21 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021152653/https://www.questia.com/read/117286858/a-place-at-the-multicultural-table-the-development|url-status=dead}}</ref>

After the BJP's return to power in 2014, three universities began offering courses on the subject of Vedic Mathematics while a television channel catering to the topic was also launched; generous education and research grants have also been allotted to the subject despite a lack of genuine scientific, mathematical, historical, or religious basis for doing so.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/11331533/Indias-next-gift-to-the-world-could-be-Vedic-mathematics.html|title=India's next gift to the world could be Vedic mathematics|journal=[[Daily Telegraph]]|last=Nelson|first=Dean|date=7 January 2015|access-date=20 October 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.questia.com/read/120041069/the-clash-within-democracy-religious-violence|title=The Clash Within : Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future.|last=Nussbaum|first=Martha Craven|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=9780674030596|pages=222|oclc=1006798430|author-link=Martha Nussbaum|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.questia.com/read/120580887/scientific-values-and-civic-virtues|title=Scientific values and civic virtues|last=Nanda|first=Meera|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=9780198038467|editor-last=Koertge|editor-first=Noretta|pages=224|chapter=Postmodernism, Hindu Nationalism, and “Vedic Science”|doi=10.1093/0195172256.001.0001|oclc=62288153|author-link=Meera Nanda|chapter-url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="Varma-2015">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/Vedic-maths-Not-quite-adding-up/articleshow/45839520.cms|title=Vedic maths: Not quite adding up |website=[[The Times of India]]|date=11 January 2015 |access-date=22 October 2019}}</ref> The topic was introduced into the elementary curriculum of [[Himachal Pradesh]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Himachal to introduce Sanskrit language, Vedic mathematics in elementary classes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/himachal-to-introduce-sanskrit-language-vedic-mathematics-in-elementary-classes-1902006-2022-01-19 |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=India Today |date=19 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=IANS |title=As Himachal introduces chanting of slokas in schools, critics target govt for 'saffronising' education |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/as-himachal-introduces-chanting-of-slokas-in-schools-critics-target-govt-for-saffronising-education-1101459.html |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> The same year, the government of [[Karnataka]] allocated funds for teaching the subject. This move by the BJP provoked criticism from academics and from [[Dalit]] groups.<ref>{{Cite news |last=R |first=Jayanth |date=2022-09-15 |title=Reserved funds to be used to teach 'Vedic' maths for SC/ST students |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/reserved-funds-to-be-used-to-teach-vedic-maths-for-scst-students/article65895866.ece |access-date=2024-03-04 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Belur |first=Rashmi |date=15 September 2022 |title=Now, Karnataka govt to introduce vedic maths for SC/ST kids |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/st-kids-1145457.html |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

==Editions==
* {{cite book |author=Swami Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji Maharaja |editor=V. S. Agrawala |title=Vedic Mathematics: Sixteen Simple Mathematical Formulae from the Vedas |place=Varanasi |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |edition=First |year=1965 |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.scoerat.13528vedicmathmetics |url-access=registration |ref=none}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |first=S. G. |last=Dani |author-link=S. G. Dani |orig-year=1993 |chapter=Myths and reality: On 'Vedic Mathematics' |chapter-url=https://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/dani-vmsm.pdf |editor1-first=W. B. Vasantha |editor1-last=Kandasamy |editor2-first=Florentin |editor2-last=Smarandache |year=2006 |title=Vedic Mathematics, 'Vedic' or 'Mathematics': A Fuzzy & Neutrosophic Analysis |place=Gallup, New Mexico |publisher=Multimedia Larga |isbn=978-1-59973-004-2 |url=https://arxiv.org/ftp/math/papers/0611/0611347.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106084127/https://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/dani-vmsm.pdf |access-date=23 May 2013|archive-date=6 January 2022 }}
*{{Cite book |title=Studies in Indian Mathematics and Astronomy: Selected Articles of Kripa Shankar Shukla |last=Shukla |first=K. S. |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-981-13-7325-1 |editor-last=Kolachana |editor-first=Aditya |series=Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences |location=Singapore |chapter=Vedic Mathematics: The deceptive title of Swamiji’s book |pages=697–704 |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8 |editor-last2=Mahesh |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Ramasubramanian |editor-first3=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k86aDwAAQBAJ}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Books about Hinduism]]
[[Category:Books about the history of mathematics]]
[[Category:Indian non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Mental calculation]]
[[Category:1965 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Pseudohistory]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian books]]
[[Category:Pseudomathematics]]
[[Category:Hindutva]]

Khuda Buksh

2026-04-18T13:53:05Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: Adding a article

{{Short description|Bangladeshi businessman and humanitarian}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Khuda Buksh
| image = Khuda Buksh.jpg
| imagesize = 220px
| caption = <div style="font-size: 90%">"''Keep your watchful eyes ever vigilant so that no breadwinner of your areas of activities dies leaving his family uncared for . . . Attain belief in the job. Have conviction that life assurance is the most noble profession."'' – Khuda Buksh, Your Duty is Onerous, Symposium on Life Insurance in Pakistan (July 1967){{sfn|Safiyyullah|1967|p=60}}
</div> | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1912|02|01}}
| birth_place = Damodya, [[Shariatpur]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1974|05|13|1912|02|01}}
| death_place = [[Dacca]], [[Bangladesh]]
| occupation = Insurance Salesman
| education = Educated at [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Presidency College]], Kolkata, India.
| notable_works= [[Life insurance]] business development in [[Indian subcontinent]]
| signature = Khuda_Buksh_Signature.svg
}}

'''Khuda Buksh''' (1 February 1912 – 13 May 1974) was a Bengali [[life insurance]] [[salesman]] and [[humanitarian]] from the [[Indian subcontinent]]. For four decades he represented the "life and soul of the [[insurance industry]]" throughout the region,{{sfn|Farid|2011|pp=xi-xiii}} leaving a mark on the business in three separate countries: British India (specifically in East India), Pakistan, and Bangladesh.{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52–59}} Buksh, or "Insurance Giant,"{{sfn|Rahman|2010a|pp=22-26}}{{sfn|Chowdhury|2010|pp=27-30}}{{sfn|S. R. Khan|2010|pp=67-71}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010a|p=331}}{{sfn|Razzak|2010|pp=182-184}}{{sfn|Hossain|2010|p=164}} as he became known, gained fame in the 1940s for his salesmanship in East India.{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}} From the 1950s to 1960s, he helped build one of Pakistan's top insurance companies from scratch.{{sfn|Astryx|2010|pp=339-340}}{{sfn|Safiyyullah|1967|p=60}} He was the pioneer of life insurance industry growth and development in Bangladesh;<ref>{{harvnb|M. O. Rahim, June|2013|p=189}}</ref> his name became "[[synonymous]] with the life insurance industry,"<ref name="ds12Mar2012">{{harvnb|''The Daily Star'', 12 March|2012}}</ref> and he is even referred to, in Bangladesh, as the "Father of Insurance."{{sfn|Rashid|2010b|pp=xv-xvi}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}}{{sfn|Razzaque|2010|pp=189-191}}{{sfn|M. Rahim|2010|pp=208-211}}{{sfn|Shaffi|2010|pp=167-171}}

== Early life and education (1912–1935) ==
Buksh was born in Damodya, a remote village in the [[Shariatpur District]] of [[East Bengal]] in [[British India]].{{sfn|Buksh|2010a|pp=265-268}} He was the oldest of six children born to Shonabuddin Hawladar and Arjuta Khatun.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=1-2}} As a child, Buksh was known to be friendly, respectful, religious, generous, kind-hearted, and ethical. Being affected by the poverty and destitution he witnessed in his village, Buksh tried to help those who were less fortunate than he was. In grade school, he repurchased the same math textbook for class to give it to classmates who could not afford their own books.{{sfn|Buksh|2010a|pp=265-268}} He was recognized as a talented student and obtained scholarships at all levels of schooling. He stood first in his class from primary to middle school and in high school he stood first or second. He was the captain of his football team playing the center-forward position. His team was successful, competing outside of its sub-division and winning many trophies.{{sfn|Buksh|2010a|pp=265-268}} Additionally, Buksh possessed an ingenious mind and exceptional [[interpersonal skills]].<ref name="ds12Mar2012" />

Buksh passed the [[entrance examination]] from the Symacharan Edward Institution in 1929 in Koneshar, a village near Damodya, in the first division, with a distinction in mathematics. He then went to [[Kolkata]] and studied at [[Maulana Azad College]], for two years and passed the intermediate (equivalent to [[Junior college]])examination in 1932. Later he studied at the [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Presidency College]] at Kolkata for two years, working towards his [[bachelor's degree]]. Throughout college, he boarded with the family of Habibur Rahman, a captain of a commercial ocean liner, who was often away from home. Along with his studies, Buksh looked after Rahman's household affairs and his bedridden wife and two school-going children just like a guardian for the family.{{sfn|Manju|2010|pp=180-181}} However, due to health and familial complications, he was unable to complete the degree. Subsequently, Buksh accepted a part-time job as a [[librarian]] at the college.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=9}}

== Early professional life, Calcutta, British India (1935–1952) ==
{{Infobox person
| name = OGSLAC Management
| image = OGSLA_Management.jpg
| imagesize = 220px
| caption = <div style="font-size: 90%"> A Group photo of OGSLA's management, Khuda Buksh (standing left), D.K. Dastur, managing director (sitting center), Calcutta, India, 1946.</div>
}}
Buksh joined the Oriental Government Security Life Assurance Company (OGSLAC) in Calcutta on 2 December 1935, assuming a clerical position.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=9-10}} Atahar Ali, an insurance man recognized Buksh's "highly developed sense of persuasive power" motivated him to pursue life insurance selling career.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} Desiring to serve humanity, he immediately dedicated himself to becoming a full-time life insurance agent.{{sfn|Buksh|2010b|pp=269-273}} He was the first among the [[Muslims]] to join the OGSLAC field force.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001b|p=106}} In Hindu dominated Calcutta, there were only a handful of [[Bengali Muslims]] rich enough to buy an insurance policy and [[Islamic fundamentalism]] discouraged insurance as un-Islamic.{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}} Religious minded-people believed that the idea that one could reduce risks in life and business through insurance went against the sovereignty of God.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=26}} The dominating view at the time was that only worthless people worked for insurance companies, and insurance agents were not welcomed into people's homes.{{sfn|Buksh|2010b|pp=269-273}} He soon realized how ordinary people's ignorance of good financial systems deprived them of tremendous benefits; he realized that this ignorance was due, in great part, to the poor strategies being used to present the benefits of insurance to the masses.{{sfn|Ansari|2010|pp=82-84}} "People generally had no respect for insurance salesmanship, [and] the profession was very much looked down upon," he said.{{sfn|Buksh|2010b|pp=269-273}} Buksh, endowed with a natural "[[persuasive]] power,"{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} vowed to change this perception. He applied his "challenging mentality"{{sfn| Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}} and "indomitable spirit"{{sfn|Buksh|2010b|pp=269-273}} to selling life insurance policies [[door-to-door]].{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=32}} This became his life's mission.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} He carried a light folding chair with him on his rounds and, if a client did not offer him a seat, he would use his folding chair. He preached the message of life insurance to every home, promoting the idea that life insurance is an indispensable part of everyday lives.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=34}}<ref name="Rahim2013p171">{{harvnb|M. O. Rahim, June|2013|p=171}}</ref> He was enthusiastic and confident, and he held his hopes high and was determined to succeed.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=34}} His charm, passion for understanding people, and business savvy helped to win the hearts of [[Muslims]] and [[Hindus]].{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}}{{sfn|Astryx|2010|pp=339-340}} He established himself as reputable insurance salesman{{sfn|Ansari|2010|pp=82-84}}{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}} and "made a name for himself as a first class insurer."{{sfn| Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}} In 1946, the OGSLAC promoted him to inspector.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=34-35}} After gaining 17 years of field experience, Buksh moved back to his [[homeland]], [[East Bengal]], to take on a prestigious position at the [[Eastern Federal Union Insurance Company Limited]] (EFU).{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=38}}

== Life insurance leader, East Pakistan (1952–1968) ==
{{Infobox person
| name = EFU Personnel
| image = EFU personnel.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = <div style="font-size: 90%"> A Group photo of EFU personnel (managers, officers, agents and staff) and guests from other insurance companies, Dacca, East Pakistan, July 1953.</div>

}}
At the EFU, located at [[Dacca]], Buksh became the life manager in charge of [[East Pakistan]] in July 1952. At the time, there was widespread [[fundamentalist]] [[propaganda]] against insurance, which portrayed it as being [[un-Islamic]].{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}} The general public, from solvent businessmen to the lower-middle class, also believed insurance to be associated with death.{{sfn|Khan|2010b|pp=242–255}} Moreover, the educated were reluctant to join the insurance profession due to the negative religious and culturally prejudiced views against life insurance workers.<ref name="Rahim2013p171"/> Buksh made his life's goal to not only change preconceived ideas about insurance, but to create and sustain a positive image of insurance workers and the services they offered.{{sfn|Buksh|2010c|pp= 274-278}} He again took advantage of his "magnetic personality,"{{sfn|Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}}{{sfn|Razzak|2010|pp=182-184}}{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}} and "exemplary integrity" recruited, motivated, and trained hundreds{{sfn|Chishti|2010|pp=120-123}}<ref>{{harvnb|M. O. Rahim, June|2013|p=174}}</ref>{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=52}} of young people every year in the insurance business, particularly a "huge section of the unemployed, ambition-less" young people. During this period, he helped provide jobs to the children of numerous poverty stricken Bengali Muslim families.{{sfn|Khan|2010b|pp=242–255}} In order to develop a salesman's confidence, improve sales talks, and build enthusiasm for the job, he freely shared his practical knowledge and field experience gained over many years and imparted to the newly recruited agents for their training.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=53}}{{sfn|Q. A. Rashid|2010|pp=63-66}} He gave them an objective analysis of the career: {{blockquote|Keep your watchful eyes ever vigilant so that no breadwinner of your area of activities dies leaving his family uncared for. Fight out like Hercules the colossus of un-certainty, unrest, of hard times by offering life assurance protection. Attain belief in the job. Have firm conviction that life assurance is the most noble profession. Have faith that intelligent and honest endeavor never goes unrewarded. You must develop determination and enthusiasm . . . Make contact with as many people as you can. Spend the major portion of your time in presence of your prospects, act courteously, be tactful in presentation and you will find that it is easier to get than to miss business.{{sfn|Safiyyullah|1967|p=60}}}} While working to employ them, he also developed the kind of positive competition that would challenge employees to excel at work and in [[social interactions]].{{sfn|Khan|2010b|pp=242–255}} He excelled at turning novice trainees into efficient insurance agents.{{sfn|Q. A. Rashid|2010|pp=63-66}} He visited every agent's home and inspired them with his enthusiasm, motivational words, and kindness. He also offered to mitigate their financial and personal problems. He often helped them with his "extra-ordinary convincing capability" to secure business by accompanying them to meet with prospective clients.{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}}{{sfn|Mohiuddin|2010|pp=76-79}}{{sfn|Chowdhury|2010|pp=27-30}} At the same time, he continued to forge close connections with professional, social, cultural, and education organizations, such as Rotary Club of [[Rotary International]], to increase awareness of life insurance in the greater society.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=127-131}} "He devised inventive techniques and motivated his sales force to challenge the public's negative perception of life insurance."{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=inside jacket}}

Initially, the insurance policies were issued from the head office in Karachi, with clients in [[Dacca]], [[Chittagong]] and other places. This caused unusually long delays and to avoid these, Buksh convinced management to have policy renewals, premiums and other arrangements done from Dacca. He increased manpower in Dacca regional office and other divisional and sub-divisional towns. Thus a new class of insurance workers were created and the insurance business grew in [[East Pakistan]] because of his "extra-ordinary foresight."{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}}

A "[[workaholic]],"{{sfn|Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}}{{sfn|Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}}{{sfn|Mehman|2010|pp=60-62}}{{sfn|Q. A. Rashid|2010|pp=63-66}}{{sfn|Rahman|2010b|pp=80-81}} Buksh created a large number of field organizations, built a strong force across East Pakistan{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=96}} and became a "champion in the life insurance business."{{sfn|Rahman|2010a|pp=22-26}} Nevertheless, he fiercely protected the interests of insured people{{sfn|Khan|2010b|pp=242–255}} and settled life insurance claims without delay. He would sometimes attend the funeral services of an insured person, hand-delivering an insurance benefit check to the surviving family members in order to raise their morale.{{sfn|Mohiuddin|2010|pp=76-79}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}}{{sfn|Khan|2010a|pp=34-41}} Under Buksh's leadership the company business showed an upward trend with a paid-for business from Rs. 25.4 million in 1953 to Rs. 42.8 million in 1957.{{sfn|Buksh|2010d|pp=279-281}} By March 1958, the EFU proudly announced in a newspaper that "Eastern Federal was the largest Pakistani Insurance Company."{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=69}} The EFU and Buksh became a household name{{sfn|Q. A. Rashid|2010|pp=63-66}}{{sfn|Mehman|2010|pp=60-62}} and under his leadership, in 1959, [[East Pakistan]] accounted for 65 percent of the EFU's life insurance business.<ref>{{harvnb|M. O. Rahim, June|2013|p=180}}</ref> In 1960, Buksh was promoted to the position of life manager of East and West Pakistan and moved to the company's head office in [[Karachi]], [[West Pakistan]].{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=70}}

== Life insurance leader, Pakistan (1960–1968) ==
[[File:Buksh Addresses Management.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Khuda Buksh announcing the target completion of 1962 to the EFU management at the lawns of Beach Luxury Hotel, Clifton, Karachi, West Pakistan, January 1963]]
[[File:Khuda Buksh received at Karachi airport 1965.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Khuda Buksh being greeted at Karachi Airport by EFU Management 1965]]
A "dynamic leader"{{sfn|Safiyyullah|1967|p=60}}{{sfn|Farid|2011|pp=xi-xiii}} with a "[[charismatic]] personality,"{{sfn|Farid|2010|p=328}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}}{{sfn|S. R. Khan|2010|pp=67-71}}{{sfn|Razzak|2010|pp=182-184}} Buksh planned and sought to do in the entire country what he had done in [[East Pakistan]]. His strategy was to bring more people into the life insurance business and expand business across both parts of the country.{{sfn|Qadri|2010|pp=143-145}} Buksh had a unique capability to recognize a promising salesman. His persuasive skills enabled him to convince many key producers from various other companies to join the EFU.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=429-430}} He personally hired all administrative and key marketing people including development officers, inspectors and managers for the company.{{sfn|Rahman|2010a|pp=22-26}}{{sfn|Mujib-ud-Doula|2010|pp=31-33}} Through "deliberate actions,"{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=87}} Buksh developed a highly motivated and dedicated sales force.{{sfn|Fasihuddin|2010|pp=137-142}} He created, organized, and managed four zones: Central Zone ([[Karachi]], head office), Western Zone ([[Lahore]], regional headquarters), Rawalpindi Zone ([[Rawalpindi]]), and Eastern Zone ([[Dacca]], regional headquarters).{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=96}}

Buksh frequently travelled to all the EFU zones to attend meetings, conferences and prize distribution ceremonies. He had an excellent style of speaking, and a surprising technique to win others' hearts. "His mode of speaking was polished, everyone listened with a pin-drop silence."{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} He mostly delivered extempore speeches{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010a|p=331}} and "inspired his agents through fascinating speech to bring in more business, more successes," said Mujibur Rahman.{{sfn|Rahman|2010b|pp=80-81}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} While in the office in Karachi, Lahore, Dacca, [[Chittagong]] or [[Rawalpindi]] he kept in touch with his field force in all zones on a daily basis through telephone calls, and he was aware of what was going on, what each field officer was doing, and what their achievements were, regardless of whether they were was an agent, a sales manager or a chief manager. He applied his personal touch in his dealings with his field force and this "made a significant difference in the enthusiasm of both field and office staff."{{sfn|Mohammad|2010|pp=149-152}} Buksh worked hard himself and could get the work done.{{sfn|Pereira|2010|pp=97-107}} He was instrumental in setting sales targets and ensuring that the large team he developed reached their goals.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=97-98}}{{sfn|Chishti|2010|pp=120-123}}{{sfn|Siddiqui|2010|pp=124-127}}{{sfn|Fasihuddin|2010|pp=137-142}} According to Rizwan Ahmed Farid, Buksh had the respect, love, and trust of his coworkers:{{blockquote| He gained the confidence and credentials of his teammates by being honest, down-to-earth, humble, sincere, fair and straight forward, with himself as well as with his subordinates. He built up their trust by empowering people by delegating them the authority for important managerial decisions. He made sure to honor any commitment made by his teammates—thus developing their confidence.{{sfn|Farid|2011|pp=xi-xiii}} }} Despite his busy schedule, Buksh maintained an open door policy.{{sfn|Fasihuddin|2010|pp=137-142}} Anyone could walk into his office and freely discuss about various problems.{{sfn|S. R. Khan|2010|pp=67-71}} From 1962 to 1965, under Abbas Khaleeli's leadership at the EFU's life department, Buksh sold more policies than all four foreign insurers in Pakistan. Due in large part to Buksh's efforts, the total market share of in-force policies for foreign insurers at the end of 1965 was less than that of Eastern Federal.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=102-103}} From 1963 to 1966, EFU management introduced two training schemes at Karachi. One was an executive officer's training scheme and the other was a three-month officer's training scheme.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=92-93}} The trainees were exposed to Buksh's style of speaking and motivation. Buksh was instrumental in making [each] scheme a success on the practical side.{{sfn|Pereira|2010|pp=97-107}}

By 1966, the company had 600 organization officers and 11,000 agents, about 50 percent of whom belonged to the Eastern Zone.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=104}}{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=248}} His value being measured by the amount of business he produced,{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=104}} Buksh secured so many clients that the company was able to "advertise that every second person having life insurance policy in the country was insured with EFU."{{sfn|Choudhury|2010|p=147}} Buksh visited London in 1963, 1964 and 1967 and was the main driving force of the EFU's business in London.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=103}} "His hard work and tremendous expertise had mobilized the nation’s economy, even if infinitesimally."{{sfn|Khan|2010b|pp=242–255}} As business grew, Buksh became deputy general manager in December, 1963 and general manager in January, 1966{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=103}} expanding the EFU's sales and influence throughout the region.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=137, 141}} Buksh competed fiercely with rival companies and did everything within his power to keep good performers from leaving the company.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=124-125}} The prompt settlement of life insurance claims was a cornerstone of his mission. Whenever a death claim came in, he paid the money quickly,{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=134}} thus "saving many families from possible ruination."{{sfn|Buksh|2010e|pp=282-285}} EFU's management credited Buksh's leadership for the company's remarkable progress.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=148}} He also played a pivotal role in inducting new leaders into the insurance industry.{{sfn|Farid|2010|p=96}} His leadership helped to grow EFU into the largest company, not only in Pakistan, but in all [[Afro-Asian]] countries, excluding [[Japan]].{{sfn|Karnowski|2001b|p=100}} Starting from scratch, he developed the business to such heights that he became a "household name."{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} The stories of his leadership style and compassion for others are inspiring.{{sfn|Farid|2016|pp=1-5}}

===Role in East Pakistan's life insurance growth and expansion===
[[File:Khuda Buksh receiving P.M. Rebello.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Khuda Buksh and his team receiving P.M. Robello at Tejgoan airport, Dacca, 1963. Robello of Life Insurance Corporation of India was invited by the EFU to train senior life insurance field officers at Dacca and Karachi.]]
As a leader of life department of the EFU, Buksh travelled across [[Pakistan]]. While staying six months or more in a year in [[East Pakistan]], he continued his "untiring efforts"{{sfn|Rashid|2010b|pp=xv-xvi}}{{sfn|Chowdhury|2010|pp=27-30}}{{sfn| Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}}{{sfn|Razzak|2010|pp=182-184}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} for the expansion of business growth and development with positive attitude encouraging his field force, telling them: {{blockquote|Be proud of your job. Let it be written in letters of gold in the pages of your mind that it is your honorable duty as a life insurance salesman to mobilize and channelize the social force of life insurance in the greater interest of your community.{{sfn|Buksh|2010h|pp=301-303}}}} Although his dream was to spread life insurance in every home,{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=135}} recruitment, training, field force organization and management, motivation, and [[team building]] continued to play a challenging role during this time.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=87}} Buksh could realize the qualities of a person at every onset and knew how to select the person who fit a position best. During this period, he recruited more salesmen, including many educated Bengalis in the insurance profession.{{sfn|Haq|2010|pp=48-51}}{{sfn|Rahman|2010a|pp=22-26}} He often visited district towns on official duties. On such occasions, he would host gorgeous tea parties attended by students and university teachers. From there he took many to the insurance business.{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} Buksh's motivation in selecting insurance profession as a career helped to change the lives of common marketing people. They earned more money from selling life insurance policies. Their economic status improved, quality of life changed and they were able to own cars, houses, and move to wealthy sections of the city.{{sfn| Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}}{{sfn|Chowdhury|2010|pp=27-30}}

He brought P.M. Robello, a reputed insurance personality from India to teach a six-week training course to senior officers of the EFU in [[Dacca]] and [[Karachi]].{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} When EFU management introduced two training schemes at Karachi, Buksh sent several Bengali officers there for training.{{sfn|Khan|2010a|pp=34-41}}{{sfn|Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}} At the same time, he focused on the full-fledged training scheme at Dacca through his senior sales officers and A.F.M Safiyyullah, director of planning and development.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=92}} According to Safiyyullah, Buksh played a role, "as an educator to the vast number of field force[s] who placed faith in his leadership and took insurance as a career."{{sfn|Safiyyullah|1967|p=xiii}} In about a decade's time, quite a number of new recruits in the profession wrote [[crores]] of rupees worth of business per year. Buksh used his honesty, sincerity, devotion, and organizing skills.{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010a|p=331}}{{sfn|Ansari|2010|pp=82-84}}{{sfn|Astryx|2010|pp=339-340}} to lead his marketing team in expanding the life insurance business across the region.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=137}}{{sfn|Safiyyullah|1967|p=60}} Although the life insurance business in West Pakistan was concentrated on the upper-class in large cities ([[Lahore]], Karachi, [[Rawalpindi]], [[Sind]] and [[Baluchistan]]), under his leadership, the business in [[East Pakistan]] was spread out all over the region (Dacca, [[Chittagong]] and the other 15 districts) at a grassroots level.{{sfn|Pereira|2010|pp=97-107}} Buksh personally generated business,{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=66}} and brought many successful salesmen into the industry,{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=87-92}} all while continuing to expand the company's clientele.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=153}}

During that era, all insurance documents were in English. As a result of his love for the mother tongue, Buksh was instrumental in translating all paperwork related to the insurance industry into Bengali, including booklets and premium records.{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} Buksh, often called a "Wizard of Insurance,"{{sfn|S. R. Khan|2010|pp=67-71}}{{sfn|Samad|2010|p=74}}{{sfn|Mohiuddin|2010|pp=76-79}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010a|p=331}} transformed insurance into a [[social movement]].{{sfn|Razzak|2010|pp=182-184}} He was credited with employing more Bengali people in the insurance industry than anyone before him.{{sfn|Astryx|2010|pp=339-340}} From 1951 to 1967, the number of life insurance policy holders more than tripled. The number of policies written by the EFU in 1967 was almost 40 percent of the total policies written by all Pakistani insurance companies.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=226, 235}} This development in the insurance industry signaled a significant shift in the culture: the life insurance industry had overcome ingrained religious beliefs in less than two decades.{{sfn|Khan|2010b|pp=242–255}} Fundamentalist propaganda diminished and "People of all backgrounds and income levels stopped viewing insurance as an invitation for their early demise and began to see it as protection for their families."{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=149}} Members of the general population who had once avoided insurance agents now came forward with the intent of buying insurance policies. This success was the realization of the national awareness campaigns on life insurance by Buksh from the beginning of his career.{{sfn|Khan|2010b|pp=242–255}} According to Buksh: {{blockquote| It gives me immense pleasure whenever I think that now-a-days no insurance worker is to carry with him a folding chair like me when I first started my career. Rather in the present day society, an insurance worker is the most honorable and welcome guest to a family. An insurance worker in modern times is not only provided with a comfortable sofa to sit on but he is even entertained with a delicious cup of tea or coffee as well.{{sfn|Buksh|2010b|pp=269-273}}}} Buksh is recognized as having "popularized life insurance in [[East Pakistan]] among the [[intellectuals]]"{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} and transformed insurance into a "respectable profession."<ref name="ds12Mar2012" />

===Role in public relations===
[[File:Buksh with S M Morshed.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Khuda Buksh receiving S. M. Morshed, 3rd right (Chief Justice of East Pakistan) in a party, Muzzaffer Uddin Ahmed (Regional Manager), 1st left and Mir Mosharraf Hossain (secretary), 2nd left, 1967]]
Buksh believed the key to a successful career in business was to "build up human relations on a very personal level,"{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} a practice he followed throughout his life. According to Abdur Razzak, "He invited high-ranking people to tea parties or dinner, sometimes twice a month. He frequented various functions and also took part in multi-purpose social gatherings," all with the intention of developing and maintaining public relationships.{{sfn|Razzak|2010|pp=182-184}} Through vigorous public relations efforts, he connected with high-ranking government officials, insurance executives, industrialists, professionals, politicians, educators, and many other influential people.<ref name="Rahim2013p176–177">{{harvnb|M. O. Rahim, June|2013|pp=176–177}}</ref> His circle of friends and contacts extended across Pakistan. He hosted dinners in large hotels not only in [[Dacca]] and [[Chittagong]] ([[East Pakistan]]) but also in [[Karachi]], [[Lahore]] and other cities in West Pakistan. Some parties were called "Ladies Nights." Buksh often said, "Without women's cooperation, it is difficult to survive in such an unpopular occupation, let alone make headway." Faizur Razzaque said that "by entertaining acquaintances and friends he cultivated a fine brand of public relations."{{sfn|Razzaque|2010|pp=189-191}}{{sfn|S. R. Khan|2010|pp=67-71}} He was nominated twice as the president of Dacca Insurance Institute.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=260}} Buksh, being a popular figure in both parts of the country{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=156}} commended a great deal of respects in both private and government circles and wherever he went, everyone regarded him highly.{{sfn|Fasihuddin|2010|pp=137-142}} Due to his love for his mother tongue, each year on the first day of [[Pohela Boishakh]] (Bengali New Year) he would invite VIPs and journalists for lunch at his Dacca residence where only Bengali dishes were served.{{sfn|Haq|2010|pp=48-51}}{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} He was a popular Rotarian. "His noble disposition, simplicity in life, unflinching fidelity, and stern sense of duty won love and respect from everybody, whoever came in contact with him."{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=127}} His vast and extensive public relations experience{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} helped expand the reach of the insurance business from the lower-middle class, to the educated sector to, finally, many influential "big guns of the society."<ref name="Rahim2013p176–177"/> These big guns included: S.M. Murshed (Chief Justice, East Pakistan) [[Abu Sayeed Chowdhury]] (former [[president of Bangladesh]]), [[Abul Kashem Khan]] (Industrialist), Mujibur Rahman (Civil servant, insurance executive), [[Muhammad Shahidullah]] (Bengali educationist, writer and linguist), [[Sufia Kamal]] (poet), [[Ataur Rahman Khan]] (lawyer, politician and writer), [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] (head, of Alpha Insurance Company, East Pakistan later became Father of the Nation), [[Tajuddin Ahmed]] (Politician, later became Prime Minister), Abdus Salam (editor, Bangladesh Observer), and [[Abdul Jabbar Khan (20th-century politician)|Abdul Jabbar Khan]] (Speaker Pakistan Assembly).<ref name="Rahim2013p176–177"/>

=== Role as a motivator ===
"He [Buksh] was a great motivator: He had a story or motivational point for every occasion," said Joseph Pereira.{{sfn| Pereira|2010|pp=97-107}} He motivated young people to join the profession, teaching them how "insurance is a service," and how in this noble, service-oriented profession, field workers might climb the ladder of success to reach their dreams.{{sfn|Ansari|2010|pp=82-84}} As a part of recruitment to students or teachers, he would sometimes give them an amount of money as an advance or give them a large amount for buying a car. "These he did to invite interest among people regarding the insurance business," said [[Mir Mosharraf Hossain]].{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} Having an "uncanny flair for life insurance,"{{sfn|Astryx|2010|pp=339-340}} Buksh was "a master par excellence of human behavior in dealing with field people."{{sfn|Farid|2011|pp=xi-xiii}} He formally and informally incorporated a rewards system, using unique methods, techniques, ideas, and strategies to recognize and celebrate the superior performance of individuals or groups, motivating them to achieve excellence.{{sfn|Farid|2011|pp=xi-xiii}} With his un-assuming nature, Buksh involved himself "personally in the welfare of each field worker."{{sfn|Pereira|2010|pp=97-107}} He established personal relationships with agents, field officers, inspectors, and managers, treating them as though they were trusted family members and, in so doing, transformed the [[marketing]] team into a family.{{sfn|Rahman|2010a|pp=22-26}}{{sfn|Quereshi|2010|pp=110-112}} He carefully monitored and attended to the budgetary needs of each salesperson{{sfn|Farid|2011|pp=xi-xiii}} and treated his junior staff or field workers like his children.{{sfn|Quereshi|2010|pp=110-112}} Buksh was a humanist, and had sympathy and empathy for his people.{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} Actions characteristic of his management style included giving unexpected promotions{{sfn|Khan|2010a|pp=34-41}} and salary raises,{{sfn|S. R. Khan|2010|pp=67-71}}{{sfn|Chowdhury|2010|pp=27-30}} offering to increase requested loan amounts,{{sfn|Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}} repaying loans to creditors,{{sfn|Mujib-ud-Doula|2010|pp=31-33}}{{sfn|W. A. Khan|2010|pp=153-154}} providing new cars,{{sfn|Hanfi|2010|pp=128-136}} solving personal problems{{sfn|Rahman|2010b|pp=80-81}} and arranging to deliver grocery supplies to households experiencing adverse circumstances.{{sfn|Hanfi|2010|pp=128-136}}{{sfn|Pereira|2010|pp=97-107}}{{sfn|W. A. Khan|2010|pp=153-154}} Buksh "loved his people, like a father would love his children. From [[Chittagong]] to [[Peshawar]], he knew the name of each and every field worker, whether he was an agent, a manager or a regional manager."{{sfn|Hanfi|2010|pp=128-136}} "People almost worshipped him because of his personality, kindness, and amiable nature."{{sfn|Mohammad|2010|pp=149-152}} He was the "personal fan of every field worker."{{sfn|Siddiqui|2010|pp=124-127}} Due to their love and affection for Buksh, a large number of enthusiastic field workers would go to the airport at [[Karachi]] or [[Dacca]] to welcome him on his arrival or see him off on his departure.{{sfn|Quereshi|2010|pp=110-112}}{{sfn|W. A. Khan|2010|pp=153-154}}{{sfn|Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}}{{sfn|Rahman|2010a|pp=22-26}}{{sfn|Hanfi|2010|pp=128-136}}{{sfn|Fasihuddin|2010|pp=137-142}} While public relations and motivation played important roles in life insurance development, Buksh's destiny about to change soon.
[[File:KB Greeted Dacca 1966.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Khuda Buksh being greeted at Dacca Tejgoan airport by EFU regional management, field force and family members, January 1966.]]

===Role in investment crisis===
The central [[government of Pakistan]] deprived [[East Pakistan]] from economic development, distribution of foreign exchange, recruitment in civil administration and armed forces leading to wide disparities between two parts of Pakistan.{{sfn|Rahman|2010a|pp=22-26}} The [[investment]] of insurance premium income was one of the factors that created a gulf of difference between East and [[West Pakistan]]. From 1947, the government of Pakistan neglected investment in East Pakistan. In 1964, out of a total investment of Rs. 280 million in insurance premiums, less than 5% was invested in East Pakistan, whereas more than 50 percent of the total insurance underwritten in Pakistan, came from East Pakistan. The lack of capital in East Pakistan became a stumbling block to the development of industries there. Premium income funds were mostly invested in West Pakistan, and as a result, West Pakistan's gain was East Pakistan's loss.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=154, 157}} President Ayub Khan was aware of discrepancies between East and West Pakistan. He attempted to achieve a power balance between the two wings of country. When he was looking for a suitable candidate for the highly prestigious position as Federal Minister of Commerce, the name of Khuda Buksh was recommended to him. Buksh met Ayub Khan at [[Rawalpindi]] and thanked him for the offer but declined to accept the job as he thought that ministerial job was a temporary job. However, he recommended the name of Waheduzzaman, one of his friends from his home district. Ayub Khan accepted Buksh's recommendation and appointed Waheduzzaman as Federal Minister of Commerce.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}}

Buksh, "a man of extreme will power"{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} and "selfless patriot,"<ref name="ds12Mar2012" />{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}}{{sfn|Ansari|2010|pp=82-84}}{{sfn|Shaffi|2010|pp=167-171}} was an advocate for the investment of insurance premiums in East Pakistan.{{sfn|Buksh|2010f|p=289}} To make insurance facilities available in his homeland (Eastern Zone, East Pakistan), Buksh also took the initiative to construct a 24-story EFU building in [[Dacca]]. It was the tallest building in the country at that time. He was instrumental in purchasing the land, selecting the architect, and gaining the approval of the design and construction for the building from the government of East Pakistan.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=161-162}} However, Buksh and Roshen Ali Bhimjee, the [[managing director]] of the EFU, had major disputes about the company's investment policy.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} Buksh "was not a political person, but he was a man of principle, and his love of justice, [along with his] fairness and advocacy for the interest of Bengalis brought him into clashes with Pakistani higher-ups."{{sfn|Astryx|2010|pp=339-340}} Buksh resigned on 10 April 1969, under a "humiliating circumstance at a crucial juncture of Pakistan's history."<ref name="ds12Mar2012" /> The Bangladeshi government later completed the EFU building in Dacca, now known as Jiban Bima Tower, signifying Buksh's "vision and spirit of nationalism."{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=214}}

== New company and aftermath (1969–1972) ==
[[File:Federal Life Managment.JPG|thumb|left| A group photo of Federal Life & General Insurance Company. Front Row, from left: Khuda Buksh, Ataul Haq, M.A. Hassan, M.A. Raquib. Rear row from left: Habibur Rahman, Ataur Rahman Khan, Waheduzzaman, M. Mashiur Rahman (Auditor). May 1969.]]
[[File:Khuda Buksh delivering insurance benefit check to Begum Zahida Rahman.JPG|thumb|right|Khuda Buksh delivering insurance benefit check to Begum Zahida Rahman.]]
Amidst a [[1969 uprising in East Pakistan]], Buksh and nine other Bengali leading [[industrialists]] and businessmen serving as [[shareholders]] rapidly founded the Federal Life and General Insurance Company (FLAGIC) Ltd. [[Ataur Rahman Khan]] was the chairman, and Buksh became the [[managing director]] of the new company. FLAGIC opened its doors on 29 May 1969, in [[Dacca]]. Many salesmen who were working with him at the EFU resigned and joined the FLAGIC,{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=184-185, 188}} and many Bengalis surrendered their policies at the EFU and bought policies at FLAGIC.{{sfn|Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}} Buksh continued to promptly settle of life insurance claims. For example, as a beneficiary, Begum Zahida Rahman received her insurance benefit check four days after the death of her husband{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=189-190}} After one year of operation, FLAGIC declared dividends to its shareholders,{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=186}} but business stalled when the country's political climate changed, leading to the [[Bangladesh War of Liberation]]. The war ended after nine months of fighting against the Pakistan Army by the [[Mukti Bahini]] and the Indian Army which got involved in the war at the last moment. Buksh's fifth son, M. Zillur Rahim joined the [[Mukti Bahini]].{{sfn|R. Rahman|2010|pp=175-179}} [[East Pakistan]] broke away from [[West Pakistan]], and the EFU lost its Eastern Zone. [[Bangladesh]] emerged as a new independent nation on the world map on 16 Dec 1971.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=195}}

==Bangladesh insurance: the beginning (1972–1973)==
The Bangladesh government nationalized all insurance companies except foreign and postal insurance. In May 1973, the government established the [[Bangladesh Jiban Bima Corporation]] (JBC) with Buksh, serving as its first [[managing director]].{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=199-204}} JBC began doing business, having already an established [[infrastructure]] and manpower resources thanks to the major development work done by the EFU while Buksh was its leader in East Pakistan. JBC inherited 71 branches all over Bangladesh; it opened only two branches for business in 1973.<ref>{{harvnb|M. O. Rahim, June|2013|p=187}}</ref> Under Buksh's supervision, JBC sold upwards of 40,000 life insurance policies, with an approximate total assured sum of Tk. 400 million.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=202}} As always, Buksh's goal was the settlement of claims without delay,{{sfn|Khan|2010a|pp=34-41}} and JBC succeeded in settling approximately 10,000 death claims from January 1972 to June 1974.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=203}} This figure is remarkable given the number of deaths resulting from the [[Bangladesh War of Liberation]].{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=203}} During this time, Buksh faced a highly [[hostile]] political foe in the JBC [[trade union]]. Clear conflicts arose between him and the union leaders due to their various illegal demands. Buksh did not budge from his position nor comply with these demands.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=206}} He did not "compromise his principles even under tremendous political pressure of the unruly trade union leaders . . . Instead of leashing the unruly trade union leaders", the government dismissed him from JBC on 27 November 1973.<ref name="ds12Mar2012" />

==Personal life==
On 30 December 1939, Buksh married Zobeda Khatun (1922–2010). They had six sons and two daughters. Buksh was respectful to his parents, elders, and teachers. He developed a lifelong relationship with his middle school English teacher, Ainuddin Ahmed, whom he treated like "a son treats his father."{{sfn|Astryx|2010|pp=339-340}} Buksh arranged the marriage of countless number of marriageable girls. He spent time visiting sick family members, friends and acquaintances, and his presence was almost guaranteed at the marriage ceremonies and [[janazah]].{{sfn|Ahmed|2010|pp=16-21}}{{sfn|Hossain|2010|pp=163-164}} Buksh was a loving father{{sfn|A. Rahim|2010|pp=185-186}} and a humble person.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}}{{sfn|Quereshi|2010|pp=110-112}}{{sfn|Chishti|2010|pp=120-123}} He helped people throughout his life, sometimes in public, sometimes in secret. He was vehemently averse to publicity, and he was uninterested in money or material possessions. Most of his income was spent on entertaining his acquaintances and assisting the poor and destitute.{{sfn|B. Rahim|2010|p=210}} "He loved the [common] man on the street, and big guns alike. He was often the last hope for financially distressed students."{{sfn|R. Rahman|2010|pp=175-179}} According to ''Dacca Rotary Club News'', "He was extremely kind hearted, soft-[spoken], gentle, and human. He was endowed with the noblest human qualities [which] endeared him to a large mass of people . . . "{{sfn|Quamruzzaman|2010|p=338}} A love of mankind was the central [[philosophy]] of his life.{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} There were always a few extra young men in his residence from his village and less fortunate relatives. He took care of their welfare and sent them to school and college for education.{{sfn|Nawaz|2010|pp=195-196}} [[Sympathy]] and [[compassion]] defined his nature.{{sfn|Rashid|2010b|pp=xv-xvi}} He contributed money to schools, colleges, and madrasas. He paid for the operation of a free primary school in his native home and bore the educational expenses of numerous students.{{sfn|Razzak|2010|pp=182-184}} In addition, he was a source of financial help for many widows, orphans, and students from middle-class families who could not afford school fees.{{sfn|Fasihuddin|2010|pp=137-142}} In his private life, as head of his family, he was responsible and affectionate toward everyone. He was a friend to his children, and he guided and advised them to lead an honest life, to extend helping hands to poverty-stricken people, and not to be angry with anyone – a goal that he himself maintained all through his life.{{sfn|Razzaque|2010|pp=189-191}} Buksh was mindful of his social responsibilities and the feelings of others. His love and hospitality towards his relatives, friends, and acquaintances always emanated from his wide heart.{{sfn|Ansari|2010|pp=82-84}} In spite of his busy schedule, he always found time to devote to his family. "He also put his heart, soul, and money into the development of insurance. As a result, it was his own life insurance policy that kept his family afloat after his death."{{sfn|M. Rahim|2010|pp=208-211}}

==Legacy==
Buksh died in Dacca on 13 May 1974. Long obituaries appeared in newspapers and magazines across the nation.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} On 14 May 1974, the ''Dacca Rotary News'' reported, "He is the one figure among Bengali Muslims who popularized life insurance among the people. His name itself is an institution, and, in his own life-time, he became a legendary figure."{{sfn|Quamruzzaman|2010|p=338}} Recognition of his accomplishments was also published in ''[[The Daily Ittefaq]]'': Buksh will remain as an "unforgettable person in expanding life insurance in Bangladesh."{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=207}} On 15 May, ''The Daily Purbodesh'' published his profile under the heading "Life Sketch of Khuda Buksh, Jiban Bimar Jadugar" (life sketch of Khuda Buksh, Wizard of Insurance)<ref>{{harvnb|''Daily Purbodesh'', 15 May|1974}}</ref>{{sfn|Rahman|Rahim|Mosharraf|Ahmed|2009|p=367}} Buksh was an important figure in the insurance industry of Pakistan and Bangladesh. He was widely known and well-respected while he was alive, became a life insurance icon in the years after he died.{{sfn|Mosharraf|2010b|pp=52-59}} Despite winning only limited acclaim in his lifetime, he has been described as the "most magnetic and dynamic insurance executive" in Pakistan.<ref>Symposiam in Life Insurance in Pakistan, July 1967, p. xxv as quoted in {{harvnb|Rahim|2011|p=341}}</ref> At the time of his death, Buksh was "hailed as one of the great sons of Bengal soil."{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=308-315}} After he was nearly forgotten for about three decades, Wolfram Kornowski, a German colleague revived his legacy through his book The EFU Saga (2001).{{sfn|Karnowski|2001a|pp=1-510}} He was the first person who had "a materialistic discussion in national and international circles on the life and career of Khuda Buksh," under subchapter entitled "Khuda Buksh: Life insurance was his mission."{{sfn|S. Rahman|2010|p=xix}} In 2003, Buksh's family established the Khuda Buksh Memorial Trust and Foundation to keep his legacy alive.{{sfn|B. Rahim|2010|p=223}} From 2009 to 2011, three books were published{{sfn|Rahman|Rahim|Mosharraf|Ahmed|2009}}{{sfn|Rahman|Mosharraf|Ahmed|Rahim|2010}}{{self-published inline|date=March 2018}}{{sfn|Rahim|2011}} on Buksh's life and work. Buksh's lifelong work was to raise the standard of living of the common people by increasing insurance awareness. According to Shafique Khan, "His work towards the betterment of the Bengali Muslim community made him immortal . . . he will be remembered with deep respect as the man behind the resurrection of the Bengali Muslim community."{{sfn|Khan|2010b|pp=242–255}} Since his death, Buksh has been widely praised by his contemporaries in Pakistan and Bangladesh for his contributions in life insurance development. Harunur Rashid, said: "There is no denying [the] fact that it was [because of] Khuda Buksh's untiring efforts that the insurance industry made a mark in Bangladesh. I don't think that the insurance industry could have made such a sharp rise without him."{{sfn| Rashid|2010a|pp=11-15}} Karnowski wrote:{{blockquote| He was an outstanding salesman who even in his dreams would only be able to think of life insurance; he was totally obsessed [with] it . . . A typical Bengali, small body, but with a big heart for everyone . . . he rose to the occasion and became a very big name in the field of life insurance, a profession he loved with all the vigor and determination he possessed.{{sfn|Karnowski|2001b|pp=105-107}}}} Iftekher Hanfi and Rizwan Farid viewed him as a [[role model]] insurance personality.{{sfn|Farid|2011|pp=xi-xiii}}{{sfn|Hanfi|2010|pp=128-136}} While in a discussion about erecting a monument in memory of Khuda Buksh, a renowned journalist commented, "There is no necessity to build a memorial for him. The history of insurance in Bangladesh itself is his memorial. He had no equal, no parallel and no rival. Insurance and Khuda Buksh are synonymous."{{sfn|Rashid|2010b|pp=xv-xvi}} Today, Buksh's legend lives on in both Bangladesh and Pakistan.

==Controversy==
Buksh received many accolades for his contributions in life insurance development, but he was not immune from criticism by his contemporaries. His exit from the insurance industry came at the expense of an unruly [[trade union]] influenced by political parties.<ref name="ds12Mar2012" /> Ironically, it was Buksh who employed many trade union members and helped establish their lives in [[Dacca]].{{sfn|Khan|2010a|pp=34-41}} Hedayetul Islam also notably pointed out Buksh's favoritism toward employing people from his home district, many of whom were ill-qualified for their positions. The issue of non-qualified workers was forefront in the illegal demands made by the JBC trade union.{{sfn|Khan|2010a|pp=34-41}} When asked about the issue by Mushtari Shaffi, Buksh clarified his position: "One can't love the whole country, unless, one loves the people of his own area."{{sfn|Shaffi|2010|pp=167-171}} Abdur Razzak supported Buksh's favoritism, stating that, "I think he was 100 percent right in appointing them. If he did not do so, many families of our country would be totally eliminated."{{sfn|Razzak|2010|pp=182-184}} Regarding this topic, Harunur Rashid noted that Buksh frequently visited his native village and discovered that the fates of people of his village had not changed after partition of the sub-continent. When he joined the EFU, people of his native village flocked to him in search of employment. Being a philanthropist, he did not refuse them. He attempted to accommodate people according to their qualifications. It may be that, in some cases, the people he hired were not well-suited to their tasks. Still, Buksh felt compelled to assist them on humanitarian grounds. Rashid observed that although Buksh employed a few dozen of people from his home area, he also employed hundreds of people from various places other than his village.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=207-209}} Despite controversies, Buksh became renowned by introducing insurance to the masses, spreading awareness of savings and changing the course of many lives through his forty years of hard work. He provided salvation from financial hardship to many families. Through his able leadership, he created jobs for thousands of young unemployed people of Bangladesh.{{sfn|Rozario|2010|pp=197-198}} The growth of the insurance industry in urban and rural areas resulted in the creation of new class of insurance workers providing new economic opportunities developing newly demarcated social groups. The insurance salesmen who emerged in the 1950s to 1960s under Buksh's tutelage eventually helped the industry to develop and progress.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=211}}

==Praise for Khuda Buksh==
{{blockquote| We regarded him as a super salesman. In Eastern Federal, he rose from the position of a salesman to general manager and later became the managing director of Federal Life. We considered him as one of the greatest insurance magnates in Asia. —Mujib-ud-Doula{{sfn|Mujib-ud-Doula|2010|pp=31-33}}

There was no team leader better than him in all Pakistan. His leadership skills surpassed even those of leaders in foreign countries. —Abul Mahmood{{sfn|Mahmood|2010|pp=117-119}}

I think Khuda Buksh has influenced a lot of people . . . they tried to emulate him, they tried to follow his accomplishments. He set standards [for] of how to motivate people, how to get the maximum out of them. I think the whole insurance industry owes a lot to Mr. Khuda Buksh. He was a great person, a great personality. —Fasihuddin M.{{sfn|Fasihuddin|2010|pp=137-142}}

If we measure with a balance between life insurance and Khuda Buksh, it will be extremely difficult to measure which one is heavier. A wizard and a legendary stature in insurance, Khuda Buksh's achievements will enliven the spirit of the Bengalis of today and tomorrow. —S. R.Khan{{sfn|S. R. Khan|2010|pp=67-71}}

Mr. Khuda Buksh worked for the promotion of life insurance in a difficult time and other people entered the field after some ground had already been built . . . He not only promoted life insurance of the EFU, but he had promoted life insurance in Pakistan —Vazir Ali Mohammed{{sfn|Mohammad|2010|pp=149-152}}

Around the clock, whenever he used to meet people, he used to talk about insurance, insurance and insurance – that was his day and night dream . . . The growth of new life insurance business: In this sector Mr. Khuda Buksh was the undisputed leader . . .
—C. M. Rahman{{sfn|Rahman|2010a|pp=22-26}}

The field force is as dearer to him as his family members. He passed days and nights with them, leaving his family away; the love and respect of the field force inspires him to work day and night.
—E.C. Iven{{sfn|Rahim|2011|pp=95-96}}

He used to say, think of insurance, dream of insurance, and sleep with insurance. . . He was a very loving person. I don’t think I’ve ever come across such a dynamic person with whom I will work again. He was an extraordinary leader and an unbeatable legend of insurance.
—Sharafat Ali Quereshin{{sfn|Quereshi|2010|pp=110-112}}

He gave birth to insurance in Bangladesh. From religious point of view, insurance was then prohibited. From such a difficult situation, he managed to bring insurance to such a height . . . He was uncommonly popular . . . I have never seen such a dedicated, devoted insurance worker in my life. We have failed to even go near him.
—A.R. Chowdhury{{sfn|Chowdhury|2010|pp=27-30}}

Buksh was one of the outstanding life insurance men of his generation in Asia and his story can match that of anyone who was instrumental in growing the business in any country.
—William Rabel<ref>{{harvnb|''The Financial Express'', 9 May|2014}}</ref>

As far as promotion of [the] life insurance business in Pakistan is concerned, I think — especially in the '50s and '60s — Mr. Khuda Buksh's role was undoubtedly the greatest.
—Joseph A. Pereira{{sfn|Pereira|2010|pp=97-107}}

Khuda Buksh had displayed exceptional caliber as a life insurance man in EFU. He was extremely successful as a business planner, salesman, sales executive . . . The business volume of EFU in life had reached at such a level that the company could advertise that every second person having life insurance policy was insured with EFU. It was no mean success, in my view, and the credit goes almost entirely to Khuda Buksh . . . Khuda Buksh died relatively early and deprived Bengal of his immense value as a life insurance man. The man was a [[genius]].
—Mohammed Choudhury{{sfn|Choudhury|2010|p=147}}
}}

==Awards==
* In 1963, Buksh received Gold Medal from EFU at its first conference held at Karachi, Pakistan.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=99}}
* In 1965, Buksh received Silver Replica of Lahore Shalimar Garden for Managing Director's Award in West Pakistan, Lahore.<ref>"Prize distribution". ''Eastern Zone Field Force Review'' March 1967. p. 33</ref>
* In 1973, Buksh was commissioned a Kentucky Colonel, [[Governor of Kentucky]], USA.{{sfn|Rahman|Mosharraf|Ahmed|Rahim|2010|p=337}}
* In 2008, Buksh was awarded for his best contribution in insurance industry (posthumous) by Bank & Bima Magazine (28 February, Bank-Bima Award 2007).{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=215}}
* In 2008, Buksh was awarded Bima Padak 2008 (posthumous) by Bangladesh Insurance Executive Club.{{sfn|Rahim|2011|p=215}}

==Selected list of works==
===Articles===
* Buksh, Khuda. (18 April 1961) Selling Life Insurance Successfully — A Career. [[Pakistan Observer]], 18 April 1961.{{sfn|Buksh|2010c|pp=274-278}}
* Buksh, Khuda. (5 March 1963) 30 Progressive Years — EFU 1932 to 1962. Pakistan Observer Supplement.{{sfn|Buksh|2010d|pp= 279-281}}
* Buksh, Khuda.(July 1965) Life Insurance Selling — A Profession. Eastern Federal News Bulletin, Vol II, no. 6, July 1965.{{sfn|Buksh|2010e|pp=282-285}}
* Buksh, Khuda. (9 February 1967) A Reminiscence: When I look Back. Pakistan Observer.{{sfn|Buksh|2010b|pp=269-273}}
* Buksh, Khuda (June 1967) Aamar Smritikatha (My Memoir). EFU Eastern Zone Field Force Review. (Bengali) (note: The article has been translated in English and presented in the book MOALIIKB{{sfn|Buksh|2010a|pp=265-266}})
* Buksh, Khuda. (July 1967) Your Duty Onerus. Symposium Life Insurance Pakistan.{{sfn|Buksh|2010h|pp=301-303}}
* Buksh, Khuda (1967, August) Foreword. On to Ultima Thule: A Loud Thinking of Life Insurance in Pakistan.{{sfn|Buksh|2010g|pp=298-300}}
* Buksh Khuda. (1972, June) Nationalization of Insurance— An Appraisal. Business Chronicle, University of Dacca, First Issue.{{sfn|Buksh|2010i|pp=311-315}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

;Sources
* {{cite book
| last = Ahmed
| first = Shahid Uddin
| year = 1977
| title = Insurance Business in Bangladesh: A study of the pattern, problems & prospects
| location = Dacca, Bangladesh
| publisher = Dacca Bureau if Business Research, University of Dacca
| oclc = 4435267
}}
* {{cite news
| date = 15 May 1974
| title = Life Sketch of Khuda Buksh, Wizard of Insurance
| newspaper = Daily Purbodesh
| location = Dacca
| ref = {{harvid|''Daily Purbodesh'', 15 May|1974}}
}}

* {{cite book |last1=Farid |first1=Rizwan Ahmed |date=2011 |chapter=Foreword |title=Khuda Buksh The Pioneer of Life Insurance in Bangladesh: An account of his life and work |others=By Rahim, Muhammad Obaidur |location=Dhaka |publisher=The University Press Limited |pages=xi–xiii |isbn=978-984-506-027-1}}
* {{cite book
| last = Farid
| first = Jawwad
| year = 2016
| title = Khuda Buksh: A Life Insurance Leadership Case Study
| location = Karachi, Pakistan
| publisher = Leadership Training Course
| url = http://financetrainingcourse.com/education/2016/03/khuda-buksh-life-insurance-leadership-case-study/
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Karnowski
| first = Wolfram
| year = 2001a
| title = The EFU Saga: The Making of Institution within the Context of the creation of Pakistan.
| publisher = M. Yunus, D&Y Printers
| location = Karachi, Pakistan
| url = https://www.efulife.com/aboutus/5644-2
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Karnowski
| first = Wolfram
| year = 2001b
| title = Roshen Ali Bhimjee Between tears and laughter: A Biography.
| publisher = M. Yunus, D&Y Printers
| location = Karachi, Pakistan
| oclc = 47623993
}}
* {{cite news
| last=Manik
| first= M. Waheeduzzaman
| date= 12 March 2012
| title= A tribute to an unsung hero in life insurance
| url= https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-225904
| newspaper = The Daily Star
| ref = {{harvid|''The Daily Star'', 12 March|2012}}
}}
* {{cite news
| date = 17 July 1959
| title = Newspaper advertisement
| newspaper = The Pakistan Observer
| location = Dacca
| ref = {{harvid|''The Pakistan Observer'', 17 July|1959}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last = Rabel
| first = William H.
| date = 9 May 2014
| title = Inspirational Biography
| url = https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/public/views-reviews/an-inspirational-biography
| newspaper = The Financial Express
| location = Dhaka
| ref = {{harvid|''The Financial Express'', 9 May|2014}}
}}
* {{cite journal
| last= Rahim
| first= M. Obaidur
| date= June 2013
| title= Insurance business and Khuda Buksh's contributions
| url= https://www.academia.edu/6887105
| location= Dacca, Bangladesh
| journal = Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh
| volume= 58 | issue= 1
| pages = 157–189
| ref = {{harvid|M. O. Rahim, June|2013}}
}}
* {{cite news
| last= Rahim
| first=Muhammad Obaidur
| date= 2 February 2012
| title= Khuda Buksh: A legacy remembered
| url = http://www.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/old/more.php?date=2012-02-02&news_id=96733
| newspaper = The Financial Express
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150404211035/http://www.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/old/more.php?date=2012-02-02&news_id=96733
| archive-date = 4 April 2015
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Rahim
| first = Muhammad Obaidur
| year = 2011
| title = Khuda Buksh The Pioneer of Life Insurance in Bangladesh: An account of his life and work
| location = Dacca, Bangladesh
| publisher = The University Press Limited
| isbn = 978-984-506-027-1
| oclc = 769102385
}}
* {{cite book
| editor1-last = Rahman
| editor1-first = Roushanara
| editor2-last = Rahim
| editor2-first = O.
| editor3-last = Mosharraf
| editor3-first = H. M.
| editor4-last = Ahmed
| editor4-first = M.
| editor5-last = Rahim
| editor5-first = S.
| editor6-last = Bukth
| editor6-first = T.
| editor7-last = Khan
| editor7-first = S.
| editor8-last = Rahim
| editor8-first = B.
| year = 2009
| title = Bimabid Khuda Buksh Smarak Grantha Khuda Buksh Commemoratove Volume (Bilingual)
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qd-NBAAAQBAJ
| location = Dacca, Bangladesh
| publisher = Khuda Buksh Memorial Trust and Foundation
}}
* {{cite book |date=2010 |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |editor3-last=Ahmed |editor3-first=Mosleh Uddin |editor4-last=Rahim |editor4-first=Shazzadur |editor5-last=Bukth |editor5-first=Tanisha |title=Memoirs of a Life Insurance Icon: Khuda Buksh (henceforth referred to as "MOALIIKB") |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbaPAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1917 |location=Dhaka |publisher=Khuda Buksh Memorial Trust and Foundation |isbn=978-1-4500-5168-2}}
** {{cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Mosleh Uddin |date=2010 |chapter=Khuda Buksh: As I have seen Him |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=16–21}}
** {{cite book |last=Ansari |first=A. R. |date=2010 |chapter=Life Insurance and Khuda Buksh |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=82–84}}
** {{cite book |last=Astryx |date=2010 |chapter=As I See it |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=339–340}} First published 3 June 1974 in ''Bangladesh Observer''.
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010a |chapter=My Memoir |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=265–}}
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010b |chapter=A Reminiscence: When I look Back |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=269–273}}
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010c |chapter=Selling Life Insurance Successfully - A Career |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=274–}}
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010d |chapter=30 Progressive Years — EFU 1932 to 1962 |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=279–281}}
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010e |chapter=Life Insurance Selling - A profession |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=282–}}
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010f |chapter=Record Rs. 35 Cr. Business in 1965 by Eastern Federal |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=289–}} First published 14 June 1966 in ''Pakistan Observer''.
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010g |chapter=Foreword. On to Ultima Thule |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=298–300}}
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010h |chapter=Your Duty is Onerous |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=301–}}
** {{cite book |last=Buksh |first=Khuda |date=2010i |chapter=Nationalisation of Insurance: An Appraisal |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=311–}}
** {{cite book |last=Chishti |first=M. A. |date=2010 |chapter=If Bangladesh had not Come into Existence ... |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=120–123}}
** {{cite book |last=Choudhury |first=Mohammed |date=2010 |chapter=What I remember of Khuda Buksh |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=147}}
** {{cite book |last=Chowdhury |first=A. R. |date=2010 |chapter=Khuda Buksh: His Contributions in Insurance are Simply Incomparable |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=27–30}}
** {{cite book |last=Farid |first=Rizwan Ahmed |date=2010 |chapter=A Dialogue about Late Khuda Buksh |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=328}}
** {{cite book |last=Fasihuddin |first=M. |date=2010 |chapter=Even after so many years I remember him. That is his greatness. |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=137–142}}
** {{cite book |last=Hanfi |first=Iftekher A. |date=2010 |chapter=Even Today, my Inspiration is Khuda Buksh . . . It is almost 30 Years |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=128–136}}
** {{cite book |last=Haq |first=A.B.M. Nurul |date=2010 |chapter=The Unforgettable Khuda Buksh |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=48–51}}
** {{cite book |last=Hossain |first=Quazi Anwar |date=2010 |chapter=A Respected Person |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=163–164}}
** {{cite book |last=Khan |first=Hedayet-ul Islam |date=2010a |chapter=Khuda Buksh: An Exceptional Personality |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=34–41}}
** {{cite book |last=Khan |first=S. R. |date=2010 |chapter=A Creditable Insurance Personality |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=67–71 |ref={{harvid|S. R. Khan|2010}} }}
** {{cite book |last=Khan |first=Shafique |date=2010b |chapter=The Pioneer of Life Insurance in Bangladesh |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=242–255}}
** {{cite book |last=Khan |first=Waris Ali |date=2010 |chapter=How are you Babu? |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=153–154|ref={{harvid|W. A. Khan|2010}} }}
** {{cite book |last=Mahmood |first=Abul |date=2010 |chapter=There was no team leader better than him in all Pakistan |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=117–119}}
** {{cite book |last=Manju |first=Mahbubur Rahman |date=2010 |chapter=He was our guardian, friend and well wisher |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=180–181}}
** {{cite book |last=Mehman |first=A. J. |date=2010 |chapter=Every Moment he thought of nothing but insurance |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=60–62}}
** {{cite book |last=Mohammad |first=Vazir Ali F. |date=2010 |chapter=I wouldn't compare anybody with Khuda Buksh |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=149–152}}
** {{cite book |last=Mohiuddin |first=Sardar |date=2010 |chapter=Insurance was his day and night dream |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=76–79}}
** {{cite book |last=Mosharraf |first=Hossain Mir |date=2010a |chapter=Dialogue of an Insurance Giant |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |page=331}}
** {{cite book |last=Mosharraf |first=Hossain Mir |date=2010b |chapter=Insurance is Unimaginable without Khuda Buksh |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=52–59}}
** {{cite book |last=Mujib-ud-Doula |date=2010 |chapter=Khuda Buksh: My Friend, Philosopher and Guide |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=31–33}}
** {{cite book |last=Nawaz |first=Hasan |date=2010 |chapter=A Man in Action |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=195–196}}
** {{cite book |last=Pereira |first=M. Joseph |date=2010 |chapter=Where's the business? |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=97–107}}
** {{cite book |last=Qadri |first=M.B. |date=2010 |chapter=Khuda Buksh: Who Treated me as his Own Son, his Child |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=143–145}}
** {{cite book |last=Quamruzzaman |first=A. T. |date=2010 |chapter=Beloved Khuda Buksh is No More |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=338}} First published 14 May 1974 in ''Dacca Rotary News'', No.35.
** {{cite book |last=Quereshi |first=Sharafat Ali |date=2010 |chapter=A Man Thinking of Insurance, Dreaming on Insurance and Sleeping with Insurance in his Conscience |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=110–112}}
** {{cite book |last=Rahim |first=Ataur |date=2010 |chapter=My Beloved Father |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=185–186 |ref={{harvid|A. Rahim|2010}} }}
** {{cite book |last=Rahim |first=Bazlur |date=2010 |chapter=My Father's Memoir |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=210 |ref={{harvid|B. Rahim|2010}} }}
** {{cite book |last=Rahim |first=Muhammad |date=2010 |chapter=An Icon of Life Insurance: A Personal Reminiscence |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=208–211 |ref={{harvid|M. Rahim|2010}} }}
** {{cite book |last=Rahman |first=C. M. |date=2010a |chapter=Insurance, insurance, and insurance was his day and night dream |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=22–26}}
** {{cite book |last=Rahman |first=Majibur |date=2010b |chapter=Khuda Buksh: The vacuum has not been Filled |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=80–81}}
** {{cite book |last1=Rahman |first1=Roushanara |date=2010 |chapter=Khuda Buksh: An Enlighted Individual |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=175–179 |ref={{harvid|R. Rahman|2010}} }}
** {{cite book |last1=Rahman |first1=Shazzadur |date=2010 |chapter=Introduction |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=xix |ref={{harvid|S. Rahman|2010}} }}
** {{cite book |last1=Rashid |first1=M. Harunur |date=2010a |chapter=An Image of an Insurer |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=11–15}}
** {{cite book |last1=Rashid |first1=M. Harunur |date=2010b |chapter=Preface |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbaPAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1928 |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=xv–xvi|publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=9781469120904 }}
** {{cite book |last1=Rashid |first1=Quazi Abdur |date=2010 |chapter=Khuda Buksh: Builder of a Salesman |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=63–66 |ref={{harvid|Q. A. Rashid|2010}} }}
** {{cite book |last=Razzak |first=Abdur |date=2010 |chapter=He did the right thing by employing people from his own district |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=182–184}}
** {{cite book |last=Razzaque |first=Faizur M. |date=2010 |chapter=That Large-hearted Man |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=189–191}}
** {{cite book |last=Rozario |first=Hubert |date=2010 |chapter=Mr. Khuda Buksh: Someone we can never forget |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=197–198}}
** {{cite book |last=Samad |first=Quazi Abdus |date=2010 |chapter=Memories of Old Days |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=74}}
** {{cite book |last=Shaffi |first=Mushtari |date=2010 |chapter=Brother Khuda Buksh: To whose Incomparable Nobility I am indebted |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=167–171}}
** {{cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Ahkam |date=2010 |chapter=If I would have the opportunity to work with him again |editor1-last=Rahman |editor1-first=Rushanara |editor2-last=Mosharraf |editor2-first=Hossain Mir |display-editors=1 |title=MOALIIKB |pages=124–127}}
* {{cite book
| last = Safiyyullah
| first = A. F. M.
| year = 1967
| title = On to Ultima Thule: A Loud Thinking of Life Insurance in Pakistan
| location = Dacca, East Pakistan
| publisher = Dacca Insurance Underwriters' Syndicate
| oclc = 473687
}}

==Further reading==
===Book reviews===
* {{cite news |last=Das |first=Subrata Kumar |date=29 August 2009 |title=The Man Behind Insurance |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-103419 |publisher=The Daily Star}}
* {{cite book |last=Momen |first=Nurul |year=1980 |title=Bangladesh, the First Four Years: From 16 December 1971 to 15 December 1975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRINAAAAIAAJ&q=khuda+buksh+insurance+pioneer |location=Dacca, Bangladesh |publisher=Bangladesh Institute of Law & International Affairs}}
* Millard, Elizabeth. (2011). ForeWord Book Review, Memoirs of a Life Insurance Icon: Khuda Buksh, 1 March 2011. https://www.forewordreviews.com/reviews/the-memoirs-of-a-life-insurance-icon/
* Rutherfords, Todd. (2010). The overcoming of entrenched, age-old, taboo perceptions. The Publishing Guru, Bixby, 14 December 2010, Oklahoma. https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/memoirs-of-a-life-insurance-icon-muhammad-rahim/1111902917
* Midwest Book Review. (2011). An extraordinary true-life chronicle of how Buksh helped change the world. 11 February 2011, Oregon, WI, USA. https://www.midwestbookreview.com/mbw/feb_11.htm
* Staff Writer. (2012). Book Review: Khuda Buksh: The Pioneer of Life Insurance in Bangladesh ([[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]) https://www.thinkadvisor.com/2012/02/02/book-review-khuda-buksh-the-pioneer-of-life-insurance-in-bangladesh-by-muhammad-obaidur-rahim-seattle-post-intelligencer/
* Shaw, Marty. (2010). An Icon as seen by others. Book Review: Memoirs of a Life Insurance Icon: Khuda Buksh. Readers Views, 17 August 2010. http://readerviews.typepad.com/readerviews/2010/09/index.html
* Field, Ellen. (2010). Feather Quill Book Reviews: Memoirs of a Life Insurance Icon: Khuda Buksh. 17 August 2010. https://featheredquill.com/memoirs-life-insurance-icon-khuda-buksh/
* San Francisco Book Review. (2010). A Man and His Great Life and Friends. Memoirs of a Life Insurance Icon: Khuda Buksh, 3 December 2010. https://sanfranciscobookreview.com/product/memoirs-of-a-life-insurance-icon-khuda-buksh/
* Paul-Greenidge, Mina. (2014) Khuda Buksh Life Insurance Icon (1930-1974), CARI-NEWS, Volume 12, Issue 2, 30 May 2014. http://caraifa.com/sites/default/files/documents/201404-vol12-2.pdf
* Book Author Interviews by Feather Quill. https://featheredquill.com/muhammad-rahim/
* Book Opening Ceremony news. (2015). Dhaka Press Club, 18 February 2015. http://www.bankbimanews24.com/index.sub.php?news_id=1792 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402151710/http://www.bankbimanews24.com/index.sub.php?news_id=1792 |date=2 April 2015 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Buksh, Khuda}}
[[Category:People from Shariatpur District]]
[[Category:Insurance agents]]
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:1974 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Bengali people]]

Nathuram Shakyawar

2026-04-17T18:13:57Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: details.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Nathuram Ramchandra Shakyawar
| image = File:Nathuram Shakyawar.gif
| caption = Nathuram Ramchandra Shakyawar
| constituency = [[Jalaun (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jalaun]]
| country = [[India]]
| term_end = 1984
| term_start = 1980
| office = [[Member of Parliament]]
| birth_name = Nathuram Ramchandra Shakyawar
| birth_date = {{birth date|1925|11|14|df=y}}
| birth_place = Jagnewa Village, [[Jalaun]], Uttar Pradesh, British India
| death_date = {{death date and age|2005|07|31|1925|11|14|df=y}}
| death_place =
| education = M.A, L.L.B
| alma_mater = D.A.V College, [[Kanpur]]
| spouse = Bhagwai
| parents = Ramchandra Shakyawar
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| children = 2s, 4d
| president = [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]]
| vice_president = [[Mohammad Hidayatullah]]
| prime_minister = [[Indira Gandhi]]
| source = http://loksabhaph.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/2884.htm
| predecessor = [[Ramcharan Dohre]]
| successor = Lachhi Ram
}}

'''Nathuram Ramchandra Shakyawar''' (14 November 1925 – 31 July 2005) was an Indian politician and social worker who was a [[Member of Parliament]] of [[7th Lok Sabha]] from [[Jalaun (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jalaun]] [[Electoral district|constituency]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=तीन दशकों से कांग्रेस से दूर रही लोकसभा सीट|url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttar-pradesh/jalaun/141552503822-jalaun-news|access-date=2022-02-13|website=Amar Ujala|language=hi}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=चरणसिंह ने टिकट के लिए ठोंका दावा|url=https://www.amarujala.com/uttar-pradesh/jalaun/Jalaun-115025-39|access-date=2022-02-13|website=Amar Ujala|language=hi}}</ref> While he was a student, Shakyawar took part in the [[Quit India Movement]] in 1942 and was sent to jail. He also participated in the "[[Jail Bharo Andolan]]" and was imprisoned again. Shakyawar died on 31 July 2005, at the age of 79.<ref>{{cite web |title=Reference Made To The Passing Away Of Shri Nathu Ram Shakyawar, on 12 August, 2005 |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1730411/?__cf_chl_tk=f63Ctabeqf2L4rjfzTJ5FPwSst827redkc4jNIJ_uQc-1658500216-0-gaNycGzNCD0 |website=Indian Kanoon |access-date=22 July 2022}}</ref> Shakyawar belong to [[Koli people|Koli]] caste.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:1925 births]]
[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Jalaun district]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:India MPs 1980–1984]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]

{{UttarPradesh-INC-politician-stub}}

Batadroba Assembly constituency

2026-04-17T00:46:48Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: started new stub

{{Short description|Constituency of the Assam legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Batadroba
| constituency_no = 84
| type = SLA
| map_image = Batadroba Assembly constituency map.svg
| state = [[Assam]]
| latest_election_year = [[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Kaliabor Lok Sabha constituency|Kaliabor]]
| district = [[Nagaon district|Nagaon]]
| established = 1978
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image =
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| electors =
| abolished= 2023
}}
'''Batadroba Assembly constituency''' was one of the 126 assembly constituencies of [[Assam]], a north east state of [[India]]. It no longer exists after the Delimitation. Batadroba was also part of [[Kaliabor Lok Sabha constituency]].

This constituency was abolished in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/Documents/Delimitation/DELIMITATIONASSAM_UPDATED.pdf}}</ref>

==Town Details==

*Country: India.
* State: Assam.
* District: Nagaon district.
* Lok Sabha Constituency: Kaliabor Lok Sabha/Parliamentary constituency.<ref name="bat ref1">{{cite news |title=Batadroba Election 2021: Assembly Elections News, Batadroba Constituency, Vidhan Sabha Seat |url=https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2021/assam/batadroba-election-result-s03a084/ |access-date=18 November 2021 |publisher=News18 |date=2 May 2021}}</ref>
* Assembly Categorisation: Rural
* Literacy Level: 73.78%.
* Eligible Electors as per 2021 General Elections: 1,65,977 Eligible Electors. Male Electors:84,493 . Female Electors: 81,475.
* Geographic Co-Ordinates: 26°23'20.8"N 92°33'24.5"E.
* Total Area Covered: 154 square kilometres.
* Area Includes: hing thana (excluding Dhing mouzah;) Hatichong Mouza in Nowgong thana in Nowgong sub-division; and Silpukhuri Mouza in Mikirbheta thana in Marigaon sub-division, of Nagaon district of Assam.
* Inter State Border : Nagaon.
* Number Of Polling Stations: Year 2011-159, Year 2016-167, Year 2021-84.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
Following is the list of past members from this constituency to Assam Legislature:<ref name="bat ref2">{{cite news |title=Batadroba Election Result 2021 LIVE: Batadroba MLA Election Result & Vote Share - Oneindia |url=https://www.oneindia.com/batadroba-assembly-elections-as-84/ |access-date=18 November 2021 |work=www.oneindia.com |language=en}}</ref>

{|class ="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Name
!colspan=2| Party
|-
|1978
|[[Baneswar Saikia]]
|{{Full party name with color|Revolutionary Communist Party of India}}
|-
|1983
| [[Kiran Borah]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|1985
|[[Digen Chandra Borah]]
|{{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
|1991
|[[Gautam Bora]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|1996
|[[Digen Chandra Borah]]
|{{Full party name with color|Asom Gana Parishad}}
|-
|2001
|rowspan=3|[[Gautam Bora]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|2006
|-
|2011
|-
|2016
|[[Angoorlata Deka]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|2021
|[[Sibamoni Bora]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|}

== Election results ==
===2021 ===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2021 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Batadroba}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate=[[Sibamoni Bora]]
|party=Indian National Congress
|votes=84,278
|percentage=60.05
|change=+27.2}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
||candidate=[[Angoorlata Deka]]
|party=Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes=51,458
|percentage=36.9%
|change=-0.73}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
||candidate=Matiur Rahman
|party=Independent
|votes=1,690
|percentage=1.2
|change=''N/A''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
||candidate=Anupam Baruah
|party=Janata Dal (United)
|votes=815
|percentage=0.6
|change=''N/A''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=Musleha Begum
|party=Rashtriya Ulama Council
|votes=463
|percentage=0.3
|change=''N/A''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=Prafulla Rajkhowa
|party=Independent
|votes=370
|percentage=0.3
|change=''N/A''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=Fakar Uddin
|party=Asom Jana Morcha
|votes=274
|percentage=0.2
|change=''N/A''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=None of the above|votes=1,078 |percentage=0.7|change=+0.06}}
{{Election box majority||votes=32,820 |percentage=23.6|change=+18.82}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,39,348|percentage=91.1|change=+2.94}}
{{Election box Registered electors
|reg. electors = 1,54,168
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing = +27.93
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2016===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2016 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Batadroba}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Angoorlata Deka]]
|votes = 46,343
|percentage = 37.63
|change = +34.99
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Gautam Bora]]
|votes = 38,458
|percentage = 32.85
|change = -7.06
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India United Democratic Front
|candidate = Najiruddin Ahmed
|votes = 33,022
|percentage = 26.81
|change = -12.98
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Rajasree Bora
|votes = 830
|percentage = 0.67
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation
|candidate = Arup Kumar Mahanta
|votes = 559
|percentage = 0.45
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Mukul Bora
|votes = 551
|percentage = 0.44
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharat Vikas Morcha
|candidate = Paban Pran Rabi Das
|votes = 434
|percentage = 0.35
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Dilwar Ahmed
|votes = 237
|percentage = 0.19
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = None of the above
|votes = 792
|percentage = 0.64
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 5,985
|percentage = 4.78
|change = +4.66
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,23,126
|percentage = 88.07
|change = +8.10
}}
{{Election box Registered electors
|reg. electors = 1,39,793
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing = +13.97
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2011===
{{Election box begin|
title=[[2011 Assam Legislative Assembly election]]: Batadroba}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Gautam Bora]]
|votes = 40,950
|percentage = 39.91
|change = +6.72
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India United Democratic Front
|candidate = Matiur Rahman
|votes = 40,819
|percentage = 39.79
|change = +22.90
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Asom Gana Parishad
|candidate = Mamoni Baruah
|votes = 14,192
|percentage = 13.83
|change = -7.93
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Kusum Kumar Mahanta
|votes = 2,712
|percentage = 2.64
|change = -4.63
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = Diluwar Ahmed
|votes = 1,243
|percentage = 1.21
|change = -0.23
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Prafulla Rajkhowa
|votes = 960
|percentage = 0.93
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India
|candidate = Jatin Bhuyan
|votes = 746
|percentage = 0.72
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Hariqul Islam
|votes = 591
|percentage = 0.57
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India Trinamool Congress
|candidate = Biswajyoti Saikia
|votes = 373
|percentage = 0.36
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 131
|percentage = 0.12
|change = -11.31
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,02,586
|percentage = 79.97
|change = +0.65
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2006===
{{Election box begin|
title=Assam Legislative Assembly election, 2006: Batadroba}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Gautam Bora]]
|votes = 33,661
|percentage = 33.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Asom Gana Parishad
|candidate = Mamoni Bora
|votes = 22,074
|percentage = 21.76
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = All India United Democratic Front
|candidate = Najiruddin Ahmed
|votes = 17,134
|percentage = 16.89
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = NBNP
|candidate = Matiur Rahman
|votes = 14,931
|percentage = 14.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Ranjit Majumdar
|votes = 7,370
|percentage = 7.27
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party = AGP(P)
|candidate = Dilip Raja
|votes = 3,724
|percentage = 3.67
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = Ekbal Hussain
|votes = 1,459
|percentage = 1.44
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent (politician)
|candidate = Deba Kumar Saikia
|votes = 1,074
|percentage = 1.06
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 11,587
|percentage = 11.43
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,01,427
|percentage = 79.32
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==

* [[Kokrajhar]]
* [[List of constituencies of Assam Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Assam Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/67-assam/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Assam}}

{{coord|26.41|92.55|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Assam]]
[[Category:Kokrajhar]]
[[Category:Kokrajhar district| ]]
[[Category:Nagaon district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1978]]
[[Category:1978 establishments in Assam]]

Kudur Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:47:26Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: Adding new post

{{Short description|Former Assembly constituency in Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Kudur
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = [[Mysore State]]
| district = [[Bangalore district|Bangalore]]
| division = [[Bangalore division|Bangalore]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Kanakapura Lok Sabha constituency|Kanakapura]]
| constituency_no = 90
| established = 1967
| reservation = None
| abolished = 1978
| mla =
| party =
| alliance =
| latest_election_year = [[1972 Mysore Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| electors =
}}
'''Kudur Assembly constituency''' was one of the constituencies in [[Mysore state assembly]] in India until 1978 when it was made defunct. It was part of [[Kanakapura Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-21 |title=Delimitation, 1967 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3944-delimitation-orders-1967/ |access-date=2024-01-27 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |language=en-IN|website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || S. Siddappa || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || Bettaswamy Gowda || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|}
==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Kudur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006074555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Bettaswamy Gowda |party = Independent politician |votes = 24,848 |percentage = 58.38% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = T. D. Maranna |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 17,715 |percentage = 41.62% |change = {{increase}}10.25 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 7,133 |percentage = 16.76% |change = {{increase}}14.57 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 43,507 |percentage = 70.01% |change = {{increase}}10.09 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 42,563}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 62,141 |ref = |change = {{increase}}20.47 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}27.01 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Kudur <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006083645/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = S. Siddappa |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 8,892 |percentage = 31.37% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Thimmappa |party = Praja Socialist Party |votes = 8,272 |percentage = 29.19% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = T. D. Maranna |party = Independent politician |votes = 8,133 |percentage = 28.70% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = H. S. Ganganna |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,841 |percentage = 6.50% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Gangappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,204 |percentage = 4.25% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 620 |percentage = 2.19% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 30,910 |percentage = 59.92% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 28,342}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 51,582 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of the Mysore Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Karnataka}}

{{Coord|13.107989|77.165269|region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Bengaluru Rural district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Mysore State]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 1978]]
[[Category:1978 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Politics of Bengaluru]]

Khilchipur Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:21:24Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: Adding new article

{{Short description|Constituency of the Madhya Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Khilchipur
| constituency_no = 163
| type = SLA
| map_image = 163-Khilchipur.svg
| state = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| district = [[Rajgarh district|Rajgarh]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Rajgarh Lok Sabha constituency|Rajgarh]]
| established = 1962
| reservation = None
| mla = [[Hajarilal Dangi]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| preceded_by = [[Priyavrat Singh]]
}}

'''Khilchipur Assembly constituency''' is one of the 230 [[Madhya Pradesh Vidhan Sabha|Vidhan Sabha]] (Legislative Assembly) constituencies of [[Madhya Pradesh]] state in central [[India]].<ref name="election2013">{{cite web|title=Madhya Pradesh 2013|url=http://www.myneta.info/mp2013/index.php?action=show_candidates&constituency_id=175|website=myneta.info|publisher=National Election Watch|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="election2018">{{cite web|title=List of Assembly Constituencies|url=http://eci.nic.in/archive/se98/background/S12/ListACs-MP.html|website=eci.nic.in|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="election2018-1">{{cite web|title=Vidhansabha Seats|url=http://www.electionsinindia.com/madhyapradesh/statepc.aspx|website=electionsininda.com|publisher=Election In India|access-date=18 May 2018}}</ref>

It is part of [[Rajgarh district]]. There are five Vidhan Sabha seats in Rajgarh district and Khilchipur is one of them. It consists of two blocks, [[Khilchipur]] and [[Jirapur]], and two small towns [[Chhapiheda]] and [[Machalpur]]. There are more than around 200 Panchayat in Khilchipur constituency.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|1962
|Hari Singh Pawar
|{{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
|1967
| rowspan="2" |Prabhu Dayal
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|1972
|-
|1977
|Narayan Singh Panwar
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|1980
| rowspan="2" |Kanhaiyalal Dangi
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|1985
|-
|1990
|Poor Singh Pawar
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|1993
|Ramprasad Dangi
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
|1998
|[[Hajarilal Dangi]]
|-
|2003
| rowspan="2" |[[Priyavrat Singh]]
|-
|2008
|-
|2013
|[[Hajarilal Dangi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|2018
|[[Priyavrat Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|[[Hajarilal Dangi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

==Election results==
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Khilchipur<ref name="election2023">{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/madhya-pradesh-assembly-polls-2023/story/madhya-pradesh-election-bjp-second-candidate-list-shivraj-singh-chouhan-2440421-2023-09-25|title=3 Union ministers feature in BJP's second list for Madhya Pradesh polls|work=India Today|accessdate=25 September 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Hajarilal Dangi]]
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = {{formatnum:105694}}
|percentage = 52.2
|change = +12.29
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Priyavrat Singh]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:92016}}
|percentage = 45.44
|change = -10.94
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1114}}
|percentage = 0.55
|change = -0.13
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:13678}}
|percentage = 6.76
|change = -9.71
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:202489}}
|percentage = 87.22
|change = +0.5
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = BJP
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing = YES
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2018 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Khilchipur<ref name="election2018" name="election2018-2">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9685-madhya-pradesh-legislative-election-2018-statistical-report/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2018 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="election2018"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Priyavrat Singh]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:101854}}
|percentage = 56.38
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = [[Hajarilal Dangi]]
|votes = {{formatnum:72098}}
|percentage = 39.91
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Indersingh Varma
|votes = {{formatnum:1746}}
|percentage = 0.97
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1230}}
|percentage = 0.68
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:29756}}
|percentage = 16.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:180671}}
|percentage = 86.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2013===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2013 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Khilchipur<ref name="election2013" name="election2013-1">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9685-madhya-pradesh-legislative-election-2013-statistical-report/ |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 to the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=30 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="election2013"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Hajarilal Dangi]]
|party = BJP
|votes = {{formatnum:}}82712
|percentage = 51.03
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Priyavrat Singh]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:}} 71233
|percentage = 43.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = 11479
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = BJP
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Rajgarh district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Madhya Pradesh}}
{{coords|24.04|76.58|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rajgarh district]]
[[Category:Politics of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1962]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Madhya Pradesh]]

SNC-Lavalin Kerala hydroelectric scandal

2026-04-11T17:28:04Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: done

{{Short description|1995 financial scandal in India}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
A financial scandal related to a hydroelectric infrastructure contract between the [[Government of Kerala]] and the Canadian company [[SNC-Lavalin]] in 1995 resulted in an alleged net loss to the Indian [[exchequer]] of {{currency|374.5|INR}} [[crore]].<ref name=thehindu1>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/cag-finds-lapses-in-deal-with-lavalin/article3178064.ece |title=CAG finds lapses in deal with Lavalin |work= The Hindu | location=Chennai, India |date=14 February 2006}}</ref><ref name="indianexpress1">{{cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/cbi-to-grill-pinarayi-in-lavalin-case/274446/|title=CBI to grill Pinarayi in Lavalin case|work=The Indian Express}}</ref>

The contract outlined the renovation and modernization of the hydroelectric power stations at [[Pallivasal]], Sengulam, and Panniar that were originally installed between 1940 and 1964 in the [[Idukki district]] of [[Kerala]], India.<ref name=indianexpress0>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/snc-lavalin-case-the-scam-and-the-probe-so-far/421657/0 |title=SNC Lavalin case: The scam and the probe so far |work=Indian Express|date=10 February 2009 }}</ref>

Several politicians were involved and eventually charged in the case, including present chief minister [[Pinarayi Vijayan]],<ref name=timesofindia1>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-01-22/india/28020924_1_panniyar-snc-lavlin-cbi-probe |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105105312/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-01-22/india/28020924_1_panniyar-snc-lavlin-cbi-probe |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 November 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Pinaryai Vijayan's may figure in SNC-Lavlin scam | date=22 January 2009}}</ref> the first ever corruption-related prosecution of a Politburo member of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]].<ref name=indianexpress2>{{cite web| url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/cbi-set-to-prosecute-cpm-kerala-boss-party-in-a-fix/414003/ |title=CBI set to prosecute CPM Kerala boss, party in a fix |work=Indian Express|date=22 January 2009 }}</ref> However, on 5 November 2013, Pinarayi Vijayan and 6 other accused were temporarily cleared of charges by a [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] (CBI) Special Court because "the CBI could not prove any of its charges".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/relief-for-pinarayi-vijayan-in-lavalin-case/article5316714.ece | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | first=C. Gouridasan | last=Nair | title=Pinarayi cleared of charges in Lavalin case | date=5 November 2013}}</ref> The CBI then went on with an appeal in [[Kerala High Court]]. On 23 August 2017, the Kerala High Court ruled on the case, and Pinarayi Vijayan was acquitted again.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-hc-upholds-discharge-of-pinarayi-vijayan-in-lavalin-case/article19545182.ece|title=Kerala HC upholds discharge of Pinarayi Vijayan in SNC-Lavalin corruption case|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-08-23|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/pinarayi-vijayan-lavalin-case-kerala-high-court-cbi/|title=Kerala CM Pinarayi Vijayan acquitted in SNC-Lavalin case, HC says CBI has no evidence against him|date=2017-08-23|work=The Indian Express|access-date=2017-08-23|language=en-US}}</ref> As of July 2020, CBI's petition against acquittal of Pinarayi Vijayan is pending in the [[Supreme Court of India]].

== History ==

In 1992, the [[Central Electricity Authority (India)|Central Electricity Authority]] (CEA) of India rejected a proposal of [[Kerala State Electricity Board]] (KSEB) to renovate the three hydro-electric power projects at [[Pallivasal]], Sengulam and Panniar. Instead, the CEA recommended a capacity upgradation of the generators in these three power projects, after they found that these projects were in good condition.<ref name=indianexpress0/> The KSEB disregarded this recommendation and went forward with the decision to renovate these projects.

===Initial negotiations===
The initial negotiations with the Canadian company [[SNC-Lavalin]] – a company which had been present in the state's power sector for several decades – began during the tenure of United Democratic Front government,<ref name=indianexpress2/> under the leadership of the then power minister [[C. V. Padmarajan]]<ref name=thehindu2>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/02/15/stories/2006021512360100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020040054/http://hindu.com/2006/02/15/stories/2006021512360100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 October 2007 |title=Ready to face any inquiry into SNC Lavalin deal, says CPI(M) | location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=15 February 2006}}</ref> and later, the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] (MoU) with SNC-Lavalin on 10 August 1995, when [[G. Karthikeyan]] of the [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]] was the power minister, after the resignation of C.V. Padmarajan. Under the provisions of the MoU, the funds for the renovation were to be arranged by SNC-Lavalin from the [[Export Development Canada]] (EDC), Canada, and the [[Canadian International Development Agency]] (CIDA). Later, it was also found out in a probe by CBI, that G. Karthikeyan also wanted a quid-pro-quo assistance from the Canadian government for the setting up a hospital for granting a project for refurbishment of Pallivasal, Shengulam and Panniyar Hydro electric stations in Kerala, after the revelation of a letter by G Karthikeyan to the then vice-president of Lavalin business operations, [[Klaus Triendl]], who is also an accused in the Lavalin scandal.<ref name=indiatoday1>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/latest-headlines/story/exclusive-former-kerala-minister-sought-lavalin-favour-51855-2009-07-09 |title=Exclusive: Former Kerala minister sougthe first Politburo member in the CPI(M) history to be prosecuted in a corruption case.ht Lavalin favour |date=10 July 2009 |publisher=India Today}}</ref> It was only in September 1995, that the KSEB undertook a feasibility study on the proposal, by a retired Chief Engineer of the KSEB, who later became a consultant to SNC-Lavalin.<ref name=thehindu1/>

===Consultant's report===
Based on the consultant's report and further discussions, the KSEB under the leadership of G. Karthikeyan, signed the contracts with SNC-Lavalin to provide technical services for management, engineering, procurement and construction supervision on 24 February 1996, to ensure completion of the projects within three years. The consultancy agreement did actually include the rates for various equipments to be purchased as part of the project. Consultancy agreements were converted into fixed price contracts for the supply of machinery and technical services as part of the renovation at a cost of 67.94 million [[Canadian dollar]]s (Rs 1690.3 million). The final follow-up agreement with SNC-Lavalin regarding the renovation of PSP project was signed by [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] of [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|Left Democratic Front]] – after they took office winning the majority in legislative assembly in 1996 – in February 1997.<ref name=thehindu2/> Technically, the Left Democratic Front (Kerala) led government could not retreat from the agreements, even if they wanted to,<ref name=thehindu2/> according to the provisions of the MoU which was already signed by their predecessors, that is the ministers of United Democratic Front government.

===Contract signed===
After the final contract was signed, the entrusted the [[National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Limited]] (NHEPCL) a study to justify the prices quoted by Lavalin, and they concluded in that study that in view of the grant to the proposed Malabar Cancer Centre (MCC), the purchase of Canadian equipment and accessories could be considered favorably.<ref name=indianexpress0/>

===Comptroller and Auditor General findings===
The [[Comptroller and Auditor General of India|Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)]] found that Lavalin was only a consultant intermediary and not the [[original equipment manufacturer]] and that the supply of goods and services was made by other firms at a much higher cost leading to excess expenditure. According to the CAG, the absence of due professional care in negotiating the foreign loan proved to be detrimental to the financial interests of the Board. The Board also could not ensure the quality of renovation work in the absence of [[technology transfer]] and training of its engineers. Owing to various technical defects in the equipment, the generation of power could not be maintained even at the pre-renovation level and the Board had to spend on repairs.

According to the CAG, failure to exclude the fee for technical consultancy from fixed price contracts resulted in an avoidable payment of Rs 203.1 million, and failure to negotiate and exclude the exposure fee from the loan agreement resulted in avoidable payment of Rs 94.8 million and future liability of Rs 22.1 million. In the opinion of the CAG, there was also an avoidable payment of Rs 12.0 million as commitment fee despite there being committed but unavailed advance.

The CAG found that the Government did not receive Rs 893.2 million out of the grant of Rs 983.0 million that was promised for the [[Malabar Cancer Centre]] as the MoU was not renewed in time during the tenure of United Democratic Front when [[Kadavoor Sivadasan]] was the minister in charge of power.<ref name=thehindu3>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/02/20/stories/2009022056020400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223012802/http://www.hindu.com/2009/02/20/stories/2009022056020400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 February 2014 |title=Kadavoor Sivadasan owes an explanation: Pinarayi | location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=20 February 2009}}</ref>

===Inquiry===
On 16 January 2007,{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} [[Kerala High Court]] ordered a [[Central Bureau of Investigation|CBI]] enquiry into the scandal.<ref name=timesofindia7345>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/CPMs-Kerala-secy-under-CBI-scanner/articleshow/1233179.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126105422/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-01-17/india/27881998_1_cbi-lavlin-probe |url-status=live |archive-date=26 January 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Times of India - CPM's Kerala secy under CBI scanner | date=17 January 2007}}</ref>

On 18 February 2008, the CBI informed the High court of Kerala that the investigation was progressing and said that former Electricity Ministers [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] and G. Karthikeyan would be examined at the appropriate time.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/19/stories/2008021952870400.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922053730/http://www.hindu.com/2008/02/19/stories/2008021952870400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 September 2008 |title=Lavalin case probe progressing: CBI | location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=19 February 2008}}</ref>

On 21 January 2009, the CBI filed a progress report on the investigation in the Kerala High Court. Pinarayi Vijayan had been named as the 9th accused in the case.<ref name=timesofindia5>{{cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/PoliticsNation/CBI_finds_Pinarayi_guilty_in_Lavalin_scam_moralistic_CPM_yet_to_act/articleshow/4014521.cms| title=CBI finds Pinarayi guilty in Lavalin scam, moralistic CPM yet to act | work=The Times of India | date=22 January 2009}}</ref><ref name=indianexpress6>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/cbi-seeks-nod-to-prosecute-cpms-kerala-unit-chief/413768/|title=CBI seeks nod to prosecute CPM's Kerala unit chief|date=22 January 2009 }}</ref>

===Sanctions===
On 2 February 2009, the CBI wrote a letter to the Governor of Kerala, seeking sanction for the prosecution of Pinarayi Vijayan under section 197 of the CrPC,<ref name="deccanherald0">{{cite news |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/22582/tv-talk.html| title=SNC Lavalin case: SC issues notices to CBI, Kerala govt | work=Deccan Herald}}</ref> who later referred it to the cabinet .

On 6 May 2009, the Cabinet opined that it was not necessary to grant permission to prosecute Pinarayi Vijayan.<ref name="deccanherald0"/>

On 31 August 2011, the [[Supreme Court of India]] issued notices to the Government of Kerala and the CBI, on a petition filed by Pinarayi Vjayan, challenging the then Kerala Governor, R.S. Gavai's nod to prosecute the former, over-riding the decision of the council of ministers, after he wrongly assumed that he had jurisdiction and power to grant sanction on his own. The proceedings against Pinarayi Vijayan initiated in the special court was stayed by this order.<ref name="deccanherald0"/>

On a petition seeking discharge from the case before the CBI Special Court Thiruvananthapuram, Pinarayi Vijayan and the other accused were discharged from the case on 5 November 2013. The court said that the CBI had failed to prove the charges of conspiracy and cheating against the seven petitioners who had sought the discharge and that it had no hesitation in holding that the allegations against them were "groundless". The prosecution had failed to establish any dishonest and fraudulent intention, abuse of official position, or element of cheating, which the accused were charged with, Special Judge R. Raghu said in a much-awaited judgment.

The Special Court judge said that the prosecution had not made case that any of the accused gained undue pecuniary advantage by awarding the contract to SNC-Lavalin. It had, on the other hand, attempted to pose two "contradictory and mutually destructive" allegations: one, that the act of awarding the contract to the company was "dishonest" and "fraudulent"; and two, that the consideration for awarding the contract was the offer of a grant to establish the cancer hospital, which was, in fact, a laudable objective involving the public interest. The court said the only question that remained for consideration in the case was whether there was any "administrative failure or blunder" that took place "without understanding the ramifications of the offer of grant" from various Canadian agencies in return for the award of the supply contract to SNC-Lavalin.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://english.manoramaonline.com/news/kerala/2017/08/23/cm-pinarayi-kerala-hc-verdict-snc-lavalin-case.html | title=Home }}</ref>

===Appeal===
An Appeal Petition has been filed by journalist T. P. Nandakumar in [[Kerala High Court]] against the exoneration of Vijayan by the CBI court.<ref>{{cite web|title=Another Judge refuses to hear SNC Lavalin Scandal|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2014/01/another-judge-refuses-to-hear-snc-lavalin-scandal/|work=IANS|publisher=Biharprabha News|accessdate=29 January 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[SNC-Lavalin affair]], a political scandal in Canada involving the same company

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Political corruption in India]]
[[Category:Political history of Kerala]]
[[Category:Crime in Kerala]]
[[Category:1990s in Kerala]]
[[Category:AtkinsRéalis]]
[[Category:Corruption in Kerala]]
[[Category:1995 in India]]

2025 Royal Challengers Bengaluru season

2026-04-11T10:35:04Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: started new info!

{{Short description|Indian Premier League cricket team}}
{{good article}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox cricket club season
| club = {{IPL Teams 1|rcb}}
| season = [[2025 Indian Premier League|2025]]
| image = Chinnaswamy Stadium.jpg
| imagesize = 250px
| alt = M. Chinnaswamy Stadium in 2017
| caption = M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, home ground of Royal Challengers Bengaluru
| coach = [[Andy Flower]]
| captain = [[Rajat Patidar]]
| ground = [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bengaluru]]
| comp1 = [[2025 Indian Premier League#League stage|League stage]]
| comp1 result = 2nd place
| comp2 = [[2025 Indian Premier League#Qualifier 1|Qualifier 1]]
| comp2 result = Won against [[Punjab Kings]]
| comp3 = [[2025 Indian Premier League final|Final]]
| comp3 result = Won against Punjab Kings
| most runs = [[Virat Kohli]] (657)<ref name="mr"/>
| most wickets = [[Josh Hazlewood]] (22)<ref name="mw"/>
| most catches = [[Phil Salt]] (9)<ref name="mc">{{ESPNcricinfo 2|tournament|id=indian-premier-league-2025-16622|title=2025 Indian Premier League|stat=most catches|access-date=3 June 2025|dynamic=n|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250526120926/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/fielding-most-catches-career/indian-premier-league-2025-16622|archive-date=26 May 2025}}</ref>
| most dismissals = [[Jitesh Sharma]] (20)<ref name="md">{{ESPNcricinfo 2|tournament|id=indian-premier-league-2025-16622|title=2025 Indian Premier League|stat=most dismissals|access-date=3 June 2025|dynamic=n|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250815081448/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/keeping-most-dismissals-career/indian-premier-league-2025-16622|archive-date=15 August 2025}}</ref>
| prevseason = [[2024 {{IPL Teams 1|rcb}} season|2024]]
| nextseason = [[2026 {{IPL Teams 1|rcb}} season|2026]]
}}
{{2025 Indian Premier League Teams}}

The 2025 season was the 18th season for the [[Indian Premier League]] (IPL) [[cricket]] franchise [[Royal Challengers Bengaluru]]. They were one of the ten teams that competed in the [[2025 Indian Premier League|2025 IPL]]. Ahead of the season, [[Rajat Patidar]] was announced as the captain. The team was coached by [[Andy Flower]].

Royal Challengers Bengaluru finished in second place in the league stage, and advanced to the qualifier 1 in the playoffs. They also became the first IPL team to win all away games in a season. The team defeated [[Punjab Kings]] in the qualifier 1 to qualify for Bengaluru's fourth final. In the [[2025 Indian Premier League final|final]], they defeated Punjab Kings again to win their maiden title after 18 years. [[Virat Kohli]] scored the most runs (657) while [[Josh Hazlewood]] took the most wickets (22) for Bengaluru in the 2025 season.

== Pre-season ==
{{further|List of 2025 Indian Premier League personnel changes}}
The [[2025 Indian Premier League]] was the 18th edition of the [[Indian Premier League]] (IPL), a professional [[Twenty20]] (T20) [[cricket]] league, organised by the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] (BCCI).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian Premier League |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-Premier-League |access-date=22 March 2025 |website=[[Britannica.com]] |language=en-uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317155833/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-Premier-League|archive-date=17 March 2025|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Royal Challengers Bengaluru]] were one of the four active franchises to not have won the IPL title prior to 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=8 Teams Who Have Never Won IPL Trophy |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/web-stories/sports/rcb-to-dc-8-teams-who-have-never-won-ipl-trophy/photostory/105968841.cms |access-date=2026-01-06 |work=[[Times Now]] |language=en |archive-date=7 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250907090123/https://www.timesnownews.com/web-stories/sports/rcb-to-dc-8-teams-who-have-never-won-ipl-trophy/photostory/105968841.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The team finished in fourth place in the [[2024 Indian Premier League|previous season]].<ref>{{ESPNcricinfo 2|series|ref=indian-premier-league-2024-1410320/points-table-standings|title=2024 Indian Premier League points table standings|access-date=30 October 2024|dynamic=n|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250526045213/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/indian-premier-league-2024-1410320/points-table-standings|archive-date=26 May 2025}}</ref> The tournament featured ten teams competing in 74 matches from 22 March to 3 June 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brar |first=Hemant |title=IPL 2025 FAQs: What's new this season? Any changes in format? |date=2023-03-20 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-who-are-the-new-captains-will-this-be-dhonis-last-season-1477101 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250322194040/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-who-are-the-new-captains-will-this-be-dhonis-last-season-1477101|archive-date=2025-03-22 |access-date=2025-03-22 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 May 2025 |title=IPL 2025 to resume on May 17 with RCB vs KKR, final scheduled for June 3 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-to-resume-on-may-17-final-to-be-played-on-june-3-1485733 |access-date=14 May 2025 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |archive-date=14 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250514101323/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-to-resume-on-may-17-final-to-be-played-on-june-3-1485733 |url-status=live}}</ref> Bengaluru played all their home matches at [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adil |first=Hafsa |title=All to know about the Indian Premier League’s 2025 season |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2025/3/20/all-to-know-about-the-ipl-2025-captains-schedule-prize-money-venues |access-date=2026-01-31 |work=[[Al Jazeera English]] |language=en}}</ref> except for the last one, which was moved to [[Ekana Cricket Stadium]] due to the weather conditions in Bengaluru.<ref name="M65-reloc"/>

=== Player retention ===
Franchises were allowed to retain a maximum of six players from their squad, including a maximum of five recent international players.<ref>{{cite web|date=29 September 2024|title=IPL 2025 mega auction salary purse, retention rules, and RTM explained|url=https://www.business-standard.com/cricket/news/ipl-2025-mega-auction-salary-purse-retention-rules-and-rtm-explained-124092900134_1.html|access-date=29 September 2024|work=[[Business Standard]]|archive-date=30 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930015913/https://www.business-standard.com/cricket/news/ipl-2025-mega-auction-salary-purse-retention-rules-and-rtm-explained-124092900134_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Franchises were required to submit their retention lists before 31 October 2024.<ref>{{cite web |title=Deadline For Submission Of Retention List For IPL 2025 Auction Revealed |url=https://news.abplive.com/sports/cricket/list-of-retained-released-players-for-ipl-2025-mega-auction-announced-check-date-1720752 |access-date=29 September 2024 |work=[[ABP News]] |date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930020104/https://news.abplive.com/sports/cricket/list-of-retained-released-players-for-ipl-2025-mega-auction-announced-check-date-1720752 |url-status=live}}</ref> Bengaluru retained three players, including captain [[Rajat Patidar]] and former captain [[Virat Kohli]].<ref name="retain"/><ref name=rcb-retain/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Retained players<ref name="retain">{{cite web |date=30 October 2024 |title=IPL 2025 retentions: List of all the retained players ahead of the mega auction |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-retentions-list-list-of-players-retained-by-franchises-csk-kkr-srh-lsg-1457696 |access-date=30 October 2024 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |archive-date=10 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250410063200/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-retentions-list-list-of-players-retained-by-franchises-csk-kkr-srh-lsg-1457696 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=rcb-retain>{{cite news|date=31 October 2024|title=Kohli, Patidar and Dayal to be retained by RCB|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-virat-kohli-rajat-patidar-yash-dayal-to-be-retained-by-rcb-1457819|access-date=31 October 2024|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|archive-date=7 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241107014229/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-virat-kohli-rajat-patidar-yash-dayal-to-be-retained-by-rcb-1457819|url-status=live}}</ref>
! scope="col" | No.
! scope="col" | Player
! scope="col" | Salary
|-
| 1 || [[Virat Kohli]] || {{INRConvert|21|c|lk=on}}
|-
| 2 || [[Rajat Patidar]] || {{INRConvert|11|c|lk=on}}
|-
| 3 || [[Yash Dayal]] || {{INRConvert|5|c|lk=on}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Released players<ref name="retain"/><ref name="S2024">{{ESPNcricinfo 2|series|ref=indian-premier-league-2024-1410320/royal-challengers-bengaluru-squad-1413548/series-squads|title=2024 Indian Premier League, {{IPL Teams 1|rcb}} squad|access-date=30 October 2024|dynamic=n|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522164709/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/indian-premier-league-2024-1410320/royal-challengers-bengaluru-squad-1413548/series-squads|archive-date=22 May 2025}}</ref>
! [[Batting (cricket)|Batters]] || [[Wicket-keeper]]s || [[All-rounder]]s || [[Fast bowling|Fast bowlers]] || [[Spin bowling|Spin bowlers]]
|-
| valign="top" |
* [[Suyash Prabhudessai]]
* [[Saurav Chauhan]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Dinesh Karthik]]{{Efn|[[Dinesh Karthik]] announced his retirement from IPL in June 2024.<ref>{{cite news|title=Dinesh Karthik retires from all representative cricket|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/dinesh-karthik-retires-from-all-representative-cricket-1434318|access-date=1 June 2024|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|archive-date=3 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603020920/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/dinesh-karthik-retires-from-all-representative-cricket-1434318|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
* [[Anuj Rawat]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Glenn Maxwell]]
* [[Mahipal Lomror]]
* [[Cameron Green]]
* [[Will Jacks]]
* [[Swapnil Singh]]
* [[Manoj Bhandage]]
* [[Mayank Dagar]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Reece Topley]]
* [[Akash Deep]]
* [[Mohammed Siraj]]
* [[Alzarri Joseph]]
* [[Lockie Ferguson]]
* [[Vijaykumar Vyshak]]
* [[Rajan Kumar]]
| valign="top" |
* [[Karn Sharma]]
* [[Himanshu Sharma]]
|}
{{notelist}}

=== Auction ===
The season's auction took place on 24 and 25 November 2024 in [[Jeddah]], Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite news|title=IPL 2025 mega auction to be held on November 24, 25 in Jeddah|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-auction-on-november-24-25-in-jeddah-1458546|access-date=5 November 2024|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|archive-date=16 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241116185000/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-2025-auction-on-november-24-25-in-jeddah-1458546|url-status=live}}</ref> The auction purse for each franchise was set at {{INRConvert|120|c|lk=on}}, with the franchises being deducted an amount from the purse for each retained player.<ref>{{cite web |title=IPL 2025 Mega Auction: Report Says Franchise Purse To Increase From Rs 90 Crore to 120 Crore |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/ipl-governing-council-to-meet-on-saturday-evening-set-to-finalise-auction-retention-rule-6670161 |access-date=1 October 2024 |work=[[NDTV]] |archive-date=1 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241001020644/https://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/ipl-governing-council-to-meet-on-saturday-evening-set-to-finalise-auction-retention-rule-6670161 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=IPL retention FAQs: What is the modified RTM rule? Has the auction purse increased?|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-retention-faqs-what-is-the-modified-rtm-rule-has-the-auction-purse-increased-1453284|date=2024-09-30|access-date=2024-10-01|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|language=en|archive-date=29 April 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250429101841/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-retention-faqs-what-is-the-modified-rtm-rule-has-the-auction-purse-increased-1453284|url-status=live}}</ref> Bengaluru had a purse remaining of {{INR convert|83|c}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-31 |title=IPL 2025 Auction: Purse Remaining For Each Team After Retentions |url=https://www.wisden.com/series/ipl-2025/cricket-news/ipl-2025-auction-purse-remaining-for-each-team-after-retentions |access-date=2025-04-14 |website=Wisden |language=en |archive-date=3 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241103065133/https://www.wisden.com/series/ipl-2025/cricket-news/ipl-2025-auction-purse-remaining-for-each-team-after-retentions |url-status=live}}</ref> Franchises that did not retain six players, were allowed [[Indian Premier League#Players|Right-to-Match]] (RTM) cards at the auction for each player not retained.<ref>{{cite web |title=Franchises can now retain record number of players ahead of IPL 2025 auction, purse size gets bigger too; check all details here |url=https://thesportstak.com/cricket/indian-premier-league-22-mar-2024/story/franchises-can-now-retain-5-players-with-1-rtm-card-ahead-of-ipl-2025-auction-purse-size-gets-bigger-check-all-details-here-3101224-2024-09-28 |access-date=1 October 2024 |work=SportsTak |date=28 September 2024 |archive-date=7 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007090833/https://thesportstak.com/cricket/indian-premier-league-22-mar-2024/story/franchises-can-now-retain-5-players-with-1-rtm-card-ahead-of-ipl-2025-auction-purse-size-gets-bigger-check-all-details-here-3101224-2024-09-28 |url-status=live}}</ref> Bengaluru had three cards available.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sports.ndtv.com/ipl-2025/ipl-2025-mega-auction-every-ipl-teams-retentions-auction-purse-total-slots-rtm-available-7089198|title=IPL 2025 Mega Auction: Every IPL Team's Retentions, Auction Purse, Total Slots, RTM Available|work=[[NDTV]]|date=24 November 2024|access-date=24 November 2024|archive-date=10 April 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250410063200/https://sports.ndtv.com/ipl-2025/ipl-2025-mega-auction-every-ipl-teams-retentions-auction-purse-total-slots-rtm-available-7089198|url-status=live}}</ref> Bengaluru bought nineteen players in the auction, including twelve capped players and eight overseas players.<ref name="List">{{cite web|url=https://olympics.com/en/news/ipl-2025-teams-squads-list-player-prices|title=IPL 2025 teams and all squads - full players list|website=[[Olympics.com]]|date=25 November 2024|access-date=25 November 2024|archive-date=24 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241124172801/https://olympics.com/en/news/ipl-2025-teams-squads-list-player-prices|url-status=live}}</ref> Bengaluru used their RTM card to buy back [[Swapnil Singh]] for {{INRconvert|50|l}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-28 |title=List of RTM Buys by all Franchises at the IPL Auction 2025 |url=https://www.mykhel.com/cricket/csk-mi-rcb-to-kkr-list-of-rtm-buys-by-all-franchises-at-the-ipl-auction-2025-323371.html |access-date=2025-06-22 |website=mykhel.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Squad ==
* Players with international caps as of start of 2025 IPL are listed in '''bold'''.
* Ages are as of {{start date|2025|3|22|df=y}}.
* Withdrawn players are indicated by a dagger symbol ({{dagger}}) and placed at the bottom of the table.
{{clear}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%;"
|+ [[Royal Challengers Bengaluru]] squad for the [[2025 Indian Premier League]]<ref name="S2025">{{ESPNcricinfo 2|series|ref=ipl-2025-1449924/royal-challengers-bengaluru-squad-1458630/series-squads|title=2025 Indian Premier League, Royal Challengers Bengaluru squad|access-date=3 June 2025|dynamic=n|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250526205738/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/ipl-2025-1449924/royal-challengers-bengaluru-squad-1458630/series-squads|archive-date=26 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="retain"/><ref name="List"/>
! S/N || Name || Nationality || Birth date || Batting style || Bowling style || Salary || Notes
|-
| 5 || [[Suyash Sharma]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|2003|5|15|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[leg-break]] || {{INRConvert|2.6|c|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 6 || '''[[Krunal Pandya]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1991|3|24|df=y}} || Left-handed || Left-arm [[Left-arm orthodox|orthodox]] || {{INRConvert|5.75|c|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 8 || '''[[Tim David]]''' || {{cr|AUS}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1996|3|16|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off-break]] || {{INRConvert|3|c|lk=on}} || Overseas
|-
| 13 || '''[[Yash Dayal]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1997|12|13|df=y}} || Right-handed || Left-arm [[fast bowling|medium-fast]] || {{INRConvert|5|c|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 14 || [[Abhinandan Singh]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1997|3|30|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|fast-medium]] || {{INRConvert|30|l|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 15 || ''' [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] ''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1990|2|5|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium]] || {{INRConvert|10.75|c|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 16 || [[Mayank Agarwal]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1991|2|16|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off-break]] || {{INRConvert|1|c|lk=on}} || Replacement{{Efn|name=Padikkal}}
|-
| 18 || '''[[Virat Kohli]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1988|11|5|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium]] || {{INRConvert|21|c|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 21 || [[Manoj Bhandage]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1998|10|5|df=y}} || Left-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium-fast]] || {{INRConvert|30|l|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 23 || '''[[Liam Livingstone]]''' || {{cr|ENG}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1993|8|4|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off-break]] || {{INRConvert|8.75|c|lk=on}} || Overseas
|-
| 24 || [[Swapnil Singh]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1991|1|22|df=y}} || Right-handed || Left-arm [[Left-arm orthodox|orthodox]] || {{INRConvert|50|l|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 28 || '''[[Phil Salt]]''' || {{cr|ENG}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1996|8|28|df=y}} || Right-handed || {{n/a}} || {{INRConvert|11.5|c|lk=on}} || Overseas
|-
| 29 || '''[[Tim Seifert]]''' || {{cr|NZ}} || {{birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1994|12|14|df=yes}} || Right-handed || {{n/a}} || {{INRConvert|2|c|lk=on}} || Overseas; temporary{{Efn|name=TempRep}} replacement{{Efn|name=Bethell}}
|-
| 32 || '''[[Blessing Muzarabani]]''' || {{cr|ZIM}} || {{birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1996|10|2|df=yes}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|fast-medium]] || {{INRConvert|75|l|lk=on}} || Overseas; temporary{{Efn|name=TempRep}} replacement{{Efn|name= Ngidi}}
|-
| 38 || '''[[Josh Hazlewood]]''' || {{cr|AUS}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1991|1|8|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|fast-medium]] || {{INRConvert|12.5|c|lk=on}} || Overseas
|-
| 42 || [[Rasikh Salam]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|2000|4|5|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium]] || {{INRConvert|6|c|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 48 || '''[[Romario Shepherd]]''' || {{cr|WIN}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1994|11|26|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|fast-medium]] || {{INRConvert|1.5|c|lk=on}} || Overseas
|-
| 53 || '''[[Nuwan Thushara]]''' || {{cr|SL}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1994|8|6|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|fast-medium]] || {{INRConvert|1.6|c|lk=on}} || Overseas
|-
| 55 || '''[[Jitesh Sharma]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1993|10|22|df=y}} || Right-handed || {{n/a}} || {{INRConvert|11|c|lk=on}} || Stand-in captain{{Efn|name=Jitesh|[[Jitesh Sharma]] captained [[Royal Challengers Bengaluru]] against [[Sunrisers Hyderabad]] when [[Rajat Patidar]] was unavailable.<ref>{{cite web |date=2025-05-23 |title=RCB make Jitesh Sharma captain for Sunrisers Hyderabad match, Rajat Patidar made Impact Player. Here's why |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rcb-make-jitesh-sharma-captain-for-sunrisers-hyderabad-match-rajat-patidar-made-impact-player-heres-why-101748007789854.html |access-date=2025-06-17 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |archive-date=15 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250615154132/https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rcb-make-jitesh-sharma-captain-for-sunrisers-hyderabad-match-rajat-patidar-made-impact-player-heres-why-101748007789854.html |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
| 97 || '''[[Rajat Patidar]]''' || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1993|6|1|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off-break]] || {{INRConvert|11|c|lk=on}} || [[Captain (cricket)|Captain]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/royal-challengers-bengaluru-name-patidar-their-captain-for-ipl-2025-1473005|title=Rajat Patidar appointed new RCB captain for IPL 2025|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=13 February 2025|archive-date=17 May 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250517184522/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/royal-challengers-bengaluru-name-patidar-their-captain-for-ipl-2025-1473005|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 99 || [[Swastik Chikara]] || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|2005|4|3|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off-break]] || {{INRConvert|30|l|lk=on}} ||
|-
| 2 || '''[[Jacob Bethell]]''' {{dagger}} || {{cr|ENG}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|2003|10|23|df=y}} || Left-handed || Left-arm [[Left-arm orthodox|orthodox]] || {{INRConvert|2.6|c|lk=on}} || Overseas; withdrawn{{Efn|name=Bethell|[[Tim Seifert]] replaced [[Jacob Bethell]], after the latter withdrew due to national duty.<ref name=tr1>{{Cite web |date=May 22, 2025 |title=Royal Challengers Bengaluru sign Tim Seifert as Jacob Bethell set to leave for England national duties|url=https://www.iplt20.com/news/4225/royal-challengers-bengaluru-sign-tim-seifert-as-jacob-bethell-set-to-leave-for-england-national-duties |website=[[IPLT20.com]]}}</ref>}}
|-
| 22 || '''[[Lungi Ngidi]]''' {{dagger}} || {{cr|SA}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|1996|3|29|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[fast bowling|fast-medium]] || {{INRConvert|1|c|lk=on}} || Overseas; withdrawn{{Efn|name=Ngidi|[[Blessing Muzarabani]] replaced [[Lungi Ngidi]], after the latter withdrew due to national duty.<ref name=tr2>{{Cite web |date=May 19, 2025 |title=Kolkata Knight Riders and Royal Challengers Bengaluru pick player replacements |url=https://www.iplt20.com/news/4215/kolkata-knight-riders-and-royal-challengers-bengaluru-pick-player-replacements |website=[[IPLT20.com]] |access-date=18 August 2025 |archive-date=15 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250615175329/https://www.iplt20.com/news/4215/kolkata-knight-riders-and-royal-challengers-bengaluru-pick-player-replacements |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
| 37 || '''[[Devdutt Padikkal]]''' {{dagger}} || {{cr|IND}} || {{Birth date and age2|2025|3|22|2000|7|7|df=y}} || Left-handed || Right-arm [[off-break]] || {{INRConvert|2|c|lk=on}} || Withdrawn{{Efn|name=Padikkal|[[Mayank Agarwal]] replaced [[Devdutt Padikkal]], after the latter withdrew due to right hamstring injury.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 May 2025 |title=Mayank Agarwal returns to Royal Challengers Bengaluru as Devdutt Padikkal's replacement |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/mayank-agarwal-returns-to-royal-challengers-bengaluru-as-devdutt-padikkals-replacement-101746636955853.html |access-date=11 May 2025 |work=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>}}
|}
{{notelist|refs=
{{Efn|name=TempRep|[[Royal Challengers Bengaluru]] signed [[Tim Seifert]]<ref name=tr1/> and [[Blessing Muzarabani]]<ref name=tr2/> as temporary replacements, following the IPL's [[2025 Indian Premier League#Suspension and rescheduling|suspension and rescheduling]].<ref>{{cite web |date=30 October 2024 |title=IPL to allow temporary replacements for last leg of 2025 season |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-to-allow-franchises-sign-temporary-replacement-players-for-last-leg-of-2025-season-1485918 |access-date=23 May 2025 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref>}}
}}

== Support staff ==
Former player [[Dinesh Karthik]] joined the squad as batting coach and mentor following his retirement in the [[2024 Royal Challengers Bengaluru season|previous season]] replacing [[Neil McKenzie]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dinesh Karthik named RCB batting coach and mentor|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-karthik-named-royal-challengers-bengaluru-batting-coach-and-mentor-1441786|date=2024-07-01|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=18 November 2024|archive-date=3 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240703215228/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ipl-karthik-named-royal-challengers-bengaluru-batting-coach-and-mentor-1441786|url-status=live}}</ref> while [[Omkar Salvi]] replaced [[Adam Griffith]] as bowling coach.<ref name=salvi>{{cite web|url=https://m.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/132462/rcb-sign-omkar-salvi-as-mens-bowling-coach-for-ipl-2025|title=RCB sign Omkar Salvi as men's bowling coach for IPL 2025|date=18 November 2024|publisher=[[Cricbuzz]]|language=en|access-date=15 April 2025|archive-date=16 January 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260116201246/https://m.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/132462/rcb-sign-omkar-salvi-as-mens-bowling-coach-for-ipl-2025|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Position || Name
|-
| Head coach || [[Andy Flower]]
|-
| Assistant coach || [[Richard Halsall]]
|-
| Batting coach and mentor || [[Dinesh Karthik]]
|-
| Bowling coach || [[Omkar Salvi]] [[Malolan Rangarajan]]
|-
| Fielding coach || [[Rajiv Kumar (cricketer)|Rajiv Kumar]]
|}
* Source: ''Wisden''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-18 |title=IPL 2025: Who Are The Captains And Coaching Staff Of Each Team? |url=https://www.wisden.com/series/ipl-2025/cricket-news/ipl-2025-who-are-the-captains-and-coaching-staff-of-each-team |access-date=2025-04-10 |website=Wisden |language=en |archive-date=21 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250621155521/https://www.wisden.com/series/ipl-2025/cricket-news/ipl-2025-who-are-the-captains-and-coaching-staff-of-each-team |url-status=live}}</ref>

== League stage ==
Royal Challengers Bengaluru began their season with two wins against [[Kolkata Knight Riders]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-03-22 |title=KKR vs RCB LIVE score, IPL 2025 Highlights: Royal Challengers Bengaluru beats Kolkata Knight Riders by 7 wickets |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/indian-premier-league-2025-kolkata-knight-riders-vs-royal-challengers-bengaluru/article69361066.ece |access-date=2026-04-11 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> and [[Chennai Super Kings]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/ipl-2025-1449924/chennai-super-kings-vs-royal-challengers-bengaluru-8th-match-1473445/match-report|title=Patidar, bowlers lead RCB to first win over CSK in Chennai since 2008|date=28 March 2025|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=10 April 2026}}</ref> They lost to [[Gujarat Titans]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=IPL 2025 LIVE: RCB vs GT - cricket score, radio commentary & updates |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/live/cdjy4v4e2jet |access-date=2026-04-11 |work=[[BBC Sport]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> won against [[Mumbai Indians]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/ipl-2025-1449924/mumbai-indians-vs-royal-challengers-bengaluru-20th-match-1473458/match-report|title=Kohli, Patidar and Krunal star as RCB end ten-year Wankhede jinx|date=7 April 2025|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=11 April 2026}}</ref> lost to [[Delhi Capitals]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Highlights: Royal Challengers Bengaluru vs Delhi Capitals, IPL 2025 Match 24 - Result, Scorecard |url=https://indianexpress.com/section/sports/cricket/live-score/rcb-vs-dc-live-score-full-scorecard-highlights-ipl-2025-match-24-royal-challengers-bengaluru-vs-delhi-capitals-bcdd04102025257238/ |access-date=2026-04-11 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> won against [[Rajasthan Royals]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-13 |title=RR vs RCB Highlights, IPL 2025: Kohli, Salt fifties guide Royal Challengers Bengaluru to comfortable win over Rajasthan Royals |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/ipl/ipl-news/rr-vs-rcb-live-score-ipl-2025-rajasthan-royals-royal-challengers-bengaluru-april-13-updates-highlights-streaming-info/article69445657.ece |access-date=2026-03-25 |work=[[Sportstar]] |language=en}}</ref> and lost to [[Punjab Kings]].<ref name="M34">{{Cite web |title=Royal Challengers Bengaluru vs Punjab Kings, 34th Match, Indian Premier League 2025 |url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-match-highlights/115174/rcb-vs-pbks-34th-match-indian-premier-league-2025 |access-date=2026-04-11 |language=en |publisher=[[Cricbuzz]]}}</ref> Bengaluru won their next four matches against Punjab,<ref name="M37">{{Cite web |title=Punjab Kings vs Royal Challengers Bengaluru, 37th Match, Indian Premier League 2025 |url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-match-highlights/115192/pbks-vs-rcb-37th-match-indian-premier-league-2025 |access-date=2026-04-11 |language=en |publisher=[[Cricbuzz]]}}</ref> Rajasthan,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/ipl-2025-1449924/royal-challengers-bengaluru-vs-rajasthan-royals-42nd-match-1473479/match-report|title=Kohli and Hazlewood break RCB's home duck as RR botch another chase|date=23 March 2025|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=1 May 2025|archive-date=29 April 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250429041658/https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/ipl-2025-1449924/royal-challengers-bengaluru-vs-rajasthan-royals-42nd-match-1473479/match-report|url-status=live}}</ref> Delhi<ref>{{Cite web |title=DC vs RCB IPL 2025 Match 46 live scores, results and updates |url=https://www.rajasthanroyals.com/schedule-fixtures-results/delhi-capitals-vs-royal-challengers-bengaluru-ddbc04272025257260 |access-date=2026-04-11 |publisher=[[Rajasthan Royals]] |language=en}}</ref> and Chennai.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/ipl-2025-1449924/royal-challengers-bengaluru-vs-chennai-super-kings-52nd-match-1473489/match-report|title=Dayal trumps CSK in last over again to take RCB to the top|date=3 May 2025|access-date=10 April 2026|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref> Their twelfth match against Kolkata was abandoned due to rain.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-05-17 |title=IPL 2025: Rain forces abandonment of RCB’s match against KKR |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/rcb-kkr-match-bengaluru/article69587921.ece |access-date=2026-04-11 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> They lost to [[Sunrisers Hyderabad]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/ipl-2025/royal-challengers-bengaluru-vs-sunrisers-hyderabad-live-score-rcb-vs-srh-live-updates-ipl-2025-cricket-match-8489089 |title=Royal Challengers Bengaluru vs Sunrisers Hyderabad Highlights, IPL 2025: Ishan Kishan Shines As SRH Dent RCB's Top-Two Hopes With 42-Run Win |date=23 May 2025 |access-date=11 April 2026 |work=[[NDTV Sports]]}}</ref> and won against [[Lucknow Super Giants]];<ref>{{Cite web |title=IPL 2025 LIVE: LSG vs RCB - score & radio commentary |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/live/c0r11zydrg0t |access-date=2026-04-11 |work=[[BBC Sport]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> to finish the league stage in second place with nine wins from 14 matches, and advanced to the qualifier 1 in the playoffs.<ref name="pts"/><ref name="IPL"/> They also became the first IPL team to win all away games in a season.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-27 |title=LSG vs RCB, IPL 2025: Royal Challengers Bengaluru becomes first team to win all away league stage matches |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/ipl/ipl-news/rcb-record-wins-all-away-games-ipl-history-royal-challengers-bengaluru-vs-lucknow-super-giants/article69626722.ece |access-date=2025-05-27 |work=[[Sportstar]] |language=en |archive-date=28 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250528231141/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/ipl/ipl-news/rcb-record-wins-all-away-games-ipl-history-royal-challengers-bengaluru-vs-lucknow-super-giants/article69626722.ece |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Points table ===
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|pt}}

=== League progression ===
{{#invoke:IndianPremierLeagueProgression | create

| W1, W8, L14, W20, L24, W28, L34, W37, W42, W46, W52, N58, L65, W70 | W71, U, W74

| caption = League progression<ref name="pts"/>
| teams = {{IPL Teams 1|rcb}}
| knockoutType = 2
| matchesPerTeam = 14
| matchReportArticle = }}

=== Fixtures ===
{{hatnote|All times are in [[Indian Standard Time]] ([[UTC+05:30]])}}
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match1}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match8}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match14}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match20}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match24}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match28}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match34}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match37}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match42}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match46}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match52}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match58}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match65}}
----
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match70}}

== Playoffs ==
=== Bracket ===
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|bracket}}
=== Qualifier 1 ===
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match71}}
=== Final ===
{{Main|2025 Indian Premier League final}}
{{#section:2025 Indian Premier League|match74}}

== Statistics ==
[[File:Virat Kohli in PMO New Delhi.jpg|thumb|alt=Virat Kohli in 2024|[[Virat Kohli]] scored the most runs (657) for [[Royal Challengers Bengaluru]] in the [[2025 Indian Premier League]].]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Most runs<ref name="mr">{{ESPNcricinfo 2|tournament|id=indian-premier-league-2025-16622|title=2025 Indian Premier League|stat=most runs|access-date=3 June 2025|dynamic=n|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250627053138/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/batting-most-runs-career/indian-premier-league-2025-16622|archive-date=27 June 2025}}</ref>
! scope=col | [[Run (cricket)|Runs]]
! scope=col | Player
|-
! scope=row | 657
| [[Virat Kohli]]
|-
! scope=row | 403
| [[Phil Salt]]
|-
! scope=row | 312
| [[Rajat Patidar]]
|-
! scope=row | 261
| [[Jitesh Sharma]]
|-
! scope=row | 247
| [[Devdutt Padikkal]]
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Most wickets<ref name="mw">{{ESPNcricinfo 2|tournament|id=indian-premier-league-2025-16622|title=2025 Indian Premier League|stat=most wickets|access-date=3 June 2025|dynamic=n|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250627053137/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/bowling-most-wickets-career/indian-premier-league-2025-16622|archive-date=27 June 2025}}</ref>
! scope=col | [[Wicket]]s
! scope=col | Player
|-
! scope=row | 22
| [[Josh Hazlewood]]
|-
! scope=row | 17
| [[Krunal Pandya]]
|-
! scope=row | 17
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]
|-
! scope=row | 13
| [[Yash Dayal]]
|-
! scope=row | 8
| [[Suyash Sharma]]
|}

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="sch-chng1">[[#sch1|Original 2025 IPL Schedule]] vs [[#sch3|Revised 2025 IPL Schedule]]</ref>
<ref name="res-po">{{Cite web |date=20 May 2025 |title=Schedule for TATA IPL 2025 Playoffs announced |url=https://www.iplt20.com/news/4221/schedule-for-tata-ipl-2025-playoffs-announced |access-date=24 May 2025 |website=[[IPLT20.com]] |archive-date=28 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250528125453/https://www.iplt20.com/news/4221/schedule-for-tata-ipl-2025-playoffs-announced |url-status=live}}</ref>
</references>
=== General references ===
* {{anchor|sch1}}{{Cite journal |date=2025-02-16 |title=IPL Season Schedule 2025 |url=https://documents.iplt20.com/smart-images/1739621485265_IPL%20Season%20Schedule%202025-1.pdf |journal=Indian Premier League Schedule |publisher=[[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] |volume=18 |issue=1}}
* {{anchor|sch3}}{{Cite journal |date=2025-05-12 |title=IPL Season Schedule 2025 |url=https://scores.iplt20.com/TATA%20IPL%202025%20Season%20Schedule.pdf |journal=Indian Premier League Schedule |publisher=[[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] |volume=18 |issue=3}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://royalchallengers.com/}}
* [https://www.iplt20.com/teams/royal-challengers-bengaluru Royal Challengers Bengaluru on IPLT20 website]
* {{ESPNcricinfo 2|series|id=ipl-2025-1449924|title=2025 Indian Premier League}}

{{Royal Challengers Bengaluru}}
{{2025 Indian Premier League}}

[[Category:2025 Indian Premier League|Royal Challengers Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Royal Challengers Bengaluru seasons]]

South Malegaon - Nandgao North Assembly constituency

2026-04-09T18:29:15Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: done

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = South Malegaon - Nandgao North
| type= SLA
| state = Maharashtra
| established = 1951 <ref name="delimitation1951">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3968-dpaco-1951/ |title=DPACO (1951) - Archive Delimitation Orders - Election Commission of India |access-date= 9 December 2020 |pages=344-357}}</ref>
| abolished = 1955 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - Final Order DC (1953-1955) |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| electors = 59,790
| mla = Hiray Bhausaheb Sakharam
| party = {{Party index link|Indian National Congress}}
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation = None
}}
South Malegaon - Nandgao North Assembly constituency was an assembly constituency in the [[India]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]].
==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Hiray Bhausaheb Sakharam || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : South Malegaon - Nandgao North <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Hiray Bhausaheb Sakharam |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 24,077 |percentage = 65.66% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pawar Kautik Anand |party = Socialist Party (India, 1948) |votes = 8,449 |percentage = 23.04% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pardeshi Dodhusinha Nathu |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,141 |percentage = 11.29% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 15,628 |percentage = 42.62% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 36,667 |percentage = 61.33% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 36,667}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 59,790 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]][[Constituencies established in 1951]]
{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}
{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

Deepak Khandekar

2026-04-09T02:56:21Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: made basic page added tags

{{Short description|Indian Administrative Service officer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| office = Personnel Secretary (India)
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1961|08|05}}
| years_active =
| occupation = [[Bureaucrat]]
| citizenship = [[India]]
| birth_place =
| education = BE, Civil Engineering
| alma_mater = [[National Institute of Technology, Raipur]]
| known_for =
| caption =
| image = The Secretary, Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Shri Deepak Khandekar visiting after inaugurating the “Aadi Mahotsav” a window to tribal commerce - an exhibition to showcase tribal handicrafts for sale made by artisans invited.JPG
| name = Deepak Khandekar
| successor = S. Radha Chauhan
| predecessor = C. Chandramouli
| term_end = 31 August 2021
| term_start = 25 January 2021
| awards =
}}
'''Deepak Khandekar''' is retired [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]] Officer (1985) of [[Madhya Pradesh]] Cadre. He is former [[Personnel Secretary (India)]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Several Secretary-level officers get new postings in bureaucratic reshuffle |url=https://www.netindian.in/news/people/several-secretary-level-officers-get-new-postings-in-bureaucratic-reshuffle |website=NetIndian |publisher=NetIndian |access-date=24 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-12|title=Deepak Khandekar IAS given addl charge as Secretary- Social Justice & Empowerment {{!}} Indian Bureaucracy is an Exclusive News Portal|url=https://www.indianbureaucracy.com/deepak-khandekar-ias-given-addl-charge-as-secretary-social-justice-empowerment/|access-date=2020-06-15|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Network|first=Elets News|date=2019-11-13|title=Deepak Khandekar additional charge as Secretary, Social Justice and Empowerment|url=https://egov.eletsonline.com/2019/11/deepak-khandekar-additional-charge-as-secretary-social-justice-and-empowerment/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=eGov Magazine|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Centre to hold review meeting of states on Forest Rights Act|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/feb/23/centre-to-hold-review-meeting-of-states-on-forest-rights-act-2107441.html|access-date=2020-06-15|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

== Education ==
Khandekar is a graduate from [[National Institute of Technology, Raipur]].{{fact|date=March 2023}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khandekar, Deepak}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:National Institute of Technology, Raipur alumni]]
[[Category:Indian government officials]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Kerala

2026-03-29T16:09:11Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: minor correct intro for accuracy further and corrected details

{{Short description|State in southwestern India}}
{{About|the Indian state}}
{{Good article}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox Indian state or territory
| name = Kerala
| official_name =
| type = State
| image_seal = Government of Kerala Logo.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert
| image_skyline =  Boathouse (7063399547).jpg
| image_caption = A [[houseboat]] in the [[Kerala backwaters]]
| nickname = "[[God's Own Country#Kerala|God's Own Country]]"
| image_map = IN-KL.svg
| coordinates = {{coord|10.0|N|76.3|E|region:IN-KL|display=inline,title}}
| region = South India
| before_was = [[Travancore–Cochin]] [[Malabar district]] [[South Canara]]
| formation_date4 = 1 November 1956
| capital = Thiruvananthapuram
| districts = [[List of districts of Kerala|14]]
| Governor = [[Rajendra Arlekar]]
| Chief_Minister = [[Pinarayi Vijayan]]
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]]
| judiciary = [[Kerala High Court]]
| Chief_secretary = A. Jayathilak
| legislature_type = Unicameral
| assembly = [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]
| assembly_seats = 140 seats
| rajya_sabha_seats = 9 seats
| lok_sabha_seats = 20 seats
| area_total_km2 = 38863
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |title=About Kerala
|url=https://kerala.gov.in/subdetail/NTM1ODMxNzQuNDg=/MjA0ODc2ODQuMzY= |access-date=10 March 2025 |language=en-US }}</ref>
| area_rank = 21st
| length_km = 560
| width_km = 70
| elevation_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala Physiography {{!}} Geographical location {{!}} Kerala {{!}} Kerala |url=https://kerala.me/geography |access-date=24 March 2023 |language=en-US |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324220056/https://kerala.me/geography |url-status=live }}</ref>
| elevation_m = 900
| elevation_max_m = 2,695
| elevation_max_point = [[Anamudi]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anamudi – Peakbagger.com |url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10664 |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=www.peakbagger.com |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324210042/https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=10664 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| elevation_min_m = −2.7
| elevation_min_point = [[Kuttanad]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kuttanadan.com : Explore the Rice Bowl of Kerala |url=https://kuttanadan.com/ |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=Kuttanadan Website |language=en-US |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324210043/https://kuttanadan.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_footnotes = <ref>{{cite book | url=https://ruralindiaonline.org/en/library/resource/population-projections-for-india-and-states-2011-2036/ | title=Population Projections for India and States, 2011–2036 | date=July 2020 | access-date=25 March 2023 | archive-date=13 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313055356/https://ruralindiaonline.org/en/library/resource/population-projections-for-india-and-states-2011-2036/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_total = 36,111,000
| population_as_of = 2025
| population_rank = 13th
| population_urban = 79.42%
| population_rural = 20.58%
| population_density = 890
| population_demonym = [[Keralite]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/feb/25/india-state-kerala-to-be-renamed-keralam-malayalam-language|title=Indian state of Kerala to be renamed Keralam to reflect local pronunciation|first=Penelope|last=MacRae|date=25 February 2026|via=The Guardian}}</ref> [[Malayalis|Malayali]]
| 0fficial_Langs = Malayalam, English<ref name="langoff">{{Cite web |date=29 May 2025 |title=President Withholds Assent to Kerala Government's Malayalam Language Bill |url=https://thewire.in/government/president-withholds-assent-to-kerala-governments-malayalam-language-bill |access-date=24 June 2025 |website=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]]}}</ref>
| GDP_footnotes = <ref name="MOSPI">{{cite web|url=http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls|title=MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India|date=15 March 2021|accessdate=28 March 2021}}</ref>
| GDP_total = {{Increase}} $167.90 billion (nominal) {{Increase}} $707.26 billion (PPP)
| GDP_year = 2025-26
| GDP_rank = 11th
| GDP_per_capita = {{Increase}} {{INRConvert|317723|lk=r}} (nominal) {{Increase}} $19,586 (PPP)
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 11th
| HDI = {{Increase}} 0.758 {{colour|#090|High}}<ref>{{cite web |title=India: Subnational HDI |url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/table/shdi/IND/ |website=Global Data Labs |access-date=8 June 2025}}</ref>
| HDI_year = 2022
| HDI_rank = 2nd
| literacy = 95.3%<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication_reports/AnnualReport_PLFS2023-24L2.pdf |title=Annual Report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) (July 2023 – June 2024) |date=23 September 2024 |publisher=National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India |pages=A-10 |chapter=Appendix-A: Detailed tables, Table (7): Literacy rate (in per cent) of persons of different age groups for each State/UT (persons, age-group (years): 7 & above, rural+urban (column 6))}}</ref>
| literacy_year = 2024
| literacy_rank = 4th
| sex_ratio = 1084[[female|♀]]/1000 [[male|♂]]<ref name="pc-census2011" />
| sexratio_year = 2025
| sexratio_rank = 17th
| iso_code = IN-KL
| registration_plate = KL
| website = kerala.gov.in
| foundation_day = 1 November
| mammal = [[Indian elephant]]<ref name="ENVIS">{{Cite web |date=1 December 2017 |title=State Symbols of India |url=http://wiienvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/state_symbols_india_8411.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415100206/http://wiienvis.nic.in/KidsCentre/state_symbols_india_8411.aspx |archive-date=15 April 2021 |access-date=3 June 2022 |publisher=ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas}}</ref>
| bird = [[Great hornbill]]<ref name="ENVIS" />
| fish = [[Green chromide]]
| butterfly = [[Papilio buddha]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jacob |first=Aneesh |title='Budha Mayoori' to be named Kerala's state butterfly |language=en |work=Mathrubhumi |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/technology/science/budha-mayoori-to-be-named-kerala-s-state-butterfly-1.3305480 |url-status=dead |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330094056/https://english.mathrubhumi.com/technology/science/budha-mayoori-to-be-named-kerala-s-state-butterfly-1.3305480 |archive-date=30 March 2019}}</ref>
| flower = [[Cassia fistula|Golden shower tree]]<ref name="ENVIS" />
| tree = [[Coconut]] Tree<ref name="ENVIS" />
| fruit = [[Jackfruit]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 March 2018 |title=Jackfruit to be Kerala's state fruit; declaration on March 21 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]] |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/jackfruit-to-be-keralas-state-fruit-declaration-on-march-21-5101170/ |access-date=22 March 2018 |archive-date=22 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322144926/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/jackfruit-to-be-keralas-state-fruit-declaration-on-march-21-5101170/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| image_highway = SH IN-KL.png
| SH_numbers = [[List of state highways in Kerala|SH KL1 – SH KL79]]
}}

'''Kerala'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|lang|ˈ|k|ɛr|ə|l|ə|audio=Kerala (English Pronunciation).ogg}} {{respell|KERR|ə|lə}}, {{IPA|ml|ˈkeːɾɐɭɐm|lang|Ml-Keralam.ogg}} ''[[ISO 15919|Kēraḷam]]''}} is an [[India|Indian]] state on the [[Malabar Coast]]. It was formed on 1 November 1956 under the [[States Reorganisation Act]], which unified the country's [[Malayalam]]-speaking regions into a single state. Covering {{cvt|38863|km2|sqmi|0}}, it is bordered by [[Karnataka]] to the north and northeast, [[Tamil Nadu]] to the east and south, and the [[Laccadive Sea]] to the west. With 33 million inhabitants according to the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], Kerala is the [[List of states of India by population|13th-most populous state in India]]. It is divided into [[List of districts of Kerala|14 districts]], with [[Thiruvananthapuram]] as the capital. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and, along with English, serves as an official language of the state.

Kerala has been a prominent exporter of spices since 3000 [[Common Era|BCE]]. The [[Chera dynasty]], the first major kingdom in the region, rose to prominence through maritime commerce but often faced invasions from the neighbouring [[Chola]] and [[Pandya]] dynasties. In the 15th century, the [[spice trade]] attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, initiating [[Colonial India|European colonisation]] in India.

After [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]] in 1947, [[Travancore]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] acceded to the newly formed republic and were merged in 1949 to form the state of [[Travancore-Cochin]]. In 1956, the modern state of Kerala was formed by merging the [[Malabar district]], Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern [[taluk]]s), and the [[Kasargod]] taluk of [[South Kanara]].

Kerala has the highest [[Human Development Index]], at 0.784 in 2018; the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in 2018; the highest life expectancy, at 77.3 years; and the highest [[sex ratio]], with 1,084 women per 1,000 men and the lowest positive population growth rate in India (3.44%). It is the [[List of Indian states and union territories by poverty rate|least impoverished]] and the [[Urbanisation in India|second-most urbanised]] state in the country. The state has witnessed significant emigration, particularly to the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]] during the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom|Gulf Boom]] of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy relies heavily on remittances from a large [[Malayali]] expatriate population. Hinduism is practised by more than [[Religion in Kerala|54% of the population]], followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of [[Aryan]] and [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] traditions, shaped over millennia by influences from across India and abroad.

The production of [[black pepper]] and [[natural rubber]] contributes significantly to the national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices are important crops. The state has a coastline of {{convert|595|km|mi}}, and 1.1 million people depend on the fishing industry, which accounts for around 3% of the state's income. The economy is largely service sector oriented, while the primary sector contributes a comparatively smaller share. Kerala has the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]], with newspapers published in nine languages, primarily Malayalam and English.

Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by [[National Geographic Traveler]], Kerala is one of the prominent [[Tourism in Kerala|tourist destinations]] of India, with [[Beaches in Kerala|coconut-lined sandy beaches]], [[Kerala Backwaters|backwaters]], [[hill station]]s, [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic tourism]] and [[tropical]] greenery as its major attractions. The state has been repeatedly recognised in international travel rankings for its natural landscape and cultural heritage.

== Etymology ==
The word ''Kerala'' is first recorded as ''Keralaputo'' ('son of [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya emperor]] [[Ashoka]] (274–237 BCE), one of [[Edicts of Ashoka|his edicts]] pertaining to welfare.<ref>{{Cite book |last=P. C. Alexander |title=Buddhism in Kerala |pages=23}}</ref> At that time, one of three states in the region was called [[Chera Dynasty|{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Cheralam}}]] in Classical Tamil: {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Chera}} and {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Kera}} are variants of the same word.<ref name="Sainz1972">{{Cite book |last=Nicasio Silverio Sainz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOEBAAAAMAAJ |title=Cuba y la Casa de Austria |publisher=Ediciones Universal |year=1972 |page=120 |access-date=6 January 2013}}</ref> The word {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Cheral}} refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the [[Old Tamil]] word for 'lake'.<ref name="Marr1985">{{Cite book |last=John R. Marr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3gOAAAAYAAJ |title=The Eight Anthologies: A Study in Early Tamil Literature |publisher=Institute of Asian Studies |year=1985 |page=263}}</ref> {{transliteration|ta|ISO|Keralam}} may stem from the Classical [[Tamil language|Tamil]] {{transliteration|ta|ISO|cherive-alam}} 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'<ref name="AlexDeborah2014">{{Cite book |last1=Rayson K. Alex |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1swxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226 |title=Culture and Media: Ecocritical Explorations |last2=S. Susan Deborah |last3=Sachindev P.S. |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4438-6190-8 |page=226}}</ref> or {{transliteration|ta|ISO|chera alam}} 'land of the Cheras'. One [[folk etymology]] derives ''Kerala'' from the [[Malayalam]] word {{transliteration|ml|ISO|kera}} 'coconut tree' and {{transliteration|ml|ISO|alam}} 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',<ref name="Sadasivan2000">{{Cite book |last=S. N. Sadasivan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Be3PCvzf-BYC&pg=PA101 |title=A Social History of India |publisher=APH Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-8176481700 |page=101}}</ref> which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.<ref name="PreedyWatson2011">{{Cite book |last1=Victor R. Preedy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C6lYoH8rwywC&pg=PT400 |title=Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention |last2=Ronald Ross Watson |last3=Vinood B. Patel |publisher=Academic Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-12-375689-3 |page=400}}</ref> Kerala was alternatively called ''[[Malabar Coast|Malabar]]'' in the [[Indian Ocean trade|foreign trade circles]]. From the time of [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] (6th century CE) itself, the [[Arabs|Arab]] sailors used to call Kerala ''Male''.{{citation needed|date=October 2025}}
=== Keralam ===
There have been long-standing demands for changing the name to Keralam, the [[Malayalam]] name of the state. Officially, the state's name in [[Malayalam]] is 'Keralam' (കേരളം), while its English name is 'Kerala'.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vineeth |first=T. K. |date=2026-03-07 |title=KERALA-M: What's in a name? |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/explainers/2026/Mar/07/kerala-m-whats-in-a-name |access-date=2026-03-13 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Renaming Kerala: Modi Hails Kerala's New Name Keralam |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/kerala/rightful-name-as-per-malayali-culture-pm-modi-praises-renaming-of-kerala-to-keralam-3927718 |access-date=2026-03-13 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] passed a unanimous resolution in June 2024 to change the state's name from 'Kerala' to 'Keralam', following an earlier unanimous resolution in August 2023. [[Chief Minister of Kerala|Chief Minister]] [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] had moved both resolutions, which sought to amend the state's name under Article 3 of the Constitution to reflect its [[Malayali]] identity.<ref name="auto1">{{cite web | last=TNIE online desk | first=Agencies | title=Ahead of polls, Union Cabinet approves Kerala's renaming to 'Keralam' | website=The New Indian Express | date=2026-02-24 | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2026/Feb/24/union-cabinet-approves-keralas-renaming-to-keralam-ahead-of-polls | access-date=2026-02-24}}</ref>

The [[Third Modi ministry|Union Cabinet]] approved this proposal on February 24, 2026. Following Cabinet approval, the [[President of India]] will refer the Kerala (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2026 to the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|State Legislative Assembly]] for expressing its views under the proviso to Article 3 of the Constitution of India.<ref name="auto">{{cite web | title=Kerala will now be called Keralam | website=India Today | date=2026-02-24 | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/union-cabinet-approves-proposal-renaming-kerala-to-keralam-2873528-2026-02-24 | access-date=2026-02-24}}</ref>

After the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]]'s approval, this bill will be introduced in the [[Parliament of India]] and if passed, the state's name will officially become Keralam.

== History ==
{{Main|History of Kerala}}

=== Legend ===
[[File:Parshuramsaraswats.jpg|thumb|A painting depicting [[Parashurama]], surrounded by settlers, commanding [[Varuna]] (the [[Hindu]] god of water) to part the seas]]

In stories of the [[Dashavatara]] from [[Hindu]] mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage [[Parashurama]], the sixth [[avatar]] (incarnation) of [[Vishnu]]. As a result, Kerala is traditionally referred to as ''Parashurama Kshetram'' ("The Land of Parashurama").<ref>S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006) "Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: Volume 14.", p.18</ref> According to legend, Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded to the point where it landed. This land that emerged extended from [[Gokarna, Karnataka|Gokarna]] to [[Kanyakumari]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Aiya VN |title=The Travancore State Manual|publisher=Travancore Government Press |pages=210–212 |year=1906 |accessdate=12 November 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdzaPW-kEvQC}}</ref> The land that emerged was saline and uninhabitable, so Parashurama invoked the snake king [[Vasuki]], who spat holy poison to purify the soil, transforming it into fertile land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as guardians of the land. The legend was expanded and codified in the 17th or 18th century text ''[[Keralolpathi]]''. It links the origin of early Kerala institutions{{mdash}}such as land tenure and administration{{mdash}}to Parashurama's story.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. T. Narayanan|title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHtbkuXruzwC&pg=PA17|accessdate=28 July 2012|date=1 January 2003|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-135-9|pages=16–18}}</ref> In medieval times, the [[Chera]] king [[Chenkuttuvan]] may have emulated the Parashurama tradition by throwing his spear into the sea to symbolise his lordship over it.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Srinivisa Iyengar |first=P. T. |title=History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=1929 |isbn=978-8120601451 |location=Madras |page=515}}</ref>

A prominent [[Puranic]] figure associated with Kerala is [[Mahabali]], an [[asura]] and archetypal just king who is said to have ruled the earth from Kerala. He defeated the [[deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s in battle, driving them into exile. In response, the devas appealed to Vishnu, who assumed his fifth avatar as [[Vamana]] and, to restore order, pushed Mahabali down to [[Patala]] (the netherworld). According to popular belief, Mahabali returns to Kerala once a year, which is commemorated as the [[Onam]] festival.<ref name="Rinehart2004">{{cite book|author=Robin Rinehart|title=Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMPYnfS_R90C&pg=PA146|accessdate=28 July 2012|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-905-8|page=146}}</ref> The ''[[Matsya Purana]]'', one of the oldest among the 18 [[Puranas]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Goldberg|first=Ellen|title=The Lord who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xUhlxBozntoC&pg=PA20|year=2002|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5325-4|page=20|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kemmerer|first=Lisa|title=Animals and World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iFEL2yjkbAAC&pg=PA78|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-991255-1|page=78|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> situates the story of [[Matsya]]{{mdash}}the first avatar of Vishnu{{mdash}}and king [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]], the first man and ruler of the region{{mdash}}in the [[Malaya Mountains]] of Kerala and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA250|year=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=250|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Ragozin|first=Zenaide A.|title=Vedic India As Embodied Principally in the Rig-veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T16d-eRG5VkC&pg=PA341|year=2005|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4179-4463-7|page=341|accessdate=21 March 2013}}</ref>

=== Pre-history ===
[[File:MarayoorDolmen.JPG|thumb|A [[dolmen]] erected by Neolithic people in [[Marayur]]]]

A substantial portion of present-day Kerala is believed to have been submerged under the sea in ancient times. The discovery of marine fossils near Changanassery supports this hypothesis.<ref name="Menon2007">{{cite book|author=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA20|accessdate=27 July 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=20–21}}</ref> Prehistoric archaeological discoveries in Kerala include [[Neolithic]]-era [[dolmen]]s in the [[Marayur]] region of the Idukki district, locally known as ''muniyara''{{mdash}}from ''muni'' (hermit or sage) and ''ara'' (dolmen).<ref name="Unlocking the secrets of history">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/12/06/stories/2004120604900300.htm | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Unlocking the secrets of history | date=6 December 2004 | accessdate= 12 November 2015}}</ref> Rock engravings in the [[Edakkal caves]] in [[Wayanad]] date back to the Neolithic period, around 6000 BCE.<ref name="Kapoor2002">{{cite book|author=Subodh Kapoor|title=The Indian Encyclopaedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxIpYtnyzu4C&pg=PA2184|accessdate=1 August 2012|date=1 July 2002|publisher=Cosmo Publications|isbn=978-81-7755-257-7|page=2184}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Travel and Tourism|url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3792:travel-and-tourism&catid=271:about-kerala&Itemid=2267|website=kerala.gov.in|publisher=Government of Kerala|accessdate=12 November 2015}}</ref> Archaeological studies have identified [[Mesolithic]], Neolithic and [[Megalithic]] sites throughout the region.<ref name="AroraSingh116">{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|page=116}}</ref> These findings indicate that the development of early Kerala society and culture began in the [[Paleolithic|Paleolithic Age]] and progressed through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic periods.<ref name="google">{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|pages=118, 123}}</ref> Foreign cultural interactions also played a role in shaping this development;<ref name="AroraSingh1999">{{cite book|author1=Udai Prakash Arora|author2=A. K. Singh|title=Currents in Indian History, Art, and Archaeology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFROamyZS7IC&pg=PA122|accessdate=6 October 2012|date=1 January 1999|publisher=Anamika Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-86565-44-5|page=123}}</ref> some historians suggest possible connections with the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] during the late [[Bronze Age]] and early [[Iron Age]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/article26324.ece | work=The Hindu | title=Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Kerala | date=29 September 2009 |accessdate= 12 November 2015}}</ref>

=== Ancient history ===
[[File:Silk route copy.jpg|thumb|225px|[[Silk Road]] map. The spice trade was along the water routes (blue).]]

Kerala has been a major spice exporter since at least 3000 BCE, according to [[Sumer|Sumerian records]], and it is continues to be referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/of-kerala-egypt-and-the-spice-link/article5625620.ece | first = Kaavya | last = Pradeep Kumar | work=The Hindu | title=Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link | date=28 January 2014 | accessdate=12 November 2015}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC ''Striving for sustainability, environmental stress and democratic initiatives in Kerala''], p. 79; ISBN 81-8069-294-9, Srikumar Chattopadhyay, Richard W. Franke; Year: 2006.</ref><ref name="spiceHindu">{{Cite news |title=Route it through the seas |newspaper=The Hindu |date=December 2016 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/children/ROUTE-it-through-the-seas/article16735515.ece |access-date=2024-01-08 |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305035957/https://www.thehindu.com/children/ROUTE-it-through-the-seas/article16735515.ece |url-status=live |last1=Subramanian |first1=Archana }}</ref> The region's spices attracted ancient [[Babylonians]], [[Assyrians]], and [[Egyptians]] to the Malabar Coast during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. [[Arabs]] and [[Phoenicians]] also established trade links with Kerala during this period.<ref name="Menon57">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57|accessdate=10 October 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=57–58}}</ref> The land of Keralaputra was one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during the time of Emperor Ashoka, alongside the [[Chola Empire|Chola]], [[Pandya Empire|Pandya]], and [[Satiyaputras|Satiyaputra]] kingdoms.<ref name="SmithJackson2008">{{cite book|author1=Vincent A. Smith|author2=A. V. Williams Jackson|title=History of India, in Nine Volumes: Vol. II – From the Sixth Century BCE to the Mohammedan Conquest, Including the Invasion of Alexander the Great|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bP7DzXQBoM4C&pg=PA166|accessdate=1 August 2012|date=30 November 2008|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=978-1-60520-492-5|page=166}}</ref> Scholars generally identify Keralaputra as another name for the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], the earliest major dynasty based in Kerala.<ref name="The Cambridge Shorter History of India">{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA193|accessdate=10 October 2012|publisher=CUP Archive|page=193|id=GGKEY:2W0QHXZ7K40}}</ref><ref name="Dwivedi1994">{{cite book|author=Bhanwar Lal Dwivedi|title=Evolution of Education Thought in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idERT6Tg4MMC&pg=PA164|accessdate=10 October 2012|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-059-8|page=164}}</ref> These southern territories once shared a common language and cultural framework, within a region historically known as [[Tamilakam]].<ref>{{Cite book
| last=Kanakasabhai | first=V.
| title=The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VuvshP5_hg8C
| year=1997
| publisher=Asian Educational Services
| isbn=978-81-206-0150-5
| accessdate=16 June 2009}}</ref> While the Cheras governed most of what is now Kerala, the southern tip of the region fell under the control of the [[Pandyas]],<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book|author=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GW5Gx0HSXKUC&pg=PA385|accessdate=10 October 2012|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|page=385}}</ref> whose trading port is sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as [[Nelcynda]] (or Neacyndi).<ref name="Books.google.co.in">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQipbjusDyQC&dq=nelcynda&pg=PA301 |title=History of ancient geography – Google Books |author=James Oliver Thomson|publisher=Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1948|accessdate=30 July 2009|isbn=978-0-8196-0143-8|year=1948}}</ref> Later, control of the region alternated among the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas. The [[Ay kingdom|Ays]] and [[Ezhimala kingdom|Mushikas]] were two other dynasties of ancient Kerala, located to the south and north of the Chera territory, respectively.<ref name="Shashi1996">{{cite book|author=S. S. Shashi|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwswAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=10 October 2012|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-7041-859-7|page=1207}}</ref><ref name="Ramunny1993">{{cite book|author=Murkot Ramunny|title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA3|accessdate=10 October 2012|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-052-9|page=3}}</ref>

By the last centuries BCE, the coast had become an important hub for Greek and Roman trade, particularly in [[black pepper]]. The Cheras maintained commercial links with [[Ancient China]], [[West Asia]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], and the [[Roman Empire]]. In foreign trade records, the region was referred to as Male or [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1961/JSS_054_1c_Minattur_MalayaWhatsInAName.pdf | title=Malaya: What's in the name | publisher=siamese-heritage.org | accessdate=7 August 2012 | author=Joseph Minattur | page=1}}</ref> Principal ports of the time included [[Muziris]], Berkarai, and Nelcynda.<ref name="Kusuman">{{cite book |author=K. K. Kusuman |title=A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-7099-026-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |pages=1–2 |accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> The value of Rome's annual trade with Kerala has been estimated at around 50 million [[sesterces]].<ref>According to [[Pliny the Elder]], goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20131106031753/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html]</ref> Contemporary [[Sangam literature]] describes Roman ships arriving at Muziris, laden with gold in exchange for pepper. One of the earliest Western traders to navigate the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]], who made the voyage around 118 or 166 BCE under the patronage of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon|Ptolemy VIII]], king of the [[Hellenistic civilisation|Hellenistic]] [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] in Egypt. Roman establishments in the region's port cities{{mdash}}including a temple of [[Augustus]] and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers{{mdash}}are recorded in the ''[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]'', the only surviving map of the Roman ''[[cursus publicus]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Abraham Eraly|title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA246|accessdate=7 August 2012|date=1 December 2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-670-08478-4|pages=246–}}</ref><ref name="Iyengar_2001">{{cite book |author=Iyengar PTS |year=2001 |title=History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=81-206-0145-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |accessdate=29 December 2008}}</ref>

Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.<ref name="google2">{{cite book |author=Iyengar PTS |year=2001 |title=History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=81-206-0145-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC |pages=192–195 |accessdate=29 December 2008}}</ref> The Jewish connection with Kerala is believed to date back to 573 BCE.<ref name="Orpa Slapak">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=two%20millennia&f=true ''The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities''] by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. ISBN 965-278-179-7.</ref><ref name="Hillel1832">{{cite book|author=David D'Beth Hillel|title=The Travels of Rabbi David D'Beth Hillel: From Jerusalem, Through Arabia, Koordistan, Part of Persia, and India to Madras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5NeAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR9|year=1832|publisher=author|page=135}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Jews in India and the Far East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_v-nQEACAAJ|year=1976|publisher=Greenwood Press|pages=24–26 | isbn=978-0-8371-2615-9 }}</ref> Arab traders had links with Kerala from at least the 4th century BCE; [[Herodotus]] (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to Jews in Eden.<ref name="Kusuman"/> These Arab traders intermarried with local communities, leading to the formation of the Muslim [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]] community.<ref name="Dialogue">{{cite book |author=Rolland E. Miller |title=Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Perspectives and Encounters |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |year=1993 |isbn=978-81-208-1158-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6eHgNyNimoAC |page=50}}</ref> In the 4th century CE, some Christians migrated from [[Persia]] and joined the early [[Saint Thomas Christians|Syrian Christian]] community, which traces its origins to the evangelistic activities of [[Thomas the Apostle]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name="Erwin Fahlbusch">[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA#v=onepage&q=Muziris&f=true ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing - 2008. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-8028-2417-2.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Geoffrey Wainwright |title=The Oxford History Of Christian Worship |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-513886-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5VQUdZhx1gC |page=666 |accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> The term Mappila{{mdash}}originally an honorific applied to esteemed foreign visitors{{mdash}}later became associated with the descendants of Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigrants, leading to the terms [[Juda Mappila]]s, [[Saint Thomas Christians|Nasrani Mappila]]s, and [[Malabar Muslims|Muslim Mappila]]s, respectively.<ref name="BMalieckal">* Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Milton J, Skeat WW, Pollard AW, Brown L |title=The Indian Christians of St Thomas |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=31 August 1982 |isbn=0-521-21258-8 |page=171}}</ref> According to the traditions of these communities, some of the earliest religious establishments in India were built in Kerala.<ref name="Dialogue"/> These include the [[Saint Thomas Christian churches]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Susan Bayly |title=Saints, Goddesses and Kings |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-89103-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fxqtx8SflEsC |page=40 |accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> the [[Cheraman Juma Masjid]] (established in 629 CE), India's first mosque,<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7656-0104-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123 |accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> and the [[Paradesi Synagogue]] (built in 1568 CE), the oldest active synagogue in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Nathan Katz |title=Who Are the Jews of India? |publisher=University of California Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-520-21323-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWX6pF2PTJwC |page=245 |accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref>

=== Medieval period ===
[[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg|thumb|[[Tharisapalli plates]] granted to [[Saint Thomas Christians]] testify that merchant guilds and trade corporations played a very significant role in the economy and social life during the Kulasekhara period.]]
A [[Later Chera Dynasty|second Chera kingdom]] (c. 800–1102), also known as the Kulasekhara dynasty of [[Mahodayapuram]], was founded by [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Varman]] and governed over a territory comprising most of present-day Kerala and parts of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early phase of the Kulasekara period, the southern region{{mdash}}from [[Nagerkovil]] to [[Thiruvalla]]{{mdash}}was controlled by the [[Ays (Kerala)|Ay dynasty]]. By the 10th century, however, the Ays had lost their power, and the region was incorporated into the Kulashekara realm.<ref name="Balachand">{{cite book|author=K. Balachandran Nayar|title=In quest of Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXIeAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=8 August 2012|year=1974|publisher=Accent Publications|page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|accessdate=8 August 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=97}}</ref> Under Kulashekhara rule, Kerala experienced a flourishing period marked by developments in art, literature, trade, and the [[Bhakti movement]] within Hinduism.<ref name="Sreedhar123">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|accessdate=8 August 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=123–131}}</ref> It was during this time that a distinct Keralite identity began to emerge, separate from Tamil culture, particularly through linguistic differentiation.<ref name="AsherKumari1997">{{cite book|author1=R. E. Asher|author2=T. C. Kumari|title=Malayalam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uFQG2DCaIsIC|year=1997|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-02242-2|pages=24–27}}</ref> For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided into provinces governed by local chieftains called [[Naduvazhi]]s. Each province was further subdivided into ''desams'', which were overseen by Desavazhis.<ref name="Sreedhar123"/>

A series of Chera–Chola conflicts in the 11th century disrupted foreign trade through Kerala's ports. During this period, [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], which had previously coexisted with Hinduism, declined and eventually disappeared from the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |title=The Buddhist History of Kerala |publisher=Kerala.cc |accessdate=25 September 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304215933/http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Social structures became increasingly rigid, and [[Caste system in Kerala|caste divisions]] deepened.<ref>{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey Of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|accessdate=9 August 2012|date=1 January 2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=138}}</ref> The Kulashekhara dynasty ultimately fell in 1102 CE following a combined assault by the [[Later Pandyas]] and [[Later Cholas]].<ref name="Balachand"/> In the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (r. 1299–1314) of the southern [[Venad|Venad kingdom]] briefly established a short-lived supremacy over much of southern India. Following his death, and in the absence of a strong central authority, the region fragmented into thirty small, frequently warring principalities. Among the most powerful were the kingdom of [[Samuthiri]] (Zamorin) in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the central region. In the 18th century, King [[Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma]] of Travancore launched a series of military campaigns and annexed territories up to northern Kerala, establishing Travancore as the dominant power in the region. The Kochi ruler sued for peace, and the Malabar region eventually came under direct [[British Raj|British rule]] until [[Independence of India|Indian independence]] in 1947.<ref>{{cite book|author=Educational Britannica Educational|title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPUvqtdfjyAC&pg=PA311|accessdate=15 September 2012|date=15 August 2010|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-61530-202-4|page=311}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Boland-Crewe |first1=Tara |last2=Lea |first2=David |title=The Territories and States of India |date=2003 |doi=10.4324/9780203402900 |isbn=978-1-135-35625-5 |pages=144–146 }}</ref>

=== Colonial rule ===
[[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|The route taken by [[Vasco da Gama]] to reach Kerala (indicated in black)]]

During the [[High Middle Ages|High]] and [[Late Middle Ages]], Arab traders held a maritime monopoly over the spice trade in the [[Indian Ocean]]. This dominance was challenged during the European [[Age of Discovery]] when the spice trade{{mdash}}particularly in black pepper{{mdash}}became a major focus of European commercial activity.<ref>{{cite book | last = Corn | first = Charles |author2=Glasserman, Debbie | title = The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade | publisher = Kodansha America |date=March 1999 | isbn = 1-56836-249-8}}</ref> By the 15th century, the Portuguese had begun asserting control over eastern maritime routes, culminating in [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival at [[Kappad]], near [[Kozhikode]] (Calicut), in 1498.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Ravindran PN |title=Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum |publisher=CRC Press |year=2000 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |page=3 |isbn=978-90-5702-453-5}}</ref><ref name="Curtin1984">{{cite book|author=Philip D. Curtin|title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4IiYFhliv4C|date=25 May 1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-26931-5|page=144}}</ref> The [[Zamorin]] of Kozhikode granted the Portuguese permission to trade with his subjects, leading to the establishment of a prosperous Portuguese [[factory (trading post)|factory]] and fort.<ref name="Mehta2005" />

However, tensions arose when the Portuguese attacked Arab traders operating under the Zamorin's protection, causing a breakdown in relations. Seizing the opportunity presented by rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi, the Portuguese allied with Kochi. When [[Francisco de Almeida]] was appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established his headquarters at [[Fort Kochi]] ([[Fort Emmanuel]]), rather than in Kozhikode. Under his administration, the Portuguese consolidated their influence by building several fortifications along the Malabar Coast.<ref name="Mehta2005">{{cite book|author=J. L. Mehta|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707–1813|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA324|accessdate=9 August 2012|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|pages=324–327}}</ref> Despite these advances, the Portuguese faced significant resistance from the Zamorin's naval forces, particularly under the command of the [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s{{mdash}}admirals of Kozhikode{{mdash}}who launched effective maritime campaigns. This resistance eventually forced the Portuguese to seek a treaty. In 1571, the Zamorin's forces defeated the Portuguese in the [[Kingdom of Tanur#Battles at Chaliyam Fort|Battle of Chaliyam Fort]], marking a major setback for Portuguese ambitions in the region.<ref>{{cite book|author=K. K. N. Kurup|title=India's Naval Traditions: The Role of Kunhali Marakkars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HKmXcBCKEcAC&pg=PA51|accessdate=9 August 2012|date=1 January 1997|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-083-3|pages=37–38}}</ref>

The Portuguese were eventually supplanted by the [[Dutch East India Company]], which capitalised on ongoing conflicts between the Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control over trade in the region.<ref name="South Asia 2006">{{cite book|title=South Asia 2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 December 2005|publisher=Taylor & Francis|page=289}}</ref> However, the Dutch too faced military resistance, most notably from [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[Travancore royal family]]. After a decisive Dutch defeat at the [[Battle of Colachel]] in 1741,<ref name="google3">{{cite book|author=Murkot Ramunny|title=Ezhimala: The Abode of the Naval Academy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Hue54bWk6IC&pg=PA57|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 1993|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-052-9|pages=57–70}}</ref> the Treaty of Mavelikkara was signed in 1753, forcing the Dutch to withdraw from regional political affairs and confining their role to trade.<ref name="Singh2010">{{cite book|author=Anjana Singh|title=Fort Kochi in Kerala, 1750–1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFy4pWUlnfwC&pg=PA22|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=30 April 2010|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-16816-9|pages=22–52}}</ref><ref name="Iyer1995">{{cite book|author=S. Krishna Iyer|title=Travancore Dutch relations, 1729–1741|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUtuAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1995|publisher=CBH Publications|isbn=978-81-85381-42-8|page=49}}</ref><ref name="Lannoy1997">{{cite book|author=Mark de Lannoy|title=The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore: history and state formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKjZAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1997|publisher=Leiden University|isbn=978-90-73782-92-1|page=190}}</ref> Marthanda Varma continued his military campaigns, establishing Travancore as the preeminent power in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|author=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=Political History of Modern Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&pg=PA140|accessdate=10 August 2012|year=1987|publisher=D C Books|isbn=978-81-264-2156-5|page=140}}</ref>

In 1766, [[Hyder Ali]], ruler of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], [[Mysorean invasion of Kerala#Invasion by Hyder Ali|invaded northern Kerala]],<ref name="Rai">{{cite book|author=Raghunath Rai|title=History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4-8Z0gqBkoC&pg=PA14|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=FK Publications|isbn=978-81-87139-69-0|pages=14–}}</ref> and his son and successor, [[Tipu Sultan]], [[Mysorean invasion of Kerala#Invasions by Tipu Sultan|launched military campaigns]] against the expanding [[British East India Company]]. These confrontations contributed to two of the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].<ref name="MuseumDallapiccola2010">{{cite book|author1=British Museum|author2=Anna Libera Dallapiccola|title=South Indian Paintings: A Catalogue of the British Museum Collection|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIzWapiacQcC&pg=PA12|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=22 June 2010|publisher=Mapin Publishing Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-0-7141-2424-7|pages=12–}}</ref><ref name="ThorpeEdgar">{{cite book|author1=Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe|author2=Thorpe Edgar|title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=RA1-PA99|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-5830-4|page=99}}</ref> By the early 1790s, Tipu Sultan was forced to cede the [[Malabar district]] and [[South Kanara]] to the British, and these regions were annexed into the [[Madras Presidency]] of [[British India]] in 1792.<ref name="The Edinburgh Gazetteer: Or, Geographical Dictionary: Containing a Description of the Various Countries, Kingdoms, States, Cities, Towns, Mountains, &c. of the World; an Account of the Government, Customs, and Religion of the Inhabitants; the Boundaries and Natural Productions of Each Country, &c. &c. Forming a Complete Body of Geography, Physical, Political, Statistical, and Commercial with Addenda, Containing the Present State of the New Governments in South America...">{{cite book|title=The Edinburgh Gazetteer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xRIyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA63|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1827|publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green|pages=63–}}</ref><ref name="Kumar1965">{{cite book|author=Dharma Kumar|title=Land and Caste in South India: Agricultural Labor in the Madras Presidency During the Nineteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=psw5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA87|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1965|publisher=CUP Archive|pages=87–|id=GGKEY:T72DPF9AZDK}}</ref><ref name="Ittaman2003">{{cite book|author=K.P. Ittaman|title=History of Mughal Architecture Volume Ii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQ5lFywZAqYC&pg=PA30|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 June 2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-034-1|pages=30–}}</ref> The British East India Company also secured tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Superintendent of Government Printing |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India (Provincial Series): Madras |publisher=Government of India |location=Calcutta |year=1908 |accessdate=11 November 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXglUxeS_WkC |page=22}}</ref> By the end of 18th century, the entirety of Kerala was either directly administered by the British or under their [[suzerainty]].<ref name="RajTharakan1981">{{cite book|author1=Kakkadan Nandanath Raj|author2=Michael Tharakan|title=Agrarian reform in Kerala and its impact on the rural economy: a preliminary assessment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JF6FAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=1981|publisher=International Labour Office|pages=2–3}}</ref>

In the 20th century, Kerala was the site of several major uprisings during the Indian independence movement. Among the most notable was the 1921 [[Malabar Rebellion]], in which Mappila Muslims of the Malabar region rioted against Hindu [[zamindars]] (landlords) and British colonial authorities.<ref name="Qureshi1999">{{cite book|author=M. Naeem Qureshi|title=Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=czKYZPyoyx0C|year=1999|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-11371-1|pages=445–447}}</ref> Social reform moments also gained momentum during this period, particularly those challenging caste-based discrimination. A major milestone was the [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] of 1936 in Travancore, which granted lower-caste Hindus the right to enter temples previously restricted to upper castes.<ref name="Smith1976">{{cite book|author=Bardwell L. Smith|title=Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07Y3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA42|accessdate=31 July 2012|year=1976|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-04510-1|pages=35–42}}</ref>

=== State of India ===
After the [[Partition of India]] in 1947 into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan, the princely states of Travancore and Kochi acceded to the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]]. On 1 July 1949, the two states were merged to form [[Travancore-Cochin]].<ref name="Sabharwal2007">{{cite book|author=Gopa Sabharwal|title=India Since 1947: The Independent Years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKySGJAGVEQC&pg=PA23|accessdate=18 November 2012|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-310274-8|pages=23–}}</ref> On 1 November 1956, the [[taluk]] of [[Kasaragod district|Kasargod]] from the South Kanara district of Madras, the [[Malabar district]] of [[Madras State]] (excluding [[Gudalur taluk]] of [[Nilgiris district]], [[Lakshadweep]], [[Topslip]], and the [[Attappadi]] forest east of Anakatti), and the state of Travancore-Cochin{{mdash}}excluding four southern taluks ([[Kanyakumari district]] and Shenkottai taluks), which were transferred to Tamil Nadu{{mdash}}were merged to form the state of Kerala under the [[States Reorganisation Act]].<ref name="Tmh">{{cite book|author=Tmh|title=General Knowledge Digest 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RyLmXWTKHXgC&pg=SA3-PA106|accessdate=18 November 2012|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-069939-7|page=3}}</ref><ref name="SinghKarafin2009">{{cite book|author1=Sarina Singh|author2=Amy Karafin|author3=Anirban Mahapatra|title=South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC|accessdate=6 January 2013|date=1 September 2009|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74179-155-6}}</ref><ref name="Kerala">{{Cite web |title=The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 |url=https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1956-37.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117014954/https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1956-37.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2021 |access-date=11 May 2021 |website=legislative.gov.in |publisher=Government of India}}</ref> A [[Communist]]-led government under [[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]] was formed following the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957.<ref name="SinghKarafin2009"/> It was among the earliest democratically elected Communist governments in the world, following Communist electoral success in the [[Republic of San Marino]] in 1945.<ref name=Hindu>{{cite news|title=50 years of development|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-others/tp-states/50-years-of-development/article1655056.ece?ref=archive|accessdate=30 August 2013|newspaper=The Hindu|date=12 April 2007|author=K.G. Kumar}}</ref><ref name="Desai2006">{{cite book|author=Manali Desai|title=State Formation and Radical Democracy in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60m9znJQmmkC&pg=PA142|accessdate=31 August 2013|date=27 November 2006|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-203-96774-4|page=142}}</ref><ref name="ChitkaraŚarmā1997">{{cite book|author1=Madan Gopal Chitkara|author2=Baṃśī Rāma Śarmā|title=Indian Republic: Issues and Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YrmNURVoroC&pg=PA134|accessdate=18 November 2012|date=1 January 1997|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7024-836-1|pages=134–}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Kerala}}

{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| header_align = left/right/center
| footer_align = left/right/center
| header_background =
| footer_background =
| image1 = AnaimudiPeak DSC 4834.jpg
| caption1 = [[Anamudi]], the highest peak in [[South India]].
| image2 = DR0071DSC 9245.jpg
| caption2 = [[Tea]] and [[Coffee]] are produced in the hilly terrains of [[Wayanad]].
| image3 = Kumarkom.jpg
| caption3 = [[Vembanad]], a portion of [[Kerala backwaters]], is the longest lake in India.
| image4 = Light house in Ponnani.jpg
| caption4 = [[Ponnani Lighthouse]] beach
}}

The state is wedged between the [[Laccadive Sea]] and the [[Western Ghats]].<ref>{{Cite web |year=1953 |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition |url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005131902/https://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2018 |access-date=28 December 2020 |publisher=International Hydrographic Organization}}</ref> Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',<ref>{{cite web |title=Physical and Anatomical Characteristic of Wood of Some Less-Known Tree Species of Kerala |url=https://docs.kfri.res.in/KFRI-RR/KFRI-RR096.pdf |work=Kerala Forest Research Institute |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-date=9 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709150101/http://docs.kfri.res.in/KFRI-RR/KFRI-RR096.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Kerala experiences humid [[tropical rainforest climate]] with some cyclones. The state has a coast of {{cvt|590|km|mi}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Marine Fisheries |url=https://www.fisheries.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=76&Itemid=44 |website=fisheries.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021802/http://www.fisheries.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=76&Itemid=44 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the width of the state varies between {{convert|11|and|121|km|mi|0}}.<ref name="Nair1994">{{cite book |author=V. Balakrishnan Nair |title=Social Development and Demographic Changes in South India: Focus on Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTS4OO9lcdgC&pg=PA15 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1994 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8185880501 |page=15}}</ref> Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006">{{cite book |author1=Srikumar Chattopadhyay |author2=Richard W. Franke |title=Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC&pg=PA110 |access-date=19 March 2019 |year=2006 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180692949}}</ref>{{rp|110}} [[Pre-Cambrian]] and [[Pleistocene]] geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.<ref name="Geological Survey Water-supply Paper">{{cite book |title=Geological Survey Water-supply Paper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qUYAQAAIAAJ&pg=SL4-PA6 |access-date=19 March 2019 |year=1961 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |page=4}}</ref><ref name="SharmaKumari2008">{{cite book |author1=Pradeep Sharma |author2=Y. Dharnai Kumari |author3=Tirunagaram Lakshmamma |title=Status Of Women And Family Planning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2b6Ok2EcnBIC&pg=PA217 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8183563260 |page=217}}</ref> A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.<ref name="LimitedKitchen2010">{{cite book |author1=Murdoch Books Pty Limited |author2=Murdoch Books Test Kitchen |title=India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_cHBuYD3CQC&pg=PA100 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Murdoch Books |isbn=978-1-74196-438-7 |page=100}}</ref>
The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' [[rain shadow]].<ref name=ChattopadhyayFranke2006 />{{rp|110}} 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,<ref name="Sadasivan2003">{{cite book |author=S. N. Sadasivan |title=River Disputes in India: Kerala Rivers Under Siege |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhrRboi5kOcC&pg=PA223 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8170999133 |page=223}}</ref> and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.<ref name="Darpan2006">{{cite book |author=Pratiyogita Darpan |title=Pratiyogita Darpan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QegDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT72 |access-date=18 November 2012 |date=September 2006 |publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan |page=72}}</ref><ref name="India2008">{{cite book |author=Motilal (UK) Books of India |title=Tourist Guide Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA11 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Sura Books |isbn=978-8174781642 |page=11}}</ref> The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near [[Palakkad]]; hence also known Pal''ghat'', where the [[Palakkad Gap]] breaks.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chandran Nair |first1=Dr.S.Sathis |title=India – Silent Valley Rainforest Under Threat Once More |url=https://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/wrr2004/silentvalley.htm |website=rainforestinfo.org.au |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924084520/http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/wrr2004/silentvalley.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Western Ghats rise on average to {{convert|1500|m|ft|lk=out|abbr=off}} [[above sea level]],<ref name="Biju2006">{{cite book |author=M.R. Biju |title=Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkAdvTbg0dEC&pg=PA63 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-8183241298 |page=63}}</ref> while the highest peaks reach around {{convert|2500|m|ft|abbr=off}}.<ref name="Hussain">{{cite book |author=Hussain |title=Geography Of India For Civil Ser Exam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUzKCZxvNQoC&pg=SA2-PA9 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-07-066772-3 |page=2}}</ref> [[Anamudi]] in the [[Idukki]] district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of {{cvt|2,695|m}}.<ref name="gazetteer">{{cite book |last1=Frowde |first1=Henry |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=1908–1909 |publisher=Clarendon Press |edition=New |location=Oxford |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216124143/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |archive-date=16 December 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s.<ref name="UNESCO">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/flora-fauna/UN-designates-Western-Ghats-as-world-heritage-site/articleshow/14595602.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131192257/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-07-02/flora-fauna/32507340_1_world-heritage-list-western-ghats-border-town |url-status=live |archive-date=31 January 2013 |title=UN designates Western Ghats as world heritage site |date=2 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref> The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.<ref name="UNESCO" /> The [[Athirappilly Falls]], which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as ''The [[Niagara Falls|Niagara]] of India''.<ref name="Athirappilly">{{cite news |url=https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/travel/33064279_1_palm-trees-trek-coconut-trees |title=The Times of India: Latest News India, World & Business News, Cricket & Sports, Bollywood |access-date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621233624/https://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-05-30/travel/33064279_1_palm-trees-trek-coconut-trees |archive-date=21 June 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is located in the [[Chalakudy River]] and is the largest waterfall in the state.<ref name="Athirappilly" /> [[Wayanad]] is the sole [[Plateau]] in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book |author=William Logan |year=1887 |title=Malabar Manual (Volume-II) |publisher=Madras Government Press |url=https://archive.org/details/malabar_manual_volume2/mode/2up}}</ref> The eastern regions in the districts of [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]], [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]] ([[Chaliyar]] valley at [[Nilambur]]), and [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]] ([[Attappadi]] Valley), which together form parts of the [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]] and a continuation of the [[Mysore Plateau]], are known for natural [[Gold]] fields, along with the adjoining districts of [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dmg.kerala.gov.in/mineral-resources/ |title=Mineral Resources |website=Department of Mining and Geology – Government of Kerala |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=13 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220513124121/https://dmg.kerala.gov.in/mineral-resources/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Minerals including [[Ilmenite]], [[Monazite]], [[Thorium]], and [[Titanium]], are found in the coastal belt of Kerala.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=343}} Kerala's coastal belt of [[Karunagappally]] is known for high background radiation from [[thorium]]-containing [[monazite]] sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 [[Gray (unit)#Effect on the body|mGy/yr]] and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.<ref>{{Cite news |vauthors=Nair RR, Rajan B, Akiba S, Jayalekshmi P, Nair MK, Gangadharan P, Koga T, Morishima H, Nakamura S, Sugahara T |title=Background radiation and cancer incidence in Kerala, India-Karanagappally cohort study. |publisher=Health Physics |date=January 2009 |pmid=19066487}}</ref>

Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006" />{{rp|33}} and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected [[brackish]] canals, lakes, [[estuaries]],<ref name="Moss2010">{{cite book |author=Danny Moss |title=Public Relations Cases: International Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0-CJ3djEdEC&pg=PA41 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-77336-2 |page=41}}</ref> and rivers known as the [[Kerala Backwaters]].<ref name="Thorpe2012">{{cite book |author=Edgar Thorpe |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cruroSVFoUC&pg=RA3-PA38 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131767344 |page=3}}</ref> [[Kuttanad]], also known as ''The Rice Bowl of Kerala'', has the [[List of extreme points of India#Altitudes|lowest altitude in India]], and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala Boat Ferries Lone Passenger To Help Her Take Exam |url=https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/coronavirus-lockdown4-kerala-government-boat-ferries-lone-passenger-sandra-babu-to-help-her-take-exam-2238752 |last=Press Trust of India |date=1 June 2020 |access-date=17 November 2020 |work=NDTV |archive-date=16 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116093316/https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/coronavirus-lockdown4-kerala-government-boat-ferries-lone-passenger-sandra-babu-to-help-her-take-exam-2238752 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/07/13/stories/2003071300600200.htm |title=Thirst below sea level |last=Suchitra |first=M |date=13 August 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922101804/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/thirst-below-sea-level/article28523147.ece |archive-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> The country's longest lake [[Vembanad Lake|Vembanad]], dominates the backwaters; it lies between [[Alappuzha]] and [[Kochi]] and is about {{cvt|200|km2|sqmi}} in area.<ref name="Husain">{{cite book |author=Majid Husain |title=Understanding: Geographical: Map Entries: for Civil Services Examinations: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9VGKfQ-sQsC&pg=RA9-PT18 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-07-070288-2 |page=9 |year=2011}}</ref> Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.<ref name="IWAI_2005">{{Cite journal |author=Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI—Ministry of Shipping) |year=2005 |title=Introduction to Inland Water Transport |journal=IWAI (Ministry of Shipping) |url=https://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20050204175110/http://iwai.nic.in/Introduction.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 February 2005 |access-date=19 January 2006}}</ref> Kerala's [[List of rivers in Kerala|44 rivers]] include the [[Periyar River|Periyar]]; {{convert|244|km|mi|0}}, [[Bharathapuzha]]; {{convert|209|km|mi|0}}, [[Pamba River|Pamba]]; {{convert|176|km|mi|0}}, [[Chaliyar River|Chaliyar]]; {{convert|169|km|mi|0}}, [[Kadalundipuzha River|Kadalundipuzha]]; {{convert|130|km|mi|0}}, [[Chalakudy River|Chalakudipuzha]]; {{convert|130|km|mi|0}}, [[Valapattanam River|Valapattanam]]; {{convert|129|km|mi|0}} and the [[Achankovil River]]; {{convert|128|km|mi|0}}. The average length of the rivers is {{convert|64|km|mi|0}}. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.<ref name=riverreport>{{cite book |last=India. |first=Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=224 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=8171885942}}</ref> As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in [[river delta|delta]], they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.<ref name="Padmalal">{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | doi=10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | title=Environmental effects of river sand mining: A case from the river catchments of Vembanad lake, Southwest coast of India | year=2008 | last1=Padmalal | first1=D. | last2=Maya | first2=K. | last3=Sreebha | first3=S. | last4=Sreeja | first4=R. | journal=Environmental Geology | volume=54 | issue=4 | pages=879–889 | bibcode=2008EnGeo..54..879P | s2cid=129312081 | access-date=12 February 2020 | archive-date=25 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191757/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00254-007-0870-z | url-status=live | issn = 0943-0105 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the [[2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]],<ref name="Jha2010">{{cite book |author=M.K. Jha |title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C&pg=PA81 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9048124978 |page=81}}</ref> and in 2018 received [[2018 Kerala floods|the worst flooding]] in nearly a century.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala-kochi-a8493011.html |title=Worst floods in nearly a century kill 44 in India's Kerala state amid torrential monsoon rains |last=Baynes |first=Chris |date=15 August 2018 |work=The Independent |access-date=16 August 2018 |archive-date=23 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523232643/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/india-worst-floods-flooding-death-monsoon-rain-dead-kerala-kochi-a8493011.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst [[2024 Wayanad landslides|landslides]] in history.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/07/30/wayand-landslide-kerala-rain-live.html |title=Wayanad landslides: 133 dead, 481 saved, at least 98 missing |date=30 July 2024 |work=[[Onmanorama]] |access-date=31 July 2024 |archive-date=30 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240730073647/https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2024/07/30/wayand-landslide-kerala-rain-live.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Climate ===
With around 120–140 rainy days per year,<ref name="Chacko_2002">{{Cite journal |last1=Chacko |first1=T. |last2=Renuka |first2=G. |year=2002 |title=Temperature mapping, thermal diffusivity and subsoil heat flux at Kariavattom, Kerala |journal=Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci) |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=79 |title-link=Kariavattom |bibcode=2002InEPS.111...79T |doi=10.1007/BF02702224 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|80}} Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the [[Southwest monsoon|southwest summer monsoon]] and [[Northeast monsoon|northeast winter monsoon]].<ref name="Devrep">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=223 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.<ref name="Devrep" /> The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the [[Indian Peninsula]], because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".<ref name="Jain">{{cite book |author=RK Jain |title=Geography 10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7hOybWJeZN0C&pg=PA110 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Ratna Sagar |isbn=978-8183320818 |page=110}}</ref> The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,<ref name="Together with Social Science Term II">{{cite book |title=Together with Social Science Term II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOA1nsSU8JYC&pg=PA112 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Rachna Sagar |isbn=978-8181373991 |page=112}}</ref> making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.<ref name="google6">{{cite book |author1=Edgar Thorpe, Showick Thorpe |author2=Thorpe Edgar |title=The Pearson CSAT Manual 2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuBFs6yFRwcC&pg=SL7-PA168 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-8131758304 |page=7}}</ref><ref name="Aggarwal">{{cite book |author1=N.N. Kher |author2=Jaideep Aggarwal |title=A Text Book of Social Sciences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jV6k0FvIC4sC&pg=RA5-PA16 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Pitambar Publishing |isbn=978-8120914667 |page=5}}</ref> The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.<ref name="google7">{{cite book |author1=Sarina Singh |author2=Amy Karafin |author3=Anirban Mahapatra |title=South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KnLFpjEHpUC&pg=PA15 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74179-155-6 |page=15}}</ref><ref name="Reddy">{{cite book |author=S.V. Jeevananda Reddy |title=Climate Change: Myths and Realities |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_GMTXRtxJ8C&pg=PA71 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Jeevananda Reddy |page=71 |id=GGKEY:WDFHBL1XHK3}}</ref> In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Rao |title=Agricultural Meteorology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kd-3lt-yAtAC&pg=PA173 |publisher=PHI Learning |year=2008 |isbn=978-8120333383 |pages=173–74 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually.<ref name="IMD">{{cite web |url=https://www.imd.gov.in/section/hydro/dynamic/rfmaps/updated.html |title=Hydromet Division Updated/Real Time Maps |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |access-date=21 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305062728/https://www.imd.gov.in/section/hydro/dynamic/rfmaps/updated.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the eastern [[Idukki district]] receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of [[Precipitation (meteorology)#Orographic precipitation|orographic precipitation]]: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Brenkert |first1=A. |last2=Malone |first2=E. |year=2003 |title=Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation |journal=Joint Global Change Research Institute}}</ref>{{rp|26, 46, 52}} The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.<ref name="moef">{{cite web |last=Sudha |first=T. M. |title=Opportunities in participatory planning to Evolve a Landuse Policy for Western Ghats Region in Kerala |url=https://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/tenth/Annexure%203.pdf |publisher=Department of Town and Country Planning, Kerala |page=14 |access-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325095604/https://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/tenth/Annexure%203.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003" />{{rp|65}}

=== Flora and fauna ===
{{Main|Flora and fauna of Kerala}}

{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| header_align = left/right/center
| footer_align = left/right/center
| header_background =
| footer_background =
| image1 = Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus Kadalundi.jpg
| caption1 = A migratory ''[[Ichthyaetus]]'' in [[Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary]]
| image2 = Highland Grassland Shola of Silent Valley National Park.jpg
| caption2 = [[Silent Valley National Park]]
| image3 = Munnarhills.jpg
| caption3 = The [[Cardamom Hills]] are notable for [[biodiversity]]
}}

Most of the [[biodiversity]] is concentrated and protected in the [[Western Ghats]]. Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century.<ref name="History">{{cite web |url=https://www.forest.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=2 |title=History |access-date=12 August 2015 |publisher=Kerala forests and wildlife department |archive-date=12 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912231001/http://www.forest.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{As of|2004}}, over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 [[flowering plant]] species; 1,272 of which are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Kerala, 900 are [[Herbalism|medicinal]], and 159 are [[Threatened species|threatened]].<ref name="Sreedharan_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Sreedharan TP |year=2004 |title=Biological Diversity of Kerala: A survey of Kalliasseri panchayat, Kannur district |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054155/https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/62.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|11}} Its 9,400 km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km2 and 100 km2, respectively), and montane subtropical and [[temperate]] (''shola'') forests (highest elevations—100 km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004" />{{rp|12}} Four of the world's [[Ramsar Convention]] listed [[wetland]]s—[[Sasthamkotta Lake|Lake Sasthamkotta]], [[Ashtamudi Lake]], [[Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands]], and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala,{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=342}} as well as 1455.4 km2 of the vast [[Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve]] and 1828 km2 of the [[Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=347}} Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,<ref name="Jayarajan_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Jayarajan M |year=2004 |title=Sacred Groves of North Malabar |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326054142/https://krpcds.org/publication/downloads/92.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2009 |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|6–7}} much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from [[clearfelling]].<ref name="Evans2008">{{cite book |author=Julian Evans |title=The Forests Handbook, Applying Forest Science for Sustainable Management |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ol_CCkYQNKIC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75683-6 |page=235}}</ref> Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist forests]] and [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]], which are common in the Western Ghats.<ref name="google8">{{cite book |author1=R. P. Singh |author2=Zubairul Islam |title=Environmental Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaQptMlw3X8C&pg=PA172 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180697746 |page=172 |year=2012 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191749/https://books.google.com/books?id=gaQptMlw3X8C&pg=PA172#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Geer2008">{{cite book |author=Alexandra Anna Enrica van der Geer |title=Animals in Stone: Indian Mammals Sculptured Through Time |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ3quxh9gsgC&pg=PA7 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004168190 |page=7}}</ref> The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in [[Nilambur]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-world-s-oldest-teak-trees-dying-in-kerala-1255723 |title=World's oldest teak trees dying in Kerala |date=13 May 2009 |website=DNA India |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415102931/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-world-s-oldest-teak-trees-dying-in-kerala-1255723 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of [[mammal]]s (1 endemic), [[List of birds of Kerala|500 species of birds]], 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of [[amphibian]]s (36 endemic).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1999/3443 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007224232/https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1999/3443 |url-status=dead |title=View of A checklist of the vertebrates of Kerala State, India | Journal of Threatened Taxa |archive-date=7 October 2016 |website=threatenedtaxa.org}}</ref> These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, [[Soil salinity|salinisation]], and resource extraction. In the forests, ''sonokeling'', ''[[Dalbergia]] latifolia'', ''anjili'', ''mullumurikku'', ''[[Erythrina]]'', and ''[[Cinnamomum cassia|Cassia]]'' number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include [[bamboo]], wild black pepper, wild [[cardamom]], the [[calamus (palm)|calamus]] [[rattan]] palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, ''Vetiveria zizanioides''.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004" />{{rp|12}} [[Indian elephant]], [[Bengal tiger]], [[Indian leopard]], [[Nilgiri tahr]], [[common palm civet]], and [[grizzled giant squirrel]]s are also found in the forests.<ref name="Sreedharan_2004" />{{rp|12, 174–75}} Reptiles include the [[king cobra]], [[Viperidae|viper]], [[Pythonidae|python]], and [[mugger crocodile]]. Kerala's birds include the [[Malabar trogon]], the [[great hornbill]], [[Kerala laughingthrush]], [[darter]] and [[southern hill myna]]. In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as [[Heteropneustes fossilis|Kadu]], [[Red Line Torpedo Barb]] and ''choottachi''; [[orange chromide]]—''Etroplus maculatus'' are found.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Institute |first1=Kerala Forest Research |title=Biodiversity Documentation for Kerala: Freshwater fishes |year=2003 |publisher=Kerala Forest Research Institute |isbn=978-8185041544 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYcPAQAAMAAJ&q=fishes+in+kerala |language=en |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125192259/https://books.google.com/books?id=SYcPAQAAMAAJ&q=fishes+in+kerala |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Sreedharan_2004" />{{rp|163–65}} Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; ''[[Stygarctus keralensis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vishnudattan |first1=N. K. |display-authors=etal |title=A new Tardigrade species, Stygarctus keralensis sp. nov. (Arthrotardigrada: Stygarctidae) from the intertidal zone of Southwest coast of India |url=https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/42726 |date=15 June 2021 |journal=[[Zootaxa]] |volume=4985 |issue=3 |page=381391 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4985.3.5 |pmid=34186802 |s2cid=235688035 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127214807/https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4985.3.5 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Regions, districts and cities ==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Kerala|Districts of Kerala|List of revenue divisions of Kerala|List of taluks of Kerala|List of cities and towns in Kerala}}

{{See also|Local government in Kerala}}

The state's [[List of districts of Kerala|14 districts]] are distributed among six regions: [[North Malabar]] (far-north Kerala), [[South Malabar]] (north-central Kerala), [[Kochi]] (central Kerala), [[Northern Travancore]] (south-central Kerala), [[Central Travancore]] (southern Kerala) and [[Southern Travancore]] (far-south Kerala). The districts that serve as administrative regions for taxation and land revenue purposes are further subdivided into [[Revenue Divisions of Kerala|27 revenue divisions]] and [[List of talukas of Kerala|77 taluks]], which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further subdivided into 1,674 [[Revenue Village|revenue villages]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ildm.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Revenue-Guide-2018.pdf |title=Revenue Guide 2018 |date= |website=[[Government of Kerala]] |access-date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920133932/https://ildm.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Revenue-Guide-2018.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://kerala.gov.in/revenue-department |title=Revenue department, government of Kerala |access-date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817225825/https://kerala.gov.in/revenue-department |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since the [[List of amendments of the Constitution of India|73rd]] and [[Seventy-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India|74th]] Constitutional Amendments, local self-government institutions in Kerala function as the third tier of government, comprising 14 [[District council (India)|District Panchayats]], 152 [[Panchayat samiti|Block Panchayats]], and 941 [[Gram panchayat|Grama Panchayats]] for rural governance, and 87 [[List of urban local bodies in Kerala|Municipalities]], six [[List of municipal corporations in Kerala|Municipal Corporations]] for urban governance.<ref>{{cite web |title=Local Self Governance in Kerala |url=https://kerala.gov.in/local-self-governance#:~:text=Local%20Self-Governance%20Page&text=At%20present,%20there%20are%201200,Municipalities%20and%206%20Municipal%20Corporations |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=28 September 2020 |archive-date=28 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928223404/https://kerala.gov.in/local-self-governance#:~:text=Local%20Self-Governance%20Page&text=At%20present,%20there%20are%201200,Municipalities%20and%206%20Municipal%20Corporations |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Mahé, India|Mahé]], a part of the Indian [[union territory]] of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/https://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 |archive-date=16 June 2004 |title=Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional) |access-date=1 November 2008 |publisher=Census Commission of India}}</ref> though {{convert|647|km}} away from it,<ref name="ShiraAssociates.2012">{{cite book |author1=Dezan Shira |author2=Associates. |title=Doing Business in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YjXW41yMwQC&pg=PT313 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-27618-7 |pages=313–}}</ref> is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The [[Kannur district|Kannur District]] surrounds Mahé on three sides with the [[Kozhikode district|Kozhikode District]] on the fourth.<ref name="Menon2002">{{cite book |author1=D Banerjea |author2=N. R. Madhava Menon |title=Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Axfuc5A8mxMC&pg=PA9 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-8177648713 |pages=9–}}</ref>

In 1664, the municipality of [[Fort Kochi]] was established by [[Dutch Malabar]], making it the first municipality in the [[Indian subcontinent]], which was dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.<ref name="d_1664">{{Cite news |title=50 years on, Kochi still has a long way to go |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/50-years-on-kochi-still-has-a-long-way-to-go/articleshow/60835311.cms |last=M K Sunil Kumar |date=26 September 2017 |access-date=1 June 2021 |work=The Times of India |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602230954/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/50-years-on-kochi-still-has-a-long-way-to-go/articleshow/60835311.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> The municipalities of [[Kozhikode]], [[Palakkad]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Kannur]], and [[Thalassery]], were founded on 1 November 1866<ref name="Ref1">{{cite web |title=Chronological List of Central Acts (Updated up to 17-10-2014) |url=https://www.lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107091128/http://lawmin.nic.in/chronology.doc |archive-date=7 January 2018 |access-date=7 August 2016 |website=Lawmin.nic.in}}</ref><ref name="c1881">{{cite book |last1=Lewis McIver |first1=G. Stokes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_YIAAAAQAAJ |title=Imperial Census of 1881 Operations and Results in the Presidency of Madras |publisher=E.Keys at the Government Press |year=1883 |edition=(Vol II) |location=Madras |page=444 |access-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063433/https://books.google.com/books?id=b_YIAAAAQAAJ |archive-date=27 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="google.co.in">{{cite book |last1=Presidency |first1=Madras (India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUEwnQEACAAJ |title=Madras District Gazetteers, Statistical Appendix For Malabar District. |publisher=The Superintendent, Government Press |year=1915 |edition=Vol.2 |location=Madras |page=20 |language=en |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063433/https://books.google.com/books?id=aUEwnQEACAAJ |archive-date=27 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="gazetteer" /> of the [[British Indian Empire]], making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of [[Thiruvananthapuram]] came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of [[Sree Chithira Thirunal]], Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |title=Thiruvananthapuram |url=https://www.corporationoftrivandrum.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=11 |date=2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918085703/https://www.corporationoftrivandrum.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=158&Itemid=11 |archive-date=18 September 2010 |access-date=4 April 2022}} Year of becoming a corporation</ref> The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence of [[India]] as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at [[Kozhikode Municipal Corporation|Kozhikode]] in the year 1962.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080209134539/https://www.hindu.com/2008/02/05/stories/2008020561140500.htm Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency redrawn Delimitation impact], ''The Hindu'' 5 February 2008</ref> There are six [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipal corporations]] in Kerala that govern [[Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation|Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kozhikode Municipal Corporation|Kozhikode]], [[Kochi Municipal Corporation|Kochi]], [[Kollam Municipal Corporation|Kollam]], [[Thrissur Municipal Corporation|Thrissur]], and [[Kannur Municipal Corporation|Kannur]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala Sustainable Urban Development Project |url=https://www.ksudp.org/ |publisher=Local Self Government Department |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=20 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920051936/http://ksudp.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation]] is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named [[Kochi UA]] is the largest urban agglomeration.<ref>{{cite web |title=City Information |url=https://cial.aero/contents/viewcontent.aspx?linkIdLvl2=32&linkid=32 |work=Cochin International Airport |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-date=10 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121210070804/http://cial.aero/contents/viewcontent.aspx?linkIdLvl2=32&linkid=32 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, [[Thiruvananthapuram]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Kochi]], [[Kollam]], [[Thrissur]] are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.<ref>{{cite news |title=Cities best to earn a living are not the best to live: Survey |url=https://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-11-26/news/27682663_1_cities-entertainment-indicus-analytics |work=The Times of India |date=26 November 2007 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305021646/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2007-11-26/news/27682663_1_cities-entertainment-indicus-analytics |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Government and administration ==
{{Main|Government of Kerala|Kerala Legislative Assembly|Local government in Kerala|List of departments and agencies of the Government of Kerala|Administrative divisions of Kerala|l4 = List of Departments of the Government of Kerala}}

{{See also|Politics of Kerala|Political parties in Kerala|Elections in Kerala}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| header_align = center
| footer_align = center
| image1 = Kerala Legislative Assembly, Thiruvananthapuram.jpg
| caption1 = The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] Building in [[Thiruvananthapuram]]
| image2 = Kerala Government Secretariat.jpg
| caption2 = The [[Kerala Government Secretariat|Government Secretariat]] in [[Thiruvananthapuram]] – the seat of executive administration of Kerala
| image3 = High Court of Kerala Building.jpg
| caption3 = The [[Kerala High Court]] complex in [[Kochi]]
}}

The state is governed by a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]]. Kerala has a [[unicameralism|unicameral]] legislature. The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] also known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Kerala Legislature |url=https://kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3776&Itemid=3022 |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=17 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619040353/https://www.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3776&Itemid=3022 |archive-date=19 June 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The state elects 20 members to the [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of the [[Parliament of India|Indian Parliament]], and 9 members to the [[Rajya Sabha]], the upper house.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/intro/p1.htm |title=Our Parliament |publisher=Parliamentofindia.nic.in |access-date=25 February 2010 |archive-date=10 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210043333/http://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/intro/p1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Government of Kerala]] is a [[Democracy|democratically]] elected body in India with the [[Governors of Kerala|governor]] as its constitutional head and is appointed by the [[president of India]] for a five-year term.<ref name="govern">{{cite web |url=https://www.rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731095433/https://rajbhavan.kerala.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=44&Itemid=2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 July 2009 |title=Responsibilities |access-date=13 November 2015 |publisher=Kerala Rajbhavan}}</ref> The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|legislative assembly]] is appointed as the [[List of chief ministers of Kerala|chief minister]] by the governor, and the [[Kerala Council of Ministers|council of ministers]] is appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister.<ref name=govern /> The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of cabinet ministers and ministers of state (MoS). The [[Kerala Government Secretariat|secretariat]] headed by the [[Chief secretary (India)|chief secretary]] assists the council of ministers in formulation and implementation of government policies. The chief secretary is the senior-most [[Civil service|civil servant]] and the administrative head of the state government. Each government department is headed politically by a Minister and administratively by a Secretary to Government, in the rank of [[Additional Chief Secretary|additional chief secretar]], [[Principal secretary (India)|principal secretary]], or [[secretary]], who is typically an officer of the [[Indian Administrative Service]] (IAS). The additional chief secretaries/principal secretaries serve as the administrative heads of the department to which they are assigned. Each department also has officers of the rank of special secretary, additional secretary, joint secretary, deputy secretary, under secretary and other supporting officials. These secretariat departments are responsible for policy formulation and administrative supervision, while line departments are responsible for implementation.

Each Secretariat department is responsible for a number of line departments. The executive agencies (such as directorates, commissionerates, and similar entities) are responsible for implementing government policies and carrying out functions at the field level. These entities are headed by a Director, Commissioner, or similar authority, who functions as the Head of Department. Each of these departments has its own administrative subdivisions.<ref>Rules of Business of [[Government of Kerala]]

PART II

FIRST SCHEDULE

https://gad.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/general_attachment/Rules%20of%20Business%20-%20Part%20II.pdf</ref>

The state is divided into fourteen districts, each headed by a [[District magistrate|District Collector]] appointed by the government. The District Collector is responsible for land revenue administration, disaster management, elections, maintenance of law and order, and coordination of various government departments within the district. For administrative convenience, each district is further divided into [[List of revenue divisions of Kerala|revenue divisions]], [[Tehsil|taluks]], and [[Revenue Village|revenue villages]], primarily for the purpose of land revenue administration.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin |date=2025-01-22 |title=Land revenue administration, Government of Kerala |url=https://clr.kerala.gov.in/eng/index.php/department/organisation-structure |access-date=2026-01-01 |website=Department of Land Revenue |language=en-gb}}</ref>

The [[judiciary]] consists of the [[Kerala High Court]] and a system of lower courts.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Judiciary |url=https://www.allindiajudges.org/Judgment/FNJPC2.htm |publisher=All-India Judges Association |access-date=29 April 2015 |archive-date=1 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001072113/http://www.allindiajudges.org/Judgment/FNJPC2.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The High Court, located in [[Kochi]],<ref name="Congress (US)2010">{{cite book |author1=U S Congress |author2=Congress (U.S.) |title=Congressional Record, V. 153, Pt. 1, January 4, 2007 to January 17, 2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3bLOwbeOZYC&pg=PA1198 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-16-086824-5 |page=1198}}</ref> has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional ''[[pro tempore]]'' justices {{As of|2021|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=High Court of Kerala Profile |url=https://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/profile.html |publisher=High Court of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-date=31 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031233641/http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/profile.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of [[Lakshadweep]].<ref name="Banerjea2002">{{cite book |author=D. Banerjea |title=Criminal Justice India Series, Vol. 21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6NWL-a14mkC&pg=PA80 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-8177648720 |page=80}}</ref><ref name="SharmaB.k.2007">{{cite book |author1=Sharma |author2=Sharma B.k. |title=Intro. to the Constitution of India, 4/e |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srDytmFE3KMC&pg=PA261 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8120332461 |page=261}}</ref> The state's subordinate judiciary consists of District Courts in each of the 14 districts, headed by District Judges, along with civil courts (''Munsiff and Senior Civil Judges'') and criminal courts (''Judicial Magistrates, Chief Judicial Magistrates, and Sessions Courts'') handling cases according to their jurisdiction.

=== Local government ===
{{Main|Local government in Kerala}}

In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by the [[Government of India|union government]].<ref name="Capdeck">{{cite web |url=https://www.lenobl.ru/Document/1412700121.pdf |title=An Introduction to local self governments in Kerala |publisher=SDC CAPDECK |access-date=17 November 2012 |author=Mariamma Sanu George |pages=17–20 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530224012/http://www.lenobl.ru/Document/1412700121.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="KILA">{{cite web |url=https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513015050/https://www.kilaonline.org/site_docu/pub200904a.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2013 |title=Kerala – A Case Study of Classical Democratic Decentralisation |publisher=Kerala Institute of Local Administration |date=April 2009 |access-date=17 November 2012 |author=S M Vijayanand }}</ref>{{rp|page=12}} The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and the Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a three-tier system for rural governance and a single-tier system for urban governance.<ref>{{cite act
| title = Kerala Panchayat Raj Act, 1994
| year = 1994
| jurisdiction = Government of Kerala
| url = https://www.indiacode.nic.in
| access-date = 31 December 2025
}}</ref><ref>{{cite act
| title = Kerala Municipality Act, 1994
| year = 1994
| jurisdiction = Government of Kerala
| url = https://www.indiacode.nic.in
| access-date = 31 December 2025
}}</ref>

The rural governance three-tier structure consists of [[Gram panchayat|Gram Panchayats]], [[Panchayat samiti|Block Panchayats]], and [[District council (India)|District Panchayats]].<ref name="TandonMohanty2006">{{cite book |author1=Rajesh Tandon |author2=Ranjita Mohanty |title=Participatory Citizenship: Identity, Exclusion, Inclusion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oPByu7CWoUEC&pg=PA199 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-0-7619-3467-7 |page=199}}</ref> The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 define clear powers for these institutions.<ref name="Capdeck" /> For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act provides a single-tier system, comprising [[List of urban local bodies in Kerala|Municipalities]] and [[List of municipal corporations in Kerala|Municipal Corporations]], which are responsible for local governance and civic administration. These bodies are regularly constituted through [[Elections in Kerala|local body elections]].<ref name="Chaudhary2009">{{cite book |author=Shyam Nandan Chaudhary |title=Tribal Development Since Independence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBX1EJVhjGEC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180696220 |page=235}}</ref> These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization.<ref name="KILA" />{{rp|page=13}} Currently, the state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments.<ref name="IsaacFranke2002">{{cite book |author1=T. M. Thomas Isaac |author2=Richard W. Franke |title=Local Democracy and Development: The Kerala People's Campaign for Decentralized Planning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6v6F2a3Gs0C&pg=PR13 |year=2002 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1607-6 |page=13}}</ref> Kerala has 1,200 local bodies, including 941 Gram Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, 14 District Panchayats, 87 Municipalities, and 6 Municipal Corporations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Local Bodies {{!}} Local Self Government Department |url=https://lsgkerala.gov.in/en/lsgd/localbody-list |access-date=2025-07-08 |website=lsgkerala.gov.in |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602134126/https://lsgkerala.gov.in/en/lsgd/localbody-list |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by [[Transparency International]], is considered the least corrupt state in India.<ref>{{Cite book |title=India Corruption Survey 2019 – Report |last= |publisher=Transparency International India |year=2019 |location= |pages=22 |url=https://transparencyindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/India-Corruption-Survey-2019.pdf |access-date=18 June 2021 |archive-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710100154/https://transparencyindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/India-Corruption-Survey-2019.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala the first digital State |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/kerala-the-first-digital-state/article8291466.ece |last=Special currespondent |date=28 February 2016 |access-date=17 November 2020 |work=The Hindu |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415102347/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/kerala-the-first-digital-state/article8291466.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Goa best governed States: report |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala-goa-and-chandigarh-best-governed-states-ut-report/article32985716.ece |last=PTI |date=30 October 2020 |access-date=20 June 2021 |work=The Hindu |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007210542/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala-goa-and-chandigarh-best-governed-states-ut-report/article32985716.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Politics ===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 260
| image1 = Pinarayi Vijayan 1.jpg
| caption1 = [[Pinarayi Vijayan]], 12th [[Chief Minister of Kerala]] 
| image2 = VD Satheesan.jpg
| caption2 = [[V. D. Satheesan]], [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly|Leader of opposition]]
}}

Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|United Democratic Front]] (UDF), led by the [[Indian National Congress]]; and the [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|Left Democratic Front]] (LDF), led by the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)). {{As of|2021|alt=As of}} [[2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election]], the LDF is the ruling coalition; [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while [[V. D. Satheesan]] of the Indian National Congress is the [[List of leaders of the opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly|Leader of the Opposition]]. According to the [[Constitution of India]], Kerala has a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]]; [[universal suffrage]] is granted to residents.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm |title=Kerala Government – Legislature |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=19 November 2012 |archive-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208011357/http://www.niyamasabha.org/codes/govt_2.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Renaming to "Keralam" ===
There have been long-standing demands for changing the name to Keralam, the [[Malayalam]] name of the state. The [[Kerala Legislative Assembly]] passed a unanimous resolution in June 2024 to change the state's name from "Kerala" to "Keralam," following an earlier unanimous resolution in August 2023. [[Chief Minister of Kerala|Chief Minister]] [[Pinarayi Vijayan]] had moved both resolutions, which sought to amend the state's name under Article 3 of the Constitution to reflect its Malayalam identity.<ref name="auto1"/>

The [[Union Council of Ministers|Union Cabinet]] approved this proposal on February 24, 2026. Following Cabinet approval, the [[President of India]] will refer the Kerala (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2026 to the [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|State Legislative Assembly]] for expressing its views under the proviso to Article 3 of the Constitution of India.<ref name="auto"/>

After [[Kerala Legislative Assembly|Kerala Niyamasabha]]'s approval, this bill will be introduced in [[Parliament of India]] and after being passed, the state's name will officially become Keralam.

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Kerala}}

After independence, the state was managed as a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] [[welfare economy]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=A virus, social democracy, and dividends for Kerala |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-virus-social-democracy-and-dividends-for-kerala/article31370554.ece |last=Heller |first=Patrick |date=18 April 2020 |access-date=2 February 2021 |work=The Hindu |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119130557/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-virus-social-democracy-and-dividends-for-kerala/article31370554.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The "Kerala phenomenon" or "[[Kerala model]] of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003" />{{rp|48}}<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005">{{Cite journal |author=Tharamangalam J |year=2005 |title=The Perils of Social Development without Economic Growth: The Development Debacle of Kerala, India |journal=Political Economy for Environmental Planners |url=https://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115072025/https://www.infra.kth.se/courses/1H1142/Kerala_Paper_4.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2013 |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|1}} In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|8th-largest]] in India with {{INRConvert|8.55|t}} in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of {{INRConvert|222|k}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2021 |title=MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India |url=https://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls |access-date=23 June 2021 |archive-date=17 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617193238/http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019–20, the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|tertiary sector]] contributed around 63% of the state's [[Gross value added|GSVA]], compared to 28% by [[Secondary sector of the economy|secondary sector]], and 8% by [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector]].<ref name="eco">{{Cite book |last=Government of Kerala |url=https://spb.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/English-Vol-1_0.pdf |title=Economic Review 2020 – Volume I |publisher=Kerala State Planning Board |year=2021 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |access-date=18 June 2021 |archive-date=2 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502171017/https://spb.kerala.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-01/English-Vol-1_0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.<ref name="eco" />
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| header_align = left/right/center
| image1 = Technopark Trivandum Ganga and Yamuna Buildings.jpg
| caption1 = [[Technopark, Trivandrum|Technopark]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]], the first and largest [[information technology]] (IT) park in India
| image2 = Container terminal.JPG
| caption2 = [[International Container Transshipment Terminal, Kochi|Vallarpadam Terminal]] at [[Kochi]], the first [[container terminal|transshipment terminal]] in India
| image4 = Mappila bay.JPG
| caption4 = [[Mappila Bay]] harbour at [[Kannur]]
}}

The state's [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]] which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon [[hospitality industry]], [[Tourism in Kerala|tourism]], [[Ayurveda]] and medical services, pilgrimage, [[information technology]], [[Roads in Kerala|transportation]], financial sector, and [[Education in Kerala|education]].<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |url=https://slbckerala.com/Economy.aspx |title=Economy of Kerala – 2016 |website=slbckerala.com |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328191455/http://slbckerala.com/Economy.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Major initiatives under the industrial sector include [[Cochin Shipyard]], shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries,{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=343}} food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon [[cash crop]]s.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} Kerala produces a significant amount of the national output of cash crops such as [[coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[Malabar pepper|pepper]], [[natural rubber]], [[cardamom]], and [[cashew]] in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since the 1950s.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}}

Kerala's economy depends significantly on [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|emigrants working in foreign countries]], mainly in the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]], and the [[remittance]]s annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.<ref name="rem1">{{cite report |author1=K.P. Kannan |author2=K.S. Hari |title=Kerala's Gulf connection: Emigration, remittances and their macroeconomic impact, 1972–2000 |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/ind/cdswpp/328.html |year=2002 |website=[[Research Papers in Economics]] |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=28 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628135450/https://ideas.repec.org/p/ind/cdswpp/328.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The state witnessed significant emigration during the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora#The Gulf Boom|Gulf Boom]] of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/remittances--kerala-drives-dollar-flows-to-india-053414379.html |title=Remittances: Kerala drives dollar flows to India |work=[[Yahoo! Finance]] |date=5 November 2013 |access-date=8 November 2013 |archive-date=7 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107053009/http://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/remittances--kerala-drives-dollar-flows-to-india-053414379.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over {{INRConvert|1|lc}}, amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about {{INRConvert|7|lc}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/nri/other-news/NRI-deposits-in-Kerala-banks-cross-Rs-1-lakh-crore/articleshow/47769012.cms |title=NRI deposits in Kerala banks cross Rs 1 lakh crore |date=22 June 2015 |access-date=13 November 2015 |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=25 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150625121200/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/nri/other-news/NRI-deposits-in-Kerala-banks-cross-Rs-1-lakh-crore/articleshow/47769012.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Malappuram district]] has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state.<ref name="eco" /> A study commissioned by the [[Kerala State Planning Board]], suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.<ref name="Commission2008b">{{cite book |author=India. Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA457 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=396}}</ref>

As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.<ref name="RBI_2002">{{cite web |url=https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/35585.pdf |title=State/Union Territory-Wise Number of Branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks and Average Population Per Bank Branch |date=March 2002 |work=Reserve Bank of India |access-date=28 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810094850/https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Publications/PDFs/35585.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2007}}</ref> On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-you-can-bank-on-every-village-in-Kerala/articleshow/10194261.cms |work=The Times of India |title=Now, you can bank on every village in Kerala |date=1 October 2011 |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104180910/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/Now-you-can-bank-on-every-village-in-Kerala/articleshow/10194261.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Unemployment in Kerala|Unemployment in 2007]] was estimated at 9.4%;<ref>{{cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Jobless no more? |newspaper=Business Line |date=8 October 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/article1671367.ece |quote=A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007. |access-date=16 November 2012 |archive-date=6 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106032604/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/article1671367.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> chronic issues are [[underemployment]], low employability of youth, and a low female [[labour force|labour participation rate]] of only 13.5%,<ref name="Nair_2004">{{Cite book |author=Nair NG |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |title=Measurement of Employment, Unemployment, and Underemployment |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621751 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/72.pdf |access-date=31 December 2008 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530210334/http://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/72.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|5, 13}} as was the practice of ''[[Nokku kooli]]'', "wages for looking on".<ref name="Outlook-2008">{{cite news |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237419 |first=John |last=Mary |title=Men (Not) At Work |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |date=12 May 2008 |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=6 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106032651/http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?237419 |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.<ref name="princeton6">{{Cite report |last=Deaton |first=Angus |title=Regional poverty estimates for India, 1999–2000 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/pdfs/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf |date=22 August 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628193845/https://www.princeton.edu/rpds/papers/pdfs/deaton_regionalpovertyindia.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=dead |page=10 |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref>

The state's budget of 2020–2021 was {{INRConvert|1.15|lc}}.<ref name="Budget">{{cite web |url=https://www.finance.kerala.gov.in/bdgtDcs.jsp |title=Budget In Brief |format=PDF |website=finance.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=4 December 2020 |archive-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125214731/http://www.finance.kerala.gov.in/bdgtDcs.jsp |url-status=live }}</ref> The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to {{INRConvert|674|b}} in 2020–21; up from {{INRConvert|557|b}} in 2019–20. Its [[non-tax revenue]]s (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached {{INRConvert|146|b}} in 2020–2021.<ref name="Budget" /> However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/https://fincomindia.nic.in/pubsugg/memo_ker.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008 |title=Memoranda from States: Kerala |website=fincomindia.nic.in |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> A record total of 223 [[hartal]]s were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over {{INRConvert|20|b}}.<ref>[https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm Kerala: Hartals Own Country?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043808/https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jul/06kerala.htm |date=4 March 2016 }} 6 July 2008</ref> Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralacm.gov.in/index.php/news2catleist/2443-23-12-2013-india-today |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224091613/https://www.keralacm.gov.in/index.php/news2catleist/2443-23-12-2013-india-today |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 December 2013 |title=India Today On Cm |publisher=Keralacm.gov.in |access-date=11 January 2014}}</ref>

The [[Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board]] is a government-owned [[financial institution]] in the state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/big-push-for-infrastructure-in-budget/article17403255.ece |title=Big push for infrastructure in Budget |newspaper=The Hindu |date=3 March 2017 |via=www.thehindu.com |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129210933/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/big-push-for-infrastructure-in-budget/article17403255.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2017/mar/04/kerala-budget-infrastructure-projects-get-a-major-fillip-1577360.html |title=Kerala Budget: Infrastructure projects get a major fillip |website=The New Indian Express |date=4 March 2017 |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=30 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210130030958/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2017/mar/04/kerala-budget-infrastructure-projects-get-a-major-fillip-1577360.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
In November 2015, the [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Ministry of Urban Development]] selected seven cities of Kerala for a [[List of government schemes in India|comprehensive development program]] known as the [[Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation]] (AMRUT).<ref>{{cite news |title=Modi to address heads of civic bodies on urban revamp |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/modi-to-address-heads-of-civic-bodies-on-urban-revamp/article7336851.ece |date=20 June 2015 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=25 June 2015 |archive-date=2 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202155935/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/modi-to-address-heads-of-civic-bodies-on-urban-revamp/article7336851.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> A package of {{INRConvert|2.5|m}} was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.<ref>{{cite news |last=R. Ramabhadran |first=Pillai |title=AMRUT to roll out on a smaller scale |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/amrut-to-roll-out-on-a-smaller-scale/article7868199.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |issue=12 November 2015 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207052652/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/amrut-to-roll-out-on-a-smaller-scale/article7868199.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Grand Kerala Shopping Festival]] (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes.<ref name="GKSF begins">{{cite news |title=Shopping festival begins |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/shopping-festival-begins/article1959420.ece |work=The Hindu |date=2 December 2007 |access-date=24 January 2013 |archive-date=27 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927054507/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/shopping-festival-begins/article1959420.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lulu Mall, Thiruvananthapuram|Lulu International Mall]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]] is the largest [[Shopping Mall|shopping mall]] in India.<ref>{{cite news |title=LuLu Group: Going places |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/local/lulu-group-going-places |work=[[Khaleej Times]] |access-date=13 November 2020 |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426172244/https://www.khaleejtimes.com/business/local/lulu-group-going-places |url-status=live }}</ref>

Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.<ref name="Hindu2021">{{cite journal |title=Making sense of Kerala |journal=The Hindu |date=13 December 2021 |last1=Heller |first1=Patrick |last2=Törnquist |first2=Olle |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214151547/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/making-sense-of-kerala/article37942860.ece |accessdate=5 March 2022 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |quote=Kerala has specific challenges: persistently high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. More broadly, as the 21st century unfolds, it becomes increasingly clearer that the role of the State in supporting development must fundamentally change. First, in highly educated societies like Kerala, industrialisation is no longer the path to economic prosperity.}}</ref>

=== Industries ===
Traditional industries manufacturing items; [[coir]], [[handloom]]s, and [[handicraft]]s employ around one million people.<ref name="KumarKerala2007">{{cite book |author1=S. Rajitha Kumar |author2=University of Kerala |title=Traditional Industries of India in the Globalised World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aBvtAAAAMAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=University of Kerala |isbn=978-8177081435 |page=223}}</ref> Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in [[Alleppey]] in 1859–60.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Coir Industry |url=https://www.indianmirror.com/indian-industries/coir.html |work=Indian Mirror |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-date=2 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502033302/http://www.indianmirror.com/indian-industries/coir.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by [[SIDBI]], there are {{formatnum:1468104}} [[Small and medium enterprises#India|micro, small and medium enterprises]] in Kerala employing {{formatnum:3031272}} people.<ref name="SIDBI Report 2010">{{cite book |title=SIDBI Report on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Sector, 2010 |publisher=Small Industries Development Bank of India |year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=A Study on the Position of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kerala vis a vis the National Scenario |author=N. Rajeevan |journal=International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics and Management |date=March 2012 |volume=2 |issue=3}}</ref> The [[KSIDC]] has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ksidc.org/about-functions.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709062837/https://www.ksidc.org/about-functions.php |archive-date=9 July 2014 |title=Functions, KSIDC, Thiruvananthapuram |publisher=Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation |access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of [[ilmenite]], [[kaolin]], [[bauxite]], [[silica]], [[quartz]], [[rutile]], [[zircon]], and [[sillimanite]].<ref name="GOK_2005c">{{Cite journal |author=Government of Kerala |year=2005 |title=Kerala at a Glance |journal=Government of Kerala |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/ |access-date=22 January 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118031516/https://www.kerala.gov.in/ |archive-date=18 January 2006}}</ref> Other major sectors are [[tourism in Kerala|tourism]], medical sector, [[Education in Kerala|educational sector]], banking, [[Cochin shipyard|ship building]], [[Kochi Refineries|oil refinery]], infrastructure, manufacturing, [[Residential garden|home gardens]], animal husbandry and [[business process outsourcing]].{{citation needed|date=October 2025}}

=== Agriculture ===
[[File:Tea plantations in Munnar, Kerala.jpg|thumb|Tea plantations at [[Munnar]], Kerala]]
[[File:Nemmara-paddy.jpg|alt=A field|thumb|A paddy field at [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]], also known as ''The Granary of Kerala'']]
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.<ref name="Sinha2003">{{cite book |author=B.R. Sinha |title=Encyclopaedia Of Professional Education (10 Vol.) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdjGoXN3y1AC&pg=PA205 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-8176254106 |pages=204–05}}</ref> Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.<ref name="Remesh2010">{{cite book |author=Babu P. Remesh |title=Dynamics of Rural Labour: A Study of Small Holding Rubber Tappers in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOyNsKXSa0gC&pg=PA52 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8180696602 |pages=52–}}</ref><ref name="Commission2008">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA66 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=66–}}</ref> Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.<ref name="google9">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=66 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least corresponding rate in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=406}}

Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper<ref name="Limca Book of Records">{{cite book |title=Limca Book of Records |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-JtAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2001 |publisher=Bisleri Beverages Limited |page=97}}</ref> and accounts for 85% of the [[natural rubber]] in the country.<ref name="google10">{{cite book |title=South Asia 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG8bAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=291 |isbn=978-1-85743-318-0}}</ref><ref name="Economic Affairs">{{cite book |title=Economic Affairs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StHsAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=H. Roy |page=47}}</ref> [[Coconut]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[cashew]], and spices—including cardamom, [[vanilla]], [[cinnamon]], and [[nutmeg]] are the main agricultural products.<ref name="ChattopadhyayFranke2006" />{{rp|74}}<ref name="Newton">{{cite book |author=James Newton |title=Jay Rai's Kitchen – Keralan Cuisine |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zDWhOU-I04C&pg=PT3 |access-date=18 November 2012 |publisher=Springwood emedia |isbn=978-1-4761-2308-0 |pages=3–}}</ref><ref name="B.L.MarkoseMarkose2007">{{cite book |author1=Rajan, S. & B.L.Markose |author2=Baby Lissy Markose |title=Propagation of Horticultural Crops: Vol.06. Horticulture Science Series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19zgbxw-YhYC&pg=PA212 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-8189422486 |pages=212–}}</ref><ref name="Pradhan2009">{{cite book |author=Pradhan |title=Retailing Management 3E |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8y7Zb_D-_oYC&pg=PA256 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-07-015256-4 |pages=256–}}</ref><ref name="PradeepkumarPradeep2008">{{cite book |author1=T. Pradeepkumar |author2=Kumar, Pradeep |title=Management of Horticultural Crops: Vol.11 Horticulture Science Series: In 2 Parts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA509 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-8189422493 |pages=509–}}</ref><ref name="OsellaOsella2000">{{cite book |author1=Filippo Osella |author2=Caroline Osella |title=Social Mobility In Kerala: Modernity and Identity in Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA235 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-1693-2 |pages=235–}}</ref> Around 80% of [[India]]'s export quality cashew kernels are prepared in [[Kollam]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cashew-sector-in-a-tailspin/article8767346.ece |title=Cashew sector in a tailspin |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=24 June 2016 |archive-date=24 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624004205/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cashew-sector-in-a-tailspin/article8767346.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> The key cash crop is [[coconut]] and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=407}} Around 90% of the total [[Cardamom]] produced in India is from Kerala.<ref name="eco" /> India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world.<ref name="eco" /> About 20% of the total [[Coffee]] produced in India are from Kerala.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=409}} The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.<ref name="VarshneyRzóska1976">{{cite book |author1=C.K. Varshney |author2=J. Rzóska |title=Aquatic Weeds in South East Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lW3fHiDjHNcC&pg=PA100 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1976 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9061935568 |pages=100–}}</ref> Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.<ref name="Dobbie2006">{{cite book |author=Aline Dobbie |title=India the Elephants Blessing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ckpEd4emnCkC&pg=PA123 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Melrose Press |isbn=978-1-905226-85-6 |pages=123–}}</ref>

=== Fisheries ===
With {{convert|590|km|mi|lk=out|abbr=off}} of coastal belt,<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala: Natural Resources |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=70 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218084509/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=70 |archive-date=18 December 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> 400,000 hectares of inland water resources<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala: April 2012 |url=https://www.ibef.org/download/Kerala_060710.pdf |publisher=Indian Brand Equity Fund |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510151146/http://www.ibef.org/download/Kerala_060710.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,<ref name="Commission1961">{{cite book |author=India. Planning Commission |title=Third five year plan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_G5AAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1961 |publisher=Manager of Publications |page=359}}</ref> Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.<ref name="google13">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA51 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=51}}</ref> According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=51 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.<ref name="Handbook" /> During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called ''[[chakara]]''.<ref name="Gulati1984">{{cite book |author=Leela Gulati |title=Fisherwomen on the Kerala Coast: Demographic and Socio-Economic Impact of a Fisheries Development Project |url=https://archive.org/details/fisherwomenonker0000gula |url-access=registration |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1984 |publisher=International Labour Organization |isbn=978-9221036265 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fisherwomenonker0000gula/page/103 103]}}</ref><ref name="Journal of Kerala Studies">{{cite book |title=Journal of Kerala Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSSAAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Kerala. |page=201}}</ref> The waters provide a large variety of fish: [[Pelagic fish|pelagic species]]; 59%, [[Demersal fish|demersal species]]; 23%, [[crustacean]]s, [[Mollusca|molluscs]] and others for 18%.<ref name="Handbook">{{cite book |title=Handbook of Marine Fisheries Conservation and Management |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookmarinefi00graf |url-access=limited |publisher=Oxford University Press |author1=R. Quentin Grafton |author2=Ray Hilborn |author3=Dale Squires |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookmarinefi00graf/page/n24 10]–12 |isbn=978-0-19-537028-7}}</ref> Around 1050,000 (1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the {{convert|590|km|adj=on|abbr=off}} coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.{{citation needed|date=October 2025}}

== Transportation ==
=== Roads ===
{{Main|Roads in Kerala}}

{{See also|Kerala State Road Transport Corporation}}{{multiple image
| align = 
| direction = vertical
| width = 240
| image1 = Thrissur sixlane.jpg
| caption1 = [[National Highway 544 (India)|NH 544]] Six lane [[Thrissur]] – [[Vadakkencherry]]
}}

Kerala has {{convert|331904|km|mi}} of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.<ref name="eco" /><ref name="road">{{Cite book |title=Ministry Annual Report (2019–20) |publisher=Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India |year=2020 |location=New Delhi |url=https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Ministry%20Annual%20Report_2019-20.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2021 |access-date=20 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028140933/https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Ministry%20Annual%20Report_2019-20.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> This translates to about {{convert|9.94|km|mi|2}} of road per thousand people, compared to an average of {{convert|4.87|km|mi|2}} in the country.<ref name="eco" /><ref name="road" /> Roads in Kerala include {{convert|1812|km|mi}} of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, {{convert|4342|km|mi}} of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, {{convert|27470|km|mi}} of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, {{convert|33201|km|mi}} of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and {{convert|158775|km|mi}} of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.<ref name=":16-17">{{Cite book |title=Basic Road Statistics of India (2016–17) |publisher=Ministry of Road Transport & Highways Transport Research Wing, Government of India |year=2019 |location=New Delhi |pages=7–18 |url=https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Basic%20_Road_Statics_of_India.pdf |archive-date=28 August 2021 |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828082929/https://www.morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Basic%20_Road_Statics_of_India.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kottayam district|Kottayam]] has the maximum length of roads among the [[List of districts of Kerala|districts of Kerala]], while [[Wayanad]] accounts for minimum.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=422}} Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the [[National Highway 66 (India)|NH 66]] (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.<ref name="Kerala PWD">{{cite web |title=National Highways in Kerala |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php%3Fpage%3DNH%2520in%2520Kerala%26pageId%3D301&ved=2ahUKEwjRh7jHod7YAhWFmZQKHWSeAeoQFjAOegQIBxAB&usg=AOvVaw15WM6wG3ueKFD1qj28WEps |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala}} {{dead link|date=September 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under [[Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board|KIIFB]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Coastal, Hill Highways to become a reality |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/coastal-hill-highways-to-become-a-reality/article19262450.ece |date=12 July 2017 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=12 February 2019 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415092848/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/coastal-hill-highways-to-become-a-reality/article19262450.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road ({{convert|1622|km|mi}}) connects [[Kanyakumari]] to [[Mumbai]]; it enters Kerala via [[Talapady]] in [[Kasargod]] and passes through [[Kannur]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Malappuram]], [[Guruvayur]], [[Kochi]], [[Alappuzha]], [[Kollam]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]] before entering [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Kerala PWD" /> [[Palakkad district]] is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern ([[Malabar region|Malabar]]) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, [[Walayar]], is on [[National Highway 544 (India)|NH 544]], in the border town between Kerala and [[Tamil Nadu]], through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/districts/palakkad/ |title=District of Palakkad – the granary of Kerala, Silent Valley National Park, Nelliyampathy |publisher=keralatourism.org |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415114106/https://www.keralatourism.org/districts/palakkad/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Department of Public Works (Kerala)|Department of Public Works]] is responsible for maintaining and expanding the [[List of State Highways in Kerala|state highways system]] and major district roads.<ref>{{cite web |title=About us |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=About%20Us&pageId=256&link=About%20PWD |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201055142/https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/getPage.php?page=About%20Us&pageId=256&link=About%20PWD |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 December 2010 |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the [[GIS]]-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar VS |title=Kerala State transport project second phase to be launched next month |work=The Hindu |date=20 January 2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304181402/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2006/01/20/stories/2006012002272100.htm |archive-date=4 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Kumar VS |title=Institutional Strengthening Action Plan (ISAP) |work=Kerala Public Works Department |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2003 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512054304/https://www.keralapwd.gov.in/pwd/public/isap.jsp |archive-date=12 May 2008}}</ref> Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Kumar KG |title=Accidentally notorious |work=The Hindu |date=22 September 2003 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2003/09/22/stories/2003092201111300.htm |archive-date=10 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810210809/http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2003/09/22/stories/2003092201111300.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are {{convert|45|m|abbr=off}} wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, {{convert|60|m|abbr=off}} wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/kerala-parties-finally-toe-nhai-line-of-45m-wide-highways/661729/ |title=Kerala parties finally toe NHAI line of 45-m wide highways |work=Indian Express |date=18 August 2010 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-indias-13-super-highways/20110705.htm |title=Check out India's 13 super expressways |work=Rediff.com |date=5 July 2011 |access-date=25 September 2013 |archive-date=28 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024436/http://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-indias-13-super-highways/20110705.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala against development of five NHs |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-against-development-of-five-nhs/article4555024.ece |url-access=subscription |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=29 September 2024 |archive-date=4 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241204153945/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-against-development-of-five-nhs/article4555024.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2013}}, Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/states-troubled-highways-a-shocking-revelation-for-centre/article4865464.ece |title=State's troubled highways a shocking revelation for Centre |journal=The Hindu |date=30 June 2013 |access-date=25 September 2013 |author=Staff Reporter}}</ref>

=== Railways ===
{{Main|List of Railway Stations in Kerala}}

{{See also|Kochi Metro}}
[[Southern Railway (India)|Southern Railway]] zone of [[Indian Railways]] operates all railway lines in the state connecting most major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of [[Idukki district|Idukki]] and [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://khsrcl.com/downloads/ch-1.pdf |publisher=Delhi Metro Rail Corporation |access-date=18 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906213234/https://khsrcl.com/downloads/ch-1.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the [[Southern Railway zone|Southern Railway]]; [[Thiruvananthapuram Railway division]] headquartered at [[Thiruvananthapuram]] and [[Palakkad Railway Division]] headquartered at [[Palakkad]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Zonal Dream Of Railway Kerala |url=https://www.yentha.com/news/view/features/the-zonal-dream-of-railway-kerala |work=yentha.com |access-date=18 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025033001/https://www.yentha.com/news/view/features/the-zonal-dream-of-railway-kerala |archive-date=25 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Thiruvananthapuram Central]] (TVC) is the busiest railway station in the state.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article1807051.ece |title=Thiruvananthapuram Central to be made a world-class station |date=7 March 2007 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=8 May 2016}}</ref> Kerala's major railway stations are:

{{columns-list|colwidth=19em|
* [[Thiruvananthapuram Central]] (TVC)
* [[Ernakulam Junction railway station|Ernakulam Junction (South)]] (ERS)
* [[Kozhikode railway station|Kozhikode]] (CLT)
* [[Kollam Junction railway station|Kollam Junction]] (QLN)
* [[Thrissur railway station|Thrissur]] (TCR)
* [[Palakkad Junction]] (PGT)
* [[Kannur railway station|Kannur]] (CAN)
* [[Shornur Junction|Shoranur Junction]] (SRR)
* [[Ernakulam Town]] (North) (ERN)
* [[Kottayam railway station|Kottayam]] (KTYM)
* [[Chengannur railway station|Chengannur]] (CNGR)
* [[Alappuzha railway station|Alappuzha]] (ALLP)
* [[Thiruvananthapuram North Railway station|Thiruvananthapuram North]] (TVCN)
* [[Kayamkulam]] Junction (KYJ)
* [[Tirur railway station|Tirur]] (TIR)
* [[Kasaragod railway station|Kasaragod]] (KGQ)
* [[Aluva railway station|Aluva]] (AWY)
* [[Thalassery]] (TLY)}}

=== Airports ===
{{Main|List of airports in Kerala state}}

[[File:Cochin International Airport Limited.jpg|right|thumb|[[Cochin International Airport]], the busiest airport in the state is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy]]
Kerala has four international airports: {{Cast listing|
* [[Thiruvananthapuram International Airport]]
* [[Cochin International Airport]]
* [[Calicut International Airport]]
* [[Kannur International Airport]]
}}
[[Kollam Airport]], established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article252269.ece |title=Aviation school proposal evokes mixed response |journal=The Hindu |date=8 June 2009 |access-date=21 July 2015 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220075251/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/article252269.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kannur]] had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when [[Tata Group|Tata]] airlines operated weekly flights between [[Mumbai]] and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at [[Goa]] and Kannur.<ref>{{cite news |author=Sudhakaran, P |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Kannur-flew-way-before-its-first-airport/articleshow/48951701.cms |title=Kannur flew, way before its first airport |newspaper=The Times of India |date=14 September 2015 |publisher=Timesofindia.indiatimes.com |access-date=13 November 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518022943/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Kannur-flew-way-before-its-first-airport/articleshow/48951701.cms |archive-date=18 May 2017}}</ref> Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the [[Airport Authority of India]], is among the oldest existing airports in South India. [[Calicut International Airport]], which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the [[Malabar District|Malabar region]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms |work=The Times of India |title=Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users |date=2 April 2012 |archive-date=4 June 2021 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604110846/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kozhikode/Silver-jubilee-does-not-bring-cheer-to-Karipur-airport-users/articleshow/12498757.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the [[List of the busiest airports in India|seventh busiest]] in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by [[CIAL Solar Power Project|solar energy]]<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |last=Menon |first=Supriya |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34421419 |title=How is the world's first solar-powered airport faring? – BBC News |publisher=Bbc.com |date=9 October 2015 |access-date=21 December 2018 |work=BBC News |archive-date=25 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230525214353/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-34421419 |url-status=live }}</ref> and has won the coveted [[Champions of the Earth|Champion of the Earth]] award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the [[United Nations]].<ref name="UN">{{cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2018/jul/26/cial-chosen-for-un-environmental-honour-1848990.html |title=CIAL chosen for UN environmental honour |newspaper=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=26 July 2018 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407102227/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/2018/jul/26/cial-chosen-for-un-environmental-honour-1848990.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a [[public limited company]]; it was funded by nearly 10,000 [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|non-resident Indians]] from 30 countries.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The three airports in Kerala can be in business without affecting each other |publisher=[[Rediff.com|Rediff]] |date=6 December 1999 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.rediff.com/business/1999/dec/06inter.htm |archive-date=20 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080120015042/http://www.rediff.com/business/1999/dec/06inter.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
Other than civilian airports, [[Kochi]] has a naval airport named [[INS Garuda]]. Thiruvananthapuram International Airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the [[Indian Air Force]]. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.{{citation needed|date=October 2025}}

=== Water transport ===
{{Main|Ports in Kerala}}

{{See also|Kochi Water Metro}}[[File:Cochin Ship Yard Cranes.JPG|alt=|thumb|230px|Cranes at the [[Cochin Shipyard]]]]
Kerala has [[Ports in Kerala|two major ports, four intermediate ports, and 13 minor ports]], 4 of which have immigration checkpoint facilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kollam-port-gets-icp-clearance/article68293607.ece |date=15 Jun 2024 |title=Kollam port gets ICP clearance |work=The Hindu |access-date=16 Jun 2024 |archive-date=16 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616013704/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kollam-port-gets-icp-clearance/article68293607.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-03/ICPList_05032024..pdf |date= |title=LIST OF IMMIGRATION CHECK POSTs |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs - Govt. of India |access-date=16 Jun 2024 |archive-date=31 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731204706/https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-03/ICPList_05032024..pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The major port in the state is at [[Cochin Port|Kochi]], which has an area of 8.27 km2.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The [[Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram]], which is currently classified as a major port, only completed Phase I as others are under construction.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} Other intermediate ports include [[Beypore]], [[Kollam]], and [[Azhikode and Azhikkal|Azheekal]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The remaining ports are classified as minor which include [[Manjeshwaram]], [[Kasaragod]], [[Nileshwaram]], [[Kannur]], [[Thalassery]], [[Vadakara]], [[Ponnani]], [[Munambam]], Manakodam, [[Alappuzha]], [[Kayamkulam]], [[Neendakara]], and [[Valiyathura]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The [[Kerala Maritime Institute]] is headquartered at [[Neendakara]], which has an additional subcentre at [[Kodungallur]] too.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}} The state has numerous [[Kerala backwaters|backwaters]], which are used for commercial [[inland navigation]]. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels. There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is {{convert|1687|km}}.<ref name="google14">{{cite book |author=Government of India Planning Commission |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC&pg=PA207 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Academic Foundation |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=207}}</ref> The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the [[water hyacinth]], lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.{{citation needed|date=October 2025}}

Kerala also have India's first water metro , called 'Kochi water metro'.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prabhakaran |first=Aishwarya |date=2024-04-28 |title='Sustainable, scenic': Kochi Water Metro carves niche & new paths |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2024/Apr/28/sustainable-scenic-kochi-water-metro-carves-niche-new-paths |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> The Kochi water metro project identified 15 routes, connecting 10 islands along a network of routes that span 78 km with a fleet of 78 fast, and fully electrically propelled hybrid ferries .<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kochi Water Metro {{!}} About Us |url=https://watermetro.co.in/about |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=Kochi Water Metro |language=en}}</ref>

The {{convert|616|km}} long West-Coast Canal is the longest waterway in state connecting [[Kasaragod]] to [[Poovar]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=423}} It is divided into five sections: {{convert|41|km}} long [[Kasaragod]]-[[Nileshwaram]] reach, {{convert|188|km}} long [[Nileshwaram]]-[[Kozhikode]] reach, {{convert|160|km}} [[Kozhikode]]-[[Kottappuram, Thrissur|Kottapuram]] reach, {{convert|168|km}} long [[National Waterway 3]] ([[Kottappuram, Thrissur|Kottapuram]]-[[Kollam]] reach), and {{convert|74|km}} long [[Kollam]]-[[Vizhinjam]] reach.<ref name="eco" /> The [[Conolly Canal]], which is a part of the West-Coast Canal, connects the city of [[Kozhikode]] with [[Kochi]] through [[Ponnani]], passing through the districts of [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]] and [[Thrissur district|Thrissur]]. It begins at [[Vadakara]].<ref name="hindu_jan08" /> It was constructed in the year 1848 under the orders of then [[District collector]] of [[Malabar District|Malabar]], H. V. Conolly, initially to facilitate movement of goods to [[Kallayi]] Port from the hinterlands of Malabar through [[Kuttiady]] and [[Korapuzha]] river systems.<ref name="hindu_jan08">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/pp/2008/01/05/stories/2008010550730300.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923092718/https://www.hindu.com/pp/2008/01/05/stories/2008010550730300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 September 2010 |title=Reviving the historic Canoly Canal |date=5 January 2005 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=16 August 2009}}</ref> It was the main waterway for the cargo movement between Kozhikode and Kochi through [[Ponnani]], for more than a century.<ref name="hindu_jan08" /> Other important waterways in Kerala include the [[Alappuzha]]-[[Changanassery]] Canal, [[Alappuzha]]-[[Kottayam]]-[[Athirampuzha]] Canal, and [[Kottayam]]-[[Vaikom]] Canal.{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=424}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Kerala}}

{{See also|Ethnic groups in Kerala|List of people from Kerala}}
[[File:Kerala Population Pyramid in 5-year age groups (2011 census).png|thumbnail|The [[Population pyramid]] of Kerala]]
Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km2.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Size, Growth Rate and Distribution of Population |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf |website=Census 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=13 November 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923224858/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter3.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of|2011}}, Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.<ref name="Census2011cities">{{cite web|title=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011|url=http://urbanaffairskerala.org/images/downloads/ulb_population2011.pdf|work=Population of the urban local bodies in Kerala (2011)|publisher=Government of Kerala|accessdate=4 December 2020|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924173424/http://urbanaffairskerala.org/images/downloads/ulb_population2011.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one-third of the all-India average of 17.6%.<ref name="Census 2011" /> Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.<ref name="Census 2011" /> Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.<ref name="kerala_fact_sheet">{{cite book |url=https://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf |title=Shoreline change assessment for Kerala coast |publisher=National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment and Forests |author1=R Ramesh |author2=R Purvaja |author3=A Senthil Vel |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530204904/http://www.ncscm.org/cms/geo/pdf/research/kerala_fact_sheet.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Kerala is the [[Urbanisation in India|second-most urbanised major state]] in the country with [[List of cities in Kerala by urban area growth|47.7% urban population]] according to the [[2011 Census of India]].<ref name="ubn">{{Cite web |url=https://mohua.gov.in/cms/level-of-urbanisation.php |title=Level of Urbanisation in Indian States |date= |website=mohua.gov.in |publisher=Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Government of India |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207105118/https://mohua.gov.in/cms/level-of-urbanisation.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.<ref name="Census 2011" /> The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal ''[[Adivasi]]s'', 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.<ref name="Kalathil_2004">{{Cite book |author=Kalathil MJ |year=2004 |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |title=Withering Valli: Alienation, Degradation, and Enslavement of Tribal Women in Attappady |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621690 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/66.pdf |access-date=29 December 2008 |archive-date=30 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530205641/http://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/66.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|10–12}}

=== Gender ===
There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 March 2017 |title=International Women's Day 2017: Kerala and the myth of matriarchy |url=https://www.firstpost.com/living/kerala-and-the-myth-of-matriarchy-misogyny-is-as-much-part-of-the-state-as-matrilineal-communities-3315458.html |access-date=16 July 2021 |website=Firstpost |archive-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716051101/https://www.firstpost.com/living/kerala-and-the-myth-of-matriarchy-misogyny-is-as-much-part-of-the-state-as-matrilineal-communities-3315458.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.<ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Tomila Lankina|author1=Lankina |author2=Tomila V. |author3=Getachew, Lullit |year=2013 |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/44929/1/Competitive%20religious%20entrepreneurs%20(lsero).pdf |title=Competitive religious entrepreneurs: Christian missionaries and female education in colonial and post-colonial India |journal=British Journal of Political Science |volume=43 |pages=103–31 |doi=10.1017/s0007123412000178 |s2cid=145185494 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |access-date=2 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225144811/https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/44929/1/Competitive%20religious%20entrepreneurs%20(lsero).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,<ref>{{Cite web |last=ലേഖകൻ |first=മാധ്യമം |date=10 July 2021 |title=ജനസംഖ്യാദിനം; അറിയാം 21 കാര്യങ്ങൾ|url=https://www.madhyamam.com/velicham/special-stories/july-11-world-population-day-821671 |access-date=16 July 2021 |website=Madhyamam |language=en |archive-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716051106/https://www.madhyamam.com/velicham/special-stories/july-11-world-population-day-821671 |url-status=live }}</ref> which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's [[Gender Development Index]] was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]], contributed to it.<ref name="Joseph">{{cite book |author=Ammu Joseph |editor=Oommen M.A. |year=1999 |title=Rethinking Development: Kerala's Development Experience |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-8170227656 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lzV3bQh-L94C |pages=479–86 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>

Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India; it is the only state where women outnumber men.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005" />{{rp|2}} While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts, etc., these tools have still not translated into full, [[Women's rights|equal rights]] for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences [[social mobility]].<ref>Brenda Maddox mentions in: Maddox, Brenda. "A Marxist Paradise For Women?" New Statesman. (London, England: 1996) 128 no4440 30 January 14, 1999.</ref><ref>Antherjanam, Lalithambika. Cast Me Out If You Will. New York: The Feminist Press, 1997.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |year=1987 |title=Governments and Culture: How Women Made Kerala Literate |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=447–72 |doi=10.2307/2758883 |jstor=2758883}}</ref>

==== LGBT rights ====
{{Main|LGBT rights in Kerala}}

Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.in/2015/11/12/kerala-government-transge_n_8543410.html |title=Kerala Government Has Unveiled A Policy To Enforce Constitutional Rights Of Transgenders |website=The Huffington Post |date=12 November 2015 |access-date=28 June 2016 |archive-date=10 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510075414/http://www.huffingtonpost.in/2015/11/12/kerala-government-transge_n_8543410.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Kerala is one of the first [[States and union territories of India|states in India]] to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free [[sex reassignment surgery]] through government hospitals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://scroll.in/article/804496/why-keralas-free-sex-change-surgeries-will-offer-a-new-lifeline-for-the-transgender-community |title=Why Kerala's free sex-change surgeries will offer a new lifeline for the transgender community |last=Devasia |first=T. K. |website=Scroll.in |date=19 March 2016 |language=en-US |access-date=5 July 2019 |archive-date=29 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629061452/https://scroll.in/article/804496/why-keralas-free-sex-change-surgeries-will-offer-a-new-lifeline-for-the-transgender-community |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/After-She-Taxi-Kerala-to-launch-G-Taxi-for-transgenders/articleshow/50792517.cms |title=After She-Taxi, Kerala to launch G-Taxi for transgenders |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=31 January 2016 |agency=PTI |access-date=25 March 2016 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |archive-date=29 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029184249/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/After-She-Taxi-Kerala-to-launch-G-Taxi-for-transgenders/articleshow/50792517.cms |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-how-kerala-left-the-country-behind-on-transgender-rights-2145017 |title=How Kerala left the country behind on transgender rights |website=dna |language=en-US |access-date=19 March 2016 |date=14 November 2015 |archive-date=29 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629021111/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-how-kerala-left-the-country-behind-on-transgender-rights-2145017 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Queerala]] is one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Affirming their right, they march with pride |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/affirming-their-right-they-march-with-pride/article19484625.ece |date=13 August 2017 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=28 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228100119/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/affirming-their-right-they-march-with-pride/article19484625.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 2010, [[Kerala Queer Pride]] has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-to-host-its-first-gay-parade/articleshow/6112610.cms |title=Kerala to host its first gay parade |website=The Times of India |date=30 June 2010}}</ref>

In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "[[third gender]]" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/kerala-govt-passes-order-use-transgender-instead-thirdother-gender-104584 |website=www.thenewsminute.com |access-date=8 July 2019 |title=Kerala govt passes order to use 'transgender' instead of 'third/other gender' |date=30 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/only-transgender-in-official-communication/article28235748.ece |title=Only 'transgender' in official communication |last=Roshni |first=R. k |date=30 June 2019 |work=The Hindu |access-date=8 July 2019 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

=== Human Development Index ===
{{See also|Kerala Model}}
[[File:2006 Human Development Index for India map by states, HDI data by GoI and UNDP India.svg|thumb|[[Human Development Index]] map for Indian states in 2006, as calculated by [[Government of India]] and [[United Nations Development Programme]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.in.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/gendering_human_development_indices_summary_report.pdf |title=Gendering Human Development Indices |date=March 2009 |publisher=Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India with UNDP India}}</ref>]]
Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Chun |title=The transformation of Chinese socialism |date=2006 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-3785-0 |location=Durham [N.C.] |pages=298 |oclc=63178961}}</ref> {{As of|2015}}, Kerala has a [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.<ref name="snhdi-gdl">{{cite web |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=Global Data Lab |publisher=Institute for Management Research, Radboud University |access-date=25 September 2018 |language=en}}</ref> It was 0.790 in 2007–08<ref name="IDHR 2011">{{cite web |title=India Human Development Report 2011: Towards Social Inclusion |url=https://www.im4change.org/docs/340IHDR_Summary.pdf |publisher=Institute of Applied Manpower Research, [[Planning Commission (India)|Planning Commission]], [[Government of India]] |access-date=24 October 2014 |archive-date=21 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021081939/http://www.im4change.org/docs/340IHDR_Summary.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.<ref name="IDHR 2011" /> Comparatively higher spending by the government on [[primary education|primary level education]], [[health care]] and the elimination of [[poverty in India|poverty]] from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;<ref name="UNDP2005">{{cite web |title=Kerala HDR 2005 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/nationalreports/asiathepacific/india/name,3397,en.html |work=Human Development Report |publisher=United Nations |location=Asia and the Pacific |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="UNDP20054">{{cite web |title=Human Development Report 2005 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR05_complete.pdf |work=Human Development Report |publisher=United Nations |location=Asia and the Pacific |access-date=14 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310193948/https://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR05_complete.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> the report was prepared by the central government's [[Institute of Applied Manpower Research]].<ref name="hdi kerala chart">{{cite web |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/wire-news/human-development-index-rose-21-per-cent-kerala-tops-chart_603650.html |title=Human Development Index rose 21 per cent; Kerala tops chart |date=21 October 2011 |work=[[CNBC]] |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="hdi kerala">{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/growth-reforms-lift-living-standards-in-india-human-development-index/articleshow/10447495.cms |title=Growth, reforms lift living standards in India: Human development Index |date=22 October 2011 |access-date=14 November 2015 |work=Economic Times}}</ref> However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.<ref name="UNDP2005" /> Kerala is also widely regarded as the [[public hygiene|cleanest]] and healthiest state in India.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Sunil Mani |author2=Anjini Kochar |title=Kerala's Economy: Crouching Tiger, Sacred Cows |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKeRAtvXl8oC&pg=PA121 |access-date=24 September 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126413591 |page=121}}</ref>

According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest [[literacy rate]] (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India.<ref name="Literacy survey_2018">{{Cite web |date=8 September 2020 |title=Literacy Survey, India (2017–18) |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/at-96-2-kerala-tops-indias-literacy-rate-chart-again-andhra-pradesh-ranks-lowest-with-66-4-8796401.html |access-date=9 September 2020 |publisher=Firstpost |archive-date=2 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102214441/https://www.firstpost.com/india/at-96-2-kerala-tops-indias-literacy-rate-chart-again-andhra-pradesh-ranks-lowest-with-66-4-8796401.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Kottayam district]], the literacy rate was 97%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pincodeindia.net/literacy-rate-of-kerala.php |title=Literacy Rate in Kerala – 2018 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207105113/https://www.pincodeindia.net/literacy-rate-of-kerala.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="pc-census2011">{{Cite web |title=Census 2011 (Final Data) – Demographic details, Literate Population (Total, Rural & Urban) |url=https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127163347/https://planningcommission.gov.in/data/datatable/data_2312/DatabookDec2014%20307.pdf |archive-date=27 January 2018 |access-date=3 October 2018 |website=planningcommission.gov.in |publisher=Planning Commission, Government of India}}</ref><ref name="IBNLiteracy2013" /> The [[life expectancy]] in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India {{As of|2011|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kerala-tops-in-literacy-rate-health-services/article2562589.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=Kerala tops in literacy rate, health services |date=22 October 2011 |first=J. |last=Balaji |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.<ref>{{cite book |title=Human Development Report 2005 Kerala |publisher=State Planning Board |author=Centre for Development Studies Thiruvananthapuram |year=2006 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala}}</ref> By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.<ref name="princeton6" /> The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Press Note on Poverty Estimates, 2011–12 |url=https://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf |website=planningcommission.gov.in |publisher=Planning Commission, Government of India |access-date=27 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628120737/https://planningcommission.nic.in/news/pre_pov2307.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.<ref>{{Cite report |title=EFA [Education for All] Global Monitoring Report |url=https://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf |year=2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040923014605/https://www.unesco.org/education/efa_report/chapter4.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2004 |page=156 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Kutty VR |year=2000 |title=Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India |journal=Health Policy and Planning |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=103–09 |doi=10.1093/heapol/15.1.103 |pmid=10731241 |s2cid=7634887 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003" /><ref name="Varma_2005">{{Cite news |author=Varma MS |title=Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap |work=The Financial Express |date=4 April 2005 |access-date=12 November 2007 |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617134031/https://www.financialexpress.com/old/print.php?content_id=86925 |archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref>{{rp|48}} Kerala is the [[List of Indian states and union territories by poverty rate|least impoverished state]] in India according to [[NITI Aayog]]'s Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and [[Reserve Bank of India]]'s ''Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SDG India – Index 2021–22 – Partnerships in the Decade of Action |url=https://sdgindiaindex.niti.gov.in/#/ranking |date=2021 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613021943/https://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/SDG_3.0_Final_04.03.2021_Web_Spreads.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2021 |website=[[NITI Aayog]] |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy. Table 154 : Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line. (2011-12) |url=https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=19887 |access-date=13 September 2021 |website=Reserve Bank of India |archive-date=13 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913133540/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=19887 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Kerala has undergone a "[[demographic transition]]" characteristic of such [[developed nation]]s as [[Canada]], [[Japan]], and [[Norway]].<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005" />{{rp|1}} In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60.<ref name="Varma_2005" /> In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-64936519 |title=Kerala: A ghost town in the world's most populated country |last= |first= |date=26 March 2023 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |publisher=BBC News |access-date=26 March 2023}}</ref>

In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6">{{Cite book |author=Kutty VR |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621607 |access-date=12 November 2007 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/57.pdf |page=6}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All districts except Malappuram district had fertility rates below 2. Fertility rate is highest in [[Malappuram district]] (2.2) and lowest in [[Pathanamthitta district]] (1.3).<ref>{{cite web |title=Fertility at District Level in India:Lessons from the 2011 Census |url=https://www.ceped.org/IMG/pdf/ceped_wp30.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwio7YjXv9nsAhVJzjgGHUy2BTE4FBAWMAR6BAgJEAE&usg=AOvVaw2PL5xTsjiaBMS96pAhMEX1 |author=Christophe Z Guilmoto and Irudaya Rajan |page=31 |format=PDF |access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref> In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/170316/fertility-rate-to-even-out-in-20-years-in-kerala.html |title=Fertility rate to even out in 20 years in Kerala |website=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref> The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/nation/2017/04/28/kerala-least-corrupt-states-india-karnatak-highest-petty-corruptionkerala-least-corrupt-states-india-karnatak-highest-petty-corruption.html |title=Kerala among the least corrupt states in India, Karnataka tops the list: study |website=OnManorama}}</ref> Transparency International (2005)<ref>{{cite web |title=India Corruption Study – 2005 |publisher=[[Transparency International]] |date=June 2005 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive2/india_corruption_study_2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413044112/https://archive.transparency.org/regional_pages/asia_pacific/newsroom/news_archive2/india_corruption_study_2005 |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 April 2013}}</ref> and ''India Today'' (1997).<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jean Dreze |author2=Amartya Sen |title=India: Development and Participation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpOl35r8UHQC&pg=PA368 |access-date=24 September 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925749-2 |page=368}}</ref> Kerala has the lowest [[homicide]] rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.<ref name="ncrb">{{cite web |url=https://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/Table%203.1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024506/https://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2011/cii-2011/Table%203.1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2013 |date=21 June 2012 |title=Table–3.1 Incidence And Rate Of Violent Crimes During 2011 |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher [[suicide rate]], lower share of [[earned income]], [[child marriage]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=Child marriages remain Kerala's secret shame |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/child-marriages-remain-keralas-secret-shame/article7613216.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |date=4 September 2015 |access-date=4 September 2015 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> complaints of [[sexual harassment]] and limited freedom are reported.<ref name="Joseph" /> The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriages and the number of such cases is increasing in Malappuram. Child marriages are particularly [[Child marriage among Muslims in Kerala|higher among the Muslim community]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Naha |first=Abdul Latheef |title=Child marriage cases go up in Malappuram |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/child-marriage-cases-go-up-in-malappuram/article22751598.ece |date=18 February 2018 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2018/10/26/child-marriages-shoot-up-in-the-most-unlikely-places-in-kerala.html |title=Child marriages shoot up in the most unlikely places in Kerala |website=OnManorama}}</ref> In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.<ref>{{cite news |last=Natu |first=Nitasha |title=Kerala No. 1 in child sex abuse complaints; Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra follow |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kerala-no-1-in-child-sex-abuse-complaints-tamil-nadu-maharashtra-follow/articleshow/72972619.cms |date=25 December 2019 |newspaper=The Time of India |access-date=31 December 2019}}</ref>

In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Conviction-rate-up-Kerala-tops-with-over-77/articleshow/48408220.cms |location=New Delhi, India |work=The Times of India |title=Conviction rate up, Kerala tops with over 77% link |date=9 August 2015 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Population-of-homeless-in-rural-India-dips/articleshow/26981896.cms |location=India |work=The Times of India |title=Population of homeless in rural India dips |date=7 December 2013 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cm-told-to-pursue-zero-homeless-kerala-project/article5309749.ece |location=Pathanamthitta, India |work=The Hindu |title=CM told to pursue Zero Homeless Kerala project link |date=3 November 2013}}</ref> The state was also among the lowest in the [[India State Hunger Index]] next only to [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-becomes-Indias-first-complete-digital-state/articleshow/48494982.cms |location=New Delhi, India |work=The Times of India |title=Kerala-becomes-Indias-first-complete-digital-state link |date=15 August 2015}}</ref>

=== Healthcare ===
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| header_align = left/right/center
| footer_align = left/right/center
| header_background =
| footer_background =
| image1 = Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum.jpg
| caption1 = [[Regional Cancer Centre, Trivandrum]]
}}

{{See also|List of government hospitals in Kerala}}
Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the [[universal health care]] program.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Maya |first1=C |title=The road to universal health care in State |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/the-road-to-universal-health-care-in-state/article5450319.ece |access-date=14 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |date=12 December 2013}}</ref> The [[sub-replacement fertility]] level and [[infant mortality rate]] are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12<ref name="Brenkert_Malone_2003" /><ref name="Kutty_2004_6" />{{rp|49}} to 14<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004">{{Cite book |author=Krishnaswami P |veditors=Neelakantan S, Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Morbidity Study: Incidence, Prevalence, Consequences, and Associates |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621669 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/63.pdf |access-date=31 December 2008}}</ref>{{rp|5}} deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kerala-as-good-as-us-oecd-in-saving-newborn-children/articleshow/57438366.cms |title=Kerala as good as US, OECD in saving newborn children |work=The Times of India |access-date=9 March 2017}}</ref> According to a study commissioned by [[Lien Ying Chow|Lien]] Foundation, a [[Singapore]]-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Patel |first1=Atish |title=Why Kerala is the best place in India to die |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-36137285 |date=4 May 2016}}</ref> However, Kerala's [[morbidity rate]] is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively {{As of|2005|lc=y}}.<ref name="Krishnaswami_2004" />{{rp|5}} Kerala's 13.3% [[prevalence]] of [[low birth weight]] is higher than that of many [[first world]] nations.<ref name="Kutty_2004_6" /> Outbreaks of [[water-borne disease]]s such as [[diarrhoea]], [[dysentery]], [[hepatitis]], and [[typhoid]] among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 million [[water well]]s is an issue worsened by the lack of [[sanitary sewer|sewers]].<ref name="Roy_2004">{{Cite journal |author=Roy MKP |year=2004 |title=Water quality and health status in Kollam Municipality |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://services.iriskf.org/data/articles/Document1168200520.8355524.pdf |access-date=28 December 2008 |archive-date=21 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221084934/http://services.iriskf.org/data/articles/Document1168200520.8355524.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{rp|5–7}} As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/diabetic-patients-kerala-tops-list-of-indian-states/articleshow/61974164.cms |title=Diabetic patients: Kerala tops list of Indian states |date=8 December 2017 |website=The Times of India |language=en |access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref>

The [[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF) and the [[World Health Organization]] designated Kerala the world's first "[[Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative|baby-friendly]] state" because of its effective promotion of breastfeeding over formulas.<ref>{{cite web |date=August 2002 |title=Kerala Named World's First WHO-UNICEF "Baby-Friendly State" |work=United Nations Foundation |url=https://www.unwire.org/unwire/20020801/28062_story.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306205352/https://www.unwire.org/unwire/20020801/28062_story.asp |archive-date=6 March 2010 |access-date=14 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2166677.stm |location=Kochi, India |work=BBC News |title=Indian state wins 'baby-friendly' award |date=1 August 2002}}</ref> Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% of births being in medical facilities.<ref name="kerala_fact_sheet"/> [[Ayurveda]],<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004">{{Cite journal |last=Unnikrishnan |first=E |year=2004 |title=''Materia Medica'' of the Local Health Traditions of Payyannur |journal=Centre for Development Studies |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/80.pdf |access-date=22 January 2006}}</ref>{{rp|13}} ''[[siddha]]'', and endangered and endemic modes of [[traditional medicine]], including ''kalari'', ''marmachikitsa'' and ''vishavaidyam'', are practised. Some occupational communities such as [[Kaniyar]] were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.<ref>Angus Stewart, woodburn The Religious attitude: A psychological study of its differentiation, 1927</ref> These propagate via ''[[gurukula]]'' discipleship,<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004" />{{rp|5–6}} and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.<ref name="Unnikrishnan_2004" />{{rp|15}} The ''[[Arya Vaidya Sala]]'' established by [[Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier]] at [[Kottakkal]] (about 10 km from [[Malappuram]]) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.<ref name="Warrier">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/pk-warrier-turns-90/article2080601.ece |title=PK Warrier turns 90 |work=The Hindu |date=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal – Part 1">{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nj6YqhsUo0c |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/nj6YqhsUo0c |archive-date=22 December 2021 |url-status=live |title=Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal – Part 1 |publisher=BBC World – India Business Report |date=30 May 2013 |medium=Documentary}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="mal">{{Cite news |title=അമ്പതിന്റെ നിറവില്‍ മലപ്പുറം; മലപ്പുറത്തിന്റെ മാനവിക മഹാപൈതൃകം |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/alamkode-leelakrishnan-writes-about-malappuram-1.3880292 |last=Leelakrishnan |first=Alamkode |date=17 June 2019 |work=Mathrubhumi |access-date=24 April 2021 |archive-date=7 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507091729/https://www.mathrubhumi.com/malappuram/specials/50-years-of-malappuram/alamkode-leelakrishnan-writes-about-malappuram-1.3880292 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.<ref name="Warrier" /><ref name="Arya Vaidya Sala Kottakkal – Part 1" /><ref name="mal" />

In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/kerala-becomes-first-state-to-provide-free-cancer-treatment/457976 |title=Kerala becomes first state to provide free cancer treatment – Free Press Journal |website=www.freepressjournal.in |access-date=18 May 2016 |date=11 October 2014}}</ref> People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of [[cancer]]s, [[Liver disease|liver]] and [[Kidney disease|kidney]] diseases.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indushealthplus.com/kerala-health-statistics.html |title=Health Statistics and Public Health issues in Kerala |website=[[Indus Health Plus]] |language=en |access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> In April 2016, the ''Economic Times'' reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations have stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/healthcare/biotech/healthcare/health-crisis-in-kerala-the-increase-in-cancer-kidney-and-liver-diseases/articleshow/51950836.cms?intenttarget=no |title=Health crisis in Kerala: The increase in cancer, kidney and liver diseases – The Economic Times |journal=The Economic Times |access-date=18 May 2016 |date=23 April 2016 |last1=Krishnakumar |first1=P. K. |last2=Sanandakumar |first2=S.}}</ref> As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the [[Department of Health and Family Welfare (Kerala)|Department of Health Services]], of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.<ref name="dhs">{{Cite book |title=List of modern medicine institutions (2017–18) |last=Statistics Wing |first=Health Information Cell |publisher=Directorate of Health Services, Government of Kerala |year=2019 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |pages=1, 7 |url=https://dhs.kerala.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/list_10052019.pdf}}</ref>

=== Language ===

[[File:Language Map of Kerala (2011 Census).svg|thumb|200px|Languages spoken by district: {{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Malayalam'''
{{legend|#009deb|80–90%}}
{{legend|#0088cc|90–100%}}
{{col-end}}
]]

[[Malayalam]] is the official language of Kerala and one of the [[Languages of India|Classical languages of India]].<ref name="thehindu20130524">{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece |title='Classical' status for Malayalam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kerala – Principal Language |url=https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=73 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610111356/https://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=73 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |access-date=27 November 2018 |website=Government of India}}</ref> There is a significant [[Tamil language|Tamil]] population throughout Kerala mainly in [[Idukki district]] and [[Palakkad district]] in which it accounts for 17.48% and 4.8% respectively of the two districts' populations.<ref name="lg">{{cite web |title=Census of India – Language |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16.html |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and [[Kannada]] are spoken mainly in the northern parts of [[Kasaragod district]], each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district, respectively.<ref name="lg" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Kerala government to appoint officer to study issues of linguistic minorities |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thiruvananthapuram/government-to-appoint-officer-to-study-issues-of-linguistic-minorities/articleshow/59892625.cms |date=2 August 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |department=City: Thiruvananthapuram |agency=TNN |access-date=29 December 2019}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Kerala}}

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| total_width = 200
| caption_align = left
| align = right
| image1 = Jain temple, Wayanad IMG 3494 by Joseph Lazer.jpg
| caption1 = [[Jain Temple, Kidanganad|Jain Temple]] at [[Sultan Bathery]].
| image3 = Cheraman juma masjid Old.jpg
| caption3 = Model of original [[Cheraman Juma Mosque]].
| image4 = Palayoor St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church.jpg
| caption4 = [[St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Church, Palayoor]].
}}

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = '''Religion in Kerala''' (2011)<ref name="census_2016_religion">{{cite web |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |title=Population by religious community – 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner |work=[[2011 Census of India]] |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS |archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Hinduism in Kerala|Hinduism]]
|value1 = 54.73
|color1 = darkorange
|label2 = [[Islam in Kerala|Islam]]
|value2 = 26.56
|color2 = Green
|label3 = [[Christianity in Kerala|Christianity]]
|value3 = 18.38
|color3 = dodgerblue
|label4 = Other or none
|value4 = 0.32
|color4 = grey
}}
[[File:Kerala religions 2011.png|thumb|Percentage of the most popular religion in each Taluk of Kerala]]

Kerala is very religiously diverse with [[Hindus]], [[Muslims]] and [[Christians]] having a significant population throughout the state. Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thegroundtruthproject.org/paradox-indias-religiously-diverse-state/ |title=The paradox of India's most religiously diverse state |date=7 April 2019 |publisher=The Ground Truth Project |access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/kerala-religion-gender_b_9577234 |title=There's a Place in India Where Religions Coexist Beautifully and Gender Equality Is Unmatched |date=6 April 2016 |publisher=Huffpost |access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> [[Hinduism]] is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant numbers of adherents to [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]]. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little [[sectarianism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heller |first=Patrick |title=Social capital as a product of class mobilization and state intervention: Industrial workers in Kerala, India |journal=[[World Development (journal)|World Development]] |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=1055–1071 |date=June 1996 |doi=10.1016/0305-750X(96)00015-0  |doi-access=free}}</ref> According to [[2011 Census of India]] figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.<ref name="censusindia2011religion">{{cite web |title=Population by religious communities |work=Census of India |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html |publisher=Government of India |access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref> Hindus represent the biggest religious group in all districts except [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]], where they are outnumbered by Muslims.<ref name="thehindu1">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2004/09/23/stories/2004092306010500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041128124211/https://www.hindu.com/2004/09/23/stories/2004092306010500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 November 2004 |location=Chennai, India |title=Increase in Muslim population in the State |date=23 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=13 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-not-Goa-has-maximum-no-of-Christians/articleshow/2649158.cms |title=Kerala, not Goa, has maximum no. of Christians |work=The Times of India |date=25 December 2007 |publisher=The Times Group}}</ref> As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total childbirths in the state, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2016.pdf |title=Vital Statistics 2016 |website=Ecostat, Kerala Government. |access-date=7 June 2019 |archive-date=11 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711011809/http://www.ecostat.kerala.gov.in/images/pdf/publications/Vital_Statistics/data/vital_statistics_2016.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger [[Indian Ocean]] rim, via spice and silk traders from the [[Middle East]]. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.<ref name="indiatimes3">{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Trade-not-invasion-brought-Islam-to-India/articleshow/2144414.cms |title=Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India |last=Sethi |first=Atul |date=24 June 2007 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated20002">Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.</ref> Notable has been the occurrence of [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals|Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin]], the mythical Hindu king who moved to [[Arabia]] to meet [[Muhammad]] and converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Varghese |first1=Theresa |title=Stark World Kerala |year=2006 |publisher=Stark World Pub. |isbn=978-8190250511 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kumar |first1=Satish |title=India's National Security: Annual Review 2009 |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x-esAgAAQBAJ&q=cheraman+perumal+tajuddin&pg=PA346 |publisher=Routledge |language=en |isbn=978-1-136-70491-8}}</ref><ref>Minu Ittyipe; [[Solomon]] to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012</ref> Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the [[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]]s. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that form the Muslim population of Kerala.<ref name="KunhaliV2">Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [https://ir.amu.ac.in/2736/1/T%205242.pdf]</ref><ref name="Divakaruni20112">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0wLgfQyvFAC |title=The Palace of Illusions |author=Chitra Divakaruni |year=2011 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |isbn=978-0-330-47865-6 |access-date=18 November 2012}}</ref> According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in {{CE|624}} at [[Kodungallur]] with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who converted to Islam during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] ({{Circa|570}}–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7656-0104-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson |author2=Kai Kresse |title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333 |access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-70024-5 |pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book |author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458 |title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine |publisher=Brill |year=1987 |isbn=978-9004079298 |pages=458–59 |access-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125191234/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book |author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi |title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179 |access-date=25 July 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=Other Books |isbn=978-8190388788 |pages=179–}}</ref>

Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of [[Thomas the Apostle]], one of the [[Twelve Apostles]] of [[Jesus]] Christ.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&q=Muziris ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226115908/https://books.google.com/books?id=lZUBZlth2qgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn%3A9780802824172&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i5ncVJiVJ4u4uATrlIGoAg&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA|date=26 December 2016}} by Erwin Fahlbusch. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing – 2008. p. 285. {{ISBN|978-0802824172}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&pg=PA27 |title=The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities |editor-first=Orpa |editor-last=Slapak |publisher=The Israel Museum |location=Jerusalem |year=2003 |page=27 |isbn=9652781797 |chapter=The Cochin Jews Of Kerala |first=Barbara C. |last=Johnson}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/592851/Saint-Thomas |title=Saint Thomas |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=1 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Menachery">Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956</ref> [[Saint Thomas Christians]] include [[Syro-Malabar Church|Syro-Malabar Catholic]],<ref name="Ponnumuthan1996">{{cite book |author=Selvister Ponnumuthan |title=Authentic Interpretation in Canon Law: Reflections on a Distinctively Canonical Institution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcedqS4jOusC&pg=PA103 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1996 |publisher=Gregorian&Biblical BookShop |isbn=978-8876527210 |pages=103–}}</ref> [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church|Syro-Malankara Catholic]],<ref name="Williams1996">{{cite book |author=Raymond Brady Williams |title=Christian Pluralism in the United States: The Indian Immigrant Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w1uk6zZQKzAC&pg=PA144 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57016-9 |pages=144–}}</ref> [[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]],<ref name="AndersonTang2005">{{cite book |author1=Allan Anderson |author2=Edmond Tang |title=Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LDZgKELq7AoC&pg=PA248 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=OCMS |isbn=978-1-870345-43-9 |pages=248–}}</ref> [[Mar Thoma Syrian Church]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=John Anthony McGuckin (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. pp. 377–. Retrieved 18 November 2012. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons. |isbn=978-1-4443-9254-8 |year=2010}}</ref> [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]],<ref name="Russell2010">{{cite book |author=Thomas Arthur Russell |title=Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmMarHDbglgC&pg=PT40 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Universal-Publishers |isbn=978-1-59942-877-2 |pages=40–}}</ref> the [[Saint Thomas Anglicans|Syrian Anglicans]] of the [[Church of South India|CSI]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephen Neill |title=A History of Christianity in India: 1707–1858 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-tvrYbYxMC&pg=PA240 |access-date=31 August 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89332-9 |pages=247–251}}</ref> and [[Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bergunder |first1=Michael |title=The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Century |year=2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2734-0 |pages=15–16, 26–30, 37–57 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGiv3riaunQC&q=Pentecostal+evangelical+saint+thomas+syrian+christian |language=en}}</ref> The origin of the [[Latin Church|Latin Catholic]] Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese [[Padroado]] in the 16th century.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA192 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=192–}}</ref><ref name="RakRaj2008">{{cite book |author1=Knut A. Jacobsen, Selva J. Rak |author2=Selva J. Raj |title=South Asian Christian Diaspora: Invisible Diaspora in Europe and North America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6L5MxlMIcG0C&pg=PA172 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-6261-7 |pages=172–}}</ref><ref name="Subramanian2009">{{cite book |author=Ajantha Subramanian |title=Shorelines: Space and Rights in South India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsd55y4KbeYC&pg=PA95 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8685-0 |pages=95–}}</ref> As a consequence of centuries of mixing with colonial immigrants, beginning with the Portuguese, Dutch, French, British and other Europeans, there is a community of [[Anglo-Indians]] in Kerala of mixed European and Indian parentage or ancestry. Kerala has the highest population of Christians among all the states of India.<ref>Singh, Anjana. "Fort Cochin in Kerala 1750–1830 The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu." Brill, Leiden Boston: 2010, 3: 92.</ref>

[[Judaism]] reached Kerala in the 10th century BCE during the time of [[Solomon|King Solomon]].<ref>Weil, Shalva. "Jews in India." in M.Avrum Erlich (ed.) ''Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora'', Santa Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO. 2008, 3: 1204–12.</ref> They are called [[Cochin Jews]] or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of [[History of the Jews in India|Jews in India]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&q=two+millennia ''The Israelis (Jews) of India: A Story of Three Communities''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226115854/https://books.google.com/books?id=qhKGPprbQaYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn%3A9652781797&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UNa1VM-AFc_kuQSLiYLIAQ&ved=0CB8Q6wEwAA|date=26 December 2016}} by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. {{ISBN|978-9652781796}}.</ref><ref>Weil, Shalva. India's Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2009. [first published in 2002; 3rd edn.]. Katz 200/*Religion */ 0; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998</ref> There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of them [[Aliyah|migrated to Israel]].<ref name="Roland1998">{{cite book |author=Joan G. Roland |title=The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHJccZ92IecC&pg=PA283 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-7658-0439-6 |pages=283–}}</ref> The [[Cochin Synagogue|Paradesi Synagogue]] at [[Kochi]] is the oldest synagogue in the [[Commonwealth Nations|Commonwealth]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paradesi Synagogue – tourist attractions at Mattancherry, Ernakulam Kerala Tourism |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/kochi/paradeso-synagogue-mattancherry.php |website=www.keralatourism.org}}</ref> [[Jainism in Kerala|Jainism]] has a considerable following in the [[Wayanad district]].<ref name="LockieCarpenter2012">{{cite book |author1=Stewart Lockie |author2=David Carpenter |title=Agriculture, Biodiversity and Markets: Livelihoods and Agroecology in Comparative Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZvlmpwviuMC&pg=PT258 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-54649-5 |page=258}}</ref><ref name="MathewBaviskar2009">{{cite book |author1=George Mathew |author2=B S Baviskar |title=Inclusion and Exclusion in Local Governance: Field Studies from Rural India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DsDOrvROzPEC&pg=PA204 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Sage Publications |isbn=978-8178298603 |page=204}}</ref>

== Education ==
{{Main|Education in Kerala}}

{{multiple image
| align = 
| direction = vertical
| width = 225
| image1 = University of Kerala.jpg
| caption1 = [[University of Kerala]] at Thiruvananthapuram
}}

The [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]] flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including [[series expansion]] for trigonometric functions.<ref name="roy">{{cite journal |last=Roy |first=Ranjan |year=1990 |title=Discovery of the Series Formula for π by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha |journal=Mathematics Magazine |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=291–306 |doi=10.2307/2690896 |jstor=2690896}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Pingree |first=David |author-link=David Pingree |title=Hellenophilia versus the History of Science |year=1992 |journal=Isis |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=554–63 |jstor=234257 |doi=10.1086/356288 |quote=One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400 A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the ''Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society'', in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series ''without'' the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution. |bibcode=1992Isis...83..554P |s2cid=68570164}}</ref> In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of the [[Church Mission Society]] missionaries to promote mass education.<ref>{{cite news |title=Missionaries led State to renaissance: Pinarayi |newspaper=The Hindu |date=13 November 2016 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/Missionaries-led-State-to-renaissance-Pinarayi/article16444369.ece |quote=Inaugurating on Saturday the valedictory of the bicentenary celebration of the arrival of Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries to the shores of Kerala, Mr. Vijayan said it was their pioneering work in the fields of education, literature, printing, publishing, women's education, education of the differently-abled and, in general, a new social approach through the inclusion of marginalised sections into the mainstream which brought the idea of 'equality' into the realm of public consciousness. This had raised the standard of public consciousness and paved the way for the emergence of the renaissance movements in the State.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala to celebrate CMS mission |url=https://churchmissionsociety.org/our-stories/kerala-celebrate-cms-mission |date=9 November 2016 |website=Church Mission Society |access-date=4 April 2022 |quote=Indian President Pranab Mukherjee, visited CMS College in Kerala, the oldest college in India, and laid the foundation stone of the bicentenary block. He said, 'CMS college is a pioneer of modern education in Kerala. It has been the source of strong currents of knowledge and critical inquiry that have moulded the scholastic and socio-cultural landscape of Kerala and propelled the State to the forefront of social development.'{{hsp}} }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.epw.in/journal/1999/39/special-articles/growth-literacy-kerala.html |title=Growth of Literacy in Kerala |date=5 June 2015 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |pages=7–8 |via=www.epw.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=District Handbooks of Kerala |url=https://www.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Kottayam.pdf |date=March 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319183020/https://www.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Kottayam.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2009 |url-status=dead |pages=19–20 |publisher=Department of Information & Public Relations Government of Kerala |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=Sreedhara |title=A survey of Kerala History |year=1996 |publisher=S.Viswanathan Printers and Publishers |location=Madras |pages=339, 348–49 |isbn=978-8126415786 |url=https://onlinestore.dcbooks.com/books/a-survey-of-kerala-history |access-date=20 March 2019 |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824143707/https://onlinestore.dcbooks.com/books/a-survey-of-kerala-history |url-status=dead}}</ref> Following the recommendations of the [[Wood's despatch]] of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system of [[grant-in-aid]] to attract more private initiatives.<ref name="Devrep53-58" /> Catholic institutions such as [[St. Thomas College, Thrissur|St Thomas College Thrissur]] and [[St. Berchmans College|SB College Changanasserry]] were established under the leadership of the Catholic Church. The efforts by leaders such as [[Kuriakose Elias Chavara|Fr. Kuriakose Elias Chavara]], [[Charles Lavigne|Mar Charles Lavigne SJ]], [[Ayya Vaikundar|Vaikunda Swami]], [[Narayana Guru]] and [[Ayyankali]] in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations like [[Nair Service Society]], [[Sree Narayana Trust|SNDP]], [[Muslim Educational Society]], Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.<ref name="Devrep53-58">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=53–58 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>

In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.<ref name="Soundarapandian2000">{{cite book |author=Mookkiah Soundarapandian |title=Literacy Campaign in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KVhHEC449yoC&pg=PA21 |year=2000 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8171415533 |page=21}}</ref> In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India.<ref>{{Cite news |author=D Suresh Kumar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kerala-tops-primary-education-index/articleshow/3587924.cms |title=Kerala tops primary education index |work=The Times of India |date=13 October 2008 |access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref> {{As of|2007}}, enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions.<ref name="Devrep255-258">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |pages=255–58 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%.<ref name="IBNLiteracy2013">{{cite news |title=Tripura tops literacy rate with 94.65 per cent, leaves behind Kerala |url=https://ibnlive.in.com/news/tripura-tops-literacy-rate-with-with-9465-per-cent-leaves-behind-kerala/420560-3-224.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913005546/https://ibnlive.in.com/news/tripura-tops-literacy-rate-with-with-9465-per-cent-leaves-behind-kerala/420560-3-224.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 September 2013 |access-date=12 February 2015 |work=IBNLive |date=9 September 2013}}</ref> In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its ''Athulyam'' literacy programme.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ibtimes.co.in/kerala-becomes-1st-indian-state-achieve-100-primary-education-662878 |title=Kerala becomes 1st Indian state to achieve 100% primary education |date=12 January 2016 |access-date=14 January 2016 |work=International Business Times}}</ref>

The educational system prevailing in the state's schools specifies an initial 10-year course of study, which is divided into three stages: lower primary, upper primary, and secondary school—known as ''4+3+3'', which signifies the number of years for each stage.<ref name="Devrep255-258" /> After the first 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll in [[Junior college|Higher Secondary Schooling]] in one of the three major streams—[[liberal arts]], commerce, or science.<ref name="Edu_Ker" /> The majority of public schools are affiliated with the [[Kerala Board of Public Examination]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sametham.kite.kerala.gov.in/ |title=Kerala School Data Bank |access-date=5 December 2020 |website=sametham.kite.kerala.gov.in |publisher=Government of Kerala}}</ref> Other educational boards are the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE), the [[Central Board for Secondary Education]] (CBSE), and the [[National Institute of Open Schooling]] (NIOS).<ref name="Edu_Ker">{{cite web |title=Education in Kerala |url=https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=54 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218082340/https://india.gov.in/knowindia/state_uts.php?id=54 |archive-date=18 December 2011 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Kerala}}

{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| header_align = left/right/center
| image1 = Kathakali BNC.jpg
| alt1 = Kathakali Performance
| caption1 = A [[Kathakali]] artist
| image4 = 5 image collage of floral arrangement during the Hindu festival of Onam Kerala.jpg
| alt4 = Pookkalam
| caption4 = During [[Onam]], Kerala's biggest celebration, Keralites create ''pookkalam'' (floral carpet) designs in front of their houses.
| image5 = ThrissurPooram-Kuda.jpg|thumb
| alt5 = Thrissur Pooram festival
| caption5 = [[Thrissur Pooram]] festival
| image6 = Mohiniyattam at Kerala School Kalolsavam 2019 02.jpg|thumb
| alt6 = Mohiniattam
| caption6 = A ''[[mohiniattam]]'' performance|thumb
| image8 = sadhya DSW.jpg|thumb
| caption8 = Onam [[Sadya]]|thumb
| total_width =
}}

The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of [[Indian culture]].<ref name="Menon3">{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-8126419036 |pages=13–15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> It is a synthesis of [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Aryan]], [[South Indian culture|Dravidian]], [[Arab culture|Arab]], and [[Culture of Europe|European]] cultures,<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=55 |language=en}}</ref> developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.<ref name="Menon1978a">{{cite book |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=px5BAAAAMAAJ |year=1978 |publisher=East-West Publications |page=10}}</ref> It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the [[Malayali people]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVftZwEACAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala |pages=7–37}}</ref> It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29">{{cite book |author=S. Bhagyalekshmy |title=Contribution of Travancore to Karnatic Music |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VVftZwEACAAJ |access-date=6 January 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala}}</ref> However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.<ref name="Menon3" /> Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.<ref name="1000hrs">{{cite news |date=4 March 2010 |title=India's overworked elephants |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8533776.stm |access-date=30 May 2015 |work=BBC}}</ref> The [[Malayalam calendar]], a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,<ref name="Devika2005">{{cite book |author=J. Devika |title=Her-self: Early Writings on Gender by Malayalee Women, 1898–1938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xyr6gXmva-gC&pg=PA5 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-8185604749 |page=5}}</ref> finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.<ref name="Singh2004">{{cite book |author=Kumar Suresh Singh |title=People of India: Maharashtra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bfmnmsBfQ4C&pg=PA1524 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2004 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-8179911020 |page=1524}}</ref> [[Malayalam]], one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's [[official language]].<ref name="Benedikter2009">{{cite book |author=Thomas Benedikter |title=Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC&pg=PA90 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-10231-7 |page=90}}</ref> Over a dozen other [[Languages with official status in India|scheduled and unscheduled languages]] are also spoken.<ref name="census2011-langreport">{{cite web |title=Language – India, States and Union Territories |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |work=Census of India 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General |pages=13–14}}</ref> Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-51372583 |title=Shock after alcohol flows from kitchen taps in Kerala |work=BBC News |date=6 February 2020}}</ref>

=== Festivals ===
{{Main|Temple Festivals of Kerala|Onam}}

Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.<ref>{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA76 |year=2008 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=76}}</ref> A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC&pg=PA34 |year=1982 |publisher=Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala |isbn=978-8126437986 |page=34}}</ref> Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the [[Thrissur Pooram]].<ref>{{cite book |title=World Encyclopaedia of Interfaith Studies: World religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFwi7qRRgosC |year=2009 |publisher=Jnanada Prakashan |isbn=978-8171392803 |pages=704–10}}</ref> "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The stars of Pooram show are jumbos |date=26 May 2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118212644/https://www.hindu.com/2006/05/26/stories/2006052610410500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 November 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Other known festivals are [[Makaravilakku]],<ref name="Ltd.2013b">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA433 |year=2013 |publisher=Biju Mathew |isbn=978-8192128443 |page=433}}</ref> [[Chinakkathoor Pooram]], [[Attukal Pongala]] and [[Nenmara Vallangi Vela]]<ref name="Stott2014">{{cite book |author=David Stott |title=Kerala Footprint Focus Guide: Includes Kochi, Alappuzha, Thrissur, Periyar, River Nila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Jx8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 |year=2014 |publisher=Footprint Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-909268-79-1 |page=94}}</ref> Other than these, festivals locally known as [[utsavam]]s are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.<ref name="NarayananKurup1976">{{cite book |author1=M. G. S. Narayanan |author2=K. K. N. Kurup |title=Historical Studies in Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvELAAAAIAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Department of History, University of Calicut |pages=68–81}}</ref> Processions often include traditional music such as [[Panchari melam]] or [[Panchavadyam]].<ref name="Killius2006">{{cite book |author=Rolf Killius |title=Ritual Music and Hindu Rituals of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_fZAAAAMAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=B.R. Rhythms |isbn=978-8188827077 |page=61}}</ref> [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Eid al-Adha]] are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals like [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]] are observed by the Christians.<ref name="Malabar">{{Cite book |last=Sreedhara Menon |first=A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |publisher=DC Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8126415885 |edition=2007 |location=Kottayam |access-date=19 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113141403/https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |archive-date=13 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past.<ref name="Choondal1980">{{cite book |author=Chummar Choondal |title=Kerala Folk Literature |year=1980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnQOAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Kerala Folklore Academy}}</ref><ref name="Menon2007b">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA80 |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |pages=80–}}</ref> It is a local festival of Kerala<ref name="Darpan2006b">{{cite book |author=Pratiyogita Darpan |title=Pratiyogita Darpan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lugDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT83 |year=2006 |publisher=Pratiyogita Darpan |page=624}}</ref> consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day.<ref>{{cite book |title=Purāṇam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfxjAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=All-India Kasiraja Trust. |page=17}}</ref> Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September)<ref>{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA66 |year=2008 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=66}}</ref> and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of King [[Mahabali]].<ref name="MythOnam">{{cite news |last1=Praveen |first1=M. P. |title=Myth, mystique, and traditions of Onam |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-editorialfeatures/myth-mystique-and-traditions-of-onam/article2433921.ece |access-date=12 November 2015 |work=The Hindu |date=8 September 2011}}</ref> The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as [[Vallam Kali]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vallamkali – Resplendent Water Regattas of Kerala {{!}} Kerala Boat Races{{!}} Onam{{!}} Kerala Backwaters {{!}} Kerala |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/kerala-article/2020/vallamkali-resplendent-water-regattas-of-kerala/1017 |access-date=9 June 2021|website=Kerala Tourism |language=en}}</ref> [[Pulikali]],<ref name="Ltd.2013">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Pilgrimage to Temple Heritage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA535 |year=2013 |publisher=Biju Mathew |isbn=978-8192128443 |page=535}}</ref> Pookkalam,<ref>{{cite book |title=A Biblical Approach to Indian Traditions and Beliefs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f35VH7LrZ1IC&pg=PA90 |year=2008 |publisher=Armour Publishing Pte Ltd |isbn=978-9814222396 |page=90}}</ref> Thumbi Thullal<ref name="Mohapatra2013">{{cite book |author=J Mohapatra |title=Wellness In Indian Festivals & Rituals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdpzAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |year=2013 |publisher=Partridge Pub |isbn=978-1-4828-1690-7 |page=142}}</ref> and [[Onavillu]].<ref name="(Princess.)1998">{{cite book |author=Gouri Lakshmi Bayi (Princess.) |title=Thulasi garland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lcvAAAAYAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |isbn=978-8172761103}}</ref>

=== Music and dance ===
{{Main|Arts of Kerala|Music of Kerala}}

Kerala is home to a number of [[performance art]]s. These include five classical dance forms: [[Kathakali]], [[Mohiniyattam]], [[Koodiyattom]], [[Ottan thullal|Thullal]] and [[Krishnanattam]], which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sruti.org/library/sruti%20ranjani/2004/sruti_ranjani_2004.pdf |title=Classical Dance Art Forms of Kerala |author=Kala Menon |journal=Sruti Ranjini |date=November 2004 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=11 |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091717/http://www.sruti.org/library/sruti%20ranjani/2004/sruti_ranjani_2004.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Kerala natanam]], [[Thirayattam]],<ref>"Thirayattam" (Folklore Text-Malayalam), State Institute of language, Kerala {{ISBN|978-8120042940}}</ref> [[Kaliyattam]], [[Theyyam]], [[Koothu]] and [[Padayani]] are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.<ref name="Menon2008">{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=Cultural heritage of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC&pg=PA106 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=D C Books |isbn=978-8126419036 |page=106}}</ref> Some traditional dance forms such as [[Oppana]] and [[Duffmuttu]] were popular among the Muslims of the state,<ref name="google19">{{cite book |author=Motilal (UK) Books of India |title=Tourist Guide Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA8 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Sura Books |isbn=978-8174781642 |page=8}}</ref> while [[Margamkali]] and [[Parichamuttukali]] are popular among the Syrian Christians and [[Chavittu nadakom]] is popular among the Latin Christians.<ref name="Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar1991">{{cite book |author=Kāvālaṃ Nārāyaṇappaṇikkar |title=Folklore of Kerala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xH6BAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1991 |publisher=National Book Trust, India |page=146 |isbn=978-8123725932}}</ref><ref name="Kasbekar2006">{{cite book |author=Asha Kasbekar |title=Pop Culture India!: Media, Arts, And Lifestyle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sv7Uk0UcdM8C&pg=PA43 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-636-7 |pages=43–44}}</ref> The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.<ref name="Menon2">{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-8126421572 |pages=48–51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The development of the indigenous classical music form, [[Sopana Sangeetham]], illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.<ref name="Menon2" /> [[Carnatic music]] dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of [[Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma]]'s popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.<ref name="Bhagyalekshmy_2004d_29" /> Raga-based renditions known as ''sopanam'' accompany ''kathakali'' performances.<ref name="SchechnerAppel1990">{{cite book |author1=Richard Schechner |author2=Willa Appel |title=By Means of Performance: Intercultural Studies of Theatre and Ritual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K5ZuV_nn7KkC&pg=PA145 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33915-5 |page=145}}</ref> ''Melam'', including the ''paandi'' and ''panchari'' variants, is a more percussive style of music;<ref name="BroughtonEllingham2000">{{cite book |author1=Simon Broughton |author2=Mark Ellingham |author3=Richard Trillo |title=World Music Volume 2 Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific: The Rough Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC&pg=PA97 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-636-5 |page=97}}</ref> it is performed at ''[[Hindu temple|Kshetram]]''-centered festivals using the ''[[chenda]]''. ''Panchavadyam'' is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instruments.<ref name="BroughtonEllingham2000" /> Kerala's visual arts range from [[Murals of Kerala|traditional murals]] to the works of [[Raja Ravi Varma]], the state's most renowned painter.<ref name="Menon2" /> Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' (Northern Ballads), ''Thekkan pattukal'' (Southern Ballads), ''Vanchi pattukal'' (Boat Songs), ''[[Mappila Pattukal]]'' (Muslim songs) and ''Pallipattukal'' (Church songs) are a few of them.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Legacy of Kerala |author=A. Sreedhara Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-8126421572 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9RMxjdjUVAC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref>

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Malayalam cinema}}

[[Malayalam Cinema|Malayalam films]] carved a niche for themselves in the Indian film industry with the presentation of social themes.<ref name="Menon">{{cite book |title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala |first=Sreedhara |last=Menon |publisher=D C Books |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R7QNGkZKc5wC |isbn=978-8126419036 |pages=128–29 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature |first=Amaresh |last=Datta |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |year=1987 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC |isbn=978-8126018031 |pages=751–53}}</ref> Directors from Kerala, like [[Adoor Gopalakrishnan]], [[Mankada Ravi Varma]], [[G. Aravindan]], [[Bharathan]], [[P. Padmarajan]], [[M.T.Vasudevan Nair|M.T. Vasudevan Nair]], [[K.G. George]], [[Priyadarshan]], [[John Abraham (director)|John Abraham]], [[Ramu Karyat]], [[K S Sethumadhavan]], [[A. Vincent]] and [[Shaji N Karun]] have made a considerable contribution to the Indian [[parallel cinema]]. Kerala has also given birth to numerous actors, such as [[Mohanlal]], [[Mammootty]], [[Satyan]], [[Prem Nazir]], [[Madhu (actor)|Madhu]], [[Sheela]], [[Sharada (actress)|Sharada]], [[Miss Kumari]], [[Jayan]], [[Adoor Bhasi]], [[Seema (actress)|Seema]], [[Bharath Gopi]], [[Thilakan]], [[Vijaya Raghavan]], [[Kalabhavan Mani]], [[Indrans]], [[Shobana]], [[Nivin Pauly]], [[Sreenivasan]], [[Urvashi (actress)|Urvashi]], [[Manju Warrier]], [[Suresh Gopi]], [[Jayaram]], [[Murali (Malayalam actor)|Murali]], [[Shankaradi]], [[Kavya Madhavan]], [[Bhavana Menon]], [[Prithviraj Sukumaran|Prithviraj]], [[Parvathy Thiruvothu|Parvathy]], [[Jayasurya]], [[Dulquer Salmaan]], [[Oduvil Unnikrishnan]], [[Jagathy Sreekumar]], [[Nedumudi Venu]], [[KPAC Lalitha]], [[Innocent (actor)|Innocent]] and [[Fahadh Faasil]]. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir holds the world record for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gangadhar |first=V. |title=Magic of Sophia Loren |url=https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/11/02/stories/2003110200250500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031130011344/https://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/11/02/stories/2003110200250500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 November 2003 |date=2 October 2003 |department=Sunday Magazine |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India |access-date=18 January 2015}}</ref> Since the 1980s, actors [[Mohanlal]] and [[Mammootty]] have dominated the movie industry; Mohanlal has won five National Film Awards (four for acting), while Mammootty has three National Film Awards for acting.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sura's Year Book 2006 |author=Subburaj V.V.K |page=620 |isbn=978-8172541248 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz2WDD8sB0MC |publisher=Sura Books |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Malayalam Cinema has produced a few more notable personalities such as [[K. J. Yesudas]], [[K.S. Chitra]], [[M. G. Sreekumar|M.G. Sreekumar]], [[Vayalar Rama Varma]], [[V. Madhusoodanan Nair]], [[M.T. Vasudevan Nair]] and [[O.N.V. Kurup]],<ref name="indiatimes2">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jnanpith-Awards-for-ONV-Kurup-Akhlaq-Khan-Shahryar/articleshow/6621243.cms |date=24 September 2014 |title=Jnanpith Awards for ONV Kurup, Akhlaq Khan Shahryar |work=The Times of India |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> the last two mentioned being recipients of [[Jnanpith award]], the highest literary award in India.<ref name="upscguide">{{cite web |url=https://upscguide.com/content/jnanpith-award-winners |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219193030/https://upscguide.com/content/jnanpith-award-winners |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 December 2012 |title=Jnanpith Award Winners | UPSC Guide |publisher=upscguide.com |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref> [[Resul Pookutty]], who is from Kerala, is the only Indian to win an [[Academy Award for Best Sound|Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing]], for the breakthrough film ''[[Slumdog Millionaire]]''. As of 2018, [[Malayalam cinema]] has got 14 awards for the best actor, 6 for the best actress, 11 for the best film, and 13 for the best film director in the [[National Film Awards]], [[India]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=358-361}}

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Malayalam Literature}}

The [[Sangam literature]] can be considered as the ancient predecessor of [[Malayalam]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=450}} [[Malayalam literature]] starts from the [[Old Malayalam]] period (9th–13th century CE) and includes such notable writers as the 14th-century [[Niranam poets]] (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar),<ref name="Nair1967">{{cite book |author=P. K. Parameswaran Nair |title=History of Malayalam literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHNkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=296}}</ref><ref name="Laet1994">{{cite book |author=Sigfried J. de Laet |title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ixCyd2lByggC&pg=PA407 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1994 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-9231028137 |page=407}}</ref> and the 16th-century poet [[Ezhuthachan|Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]], whose works mark the dawn of both the modern Malayalam language and its poetry.<ref name="George1998">{{cite book |author=K. M. George |title=Eng when Poetry Comes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqyxVkufQC&pg=PA58 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126004133 |page=58}}</ref> For the first 600 years of [[Kollam Era|Malayalam calendar]], the literature mainly consisted of the oral [[Ballad]]s such as ''[[Vadakkan Pattukal]]'' in [[North Malabar]] and ''Thekkan Pattukal'' in [[Southern Division (Travancore)|Southern Travancore]].{{sfn|Chandran|2018|p=453}} Designated a "[[Classical Language in India]]" in 2013,<ref name="thehindu20130524"/> it developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poets [[Cherusseri Namboothiri]],<ref name="Cherussery (Krishnagadha) Malayalam author books">{{Cite web |url=https://keralaliterature.com/old/author.php?authid=1473 |title=Cherussery (Krishnagadha) Malayalam author books |website=keralaliterature.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407052549/https://keralaliterature.com/old/author.php%3Fauthid%3D1473 |archive-date=7 April 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="mlm" /> [[Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan]],<ref name="mlm" /> and [[Poonthanam Nambudiri]],<ref name="mlm" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/the-charms-of-poonthanam-illam/article25308319.ece/ |title=The Charms of Poonthanam Illam |last=Arun Narayanan |date=25 October 2018 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> in the 15th and the 16th centuries of [[Common Era]].<ref name="mlm">{{cite book |title=A Short History of Malayalam Literature |author=Dr. K. Ayyappa Panicker |url=https://archive.org/details/ASHORTHISTORYOFMALAYALAMLITERATURE |year=2006 |location=Thiruvananthapuram |publisher=Department of Information and Public Relations, Kerala}}</ref><ref>Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia</ref> [[Unnayi Variyar]],<ref name="Attakatha sahithyam">{{Cite book |last=Krishna Kaimal |first=Aymanam |title=Attakatha sahithyam |url=https://mgucat.mgu.ac.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=133514&shelfbrowse_itemnumber=132435 |date=1989 |publisher=Trivandrum State Institute of Language}}</ref> a probable poet of the 17th/18th century CE, and [[Kunchan Nambiar]], a poet of the 18th century CE, have also influenced a lot in the growth of modern Malayalam literature in its pre-mature form.<ref name="mlm" /> The [[Bharathappuzha]] river, also known as [[Ponnani|River Ponnani]], and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.<ref>{{Cite news |title=The river sutra |url=https://www.thehindu.com/society/rivers-have-nurtured-malayalam-literature-and-poetry-since-time-immemorial/article25058214.ece |last=Binoy |first=Rasmi |date=27 September 2018 |access-date=24 January 2021 |work=The Hindu}}</ref>

[[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] and [[Kerala Varma Valiakoi Thampuran]] are noted for their contribution to Malayalam prose.<ref name="google24">{{cite book |author=P. K. Parameswaran Nair |title=History of Malayalam literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHNkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |pages=118–21}}</ref><ref name="Sinhā2009">{{cite book |author=Madhubālā Sinhā |title=Encyclopaedia of South Indian literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qQpAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2009 |publisher=Anmol Publ. |isbn=978-8126137404 |page=97}}</ref><ref name="Vilanilam1987">{{cite book |author=John V. Vilanilam |title=Religious communication in India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0UeAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=Kairali Books International |page=66}}</ref> The "[[triumvirate poets of modern malayalam|triumvirate of poets]]" (''Kavithrayam''): [[Kumaran Asan]], [[Vallathol Narayana Menon]], and [[Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer]], are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more [[lyrics|lyrical]] mode.<ref name="Al̲ikkōṭȧ1979">{{cite book |author=Sukumār Al̲ikkōṭȧ |title=Mahakavi Ulloor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VkOAAAAYAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1979 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=52}}</ref><ref name="Indian and Foreign Review">{{cite book |title=Indian and Foreign Review |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XaRnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1983 |publisher=Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |page=25}}</ref><ref name="Tarakan1990">{{cite book |author=Ke. Eṃ Tarakan |title=A brief survey of Malayalam literature: history of literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3nhkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1990 |publisher=K.M. Tharakan |pages=41–52}}</ref> The poets like [[Moyinkutty Vaidyar]] and [[Pulikkottil Hyder]] have made notable contributions to the [[Mappila songs]], which is a genre of the [[Arabi Malayalam]] literature.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2007/03/31/stories/2007033110250500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108104937/https://www.hindu.com/2007/03/31/stories/2007033110250500.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 November 2012 |title=Mappila songs cultural fountains of a bygone age, says MT |date=31 March 2007 |access-date=15 August 2009 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref>Pg 167, Mappila Muslims: a study on society and anti colonial struggles By Husain Raṇdathaṇi, Other Books, Kozhikode 2007</ref> The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam ''[[Varthamanappusthakam]]'', written by [[Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar]] in 1785.<ref name="legacy">{{cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=The legacy of Kerala |year=2008 |publisher=D C Books |location=Kottayam, Kerala |isbn=978-81-264-2157-2 |edition=1st DCB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ |title=August 23, 2010 Archives |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427073541/https://nasrani.net/2010/08/23/the-varthamanappusthakam-cathanar-paremmakkal/ |archive-date=27 April 2013}}</ref> The prose literature, [[Malayalam journalism]], and criticism began after the latter-half of the 18th century.<ref name="legacy" /> Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern literature is often towards [[political radicalism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/556016/South-Asian-arts/65212/Tamil#toc65213 |title=South Asian arts |access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref> [[Malayalam literature]] has been presented with 6 [[Jnanpith Award|Jnanapith awards]], the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Jnanpith given to Akkitham |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/jnanpith-given-to-akkitham/article32685581.ece |last=Naha |first=Abdul Latheef |date=24 September 2020 |access-date=12 June 2021 |work=The Hindu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Celebrated Malayalam poet Akkitham wins 2019 Jnanpith Award |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/celebrated-malayalam-poet-akkitham-wins-2019-jnanpith-award-119112900926_1.html |last=ANI |date=29 November 2019 |access-date=12 June 2021 |publisher=Business Standard}}</ref> In the second half of the 20th century, [[Jnanpith]] winning poets and writers like [[G. Sankara Kurup]], [[S. K. Pottekkatt]], [[Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai]], [[M. T. Vasudevan Nair]], [[O. N. V. Kurup]], and [[Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri]], had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.<ref name="google25">{{cite book |author=Subodh Kapoor |title=The Indian Encyclopaedia: Biographical, Historical, Religious, Administrative, Ethnological, Commercial and Scientific. Mahi-Mewat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mc6C5dVHbGAC&pg=PA4542 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Cosmo |isbn=978-8177552720 |page=4542}}</ref><ref name="Accessions List, South Asia">{{cite book |title=Accessions List, South Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPcoAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1994 |publisher=E.G. Smith for the U.S. Library of Congress Office, New Delhi |page=21}}</ref><ref name="Indian Writing Today">{{cite book |title=Indian Writing Today |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wUtAQAAIAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1967 |publisher=Nirmala Sadanand Publishers |page=21}}</ref><ref name="DattaAkademi1987">{{cite book |author1=Amaresh Datta |author2=Sahitya Akademi |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: K to Navalram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QaIRAQAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1987 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |page=2394 |isbn=978-0-8364-2423-2}}</ref><ref name="Malayalam Literary Survey">{{cite book |title=Malayalam Literary Survey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5JkAAAAMAAJ |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=1993 |publisher=Kerala Sahitya Akademi |page=19}}</ref> Later, writers like [[O. V. Vijayan]], [[Kamaladas]], [[M. Mukundan]], [[Arundhati Roy]], [[Vaikom Muhammed Basheer]], have gained international recognition.<ref name="MukundanPillai2004">{{cite book |author1=Eṃ Mukundan |author2=C. Gopinathan Pillai |title=Eng Adityan Radha And Others |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1N5QcHakKdoC&pg=PP3 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2004 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126018833 |page=3}}</ref><ref name="Maheshwari2002">{{cite book |author=Ed. Vinod Kumar Maheshwari |title=Perspectives On Indian English Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JcY2-ldWIKsC&pg=PA126 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2002 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-8126900930 |page=126}}</ref><ref name="Chaudhuri2008">{{cite book |author=Amit Chaudhuri |title=Clearing a Space: Reflections On India, Literature, and Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AQeN2PoAx2IC&pg=PA44 |access-date=18 November 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-906165-01-7 |pages=44–45}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=15 October 1997 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E6DD173FF936A25753C1A961958260 |first=Sarah |last=Lyall}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Cuisine of Kerala}}

Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.<ref name="google26">{{cite book |author1=Murdoch Books Pty Limited |author2=Murdoch Books Test Kitchen |title=India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_cHBuYD3CQC&pg=PA10 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Murdoch Books |isbn=978-1-74196-438-7 |page=10}}</ref> Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.<ref name="Majumdar2010">{{cite book |author=Majumdar |title=Consumer Behaviour: Insights From Indian Market |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KF57x1Nrn2UC&pg=RA1-PA79 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. |isbn=978-8120339637 |page=181}}</ref> A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (''[[idli]]'', ''[[Dosa (food)|dosa]]'', ''[[puttu]]'', ''[[pathiri]]'', ''[[appam]]'', or ''[[idiyappam]]''), [[tapioca]] preparations, or pulse-based [[Vada (food)|vada]].<ref name="Muthachen1970">{{cite book |author=Rachel Muthachen |title=Regional Indian Recipes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5xXz_UFV7QC&pg=PA1 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1970 |publisher=Jaico Publishing House |isbn=978-8172240356 |page=1}}</ref> These may be accompanied by [[chutney]], ''[[Chickpea|kadala]]'', ''[[payasam]]'', ''[[Mung bean|payar]] [[pappadam]]'', ''[[appam]]'', chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry.<ref name="Newton" /> [[Porotta]] and [[Biryani]] are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes include [[rice and curry]] along with ''[[Rasam (dish)|rasam]]'', ''pulisherry'' and ''[[Sambar (dish)|sambar]]''.<ref name="google27">{{cite book |author=James Newton |title=Jay Rai's Kitchen – Keralan Cuisine |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zDWhOU-I04C&pg=PT4 |access-date=17 November 2012 |publisher=Springwood emedia |isbn=978-1-4761-2308-0 |pages=4–}}</ref> ''[[Sadhya]]'' is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.<ref name="Kannampilly2003">{{cite book |author=Vijayan Kannampilly |title=Essential Kerala Cook Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYfOCaAPb3sC&pg=PA11 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-302950-2 |pages=10–11}}</ref> Popular snacks include [[banana chip]]s, yam crisps, [[tapioca chip]]s, [[Achappam]], [[Unni appam]] and ''kuzhalappam''.<ref name="Kerala with Lakshadweep">{{cite book |title=Kerala with Lakshadweep |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJJuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Outlook Publishing |page=27 |isbn=978-8189449018}}</ref><ref name="Koilparampil1982">{{cite book |author=George Koilparampil |title=Caste in the Catholic community in Kerala: a study of caste elements in the inter rite relationships of Syrians and Latins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXnaAAAAMAAJ |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1982 |publisher=Dept. of Sociology, St. Teresa's College |page=233}}</ref><ref name="(Swami.)2000">{{cite book |author=Paramatmananda (Swami.) |title=Talks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p77mUECpIjgC |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2000 |publisher=Mata Amritanandamayi Center |isbn=978-1-879410-79-4 |page=24}}</ref> Seafood specialties include [[karimeen]], prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala Cuisine |url=https://www.ecotours.in/kerala-cuisine.htm |publisher=Ecotours |access-date=30 May 2015 |archive-date=13 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813003443/http://ecotours.in/kerala-cuisine.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Thalassery Cuisine]] is varied and is a blend of many influences.

== Media ==
{{Main|Media in Kerala}}

The media, telecommunications, broadcasting and cable services are regulated by the [[Telecom Regulatory Authority of India]] (TRAI).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gfeQc1ZBqIC&pg=PA112 |publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag |page=112 |id=GGKEY:BJ6HEPE0NRE}}</ref> The National Family Health Survey – 4, conducted in 2015–16, ranked Kerala as the state with the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) |url=https://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Reports/Kerala.pdf |website=International Institute for Population SciencesDeonar |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223120050/http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Reports/Kerala.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,<ref name=rniindia>{{cite web |url=https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927070139/https://rni.nic.in/pii.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url-status=dead |title=General Review |access-date=1 September 2006 |publisher=Registrar of Newspapers for India}}</ref> but principally Malayalam and English.<ref name="google28">{{cite book |author=K. M. George |title=Eng when Poetry Comes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZqqyxVkufQC&pg=PA186 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-8126004133 |page=186}}</ref> Kerala has the [[Indian states ranking by media exposure|highest media exposure in India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The DHS Program – India: Standard DHS, 2015–16 |url=https://dhsprogram.com/what-we-do/survey/survey-display-355.cfm |website=dhsprogram.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=National Family Health Survey |url=https://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Report.shtml |website=rchiips.org |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307101917/http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-4Report.shtml |url-status=dead}}</ref> The most widely circulated [[List of Malayalam language newspapers|Malayalam-language newspapers]] are ''[[Malayala Manorama]], [[Mathrubhumi]], [[Deshabhimani]], [[Madhyamam]], [[Kerala Kaumudi]], [[Mangalam Publications|Mangalam]], [[Chandrika (Malayalam newspaper)|Chandrika]], [[Deepika (newspaper)|Deepika]], [[Janayugam]], [[Janmabhumi]], [[Siraj Daily]]'' and ''[[Suprabhaatham Daily|Suprabhaatham]]''. [[List of Malayalam-language periodicals|Major Malayalam periodicals]] include ''[[Mathrubhumi Azhchappathippu]], [[Vanitha]], [[India Today]] Malayalam, [[Madhyamam Weekly]], [[Grihalakshmi (magazine)|Grihalakshmi]], [[Dhanam (business magazine)|Dhanam]], [[Chithrabhumi]]'' and ''[[Bhashaposhini]]''.
[[File:Malayala Manorama New Press in Kollam-3, Apr 2016.jpg|right|thumb|[[Malayala Manorama]] office in [[Kottiyam]], [[Kollam]]]]
[[DD Malayalam]] is a state-owned television broadcaster. [[List of multiple-system operators|Multiple-system operators]] provide a mix of Malayalam, English, other Indian languages, and international channels. Some of the popular Malayalam television channels are [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]], [[Asianet News]], [[Asianet Plus]], [[Asianet Movies]], [[Surya TV]], [[Surya Movies]], [[Mazhavil Manorama]], [[Manorama News]], [[Kairali TV]], [[Kairali TV|Kairali News]], [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers]], [[Media One TV]], [[Mathrubhumi News]], [[Kappa TV]], [[Amrita TV]], [[Reporter TV]], [[Jaihind]], [[Janam TV]], [[Jeevan TV]], [[Kaumudy TV]] and [[Shalom (TV channel)|Shalom TV]]. With the second-highest internet penetration rate in India,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi ranks top in Internet penetration, Kerala comes second |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/delhi-ranks-top-in-internet-penetration-kerala-comes-second/article31516751.ece/ |date=6 May 2020 |access-date=27 June 2021 |website=The Hindu Business Line}}</ref> [[Digital media]] including [[social media]] and [[Over-the-top media services in India|OTT services]] are a main source of information and entertainment in the state. A sizeable [[people's science movement]] has taken root in the state, and activities like writer's cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.<ref name="Tharamangalam_2005" /><ref name="Ranjith_2004">{{Cite book |author=Ranjith KS |veditors=Nair PR, Shaji H |year=2004 |title=Rural Libraries of Kerala |series=Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development |publisher=Centre for Development Studies |location=Thiruvananthapuram |isbn=978-8187621812 |pages=20–21 |url=https://www.cds.ac.in/krpcds/publication/downloads/78.pdf |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref> [[BSNL]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[Vodafone Idea Limited]], [[Jio]] are the major cell phone service providers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Highlights ofTelecom Subscription Data as on 28thFebruary, 2019 |url=https://main.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.27of2019_0.pdf |access-date=16 May 2019 |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418140404/https://main.trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.27of2019_0.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Broadband Internet services are widely available throughout the state; some of the major [[Internet service provider]]s are [[BSNL]], [[Asianet Satellite Communications]], [[Bharti Airtel|Airtel]], [[Vodafone Idea Limited]], [[RailTel|RailWire]], and [[Tata Communications]].

== Sports ==
{{Main|Sports in Kerala}}

[[File:Kerala boatrace.jpg|thumb|The annual [[Vallam Kali|snake boat race]] is performed during [[Onam]] on the [[Pamba River]]]]By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala had either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including [[Poorakkali]], Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali.<ref name="PRD-sports">{{cite web |url=https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/sportsmain.htm |title=Sports and Games in Kerala |publisher=Public Relations Dept, Kerala |year=2002 |access-date=9 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060428081830/https://www.prd.kerala.gov.in/sportsmain.htm |archive-date=28 April 2006}}</ref> However, ''[[Kalaripayattu]]'', regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport.<ref>{{cite book |title=Muay Thai |publisher=Meyer & Meyer Verlag |author=Arnaud Van Der Veere |year=2012 |page=8 |isbn=978-1-84126-328-1}}</ref> Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of [[Snake boat]]s.<ref name="PRD-sports" />

[[Cricket]] and [[association football|football]] became popular in the state; both were introduced in Malabar during the British colonial period in the 19th century. Cricketers, like [[Tinu Yohannan]], [[Abey Kuruvilla]], [[Chundangapoyil Rizwan]], [[Sreesanth]], [[Sanju Samson]] and [[Basil Thampi]] found places in the national cricket team. A cricket franchise from Kerala, the [[Kochi Tuskers Kerala|Kochi Tuskers]], played in the [[Indian Premier League]]'s [[2011 Indian Premier League|fourth season]]. However, this team was disbanded after the season because of conflicts of interest among its franchises.<ref name="India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller">{{Cite news |title=India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller |date=25 September 2007 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106033222/http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/25/stories/2007092559400100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 November 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India }}</ref><ref name="hindu_jul09">{{cite news |url=https://www.hindu.com/2009/07/04/stories/2009070456811800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707015857/https://www.hindu.com/2009/07/04/stories/2009070456811800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 July 2009 |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Minister convenes high-level meet |date=4 July 2009}}</ref> Kerala has only performed well recently in the [[Ranji Trophy]] cricket competition, in 2017–18 reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in history.<ref name="PRD-sports" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Ranji Trophy: In historic first, Kerala join defending champions Gujarat in quarter-finals |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/india-domestic/ranji-trophy/ranji-trophy-in-historic-first-kerala-join-defending-champions-gujarat-in-quarter-finals/articleshow/61836301.cms |date=28 November 2017 |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> Football is one of the most widely played and watched sports with huge in this state support for club and district level matches. Kochi hosts [[Kerala Blasters FC]] in the [[Indian Super League]]. The Blasters are one of the most widely supported clubs in the country as well as the fifth most-followed football club from [[Asia]] in social media.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Salikha |first=Adelaida |title=Top FIVE Asian Clubs With Highest Social Media Followers, Up to October 2018 {{!}} Seasia.co |url=https://seasia.co/2018/10/31/top-five-asian-clubs-with-highest-social-media-followers-up-to-october-2018 |access-date=17 September 2020|website=Good News from Southeast Asia |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=18 June 2020 |title=Indian Football: Five most-followed clubs on social media |url=https://khelnow.com/football/indian-football-clubs-social-media-followers/ |access-date=10 September 2020 |website=Khel Now |language=en-US |archive-date=13 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113014231/https://khelnow.com/football/indian-football-clubs-social-media-followers |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Malayalam News – kerala blasters become fifth Asian club with the biggest social media following {{!}} News18 Kerala, Sports Latest Malayalam News {{!}} ലേറ്റസ്റ്റ് മലയാളം വാർത്ത |url=https://malayalam.news18.com/news/sports/kerala-blasters-become-fifth-asian-club-with-the-biggest-social-media-following-50113.html |access-date=5 December 2020|website=malayalam.news18.com|date=25 October 2018 }}</ref> Also, Kozhikode hosts [[Gokulam Kerala FC]] in the [[I-League]] as well as the [[Sait Nagjee Football Tournament]]. Kerala is one of the major footballing states in India along with West Bengal and Goa and has produced national players like [[I. M. Vijayan]], C. V. Pappachan, [[V. P. Sathyan]], [[U. Sharaf Ali]], [[Jo Paul Ancheri]], [[Ashique Kuruniyan]], [[Mohammed Rafi (footballer)|Muhammad Rafi]], [[Jiju Jacob]], [[Mashoor Shereef]], [[Pappachen Pradeep]], [[C.K. Vineeth]], [[Anas Edathodika]], [[Sahal Abdul Samad]], and [[Rino Anto]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/awards.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217141248/https://the-aiff.com/awards.php |archive-date=17 February 2009 |title=AIFF Award Player of the Year |publisher=All India Football Federation |access-date=15 November 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=James Wray |author2=Ulf Stabe |url=https://twocircles.net/2007sep14/viva_marks_resurgence_kerala_football.html |title=Viva marks the resurgence of Kerala football |publisher=Monstersandcritics.com |date=15 September 2007 |access-date=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="india">{{cite web |url=https://zeenews.india.com/news/sports/indian-football-team-suffer-humiliating-1-9-defeat-to-kuwait_668128.html |publisher=zeenews.india.com |title=Indian football team suffer humiliating 1–9 defeat to Kuwait |date=14 November 2010 |access-date=13 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sportstar |first=Team |title=Sahal recalls journey from university football to senior national team |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/intercontinental-cup-indian-football-sahal-abdul-samad-kerala-blasters-college-university-system/article28436294.ece |access-date=6 June 2020 |website=Sportstar |date=15 July 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://scroll.in/field/988334/india-football-stimac-names-10-new-players-in-35-man-probables-list-for-oman-uae-friendlies |title=Bipin Singh, Ishan Pandita in 35-man probables list for Oman, UAE friendlies |website=thescroll.in |date=2 March 2021}}</ref> The Kerala state football team has won the [[Santhosh Trophy]] seven times; in 1973, 1992, 1993, 2001, 2004, 2018, and 2022. They were also the runners-up eight times.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/pages/tournament/tournament-history.php?tournamentdetail=22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524035900/https://www.the-aiff.com/pages/tournament/tournament-history.php?tournamentdetail=22 |archive-date=24 May 2012 |title=Past Winners |publisher=All India Football Federation |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref>

Among the prominent athletes hailing from the state are [[P. T. Usha]], [[Shiny Wilson]] and [[M.D. Valsamma]], all three of whom are recipients of the [[Padma Shri]] as well as [[Arjuna Award]], while [[K. M. Beenamol]] and [[Anju Bobby George]] are [[Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna]] and Arjuna Award winners. [[T. C. Yohannan]], [[Suresh Babu (long jumper)|Suresh Babu]], [[Sinimol Paulose]], Angel Mary Joseph, [[Mercy Kuttan]], K. Saramma, [[Rosa Kutty|K. C. Rosakutty]], Padmini Selvan and Tintu Luka are the other Arjuna Award winners from Kerala.<ref name="PRD-sports" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://keralaathletics.org/history.html |title=Kerala State Athletics Association: History |publisher=Kerala State Athletics Association |access-date=12 June 2012 |archive-date=24 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624082221/http://keralaathletics.org/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rough Guide to South India |author1=David Abram |author2=Nick Edwards |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-84353-103-6 |page=64}}</ref> [[Jimmy George]] was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jimmy George |work=Sports Portal |publisher=Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514040141/https://sportal.nic.in/legenddetails.asp?sno=667&moduleid=&maincatid=59&subid=0&comid=55 |archive-date=14 May 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Other popular sports include [[badminton]], [[basketball]] and [[kabaddi]].<ref name="Reddy2005">{{cite book |author=P.A. Reddy |title=Sports Promotion In India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T37m8eRAEX0C&pg=PA119 |access-date=17 November 2012 |year=2005 |publisher=Discovery Publishing House |isbn=978-8171419272 |pages=31–42}}</ref> The Indian Hockey team captain [[P. R. Shreejesh]], ace goalkeeper hails from Kerala. International Walkers from the state include [[K. T. Irfan]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Irfan |first=KT |title=KT Irfan, World Athletics Championships, Moscow |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds |newspaper=NDTV Sports |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130814035243/https://sports.ndtv.com/othersports/athletics/212223-indians-disappoint-in-mens-20km-race-walk-in-athletics-worlds |archive-date=14 August 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

For the [[2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup]] in [[India]], the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium (Kochi)]], was chosen as one of the six venues where the game would be hosted in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/FIFA-Event-at-Kochi-Time-is-Ticking-Away/2016/03/07/article3313714.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308104258/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/kochi/FIFA-Event-at-Kochi-Time-is-Ticking-Away/2016/03/07/article3313714.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2016 |title=FIFA Event at Kochi: Time is Ticking Away |website=The New Indian Express |access-date=3 April 2016}}</ref> [[Greenfield International Stadium]] at located at Kariavattom in Thiruvananthapuram city, is India's first DBOT (design, build, operate and transfer) model outdoor stadium and it has hosted international cricket matches and international football matches including [[2015 SAFF Championship]].<ref name="SAFF Cup Dates">{{cite news |last1=Chaudhuri |first1=Arunava |title=Trivandrum will host upcoming SAFF Cup in December 2015/January 2016 |url=http://www.sportskeeda.com/football/trivandrum-will-host-upcoming-saff-cup-in-december-2015january-2016 |access-date=22 December 2015 |work=SportsKeeda |date=2 July 2015}}</ref>

== Tourism ==
{{Main|Tourism in Kerala}}

Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied [[demographics of Kerala|demographics]], have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]'s [[National Geographic Traveler|Traveller]] magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"<ref name="Kerala Tourism">{{cite web |title=Kerala Tourism: Paradises in the world |url=https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040904094648/https://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/11/stories/2004051100040100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2004 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=20 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141108151228/https://www.pravasikairali.com/Homepage.aspx?p=articles&news=447 |archive-date=8 November 2014 |title=Pravasi KairaLi Home |publisher=Pravasikairali.com |url-status=usurped |access-date=11 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 February 2014 |title=Kerala: A vacation in paradise |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/kerala-a-vacation-in-paradise/articleshow/26251595.cms |access-date=17 January 2023 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125190237/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/kerala-a-vacation-in-paradise/articleshow/26251595.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".<ref name="Kerala India">{{cite web |title=Kerala – The Gateway of India |url=https://forbesindia.com/printcontent/26162 |work=[[Forbes]] |access-date=3 January 2012}}</ref> [[Travel and Leisure]] also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".<ref name="Kerala Tourism" /><ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala : National Geographic Traveler selects Kerala as 'one of the 50 must-see destinations of a lifetime' |publisher=Travel Portal of India |date=27 January 2009 |access-date=11 June 2011 |url=https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904030433/https://www.travelportalofindia.com/2009/07/kerala-national-geographic-traveler-selects-kerala-as-one-of-the-50-must-see-destinations-of-a-lifetime/ |archive-date=4 September 2011}}</ref> In 2012, it overtook the [[Taj Mahal]] to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kerala beats Taj in Google Search Trends for 2012 |work=Indian Express |date=28 December 2012 |access-date=11 January 2012 |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/news/tourism-kerala-beats-taj-in-google-search-trends-for-2012/1051412}}</ref> [[CNN Travel]] listed Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CNN Travel's 19 places to visit in 2019 |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/places-to-visit-2019/index.html |website=CNN Travel |date=22 May 2019 |language=en |access-date=4 April 2022}}</ref> Kerala was named by [[Time (magazine)|TIME magazine]] in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/travel/story/ahmedabad-and-kerala-on-time-magazine-s-list-of-world-s-greatest-places-of-2022-1975386-2022-07-14 |title=Ahmedabad and Kerala on TIME magazine's list of World's Greatest Places of 2022 |website=India Today|date=14 July 2022 }}</ref> In 2025, Kerala was ranked 16th in the [[Rough Guides]]' list of the “World’s Top 26 Destinations for 2026”, making it the only Indian state to be included in the international travel guide’s annual global destinations ranking.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-12-27 |title=This is the only Indian state to make it to the list of ‘World's Top 26 Destinations For 2026’ |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/travel/destinations/this-is-the-only-indian-state-to-make-it-to-the-list-of-worlds-top-26-destinations-for-2026/articleshow/126194678.cms |access-date=2025-12-30 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions<ref name="Ltd.2012">{{cite book |author=Infokerala Communications Pvt. Ltd. |title=Kerala Tradition & Fascinating Destinations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTunBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA314 |year=2012 |publisher=Biju Mathew {{!}} Info Kerala Communications Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-8192128481 |page=314}}</ref> and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.<ref name="Tripays">{{cite web |url=https://www.tripays.com/kerala-family-tour-packages/ |date=6 August 2011 |title=Kerala Family Tour Packages |author=Admin |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-date=21 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121233843/https://www.tripays.com/kerala-family-tour-packages/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.<ref name="keralatourism">{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination-wise-foreign-2010.pdf |date=6 August 2011 |title=Destination Wise Number of Foreign Tourists Visited Kerala During 2010 |author=Saju |access-date=24 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Tourism Statistics">{{cite web |publisher=Government of Kerala, Tourism Department |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/tourismstatistics/Tourist-Statistics2008.pdf |title=Tourist statistics – 2008 |access-date=22 October 2010}}</ref> Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country.<ref name="HinduTourism">{{Cite news |author=Santhanam K |title=An ideal getaway |date=27 January 2002 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030623124553/https://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/01/27/stories/2002012700400800.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 June 2003 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so.<ref name="Kerala Tourism"/> Marketing campaigns launched by the [[Kerala Tourism Development Corporation]], the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.<ref name="Tourism">{{cite book |title=Tourism Marketing |author=Dasgupta Devashish |publisher=Pearson Education India |year=2011 |isbn=978-8131731826 |page=203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXWAEjcG-FsC |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline ''[[God's Own Country|Kerala, God's Own Country]]''.<ref name="Tourism" /> Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.<ref name="Tourism" /> In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics – 2006 |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2006 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195845/https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TS2006.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.<ref name="bizstd">{{Cite news |title=Tourist inflow to Kerala crosses 10 million mark |work=Business-Standard |access-date=15 November 2015 |url=https://www.business-standard.com/india/news/tourist-inflow-to-kerala-crosses-10-million-mark/474524/ |date=16 May 2012 |last1=Joseph |first1=George}}</ref>

Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department.<ref name="HinduTourism" /> Kerala is known for its [[ecotourism]] initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities.<ref name="Devrep47">{{Cite book |author=Planning Commission, India |title=Kerala Development Report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ul-OkF5gUJQC |publisher=Academic Foundation |year=2007 |isbn=978-8171885947 |page=47 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the [[economy of Kerala|state's economy]], growing at the rate of 13.3%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist Statistics – 2005 (Provisional) |work=Department of Tourism |publisher=Government of Kerala |year=2005 |access-date=11 November 2007 |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626195846/https://www.keralatourism.org/php/media/data/tourismstatistics/TOURISTSTATISTICS2005.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the {{INR}} 190 billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/services/travel/kerala-records-6-rise-in-tourist-arrivals-despite-floods-and-nipah-virus-scare/articleshow/67995390.cms |title=Kerala records 6% rise in tourist arrivals despite floods and Nipah virus scare |date=14 February 2019 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref> Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 365280.1 million from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 28743.3 million from the previous year. Over 16.7 million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76 million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2 million people.<ref name="bizstd" />

The state's only drive-in beach, [[Muzhappilangad Beach]] in Kannur, which stretches across {{convert|5|km}} of sand, was chosen by the BBC as one of the top six drive-in beaches in the world in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/autos/story/20160617-the-worlds-best-beaches-for-driving |title=The best beaches for driving |first=David K. |last=Gibson |work=BBC Autos |date=11 June 2021}}</ref> [[Idukki Dam]], the world's second arch dam, and Asia's first is at [[Idukki]]. The major beaches are at [[Kovalam]], [[Varkala]], [[Kozhikode]], [[Fort Kochi]], [[Cherai]], [[Alappuzha]], [[Ponnani]], [[Kadalundi]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Chaliyam]], [[Payyambalam]], Kappad, [[Muzhappilangad Beach|Muzhappilangad]] and [[Bekal]]. Popular [[hill station]]s are at [[Ponmudi]], [[Wayanad]], [[Vagamon]], [[Munnar]], [[Peermade]], [[Ramakkalmedu]], [[Arimbra Hills, Malappuram|Arimbra]], [[Paithalmala]] of [[Idukki|Kannur]] district, [[Kodikuthimala]], and [[Nelliampathi]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Tapan K Panda |title=Tourism Marketing |publisher=ICFAI Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-8131404690 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4A0j6ZlJQfkC |pages=173–77 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> Munnar is 4,500 feet above sea level and is known for tea plantations, and a variety of flora and fauna.<ref name="FPJ">{{cite news |title=Kerala: Spellbound by this natural beauty |newspaper=The Free Press Journal |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/travel/kerala-spellbound-by-this-natural-beauty/636904 |date=2 August 2015 |access-date=27 November 2015}}</ref> Kerala's ecotourism destinations include 12 wildlife sanctuaries and two national parks: [[Periyar Tiger Reserve]], [[Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Thattekad Bird Sanctuary]], [[Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary]], [[Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Muthanga]] Wildlife Sanctuary, [[Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Eravikulam National Park]], and [[Silent Valley National Park]] are the most popular among them.<ref>{{cite book |author=M.R. Biju |title=Sustainable Dimensions Of Tourism Management |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-8183241298 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkAdvTbg0dEC |pages=151–65 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> The Kerala backwaters are an extensive network of interlocking rivers (41 west-flowing rivers), lakes, and canals that centre around Alleppey, [[Kumarakom]], [[Ponnani]], [[Nileshwaram]], and [[Punnamada]] (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), [[Pathiramanal]] a small island in [[Muhamma]]. [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]] and the [[Mattancherry Palace]] are two nearby heritage sites.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/padmanabhapuram-palace/244 |title=Padmanabhapuram Palace |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/mattancherry-palace-kochi/178 |title=Mattancherry Palace |publisher=Kerala Tourism |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref>
{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Outline of Kerala]]
* [[South India]]
* [[Dravidian peoples]]
* [[List of municipal corporations in Kerala]]
* [[List of taluks of Kerala]]
* [[List of urban local bodies in Kerala]]
* [[List of districts of Kerala]]
* [[List of revenue divisions of Kerala]]
* [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |title=Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 |publisher=Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company Limited |year=2018 |location=[[Kozhikode]] |editor-last=Chandran |editor-first=V. P. |id={{ASIN|8182676444 |country=in}} |language=Malayalam }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Further|History of Kerala#Further reading}}
* Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam (eds.) 2015. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20150102071757/https://www.orientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=0&isbn=978-8125057222 Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and Practices in Transition]''. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan.
* {{cite journal |pmc=7510531 |year=2021 |last1=Chathukulam |first1=Jos |last2=Tharamangalam |first2=Joseph |title=The Kerala model in the time of COVID19: Rethinking state, society and democracy |journal=World Development |volume=137 |article-number=105207 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105207 |pmid=32989341}}
* {{cite journal |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0971521516656077 |doi=10.1177/0971521516656077 |title=The 'Kudumbashree Woman' and the Kerala Model Woman: Women and Politics in Contemporary Kerala |year=2016 |last1=Devika |first1=J. |journal=Indian Journal of Gender Studies |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=393–414 |s2cid=151752480|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/19062/2/01_Jeffrey_Legacies_of_Matriliny%3A__the_2005.pdf |jstor=40023536 |title=Legacies of Matriliny: The Place of Women and the "Kerala Model" |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |journal=Pacific Affairs |year=2004 |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=647–664}}
* {{cite journal |url=http://keralamediaacademy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Robin-Jeffery.pdf |doi=10.1017/S0021911809000679 |s2cid=146795894 |title=Testing Concepts about Print, Newspapers, and Politics: Kerala, India, 1800–2009 |year=2009 |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=68 |issue=2 |page=465}}
* {{cite book |title=Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala became 'a Model' |isbn=978-1-349-12252-3 |last1=Jeffrey |first1=Robin |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=Springer}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ramanathaiyer |first1=Sundar |first2=Stewart |last2=MacPherson |title=Social Development in Kerala: Illusion or Reality? |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |year=2018}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Kerala|Kerala}}

; Government
* [https://www.kerala.gov.in/ Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118031516/https://www.kerala.gov.in/ |date=18 January 2006 }} of the Government of Kerala
* [https://www.keralatourism.org/ Official website] of Kerala Tourism

; General information
* {{OSM relation|2018151}}

{{Clear}}
{{Kerala |show=show }}
{{Topics related to Kerala}}
{{States and union territories of India}}
{{Navboxes|list =
{{State agencies of Kerala}}
{{Public Sector Undertakings in Kerala}}
}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Kerala| ]]
[[Category:Southwest India|.]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1956]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]

Idangai

2026-03-19T18:07:21Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: brief corrected layout for consistency and updated info based on references

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}
'''Idangai''' or the '''left hand''' is a caste-based division of communities in [[Tamil Nadu]], India, that was in vogue from ancient times right up to the 19th and even the early decades of the 20th century AD. Since India's independence, the differences have practically vanished.{{sfnp|Ghurye|1991|p=359|ps=}}{{sfnp|Alcock|D'Altroy|Morrison|Sinopoli|2001|p=269|ps=}} The corresponding division is [[Valangai]].

== Constituent castes ==
From ancient times, there was intense rivalry between the left-handed and right-handed factions.{{sfnp|Ghurye|1991|p=358|ps=}} The ''Idangai'' faction was numerically inferior to the ''Valangai'' and comprised six castes as opposed to the sixty of the ''Valangai''.{{sfnp|Ghurye|1991|p=359|ps=}} It was also unclear as to which castes constituted each faction. Some castes considered to be left-handed in some areas were regarded as right-handed in others and vice versa.{{sfnp|Yandell|Paul|2000|p=30|ps=}} Roughly speaking, the ''Valangai'' or right-handed faction was made up of castes with an agricultural basis while the ''Idangai'' was made of metal workers, weavers, etc. i.e. castes involved in manufacturing.{{sfnp|Siromoney|1975|ps=}}The core groups in Idangai were the five castes called Anchalar/ Panchalar. i.e.-

# Kannar
# Thattar
# Asari
# Kollar
# Thachan

Further castes were added at various times.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/28091/8/08_chapter%205.pdf|title=The Right and Left hand divisions|last=|first=|date=|website=Shodhganga|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

The ''Valangai'' faction was better organized, politically, than the ''Idangai''.{{sfnp|McGilvray|1982|p=105|ps=}}

== See also ==
* [[Caste system in India]]
* [[Valangai]]

== References ==
'''Citations'''
{{reflist|2}}

'''Bibliography'''
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |title=Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History |last1=Alcock |first1=Susan E. |page=269 |first2=Terence N. |last2=D'Altroy |first3=Kathleen D. |last3=Morrison |first4=Carla M. |last4=Sinopoli |year=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-77020-0}}
*{{citation |title=Caste and Race in India |last=Ghurye| first= G. S. |author-link=G. S. Ghurye |year=1991 |orig-year=1932 |publisher= Popular Prakashan |location=Bombay |isbn=9788171542055|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWkjsvf6_vsC}}
*{{citation |title=Caste Ideology and Interaction |last=McGilvray |first=Denis B. |year=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24145-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-88AAAAIAAJ}}
*{{citation |url=http://www.cmi.ac.in/gift/Epigraphy/epig_tambarammore.htm |title=More inscriptions from the Tambaram area |accessdate=21 September 2008 |year=1975 |first=Gift |last=Siromoney |journal=Madras Christian College Magazine |volume=44}}
*{{citation |title=Religion and public culture: Encounters and Identities in Modern South India |last1=Yandell |first1=Keith E. |first2=John Jeya |last2=Paul |year=2000 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-1101-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v8UeAgAAQBAJ}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |title=Constructing the Colonial Encounter: Right and Left Hand Castes in Early Colonial South India |first=Niels |last=Brimnes |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1999 |isbn=9780700711062 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdSABP70H9sC}}
*{{cite book |title=Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India |first=Nicholas B. |last=Dirks |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2001 |isbn=9780691088952 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rAzycuxf9gC}}
*{{cite book |title=Economic Development and Social Change in South India |first=Trude S. |last=Epstein |year=1962 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/economicdevelopm0000epst|url-access=registration }}
*{{cite book |title=When the World Becomes Female: Guises of a South Indian Goddess |first=Joyce Burkhalter |last=Flueckiger |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780253009609 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFlE0PO0x1AC}}
*{{cite book |title=The Warrior Merchants: Textiles, Trade, and Territory in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1984 |isbn=9780521267144 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y089AAAAIAAJ}}
*{{cite book |title=Public Faces, Private Voices: Community and Individuality in South India |first=Mattison |last=Mines |publisher=University of California Press |year=1994 |isbn=9780520914599 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FTO6p3ZMnIC}}
*{{cite book |title=The View from Below: Indigenous Society, Temples, and the Early Colonial State in Tamilnadu, 1700-1835 |first=Kanakalatha |last=Mukund |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2005 |isbn=9788125028000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5BMljBxJXtoC}}
*{{cite book |title=Trade and Politics on the Coromandel Coast: Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries |first=Radhika |last=Seshan |publisher=Primus Books |year=2012 |isbn=9789380607252 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lo-KjFtqC7sC}}
*{{cite book |title=Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India |editor-first=Yogesh |editor-last=Sharma |publisher=Primus Books |year=2010 |isbn=9789380607009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTTGWSme30YC}}

[[Category:Indian castes]]

History of Hyderabad

2026-03-16T07:49:04Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: General improvements to article content

{{Short description|none}}
{{about|the history of the fourth largest city in India|history of the Pakistani city with the same name|History of Hyderabad, Sindh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}

{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}

[[Hyderabad]] is the capital of the Indian state of [[Telangana]]. It is a historic city noted for its many [[monuments]], [[temples]], mosques and [[bazaar]]s. A multitude of influences have shaped the character of the city in the last 400 years.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uIaBAgAAQBAJ|title=Discovering Islam: Making Sense of Muslim History and Society|last=Ahmed|first=Akbar S.|date=2002-11-01|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134495429|language=en}}</ref>

The city of Hyderabad was founded by the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutb Shahi]] sultan [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]] in 1591. It was built around the [[Charminar]], which formed the centrepiece of the city. Hyderabad became an important trading centre for diamonds and pearls, and a centre for culture.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History & Culture {{!}} Hyderabad District, Government of Telangana {{!}} India|url=https://hyderabad.telangana.gov.in/history/|access-date=2020-12-18|language=en-US}}</ref>

After a brief period of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rule, in 1724, Asaf Jah I defeated [[Mubariz Khan]] to establish autonomy over the ''Deccan Suba'', named the region ''[[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad Deccan]]'', and started what came to be known as the [[Asaf Jahi dynasty]]. Subsequent rulers retained the title ''Nizam ul-Mulk'' and were referred to as Asaf Jahi Nizams, or ''Nizams of Hyderabad''.<ref name="Richards1">{{cite journal|title=The Hyderabad Karnatik, 1687–1707|first=J. F. |last=Richards|year=1975|journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]]|pages=241–260|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00004996|volume=9|issue=2|s2cid=142989123 }}</ref><ref name="columbia&TOI">{{cite book|title=Muslim civilization in India|chapter=A century of political decline: 1707–1803|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|chapter-url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_19.html|year=1964|last=Ikram|first=S. M.|author-link=S. M. Ikram|editor-last=Embree|editor-first=Ainslie T|editor-link=Ainslie Embree|isbn=978-0-231-02580-5|access-date=28 February 2018|archive-date=6 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002641/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_19.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite news|title=Testing time again for the pearl of Deccan|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Testing-time-again-for-the-Pearl-of-Deccan/articleshow/5324913.cms?referral=PM|last=Rao|first=Sushil|newspaper=The Times of India|date=11 December 2009|access-date=28 February 2018|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910232115/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Testing-time-again-for-the-Pearl-of-Deccan/articleshow/5324913.cms?referral=PM|url-status=live}}</ref> Nizam I never formally declared independence from the Mughals; he still flew the Mughal flag, and was never crowned. In Friday prayers, the sermon would be conducted in the name of Aurangzeb, and this tradition continued until the end of Hyderabad State in 1948. The Nizams later signed a subsidiary alliance with the British, and their territory became [[Hyderabad State]], the largest [[princely state]] in [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]] with the city of [[Hyderabad]] as its capital.

After India's [[Indian Independence Act 1947|independence in 1947]], the Nizam did not wish to accede his state to the newly formed nation. By then, his power had weakened due to the [[Telangana Rebellion|Telangana rebellion]]. Hyderabad State was [[Operation Polo|annexed]] to the Indian Union in 1948. In 1956, the [[Hyderabad State (1948–1956)|Hyderabad State]] was divided on the basis of linguistic differences, and the city of Hyderabad became the capital of [[Andhra Pradesh (1956–2014)|Andhra Pradesh]].

==Ancient history==
Archaeologists excavating near the city have unearthed [[Iron Age]] sites that can be dated to 500 [[BCE]].<ref name="Hyd_BC">{{cite news|title=Iron Age burial site discovered |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/10/stories/2008091058090100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913015958/http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/10/stories/2008091058090100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 September 2008|last=Venkateshwarlu |first=K.|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=10 September 2008|access-date=7 June 2013}}</ref> Megalithic sites dating back to 2nd century BC have been excavated. Prominent amongst these sites are at [[Hasmathpet cairns|Hasmathpet]]. Megalithic sites have also been discovered at [[Moula Ali|Moulali]], [[Kothaguda]], [[University of Hyderabad|Hyderabad Central University campus]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/know-all-about-megalithic-site-of-hasmathpet-cairns-in-secunderabad/articleshow/104462047.cms|title=Know all about megalithic site of Hasmathpet Cairns in Secunderabad|publisher=[[Times of India]]|first=Precious|last=Rongmei|date=2023-10-16|access-date=2024-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/hyderabad/2021/Jul/13/hiddenin-plain-sight-2329249.html|title=Hidden in plain sight|publisher=[[New Indian Express]]|first=Mayank|last=Tiwari|date=2021-07-21|access-date=2024-10-17}}</ref> Later in 2008 a new site was discovered at Kethepalli near Ramoji Film City.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/art-and-culture/hyderabad-over-2-500-years-old/story-SqQV1vTwuME7dhU9Ke3x7J.html|title=Hyderabad over 2,500 years old?|publisher=[[Hindustan Times]]|first=|last=|date=2008-09-11|access-date=2024-10-17}}</ref> The area around Hyderabad was ruled by the Mauryan Empire in the third century BCE during the reign of [[Ashoka the Great]]. After the death of Ashoka (232 BCE), as the Maurya Empire began to weaken and decline, the [[Sātavāhanas]] who started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, declared independence and established their empire in this region. The [[Sātavāhana Empire]] was a royal Indian dynasty based from [[Kotilingala]] in Telangana as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of the [[Deccan Plateau]] and [[central India]] for 450 years, i.e., from 230 BCE onward until around 220 CE. After the decline of the Satavahana Empire in 210 CE, the region came under the rule of the [[Andhra Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku]] dynasty (225 CE – 325 CE), the successors of the Satavahanas in eastern Deccan.

==Medieval history==

Various Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms ruled the area during the subsequent centuries. The area was ruled by the [[Kalyani Chalukya|Kalyani]] branch of the [[Chalukya]] kings. When the [[Chalukya]] kingdom became weaker, [[Kakatiya]]s, who were feudal chieftains of Chalukya, declared independence and set up their kingdom around [[Warangal]].

The Kakatiyas built the [[Golkonda]] Fort in the vicinity of Hyderabad as part of their western defenses along the lines of the [[Kondapalli Fort]]. The city and the fortress were built on a [[granite]] hill that is {{convert|120|m|ft}} high, surrounded by massive [[battlement]]s. The fort was rebuilt and strengthened by Rani [[Rudrama Devi]] and her successor [[Prataparudra II|Prataparudra]].{{sfn|Sardar, Golconda through Time|2007|pp=25–26}}<ref>Saqi Mustaid Khan, Ma'asir-i-Alamgiri, Translated by [[Jadunath Sarkar]], Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Kolkata (then Calcutta); 1947, p. 183</ref>

The fall of Warangal to [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]]'s forces from the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1321 CE brought anarchy to the region.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Later, the Golkonda fort came under the control of the [[Musunuri Nayak]]s, who defeated the [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaqi]] army occupying [[Warangal]].{{sfn|Sardar, Golconda through Time|2007|p=44}} For the next few decades, the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] of the Deccan fought the Musunuri Nayakas on the north and the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara Rayas]] on the south for control of the region.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} The Golkonda fort was ceded by the Musunuri Kapaya Nayak to the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] as part of a treaty in 1364.{{sfn|Prasad, History of the Andhras|1988|p=172}}{{sfn|Sardar, Golconda through Time|2007|p=20}} By the middle of the 15th century, the region was under the firm control of the Bahmani Sultanate, which controlled the Deccan north of the [[Krishna River]] from coast to of sultanate.{{Clarify|date=June 2015}}

Under the Bahmani Sultanate, Golkonda slowly rose to prominence. Sultan [[Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk]] (r. 1487–1543), sent as a governor of Telangana, established it as the seat of his government around 1501. Bahmani rule gradually weakened during this period, and Sultan Quli formally became independent in 1538, establishing the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty]] based in Golkonda.{{sfn|Sardar, Golconda through Time|2007|pp=66–67}}<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=118}}</ref> Over a period of 62 years, the mud fort was expanded by the first three Qutb Shahi sultans into the present structure, a massive [[fortification]] of granite extending around 5 km in [[circumference]]. It remained the capital of the Qutb Shahi dynasty until 1590 when the capital was shifted to the present city of [[Hyderabad]].

===Timeline===
[[Chalukya dynasty]] (624–1075), [[Kakatiya dynasty]] (1158–1321), [[Khalji dynasty]] (1290–1320), [[Tughlaq dynasty]] (1320–1414), [[Musunuri Nayakas]] (1336–1365), [[Bahmani Sultanate]] (1347–1527), [[Qutb Shahi dynasty]] (1518–1687), [[Mughal Empire]] (1526–1857), [[Asaf Jahi dynasty]] 1724–1948, [[Republic of India]] (1948-till date).

==The Qutb Shahi dynasty (1518–1687)==
{{main|Qutb Shahi dynasty}}
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| header = The Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad
| image1 = CharminarView-1.jpg
| caption1 = [[Charminar]]
| image2 = Tomb of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.jpg
| caption2 = One of the [[Qutb Shahi tombs]]
| image3 = Golconda Fort 005.jpg
| caption3 = [[Golconda Fort]]
| footer = The [[Qutb Shahi]] Monuments of Hyderabad were submitted by India in the [[List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India#Tentative List|tentative list]] for [[UNESCO World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage]] status in 2011.<ref name="UNESCO World Heritage Centre">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5573/|title=The Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad Golconda Fort, Qutb Shahi Tombs, Charminar |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en|access-date=2018-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201205635/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5573/ |archive-date=1 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>
| footer_align = center
}}

===Establishment of the Golconda Sultanate===
In 1463, Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani II dispatched [[Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk]] to the [[Telangana]] region to quell disturbances. Sultan Quli quelled the disturbance and was rewarded as the administrator of the region. He established a base at [[Kakatiya]] hill fortress of [[Golconda]], which he strengthened and expanded considerably. By the end of the century, Quli ruled from Golconda as the ''subedar'' (governor) of the Telangana region. Quli enjoyed virtual independence from [[Bidar]], where the Bahmani sultanate was then based.

In 1518, when the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] disintegrated into five different kingdoms, with the others based in [[Ahmednagar]], [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]], [[Bidar]] and [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]]. Sultan Quli declared independence from the Bahmani Sultanate and established the Golconda Sultanate under the title "Sultan Quli Qutub Shah",<ref name="Golctime">{{cite book|title=Golconda through time: a mirror of the evolving Deccan|pages=19–41|isbn=978-0-549-10119-2|last=Sardar|first=Marika|year=2007}}
*{{cite book|title=The nocturnal court: life of a prince of Hyderabad|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=29–30|isbn=978-0-19-566605-2|last=Jaisi|first=Sidq|year=2004}}
*{{cite book|title=A history of south India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=192|isbn=0-19-560686-8|last=Sastri|first=Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta|year=1976}}</ref> he rebuilt the mud-fort of Golconda and named the city ''Muhammad Nagar''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hyderabad through the ages|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/br/2002/05/28/stories/2002052800050300.htm|last=Nayeem|first=M.A|newspaper=The Hindu|date=28 May 2002|access-date=18 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Golconda|url=http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~islamarc/WebPage1/htm_eng/index/map_e.htm|last=Matsuo|first=Ara|publisher=[[University of Tokyo]]|date=22 November 2005|access-date=18 December 2013}}</ref>

The [[Hussain Sagar]] lake was built during the reign of [[Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah]], the fourth Sultan of the dynasty, in 1563. It was named after [[Hussain Shah Wali]], who helped design it.{{sfn|Haig, Historic Landmarks of the Deccan|1907|pp=217}}

===Founding of Hyderabad===
[[File:Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah portrait.JPG|thumb|right|160px|Portrait of [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]]]]In 1589, [[Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC|title=Historic cities of the Islamic World|last=Bosworth|first=Clifford Edmund|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]]|year=2007|isbn=9789004153882|page=164|access-date=20 June 2013}}</ref> the fifth ruler of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, selected the present site of the city and established the city of Hyderabad at the banks of the [[Musi River (India)|Musi river]] to overcome water shortages experienced at Golconda.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWYeAAAAMAAJ|title=Developments in Administration Under H.E.H. the Nizam VII|last1=Aleem|first1=Shamim|last2=Aleem|first2=M. A.|date=1984|publisher=Osmania University Press|language=en}}</ref> The [[Purana pul|''Purana Pul'']] (old bridge) enabled quick travel between Golconda and Hyderabad.{{sfn|Haig, Historic Landmarks of the Deccan|1907|pp=211}}

There are various theories about the naming of the city. One popular theory suggests that the sultan had named the city "Bhaganagar" or "Bhāgyanagar" after [[Bhagmati|Bhāgmathi]], a local ''[[nautch]]'' (dancing) girl with whom he had fallen in love.<ref name="Hyderabad_and_Bhagmati">{{cite book|title=Rights at work: pay equity reform and the politics of legal mobilization|last=McCann|first=Michael W.|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1994|isbn=0-226-55571-2|page=6}}{{harvnb|Haig, Historic Landmarks of the Deccan|1907|pp=210}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5AhAQAAMAAJ|title=The march of India|publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Informations and Broadcasting, Government of India|year=1959|page=89|access-date=7 January 2013}}
* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4UKJFLZVcEC|title=Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah|last=Khan|first=Masud Ḥusain|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|year=1996|isbn=978-81-260-0233-7|pages=14–15|access-date=7 January 2013}}
* {{cite book|title=With respect to sex: negotiating hijra identity in south India|last=Reddy|first=Gayatri|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2005|isbn=0-226-70755-5|page=6}}
* {{cite book|title=The colors of violence: cultural identities, religion, and conflict|url=https://archive.org/details/colorsofviolence00kaka|url-access=registration|last=Kakar|first=Sudhir|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1996|isbn=0-226-42284-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/colorsofviolence00kaka/page/23 23]}}</ref> She converted to [[Islam]] and adopted the title ''Hyder Mahal''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/Leisure/Zad93Q6KZOuM4jrH99qaeN/Opinion--A-Hyderabadi-conundrum.html|title=Opinion A Hyderabadi conundrum|date=15 November 2018}}</ref> The city was renamed ''Hyderabad'' in her honour.<ref name="Hyderabad_and_Bhagmati" /> According to another source, the city was named after Haidar, the son of Quli Qutb Shah.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C|title=Placenames of the world: origins and meanings of the names for 6,600 countries, cities, territories, natural features and historic sites|last=Room|first=Adrian|publisher=McFarland|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7|page=171|access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> Historians dismiss the theory of dancing girl as a "figment of the imagination" that lacks a "shred of evidence". According to the Hyderabad-based historian Capt. Panduranga Reddy (retd) who studied the city's origin, "It is all fiction that Hyderabad was ever named Bhagyanagar or that it was named after the lover of Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah. Hyderabad was actually built much later around a small village called Chichulam."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Swamy |first1=Rohini |title=Yogi is wrong. There's not a shred of evidence to prove Hyderabad was called Bhagyanagar |url=https://theprint.in/statedraft/yogi-is-wrong-theres-not-a-shred-of-evidence-to-prove-hyderabad-was-called-bhagyanagar/160024/ |access-date=7 December 2020 |work=ThePrint |date=7 December 2018}}</ref>

The architectural historian [[Pushkar Sohoni]] theorised the foundation of several cities in the Deccan in this period.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sohoni |first1=Pushkar |title=From Defended Settlements to Fortified Strongholds: Responses to Gunpowder in the Early Modern Deccan |journal=South Asian Studies |date=2015 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=111–126 |doi=10.1080/02666030.2015.1008818|s2cid=162270390 }}</ref> According to him, Hyderabad was founded in 1591 to decongest Golconda, which was growing rapidly. In addition, the changing nature of economic organisation and warfare technology required mercantile and civilian settlements to be disaggregated from the fortified military and political centres.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sohoni |first1=Pushkar |title=From Defended Settlements to Fortified Strongholds: Responses to Gunpowder in the Early Modern Deccan |journal=South Asian Studies |date=2015 |volume=31 |issue=1 |page=113 |doi=10.1080/02666030.2015.1008818|s2cid=162270390 }}</ref>
Andrew Petersen, a scholar of Islamic architecture, says the city was originally called ''Baghnagar'' (city of gardens).<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of Islamic architecture|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofisla00andr|url-access=registration|last=Petersen|first=Andrew|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=1996|isbn=0-415-06084-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofisla00andr/page/112 112]}}</ref>

He ordered the construction of the [[Charminar]] in 1591. The construction of the nearby [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Makkah Masjid]] was also started during his reign, but would not be completed for a hundred years.{{sfn|Haig, Historic Landmarks of the Deccan|1907|pp=210}}<ref name="UNESCO World Heritage Centre">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5573/|title=The Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad Golconda Fort, Qutb Shahi Tombs, Charminar |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en|access-date=2018-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201205635/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5573/ |archive-date=1 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Mir Mu'min Astarabadi|Mir Momin Astarabadi]], the prime minister in the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutub Shahi period]], developed the plan of the city of Hyderabad, including the location of the Charminar and [[Char Kaman]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/here-sleeps-the-earliest-urban-planner/article4827466.ece|title=Here sleeps the earliest urban planner|website=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/viola-not-2-world-has-84-hyderabads/articleshow/95040083.cms|title=Viola! Not 2, world has 84 Hyderabads |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/hyderabad-blueprint-drafted-in-the-name-of-haidar/articleshow/93417264.cms|title=Hyderabad blueprint drafted in the name of Haidar |newspaper=The Times of India}}</ref>

===Growth of the new city, Hyderabad===
The early history of Hyderabad is inextricably intertwined and fortune rose during the 16th and early 17th centuries, Hyderabad became a center of a vibrant diamond trade. All eight Qutb Shahi sultans were patrons of learning and were great builders. They contributed to the growth and development of [[India|Indo]]-[[Iran|Persia]]n and [[India|Indo]]-[[Islamic]] literature and culture in Hyderabad. Some of the sultans were known as patrons of local [[Culture of Andhra Pradesh|Telugu culture]] as well. During the Qutb Shahi reign Golconda became one of the leading markets in the world for diamonds, [[pearls]], [[steel]], arms, and also printed fabric. In the 16th century, the city grew to accommodate the surplus population of [[Golconda]] and eventually became the capital of the Qutb Shahi rulers. Hyderabad became known for its ''baghs'' (gardens) and its comfortable weather.


==Mughal conquest and rule (1687–1724)==
{{Main|Hyderabad Subah}}
[[File:Emperor_Aurangzebe_at_the_siege_of_Golconda,_1687.jpeg|thumb|[[Aurangzeb]] during the [[Siege of Golconda]], 1687]]
By the mid-17th century, politics in the Deccan were ready for yet another tectonic shift. [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] prince [[Aurangzeb]] spent most of his time in the Deccan fighting local Hindu and Muslim kingdoms to establish and enforce [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] sovereignty. After the death of [[Shah Jahan]] in 1666, Aurangzeb consolidated his power in Delhi as Emperor and returned to the south. He spent most of his imperial reign in military camps in the Deccan, in an almost desperate campaign to expand the empire beyond the greatest extent it had reached under [[Akbar]]. The biggest prize in his eyes was the rich city of Hyderabad, protected by the reportedly impregnable fort of [[Golkonda|Golconda]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zp0FbTniNaYC&q=War%2C+Culture+and+Society+in+Early+Modern+South+Asia%2C+1740-1849+By+Kaushik+Roy|title=War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849|last=Roy|first=Kaushik|date=2011-03-30|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781136790874|language=en}}</ref>

[[Aurangzeb]] with his commanders [[Nawab Khwaja Abid Siddiqi|Khwaja Abid Siddiqi]] (''Qulich Khan'') and the latter's son [[Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung I|Ghazi-ud-Din Feroze Jung]] laid siege to Golconda in 1686. Golconda held fast under months of siege, and Aurangzeb had to retreat in frustration. Aurangzeb returned in 1687 and laid siege for 9 months camping in the ''Fateh Maidan'' ("victory field", now the [[Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium, Hyderabad|Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNgHgxBQWcUC|title=The Nizam – His History and Relations with the British Government -|last=Briggs|first=Henry George|date=March 2007|publisher=Read Books|isbn=9781406710946|language=en}}</ref> [[Nawab Khwaja Abid Siddiqi|Khwaja Abid Siddiqi]] died in these war and was buried at Kismatpur near [[Attapur]], Hyderabad. Local legend has it that the fortress held on, but the gates were opened at night by a saboteur Abdullah Khan Pani who was bribed by Aurangzeb. Hyderabad's independence was eclipsed.

On 21 September 1687, the Golkonda Sultanate came under the rule of the Mughal emperor [[Aurangzeb]] after a year-long siege of the Golkonda fort.<ref name="Richards">{{cite journal|last=Richards|first=J. F.|year=1975|title=The Hyderabad Karnatik, 1687–1707|journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|volume=9|issue=2|pages=241–260|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00004996|s2cid=142989123 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Waldemar Hansen">{{cite book|title=The Peacock throne: the drama of Mogul India|last=Hansen|first=Waldemar|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|year=1972|isbn=81-208-0225-X|pages=168 and 471}}</ref> The annexed city "Hyderabad" was renamed ''Darul Jihad'' (House of War),<ref name="TH&Journal">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-culture/living-hyderabad-drum-house-on-the-hillock/article21571851.ece|title=Living Hyderabad: drum house on the hillock|last=Nanisetti|first=Serish|date=13 December 2017|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> and the main territories of the Golconda Sultanate were made into the province [[Hyderabad Subah]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Richards |first=J. F. |date=1975 |title=The Hyderabad Karnatik, 1687-1707 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/311962 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=241–260 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00004996 |jstor=311962 |s2cid=142989123 |issn=0026-749X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mughal rule in Hyderabad was administered by three main governors: [[Jan Sipar Khan]] (1688–1700), his son [[Rustam Dil Khan]] (1700–13) and [[Mubariz Khan]] (1713–24).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Michell |first=George |title=Architecture and art of the Deccan sultanates |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Mark Zebrowski |isbn=978-0-511-46884-1 |location=Cambridge |pages=210 |oclc=268771115}}</ref>

Aurangzeb's efforts would turn out largely in vain, with Hyderabad remaining under Mughal rule for less than four decades. During this period, the construction of the [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Makkah Masjid]] (which had started in the 16th century) and [[City Wall of Hyderabad|city wall of Hyderabad]] with 12 gateways{{sfn|Bilgrami, 1927|pp=94–95}} was completed.

For a few decades, Hyderabad declined, and its vibrant diamond trade was all but destroyed. Aurangzeb's attention moved away quickly to other parts of the Deccan, with the [[Maratha Empire]] gaining ground against the Mughals.

==The Nizams of Hyderabad (1724–1948)==
{{main|Hyderabad State|Nizam of Hyderabad}}
[[Hyderabad State]], (its capital and largest city [[Hyderabad]]) under the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizams of Hyderabad]], was the largest [[princely state]] in [[India]], with an area larger than [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]] combined. It was considered the "senior-most" princely-state, and within the elaborate protocols of the [[British Raj|Raj]], its ruler the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]] was accorded a 21-gun salute. Development of modern facilities and industrialization in Hyderabad city started in the late 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hyderabadplanet.com/historical-events-of-hyderabad.html|title=Historical Events of Hyderabad|publisher=Hyderabad planet|access-date=27 July 2012}}</ref> The State had its own [[Hyderabadi rupee|currency]], [[India Government Mint, Hyderabad#History|mint]], [[Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway|railways]], and postal system. The [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]] amassed a lot of wealth, as a result of the diamond trade.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/cities/34-carat-diamond-once-owned-by-nizam-of-hyderabad-up-for-auction-in-us-354943|title=34-carat diamond, once owned by Nizam of Hyderabad, up for auction in US|date=16 April 2013|work=NDTV.com, Hyderabad}}</ref> [[File:Asaf Jah I.jpg|thumb|[[Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I|Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan]], the first [[Nizam of Hyderabad]]|alt=]]

=== Asaf Jah I ===
With the emaciation of the Mughal Empire after [[Aurangzeb|Aurangzeb's]] death in 1707, the Mughal-appointed governors of Hyderabad gained more autonomy from Delhi. In 1714, the Mughal Emperor [[Farrukhsiyar]] appointed [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Mir Qamar-ud-din Siddiqi]] as the viceroy to the Deccan and gave him the title of ''Nizam-ul-Mulk (governor of the country)''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Advanced study in the history of modern India 1707–1813 |author=Mehta, J. L. (Jaswant Lal) |date=2005|publisher=New Dawn Press |isbn=1932705546 |location=Slough, Berkshire, UK|oclc=61811853}}</ref> He was well suited for the position as he had fought alongside his [[Ghazi ud-Din Khan Feroze Jung I|father]] and [[Nawab Khwaja Abid Siddiqi|grandfather]] who were commanders during the [[siege of Golconda]].

In 1724, he defeated [[Mubariz Khan]] to establish control over Hyderabad.{{sfn|Bilgrami|Willmott|1883|pp=69–70}} He received the title of ''[[Nizam of Hyderabad|Asaf Jah]]'' from Mughal Emperor [[Muhammad Shah]] in the following year. Thus began the [[Asaf Jahi dynasty]] that would rule Hyderabad until a year after India's independence from Britain.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Law, Modern Hyderabad (Deccan)|1914|pp=22–23}}

===Successors of Asaf Jah I===
The death of [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Asaf Jah I]] in 1748 resulted in a period of political unrest as his sons, backed by opportunistic neighboring states and colonial foreign forces, contended for the throne. The accession of [[Ali Khan Asaf Jah II|Asif Jah II]], who reigned from 1762 to 1803, ended the instability. In 1768 he signed the [[Treaty of Masulipatam|Treaty of Machilipatnam]], surrendering the coastal region to the [[East India Company]] in return for a fixed annual rent.<ref name="Reg Sal Geo">{{cite book|title=Nizam-British relations, 1724–1857|last=Regani|first=Sarojini|publisher=Concept Publishing|year=1988|isbn=81-7022-195-1|pages=130–150}}

* {{cite book|title=A comprehensive history of medieval India|last=Farooqui|first=Salma Ahmed|publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]|year=2011|isbn=978-81-317-3202-1|page=346}}
* {{cite book|title=An historical sketch of the native states of India in subsidiary alliance with the British government|last=Malleson|first=George Bruce|publisher=Asian Education Services|year=2005|isbn=978-81-206-1971-5|pages=280–292}}
* {{cite book|title=The annals of Indian administration, Volume 14|last=Townsend|first=Meredith|publisher=BiblioBazaar|year=2010|isbn=978-1-145-42314-5|page=467}}</ref>
[[File:Nizam's_of_Hyderabad_Throne.jpg|alt=|left|thumb|Throne of the Nizam of Hyderabad at [[Chowmahalla Palace]]]]
In 1769 Hyderabad city became the formal capital of the Nizams.<ref name="Richards2">{{cite journal|last=Richards|first=J. F.|year=1975|title=The Hyderabad Karnatik, 1687–1707|journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|volume=9|issue=2|pages=241–260|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00004996|s2cid=142989123 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="columbia&TOI2">{{cite book|title=Muslim civilization in India|last=Ikram|first=S. M.|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|year=1964|isbn=978-0-231-02580-5|editor-last=Embree|editor-first=Ainslie T|editor-link=Ainslie Embree|chapter=A century of political decline: 1707–1803|author-link=S. M. Ikram|access-date=7 October 2011|chapter-url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_19.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002641/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_19.html|archive-date=6 March 2012|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}

* {{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Testing-time-again-for-the-Pearl-of-Deccan/articleshow/5324913.cms?referral=PM|title=Testing time again for the pearl of Deccan|last=Rao|first=Sushil|date=11 December 2009|newspaper=The Times of India|access-date=22 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910232115/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Testing-time-again-for-the-Pearl-of-Deccan/articleshow/5324913.cms?referral=PM|archive-date=10 September 2015|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In response to regular threats from [[Hyder Ali]] (''Dalwai'' of [[Mysore]]), [[Baji Rao I]] (''[[Peshwa]]'' of the [[Maratha Empire]]), and Basalath Jung (Asaf Jah II's elder brother, who was supported by the [[Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau]]), the Nizam signed a [[subsidiary alliance]] with the East India Company in 1798, allowing the [[British Indian Army]] to occupy [[Bolarum]] (modern [[Secunderabad]]) to protect the state's capital, for which the Nizams paid an annual maintenance to the British.<ref name="Reg Sal Geo" />

When the [[British Empire|British]] and the [[France|French]] spread their hold over the country, successive Nizams won their friendship without bequeathing their power. The Nizams allied themselves with each side at different times, playing a significant role in the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]].

During the reign of the third Nizam, [[Sikandar Jah]], the city of [[Secunderabad]] was founded to station French troops and subsequently, British troops.<ref name=":0" /> The British stationed a [[Resident (title)|Resident]] at Hyderabad and their own troops at Secunderabad, but the state continued to be ruled by the Nizam. Maintenance of British forces, which was part of [[subsidiary alliance]] with British, put heavy burden on Hyderabad state and bankrupted it in the early 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Gazetteer of the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srgNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA191|publisher=Royak Geographica society, Great Britain |year = 1856 |access-date=27 July 2012}}</ref>

=== Asaf Jah V ===
{{Main|Asaf Jah V}}

[[Asaf Jah V]]'s reign was marked by reforms by his [[Prime Minister of Hyderabad|Prime Minister]] [[Salar Jung I]], included the establishment of a governmental central treasury in 1855. He reformed the Hyderabad revenue and judicial systems, instituted a postal service and constructed the first rail and telegraph networks. The first higher educational institution of Hyderabad known as ''Dar-ul-Uloom'' was established during his reign.{{sfn|Law, Modern Hyderabad (Deccan)|1914|pp=31–37}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQCvgavbQjgC|title=Locating Home: India's Hyderabadis Abroad|last=Leonard|first=Karen Isaksen|date=2007|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=9780804754422|pages=19–20|language=en}}</ref>

As news of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] reached Hyderabad, [[Turrebaz Khan]] and [[Maulvi Allauddin]] led rebellions of about 5,000 people and attacked the [[British Residency, Hyderabad|British Residency]]. However, this was no match for the superior British troops and the rebellion was quickly crushed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/is-this-the-residency/article2250612.ece|title=Is this the Residency?|date=2007-07-17|work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=2018-10-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/The-tale-of-Turram-Khan/article14515201.ece|title=The tale of Turram Khan|last=Daftuar|first=Swati|date=2016-07-29|work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=2018-10-01}}</ref>{{sfn|Bilgrami|Willmott|1883|pp=113–114}}

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = Principal_Street,_Hyderabad,_India.jpg
| caption1 = [[Charminar]] and its surrounding bazaars. The [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Mecca Masjid]], [[Char Kaman]] and [[Gulzar Houz]] are also seen.
| image2 = Drawing Room of Chowmahela Palace, Hyderabad, India.JPG
| caption2 = Drawing Room of [[Chowmahalla Palace]], the official residence of the Nizam
| image3 = Grand Stand Malakpet 1880.jpg
| caption3 = Grand Stand, [[Hyderabad Race Club]], [[Malakpet]]
| image4 = Entrance bridge to Hyderabad, India.JPG
| caption4 = [[Purana Pul]], the entrance bridge to Hyderabad
| image5 = Hyderabad mills.jpg
| caption5 = A mill with a canal connecting to [[Hussain Sagar]] lake.
| image6 = Mohurrum Festival by Lala Deen Dayal.jpg
| caption6 = [[Muharram]] procession, which is being held every year since the [[Qutb Shahi]] era{{sfn|Law, Modern Hyderabad (Deccan)|1914|pp=5–9}}
| footer = Photographs of Hyderabad taken by [[Lala Deen Dayal]] in the 1880s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Raja Deen Dayal : artist-photographer in 19th-century India|last=Deepali|first=Dewan|others=Deen Dayal, Raja, 1844–1905,, Hutton, Deborah S.|isbn=9788189995768|location=[New Delhi, India]|oclc=840408115|year = 2013}}</ref>
| footer_align = center
}}

===Asaf Jah VI===
{{main|Asaf Jah VII}}
[[Asaf Jah VI|Asaf Jah VI Mir Mahbub Ali Khan]] was the sixth [[Nizam of Hyderabad]]. He ruled the state from 1866 till his death in 1911.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1911/08/30/archives/nizam-of-hyderabad-dead-premier-prince-of-indian-empire-had-annual.html|title=Nizam of Hyderabad Dead.; Premier Prince of Indian Empire Had Annual Income of $10,000,000. |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.india-seminar.com/2008/585/585_bilkees_i_latif.htm|title=585 Bilkees I. Latif, The soul of Hyderabad|website=www.india-seminar.com|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> He inherited the throne at the age of three, and the state was ruled by his regents [[Mir Turab Ali Khan, Salar Jung I|Salar Jung I]] and Shams-ul-Umra III.{{sfn|Law, Modern Hyderabad (Deccan)|1914|pp=35}} The Nizam assumed full rule at the age of eighteen.{{sfn|Lynton, Days of the Beloved|1987|pp=36–37}}{{sfn|Law, Modern Hyderabad (Deccan)|1914|pp=27–28}}

The [[Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway]] was established in 1879, a railway company fully owned by the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]]. It was formed to connect [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] with the rest of the [[British India]], and was headquartered at [[Secunderabad Railway Station]]. After independence, it was integrated into the [[Indian Railways]]. The introduction of railways also marked the beginning of industry in Hyderabad, and four factories were built to the south and east of the [[Hussain Sagar|Hussain Sagar lake]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/92037/_http___www_bl_uk_onlinegallery_onlineex_apac_photocoll_t_zoomify62268_html.html?start=6&query=|title=The mills, Hyderabad.|last=Dayal|first=Deen|year=2013|publisher=[[Europeana]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101224338/http://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/92037/_http___www_bl_uk_onlinegallery_onlineex_apac_photocoll_t_zoomify62268_html.html?start=6&query=|archive-date=1 January 2016|url-status=live|access-date=31 October 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The population of Hyderabad city reached 448,000 in 1901, making it the fourth most populous in British India. The surrounding Hyderabad State had a population of 11 million.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazettee01grea|title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |author=Great Britain, India Office |last2=Hunter|first2=William Wilson|last3=Cotton|first3=James Sutherland|last4=Burn|first4=Richard|last5=Meyer|first5=William Stevenson|date=1907|publisher=Oxford : Clarendon Press|others=University of California Libraries}}</ref>

The [[Great Musi Flood of 1908]] ravaged the city during his reign, killing an estimated 15,000 people and affecting at least 200,000.{{sfn|Lynton, Days of the Beloved|1987|pp=13–15}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/when-musi-rose-fury-remembering-devastating-hyderabad-flood-1908-50459|title=When the Musi rose in fury: Remembering the devastating Hyderabad flood of 1908|date=2016-09-26|work=The News Minute|access-date=2018-10-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.siasat.com/news/hyderabad-observe-104th-anniversary-musi-flood-349446/|title=Hyderabad to observe 104th anniversary of Musi flood {{!}} The Siasat Daily|website=archive.siasat.com|language=en-US |date=20 September 2012 |access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> All the bridges over the [[Musi River (India)|River Musi]] were destroyed, except for the [[Purana pul|Purana Pul]]. The Nizam threw open his palace [[Purani Haveli]] for the flood victims.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/the-1908-flood-in-retrospect/article25052087.ece|title=The 1908 Hyderabad flood in retrospect|last=Nanisetti|first=Serish|date=2018-09-27|work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=2018-10-02}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=To my horror, I found that three leaks had started and were rapidly extending. The breach of this dam would precipitate an enormous volume of water into the still greater Hosain Sagar Lake, probably cause the dam to burst and thus complete the destruction of Hyderabad city,|sign=[[Michael O'Dwyer]], British Resident|source=}}

The flood necessitated planned development of the city. The Nizam invited [[M. Visvesvaraya|Sir M. Visvesvaraya]] to design the flood prevention system of modern Hyderabad.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya: Model engineer and scholar |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/inspiring-lives/mokshagundam-visvesvaraya-model-engineer-and-scholar/story-kHjtUEWCFm3AvsAwoyswaL.html |date=14 January 2020 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |access-date=2020-04-21}}</ref>

The Nizam died in 1911 at the age of 45.{{sfn|Law, Modern Hyderabad (Deccan)|1914|pp=28}}

===Asaf Jah VII===
{{main|Asaf Jah VII}}
[[File:Hyderabad_City_IB1142.jpg|thumb|Students leaving the [[Osmania University]], c. 1939–1945]]
The seventh and last [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], [[Mir Osman Ali Khan]] ascended the throne in 1911.{{sfn|Law, Modern Hyderabad (Deccan)|1914|pp=28}}

He founded numerous institutions and public buildings in the city, including the [[Begumpet Airport]], [[Hyderabad State Bank]], [[Osmania University]], [[Nizamia Observatory]], [[Moazzam Jahi Market]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Moazzam-Jahi-market-is-not-just-a-bazaar/articleshow/11107594.cms|title=Moazzam Jahi market is not just a bazaar – Times of India|work=The Times of India|access-date=2018-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.siasat.com/news/historical-moazzam-jahi-market-lies-neglect-638257/|title=Historical Moazzam Jahi Market lies in neglect {{!}} The Siasat Daily|website=archive.siasat.com|language=en-US |date=16 September 2014 |access-date=2018-07-29}}</ref> [[Government Nizamia General Hospital|Nizamia Hospital]], [[Telangana Legislature|Assembly Hall]] (formerly known as the Town Hall) [[State Central Library, Hyderabad|State Central Library]] (formerly known as the ''Asafiya Library''), [[High Court of Judicature at Hyderabad|Hyderabad High Court]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/nizam-a-forwardlooking-ruler/article3399826.ece|title=Nizam, a forward-looking ruler|last=Ifthekhar|first=J. S.|date=2012-05-09|work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=2018-07-31}}</ref> and the [[Osmania General Hospital]]. The Nizam also invited British architect [[Vincent Esch]] for designing some of these. The Nizam also owned an airline, called the [[Deccan Airways Limited|Deccan Airways]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/the-last-nizam-of-hyderabad-was-not-a-miser/article17367987.ece|title=The last Nizam of Hyderabad was not a miser|last=Lasania|first=Yunus Y.|date=2017-02-25|work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=2018-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/25/travel/once-a-land-of-princes-and-palaces.html|title=Returning to Hyderabad, Once a Land of Princes and Palaces |last=Khan|first=Sarah |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2018-07-21}}</ref>

Two large reservoirs, namely the [[Osman Sagar]] and the [[Himayat Sagar]] were constructed a few kilometers west of Hyderabad to prevent another flood in the city, on the advice of [[M. Visvesvaraya|Sir M. Visvesvaraya]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ecoindia.com/lakes/osman-sagar.html|title=Osman Sagar Lake, History of Osman Sagar Lake, Adventure at Osman Sagar Lake : Eco India|website=www.ecoindia.com|access-date=2018-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.exploretelangana.com/history-of-osman-sagar-and-himayat-sagar-lakes-of-hyderabad-hyderabad-tourism/|title=History of Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar Lakes of Hyderabad – Hyderabad Tourism|website=Explore Telangana|language=en-US|date=14 September 2014|access-date=2018-07-21|archive-date=12 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212212945/http://www.exploretelangana.com/history-of-osman-sagar-and-himayat-sagar-lakes-of-hyderabad-hyderabad-tourism/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

He was known for his immense wealth, and [[Nizam jewels|large jewel collection]], composed of 173 jewels, including the [[Jacob Diamond]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://queensjewelvault.blogspot.com/2013/02/the-nizam-of-hyderabad-rose-brooches.html|title=From Her Majesty's Jewel Vault: The Nizam of Hyderabad Rose Brooches and Necklace|last=Splendor|first=Order Of|date=2013-02-11|website=From Her Majesty's Jewel Vault|access-date=2018-07-21}}</ref> He was proclaimed the richest man in the world in 1937, and appeared on the cover of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine owing majorly to the Golconda mines, which were the primary source of his wealth.{{See also|Golconda Diamonds}}
[[File:Hyderabad map 1914.jpg|alt=|thumb|Map of Hyderabad, 1914]]

Various industries emerged in pre-independence Hyderabad during the rule of Asaf Jah VII. The major industries that were established in various parts of Hyderabad, and surrounding areas are:<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-bookreview/Kaleidoscopic-view-of-Deccan/article15950997.ece |title=Kaleidoscopic view of Deccan |date=2009-08-25 |work=The Hindu|language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |access-date=2018-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.moneycontrol.com/company-facts/vstindustries/history/VST|title=VST Industries > Company History > Cigarettes > Company History of VST Industries – BSE: 509966, NSE: VSTIND|website=www.moneycontrol.com|access-date=2018-07-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.zindatilismath.in/|title=Trituradora de piedra, Fabricantes de equipos de molienda, Fabricación de dispositivos móviles|website=www.zindatilismath.in|language=en|access-date=2018-07-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121045404/http://www.zindatilismath.in/|archive-date=21 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Industries formed during the rule of Asaf Jah VII
! Company!!Year
|-
| [[Karkhana Zinda Tilismat]] || 1920
|-
| [[Singareni Collieries Company|Singareni Collieries]] || 1921
|-
| [[VST Industries|Vazir Sultan Tobacco Company, Charminar cigarette factory]] || 1930
|-
| [[Azam Jahi Mills Warangal]] || 1934
|-
| [[Bodhan#Shakkarnagar|Nizam Sugar Factory]] || 1937
|-
| [[Hyderabad Allwyn|Allwyn Metal Works]] || 1942
|-
|[[Praga Tools]]|| 1943
|-
| [[Deccan Airways Limited]] || 1945
|-
|Hyderabad Asbestos
|1946
|-
|[[Kagaznagar, Telengana|Sirsilk]]
|1946
|}

==Post-Independence (1948–present)==
===Integration into the Indian Union===
{{see also|Telangana Rebellion}}

When India gained independence in 1947, the Nizam declared his intention to remain independent, either as a sovereign ruler or by acquiring [[Dominion]] status within the British Commonwealth. In order to keep essential trade and supplies flowing, he signed a [[Standstill agreement (India)|Standstill agreement]] with the [[Dominion of India|Indian Union]], which surrounded him on all sides. The law and order situation soon deteriorated, with escalating violence between the private [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakar]] army fighting for continuation of the Nizam's rule and the people with the support of the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] leaders like [[Swami Ramanand Tirtha]] and the communists of [[Telangana]], were fighting for joining the Union. As the violence spiraled out of control with refugees flowing into the coastal Andhra region of the [[Madras]] state of India, the Indian Government under Home Minister [[Sardar Patel]] initiated a police action titled [[Operation Polo]].<ref>Clyde Eagleton, "The Case of Hyderabad Before the Security Council" ''American Journal of International Law'' 44#2 (1950), pp. 277–302 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2193757 online]</ref><ref>Taraknath Das, "The Status of Hyderabad During and After British Rule in India" ''American Journal of International Law'' 43#1 (Jan., 1949), pp. 57–72 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/219313 online]</ref>

On 16 September 1948, the Indian Army moved into Hyderabad State from five fronts. Four days later, the Hyderabad forces surrendered. The number of dead was a little over 800. The Police Action achieved success within a matter of days. The Nizam finally surrendered and signed the [[Instrument of Accession]] to the Indian Union and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] was integrated into the Union as a [[states and territories of India|state]].

===Hyderabad State===
{{Main|Hyderabad State (1948–56)}}

The state got its first democratic government and the representatives of its 18 million people were admitted to the [[Constituent Assembly of India|Constituent Assembly]] drafting a constitution for free India. For the next eight years, [[Hyderabad State (1948–56)|Hyderabad State]] continued as a separate state within the Union, with its capital [[Hyderabad]].[[File:Blessing_hand,buddha,lumbini_park,hyderabad,A.P_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|The [[Buddha Statue of Hyderabad]] at [[Hussain Sagar]] lake was constructed in the 1980s. ]]

=== Demand for Second capital of India ===

In 1955, in a report ''Thoughts on Linguistic States'', [[B. R. Ambedkar]] the then chairman of [[Constitution of India#Drafting|the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution]], expressed in his report that the city should be designated as the [[second capital]] of India after [[Delhi]]. As Hyderabad constitute a strategic central location, infrastructure and amenities.<ref name="Mahesh Ambedkar">{{cite web|title=Dr. Babasaheb Abmedkar : Writings and Speeches|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/Images/attach/amb/Volume_01.pdf|work=[[Ministry of External Affairs (India)]]|access-date=21 December 2020}}{{rp|170–171}}
*{{cite book|title=The Architect of Modern India Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar|publisher=Diamond Pocket Books|pages=132–133|isbn=978-81-288-0954-5|last=Ambedkar|first=Mahesh|year=2005}}</ref> He expressed: "Hyderabad has all the amenities which Delhi has and it is a far better city than Delhi. It has all the grandeur which Delhi has. Buildings are going cheap and they are really beautiful buildings, far superior to those in Delhi. The only thing that is wanting is a Parliament House which the Government of India can easily build."<ref>{{cite web|title=Ambedkar for Hyderabad as second capital of India|url=http://www.ambedkar.org/ambcd/05E.%20Thoughts%20on%20Linguistic%20States%20PART%20V.htm|work=Ambedkar.org|year=1955|access-date=17 May 2010}}</ref> In 2014, the demand resurfaced during the [[Telangana movement|bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Andhra Pradesh leaders demand to make Hyderabad second capital of India|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/andhra-pradesh-leaders-demand-to-make-hyderabad-second-capital-of-india/articleshow/21680294.cms|newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |date=7 August 2013|access-date=21 December 2020}}</ref> and in 2019, during the [[Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019|reorganisation of Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref>{{cite news|title=G Kishan Reddy: No plan to make Hyderabad India's 2nd capital|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/181119/g-kishan-reddy-no-plan-to-make-hyderabad-indias-2nd-capital.html|newspaper=Deccan Chronicle|date=18 November 2019|access-date=21 December 2020}}</ref>

===1956–present===
On 1 November 1956, the states of India were reorganized on [[Natural language|linguistic]] grounds and the 7th [[Nizam]] [[Mir Osman Ali Khan]] was made the [[Rajpramukh]] based on his administrative abilities. Consequently, the territories of the State of Hyderabad were divided between newly created [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Bombay state]] (later [[Maharashtra]]), and [[Karnataka]]. Hyderabad and the surrounding areas were [[Operation Polo|annexed]] into India, and later to [[Andhra Pradesh]] based on [[Telugu language|Telugu]] linguistic majority, and Hyderabad became the capital of the new state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Since 1956, [[Rashtrapati Nilayam]], Hyderabad has been the second official residence and business office of the [[President of India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Rashtrapati bhavan:presidential retreats|url=http://presidentofindia.nic.in/presidential_retreats.html|work=presidentofindia.nic|access-date=26 May 2012}}{{cite news|title=Palaces of the President|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2007/20070708/spectrum/main3.htm|newspaper=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|last=Vohra|first=J.N.|date=8 July 2007|access-date=26 May 2012}}</ref>

[[HITEC City]] was launched in the 1990s as by the [[Andhra Pradesh]] government. Today, many multinational IT Companies including [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Infosys]], [[Cognizant]], [[Microsoft]], [[Tech Mahindra]] and [[HCL Technologies|HCL]] have offices in [[HITEC City]], and the surrounding localities of [[Gachibowli]] and [[Madhapur]]. In 2005, construction began for the [[Rajiv Gandhi International Airport]], which was completed and opened in 2008, to replace the old [[Begumpet Airport]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/new-hyd-airport-opening-takes-off-with-spicejet-flights/556120|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422010649/http://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/new-hyd-airport-opening-takes-off-with-spicejet-flights/556120|url-status=dead|archive-date=2016-04-22|title=New Hyd airport opening takes off with SpiceJet flights|date=2016-04-22|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> It is one of the [[List of busiest airports in India|busiest airports in India]]. [[File:Hyderabad_Metro.jpg|thumb|[[Hyderabad Metro]] was inaugurated in 2017.]]The city saw terrorist bomb blasts in [[Mecca Masjid blast|May 2007]], [[August 2007 Hyderabad bombings|August 2007]] and [[2013 Hyderabad blasts|February 2013]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/picture-gallery/hyderabad-blast-14-people-dead-119-injured/2180-1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224050049/http://www.indianexpress.com/picture-gallery/hyderabad-blast-14-people-dead-119-injured/2180-1.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-02-24|title=Hyderabad blasts: 16 killed, 119 injured Photo Gallery, Picture News Gallery – The Indian Express|date=2013-02-24|access-date=2018-07-31}}</ref>

Hyderabad also hosted the [[2007 Military World Games]] and [[2009 World Badminton Championships]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/sports/report-india-to-host-2009-badminton-worlds-1001404|title=India to host 2009 Badminton Worlds|date=2005-12-09|work=dna |language=en-US |access-date=2018-07-31}}</ref>

By the [[Andhra Pradesh Reorganization Act, 2014]], [[Telangana]] was separated from [[Andhra Pradesh]] as a new 29th state of India, with the city of [[Hyderabad]] as its capital. The new state was created on 2 June 2014.<ref name="Notification">{{cite web|title=Notification|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2014/158365.pdf|work=The Gazette of India|publisher=Government of India|date=4 March 2014|access-date=4 March 2014}}</ref> [[K. Chandrashekhar Rao]] was elected as the first [[Chief Minister of Telangana]]. [[Hyderabad]] would also remain the ''de jure'' capital of [[Andhra Pradesh]] for a period of ten years.

The [[Hyderabad Metro Rail]] began operations in 2017, five years after its [[groundbreaking]] in 2012. Many new routes are being planned as part of the metro expansion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hyderabad Metro Phase 2 DPRs Near Completion |url=https://www.constructionworld.in/transport-infrastructure/metro-rail-and-railways-infrastructure/hyderabad-metro-phase-2-dprs-near-completion/73299 |access-date=2025-05-30 |website=www.constructionworld.in |language=en}}</ref>

Hyderabad witnessed a construction boom in the late 2010s, fuelled by growth in its IT corridor. By 2025, the city had [[List of tallest buildings in Hyderabad|20 skyscrapers]] and had the [[List of tallest buildings in India#Cities with the most skyscrapers|second-highest number of skyscrapers in the country]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-06-28 |title=Hyderabad horizon billowing with 2nd highest number of skyscrapers after Mumbai |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/hyd-horizon-billowing-with-2nd-highest-number-of-skyscrapers-after-mumbai/articleshow/101323558.cms |access-date=2025-05-30 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery align="center">
File:Hill Fort Palace Hyderabad 1930s.jpg|The [[Hill Fort Palace]], 1930s
File:The Nizam of Hyderabad pays homage to the king and queen at the Delhi Durbar.jpg|[[Asaf Jah VII]] pays homage to [[King George V|King George]] and [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]], [[Delhi Durbar]], 1911
File:Chaderghat residency.jpg|[[British Residency, Hyderabad]], 1880s
File:Kacheguda Rly Stn West View 1922 Lala Deen Dayal.jpg|[[Kachiguda Railway Station]], 1932
File:Distant view of Hyderabad, India.JPG|Distant view of Hyderabad, 1880s
File:Hyderabad - One Rupee - Mahboob Ali Khan - 1329 AH Silver - Kolkata 2016-06-28 5271-5272.png|One [[Hyderabadi rupee|Hyderabadi Rupee]] coin issued in 1329 AH (1911 CE) during the reign of [[Asaf Jah VI]]
File:Hyderabad map 1911.jpg|Map of Hyderabad, 1911
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Hyderabad}}
* [[Etymology of localities of Hyderabad]]
* [[1990 Hyderabad riots]]

==References==
{{clear}}

=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|group=note}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation |first=G. Durga |last=Prasad |title=History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D. |publisher=P. G. Publishers |location=Guntur |year=1988 |url=http://www.katragadda.com/articles/HistoryOfTheAndhras.pdf |ref={{sfnref|Prasad, History of the Andhras|1988}} |access-date=31 October 2016 |archive-date=24 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424131701/http://www.katragadda.com/articles/HistoryOfTheAndhras.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{citation |last=Sardar |first=Marika |title=Golconda through Time: A Mirror of the Evolving Deccan (PhD thesis, New York University) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q8zERtJWtSUC |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-549-10119-2 |ref={{sfnref|Sardar, Golconda through Time|2007}}}}
* Zubrzycki, John. (2006) ''The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback''. Pan Macmillan, Australia. {{ISBN|978-0-330-42321-2}}.
* {{citation |last=Haig |first=Sir Thomas Wolseley |author-link=Wolseley Haig|title=Historic Landmarks of the Deccan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSdWELuOikMC |year=1907 |isbn=978-0265175248 |ref={{sfnref|Haig, Historic Landmarks of the Deccan|1907}}}}
* {{citation |last=Lynton |first=Harriet Ronken |title=Days of the Beloved |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f5w9_mkaCYkC |year=1987 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-0863112690 |ref={{sfnref|Lynton, Days of the Beloved|1987}}}}
*{{citation |last=Law |first=John |title=Modern Hyderabad (Deccan) |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Modern_Hyderabad_(Deccan) |year=1914 |publisher=Thacker, Spink & Company |ref={{sfnref|Law, Modern Hyderabad (Deccan)|1914}}}}
*{{citation |last1=Bilgrami |first1=Syed Hussain |last2=Willmott |first2=C. |author-link1=Syed Hussain Bilgrami |title=Historical and descriptive sketch of His Highness the Nizam's dominions |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalandde00willgoog/page/n1 |year=1883 |publisher=Bombay, Printed at the Times of India Steam Press }}
*{{cite book |title=Landmarks of the Deccan |last1=Bilgrami |first1=Syed Ali Asgar |year=1927 |publisher=Government Central Press, Hyderabad |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.63136/page/n5 |ref={{sfnref|Bilgrami, 1927}}}}

==External links==
* [http://www.hyderabadplanet.com/hyderabad-history.html Photos of Hyderabad History, from Qutb Shahi, Asaf Jahi to till-date] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509093304/http://www.hyderabadplanet.com/hyderabad-history.html |date=9 May 2011 }}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7RW7fkzi_hA History of Nizam's Hyderabad Deccan]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7DZmJfVx8Ws Old Hyderabad video]
* [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/wiaMXm4QVuM Nizam of Hyderabad]

{{Hyderabad topics}}
{{History of India by City}}

[[Category:History of Hyderabad, India| ]]
[[Category:Hyderabad State]]

Sarbananda Singha

2026-03-16T02:56:05Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}

[[File:Statue of Matak King Sarbananda Singha in the middle of Tinkunia Pukhuri, Tinsukia. 01.jpg|thumb|Statue of Matak King Sarbananda Singha in the middle of Tinkunia Pukhuri, Tinsukia.]]

'''Sarbananda Singha''' or '''Mejera'''<ref>"Mejera now assumed the name Sarbananda Singha and took the title 'Swargadeo"{{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=190}}</ref> was a [[Moamoria]] leader. He was [[Chutia people|Buruk Chutia]] by ethnicity.<ref>"The Buruk-Chutiyas, according to P. Saikia are the direct descendants of the Chutia royal family. Sarbananda Singha, the rulers of the Mataks is said to be a Buruk-Chutiya by caste."{{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=31}}</ref><ref>[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/123637#page/119/mode/1up Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal(1838), p.677., "The Bor Senapati is a ''Boorook Sooteah''; his ancestors were natives of the district of Sadiya; but he was born on the Upper Dibroo."]</ref> He was the first ruler of the autonomous region called [[Matak rajya]] (1805–1839), selected by his followers,<ref>"Mejera returned to his own area. His followers then selected him as their ruler {{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=190}}</ref> with its capital in Bengmara, in what is now [[Tinsukia district]] in the Indian state of [[Assam]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Mataks, the Morans, and the Moamaria rebellion|publisher=Omsons|year=1996|isbn=978-8171171491|author=Sristidhar Dutta|page=90}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AF5VGclvFvIC&q=matak+kingdom+Sarbananda+Singha|journal=Journal of Indian History|title=Coins of Swargadeo Sarbananda Singh|volume=61-63|page=124|year=1983}}</ref> He was the son of Merutnandan. He was succeeded by his eldest son Matibor Borsenapoti as the second ruler of the Matak Kingdom.

[[File:Coin of rebel king Sarbananda Singha.jpg|thumb|150px|Coins of Sarbananda Singha]]

He was assisted by a group of [[Jingpo people|Singhpo]]s against the Ahom government. Sarbananda Singha later has to retreat to a Singpho village when [[Purnananda Burhagohain]] after recovering [[Rangpur, Assam|Rangpur]] sent an expedition against him, for which he Sarbananda Singha sent envoys to [[Myanmar|Burmese court]] for assistance.<ref>{{harvcol|Dutta|1985|p=191}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last=Dutta |first=Sristidhar |title=The Mataks and their Kingdom |publisher=Chugh Publications |place=Allahabad |year=1985}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:18th-century Indian royalty]]
[[Category:Kingdoms of Assam]]
[[Category:Tinsukia district]]

{{India-history-stub}}

Neerja Bhatla

2026-03-15T18:24:31Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: stub

{{Short description|Indian gynecologist and obstetrician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Dr. Neerja Bhatla
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_place = India
| citizenship = Indian
| fields = [[Gynecology]], [[Obstetrics]], [[Gynaecologic oncology]]
| workplaces = * [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences]], New Delhi
* [[National Cancer Institute]], Jhajjar
| alma_mater = All India Institute of Medical Sciences
| known_for = Cervical cancer prevention, FIGO staging revision
| awards = * [[Padma Shri]] (2025)
* Dr. S.K. Ghai Bhandari Award
* ISCCP Excellence Award
* Women’s Leadership Conclave Award
}}

'''Neerja Bhatla''' is an Indian gynecologist and obstetrician. She was conferred the [[Padma Shri]] in 2025,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Padma Awards 2025 announced |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2096285 |website=PIB |access-date=2025-05-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
|title=Padma Awards 2025 – Notifications |url=https://www.padmaawards.gov.in/Document/pdf/notifications/PadmaAwards/2025.pdf
|website=Padma Awards (Official)
|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |date=28 April 2025 |access-date=8 June 2025
}}</ref> one of India’s highest civilian honours, in recognition of her contributions to women's healthcare.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2025-03-08 |title=International Women's Day: Dr Neerja Bhatia Of AIIMS Delhi Debunks Myths Around Cervical Cancer And Its Treatment |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!health/international-womens-day-dr-neerja-bhatia-of-aiims-delhi-debunks-myths-around-cervical-cancer-and-its-treatment-enn25030805194 |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=ETV Bharat |language=en}}</ref>

She became the first Indian to serve as president of the [[International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics]] (FIGO) and led the 2018 revision of FIGO’s staging guidelines for cervical cancer.<ref>{{Cite web |last=दिल्ली |first=अभिषेक नयन |date=2025-01-26 |title=कौन हैं डॉ. नीरजा भटला जिन्हें मिला 'पद्मश्री' सम्मान, हेल्थ सेक्टर में क्या है उनका योगदान? |url=https://www.abplive.com/states/delhi-ncr/republic-day-2025-neerja-bhatla-got-padma-shri-award-for-which-contribution-ann-2870838 |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=ABP Live |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Delhi: डॉक्टर नीरजा भटला पद्मश्री से होंगी सम्मानित, सर्वाइकल कैंसर की रोकथाम के लिए वैक्सीन पर कर रहीं काम |url=https://www.amarujala.com/delhi-ncr/former-professor-dr-neerja-bhatla-honored-with-padmashree-award-2025-01-25 |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=Amar Ujala |language=hi}}</ref>

== Career ==

Dr. Bhatla has worked extensively for over three decades in the field of cervical cancer prevention, particularly focusing on low-resource settings. After completing her MBBS and post-graduation in Obstetrics and Gynaecology,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Neerja Bhatla: कौन हैं पद्मश्री सम्मान पाने वाली डॉ. नीरजा भटला, हेल्थ सेक्टर में उनकी क्या हैं उपलब्धियां |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/delhi-ncr-haryana/who-is-dr-neerja-bhatla-who-receive-padma-shri-award-what-are-her-achievements-in-health-sector/2618058 |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=Zee News Hindi |language=hi}}</ref> she joined the faculty at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences]], New Delhi. She also served as the Head of Gynaecologic Oncology at the [[National Cancer Institute]] in Jhajjar under AIIMS.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhatia |first=Jyoti |date=2025-01-28 |title=Renowned Gynaecologist, AIIMS Former HOD, Dr Neerja Bhatla conferred with Padma Shri |url=https://medicaldialogues.in/news/health/doctors/renowned-gynaecologist-aiims-former-hod-dr-neerja-bhatla-conferred-with-padma-shri-142302 |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=Medical Dialogues |language=en}}</ref>

Her scholarly work includes significant contributions to peer-reviewed journals, particularly in gynecologic oncology and public health. She was a lead author in research on cervical cancer prevention strategies in India.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhatla |first1=Neerja |last2=Meena |first2=Jyoti |last3=Kumari |first3=Sarita |last4=Banerjee |first4=Dipanwita |last5=Singh |first5=Prerana |last6=Natarajan |first6=Jayashree |date=2021 |title=Cervical Cancer Prevention Efforts in India |journal=Indian Journal of Gynecologic Oncology |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=41 |doi=10.1007/s40944-021-00526-8 |pmc=8170054 |pmid=34095455}}</ref>

== Awards and recognition ==

She has received multiple recognitions for her clinical and academic contributions, including:
* Dr. S.K. Ghai Bhandari Award from the All India Coordination Committee of the Royal College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology
* ISCCP Excellence Award from the Indian Society of Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology
* Women’s Leadership Conclave Award<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Neerja Bhatla Awarded Padma Shri for Pioneering Work in Cervical Cancer Prevention – The Doctorpreneur Academy |url=https://thedoctorpreneuracademy.com/2025/01/27/dr-neerja-bhatla-awarded-padma-shri-for-pioneering-work-in-cervical-cancer-prevention/ |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=The Doctorpreneur Academy |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Medicine|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhatla, Neerja}}
[[Category:Indian obstetricians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in medicine]]
[[Category:Indian medical researchers]]
[[Category:Women scientists from Delhi]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women medical doctors]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian women gynaecologists]]
[[Category:Indian gynaecologists]]

Thirunarayur Nambi Temple

2026-03-15T18:14:38Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{Short description|Perumal temple in Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox temple
| name = Nachiyar Kovil
| image = Nachiyar Kovil (13).jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| map_type = India Tamil Nadu
| map_caption = Srinivasa Perumal Temple, [[Natchiarkoil]], [[Thanjavur district|Thanjavur]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| coordinates = {{coord|10.9157|N|79.4456|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| other_names =
| proper_name =
| country = {{flag|India}}
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| district = [[Thanjavur District| Thanjavur]]
| location = [[Natchiarkoil]]
| elevation_m = 45.91
| deity = {{Plainlist|
* Vanchulavalli Nachiyar ([[Lakshmi]] in the form of [[Niladevi]])
* Naraiyur Nambi Perumal ([[Vishnu]])
* Kal Garudar ([[Garuda]])
}}
| Direction_posture =
| Pushakarani =
| Vimanam =
| Poets =
| Prathyaksham =
| festivals=
| architecture = [[Tamil architecture]]
| temple_quantity =
| monument_quantity=
| inscriptions =
| year_completed =
| creator = [[Kocengannan|Kochengat Cholan]]
| website =
}}

'''Nachiyar Kovil''' or '''Thirunarayur Nambi Temple''' is a [[Sri Vaishnavism|Sri Vaishnava Hindu]] temple in Thirunarayur, a village in the outskirts of [[Kumbakonam]] in the southern [[Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is dedicated to [[Niladevi]], an aspect of the goddess [[Lakshmi]], and her consort [[Vishnu]]. Nachiyar Koil is one of the [[divyadesams]] where Lakshmi is pradahana (main deity) over Vishnu.<ref>{{Cite book |last=T.K.R |first=Sridharan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cs91EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT65&dq=Vanjulavalli+Nachiyar&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjc_LzQ_8eRAxUxEzQIHUh9C4cQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q=Vanjulavalli%20Nachiyar&f=false |title=God and Science |date=2022-07-12 |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=979-8-88704-354-8 |language=en}}</ref> Thirunaraiyur is the sub urban region of business city of Kumbakonam.

Constructed in the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian style of architecture]], the temple is glorified in the ''[[Divya Prabandha|Divya Prabandham]]'', the early medieval [[Tamil literature|Tamil]] canon of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints from the 6th to 9th centuries CE. It is one of the 108 ''[[divyadesam|Divya Desam]]s'' dedicated to Vishnu, who is worshipped as Srinivasa Perumal and his consort Lakshmi as Nachiyar. The temple is the place where god Vishnu is believed to have initiated ''[[Samasrayana|Pancha Samskara]]'' (religious initiation) to [[Thirumangai Alvar]]. The temple follows the [[Thenkalai|Tenkalai]] mode of worship, and the priests follow the [[Tenkalai]] tradition.

The temple is one of the [[Pancha Kshethram]] where [[Maha Lakshmi]] was found as girl child ''Vanjulavalli'' - the daughter of Maharishi Medhavi. The other four temples of the [[Pancha Kshethram]] are [[Sarangapani temple, Kumbakonam]], [[Oppiliappan temple]], Sundararaja Perumal Temple, Salem and [[Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala]].

The temple is believed to have been built by [[Kocengannan|Kochengat Cholan]] of the late 3rd century CE, with later contributions from [[Medieval Cholas]] and [[Vijayanagar Empire|Vijayanagara kings]]. A granite wall surrounds the temple, enclosing all its shrines, while it has a five-tiered ''[[gopuram|rajagopuram]]'', the temple's gateway tower. The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]].

Vishnu is believed to have appeared to the sage Medhavi and married his daughter at this temple, witnessed by [[Brahma]] and other gods. Six daily rituals and four yearly festivals are held at the temple, of which the Brahmotsavam, celebrated during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil]] month of ''[[Margashirsha|Margali]]'' (December–January), is the most prominent. The Kal Garuda image in the temple used during the festive occasions is believed to increase in weight seeking 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128 people in succession when the procession comes out of various gates from the sanctum to the main entrance of the temple. Nachiyarkovil is famous for [[Nachiarkoil lamp]] brass lamp. The lamps are made by resident artisans called Pathers ([[Kammalar (caste)|Kammalar]]) who are living in large numbers at Kammalar street, Natchiyarkovil.

==Legend==
[[File:Nachiyar Kovil2.JPG|250px|thumb|left|The temple tank adjacent to the temple]]
As per Hindu legend, the sage Medhavi was doing penance of goddess Mahalakshmi at this place. While taking a bath in the river, he found an image of [[Sudarshana Chakra|Chakratalvar]] entwined with [[Narasimha|Yoga Narasimha]]. A divine voice asked him to install the image in his hermitage and worship it. The goddess [[Nila Devi|Niladevi]], the aspect of Lakshmi, and a consort of [[Vishnu]] chose to grow in the hermitage and appeared to the sage in the form of a small girl under a tree (Vanjula Tree) and hence Medhavi Maharishi named her "VANJULAVALLI" and raised her as his foster daughter. Vishnu traveled in search of Niladevi (Vanjulavalli) on his vehicle [[Garuda]], the demigod-eagle. Garuda found the presence of Niladevi in the hermitage. Vishnu appeared to Medhavi, pleased by the latter's devotion and asked his daughter to be married to him. The sage happily aggred to marry Vanjulavalli to Vishnu, but under the condition that Nachiyar (Lakshmi) should always have primacy over Vishnu. Vishnu accepted his condition and both stayed in the ksetra upon his request. Because of the Medhavi's boon, in Nachiyar Koli the goddess rules over the God. Thayar (Lakshmi) is seated in the central sanctum alongside Perumal (Vishnu). In the processions, Lakshmi always comes first and Vishnu follows.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thirunaraiyur Divya Desam - Thirunaraiyur Nambi Perumal Temple (Nachiyar Koil) |url=https://greenmesg.org/bharatavarsha/pilgrimages/tamil_nadu/thirunaraiyur.php |access-date=2025-09-22 |website=greenmesg.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aniruddh |date=2014-12-06 |title=Srinivasa Perumal, Nachiyar Koil, Thanjavur |url=https://tntemplesproject.in/2014/12/06/srinivasa-perumal-nachiyar-koil-thanjavur/ |access-date=2025-09-22 |website=TN Temples Project |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nachiyar Koil Temple - History, Legend, Festivals, Architecture & Benefits |url=https://www.astroved.com/astropedia/en/temples/south-india/nachiyar-koil-temple |access-date=2025-09-22 |website=Astroved Astropedia |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hindu1"/><ref name=R/> There is another local legend that king [[Kocengannan|Kochengat Cholan]] was once defeated and he was advocated to seek the blessings of Vishnu, which he obliged.<ref name=R/>

==Architecture==
The temple is believed to have been built by King [[Kocengannan|Kochengat Cholan]]. He is believed to have built 70 temples dedicated to [[Shiva]] and Thirunaraiyur is the only Vishnu temple constructed by him. The temple has a 5-tiered ''[[gopuram|rajagopuram]]'' on the eastern side, raising up to a height of {{convert|75|ft|m|abbr=on}}. The entrance through the eastern gateway leads to a hall of 16 pillars, called Neenila Mutram. The centre of the hall is occupied by ''[[Dhwaja Stambha|Dvajasthamba]]'' (the flag pole) and ''Balipeeda'' (the place of sacrifice), one behind the other. The front portion of the flag pole has a small shrine for Garuda. The flag pole, place of sacrifice and Garuda's shrine are in axial position from the entrance to the main sanctum. The shrine of Thirumangai Alvar is located on the northern side. The central hall of the temple, the Goratha Mandapam, houses the images of [[Ramanuja]], [[Koorathazhwan|Koorathalvar]] and idols of eleven [[azhwar|Alvar]]s, leaving that of [[Andal]].<ref name="dinamalar"/>

The southern side of the temple has a garden where the Magila tree, the ''[[Sthala Vriksha]]'' (temple tree) is present. The ''Vasantha Mandapa'' or the spring hall is located next to it, which hosts the ''Vasanthothsavam'' or spring festival during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil month]] of ''[[Vaishakha|Vaikasi]]'' (May–June). The temple also has a 100-pillared hall where the wedding festival is held during the Tamil month of ''[[Shravana|Aavani]]'' (September–October). There is a separate shrine in the north that houses images of [[Rama]], [[Lakshmana]] and [[Sita]] and another shrine in the south that houses the image of [[Hanuman]]. There is a shrine for Chakrathazhwar and Yoga Narasimha, believed to have been installed and worshipped by Sage Medhavi. The first precinct has separate shrines for [[Manavala Mamunigal]] and [[Vedanta Desika]] and idols of the [[utsavar|utsava deities]] (festive images) of the 108 ''Divya Desams''.<ref name="dinamalar"/>

The temple has an elevated structure approached through a flight of 21 steps. The presiding deity of the temple is [[Vishnu]] in the form of Narayur Nambi and his consort [[Nila Devi|Niladevi]] as Vanchulavalli Thaayaar (also called Neela Devi Nachiyar), both of whom are housed in the main sanctum. Unlike other Vishnu temples where Vishnu is given importance, in this temple Nachiyar (Thayar) is prominent. The sanctum also houses the images of [[Brahma]], [[Pradyumna]], [[Aniruddha]], [[Shesha|Sankarshana]] and Purushothaman (Vishnu) and a set of gods, who are depicted attending the wedding. The festive idols of Srinivasa (Vishnu), Sridevi (Lakshmi), Vanjulavalli (Niladevi) and [[Bhudevi]] are housed in the same shrine.<ref name="hindu1"/> The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of the [[Government of Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="dinamalar"/>
{{wide image|File:Nachiyar koil pano.jpg|600px|thumb|left|Panoramic view of the temple tank adjacent to the temple}}

=== Kal Garuda ===
[[File:Nachiyarkovil-4.jpg|Kal Garudar (Stone [[Garuda]]) procession|250px|thumb]]
Kal Garuda, an image of Vishnu's [[vahana|mount]] - Garuda, is the most prominent feature of the temple. As per local legend, the sculptor who sculpted the idol of Garuda got frustrated as the bird flew away each time, a new image was prepared. In frustration, he threw a stone at Garuda, who got injured and decided to stay at the temple as Kal Garuda. The image of Kal Garuda is made of [[saligrama]] and is housed in the shrine outside the main sanctum. During festive procession during the Tamil months of ''Margazhi'' (December–January) and [[Phalguna|Panguni]] (March - April), the festive images are carried out in procession in Kal Garudar. While only four people are needed to carry the idol of Garuda out of the shrine, it multiples to 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128 people when the image is taken outside the temple. The weight of the idol remains the same when carried by 4 people and stays the same when carried outside by 128. Only supernatural force is acting on that idol when 4 people carry, if we replicate the same idol somewhere else, 128 people are required to lift. On the way back only 4 people are required to carry the float in the decreasing order 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4. The aspect is treated magical as drops of sweat are also observed on the image of Kal Garuda during the six-hour-long procession. During the festive occasion, Garuda receives honors from Srinivasa Perumal (presiding deity) in the form of dress and ornaments. Jewels and dress are also presented to Garuda by [[Ranganatha]], the presiding Vishnu form of [[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Srirangam Ranganthaswamy Temple]].

== Festivals ==
[[File:Nachiyar Kovil (12).jpg|250px|left|thumb|The temple shrines]]
As at other Vishnu temples of Tamil Nadu, the priests belong to the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavaite]] community, a Brahmin sub-caste.<ref name="dinamalar">{{cite web|title=Sri Tirunarayur Nambi temple|url=https://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=375|publisher=Dinamalar|access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref>

The prime festival or Brahmmotsavam is a 10-day festival celebrated during the Tamil month of ''Margazhi'' (December–January). Garuda Sevai is celebrated during the Tamil month of ''Panguni'' (March–April). During both these festivals, the festive images of Kal Garuda are taken out around the streets of the temple. Vasanthothsavam or spring festival is celebrated during the [[Tamil calendar|Tamil month]] of ''Vaikasi'' (May–June). The Thirukalyana Utsavam or the wedding festival is celebrated in the 100-pillared hall during the Tamil month of ''Aavani'' (September–October).<ref name="dinamalar"/><ref name="hindu">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/unique-drama-unfolds-during-procession/article4244915.ece|title=Unique drama unfolds during procession|last=S.|first=Prabhu|date=27 December 2012|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref> As per hagiographical records, it is believed that ''Vaikhasana'' form of worship was originally practiced and the temple started following ''Panchrartra'' form of worship after the advent of saint [[Ramanuja]].<ref name=early>{{cite book|title=Early Chola temples Parantaka I to Rajaraja I (AD. 907-985)|last=S.R.|first=Balasubramanyam|year=1975|publisher=Thomson Press (India) Limited|url=http://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/49443.pdf|page=181}}</ref>

==Religious significance==
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
|align=
|total_width=250
|width1=3264| height1=2448
|width2=3264| height2=2448
|direction=vertical
|image1=Nachiyar Kovil (8).jpg
|image2=Nachiyar Kovil (7).jpg
|footer=Sculpture of Narasimha and Ranganatha on the walls around the first precinct
}}
The temple is revered in ''[[Nalayira Divya Prabandham]]'', the 7th–9th century Vaishnava canon, by [[Thirumangai Alvar]] in hundred hymns. It is the second temple revered by Thirumangai having more than hundred verses, the first one being the [[Neelamegha Perumal Temple]] at Thirukannapuram. Thirumangai compares Srinivasa Perumal of the temple with [[Venkateshwara]] (form of Vishnu) at [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Tirupathi]] and believes that he found the same beauty in both of them. It is also believed that when Thirumangai was asked to present a ''madal'' (ballad) by Ranganatha of Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple, Thirumangai replied that he built the walls in Srirangam, while he built the verses for Thirunaraiyur.<ref name="hindu1"/> It is believed that the Alvar had his initiation to Vaishnavism in this temple.<ref>{{cite book|title=South Indian Shrines: Illustrated|publisher=Asian Educational Services|page=534|last=Ayyar|first=P. V. Jagadisa|isbn=9788120601512|location=New Delhi|year=1982|ref=Ayyar}}</ref>

The temple is classified as a ''Divya Desam'', one of the 108 Vishnu temples that are mentioned in the book. The temple is the place where Vishnu is believed to have initiated ''Pancha Samskara'' (religious initiation) to Thirmangai. The temple is also quoted as a Siddhi Kshetra, a sacred place where sages attain earthly liberation. The place is considered sacred on account of being the hermitage of Sage Medhavi.<ref name="hindu1">{{cite news|title=Unique drama unfolds during procession|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2005/04/08/stories/2005040800110300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016153705/http://hindu.com/fr/2005/04/08/stories/2005040800110300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 October 2007|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=8 April 2005|access-date=2013-09-09}}</ref><ref name="hindu"/> In Vaishanava theology, [[Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram|Varadaraja Perumal Temple]] at [[Kanchipuram]] is referred as Athigiri and Tirumala Venkateswara Temple at Tirupathi as Seshagiri and the temple at Thirunaraiyur is referred as Suganthagiri.<ref name="hindu"/>

Nachiyar Koil is one of the few ''Divya Desams'' where the goddess has prominence over Vishnu. Some of the other temples where such female dominance is observed are [[Srivilliputhur Divya Desam|Andal Temple]] at [[Srivilliputhur]], [[Sri Azhagiya Manavala Perumal Temple|Alagiya Manavala Perumal Temple]] at [[Woraiyur]] and [[Pundarikakshan Perumal Temple]] in Thiruvellarai. While Srivilliputhur is called Nachiyar Thiru Maaligai, Thirunaraiyur is called Nachiyar Koil.<ref name=R>[[#R.|R. 2001]], pp. 511-12</ref>

According to local lore, Vishnu was of the view that during [[Kali Yuga]], men would have to listen to women. Hence he decided that he would first set an example and listen to the goddess here. During all festive occasions, the first rights are reserved for Nachiyar, who moves ahead, while Srinivasa follows her. Even the food is first served to Nachiyar and then to Srinivasa. Being a temple where goddess has prominence, Vishnu is located slightly by the side and goddess has the prominent position inside the sanctum.<ref name="hindu1"/><ref name="hindu"/>

The place is the birthplace of Shaiva saint [[Nambiyandar Nambi]]. Though he was named Nambi after the presiding deity of the Vishnu temple, he followed Saivism. He was an eleventh-century [[Shaiva]] scholar of [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[South India]] who compiled the hymns of [[Sampantar]], [[Appar]] and [[Sundarar]] and was himself one of the authors of the eleventh volume of the canon of the Tamil liturgical poetry of [[Shiva]], the ''[[Tirumurai]]''.<ref name=Meena>{{cite book|title=Temples in South India|last=V.|first=Meena|publisher=Harikumar Arts|location=Kanniyakumari|year=1974|edition=1st|page=29}}</ref> The temple is counted as one of the temples built on the banks of [[River Kaveri]].<ref name=Ka>{{cite book|title=River cauvery the most battl(r)ed|last=Ka. Vi.|first=Kannan|page=34|publisher=Notion Press|year=2019|isbn=9781684666041|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CGFDwAAQBAJ&q=thiruvavaduthurai}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book|title=An introduction to religion and Philosophy - Tévarám and Tivviyappirapantam|url=https://archive.org/details/dli.jZY9lup2kZl6TuXGlZQdjZY2lZpy.TVA_BOK_0006115|last=R.|first=Dr. Vijayalakshmy|publisher=International Institute of Tamil Studies| location=Chennai|year=2001|edition=1st|ref=R.}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Famous Vishnu temples}}
{{Hindu Temples of Kumbakonam}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Thanjavur district]]
[[Category:Divya Desams| ]]
[[Category:Lakshmi temples]]

Registrar of Companies (India)

2026-03-12T16:19:20Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{Short description|Corporate Affairs Office of India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Registrar of Companies
| type =
| seal = Emblem_of_India.svg
| seal_width = 70px
| seal_caption = [[Emblem of India]]
| logo =
| logo_width =
| logo_caption =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| formed = 1956 
| preceding = 
| dissolved =
| succeeding = 
| jurisdiction = [[Government of India]]
| headquarters =
| coordinates = 
| motto =
| employees =
| budget =
| minister1_name = [[Nirmala Sitharaman]]
| minister1_pfo = Minister of Corporate Affairs
| deputyminister1_name =
| deputyminister1_pfo =
| deputyminister2_name =
| deputyminister2_pfo = 
| chief1_name =
| chief1_position =
| chief2_name =
| chief2_position = 
| public_protector =
| deputy =
| parent_agency = [[Ministry of Corporate Affairs]]
| keydocument1 = The Companies Act, 2013
| website = {{URL|https://www.mca.gov.in/content/mca/global/en/mca/e-filing/approval-services-roc-rd-hq.html}}
| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| footnotes =
| embed =
}}
The '''Registrar of Companies (ROC)''' is an office under the Indian [[Ministry of Corporate Affairs]] that deals with administration of the [[Companies Act, 2013]], [[The Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008]],The Cost Accountant Act 1959,The Company Secretaries Act, 1980 and [[The Chartered Accountants Act, 1949]]. These officers are from Indian Corporate Law Service cadre. 'ICLS’ is an organised Group A service recruitment of which is done by UPSC through Civil Service Examination since 2009 along with other services like IRS, IAS & IPS etc.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://business.gov.in/starting_business/list_registrars.php |title=Business Portal of India : Starting a Business : Naming and Registering a Business : List Registrars |access-date=19 February 2011 |archive-date=6 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206180018/http://business.gov.in/starting_business/list_registrars.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are currently 25 Registrars of Companies (ROC) operating from offices in all major states of India. Some states, such as Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, have two ROCs each. Also in some places unified ROC offices staffed by senior Group A ICLS officers are located in capital cities like Jammu and Srinagar. Section 609 of the Companies Act, 1956 tasks the ROCs with the primary duty of registering companies and LLPs floated in the respective states and the union territories under their administration.

The ROCs also ensure that LLPs comply with the statutory requirements under the LLP Act. The office of the ROC maintains a registry of records related to companies registered with them, and permits the general public to access this data on payment of a fee. The Union Government maintains administrative control over ROCs through Regional Directors. There are 7 Regional Directors, and they supervise the functioning of ROCs within their respective regions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mca.gov.in/MinistryV2/regionaldirectors.html|title = Regional Directors}}</ref>

The Registrar of Companies takes care of company registration (also known as incorporation) in India, completes reporting and regulation of companies and their directors and shareholders, and also oversees government reporting of various matters including the annual filling of various documents.

==See also==
* [[The Companies Act, 1956]]
* [[Ministry of Corporate Affairs]]
* [[Companies Act, 2013]]
*[[Companies (1st Amendment) Act, 2015]]
* [[List of company registers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.mca.gov.in/MinistryV2/registrarofcompanies.html ROC page on MCA website]

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Indian company law]]
[[Category:Government agencies of India]]
[[Category:Regulatory agencies of India]]
[[Category:Ministry of Corporate Affairs]]
[[Category:Registrars of companies]]

{{India-law-stub}}

Maruthani

2026-03-12T00:12:53Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| caption = Title card
| director = [[Ramarajan]]
| producer = P. Jayaraj
| starring = [[Pandiyan (actor)|Pandiyan]] [[Shobana]]
| cinematography = K. S. Selvaraj
| editing = R. Bhaskaran
| music = [[Gangai Amaran]]
| studio = J. R. Art Films
| released = {{film date|1985|9|1|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Maruthani''''' ({{translation|Henna}}) is a 1985 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language film, directed by [[Ramarajan]] and produced by P. Jayaraj. The film stars [[Pandiyan (actor)|Pandiyan]] and [[Shobana]], with [[Goundamani]], [[S. S. Chandran]], [[Janagaraj]], [[Senthil]] and [[Sulakshana (actress)|Sulakshana]] in supporting roles. It was released on 1 September 1985.<ref>{{Cite web |title=மருதாணி / Marudhani (1985) |url=https://screen4screen.com/movies/marudhani |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307082839/https://screen4screen.com/movies/marudhani |archive-date=7 March 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Screen 4 Screen}}</ref>

== Plot ==
{{no plot|date=January 2023}}

== Cast ==
*[[Pandiyan (actor)|Pandiyan]]
*[[Shobana]] as Marudhani
*[[Goundamani]]
*[[S. S. Chandran]]
*[[Janagaraj]]
*[[Senthil]] as Dingu
*[[Sulakshana (actress)|Sulakshana]]

== Production ==
Ramarajan initially approached [[Kanaka (actress)|Kanaka]], then aged 11, to play the female lead, but she refused as she was then not interested in pursuing an acting career;<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Pradeep |date=15 June 2019 |title=30 years of 'Karagattakaran': actor Ramarajan goes on rewind mode |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/karakattakaran-2-is-not-happening-says-actor-ramarajan/article27948457.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820092753/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/karakattakaran-2-is-not-happening-says-actor-ramarajan/article27948457.ece |archive-date=20 August 2019 |access-date=5 January 2025 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en}}</ref> the role went to Shobana.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-12 |title=பிளாஷ்பேக்: சபதத்தை நிறைவேற்றிய ராமராஜன் |trans-title=Flashback: Ramarajan, who fulfilled his vow |url=https://www.dinamalar.com/cinemanews/131729 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250814103337/https://www.dinamalar.com/cinemanews/131729 |archive-date=2025-08-14 |access-date=2025-08-14 |website=[[Dinamalar]] |language=Ta}}</ref> While shooting a scene at [[Salem, Tamil Nadu]] where Pandiyan bathes in falls with ropes tied from the tree, he lost control and was caught in the spiral of falls. He was immediately rescued by the crew.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 May 1985 |title=வெள்ளத்தில் சிக்கிய பாண்டியன் |trans-title=Pandiyan trapped in a flood |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_9_195/4.jp2/full/1000,1342/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250701153857/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_9_195/4.jp2/full/1000,1342/0/default.jpg |archive-date=1 July 2025 |access-date=1 July 2025 |work=Anna |pages=4 |language=ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Gangai Amaran]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maruthani tamil Film Super 7 EP Vinyl Record by Gangai Amaren |url=https://mossymart.com/product/maruthani-tamil-film-super-7-ep-vinyl-record-by-gangai-amaren/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120143215/https://mossymart.com/product/maruthani-tamil-film-super-7-ep-vinyl-record-by-gangai-amaren/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=Mossymart}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 January 1985 |title=Marudhaani (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) - EP |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/marudhaani-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1693816427 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250705011839/https://music.apple.com/us/album/marudhaani-original-motion-picture-soundtrack-ep/1693816427 |archive-date=5 July 2025 |access-date=5 July 2025 |website=[[Apple Music]] |language=en}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Vilakku Vaicha
| length1 = 4:23
| lyrics1 = [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]]
| extra1 = [[P. Jayachandran]], [[P. Susheela]]
| title2 = Marudhaniya
| length2 = 4:33
| lyrics2 = [[Gangai Amaran]]
| extra2 = [[S. P. Sailaja]], [[Uma Ramanan]]
| title3 = Manjalukku
| length3 = 3:27
| lyrics3 = [[Pulamaipithan]]
| extra3 = S. Janaki, Gangai Amaran
| title4 = Machanukku
| length4 = 4:42
| lyrics4 = [[Vairamuthu]]
| extra4 = Gangai Amaran, P. Susheela
| total_length = 17:05 
}}

== Critical reception ==
''Anna'' praised Ramarajan for narrating a simple plot in an entertaining manner while also praising the acting of Pandiyan and Shobana, humour and music.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 September 1985 |title=மருதாணி |url=https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_9_299/5.jp2/full/1000,1382/0/default.jpg |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250105092831/https://images.eap.bl.uk/EAP372/EAP372_6_23_9_299/5.jp2/full/1000,1382/0/default.jpg |archive-date=5 January 2025 |access-date=5 January 2025 |work=Anna |pages=5 |language=Ta |via=[[Endangered Archives Programme]]}}</ref> [[Subha (writers)|Jayamanmadhan]] of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' felt Pandiyan trying hard to attain star status and panning felt Janagaraj's humour villainy was no use while panning Goundamani and Senthil's humour.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஜெயமன்மதன் |author-link=Subha (writers) |date=22 September 1985 |title=மருதாணி |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1985-09-22/page/n53/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230807112151/https://archive.org/details/kalki1985-09-22/page/n53/mode/2up |archive-date=7 August 2023 |access-date=4 July 2025 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=53 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{Ramarajan}}

[[Category:1985 Indian films]]
[[Category:1985 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1985 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ramarajan]]
[[Category:Films scored by Gangai Amaran]]
[[Category:Films shot in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Stunt Silva

2026-03-09T06:41:47Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: new

{{Short description|Indian stunt actor, action director and stunt co-ordinator}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Stunt Silva
| image = Tamil-movies-vijay-thalaiva-movie-on-location-stills08.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1973|06|06}}
| birth_name =
| birth_place = [[Thoothukudi|Thoothukkudi]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| occupation = Action Director, Actor
| homepage =
| yearsactive = 1997 – present
}}

'''Stunt Silva''' is an Indian [[stunt actor]], [[action director]] and stunt co-ordinator who has worked in [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]], [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]], [[Kannada cinema|Kannada]], [[Nepali cinema|Nepali]], [[Hindi]] films. He made his debut with the 2005 Telugu film ''[[Chatrapathi (2005 film)|Chatrapathi]]'', directed by [[S. S. Rajamouli]] and has since also made appearances in films, portraying a supporting antagonist.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://behindwoods.com/tamil-stunt-choreographer/silva/silva-interview.html |title=Silva Interview |website=behindwoods.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112004107/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-stunt-choreographer/silva/silva-interview.html |archive-date=2014-01-12}}</ref>

==Career==
After training as a nurse at Stanley Medical College, Silva began working as a male nurse at hospitals in his home town of [[Tuticorin]] before joining Vijaya Health Centre in Chennai in 1990.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/lord-of-the-stunts/article6078613.ece|title = Lord of the stunts|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 3 June 2014|last1 = Paitandy|first1 = Priyadarshini}}</ref> He also pursued work as a peon in offices and dabbled in a transport business to keep a float financially. In 2002, he met a dance choreographer from the film industry who advised him to sign up as a background dancer in films.<ref name="ss">{{Cite web|url=http://silverscreen.in/features/interviews/in-the-line-of-fire-the-stunt-silva-interview/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927112549/http://silverscreen.in/features/interviews/in-the-line-of-fire-the-stunt-silva-interview/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2014|title = In the Line of Fire: The Stunt Silva interview|date = 23 September 2014}}</ref> He took up dance lessons at Paul Raj's school but was unable to gain access into the dancers' union and instead, as a means of making any sort of money, opted to apply for membership with the union for stuntmen. Silva then began working as an assistant to stunt choreographer [[Peter Hein]] in ''[[Run (2002 film)|Run]]'' (2002) and ''[[Thirumalai]]'' (2003), and choose to leave his hospital ward boy duties. During his time as an assistant, (2005) he helped [[Rajinikanth]] perform stunts in ''[[Sivaji (film)|Sivaji]]'' (2007).<ref name="ss" />

After serving as an assistant fighter in several Tamil and Telugu films, director [[S. S. Rajamouli]] gave Silva an opportunity to work as the stunt director of his fantasy film ''[[Yamadonga]]'' (2007), for which his work won critical acclaim. He has since gone on to work in over one hundred Indian films as the lead stunt director, working with leading directors and actors. He won recognition for his chase sequences in ''[[Mankatha]]'' (2011) and has regularly collaborated in films directed by [[Venkat Prabhu]].<ref name="stunt">{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/ig-exclusive-interview-with-masss-stunt-choreographer-silva-master-tamil-news-133782.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530004353/http://www.indiaglitz.com/ig-exclusive-interview-with-masss-stunt-choreographer-silva-master-tamil-news-133782.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 May 2015|title = - Tamil News}}</ref> In 2014, he was described by Sify.com as having achieved a "career high" through his work on prestigious film projects.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/stunt-sliva-on-a-career-high-after-jilla-and-veeram-news-tamil-ocikW0hhhgbsi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912172947/http://www.sify.com/movies/stunt-sliva-on-a-career-high-after-jilla-and-veeram-news-tamil-ocikW0hhhgbsi.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 September 2015|title=Stunt Sliva on a career high after 'Jilla' and 'Veeram'|website=[[Sify]] }}</ref>

Stunt Silva has also featured in films portraying a supporting antagonist. After being seen as a henchman in ''[[Yamadonga]]'' (2007), ''[[Thalaiva]]'' (2013), ''[[Jilla]]'' (2014) and ''[[Veeram (2014 film)|Veeram]]'' (2014), he portrayed the role of a gangster in Gautham Menon's ''[[Yennai Arindhaal]]'' (2015).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nowrunning.com/ajith-has-the-habit-of-taking-risks-says-stunt-silva/105940/story.htm|title=Ajith has the habit of taking risks, says Stunt Silva|access-date=26 May 2015|archive-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714130645/https://www.nowrunning.com/ajith-has-the-habit-of-taking-risks-says-stunt-silva/105940/story.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was also revealed to be a playing a leading role in the sports film, ''Brazil'', which began production in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/brasil-a-tamil-film-on-foot-ball-tamil-news-109213.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924075129/http://www.indiaglitz.com/brasil-a-tamil-film-on-foot-ball-tamil-news-109213.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 September 2015|title=- Tamil News}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Stunt Silva was credited in films under his original name, Selvam, and also as Selva, before being mistakenly referred to as Silva in the credits of ''[[Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa]]'' (2010) by [[Gautham Vasudev Menon]]. He has subsequently chosen to adapt it as a stage name, noting that the industry's fixation with foreign stunt directors, meant that a foreign-sounding name would benefit him.<ref name="stunt"/>

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Nominated Movie
!Language
!Award
!Category
!Results
|-
|2011
|''[[Mankatha]]''
| rowspan="7" |Tamil
|[[South Indian International Movie Awards]] — SIIMA &
[[Vijay Television Awards]]
|Best Action Choreography
|{{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |2012
|''[[Vettai]]''
|[[Tamil Nadu State Film Awards]]
|[[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Stunt Coordinator]]
|{{won}}
|-
|''[[3 (2012 Tamil film)|3]]''
|South Indian International Movie Awards — SIIMA &
Vijay Television Awards
|Best Action Choreography
|{{nom}}
|-
|2013
|''[[Vettai]]''
|South Indian International Movie Awards — SIIMA
|Best Action Choreography
|{{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="3" |2014
|''[[Veeram (2014 film)|Veeram]]''
|Vijay Television Awards
|Best Stunt Director
|{{nom}}
|-
|''[[Jilla]]''
|Vijay Television Awards
|Best Stunt Director
|{{nom}}
|-
|''[[Anjaan (2014 film)|Anjaan]]''
|South Indian International Movie Awards — SIIMA
|Best Fight Choreographer
|{{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |2015
|''[[Baji (2015 film)|Baji]]''
|Marathi
|International Marathi Film Festival Awards — IMFFA
|Best Action
|{{won}}
|-
|''[[Vedalam|Vedhalam]]''
| rowspan="2" |Tamil
|Edison Awards
|Best Action Choreography
|{{won}}
|-
|2022
|''[[Chithirai Sevvanam]]''
|[[Edison Awards]]
|[[Best Debut Director]]
|{{won}}
|}

==Filmography==
=== Stunt director, and director ===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" |Year
! rowspan="2" |Title
! rowspan="2" |Language
! rowspan="2" |Notes
|-

|-
| 2007 || ''[[Yamadonga]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2008 || ''[[Pourudu]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Yaaradi Nee Mohini]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Homam (film)|Homam]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Hare Ram]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Souryam]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Saroja (2008 film)|Saroja]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Arai Enn 305-il Kadavul]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2009 || ''Kadhalna Summa Illai''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Eeram]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Sankham]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Drona (2009 film)|Drona]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Rechipo]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| rowspan="8" | 2010 || ''[[Police Police]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Shambo Shiva Shambo]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Ye Maaya Chesave]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Kedi (2010 film)|Kedi]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Goa (2010 film)|Goa]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Panchakshari]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Vamsam]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2011 || ''[[Anaganaga O Dheerudu]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Nadunisi Naaygal]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Vaanam]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Venghai]]''|| Tamil || Nominated for SIIMA Award
|-
| ''[[Mankatha]]''|| Tamil || Nominated for SIIMA and Vijay Awards
|-
| ''[[Osthe]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Velayutham]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2012 || ''[[Ek Deewana Tha]]''|| Hindi ||
|-
| ''[[The King & the Commissioner]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Murattu Kaalai (2012 film)|Murattu Kaalai]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[3 (2012 Indian film)|3]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2013 ||''[[Naayak]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Thalaivaa]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Kanna Laddu Thinna Aasaiya]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Biriyani (film)|Biriyani]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2014 || ''[[Jilla]]''|| Tamil || Nominated for Vijay Awards
|-
| ''[[Veeram (2014 film)|Veeram]]''|| Tamil || Nominated for Vijay Awards
|-
| ''[[Mr. Fraud]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[RajadhiRaja]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Bramman]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Anjaan (2014 film)|Anjaan]]''|| Tamil || Nominated for Vijay Awards
|-
| ''[[Oru Oorla Rendu Raja]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="13" | 2015 || ''[[Yennai Arindhaal]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Baji (2015 film)|Baji]]''|| Marathi ||
|-
| ''[[Vai Raja Vai]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Maari (film)|Maari]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Yatchan]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Loham]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Kaaval (2015 film)|Kaaval]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Idhu Enna Maayam]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Thani Oruvan]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Uppu Karuvaadu]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Thanga Magan (2015 film)|Thanga Magan]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Vedalam]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Massu Engira Masilamani]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="9" | 2016 || ''[[Style (2016 film)|Style]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Oppam]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Oozham (2016 film)|Oozham]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Kasaba (2016 film)|Kasaba]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Rajini Murugan]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Chakravyuha (2016 film)|Chakravyuha]]''|| Kannada ||
|-
| ''[[Oopiri|Thozha]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Kodi (film)|Kodi]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Achcham Enbadhu Madamaiyada]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="8" | 2017 || ''[[Kuttram 23]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Power Paandi]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Vanamagan]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Ivan Thanthiran]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
|''[[Yuddham Sharanam]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Masterpiece (2017 film)|Masterpiece]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
|''[[Oxygen (2017 film)|Oxygen]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
|''[[Jawaan (film)|Jawaan]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| rowspan="9" | 2018 ||''[[Street Lights (film)|Street Lights]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
|''[[Kammara Sambhavam]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
|''[[Diya (film)|Diya]]'' / ''[[Diya (film)|Kanam]]''|| Tamil / Telugu ||
|-
|''[[Parole (2018 film)|Parole]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
|''[[Abrahaminte Santhathikal]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
|''[[Lakshmi (2018 film)|Lakshmi]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[2.0 (film)|2.0]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Saamy Square]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Maari 2]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="9" | 2019 || ''[[Lucifer (2019 Indian film)|Lucifer]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Kodathi Samaksham Balan Vakeel|Kodathi Samaksham Balan Vakkeel]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Oru Yamandan Premakadha]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[LKG (film)|LKG]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Boomerang (2019 film)|Boomerang]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Watchman (film)|Watchman]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Love Action Drama]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Aruvam]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Enai Noki Paayum Thota]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2020 || ''[[Big Brother (2020 film)|Big Brother]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Shylock (2020 film)|Shylock]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Dagaalty]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Mookuthi Amman]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2021 || ''[[Master (2021 film)|Master]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Tughlaq Durbar]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Thalaivii]]''|| Tamil / Hindi ||
|-
| ''[[MGR Magan]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Maanaadu]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Thalli Pogathey (film)|Thalli Pogathey]]''|| Tamil || Uncredited role
|-
|''[[Chithirai Sevvanam]]''|| Tamil || Released on Zee5; Also writer and director
|-
| rowspan="8" | 2022 || ''[[Maaran (2022 film)|Maaran]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Thiruchitrambalam]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Godfather (2022 film)|Godfather]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[Monster (2022 film)|Monster]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Kaapa]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Ottu (2022 film)|Ottu]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''Rendagam''|| Tamil ||
|-
| ''[[Malikappuram]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2023 || ''[[Rudhran]]''|| Tamil || <ref>{{Citation |title=Rudhran First Look Wall Poster |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bcd2KyZj05Q |language=en |access-date=2022-06-30}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Chengiz]]''|| Bengali ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2024 || ''[[Mission: Chapter 1]]''|| Tamil ||
|-
|''[[12 Gaun]]''|| Nepali ||
|-
| ''[[DNA (2024 film)|DNA]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
|''[[Baby John (film)|Baby John]]''|| Hindi ||

|-
| rowspan="7" | 2025 || ''[[Paranthu Po]]''|| Tamil || <ref>{{Cite web |last=Kumar |first=Akshay |date=2025-05-23 |title=Aju Varghese makes his Tamil debut with Ram's Paranthu Po |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2025/May/23/aju-varghese-makes-his-tamil-debut-with-rams-paranthu-po |access-date=2025-05-26 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[L2: Empuraan]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Bazooka (film)|Bazooka]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Thudarum]]''|| Malayalam ||
|-
| ''[[Hari Hara Veera Mallu: Part 1]]''|| Telugu ||
|-
| ''[[They Call Him OG]]''|| Telugu || <ref>{{Cite web |last=Entertainment |first=DVV |date=2025-09-22 |title=They Call Him OG Trailer - Pawan Kalyan, Emraan Hashmi, Sujeeth, Thaman S, DVV Danayya |url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=_8J8LwoVH_0 |access-date=2025-09-27 |website=Youtube |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Diesel (2025 film)|Diesel]]''|| Tamil ||
|}

=== As an actor===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Language
! Notes
|-
| 2002 || ''Naya Anubhav'' || || Hindi || Uncredited appearance<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvRHm5lgPRU&t=166s | title=Naya Anubhav (2002) {{!}} Hindi Movie {{!}} Anuradha, Rosy, Chitra, Kamala | website=[[YouTube]] | date=10 August 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| 2004 || ''[[7/G Rainbow Colony]]'' || || Tamil / Telugu ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Chatrapathi (2005 film)|Chatrapathi]]'' || || Telugu ||
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Anniyan]]'' || Passerby || Tamil ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Ashok (film)|Ashok]]'' || || Telugu ||
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Bommarillu]]'' || Rajesh || Telugu ||
|-
| 2007 || ''[[Yamadonga]]'' || || Telugu ||
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Kedi (2010 film)|Kedi]]'' || || Telugu ||
|-
| 2010 || ''[[Panchakshari]]'' || || Telugu ||
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Margazhi 16]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Velayutham]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Murattu Kaalai (2012 film)|Murattu Kaalai]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Thalaivaa]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Kanna Laddu Thinna Aasaiya]]'' || Kolaveri David || Tamil ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Jilla]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Veeram (2014 film)|Veeram]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Mr. Fraud]]'' || || Malayalam ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[Oru Oorla Rendu Raja]]'' || Hitman || Tamil ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Yennai Arindhaal]]'' || Matthew || Tamil ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Baji (2015 film)|Baji]]'' || || Marathi ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Yatchan]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2015 || ''[[Massu Engira Masilamani]]'' || Prince || Tamil ||
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Style (2016 film)|Style]]'' || || Malayalam ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Kuttram 23]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Power Paandi]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Ivan Thanthiran]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Street Lights (film)|Street Lights]]'' || || Malayalam ||
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Diya (film)|Diya]]'' / ''[[Diya (film)|Kanam]]''|||| Tamil / Telugu || Uncredited role
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Maari 2]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2019 || ''[[Watchman (film)|Watchman]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2019 || ''[[Aruvam]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Dagaalty]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2021 || ''[[Maanaadu]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2021 || ''[[Thalli Pogathey (film)|Thalli Pogathey]]'' || || Tamil || Uncredited role
|-
| 2022 || ''[[Thiruchitrambalam]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Karungaapiyam]]'' || || Tamil ||
|-
| 2024 || ''[[12 Gaun]]'' || Drug Dealer || Nepali ||
|-
| 2024 || ''[[DNA (2024 film)|DNA]]'' || || Malayalam ||
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|3164927}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Silva, Stunt}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors from Chennai]]
[[Category:Indian stunt performers]]
[[Category:Film directors from Chennai]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian action choreographers]]
[[Category:People from Thoothukudi district]]
[[Category:1973 births]]

Thongam Shanti Singh

2026-03-07T15:04:07Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox Indian politician|office=Member of the [[ Manipur Legislative Assembly]]}}
'''Thongam Shanti Singh''' (born 1961)<ref name=":1" /> is an Indian politician from [[Manipur]]. He is an MLA from [[Moirang Assembly constituency]] in [[Bishnupur district|Bishnupur District]]. He won the [[2022 Manipur Legislative Assembly election]], representing the National People's Party.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-09 |title=Moirang (Manipur) Assembly Election Results 2022 Live: Winner, Runner-up |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/moirang-manipur-assembly-election-results-2022-live-winner-runner-up-candidates-7809914/ |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Live |first=A. B. P. |date=2022-03-10 |title=Moirang Manipur Election 2022 Final Results LIVE: NPP Candidate Thongam Shanti Singh wins from Moirang , Details Inside |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/moirang-election-2022-results-live-updates-constituency-vote-counting-winner-loser-tally-who-will-win-bjp-congress-sp-bsp-aap-manipur-assembly-election-2022-latest-news-1518580 |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Singh is from Kiyam Leikai, [[Moirang]] post, Bishnupur District, Manipur. He is the son of late Thongam Ibohal Singh. He married Philem Sorojini Devi and they have a son, Shangkerson Thongam. He completed his pre-university course in science in 1980 at [[Moirang College]], which is affiliated with [[Manipur University]].<ref>{{Cite web| title=Form 26 (See rule 2A) - Affidavit to be filed by the candidate alongwith nomination paper bef returning officer for election to 12th Manipur legislative assembly (name of the house) from 27-Moirang assembly constituency (name of the constituency) | url=https://ceomanipur.nic.in/Affidavits/AssemblyElection/2022/27/Thongam%20Shanti%20Singh.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217121541/https://ceomanipur.nic.in/Affidavits/AssemblyElection/2022/27/Thongam%20Shanti%20Singh.pdf | archive-date=2022-02-17}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Thongam Shanti Singh (Independent (IND)):Constituency- Moirang (Bishnupur) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/manipur2017/candidate.php?candidate_id=85 |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Singh won from Moirang Assembly constituency representing the [[National People's Party (India)|National People's Party]] in the 2022 Manipur Legislative Assembly election. He polled 14,349 votes and defeated his nearest rival and sitting MLA, M. Prithviraj Singh of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], by 2,231 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-10 |title=Moirang, Manipur Assembly Election Results 2022 LIVE Updates: NPEP's Thongam Shanti Singh wins Moirang with 12712 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/moirang-manipur-assembly-election-results-2022-live-updates-1923459-2022-03-09 |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Moirang Manipur Election Result 2022 LIVE Updates: Thongam Shanti Singh of NPP Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/moirang-manipur-election-result-2022-live-updates-winnerloser-leadingtrailing-mla-4855823.html |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-10 |title=Moirang Election Result 2022 LIVE: NPP's Thongam Shanti Singh leads, Pukhrem Sharatchandra Singh of Congress trails - CNBC TV18 |url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/politics/moirang-election-result-2022-live-how-to-check-moirang-legislative-assembly-election-vidhan-sabha-winners-losers-vote-margin-news-updates-12733052.htm |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=CNBCTV18 |language=en}}</ref> In March 2024, he was active in demanding the Assembly pass a resolution to call upon the Centre to abrogate the 'Suspension of Operations' ties with all [[Kuki-Zo people|Kuki-Zo]] underground militant groups with whom agreements had been made in the past.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-03-01 |title=Manipur Assembly adopts unanimous resolution to end special agreement with militants |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/manipur-assembly-kuki-militants-suspension-of-operation-pact-2508885-2024-03-01 |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Lakshman |first=Abhinay |date=2024-04-10 |title=BJP tries a balancing act to manage voter perception of Manipur's ethnic conflict |url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/lok-sabha/bjp-tries-a-balancing-act-to-manage-voter-perception-of-manipurs-ethnic-conflict/article68051341.ece |access-date=2024-11-02 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Later, the Manipur Legislative Assembly passed a resolution to that effect.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Thongam Shanti}}
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:National People's Party (India) politicians]]
[[Category:Manipur MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:People from Bishnupur district]]

Bitnoon

2026-03-04T00:27:22Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: correct page to improve readability

{{Short description|2015 Indian Bengali film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Bitnoon
| image = File:Bitnoon poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Abhijit Guha [[Sudeshna Roy]]
| producer = Brij Jalan
| screenplay = Padmanabha Dashgupta
| story = Sudeshna Roy
| starring = [[Ritwik Chakraborty]] [[Gargi Roychowdhury]] [[Sayani Ghosh]]
| music = [[Raghab Chatterjee]] Subhen Chatterjee
| cinematography =Abheri De
| editing =
| released = {{Film date|2015|04|03|df=y}}
| runtime = 109 min
| country = [[India]]
| language =Bengali
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Bitnoon''''' (Black salt) is a [[Bengali language|Bengali]] romantic [[comedy film]] directed by [[Abhijit Guha (director)|Abhijit Guha]], [[Sudeshna Roy]] and produced by Brij Jalan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movie-reviews/bitnoon/movie-review/46877801.cms|title=Bitnoon Movie Review|newspaper=The Times of India|access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref> This film was released in 2015.

==Plot==
Rahul is a corporate employee married to Moushumi. They live happily with their six-year-old son, and believe that they cannot be trusted alone. The couple hardly has any time of their own and continue a dull relationship. Once Rahul becomes sexually frustrated and meets with dancer Rusha. He gets into a romantic relationship with her which results in funny consequences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/previews/Bitnoon/articleshow/46382354.cms|title=Bitnoon|date=26 February 2015|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/Ritwick-and-Gargi-pair-up-for-romantic-comedy/articleshow/38617071.cms|title=Ritwick and Gargi pair up for romantic comedy|newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref>

==Cast==
* [[Ritwick Chakraborty]] as Rahul
* [[Sayani Ghosh]] as Rusha
* [[Gargi Roychowdhury]] as Mousumi

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Films set in Kolkata]]
[[Category:2015 films]]
[[Category:Bengali-language Indian films]]
[[Category:2015 Bengali-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Abhijit Guha and Sudeshna Roy]]

{{2010s-Bengali-film-stub}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|4949202}}

Deedar-E-Yaar

2026-03-03T23:52:46Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: improve page as per guidelines

{{Short description|1982 film by H. S. Rawail}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Deedar-E-Yaar
| image = Deedar-E-Yaar.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[H. S. Rawail]]
| producer = Prasan Kapoor [[Jeetendra]] {{small|(Presents)}}
| writer = [[Dr. Rahi Masoom Reza]] {{small|(dialogues)}} [[Indeevar]] [[Kaifi Azmi]] [[Sahir Ludhianvi]] [[Ameer Meenai]] {{small|(lyrics)}}
| screenplay = [[Rahul Rawail]]
| story = [[Ruhi Rawail]] [[Rahul Rawail]]
| starring = [[Jeetendra]] [[Rishi Kapoor]] [[Rekha]] [[Tina Munim]]
| music = [[Laxmikant-Pyarelal]]
| cinematography = G.Singh
| editing = Shyam
| studio = Tirupati Pictures Enterprises
| released = {{film date|df=yes|1982|10|22}}
| runtime = 169 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
}}

'''Deedar-E-Yaar''' is a 1982 [[Hindi]]-language [[romance film]], produced by Prasan Kapoor under the Tirupati Pictures Enterprises banner and directed by Harnam Singh Rawail. It stars [[Jeetendra]], [[Rishi Kapoor]], [[Rekha]], [[Tina Munim]] and music composed by [[Laxmikant-Pyarelal]]. The film was a box office failure.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-11-01 |title=When Jeetendra called Sridevi and Jaya Prada his ‘bread and butter’ |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/when-jeetendra-called-sridevi-and-jaya-prada-his-bread-and-butter-revealed-how-he-recovered-after-losing-rs-2-5-cr-101635746619412.html |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

==Plot==
Javed Sayeed Ali Khan meets Sikander Alam Changezi, who is the brother of Firdous Changezi. Javed loves Firdous and he gives a love letter to Firdous in Sikander's hand, not knowing that he is her brother. He asks Javed to stay away from his sister, but Javed ignores the warning and enters their home disguised as a servant. Firdous recognizes him as he is leaving. He takes her photograph, but Firdous came to his home and takes the photo, and both fall in love. They are living in the city of Lucknow, where culture, courtesies, and the Nawabi way of life has remained its hallmark. Nawab Akhtar Nawaz Khan's sister Nazima's husband Jahang every day goes to Husna's Kotha and he decides to marry her. To save his sister's family from disaster, Akhtar frequents the Kotha of Husna. Jahang decides to kill Akhtar, but he fails. Javed saves him and they become friends. At the jewellery shop, Akhtar sees Firdous for the first time and he falls in love on one side, unaware of the fact, that Akhtar and Javed love the same girl and promise to help each other in winning their respective loves. Both meet her in a fair and Javed decides to marry Firdous. When they all came back to Lucknow, Ali Nawab Mirza Firhad Ali Changezi said to Javed that he can't marry Firdous because of his family. Then to help his friend Javed, Akhtar decides to marry Firdous, without knowing that Firdous is his lover and then divorce her, then Javed can marry her. Both are ready to do that. When Akhtar marries Javed's lady love, he discovers to his shock that she is none other than his lover. Here, Husna promises to Akhtar that after the marriage of Akhtar, she will leave dance in Kotha and commit suicide. After coming to know that Firdous is nothing but Javed's love and Akhtar also loves her, Akhtar tells Javed that he will not divorce Firdous. What happened to Javed? Can Javed get his lady love Firdous? Can Akhtar divorce Firdous?<ref name=":0" />

==Cast==
*[[Jeetendra]] as Nawab Khan<ref name=":0" />
*[[Rekha]] as Husna Bai
*[[Rishi Kapoor]] as Javed
*[[Tina Munim]] as Firdous Changezi
*[[Reena Roy]] as Qawalli singer (Friendly Appearance)
*[[Nirupa Roy]] as Mrs. Khan
*[[Deven Varma]] as Sikander Changezi
*[[Shreeram Lagoo]] as Nawab Mirza Changezi
*[[Urmila Bhatt]] as Mrs. Changezi

== Soundtrack ==
Music composed by [[Laxmikant-Pyarelal]], lyrics written by [[Indeevar]], [[Kaifi Azmi]], [[Sahir Ludhianvi]] and [[Amir Meenai]].<ref name=":0" />
{|class="wikitable"
! Song !! Singer !! Lyricist
!Ref.
|-
| "Chala Chal Lifaafe Kabutar Ki Chaal"
| [[Kishore Kumar]]
| [[Sahir Ludhianvi]] and [[Kaifi Azmi]]
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
| "Sarakti Jaaye Hai Rukh Se Naqaab, Ahista Ahista"
| Kishore Kumar, [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
| [[Amir Meenai]]
|
|-
| "Mere Dildaar Ka Baankpan, Allah Allah"
| Kishore Kumar, [[Mohammed Rafi]]
| Sahir Ludhianvi
|
|-
| "Aaye Woh Phoolon Ke Rath Par"
| Lata Mangeshkar
| [[Indeevar]]
|
|-
| "Tumko Dekha To Samajh Mein Aaya"
| Lata Mangeshkar
| Sahir Ludhianvi
|
|-
| "Eid Ka Din Hai, Gale Aaj To Mil Le Zaalim"
| Mohammed Rafi, [[Asha Bhosle]], Chorus
| Sahir Ludhianvi
|
|-
| "Marne Ka Gham Nahin Hai"
| Asha Bhosle
| Kaifi Azmi
|
|-
| "Jaana Jaana Jaldi Kya Hai"
| Asha Bhosle
| Kaifi Azmi
|
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0266456}}

[[Category:1982 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1982 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by H. S. Rawail]]
[[Category:Films scored by Laxmikant–Pyarelal]]

Venkatadri Express (film)

2026-03-03T23:39:01Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{about|the film|the train|Venkatadri Express}}
{{Long plot|date=June 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Venkatadri Express
| image = Venkatadri Express poster.jpg
| caption = Movie poster
| director = [[Merlapaka Gandhi]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://filmcircle.com/venkatadri-express-review-path-breaking-entertainer/|title='Venkatadri Express' Review – A path breaking entertainer|publisher=Filmcircle.com|access-date=22 Nov 2013|archive-date=1 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131201025638/http://filmcircle.com/venkatadri-express-review-path-breaking-entertainer/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| producer = Gemini Kiran
| writer = [[Merlapaka Gandhi]] Sheik Dawood G
| starring = [[Sundeep Kishan]] [[Rakul Preet Singh]]
| music = [[Ramana Gogula]]
| cinematography = [[Chota K. Naidu]]
| editing = Gautham Raju
| studio = [[Anandi Art Creations]]
| language = Telugu
| country = India
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2013|11|29}}
| runtime =
| budget =
| gross = ₹10 crore [[Box office#Distributor rentals|distributors' share]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Tollywood Top 10 Box Office Collection Movies In 2013
|url=https://t2blive.com/tollywood-top-10-box-office-collection-movies-in-2013/ |website=T2BLive |language=en |date=19 February 2019 |access-date=1 November 2025}}</ref>
}}

'''''Venkatadri Express''''' is a 2013 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[romantic comedy|romantic comedy film]] written and directed by [[Merlapaka Gandhi]]. Produced by Gemini Kiran's Anandi Art Creations, the film stars [[Sundeep Kishan]] and [[Rakul Preet Singh]] (in her Telugu debut in Lead Role). [[Ramana Gogula]] provided the music while [[Chota K. Naidu]] and Gautham Raju performed the cinematography and editing respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ragalahari.mobi/tollywood/happenings/17625/sundeep-kishan-s-venkatadri-express-under-anandi-arts-banner|title=Sundeep Kishan's Venkatadri Express under Anandi Arts banner|publisher=raagalahari.mobi|access-date=22 Oct 2013|archive-date=29 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029213410/http://ragalahari.mobi/tollywood/happenings/17625/sundeep-kishan-s-venkatadri-express-under-anandi-arts-banner|url-status=live}}</ref>

The film is remade in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Tirupathi Express]]'' (2014),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Kriti-in-Venkatadri-Express-remake/articleshow/29153637.cms|title=Kriti Kharbanda's Tirupati Express is a remake|website=Times Of India|date=21 January 2014|access-date=4 November 2020|archive-date=19 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519015209/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/Kriti-in-Venkatadri-Express-remake/articleshow/29153637.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] as ''[[Love Express (2016 film)|Love Express]]'' (2016), in [[Odia language|Odia]] as ''[[Love Station (2016 film)|Love Station]]'' (2016).

==Plot==
Ram Murthy, a retired [[head master]], is disciplined and strives to instill in his family to behave similarly. To avoid bad remarks from the society about his family, he sets up a family [[constitution]] of discipline. His mania for discipline is such a big thing that if any one of his family members commit 100 mistakes, they would be banished the person from the family. Thus all of the family members maintain a disciplinary life to avoid being banished from the house. Ram Murthy's brother Subrahmanyam was alleged to have committed 100 mistakes, although he didn't, he was sent away from home. While all of the family members commit fewer than 20 mistakes, Sundeep commits 99 mistakes and one more, he is out of the family. So to avoid that Sundeep starts leading a careful life.

Brahmaji's marriage is scheduled at [[Tirupati]] and the whole family boards [[Venkatadri Express]] at Kacheguda. Sundeep's mother forgot the [[mangala sutra]] at the house and Sundeep goes away to bring it back. To his convenience, Sundeep has the berth reservation in S4 coach while others have in S3. Meanwhile, a miser techie Prarthana reaches [[Kacheguda railway station|Kacheguda]] to board the same train. Sundeep commandeers the [[Auto rickshaw|auto]] and drives to his home, with Prarthana in passenger's seat despite her disapproval. He breaks the house's lock with a stone as he has no keys to open it making an impression to Prarthana that he is a thief. He takes the mangala sutra and goes back to Kacheguda. Prarthana catches yet another auto and reaches the station. A passenger, Dasthagiri, asks Sundeep to take care of his bag till he gets into the train after buying a water bottle. They both save each other's phone numbers so that Sundeep can give a missed call to Dasthagiri if the train starts leaving the station.

Meanwhile, a quarrel breaks out on the platform. Sundeep, in order to avoid committing the 100th mistake, keeps quiet. The train reaches Tirupati by next day morning around 9:30 am. Anand and Brahmaji notice and ask about the blood stains on Sundeep's shirt. Sundeep narrates the story which happened during the past 12 hours. Sundeep tries to stop the quarrel on the platform. Prarthana interferes thinking he is about to steal from them. To their misfortune, the train leaves. With the help of goods transporter, Audi, Sundeep leaves to [[Shadnagar]] to catch the train. On the way Audi insults policemen in a bar, and loses his vehicle key. He steals an unknown car, not realising that it is the policemen's car, and drives towards Shadnagar with Sundeep. Dasthagiri informs Sundeep that the train has left Shadnagar and is heading towards [[Jadcherla]]. Sundeep and Audi drive away to [[Kurnool City railway station|Kurnool]] in order to catch the train. Drunken Audi gets into the train making Sundeep miss it again. In the process Sundeep gets hurt and faints away.

Upon gaining consciousness, Sundeep is shocked to see that he is being taken to Shadnagar police station by those policemen. He escapes and boards a bus to travel to [[Dhone Junction railway station|Dhone]], yet another stop of Venkatadri Express. To his shock Prarthana is his co-passenger. Both quarrel and hence are forcibly dropped out of the bus. They board a car whose tyre gets punctured on the way. In the pretence of getting it repaired, Sundeep leaves but reaches Dhone railway station. He boards Venkatadri Express travelling from Tirupati towards Kacheguda which is on a different platform than the one he needs to board. Dasthagiri refuses to help him board the train as Sundeep forgot his bag. Meanwhile, Prarthana reaches the station with the bag only to stop Sundeep from boarding the train. Sundeep in agony slaps Prarthana and yells at her.

Prarthana too responds rashly that Sundeep too left her on the road without any mercy at midnight and not even thinking about her safety. Both come to an understanding later and travel together. When Sundeep is away for a nature call, Prarthana is kidnapped by some goons. Sundeep reaches in time and rescues her. They flee away using one of the goon's bikes and reach [[Kadapa railway station]] the next morning. Venkatadri Express was said to be late by 2 hours, thus enabling them to board it this time. Sundeep narrates his whole story to Prarthana who now understands his situation. At the station Sundeep and Prarthana save two eloped lovers from the henchmen of the girl's father. They all escape from the railway station and with the help of a thrill seeking cab owner Bhadra, Sundeep conducts the lovers' marriage and gives away the mangala sutra which is designated for Brahmaji.

Sundeep worries about the future consequences and are just {{Convert|15|km|abbr=on}} away from Tirupati. Subrahmanyam gives them a lift in his lorry to reach the station. He gives away the mangala sutra to Sundeep, which he had kept for the last twenty years to marry. Sundeep boards the train just before it stops in [[Tirupati railway station]]. At Brahmaji's marriage, the bride's father is worried as the bride eloped with her lover and his men are searching for her. Sundeep is shocked when he learns that the bride is none other than the girl whose marriage was conducted by him and Prarthana at Kadapa. Ram Murthy learns that the girl eloped with her lover and the marriage is halted.

Seetha discovers that the girl's marriage was conducted by Sundeep and experiences a severe asthma attack. She is being taken to a hospital. The bride's father hears about Sundeep's act from his henchmen and is furious and starts chasing them. On the way to the hospital, Ram Murthy lets Sundeep escape red traffic signals and a traffic constable is hurt in the process. At the Hospital, Sundeep fights off bride's father's henchmen and Ram Murthy doesn't stop him from doing so. Later Ram Murthy learns the truth and Sundeep's mistakes turn 100.

Sundeep then reminds that Ram Murthy broke his discipline and forgot his ideals during the chase and the fight, as his wife is in need of help. Sundeep argues that he can't leave the family because of what Ram Murthy did, and that he was just helping the ones in need all along. Ram Murthy realises and increases the mistakes level from 100 to 1000 letting Sundeep and Subrahmanyam re-enter the house. 3 months later on the day of Brahmaji's engagement, Sundeep is terrified and tensed and confides in Prarthana, that he committed his 999th mistake.

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
*[[Sundeep Kishan]] as Sundeep
*[[Rakul Preet Singh]] as Prarthana
*[[Brahmaji]] as Brahmaji, Sundeep's brother
*[[Thagubothu Ramesh]] as Aani AKA Animutyam
*[[Saptagiri (actor)|Saptagiri]] as Dasthagiri
*[[M. S. Narayana]] as Bhadra, taxi driver
*[[Nagineedu]] as Ram Murthy, Sundeep's father
*[[Narsing Yadav]] as police officer
*[[Prudhviraj (Telugu actor)|Prudhviraj]] as Subrahmanyam, Sundeep's uncle
*Namala Murthy as railway canteen man
*[[Praveen (actor)|Praveen]]
*[[Jaya Prakash Reddy]]
*[[Sivannarayana Naripeddi]], as [[Conductor (rail)|train conductor]]
*[[Satya (Telugu actor)|Satya]] as hawker
*Abhiram Abhi as Kodi
}}

==Release==
''Venkatadri Express'' was cleared by the [[Central Board of Film Certification]] on 22 November 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.123telugu.com/mnews/venkatadri-express-gets-a-clean-u.html|title='Venkatadri Express' gets a clean U|date=22 November 2013|publisher=123telugu.com|access-date=22 Nov 2013|archive-date=25 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125060451/http://www.123telugu.com/mnews/venkatadri-express-gets-a-clean-u.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The film released in 450 screens worldwide on 29 November 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.123telugu.com/mnews/venkatadri-express-to-release-on-nov-29.html|title=Venkatadri Express to release on Nov 29|date=17 November 2013|publisher=123telugu.com|access-date=17 Nov 2013|archive-date=20 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131120073513/http://www.123telugu.com/mnews/venkatadri-express-to-release-on-nov-29.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The film has got positive response not only from film goers and critics, but has also been raved by many leading actors. Sundeep Kishan, who has played the hero in it, says that he received a call from Mass Maharaja [[Ravi Teja]], who calls the film superb entertainer. Ever since Venkatadri Express hit the screens, Sundeep Kishan has been getting congratulatory messages and calls from fans and people from the film industry. This morning, the elated actor tweeted, "Ravi Teja garu called saying he loved #VenkatadriExpress, called it a superb entertainer..thank you Ravi Garu, means a lot coming from you.<ref name="oneindia">{{cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/telugu/news/2013/ravi-teja-calls-venkatadri-express-superb-entertainer-126253.html|title=Ravi Teja Calls Venkatadri Express A Superb Entertainer: Sundeep - Oneindia Entertainment|publisher=Oneindia|access-date=25 January 2014|archive-date=12 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212083953/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/telugu/news/2013/ravi-teja-calls-venkatadri-express-superb-entertainer-126253.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Apart from this, veteran actor [[Allari Naresh]] provided the voice-over for this film.<ref>{{cite web|title=Allari Naresh's voiceover for Venkatadri Express|url=http://idlebrain.com/news/today/venkatadriexpress-allarinaresh-voiceover.html|access-date=20 Nov 2013|publisher=idlebrain.com|archive-date=23 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123140207/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/today/venkatadriexpress-allarinaresh-voiceover.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Critical reception===
Sangeeth Devi Dundoo of ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote that, "We don't know if director Merlapaka Gandhi felt like a headmaster, dealing with a bogie-full of characters. As Venkatadri Express chugs along, we wonder how he's going to weave in innumerable characters into a tightly-knit plot. This isn't comedy that will knock your socks off; nor is it an assembly of mindless gags. ''Venkatadri Express'' is backed by reasonably good writing and acting makes for an entertaining watch."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/venkatadri-express-this-journey-is-fun/article5404827.ece |title=Venkatadri Express: This journey is fun |work=The Hindu |date=29 Nov 2013 |access-date=29 November 2013 |archive-date=2 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202163451/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/venkatadri-express-this-journey-is-fun/article5404827.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

''123telugu.com'' rated the film 3/5 and stated: "''Venkatadri Express'' has a good and entertaining first half. This part is backed up by good pace and nice comedy. However, what looks like a promising ride starts going downhill in the second half. The film loses pace and it starts becoming very predictable."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.123telugu.com/reviews/review-venkatadri-express-decent-attempt.html|title=Review : Venkatadri Express – Decent Attempt|date=29 November 2013|publisher=123telugu.com|access-date=29 Nov 2013|archive-date=22 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422165802/http://www.123telugu.com/reviews/review-venkatadri-express-decent-attempt.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Jeevi from ''[[Idlebrain.com]]'' opined that "Debutant director Merlapaka Gandhi comes up with a movie that has right gradients (entertainment and family emotions) in the right mix. He has got decent screenplay/story writing skills. You might feel that movie is over once Sundeep reaches the marriage venue in Tirupati. But the movie picks up after a brief lull to give a perfect 'happy ending'. On a whole, ''Venkatadri Express'' is a decent film with nice entertainment." and rated the film 3.25/5 calling it a "Fun Express".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/venkatadriexpress.html|title=Venkatadri Express review|publisher=idlebrain.com|access-date=29 Nov 2013|archive-date=1 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401182553/http://idlebrain.com/movie/archive/venkatadriexpress.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[Oneindia Entertainment]]'' rated the film 3/5, calling the film "A Perfect Entertainer For Family Audience. The review added that: "debutant Merlapaka Gandhi has done brilliant work in his first attempt. This film will surely give a big break to him, Sundeep and Rakul".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/telugu/reviews/2013/venkatadri-express-movie-review-125994.html|title=Venkatadri Express - Movie Review: A Perfect Entertainer For Family Audience|publisher=Oneindia Entertainment|access-date=29 Nov 2013|archive-date=1 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131201020059/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/telugu/reviews/2013/venkatadri-express-movie-review-125994.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Box office===
The film collected {{INR}} 3.50 [[crore]] on its opening day. By the first weekend, ''Venkatadri Express'' netted around{{INR}} 13.5 crore at the box office.<ref name="oneindia2">{{cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/telugu/news/2013/venkatadri-express-3-days-weekend-collection-box-office-126175.html|title=Venkatadri Express (3 Days) First Weekend Collection At Box Office - Oneindia Entertainment|publisher=Oneindia|access-date=25 January 2014|archive-date=22 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222104907/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/telugu/news/2013/venkatadri-express-3-days-weekend-collection-box-office-126175.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The film is commercially successful.<ref name="in">{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/venkatadri-express-hit-chota-k-naidu-calls-it-team-effort/437320-71.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218095702/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/venkatadri-express-hit-chota-k-naidu-calls-it-team-effort/437320-71.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 December 2013|title='Venkatadri Express' hit, Chota K. Naidu calls it team effort|publisher=ibnlive.in.com|access-date=25 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='Venkatadri Express' continues good run|date=4 December 2013|url=http://www.123telugu.com/mnews/venkatadri-express-continues-good-run.html|access-date=5 Dec 2013|publisher=123telugu.com|archive-date=6 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206153234/http://www.123telugu.com/mnews/venkatadri-express-continues-good-run.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Home media===
The film was aired for the first time on 22 March 2014 on [[Gemini TV]].

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Venkatadri Express
| type = Soundtrack
| longtype = To Venkatadri Express
| artist = [[Ramana Gogula]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1 November 2013
| recorded = 2013
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 11:24
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| label = [[Aditya Music]]
| producer = [[Ramana Gogula]]
| prev_title = 1000 Abbadhalu
| prev_year = 2013
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

[[Ramana Gogula]] composed the music for this film. The audio was launched on 1 November 2013 by [[Aditya Music]] which was followed by a promotional audio launch event held at Hyderabad on the same day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/telugu/events/46036.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109204341/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/telugu/Events/46036.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 November 2013|title='Venkatadri Express' Audio Launch|website=IndiaGlitz|access-date=1 Nov 2013}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| collapsed =
| headline = Track list
| extra_column = Artist(s)
| total_length = 11:24
| title1 = Right Ayinaa Left Ayinaa
| lyrics1 = [[Sri Mani]]
| extra1 = [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]]
| length1 = 03:58
| title2 = Mellamellaga
| lyrics2 =[[Kasarla Shyam]]
| extra2 = [[Swetha Mohan]], Anjana Soumya
| length2 = 03:30
| title3 = Nachave Ammakachallo
| lyrics3 = Bhaskarabhatla
| extra3 = Narendra, [[Sravana Bhargavi]]
| length3 = 03:55
}}
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=3573040}}

[[Category:2013 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Telugu films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:2013 romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:2013 films]]
[[Category:2013 masala films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Merlapaka Gandhi]]

Hello Brother (1999 film)

2026-03-03T23:33:22Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: improve article further as per guidelines

{{Short description|1999 film by Sohail Khan}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Other uses|Hello Brother (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Hello Brother (1994 film){{!}}''Hello Brother'' (1994 film)}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Hello Brother
| image = Hello_Brother_(1999_film).jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Sohail Khan]]
| producer = Sohail Khan [[Bunty Walia]]
| writer = Sohail Khan
| based_on = {{Based on|''[[Aayushkalam]]''|[[Kamal (director)|Kamal]]}}
| narrator = [[Amitabh Bachchan]]
| starring = [[Salman Khan]] [[Arbaaz Khan]] [[Rani Mukerji]]
| music = [[Sajid–Wajid]] [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| cinematography = [[Santosh Thundiyil]]
| editing = Yusuf Khan
| studio = [[Sohail Khan|Sohail Khan Productions]] G.S. Entertainment
| distributor = [[Tips Industries]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1999|9|10|India}}
| runtime = 132 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}}9 crore<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2373|title=Hello Brother – Movie|publisher=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>
| gross = {{INR}}21.10 crore<ref name="auto"/>
}}

'''''Hello Brother''''' is a 1999 [[Cinema of India|Indian]] [[Bollywood|Hindi-language]] [[romantic fantasy]] [[comedy]] action film written and directed by [[Sohail Khan]]. It stars Khan's real-life elder brothers [[Salman Khan]] and [[Arbaaz Khan]] with [[Rani Mukerji]] and [[Shakti Kapoor]]. The film is an adaptation of 1992 [[Malayalam]] film ''[[Aayushkalam]]'' (itself adapted from the 1990 American films [[Ghost (1990 film)|''Ghost'']] and [[Heart Condition (film)|''Heart Condition'']]).

== Plot ==
Hero ([[Salman Khan]]) works for a courier company owned by Khanna ([[Shakti Kapoor]]). He is spirited and humorous and is in love with Rani ([[Rani Mukerji]]) but she simply thinks of Hero as a very good friend. Inspector Vishal ([[Arbaaz Khan]]) works in the narcotics department. Vishal, who is stationed at a different Police Department, transfers to Mumbai from Goa where he is greeted Sr.Inspector(Padoda(e))([[Neeraj Vohra]]).Vishal suspects Khanna to be involved in a drug ring and confronts him. Hero stands up to Vishal and defends his boss, but soon learns the truth behind Khanna. In a confrontation, Hero is shot dead by Khanna and shoots Vishal in the heart. The police department decides to transplant Hero's heart into Vishal's body.

Hero appears as a [[ghost]] now and can only be seen by Vishal, since his heart is in Vishal's body. Hero says that he will only rest in peace after Khanna is killed, thus avenging him. Vishal decides to go about doing this, and Rani and Vishal begin to fall in love with each other. Hero dislikes this and tries to foil Vishal's plans of getting close to Rani. But Hero and Vishal start getting closer and work together, becoming good friends after Vishal confronts Khanna's drug company.

Khanna arranges to leave the country but kidnaps Rani. Vishal and Hero go to save Rani and fight off Khanna's henchmen, but Vishal gets injured. Enraged, Hero then goes inside him and controls his fighting moves, helping him to beat the thugs. Rani witnesses this and realizes that only Hero could perform such moves. She calls out Hero's name, though Vishal does not know that Hero is inside him. Khanna shoots Vishal. Hero takes Vishal's hand and shoots Khanna with the gun.

Khanna finally dies, and as Rani is comforting Vishal, he tells her that Hero is with them and he loves Rani. Rani then tells Vishal to tell Hero that she loves Him. Khanna's [[ghost]] rises from his dead body and Hero hits him. Khanna is taken to [[Hell]] and Hero is taken to [[Heaven]].

Afterward, Rani and Vishal have gotten married and are spending their wedding night and honeymoon in a house on the water. It is shown that Hero, now a Fairy, is happily watching over them from Heaven. They then lived happily ever after .

== Cast ==
*[[Salman Khan]] as Hero
*[[Arbaaz Khan]] as Inspector Vishal
*[[Rani Mukerji]] as Rani
*[[Shakti Kapoor]] as Khanna
*[[Johnny Lever]] as Havaldar Hatela
*[[Razak Khan]] as Ninja Chacha
*[[Neeraj Vora]] as Sr. Inspector
*[[Sulbha Arya]] as Rani's Mother
*Dinyar Tirandaz as Doctor
*[[Amitabh Bachchan]] as God voiceover only (cameo appearance)
*[[Ganesh Acharya]] as himself in the song "Chaandi ki Daal Par" (cameo appearance)

== Music ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Hello Brother
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Himesh Reshammiya]] [[Sajid–Wajid]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 4 July 1999 (India)
| recorded = 1999
| venue = [[Mumbai]]
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 49:56
| label =
| producer = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| prev_title = [[Bandhan (1998 film)|Bandhan]]
| prev_year = 1998
| next_title = [[Dulhan Hum Le Jayenge]]
| next_year = 2000
}}

The soundtrack was very popular especially track "Teri Chunnariya" sung by [[Kumar Sanu]] & [[Alka Yagnik]]. According to the Indian trade website [[Box Office India]], with around 22,00,000 units sold the soundtrack became the eighth highest-selling album of the year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-01-02 |title=BoxOffice India.com |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=284&catName=MTk5MC0xOTk5 |access-date=2024-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102010439/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=284&catName=MTk5MC0xOTk5 |archive-date=2 January 2010 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:95%;"
! # !! Song !! Singer(s) !! Length !! Composer
|-
| 1.
| "Teri Chunnariya"
| [[Kumar Sanu]], [[Alka Yagnik]]
| 05:48
| Himesh Reshammiya
|-
| 2.
| "Chupke Se Koi"
| [[Udit Narayan]], Alka Yagnik
| 05:39
| Sajid-Wajid
|-
| 3.
| "Hata Saawan Ki Ghata"
| [[Babul Supriyo]], [[Jaspinder Narula]]
| 04:21
| Sajid-Wajid
|-
| 4.
| "Area Ka Hero"
| [[Sonu Nigam]], [[Hema Sardesai]]
| 04:18
| [[Sajid–Wajid]]
|-
| 5.
| "Hello Brother"
|[[S.P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[Kamaal Khan]], [[Rekha Bhardwaj]]
| 05:15
| Sajid-Wajid
|-
| 6.
| "Chandi Ki Daal Par"
| [[Salman Khan]], Alka Yagnik
| 05:57
| [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
|-
| 7.
| "Teri Chunnariya" (Remix)
| Kumar Sanu, Alka Yagnik
| 04:52
| Himesh Reshammiya
|-
| 8.
| "Chupke Se Koi" (Remix)
| Udit Narayan, Alka Yagnik
| 04:21
| Sajid-Wajid
|-
| 9.
| "Hata Sawaan Ki Ghata" (Remix)
| Babul Supriyo, Jaspinder Narula
| 03:59
| Sajid-Wajid
|-
| 10.
| "Hello Brother" (Remix)
|Jaspinder Narula, Sonu Nigam, Kamaal Khan
| 04:58
| Sajid-Wajid
|}

== Release and reception ==
Suparn Verma of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' wrote that "Hello Brother is a loud, garish film; it is funny, if you have an appetite for such fare".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/1999/sep/11hello.htm|title=Fun, the Khan way|work=[[Rediff.com]]|author=Suparn Verma|date=11 September 1999}}</ref>

The film was dubbed and released in Telugu under the same name later that year, despite a [[Hello Brother (1994 film)|1994 Telugu film with the same name]] was already released.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.zaminryot.com/pdf/1999/Dec/3-dec-1999.pdf|title=Hello Brother review|language=te|date=3 December 1999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913141745/http://www.zaminryot.com/pdf/1999/Dec/3-dec-1999.pdf|archive-date=13 September 2016}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|id=0233856|title=Hello Brother}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:1999 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1999 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Himesh Reshammiya]]
[[Category:Films scored by Sajid–Wajid]]
[[Category:Indian comedy horror films]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Malayalam films]]
[[Category:Indian ghost films]]
[[Category:Indian horror film remakes]]
[[Category:Indian romantic fantasy films]]
[[Category:Indian fantasy comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian remakes of American films]]
[[Category:Indian psychological thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian fantasy drama films]]
[[Category:Indian films about revenge]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Supernatural drama films]]
[[Category:Films about invisibility]]
[[Category:Films about murder]]
[[Category:Films about psychic powers]]
[[Category:Films about spirit possession]]
[[Category:Films about the afterlife]]
[[Category:Films set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]
[[Category:1990s buddy cop films]]
[[Category:Indian supernatural films]]
[[Category:Films based on adaptations]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Maharashtra Police]]
[[Category:Films about the illegal drug trade]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:1990s police comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian buddy comedy films]]
[[Category:Buddy action films]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of English films]]

Gedda Maga

2026-03-03T22:13:49Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: made initial entry needs work.

{{More plot|date=January 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{infobox film
| image = Gedda Maga.jpg
| caption = VCD cover
| director = [[S. A. Chandrasekhar]]
| screenplay = S. A. Chandrasekhar
| story = [[Peter Selvakumar]]
| based_on = ''[[Moondru Mugam]]''
| producer = [[Dwarakish]]
| starring = [[Shankar Nag]]
| cinematography = D. V. Rajaram
| editing = Goutham Raju
| music = [[K. Chakravarthy]]
| studio = Dwarakish Chitra
| released = {{Film date|1983|3|14|df=yes}}
| country = India
| language = Kannada
}}
'''''Gedda Maga''''' ({{Translation|Victorious son}}) is a 1983 Indian [[Kannada]] language [[action film]] directed by [[S. A. Chandrasekhar]] and produced by [[Dwarakish]]. A remake of the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film ''[[Moondru Mugam]]'' (1982),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arunachalam |first=Param |title=BollySwar: 1981–1990 |date=14 April 2020 |publisher=Mavrix Infotech Private Limited |isbn=978-81-938482-2-7 |pages=443}}</ref> it stars [[Shankar Nag]] in a triple role for the first time in his career.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 2020 |title=Happy Birthday Shankar Nag: ಶಂಕರ್ ನಾಗ್ ಮೂಲ ಹೆಸರು ಏನು ಗೊತ್ತಾ?; ಇಲ್ಲಿದೆ ಅಚ್ಚರಿ ವಿಚಾರ |url=https://kannada.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/happy-birthday-shankar-nag-here-is-a-shankar-nag-real-name-hg-rmd-484783.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250829074654/https://kannada.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/happy-birthday-shankar-nag-here-is-a-shankar-nag-real-name-hg-rmd-484783.html |archive-date=29 August 2025 |access-date=14 August 2025 |work=[[News18]] |language=Kn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=B |first=Praveen Chandra |title=Movie Quiz: ಶಂಕರ್‌ನಾಗ್‌ ತ್ರಿಬಲ್‌ ಆಕ್ಟಿಂಗ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ನಟಿಸಿದ ಸಿನಿಮಾ ಯಾವುದು? ಅಪ್ಪು ಹುಟ್ಟುಹಬ್ಬ ಯಾವಾಗ? 10 ರಸಪ್ರಶ್ನೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಉತ್ತರಿಸಿ |url=https://kannada.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/sandalwood-news-movie-quiz-shankarnag-rajkumar-first-movie-yash-puneeth-rajkumar-vishnu-ambareesh-questions-answers-pcp-181701939751782.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250825152612/https://kannada.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/sandalwood-news-movie-quiz-shankarnag-rajkumar-first-movie-yash-puneeth-rajkumar-vishnu-ambareesh-questions-answers-pcp-181701939751782.html |archive-date=25 August 2025 |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=kn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 2020 |title=ಶಂಕರಣ್ಣ, ಎಂದಿಗೂ ಅಳಿಯದ ನೆನಪು! ಎಂದಿಗೂ ಅವಿನಾಶಿ ! |url=https://www.headlinekarnataka.com/news/cinema/1670/remembering-shankar-nag-on-his-66th-birthday |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20260105204819/https://www.headlinekarnataka.com/news/cinema/1670/remembering-shankar-nag-on-his-66th-birthday |archive-date=5 January 2026 |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Headline Karnataka |language=Kn}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Arun, the son of a rich businessman, returns to India as a saint shocking his father who hires a female press reporter to bring him back to normal. After a few incidents he renounces his life as a saint. Arun comes to notice his father sending money to an anonymous woman and the pursuit of whom leads to the discovery of his past. He finds that his biological father is Alex Muttanna, an honest police officer, who was murdered by Basappa. He also gets to know about his estranged twin brother, John. Thirsty for revenge, he embarks on a mission to kill Basappa and destroy his criminal empire. However, his plans backfire when comes across the dreaded fact that his twin John works for Basappa. What happens later forms the crux of the story.

==Cast==

{{Cast listing|
*[[Shankar Nag]] as Alex Muttanna, Arun, and John
*[[Madhavi (actress)|Madhavi]]
*[[Aarathi]]
*[[Silk Smitha]]
*[[Dwarakish]]
*[[Sundar Krishna Urs]] as Basappa
*[[Shivaram]]
*[[Sudheer (Kannada actor)|Sudheer]]
*[[M. N. Lakshmi Devi]]
}}

== Production ==
This film marked the first time that [[Shankar Nag]] played three roles.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2020 |title=ಬೆಳ್ಳಿ ತೆರೆ ಮೇಲೆ ದ್ವಿಪಾತ್ರದಲ್ಲಿ ವಿಜೃಂಭಿಸಿದ ಕನ್ನಡ ನಟರಿವರು |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/kannada/karnataka/sitara/cinema/kannada-actors-kamal-in-double-role/ka20200603151454852 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250818184343/https://www.etvbharat.com/kannada/karnataka/sitara/cinema/kannada-actors-kamal-in-double-role/ka20200603151454852 |archive-date=18 August 2025 |access-date=14 August 2025 |work=[[ETV Network|ETV Bharat News]] |language=Kn}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[K. Chakravarthy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 1983 |title=GEDDA MAGA |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/gedda-maga/jjsjsQ5ZkzQ_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250905193429/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/gedda-maga/jjsjsQ5ZkzQ_ |archive-date=5 September 2025 |access-date=25 August 2025 |work=[[JioSaavn]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2020 |title=Gedda Maga Kannada Film EP Vinyl Record by Chakravarthy |url=https://mossymart.com/shop/gedda-maga-kannada-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-chakravarthy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250908175057/https://mossymart.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Gedda-Maga-Kannada-Film-EP-Vinyl-Record-by-Chakravarthy-www.mossymart.com-2.jpg |archive-date=8 September 2025 |access-date=25 August 2025 |website=Mossymart |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 July 2020 |title=Gedda Maga Kannada film EP Vinyl Record by Chakravarthy |url=https://mossymart.com/shop/gedda-maga-kannada-film-ep-vinyl-record-by-chakravarthy-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250902042256/https://mossymart.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Gedda-Maga-Kannada-film-EP-Vinyl-Record-by-Chakravarthy-www.mossymart.com-1-1.jpg |archive-date=2 September 2025 |access-date=25 August 2025 |website=Mossymart |language=en}}</ref>
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ondu Gandu Hennu
| length1 = 6:07
| lyrics1 = [[R. N. Jayagopal]]
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[S. Janaki]]
| title2 = Ravigintha Shashiye
| length2 = 4:00
| lyrics2 = R. N. Jayagopal
| extra2 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, S. Janaki
| title3 = Minchanthe Minchi
| length3 = 4:23
| lyrics3 = [[Doddarangegowda]]
| extra3 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, S. Janaki
| title4 = Love Me Allow Me
| length4 = 4:29
| lyrics4 = Shyamsundar Kulkarni
| extra4 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, S. Janaki
| title5 = Benkiyanu Muttuveya
| length5 = 4:12
| lyrics5 = [[Chi. Udayashankar]]
| extra5 = Ramesh, S. Janaki
| total_length = 23:11
}}

== Box office ==
Unlike the original, ''Gedda Magga'' performed average at the box office after releasing to high expectations,<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 March 2023 |title=5 Rajinikanth Classics Remade In Kannada |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/5-rajinikanth-classics-remade-in-kannada/photostory/98389073.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20231019141459/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movies/news/5-rajinikanth-classics-remade-in-kannada/photostory/98389073.cms |archive-date=19 October 2023 |access-date=14 August 2025 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> though Dwarakish did not lose money through the film.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Puttaswamy |first=K |date=2 September 2022 |title=Dwarakish, the first showman of Kannada cinema |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/dwarakish-the-first-showman-of-kannada-cinema-1141689.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521094913/https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/dwarakish-the-first-showman-of-kannada-cinema-1141689.html |archive-date=21 May 2024 |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=[[Deccan Herald]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}
{{Dwarakish}}
{{S. A. Chandrasekhar}}

[[Category:1982 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:1980s police films]]
[[Category:1982 action films]]
[[Category:1982 films]]
[[Category:1983 Indian films]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Karnataka Police]]
[[Category:Films about twin brothers]]
[[Category:Films directed by S. A. Chandrasekhar]]
[[Category:Films scored by K. Chakravarthy]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by S. A. Chandrasekhar]]
[[Category:Indian action films]]
[[Category:Indian police films]]
[[Category:Kannada remakes of Tamil films]]

Mangalyam Thanthunanena

2026-03-03T20:32:37Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: adjust citations also and improved wording

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Mangalyam Thanthunanena
| image = Mangalyam_Thanthunanena.jpg
| caption = Movie poster
| director = [[Soumya Sadanandan]]
| producer = Alwin Antony Zachariah Thomas Prince Paul Angelena Mary Antony
| writer = Tony Madathil
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Kunchacko Boban]]
*[[Nimisha Sajayan]]
}}
| music = [[Revaa]] (Melle Mulle Song) [[Bijibal]] (score)
| cinematography = [[Arvind Krishna (cinematographer)|Arvind Krishna]]
| editing = Christy Sebastian
| studio = United Global Media Entertainment
| distributor = United Global Media Release
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2018|9|20|}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Mangalyam Thanthunanena''''' is a 2018 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[satire (film and television)|satire film]] directed by [[Soumya Sadanandan]] and written by Tony Madathil, starring [[Kunchacko Boban]] and [[Nimisha Sajayan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/news/2018/kunchacko-boban-s-next-movie-with-soumya-sadanandan-begins-today-273200.html|title=Kunchacko Boban's Next Movie With Soumya Sadanandan Begins Today!|date=20 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/news/2018/kunchacko-boban-team-up-with-the-writer-vellimoonga-273940.html | title=Kunchacko Boban to Team up with the Writer of Vellimoonga! | date=25 May 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/news/2018/kunchacko-boban-set-play-the-lead-role-allu-ramendran-273754.html | title=Kunchacko Boban All Set to Play the Lead Role in Allu Ramendran! | date=15 May 2018 }}</ref> The film was released on 20 September 2018.

== Plot ==
Roy and Clara are a newly married couple, Roy is an irresponsible spendthrift who has trouble managing his finances. Clara's nature is exactly the opposite. When Roy comes home from Dubai for his wedding, he learns that he has been terminated from his job. The marriage was fine during the first three months or so, but the going gets tough as Roy wants money urgently to pay off his debts.
Clara suggests that he applies to work at her wealthy dad's bank or ask her father for some financial help. But Roy is too proud to do that. He wants Clara to give her ornaments to pledge for a bank loan or to sell them. When she refuses, their relationship gets shaky. The film revolves around the events that unfold following this crisis and how he manages to sort things out.

== Cast ==

* [[Kunchacko Boban]] as Roy
* [[Nimisha Sajayan]] as Clara, Roy's wife
* [[Hareesh Perumanna]] as Shamzudheen
* [[Shanthi Krishna]] as Thresiyamma, Roy's mother
* [[Vijayaraghavan]] as Avarachan, Clara's father
* [[Alencier Ley Lopez]] as Prof. Kuruvila Eliyas
* [[Leona Lishoy]] as Susan Thomas
* [[Sunil Sukhada]] as Palisha Rappayi
* [[Salim Kumar]] as Father Kuriyakose Tharayill
* [[Chembil Ashokan|Chempil Ashokan]] as Koora
* [[Rony David]] as George, Roy's brother-in-law
* [[Pauly Valsan]] as Thressiyama's mother
* [[Soubin Shahir]] as guest appearance
* [[Kochu Preman]] as Babu
* [[Gokulan (actor)|Gokulan]] as Kuttappayi
*Rajesh Panavally
* Sankar Induchoodan as Titto
* [[Mamukoya]] as Kuriyan paraykal
* Jomon K John as Thamara Shibu
* Molly Kannamaly as Valsa
* Gayathri Varsha as Korah's wife
* Baby

== Music ==
Mangalyam Thanthunanena features four music directors composing six songs. Azim Roshan, S. Shankars, Sayanora Philip and Reva and was penned by Din Nath Puthencherry and Mirshad Kaipamangalam. The background score was carried out by [[Bijibal]].
== Track listing ==
{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Melle Mulle
| extra1 = [[Job Kurian]], [[Shanthi Krishna]], [[Vijayaraghavan]] & [[Alencier]]
| lyrics1 = [[Din Nath Puthencherri]]
| music1 = [[Reva]]
| length1 = 3:45
| title2 = Ariyathe Nin Mizhikalil
| extra2 = [[Vijay Yesudas]] & [[Mridhula Warrier]]
| lyrics2 = Mirshad Kaipamangalam
| music2 = S. Shankars
| length2 = 5:20
| title3 = Azhikumbol Murukana Palakuruku
| extra3 = [[Vaikom Vijayalakshmi]]
| lyrics3 = Din Nath Puthencherri
| music3 = Azim Roshan
| length3 = 3:15
| title4 = Mounam
| extra4 = [[Rajalakshmi]] & [[Sooraj Santhosh]]
| lyrics4 = Din Nath Puthencherri
| music4 = [[Sayanora Philip]]
| length4 = 3:15
| title5 = Chase Theme
| extra5 = [[Deepesh Krishnamoorthy]], [[Arun Gopan]], [[Midhun Suresh]] & [[Sachin Raj]]
| lyrics5 = Din Nath Puthencherri
| music5 = Reva
| length5 = 02:25
| title6 = Mounam Unplugged
| extra6 = Sayanora Philip
| lyrics6 = Din Nath Puthencherri
| music6 = Sayanora Philip
| length6 = 03:11
| total_length = 21:11
}}

==Production==
The film marks the feature film directorial debut of [[Soumya Sadanandan]] after the documentary ''Chembai: My Discovery of a Legend''.<ref>{{cite news|last=E.|first=Anagha Jayan|title=Simple plots excite director Soumya Sadanandan|url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/interview/2018/09/08/mangalyam-thanthunanena-director-soumya-sadanandan-interview.html|accessdate=24 September 2018|work=[[Malayala Manorama]]|date=8 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/kunchacko-boban-and-nimisha-sajayan-in-mangalyam-thanthunanena-news-malayalam-sghmctbjjgfde.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180607100452/http://www.sify.com/movies/kunchacko-boban-and-nimisha-sajayan-in-mangalyam-thanthunanena-news-malayalam-sghmctbjjgfde.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 June 2018|title=Kunchacko Boban and Nimisha Sajayan in Mangalyam Thanthunanena|website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> Sathanandan described the film as "a family satire reminiscent of the old [[Balachandra Menon]] films".<ref>{{cite news|last=Sajin|first=Shrijith|title=Mangalyam Thanthunanena is a family satire: Soumya Sadanandan|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2018/jul/19/mangalyam-thanthunanena-is-a-family-satire-soumya-sadanandan-1845217.html|access-date=24 September 2018|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=19 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2017/nov/15/kunchacko-and-nimisha--are-a-couple-in-their-next-1702221.html|title=Kunchacko and Nimisha  are a couple in their next|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=15 November 2017 }}</ref>

==Release==
The film was released on 20 September 2018.<ref>{{cite news|last=E.|first=Anagha Jayan|title='Mangalyam...' screenwriter owes to wife for breakthrough|url=https://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/interview/2018/09/19/mangalyam-screenwriter-tony-madathil-owes-wife-for-breakthrough.html|accessdate=24 September 2018|work=[[Malayala Manorama]]|date=19 September 2018}}</ref>

==Reception==
[[The Times of India]] rated it 3 out of 5 and said that "It is a simple film without much to boast off". [[New Indian Express]] rated the film 3 out of 5, saying "This is a film that doesn't aim too high. It is content with being what it really is: a simple, old-fashioned, and feel-good family entertainer". [[Filmibeat]] rated it 3 out of 5 and said that " The film will take us back to the stories that we have seen in the 80s/90s, but it is set in today's time. The film might be clichéd at parts but it delivers what it intended and it has some genuinely good moments to offer for the audiences.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|8408216}}

[[Category:2018 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:Indian family films]]
[[Category:Indian satirical films]]

Maa Bhoomi

2026-03-03T20:24:22Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: adjusted section further for clarity

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Maa Bhoomi
| image = Maa Bhoomi.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Goutam Ghose]]
| screenplay = [[B. Narsing Rao]] Goutam Ghose
{{Infobox | decat = yes | child = yes
| label1= Dialogue by
| data1 = {{ubl|Partho Banerjee Praan Rao}}
}}
| narrator = [[Jaggayya]]
| based_on = {{based on|''Jab Khet Jage''|[[Krishan Chander]]}}
| producer = B. Narsing Rao G. Ravindranath
| starring = [[Sai Chand]] [[Rami Reddy (actor)|Rami Reddy]] [[Telangana Shakuntala]]
| cinematography = Kamal Naik
| editing = D. Raja Gopal
| music = [[Vinjamuri Seetha Devi]] Goutam Ghose
| studio = [[Saradhi Studios]]
| distributor =Chaithanya Chithra International
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1979|03|23}}
| runtime = 158 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
}}
'''''Maa Bhoomi''''' ({{translation|Our land}}) is a 1979 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[social problem film]] directed by [[Goutam Ghose]] in his debut. The film is produced by [[B. Narsing Rao]], who also wrote the film with Goutam Ghose. The film is based on the novel ''Jab Khet Jage'' by [[Krishan Chander]] on the [[Telangana Rebellion]] in [[Hyderabad State]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/films/story/19890615-award-winning-b.-narasinga-rao-brings-quality-to-telugu-cinema-816201-1989-06-15 |title=Award-winning B. Narasinga Rao brings quality to Telugu cinema |work=India Today}}</ref> It depicts a typical life of villagers under feudalistic society in the Telangana region. The film features [[Sai Chand]], [[Rami Reddy (actor)|Rami Reddy]] and [[Telangana Shakuntala]] in pivotal roles. The plot follows Ramayya, a landless peasant who joins the [[Telangana Rebellion]] of 1948.

Released on 23 March 1979, the film was a commercial success and had a theatrical run of over a year.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kishore|first=E Sai|date=15 March 2015|title=35years on, still a benchmark|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hyderabad-Tab/2015-03-15/35years-on-still-a-benchmark/137481|website=[[The Hans India]]}}</ref> ''Maa Bhoomi'' was India's official entry in the "Opera Primo" section at the [[Karlovy Vary International Film Festival]] of June–July 1980, and the [[Cork International Film Festival|Cork Film Festival]], October 1980,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dff.nic.in/images/Documents/141_IPCatalogue1980-81.pdf |title=Filmtsav' 80 Pg 17 |publisher=DFF}}</ref> the Cairo and Sidney Film Festivals 1980.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm8IIFAAward.aspx?PdfName=8IIFA.pdf |title=8th IFFI Archived copy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101233112/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm8IIFAAward.aspx?PdfName=8IIFA.pdf |archive-date=2018-01-01 |access-date=2018-01-11}}</ref> The film was showcased at the ''Indian Panorama'' of the [[7th International Film Festival of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dff.nic.in/images/Documents/142_IPCatalogue1979-80.pdf |title=Indian Panorama 1979–80 |publisher=DFF}}</ref> ''Maa Bhoomi'' won the state [[Nandi Award for Best Feature Film]], and the [[Filmfare Best Film Award (Telugu)]].<ref>{{Cite press release |title=Narsing Rao's films regale Delhi |date=21 December 2008 |publisher=webindia123.com |url=http://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/India/20081221/1134082.html |access-date=2012-08-25 |archive-date=6 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106105835/http://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/India/20081221/1134082.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is featured among [[CNN-IBN]]'s list of "hundred greatest Indian films of all time".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/13200.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424003536/http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/13200.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 April 2013 |title=100 Years of Indian Cinema: The 100 greatest Indian films of all time |access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The film follows the story of a young landless [[Telangana]] peasant named Ramayya (Sai Chand) from Siripuram, Nalgonda, a region under foreign rule. The [[United Kingdom|British]] have appointed the [[Nizam]] as the region's governor. The Nizam, in turn, has appointed the [[Reddy]]s and the [[Patil (surname)|Patils]] as the Zamindars (known locally as ''Doras'') of the region who collect taxes among various other things for the Nizam. Further, the Nizam has granted them with titles, [[Jagir]]s and judicial rights enabling them to seize thousands of acres of land from the peasants, turning them into tenants.

Ramayya's newly married friend Ramulu is aghast when his wife is taken by the Dora's men and raped. Ramayya falls in love with a Lambadi girl. When he finds out that she also has to service the Dora sexually, he gets upset and leaves the village. He later repents his anger at her. Ramayya then moves to Suryapet where he works with a ''seth''. The seth's wife attempts to molest him in secrecy. When he rejects her advances, she accuses him of theft. He leaves Suryapet and ends up in Hyderabad where he works as a rickshaw puller.

In Hyderabad, while pulling the rickshaw one day, he coughs a lot. The passenger asks him to stop and walks along with him the rest of the way. He asks Ramayya to get his cough checked. He also advices him to join a union. Ramayya is told to stop rickshaw pulling by a doctor and is asked to find other temporary work. Ramayya joins a factory as a labourer. One day his coworker comes and tells him that there is a speech being given at the gate and asks him to attend. He attends the speech which calls for a strike and unionizing. He recognizes the speaker as the same passenger and goes up to speak to him. Ramayya slowly becomes a part of the union and with the encouragement of his mentor educates himself.

Ramayya eventually moves back to his village and joins the movement against the landlords. The peasants formed various paramilitary groups and launch [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla warfare]] attacks across the region with country-made weapons. They raid and take over regional ''Dora'' bases across rural Telangana at night and burn all the land documents found in the bases in the open yard symbolising their triumph. Eventually, they take over the village after the Indian Independence.

The ''Doras'' manage to escape to [[Hyderabad]] reporting the events to the Nizam leadership. The Nizam commands the [[Razakars (Hyderabad)|Razakars]], a private [[Islamism|Islamist]] militia, which perpetrates a massacre of the Telangana peasants. After months of burning, looting, rapes and killings, the Indian army marches into Hyderabad and suppresses the Razakars and the Nizam with [[Operation Polo]] in September 1948 and annexes the Telangana region back into the Indian Union.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Sai Chand]] as Ramayya
* Kakarala
*[[Rami Reddy (actor)|Rami Reddy]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|last=Krishnamoorthy|first=Suresh|date=2015-03-24|title=Maa Bhoomi will forever be alive in people's minds|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/maa-bhoomi-will-forever-be-alive-in-peoples-minds/article7025857.ece|access-date=2020-06-04|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
*[[Telangana Shakuntala]]<ref name=":0" />
*[[Pradeep Kumar (actor)|Pradeep Kumar]]
*Prasad Rao
*Yadagiri
*[[Kondavalasa Lakshmana Rao]]
*[[Pradeep Shakthi]] as Pratapa Reddy

}}

== Soundtrack ==
*"Bandenaka Bandi Katti Padahaaru Bandlu Katti" written by Bandi Yadagiri
*"Palletoori Pillagaada Pasalagaase Monagaada" (with titles) written by [[Suddala Hanumanthu]]
*"Podala Podala Gatla Naduma, Podicinadhira Chandamama"

== Awards ==
;[[Nandi Awards]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf|title=నంది అవార్డు విజేతల పరంపర (1964–2008)|trans-title=A series of Nandi Award Winners (1964–2008)|publisher=[[Andhra Pradesh (magazine)|Information & Public Relations of Andhra Pradesh]]|access-date=21 August 2020}}(in [[Telugu language|Telugu]])</ref>
*[[Nandi Award for Best Feature Film|Second Best Feature Film]] - [[B. Narsing Rao]] and G. Ravindranath
*[[Nandi Award for Best Screenplay Writer|Best Screenplay Writer]] - [[B. Narsing Rao]] and Pran Rao

;[[Filmfare Awards South]]
*[[Filmfare Best Film Award (Telugu)]] - [[B. Narsing Rao]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0137925}}

{{B. Narsing Rao}}
{{Goutam Ghose}}
{{Filmfare Best Telugu Film}}

[[Category:1979 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:1979 films]]
[[Category:Films about poverty in India]]
[[Category:Films about social issues in India]]
[[Category:Films directed by Goutam Ghose]]
[[Category:Films set in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films set in Telangana]]
[[Category:History of India on film]]
[[Category:Indian avant-garde and experimental films]]
[[Category:Indian docudrama films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Indian nonlinear narrative films]]
[[Category:Indian war drama films]]
[[Category:Indian war films]]
[[Category:1979 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1979 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian novels]]

Blood Money (2021 film)

2026-03-03T02:28:48Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: made new page v1.

{{Short description|2021 Indian film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Blood Money
| image = Blood_Money_2021_Tamil_film_poster.jpg
| caption = Official release poster
| director = [[Sarjun KM]]
| producer = Irfan Malik
| story = S. Nabil Ahamed
| screenplay = Sarjun KM Sankar Dass
{{Infobox
| decat = yes
| child = yes
| label1= Dialogues by
| data1 = Sankar Dass
}}
| starring = [[Priya Bhavani Shankar]] [[Shirish Saravanan|Metro Shirish]] [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] [[ Vishrutha child Artist]]
| cinematography = G. Balamurugan
| editing = [[Prasanna GK]]
| music = Satish Raghunathan
| studio = Emperor Entertainment
| distributor = [[ZEE5]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2021|12|24}}
| runtime = 89 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Blood Money''''' is a 2021 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[thriller film]] directed by [[Sarjun KM]]<ref name="Sarjun interview TNIE" /> and produced by Emperor Entertainment. It is written by Sarjun KM and Sankar Dass from a story by S. Nabil Ahamed. The film stars [[Priya Bhavani Shankar]], [[Shirish Saravanan|Metro Shirish]], and [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] in the lead roles.<ref name="Blood Money CE Preview" /> The film revolves around a journalist from Tamil Nadu who goes on a mission to save two men whose lives are at stake in [[Kuwait]] prison. The film was released on 24 December 2021 on [[ZEE5]].<ref name="Blood Money DTNext Preview" />

== Plot ==
Rachel Victor is a journalist in a news channel who is recently promoted as the sub-editor. Her predecessor Sudhan is on his last day of work. Meanwhile, two Tamil men are shown as prisoners in a Kuwait jail, who are about to be hanged the next day, apparently for an accident case. The mother of the two men make an appeal through the district collector, who advises her that legal procedures would take days and asks her to make a plea video and circulate it on social media.

Rachel comes across the video and decides to help them. She learns that the men were accused of murdering a Sri Lankan woman in Kuwait and have been in jail for the last five years, even though the men claim that they are innocent. Through a Muslim organization in Tamil Nadu, the blood money for the victim was arranged on behalf of the two men. As per Kuwait law, if the victim's family provides a letter of forgiveness on the two men, they will be spared.

Rachel then learns through some former government officials that the blood money was not received by the victim's family as they were all displaced due to the Sri Lankan War. As the hanging time approaches, she feels that getting the letter of forgiveness is the only option to save the two men. Rachel and Sudhan travel to [[Sri Lanka]] via boat and find out the victim's family. She convinces them to forgive the two men as they are really innocent and asks for their help to save their lives. Reluctant at first, the family finally agrees, and they record a video of their statement, forgiving the two men. Rachel sends this video to the lawyer in Kuwait, who intervenes just in time to stop the punishment from being carried out, saving the two men. They are finally released after six months and reach back home to meet their family, thanking Rachel.

== Cast ==
* [[Priya Bhavani Shankar]] as Rachel Victor
* [[Shirish Saravanan|Metro Shirish]] as Sudhan
* [[Kishore (actor, born 1974)|Kishore]] as Kaliyappan
* [[Baby Vishrutha]] as Suganthi, Kaliyappan's daughter
* [[Subbu Panchu]]
* [[Vinod Sagar]]
* Srilekha Rajendran
* Senthil Kumaran

== Release ==
The film was released on 24 December 2021 on [[ZEE5]] and opened to decent reviews from critics.

== Reception ==
Logesh Balachandran of ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film with 2.5 out of 5 stars, stating that, "Blood Money is a good suspense thriller with brilliant concept but fails to engage the audience due to weak screenplay."<ref name="Blood Money ToI review" /> Navein Darshan of ''[[Cinema Express]]'' stated that, "Blood Money is a film filled with tasteful performances and it was especially a delight to see actors like Priya and Kishore perform in close-ups. But the one performer who effortlessly steals the show is the young Vishrutha. She strengthens the emotional core of the film with her subtle expressions and when she breaks down, your heart just melts. Apart from its apt casting, the major plus of Blood Money is its restricted runtime. With a length of less than 90-minutes, the film conveys so much without losing our attention. It is a film that values the time of its audiences a lot and such films deserve more love from us."<ref name="Blood Money CE review" /> ''[[ABP Live]]'' wrote, "Blood Money' is inspired by a real life incident. However, the team has exaggerated certain portions to add to the drama and this definitely does more harm than good to the film's interests. Blood Money might have its share of problems but on the whole, it works."<ref name="Blood Money ABP review" /> Ashameera Aiyappan of ''[[Firstpost]]'' rated the film with 2.5 out of 5 stars, stating that, "On paper, Blood Money has all the ingredients for a taut thriller. But the film doesn’t dig deep into the details and thus, reveals don’t land as it aspires to."<ref name="Blood Money FP review" /> Siby Jeyya of ''India Herald'' called that, "the movie ends as a watchable thriller just for her [Priya Bhavani Shankar] sake."<ref name="Blood Money IH review" />

== References ==
<references>

<ref name="Sarjun interview TNIE">{{Cite web |date=20 December 2021 |title=I enjoy directing more than writing: Sarjun KM |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2021/dec/20/i-enjoy-directingmore-than-writing-sarjun-km-2397428.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220074130/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2021/dec/20/i-enjoy-directingmore-than-writing-sarjun-km-2397428.html |archive-date=20 December 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Blood Money DTNext Preview">{{Cite web |title=Full Circle: Ex-journalist Priya Bhavani Shankar now plays a journo in 'Blood Money' |url=https://www.dtnext.in/News/Cinema/2021/12/14135612/1333788/Full-Circle-Exjournalist-Priya-Bhavani-Shankar-now-.vpf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228072506/https://www.dtnext.in/News/Cinema/2021/12/14135612/1333788/Full-Circle-Exjournalist-Priya-Bhavani-Shankar-now-.vpf |archive-date=28 December 2021 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=[[DT Next]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Blood Money CE Preview">{{Cite web |date=12 December 2021 |title=First look of Priya Bhavani Shankar's Blood Money out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2021/dec/12/first-look-of-priya-bhavani-shankars-blood-money-out-28373.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212134609/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2021/dec/12/first-look-of-priya-bhavani-shankars-blood-money-out-28373.html |archive-date=12 December 2021 |access-date=12 December 2021 |website=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Blood Money ToI review">{{Cite news |title=Blood Money Review: Priya Bhavani Shankar and Kishore lift this emotional thriller |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/tamil/blood-money/ottmoviereview/88318485.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223051200/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/tamil/blood-money/ottmoviereview/88318485.cms |archive-date=23 December 2021 |access-date=23 December 2021 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Blood Money CE review">{{Cite web |date=24 December 2021 |title=Blood Money Movie Review: Strong emotions overpower a convenient screenplay in this lovable drama |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/review/2021/dec/24/blood-money-movie-review-strong-emotions-overpower-a-convenient-screenplay-in-this-lovable-drama-28621.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226053020/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/review/2021/dec/24/blood-money-movie-review-strong-emotions-overpower-a-convenient-screenplay-in-this-lovable-drama-28621.html |archive-date=26 December 2021 |access-date=24 December 2021 |website=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Blood Money ABP review">{{Cite web |date=24 December 2021 |title=Blood Money' Review: Engaging Film That Works Despite Exaggerated Sequences |url=https://news.abplive.com/movie-review/entertainment/movies-blood-money-review-engaging-film-that-works-despite-exaggerated-sequences-1501880 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228072502/https://news.abplive.com/movie-review/entertainment/movies-blood-money-review-engaging-film-that-works-despite-exaggerated-sequences-1501880 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |access-date=24 December 2021 |website=[[ABP Live]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Blood Money FP review">{{Cite web |date=24 December 2021 |title=Blood Money movie review: This KM Sarjun, Priya Bhavani Shankar film is a mixed bag |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/blood-money-movie-review-this-km-sarjun-priya-bhavani-shankar-film-is-a-mixed-bag-10231341.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224025022/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/blood-money-movie-review-this-km-sarjun-priya-bhavani-shankar-film-is-a-mixed-bag-10231341.html |archive-date=24 December 2021 |access-date=24 December 2021 |website=[[Firstpost]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Blood Money IH review">{{Cite web |title=Blood Money Review - Watchable for this Desi Beauty |url=https://www.indiaherald.com/Breaking/Read/994457915/Blood-Money-Review-Watchable-for-this-Desi-Beauty |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228072503/https://www.indiaherald.com/Breaking/Read/994457915/Blood-Money-Review-Watchable-for-this-Desi-Beauty |archive-date=28 December 2021 |access-date=25 December 2021 |website=India Herald}}</ref>

</references>

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|16420402}}

[[Category:Indian crime thriller films]]
[[Category:2021 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2021 Indian films]]
[[Category:2021 crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Kingdom of Aksum

2026-03-02T17:14:59Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: small edit

{{Short description|Polity in Africa and Arabia before 960}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{native name|gez|መንግሥተ አክሱም}} {{native name|xsa|𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣}} {{native name|grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Ἀξωμιτῶν}}
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Aksum
| common_name = Aksum or Axum
| era = [[Classical antiquity]] to [[Early Middle Ages]]
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| common_languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Geʽez]]
* [[Sabaic]]<ref name="donaldfairbairn">{{cite book |title=The Global Church—The First Eight Centuries From Pentecost Through the Rise of Islam |first=Donald |last=Fairbairn |publisher=Zondervan Academic |year=2021 |page=146 |isbn=978-0-310-09785-3}}</ref>
* [[Koine Greek]]<ref name="sourcebooks.fordham.edu">{{cite web |title=The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/ancient/periplus.asp |website=Fordham University Internet History Sourcebooks, chapters 4 and 5}}</ref>}} (from 1st century)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-02 |title=Snowden Lectures: Stanley Burstein, When Greek was an African Language |url=https://chs.harvard.edu/curated-article/snowden-lectures-stanley-burstein-when-greek-was-an-african-language/ |access-date=2022-02-23 |website=The Center for Hellenic Studies}}</ref>
 ''Various''{{efn-lr|[[Latin language|Latin]], [[Arabic]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Nubian language|Nubian]], and other languages.<ref name="molefikete">{{cite book |title=The African American People A Global History |first=Molefi Kete |last=Asante |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013 |page=13}}</ref>}}
| year_start = 1st century
| event_end = Collapse
| year_end = 960 AD
| life_span = 1st century{{snd}}960 AD
| event1 = [[GDRT#South Arabian involvement|Early South Arabian involvement]]
| date_event1 = 3rd century
| event2 = [[King Ezana]]'s conversion to [[Christianity]]
| date_event2 = 325 or 328
| event3 = [[King Ezana]]'s conquest of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]
| date_event3 = 330
| event4 = [[Aksumite invasion of Himyar]]
| date_event4 = 518–525
| event5 = [[Year of the Elephant]]
|
| date_event5 = 570
| event6 = [[Aksumite–Persian wars]]
|
| date_event6 = 570–578
| event7 = [[First Hijra]]
| date_event7 = 613-615
| event8 = [[Early Muslim conquests]]
| date_event8 = 7th century
| p1 = Dʿmt
| s1 = Zagwe dynasty
| image_coat = KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg
| coa_size = 250px
| symbol_type = [[Aksumite currency]] depicting [[Endybis|King Endybis]]
| image_map = Kingdom of Aksum Map.png
| map_caption = The Kingdom of Aksum {{Circa|6th century}}, overlaid on modern borders
| capital = {{plainlist|
* [[Axum]]
* [[Kubar]] (after {{Circa|800}})}}
| currency = [[Aksumite currency]]
| leader1 = [[Bazen of Axum]] (first known) [[Ethiopis]] (according to tradition)
| year_leader1 = {{Circa|1st century}}
| leader2 = [[Dil Na'od]] (last)
| year_leader2 = 917 or 940-960
| title_leader = [[Negus]]{{\}}[[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Imperial and royal titles|Negusa Nagast]]
| religion = {{indented plainlist|
* [[Christianity]] ([[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Nicene and Miaphysite Christianity]]; official after mid-4th century)<ref name="vincentkhapoya">{{cite book |title=The African Experience |first=Vincent |last=Khapoya |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |page=71 |isbn=978-0-205-85171-3}}</ref>
* [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia#Influence on Aksum|Aksumite polytheism]] (before 350)<ref>Turchin, Peter and Jonathan M. Adams and Thomas D. Hall: "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States", p. 222. Journal of World-Systems Research, Vol. XII, No. II, 2006</ref>}}
* [[Ancient Semitic religion]] (before 350)
| stat_area1 = 1250000
| stat_year1 = 350
| ref_area1 = <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |author-link=Peter Turchin |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D. |date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |url=http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Journal of World-Systems Research]] |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=222 |issn=1076-156X |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707181315/http://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf |archive-date=2020-07-07 |access-date=2023-06-05}}</ref>
| stat_area2 = 2500000
| stat_year2 = 525
| demonym = Aksumite, Ethiopian, [[Abyssinian people|Abyssinian]]
| today = {{hlist|[[Djibouti]]|[[Eritrea]]|[[Ethiopia]]|[[Sudan]]|[[Yemen]]}}
}}
{{History of Eritrea}}
{{History of Ethiopia}}

The '''Kingdom of Aksum''',{{NoteTag|{{langx|gez|አክሱም|ʾÄksum}}; {{langx|xsa|𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣|ʾkšm}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀξωμίτης|Axōmítēs}}}}{{efn|also romanized as the '''Kingdom of Axum'''}} or the '''Aksumite Empire''',{{efn|also romanized as the '''Axumite Empire'''}} was a kingdom in [[East Africa]] and [[South Arabia]] from [[classical antiquity]] to the [[Ethiopia in the Middle Ages|Middle Ages]], based in what is now northern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]], and spanning present-day [[Djibouti]], [[Sudan]], and [[Yemen]]. Emerging from the earlier [[Dʿmt]] civilization, the kingdom was founded in the 1st century.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/15/ The Cultural Heritage of Aksum.], UNESCO {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008220415/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6477/|date=2023-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |year=1991 |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |page=69 |isbn=0-7486-0106-6}}</ref> The city of [[Axum]] served as the kingdom's capital for many centuries until it relocated to [[Kubar]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burstein |first=Stanley |chapter=Africa: states, empires, and connections |year=2015 |doi=10.1017/cbo9781139059251.025 |title=The Cambridge World History: Volume 4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE |volume=4 |pages=631–661 |editor-last=Benjamin |editor-first=Craig |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05925-1}}</ref> in the 9th century due to declining trade connections and recurring invasions.<ref name="Phillipson48">{{cite book |last=Phillipson |first=David W. |year=2012 |title=Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300 |location=Woodbridge |publisher=James Currey |page=48 |isbn=978-1-84701-041-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation |journal=American Antiquity |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=471–495 |last=Butzer |first=Karl W. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1981 |doi=10.2307/280596 |jstor=280596 |bibcode=1981AmAnt..46..471B |s2cid=162374800}}</ref>

The Kingdom of Aksum was considered one of the four [[great power]]s of the 3rd century by [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]], the founder of [[Manichaeism]], alongside [[Sassanian Empire|Persia]], [[Roman Empire|Rome]], and [[Three Kingdoms|China]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |year=1991 |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |page=17 |isbn=0-7486-0106-6}}</ref> Aksum continued to expand under the reign of [[GDRT|Gedara]] ({{circa|200–230}}), who was the first king to be involved in South Arabian affairs. His reign resulted in the control of much of western [[Yemen]], such as the [[Tihama]], [[Najran]], [[Al-Maʿafir|al-Ma'afir]], [[Zafar, Yemen|Zafar]] (until {{circa|230|lk=no}}), and parts of [[Hashid]] territory around [[Khamir, Yemen|Hamir]] in the northern [[Geography of Yemen|highlands]] until a joint Himyarite-Sabean alliance pushed them out. Aksum-Himyar conflicts persisted throughout the 3rd century. During the reign of [[Endybis]] (270–310), Aksum began minting [[Aksumite currency|coins]] that have been excavated as far away as [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] and southern India.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hahn |first=Wolfgang |year=2000 |title=Askumite Numismatics - A critical survey of recent Research |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_2000_num_6_155_2289 |journal=Revue Numismatique |volume=6 |issue=155 |pages=281–311 |doi=10.3406/numi.2000.2289 |access-date=9 September 2021}}</ref>

As the kingdom became a major power on the [[Indo-Roman trade relations|trade route between Rome and India]] and gained a monopoly of [[Indian Ocean trade]], it entered the [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman cultural sphere]]. Due to its ties with the Greco-Roman world, Aksum [[Christianity in Ethiopia|adopted Christianity as its state religion]] in the mid 4th century under [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] (320s{{snd}}{{circa|lk=no|360}}).<ref name="Derat34">{{cite book |last=Derat |first=Marie-Laure |title=A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea |year=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-41958-2 |editor-last=Kelly |editor-first=Samantha |location=Leiden |page=34 |chapter=Before the Solomonids: Crisis, Renaissance and the Emergence of the Zagwe Dynasty (Seventh–Thirteenth Centuries)}}</ref> Following their Christianization, the Aksumites ceased construction of [[Stele|steles]].<ref name="Phillipson48" /> The kingdom continued to expand throughout [[late antiquity]], conquering [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]] under Ezana in 330 for a short period of time and inheriting from it the Greek exonym "Ethiopia".<ref>{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |year=1991 |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |pages=15–16 |isbn=0-7486-0106-6}}</ref>

Aksumite dominance in the Red Sea culminated during the reign of [[Kaleb of Axum]] (514–542), who, at the behest of the Byzantine emperor [[Justin I]], invaded the [[Himyarite Kingdom]] in Yemen in order to end the [[persecution of Christians]] perpetrated by the Jewish king [[Dhu Nuwas]]. With the annexation of Himyar, the Kingdom of Aksum reached its largest territorial extent, spanning around {{cvt|2,500,000|km2}}. However, the territory was lost in the [[Aksumite–Persian wars]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |date=1991 |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |page=55 |isbn=0-7486-0106-6}}</ref> Aksum held on to Southern Arabia from 520 until 525 when [[Sumyafa Ashwa]] was deposed by [[Abraha]].

The kingdom's slow decline had begun by the 7th century, at which point currency ceased to be minted. The Persian (and later Muslim) presence in the Red Sea, as well as the past few centuries seeing the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|decline in power of the Roman Empire]] (which was a major trade partner), caused Aksum to suffer economically, and the population of the city of Axum shrank. Alongside environmental and internal factors, this has been suggested as the reason for its decline. Aksum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, and the kingdom collapsed under uncertain circumstances around 960.<ref name="Derat34" /> Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, the Kingdom of Aksum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout the Late Middle Ages.<ref name="medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch">{{cite book |last1=Fritsch |first1=Emmanuel |title=A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea |last2=Kidane |first2=Habtemichael |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-41958-2 |editor-last=Kelly |editor-first=Samantha |location=Leiden |page=169 |chapter=The Medieval Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Its Liturgy}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
[[Carlo Conti Rossini]] believed that the word ''Aksum'' derives from a Semitic root, and means 'a green and dense garden' or 'full of grass'.<ref name="Mordechai32">{{cite book |last=Selassie |first=Sergew Hable |url= |title=Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 |publisher= |year=1972 |isbn= |location= |page=68 |language= |issn= |oclc= }}</ref>

Due to limited geographical knowledge many [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] texts from seventh and early eight century wrongly classified [[Ethiopia]] being in "[[Indian subcontinent|India]]",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Andrade |first=Nathanael J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UrpQDwAAQBAJ&dq=aksumite+indians&pg=PA74 |title=The Journey of Christianity to India in Late Antiquity: Networks and the Movement of Culture |date=2018-04-19 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-41912-3 |language=en}}</ref> which lead to the Kingdom also being called ''Kingdom of the Aksumite Indians''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jr |first=Stephen H. Rapp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mmsIEQAAQBAJ&dq=Basileus+Ind%C5%8Dn&pg=PA297 |title=The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature |date=2017-05-15 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-01672-4 |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
===Early history===
Before the establishment of Axum, Eritrea and the [[Tigray Region|Tigray Plateau]] of northern Ethiopia were home to a kingdom known as {{smallcaps|[[dʿmt]]}}. Archaeological evidence indicates that the kingdom was influenced by [[Sheba]] (now Yemen). Scholarly consensus had previously held that the Sabaeans (the people of Sheba) were the founders of 'Semitic' civilization in Ethiopia, though this view has now been refuted, and their influence is considered minor.<ref name="Munro-Hay57">{{Cite book |url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |publisher=University Press |year=1991 |location=Edinburgh |page=57 |access-date=February 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf |archive-date=January 23, 2013 }}</ref>{{efn-lr| According to Munro-Hay, "The arrival of Sabaean influences does not represent the beginning of Ethiopian civilisation.... Semiticized Agaw peoples are thought to have migrated from south-eastern Eritrea possibly as early as 2000 BC, bringing their 'proto-Ethiopic' language, ancestor of Geʽez and the other Ethiopian Semitic languages, with them; and these and other groups had already developed specific cultural and linguistic identities by the time any Sabaean influences arrived."<ref name="Munro-Hay57" />}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm |title=Let's Look Across the Red Sea I |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard K. P. |date=January 17, 2003 |newspaper=Addis Tribune |access-date=February 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm |archive-date=January 9, 2006 |author-link=Richard Pankhurst (academic)}}</ref> The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of [[Ancient South Arabian script]], which developed into [[Geʽez script]], and [[Ancient Semitic religion]].<ref name= Munro6162>{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |date=1991 |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |pages=61–62 |isbn=0-7486-0106-6}}</ref>

The early centuries of Aksum's development, during which it transitioned from a modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed at [[Lioness of Gobedra|Gobedra]], two kilometres west of [[Aksum]]. [[Archaeological excavation]]s on the [[tell (archaeology)|tell]] of Betä Giyorgis northwest of Aksum validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the seventh to fourth centuries BCE. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at the heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the beginning of the [[Common Era]]. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum, perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area.<ref name="users.clas.ufl.edu">[http://users.clas.ufl.edu/sterk/junsem/haas.pdf Archived copy] ufl.edu {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329065343/http://users.clas.ufl.edu/sterk/junsem/haas.pdf |date=2018-03-29 }}</ref><ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{Cite web |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/15 |title=Aksum}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=173}}</ref>

Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 BCE and 150 CE. Small-scale kingdoms denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appear to have existed in the early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and here [[Stuart Munro-Hay]] concludes,
{{Blockquote|Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one of which was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'king of kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it is quite possible that at the death of a king of kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in the confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=181}}</ref><ref>S. C. Munro-Hay (1991) ''Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity''. Edinburgh: University Press. p. 40. {{ISBN|0-7486-0106-6}}</ref>}}

===Rise of Aksum===
The first historical mention of Axum comes from the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-first century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside [[Adulis]] and [[Ptolemais Theron|Ptolemais of the Hunts]] as lying within the realm of [[Zoskales]]. The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental [[Indo-Roman trade relations|trade route between Rome and India]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Jacke |date=2016 |chapter=Aksum, Kingdom of |editor-last=MacKenzie |editor-first=John M. |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |location=Hoboken |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |pages=1–2 |isbn=978-1-118-45507-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Binyam |first1=Yonatan |title='Ethiopia' and the World, 330-1500 CE |last2=Krebs |first2=Verena |date=2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= |series= |location= |pages=5–6}}</ref>

The Aksumite control over [[Adulis]] enabled the exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both [[Pliny the Elder]] and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market at [[Qohaito|Coloe]], itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. During the second century AD, [[Ptolemy]]'s geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the fourth century AD, the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and an organized military.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=174}}</ref>

Around 200 AD, Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in [[Al-Maafer District|al-Maafer]] and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the third century, the kings [[GDRT]] and [[ʽDBH]] dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with the title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR ''negus'' of Aksum." Later in the century the ''mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns'' (kings of Habashat [[DTWNS]] and ZQRNS) are also mentioned [[Himyarite-Axumite war of 270-272|fighting in Arabia]]. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the ''[[Monumentum Adulitanum]]'' recorded by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]], in around the mid to late third century (possibly circa 240 to circa 260), the Aksumites, led by an anonymous king, achieved significant territorial expansion in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] and the [[Arabian Peninsula]], with their influence extending as far as [[Lake Tana]] and the borders of Egypt.<ref>George Hatke, ''Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa'' (New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44. {{ISBN|0-7486-0106-6}}</ref><ref name="dx.doi.org2">{{Cite journal |date=August 1910 |title=The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes |journal=Nature |volume=84 |issue=2127 |pages=133–134 |doi=10.1038/084133a0 |issn=0028-0836 |bibcode=1910Natur..84..133. |hdl=2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t07w6zm1b |s2cid=3942233 |url=https://archive.org/details/christiantopogra00cosmuoft |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=175}}</ref>

By the end of the third century AD, Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] in the ''[[Kephalaia]]'', as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As the political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite steles in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in a distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as [[Adulis]] and [[Matara, Eritrea|Matara]], boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In the early sixth century, [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides and back with inscriptions, attributed to [[Ousanas]], [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]], [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]], and his son [[Wazeba of Axum|Wazeba]], serving as victory monuments documenting the wars of these kings.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=176}}</ref>

King [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the fourth century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural link with the [[Greco-Roman world|Mediterranean]]. Aksum gained a political link with the [[Byzantine Empire]], which regarded itself as the protector of [[Christendom]]. Three inscriptions on the [[Ezana Stone]] documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Ge'ez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the "[[Noba]]", and the other against the [[Beja people|Beja]]. According to the inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the [[Kingdom of Kush]]. Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king [[Silko]] carved on the wall of the [[Temple of Kalabsha]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=177}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N |page=1193}}</ref>

[[File:Aksum obelisk.jpg|thumb|The [[Obelisk of Axum]]]]

[[Kaleb of Axum|King Kaleb]] sent an expedition against the Jewish [[Himyarite Kingdom|Himyarite]] king [[Dhu Nuwas]], who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as the coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia. [[Dhu Nuwas]] was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named [[Esimiphaios]] ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named [[Abraha]] after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to [[Procopius]], following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him, [[Abraha]] continued to govern Yemen through a tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History of the Later Roman Empire |last=Bury |first=J. B. |publisher=Macmillan |year=1923 |pages=325–326 |volume=II}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=178}}</ref>

After [[Abraha]]'s death, his son Masruq Abraha continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor [[Justinian the Great]], but having been denied, he decided to ally with the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Persian Emperor]] [[Khosrow I]], triggering the [[Aksumite–Persian wars]]. Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander [[Vahrez]] to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the [[Siege of Sana'a (570)|Siege of Sana'a]], capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general [[Vahrez]] led another army of 8,000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to [[Stuart Munro-Hay]], these wars may have been Aksum's swan song as a great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=178}}</ref>

===Decline===
[[File:Hijra Abyssinia (Rashid ad-Din).jpg|thumb|upright=1|14th century Islamic portrayal of the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]]]
Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of [[Islam]] in the early seventh century and the expansion of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615, for example, early [[Muslim]]s from [[Mecca]] fleeing [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]]i persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey is known in [[Islamic history]] as the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijrah]]. In 630, [[Muhammad]] sent a naval expedition against suspected Abyssinian pirates, the [[Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz]].<ref>E. Cerulli, "Ethiopia's Relations with the Muslim World" in ''Cambridge History of Africa: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh century'', p. 575.</ref><ref>Trimingham, Spencer, ''Islam in Ethiopia'', p. 46.</ref> Trade with the Roman and Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in the early eighth century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=178}}</ref> The decline of Aksum contributed to the emergence of the nearby Islamic-influenced [[Harla Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=González-Ruibal |first1=Alfredo |title=Rise of the Nomad Kings—Pastoral Polities in the Horn of Africa (a.d. 650–1000) |journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |date=2025 |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=737–766 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.1080/00934690.2025.2479290 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00934690.2025.2479290?src=#d1e1916}}</ref>

The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the [[Beja people|Beja]] nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the seventh century, a strong Beja tribe known as the [[Beja kingdoms|Zanafaj]] entered the [[Eritrea]]n plateau through the valley of [[Gash-Barka]]. They overran and pillaged much of the [[Eritrea]]n highlands as Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result, the connection to the [[Red Sea]] ports was lost.<ref>Trimingham, Spencer, ''Islam in Ethiopia'', p. 49.</ref>

Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the [[Ethiopian Highlands|highlands]] for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of the coast and their tributaries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=178}}</ref> While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south, and though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called [[Kubar]].<ref name="Munro-Hay57" /> The Arab writer [[Ya'qubi]] was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] or [[Angot]]; however, the exact location of this city is currently unknown.<ref>Taddesse Tamrat, ''Church and State in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 36.</ref> [[Famine]] is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs [[Pope Jacob of Alexandria|James]] (819–830) and [[Pope Joseph I of Alexandria|Joseph]] (830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains.<ref>Evetts, B.: "History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria", by Sawirus ibn al-Mukaffa', bishop of al-Ashmunien, Vol I, IV, Menas I to Joseph, PO X fasc. 5. pp 375-551, Paris, 1904</ref> Under the reign of [[Degna Djan]], during the ninth century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of [[Angot]].<ref>Werner J. Lange, "History of the Southern Gonga (southwestern Ethiopia)", Steiner, 1982, p. 18</ref>

====Gudit's invasion====
{{main|Gudit}}
[[File:ET Axum asv2018-01 img45 Dungur.jpg|alt=Aksum Dongur Palace in Aksum|thumb|Ruins of [[Dungur]] in Aksum, Tigray Region, Ethiopia]]
[[File:AXUM. Ezanas. Circa 330-360.jpg|thumb|upright|Coins of King [[Ezana]], 330–360 AD. ]]
Local history holds that, around 960, a Jewish queen named Yodit (Judith) or "[[Gudit]]" defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors. [[Gudit]] sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian [[iconoclasm]]. Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had a [[Jewish]] ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her [[dynasty]] lasted until 1137 C.E., when it was overthrown by [[Mara Takla Haymanot]], resulting in the inception of the [[Agaw people|Agaw]]-led [[Zagwe dynasty]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Henze |first=Paul B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&pg=PA49 |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |date=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=978-1-85065-393-6 |language=en}}</ref>

According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the [[Beta Israel]] king and then reigned for forty years. She brought her Jewish army from [[Semien Mountains]] and [[Lake Tana]] to orchestrate the pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in [[Tigray Province|Tigray]]. Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and steles are found in the area.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Childress |first=David Hatcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4pXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207 |title=Ark of God: The Incredible Power of the Ark of the Covenant |date=2015-10-27 |publisher=SCB Distributors |isbn=978-1-939149-60-2 |language=en}}</ref> Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly [[Dil Na'od]], while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in [[Shewa]], protected by Christians. He begged assistance from a [[African Greeks#Ancient Nubia|Nubian Greek]] ruler, King [[Moses Georgios of Makuria|Moses Georgios]], but his plea was unanswered.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jewel |first=Lady |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vx_N_bEKNj8C&pg=PA246 |title=Keeper of the Ark (a Moses Trilogy): For the Love of Moses, for the Children of Moses, for the Children of God |date=August 2012 |publisher=WestBow |isbn=978-1-4497-5061-9 |language=en}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2025}} She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem.<ref name=":0" /> Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by [[Mara Takla Haymanot|Mara Tekla Haymanot]] in 1137 C.E., who ushered in the formation of the [[Zagwe dynasty]] by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mekonnen |first=Yohannes K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0pZPp032c0C&pg=PA288 |title=Ethiopia: The Land, Its People, History and Culture |date=April 2013 |publisher=New Africa Press |isbn=978-9987-16-024-2}}</ref>

After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in the eleventh or twelfth century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, [[Yekuno Amlak]], who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern [[Solomonic dynasty]] around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from the last emperor of Aksum, [[Dil Na'od]]. It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at [[Lalibela]] and [[Yemrehana Krestos Church]] shows heavy Aksumite influence.<ref name="Munro-Hay57" />

==Society==
The Aksumite population mainly consisted of [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]-speaking groups, one of these groups were the [[Agʿazi]]an or the speakers of [[Geʽez language|Geʽez]], the commenter of the [[Adulis]] inscription identifies them as the main inhabitants of [[Aksum]] and its surroundings. The [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]-speaking [[Agaw people]] were also known to have lived within the kingdom, as [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] notes that a "governor of Agau", was entrusted by King [[Kaleb of Axum]] with the protection of the vital long-distance caravan routes from the south, suggesting that they lived within the southern frontier of the Aksumite kingdom.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hable Selassie |first1=Sergew |title=Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 |page=27}}</ref><ref>Taddesse Tamrat, ''Church and State in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 50.</ref> Aksum also had a sizeable [[African Greeks#Axumites of Ethiopia|Greek]] population, which resided in the cities of [[Ptolemais Theron]] and [[Adulis]].<ref>Crawford Young, ''The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism: The Nation-state at Bay?'', (University of Wisconsin Press: 1993), p. 160</ref> [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] groups also inhabited Aksum, as inscriptions from the time of [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] note the "Barya", an animist tribe who lived in the western part of the empire, believed to be the [[Nara people|Nara]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankhrust |first1=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands |year=1997 |page=33 |publisher=The Red Sea Press |isbn=978-0-932415-19-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&q=ethiopian+borderlands}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hatke |first1=George |title=Aksum and Nubia |date=7 January 2013 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-6283-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oy7N_d6HoYIC&dq=Aksumite+baryas&pg=PA165}}</ref>

Aksumite settlements were distributed across a significant portion of the highlands in the northern Horn of Africa, with the majority located in northeastern [[Tigray Region|Tigray]], Ethiopia, as well as the [[Akele Guzai]] and [[Seraye]] regions of Eritrea. Despite the concentration in these areas, some Aksumite settlements such as [[Mifsas Bahri]] are located as far as [[Ofla]]. In addition to the highlands, sites from the Aksumite period were discovered along the Red Sea coast of Eritrea, near the [[Gulf of Zula]]. Numerous Aksumite settlements were strategically positioned along an axis that traversed from Aksum to the [[Gulf of Zula]], forming a route connecting the Aksumite capital in the highlands to the principal Aksumite port of [[Adulis]] on the Red Sea. Along this route, two of the largest Aksumite-era settlements, [[Matara, Eritrea|Matara]] and [[Qohaito]], were situated in the Eritrean highlands. The concertation of these Aksumite ancient settlements suggests high population density in the highlands of Tigray and central Eritrea. The southern regions of the Aksumite polity are little known. However, in the mountains of [[Lasta]] and [[Wollo Province|Wollo]], archeological surveys appear to have located sites with Aksumite affinities, particularly near [[Mount Abuna Yosef]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=187}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Finneran |first1=Niall |title=The Archaeology of Ethiopia |date=8 November 2007 |page=157 |publisher=Routledge }}</ref>

A complex agricultural system in the Aksumite area, which involved irrigation, dam construction, terracing, and plough-farming, played a crucial role in sustaining both urban and rural populations. Aksumite farmers cultivated a variety of cereal crops with origins from both Africa and the Near East. These crops included [[teff]], [[finger millet]], [[sorghum]], emmer wheat, bread wheat, hulled barley, and oats. In addition to cereal crops, Aksumite farmers also grew linseed, cotton, grapes, and legumes of Near Eastern origin such as lentils, fava beans, chickpeas, common peas, and grass peas. Other important crops included the African oil crop, [[Guizotia abyssinica]], as well as gourds and cress. This diverse range of crops, combined with the herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, contributed to the creation of a highly productive indigenous agropastoral food-producing tradition. This tradition played an integral role in the development of the Aksumite economy and the consolidation of state power.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |page=187}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:Garima-Gospels-completed-project-2.jpg|thumb|[[Geʽez script]] in the [[Garima Gospels]]]]
[[Image:Yeha, chiesa di abuna aftse, museo, manoscritto del xviii secolo 01 sogno di giuseppe.jpg|left|thumb|An [[illuminated manuscript]] of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Holy Mother Mary]]]]
The Empire of Aksum is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, the [[Geʽez script]], which was eventually modified to include [[vowel]]s, becoming an [[abugida]]. Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is the [[Obelisk of Aksum]].

Under Emperor [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]], Aksum adopted [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Christianity]] in place of its former [[polytheistic]] and [[Judaic]] religions around 325. The Axumite Coptic Church gave rise to the present day [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] (only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church in 1959) and [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church]] (granted autonomy from the Ethiopian Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (451), it has been an important [[Miaphysite]] church, and its [[scriptures]] and [[liturgy]] continue to be in Geʽez.<ref name="britishmuseum.org">{{cite web |title=The wealth of Africa – The kingdom of Aksum: Teachers' notes |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf |website=The British Museum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191104191259/https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/KingdomOfAksum_TeachersNotes.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2019}}</ref><ref name="Daily Life">{{cite web |title=Daily Life in Aksum |url=https://www.eduplace.com/kids/socsci/ca/books/bkf3/writing/03_aksum.pdf |website=www.hmhco.com/ (formerly eduplace.com) |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803075358/https://www.eduplace.com/kids/socsci/ca/books/bkf3/writing/03_aksum.pdf |archive-date=3 August 2020 |series=Research Reports: Daily Life in Ancient Times}}</ref><ref name="georgeocox">{{cite book |title=African Empires and Civilizations: Ancient and Medieval |first=George O. |last=Cox |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |page=71}}</ref>

=== Language ===
[[Greek language|Greek]] became the official and literary language of the Axumite state, coming from the influence of the significant [[Ethiopian Greeks|Ethiopian Greek]] communities established in [[Axum]], the port of [[Adulis]], [[Ptolemais Theron]], and other cities in the region during [[Ptolemaic Empire|Ptolemaic]] times.<ref name="abbasalamavol68">{{cite book |title=Abba Salama Volumes 6-8 |publisher=University of California |year=1975 |page=24}}</ref><ref name="andebrhanweldegiorgis">{{cite book |author=Andebrhan Welde Giorgis |title=Eritrea at a Crossroads A Narrative of Triumph, Betrayal and Hope |publisher=Strategic Book Publishing and Rights Company |year=2014 |page=19}}</ref><ref name="McLaughlin">Raoul McLaughlin, ''The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean'', p. 114, Barnsley, Pen & Sword Military, 2012, {{ISBN|9781-78346-381-7}}.</ref> Greek was used in the state's administration, international diplomacy, and trade; it can be widely seen in coinage and inscriptions.<ref name="garimagospels">{{cite book |author=Judith S. McKenzie |title=The Garima Gospels: Early Illuminated Gospel Books from Ethiopia |author2=Francis Watson |publisher=NYU Press |year=2016 |page=18}}</ref><ref name="americannumismaticsociety">{{cite book |author=American Numismatic Society |title=Museum Notes, Volumes 29 to 31 |publisher=American Numismatic Society |year=1984 |page=165}}</ref><ref name="fjnothling">{{cite book |author=F. J. Nöthling |title=Pre-colonial Africa: Her Civilisations and Foreign Contacts |publisher=Southern Book Publishers |year=1989 |page=58}}</ref><ref name="louisieminks">{{cite book |author=Louise Minks |title=Traditional Africa |publisher=Lucent Books |year=1995 |page=28}}</ref>

[[Geʿez]], the language of [[Agʿazi]], was spoken alongside Greek in the court of Aksum. Although during the early kingdom, Geʿez was a spoken language, it has attestations written in the Old South Arabian language [[Sabaic]].<ref name="unescoscientifichistoryofafrica">{{cite book |author=Unesco. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa |title=Ancient Civilizations of Africa |publisher=Heinemann Educational Books |year=1981 |page=398}}</ref><ref name="jamescowlesprichard">{{cite book |author=James Cowles Prichard |title=Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind, Volume 1 |publisher=John and Arthur Arch, Cornhill |year=1826 |page=284}}</ref><ref name="encylopediabritannica">{{cite book |title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: The New Volumes, Constituting, in Combination with the Twenty-nine Volumes of the Eleventh Edition, the Twelfth Edition of that Work, and Also Supplying a New, Distinctive, and Independent Library of Reference Dealing with Events and Developments of the Period 1910 to 1921 Inclusive, Volume 24 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Limited |year=1911 |page=629}}</ref> In the fourth century, [[Ezana of Axum]] promoted the [[Geʽez script]] and made Geʽez an official state language alongside Greek; by the sixth century literary translations into Geʿez were common.<ref name="garimagospels" /><ref name="thomasolambdin">{{cite book |author=Thomas O. Lambdin |title=Introduction to Classical Ethiopic (Geʻez) |publisher=Brill |year=2018 |page=1}}</ref><ref name="washingtonforeignareasstudiesdivision">{{cite book |author=American University (Washington, D.C.). Foreign Areas Studies Division |title=Area Handbook for Ethiopia |author2=Irving Kaplan |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |year=1964 |page=34}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |title=Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity |date=1991 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=0-7486-0106-6 |location=Edinburgh |page=5}}</ref> After the seventh century's Muslim conquests in the Middle East and North Africa, which effectively isolated Axum from the Greco-Roman world, Geʿez replaced Greek entirely.<ref name="muhammadjamalaldinmukhtar">{{cite book |author=Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār |title=UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. II, Abridged Edition: Ancient Africa |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |page=234}}</ref><ref name="medievalethiopianorthodoxchurch" />

=== Literature ===
Early on in the Christian period, several texts began to be translated into Ge'ez in the Kingdom of Aksum for religious purposes. The most famous example is represented by the [[Garima Gospels]], a set of manuscripts containing all four Gospels translated into Ethiopic dating between the fourth and sixth centuries.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Sergey |date=2022-11-08 |title=New Studies of the Structure and the Texts of Abba Garima Ethiopian Gospels |journal=Afriques. Débats, méthodes et terrains d'histoire |volume=13 |language=en |issue=13 |doi=10.4000/afriques.3494 |issn=2108-6796 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Citations of the Bible occur in several Aksumite inscriptions that have been found in South Arabia.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last=Hatke |first=Georg |date=2022 |title=Religious Ideology in the Gəʿəz Epigraphic Corpus from Yemen |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1089523 |journal=Rocznik Orientalistyczny |language=English |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=76–78 |issn=0080-3545}}</ref> Dating to roughly the same time period, the [[Aksumite Collection]] is a multi-text manuscript dating to the 13th century, at the latest, but containing a large number of documents which must have been translated into Ge'ez between the fourth and sixth centuries, covering subjects including liturgy, canon law, historiography, letters and treatises, etc.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bausi |first1=Alessandro |last2=Brita |first2=Antonella |last3=Marco Di Bella |last4=Nosnitsin |first4=Denis |last5=Rabin |first5=Ira |last6=Sarris |first6=Nikolas |date=2020 |title=The Aksumite Collection or Codex Σ (Sinodos of Qǝfrǝyā, MS C3-IV-71/C3-IV-73, Ethio-SPaRe UM-039): Codicological and Palaeographical Observations. With a Note on Material Analysis of Inks. |url=https://flore.unifi.it/handle/2158/1239688 |journal=Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies Bulletin |volume=6 |pages=127–171 |doi=10.25592/uhhfdm.8470}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hatke |first=Georg |date=2022 |title=Religious Ideology in the Gəʿəz Epigraphic Corpus from Yemen |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1089523 |journal=Rocznik Orientalistyczny |language=English |volume=75 |issue=2 |page=73 |issn=0080-3545}}</ref>

Other translations include the entire Greek Bible, parabiblical texts (including the [[Book of Enoch]], [[Book of Jubilees]], [[4 Baruch]], and the [[Ascension of Isaiah]]), and other theological texts like the Qerallos. Native Ethiopic texts from this period are less certain, though it was a period active with translations from Greek texts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Butts |first=Aaron |title=Eastern Christianity: a reader |date=2021 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co |isbn=978-0-8028-7686-7 |editor-last=Walters |editor-first=J. Edward |location=Chicago |pages=369–370 |chapter=Ethiopic}}</ref> The reception or translation of [[Syriac literature]] during the Aksumite age is still unattested.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Camplani |first=Alberto |date=2021 |title=Paths of Cultural Transmission Between Syria and Ethiopia: About a Recent Book on Symbolic Interpretations |url=https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/aethiopica/article/view/1883 |journal=Aethiopica |language=en |volume=24 |pages=261–272 |doi=10.15460/aethiopica.24.0.1883 |issn=2194-4024|doi-access=free }}</ref> In recent decades, the known corpus of Aksumite literature has grown substantially.<ref>{{Citation |last=Bausi |first=Alessandro |title=Ethiopia and the Christian Ecumene: Cultural Transmission, Translation, and Reception |date=2020-01-08 |work=A Companion to Medieval Ethiopia and Eritrea |pages=225–226 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004419582/BP000022.xml |access-date=2025-03-28 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004419582_010 |isbn=978-90-04-41958-2}}</ref>

===Religion===
[[File:South Arabian - Fragment of a Frieze with an Ibex and Oryxes - Walters 2138.jpg|thumb|right|A [[South Arabia]]n stela with an [[Nubian ibex|ibex]] and three [[Arabian oryx]], associated with [[ʿAṯtar|Astar]] ({{lang|gez|ዐስተር}}), Semitic god of the [[Venus in culture|Morning and Evening Star]]]]
Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a [[polytheistic]] religion related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nx-qYO3zqlIC&pg=PA292 |title=Foundations of an African Civilisation: Aksum and the northern Horn, 1000 BC – AD 1300 |last=Phillipson |first=David |publisher=James Currey |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-84701-041-4 |page=91}}</ref> In the [[UNESCO]]-sponsored ''[[General History of Africa]]'', French archaeologist Francis Anfray suggests that the Aksumites worshipped [[Astar (god)|Astar]], his son [[Mahrem]], and [[Beher (god)|Beher]].<ref>{{cite book |title=UNESCO General History of Africa: Ancient Africa v. 2 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-520-06697-7 |editor=G. Mokhtar |page=221}}</ref>
[[File:James Heath - No 1 - A Table of Hieroglyphics found at Axum - B1977.14.8631 - Yale Center for British Art.jpg|thumb|A Table of Hieroglyphics found at Axum c. 19th century]]
[[Steven Kaplan (Africanist)|Steve Kaplan]] argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that "The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign of [[Queen of Sheba]] BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AD." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large numbers, "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had a considerable impact", and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the acceptance of Christianity."<ref>{{cite book |title=The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia: From the Earliest Times to the Twentieth Century |last=Kaplan |first=Steve |publisher=New York University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8147-4664-6}}</ref>

Before converting to Christianity, King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might have worshiped the gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC&pg=PA77 |title=Encyclopedia of Africa Vol. I |last=Munro-Hay |first=Stuart |publisher=Oxford University press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |editor=Henry Louis Gates Jr., Kwame Anthony Appiah |page=77}}</ref> Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by his teacher [[Saint Frumentius|Frumentius]], who established the Axumite Coptic Church, which later became the modern [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]].<ref name="isbn0-313-32273-2">{{cite book |last=Adejumobi |first=Saheed A. |title=The History of Ethiopia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Un6_LGIEyQC&pg=PA171 |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-32273-0 |page=171}}</ref><ref name="goblues.org">{{Cite web |url=http://goblues.org/faculty/weekse/files/2012/08/axum-and-the-solomonic-dynasty.pdf |title=GoBlues - Asheville School |date=16 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="obelisk bekerie">{{cite web |location=Newark, USA |url=http://hornofafrica.newark.rutgers.edu/downloads/aksum.pdf |title=The Rise of the Askum Obelisk is the Rise of Ethiopian History |last1=Bekerie |first1=Ayele |access-date=2017-01-06 |publisher=Rutgers University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107100939/http://hornofafrica.newark.rutgers.edu/downloads/aksum.pdf |archive-date=2017-01-07}}</ref> Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire.<ref name="ruperthopkins.com"/><ref name="otik.uk.zcu.cz"/> We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the disc and crescent with the cross.

Frumentius was in contact with the [[Church of Alexandria]], and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity.<ref name="users.clas.ufl.edu" /><ref name="whc.unesco.org" /> However, the Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria into [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jmeca.org.uk/christianity-middle-east/history-christianity-middle-east-north-africa |title=A History of Christianity in the Middle East & North Africa |last=Wybrew |first=Hugh |publisher=Jerusalem & Middle East Church Association |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203152710/http://www.jmeca.org.uk/christianity-middle-east/history-christianity-middle-east-north-africa }}</ref> Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is said to have been placed in the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]] by Menelik I for safekeeping.<ref name="britishmuseum.org" /><ref name="Daily Life" />

Islam arrived in the seventh century, during the reign of [[Ashama ibn-Abjar]], when the first followers of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] (also known as the [[Companions of the Prophet|Sahabah]]) migrated from [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] due to their persecution by the [[Quraysh]], the ruling Arab tribal confederation of [[Mecca]]. The [[Quraysh]] appealed to the [[Ashama ibn-Abjar]], arguing that the early Muslim migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither the Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants. A [[Second migration to Abyssinia|second migration]] consisting of 100 Muslim migrants occurred a few years later. Arabic inscriptions on the [[Dahlak Archipelago]] dated to the mid ninth century AD. confirm the existence of an early Muslim presence in Aksum.<ref>Trimingham, Spencer, ''Islam in Ethiopia'', p. 47.</ref>

===Coinage===
{{Main|Aksumite currency}}

[[File:KingEndybisEthiopia227-235CE.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Coins of king [[Endybis]], 227–235 AD. The right coin reads in Greek {{lang|grc|ΕΝΔΥΒΙϹ ΒΑϹΙΛΕΥϹ}} 'King Endybis']]

The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue [[Aksumite currency|its own coin]]s,<ref name="ruperthopkins.com"/><ref name="otik.uk.zcu.cz"/> which bore legends in Geʽez and Greek. From the reign of Endybis up to [[Armah]] ({{circa|270|610}}), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to the coin after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was at once a useful instrument of [[propaganda]] and a source of profit to the empire.

===Architecture===
{{Main|Ethiopian architecture}}

====Palace architecture====
[[File:Aksum, chiesa nuova di santa maria di zion, costruita da haile selassie negli anni '60, esterno 00,0.jpg|thumb|An Axumite Cathedral, [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion|Lady Mary of Zion]]]]

In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop [[podia]] built of loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as the wall got higher, so the walls narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often whitewashed, like at [[Yemrehana Krestos Church]]) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on the exterior and sometimes the interior.

Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls. Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals, doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous flights of stairs that often flanked the walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later [[rock-cut architecture|rock hewn churches]] of [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] and [[Lalibela]].<ref name="Munro-Hay57" />

[[Palace]]s usually consisted of a central [[pavilion]] surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (see [[Dungur]] for an example). The largest of these structures now known is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger.<ref name="Munro-Hay57"/>

Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in 'monkey heads', and a parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found in [[Hawulti (monument)|Hawelti]]. Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the roof.<ref name="Munro-Hay57" />

====Stelae====
[[File:Stela aksum.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|The [[King Ezana's Stela]], an Aksumite [[obelisk]] in [[Axum]], Ethiopia]]
The stelae are perhaps the most identifiable part of the Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design. The largest of these would measure 33 meters high had it not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of the ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank.<ref name="users.clas.ufl.edu"/><ref name="whc.unesco.org"/>

For important monuments built in the region, a particular type of granite is used called ''nepheline syenite''. It is fine grained and has also been used in historic monuments like the stelae. These monuments are used to celebrate key figures in Axum history, especially kings or priests. These stelae are also called obelisks, they are located in the Mai Hejja stelae field, where complex sedimentology of the land can be observed. The foundations for the monuments are around 8.5 m below the surface of the Mai Hejja stelae field. Sediments in this area have undergone a lot of weathering over the years, so the surface of this area has undergone a lot of changes. This is part of the reason for the complex stratigraphic history in this site, some previous layers under the surface of the site.<ref name="Butzer 471–495">{{Cite journal |last=Butzer |first=Karl W. |date=July 1981 |title=Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/abs/rise-and-fall-of-axum-ethiopia-a-geoarchaeological-interpretation/B5B3D127F93D1C975C3D3C0CCD3BF773 |journal=American Antiquity |language=en |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=471–495 |doi=10.2307/280596 |jstor=280596 |bibcode=1981AmAnt..46..471B |s2cid=162374800 |issn=0002-7316}}</ref>

===Foreign relations, trade, and economy===
[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|left|upright=1.13|thumb|Aksum was an important participant in international trade from the first century AD ([[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]) until circa the later part of the 1st millennium when it succumbed to a long decline against pressures from the various Islamic [[regional power|powers]] leagued against it.]]

Covering parts of what is now northern [[Ethiopia]] and southern and eastern [[Eritrea]], Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between the [[Middle kingdoms of India|Indian subcontinent]] and the [[Greco-Roman world|Mediterranean]] ([[Roman Empire|Rome]], later [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]]), exporting [[ivory trade|ivory]], tortoise shell, gold and [[emerald]]s, and importing [[silk]] and spices.<ref name="britishmuseum.org"/><ref name="Daily Life"/> Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit in trade between various African ([[Nubia]]), Arabian ([[Yemen]]), and Indian states.

The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of a state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat, [[barley]] and [[teff]]. The people of Aksum also raised [[cattle]], sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded: [[salt]]. Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently.<ref name="goblues.org" /><ref name="obelisk bekerie"/>

It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked [[Indo-Roman trade relations|the Roman Empire and India]]. This change took place around the start of the first century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red Sea was of secondary importance to the [[Persian Gulf]] and overland connections to the [[Levant]]. Starting around first century, a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the [[Arabian Sea]] directly to [[South India|southern India]]. By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down the Red Sea from [[Roman Egypt]] to the Arabian Sea and India.<ref name="ruperthopkins.com">[http://www.ruperthopkins.com/pdf/Kingdom_of_Axum.pdf Kingdom of Axum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925100701/http://www.ruperthopkins.com/pdf/Kingdom_of_Axum.pdf |date=2020-09-25 }}</ref><ref name="otik.uk.zcu.cz">{{Cite web |last1=Záhoří |first1=Jan |date=February 2014 |title=Review: Phillipson, (2012). ''Foundations of an African civilization: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300'' |url=https://otik.uk.zcu.cz/bitstream/handle/11025/15553/Zahorik.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107100243/https://otik.uk.zcu.cz/bitstream/handle/11025/15553/Zahorik.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=2017-01-07 |access-date=2017-01-06}}</ref>

Although excavations have been limited, fourteen Roman coins dating to the second and third centuries have been discovered at Aksumite sites like Matara. This suggests that trade with the Roman Empire existed at least since this period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sergew Hable |first=Sellassie |title=Ancient and medieval Ethiopian history to 1270 |publisher=Addis Ababa |year=1972 |page=79}}</ref>
[[File:Roman_Coins_found_in_Matara_in_2-3rd_century.png|thumb|14 Roman Coins found in Matara in 2-3rd century<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anfray |first=Francis |title=Maṭarā. — Deuxième, troisième et quatrième campagnes de fouilles. In: Annales d'Ethiopie. Volume 6 |date=1965 |page=69 |language=French}}</ref>]]
In 525 AD, the Aksumites attempted to take over the Yemen region to gain control over The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; one of the most significant trading routes in the medieval world, connecting the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Rulers were inclined to establish a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea in Yemen to completely control the trading vessels that ran down the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is located in the maritime choke point between Yemen and Djibouti and Eritrea. Because of the ruler of Yemen's persecution of Christians in 523 AD, Kaleb I, the ruler of Aksum (a Christian region) at the time, responded to the persecutions by attacking the Himyarite king Yūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known as Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish convert who was persecuting the Christian community of Najran,Yemen in 525 AD, with the help of the Byzantine empire, with whom had ties with his kingdom. Victoriously, the Aksum empire was able to claim the Yemen region, establishing a viceroy in the region and troops to defend it until 570 AD when the Sassanids invaded.

The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation. [[Adulis]] soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped the same interior region of Africa was that of the [[Kingdom of Kush]], which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the [[Nile]] corridor. By the first century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to [[Meroë]], the capital of Kush. During the second and third centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system.<ref>The effect of the Indian Ocean trading system on the rise of Aksum is described in [http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/interactions/burstein.html State Formation in Ancient Northeast Africa and the Indian Ocean Trade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114074953/http://www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/interactions/burstein.html |date=2009-01-14 }}, by Stanley M. Burstein.</ref>

====Climate change hypothesis====
[[File:Balaw Kalaw (metera), stele axumita 06.JPG|thumb|[[Hawulti (monument)|Axumite Menhir in Balaw Kalaw]] ([[Matara, Eritrea|Metera]]) near [[Senafe]]]]
[[Climate variability and change|Climate change]] and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for the decline of the culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Butzer |first=Karl W. |date=1981 |title=Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/280596 |journal=American Antiquity |volume=46 |issue=3 |page=491–492 |doi=10.2307/280596 |issn=0002-7316}}</ref> The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during the first century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to six or seven months, vastly improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without the aid of irrigation).

Askum was also located on a plateau {{cvt|2000|m|ft}} feet above sea level, making its soil fertile and the land good for agriculture. This appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to support the demographic base that made this far flung commercial empire possible. It may also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into the moister, more fertile, and naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of Aksumite power.

As international profits from the exchange network declined, Aksum lost control over its raw material sources, and that network collapsed. The persistent environmental pressure on a large population needing to maintain a high level of regional food production intensified, which resulted in a wave of soil erosion that began on a local scale {{circa|650}}, and reached crisis levels after 700. Additional socioeconomic contingencies presumably compounded the problem: these are traditionally reflected in a decline in maintenance, the deterioration and partial abandonment of marginal crop lands, shifts toward more destructive exploitation of pasture land—and ultimately wholesale, irreversible [[land degradation]]. This decline was possibly accelerated by an apparent decline in the reliability of rainfall beginning between 730 and 760, presumably with the result that an abbreviated modern growing season was reestablished during the ninth century.<ref name="butzer1981">{{Cite journal |last=Butzer |first=Karl W. |date=1981 |title=Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation |url=http://sites.utexas.edu/butzer/files/2017/03/Butzer-1981-Axum.pdf |journal=American Antiquity |volume=46 |number=3 |pages=471–495 |via=University of Texas at Austin |jstor=280596 |doi=10.2307/280596 |bibcode=1981AmAnt..46..471B |s2cid=162374800}}</ref>{{rp|495}}

==In literature==
{{Further|Ethiopian literature|Ethiopian historiography}}

The Aksumite Empire is portrayed as the main ally of [[Byzantium]] in the [[Belisarius series]] by [[David Drake]] and [[Eric Flint]] published by [[Baen Books]]. The series takes place during the reign of [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]], who in the series was assassinated by the [[Malwa]] in 532 at the Ta'akha Maryam and succeeded by his youngest son Eon bisi Dakuen.

In the [[Elizabeth Wein]] series ''The Lion Hunters'', [[Mordred]] and his family take refuge in Aksum after the fall of [[Camelot]]. [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]] is the ruler in the first book; he passes his sovereignty onto his son Gebre Meskal, who rules during the [[Plague of Justinian]].

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Ethio w3.jpg|Reconstruction of Dungur
File:The North Stelae Park, Axum, Ethiopia (2812686646).jpg|The largest Aksumite stele, broken where it fell.
File:Ethio w4.jpg|Aksumite-era [[Amphora]] from [[Asmara]].
File:Rome Stele.jpg|The [[Obelisk of Aksum]] after being returned to Ethiopia.
File:Axumite Palace (2827701317).jpg|Model of the Ta'akha Maryam palace.
File:Axumite Architectural Fragments (2823506028).jpg|Aksumite water-spouts in the shape of lion heads.
File:Axumite Jar With Figural Spout (2822617017).jpg|Aksumite jar with figural spout.
File:ET Axum asv2018-01 img41 Stelae Park.jpg|Tombs beneath the stele field.
File:Ethio w29.jpg|Entrance to the Tomb Of The False Door.
File:Stelenpark in Axum 2010.JPG|The Stelae Park in Aksum.
File:Small Steles near Aksum.jpg|Small stelae in the Gudit Stelae Field
File:Stelae Field in Axum, Ethiopia (2830293765).jpg|Another stelae field in Aksum.
File:Haiq Istefanos Church.jpg| Istifanos Monastery in Hayk.
File:Ousas.jpg|Aksumite gold coins.
File:Aksum-107532.jpg|Aksum stelle and ruins
File:Aksum-139458.jpg|Aksum stelle in desert
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Eritrea|Africa}}
* [[Abraha]]
* [[History of Ethiopia]]
* [[Mifsas Bahri]]
* [[Monumentum Adulitanum]]

==Notes==
{{notelist-lr}}
=== Language notes ===
{{NoteFoot}}
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |first=Alessandro |last=Bausi |year=2018 |title=Translations in Late Antique Ethiopia |journal=Egitto Crocevia di Traduzioni |volume=1 |url=https://www.openstarts.units.it/bitstream/10077/21835/1/%CE%94%CE%99%CE%91%CE%9B%CE%9F%CE%93%CE%9F%CE%99%201%20online.pdf#page=69&zoom=125(0,0) |pages=69–100 |publisher=EUT Edizioni Università di Trieste |isbn=978-88-8303-937-9 |access-date=4 September 2018 |archive-date=4 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180904192037/https://www.openstarts.units.it/bitstream/10077/21835/1/%CE%94%CE%99%CE%91%CE%9B%CE%9F%CE%93%CE%9F%CE%99%201%20online.pdf#page=69&zoom=125(0,0) }}
* {{Cite book|last=Bend|first=Niklas|title=Studien zur Geschichte und Religionsgeschichte Aksums|trans-title=Studies on the history and religious history of Aksum|publisher=Steiner|location=Stuttgart|year=2025|isbn=978-3-515-13998-4}}
* {{cite book |first=David W. |last=Phillipson |title=Ancient Ethiopia. Aksum: Its Antecedents and Successors |publisher=The British Museum Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7141-2763-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Phillipson |first1=David W. |title=Foundations of an African civilization: Aksum & the Northern Horn, 1000 BC - AD 1300 |date=2012 |publisher=James Currey |location=Woodbridge, Suffolk |isbn=978-1-84701-088-9}}
* {{cite book |editor1-first=Paul A. |editor1-last=Yule |title=Late Antique Arabia Ẓafār, Capital of Ḥimyar, Rehabilitation of a 'Decadent' Society, Excavations of the Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg 1998–2010 in the Highlands of the Yemen |publisher=Abhandlungen Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, vol. 29, Wiesbaden, pp. 251–54 |year=2013 |isbn=978-3-447-06935-9}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Kingdom of Aksum}}
* [https://www.worldhistory.org/Kingdom_of_Axum/ World History Encyclopedia – Kingdom of Axum]
* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf|date=February 22, 2007|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States}}
* [http://www.ethiopiantreasures.co.uk/pages/aksum.htm Ethiopian Treasures – Queen of Sheba, Aksumite Kingdom – Aksum]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/nubia1.html Ancient History Sourcebook: Accounts of Meröe, Kush, and Axum]
* [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/15 Aksum: UNESCO World Heritage Site]
{{Pre-Islamic Arabia|state=collapsed}}{{Empires}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aksum, Kingdom of}}

[[Category:Kingdom of Aksum| ]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Africa|Aksum]]
[[Category:Political history of Eritrea|Aksum]]
[[Category:Countries in ancient Africa]]
[[Category:Countries in medieval Africa]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 1st century]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 960s]]
[[Category:Former Christian states|Aksum]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]

Cestrum nocturnum

2026-02-25T18:45:33Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: further refine intro per standard format and improved wording after review

{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Cestrum nocturnum (2464189820).jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. |author2=Meave, J.A. |date=2019 |title=''Cestrum nocturnum'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T72045868A136785819 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T72045868A136785819.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Cestrum
| species = nocturnum
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name=POWO>{{cite POWO |title=''Cestrum nocturnum'' L. |id=316386-2 |access-date=31 January 2025}}</ref>
| synonyms = {{Collapsible list|
{{Species list
| Chiococca nocturna | (L.) Jacq.
| Cestrum graciliflorum | Dunal
| Cestrum leucocarpum | Dunal
| Cestrum multiflorum | Roem. & Schult.
| Cestrum propinquum | M.Martens & Galeotti
| Cestrum scandens | Thibaud ex Dunal
| Cestrum spicatum | Mill.
| Cestrum suberosum | Jacq.
}}
}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=POWO/>
}}

'''''Cestrum nocturnum''''', the '''lady of the night''', '''night-blooming jasmine''', '''night-blooming jessamine''', '''night-scented jessamine''', '''night-scented cestrum''' or '''poisonberry''',<ref name=EPPO>{{cite web | title = ''Cestrum nocturnum'' | url = https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/CEMNO | publisher = [[European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization]] (EPPO) | access-date = 19 November 2020}}</ref> is a species of plant in the potato family [[Solanaceae]]. It is native to Mexico, Central America and northern South America<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021"/> and is naturalized in [[South Asia]].<ref>Hortus Third Cornell University, ''Western Garden Book'' 2007 Ed</ref>

Despite its common name, the species is not a [[Jasmine#Other plants called "jasmine"|"true jasmine"]] and not of the genus ''[[Jasmine|Jasminum]]''.

==Description==
[[File:Cestrum nocturnum Madagascar 1.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Leaves and flowers]]
''Cestrum nocturnum'' is an [[evergreen]] woody [[shrub]] with slender branches growing to {{convert|4|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} tall. The plant is multi-branched and heavily foliated. The [[leaf|leaves]] are simple, narrow lanceolate, {{convert|6|–|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|–|4.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad, smooth and glossy, with an entire margin. Towards the front they are pointed or tapered, the base is rounded or blunt. The leaf stalks are 0.8 to 2 cm long.

===Inflorescences===
The flowers are greenish-white, with a slender tubular [[Corolla (flower)|corolla]] {{convert|2|-|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long with five acute lobes, {{convert|10|–|13|mm|in|abbr=on}} diameter when open at night, and are produced in [[Cyme (botany)|cymose]] [[inflorescence]]s. A powerful, sweet perfume is released at night. The mostly multi-flowered, drooping [[inflorescence]]s are terminal or axillary. They are clustered, sparsely branched [[panicles]], on the inflorescence axes of which there are herbaceous [[bracts]]. The five [[sepals]] are fused to form a bell-shaped, approximately 2 mm long calyx and have five pointed tips, which are slightly enlarged, ribbed and acutely pointed on the fruit. The inside and outside of the [[calyx (botany)|calyx]] are finely haired.

The fruit is a white [[berry (botany)|berry]] {{convert|10|mm|in}} long by {{convert|5|mm|in|abbr=on}} diameter. There is also a variety with yellowish flowers. There are mixed reports regarding the toxicity of foliage and fruit.<ref>''Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa'' – Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962)</ref><ref>[http://www.erowid.org/plants/cestrum/cestrum_health1.shtml Erowid Cestrum Vaults : Cestrum Health Concerns]. Erowid.org (2008-08-27). Retrieved on 2011-07-10.</ref>

The Latin specific epithet, ''nocturnum'', means 'at night' and is a reference to the plant's habit of blooming at night.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cestrum nocturnum - Plant Finder |url=https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=287193&bt=4 |access-date=2025-02-12 |website=www.missouribotanicalgarden.org}}</ref>

==Cultivation==
''Cestrum nocturnum'' is grown in subtropical regions as an ornamental plant for its flowers that are heavily perfumed at night. It grows best in average to moist soil that is light and sandy, with a neutral pH of 6.6 to 7.5, and is hardy to [[hardiness zone]] 8. ''C. nocturnum'' can be fertilized biweekly with a weak dilution of seaweed and fish emulsion fertilizer.

==Chemistry==
Flowers distilled oil contains [[phenylethyl alcohol]] (27%), [[benzyl alcohol]] (12%), [[icosane|eicosane]] (5.6%), [[eugenol]] (5.6%), ''n''-[[tetracosane]] (4.4%), [[caryophyllene]] oxide (3.1%), [[cetyl alcohol|1-hexadecanol]] (2.7%), [[methoxyeugenol]] (2.45%), [[benzaldehyde]] (2.32%).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Al-Reza |first1=Sharif M. |last2=Rahman |first2=Atiqur |last3=Kang |first3=Sun Chul |title=Chemical composition and inhibitory effect of essential oil and organic extracts of ''Cestrum nocturnum'' L. on food-borne pathogens |journal=International Journal of Food Science & Technology |date=June 2009 |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=1176–1182 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2009.01939.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> Flowers alcohol extract contains cytotoxic steroids.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Deng-Pan |last2=Lin |first2=Tian-Yu |last3=Lv |first3=Jin-Yan |last4=Chen |first4=Wen-Ya |last5=Bai |first5=Li-Ru |last6=Zhou |first6=Yan |last7=Huang |first7=Jin-Lan |last8=Zhong |first8=Zhen-Guo |title=Flower Extracts Attenuate Proliferation and Induce Apoptosis in Malignant Cells through Inducing DNA Damage and Inhibiting Topoisomerase II Activity |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |date=2017 |volume=2017 |article-number=1456786 |doi=10.1155/2017/1456786 |pmid=28250789 |pmc=5307125 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Pharmacology==
===Toxicity===
Ingestion of ''C. nocturnum'' has not been well documented, but there is some reason to believe that caution is in order. All members of the family [[Solanaceae]] contain an [[alkaloid]] toxin called [[solanine]],<ref>[http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-solanine.htm What is solanine]. Wisegeek</ref> though some members of the family are routinely eaten without ill-effect. The most commonly reported problems associated with ''C. nocturnum'' are respiratory problems from the scent, and feverish symptoms following ingestion.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.childrens.health.qld.gov.au/poisonous-plant-night-blooming-jessamine-cestrum-nocturnum | title=Night blooming jessamine (Cestrum nocturnum) | Queensland Poisons Information Centre | date=18 July 2017 }}</ref>

Some people, especially those with respiratory sensitivities or asthma, have reported difficulty breathing, irritation of the nose and throat, headache, nausea, or other symptoms when exposed to the blossom's powerful scent.<ref>Department of Primary Industries, NSW Government, Reviewed 2021{{cite web | url=https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/Weeds/LadyOfTheNight | title=NSW WeedWise }}</ref> Some ''Cestrum'' species contain [[chlorogenic acid]], and the presence of this potent sensitizer may be responsible for this effect in ''C. nocturnum''.

Some plant guides describe ''C. nocturnum'' as "toxic" and warn that ingesting plant parts, especially fruit, may result in elevated temperature, rapid pulse, excess salivation and [[gastritis]].<ref>The University of Arizona, Cochise County Master Gardeners, '''Cestrums (jessamine)''', Barbara Shelor, Nov. 1991{{cite web | url=https://cals.arizona.edu/cochise/mg/common-poisonous-plants | title=Common Poisonous Plants | Cochise County Master Gardeners }}</ref>

Spoerke and Smolinske (1990)<ref |name="SpoerkeSmolinske1990">{{cite book|author=Spoerke DG, Smolinske SC|title=Toxicity of Houseplants |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |year=1990|isbn=0-8493-6655-0}}</ref> noted the following:
"Ingesting 15 lb of plant material caused a cow to salivate, clamp its jaws, collapse, and eventually die. A postmortem showed gastroenteritis and congestion of liver, kidneys, brain, and spinal cord. Although the berries and the sap are suspected of being toxic,<ref |name="LampeMcCann1985">{{cite book |author=Lampe KF, McCann MA |title=AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants |publisher=American Medical Association |location=Chicago |year=1985|isbn=0-89970-183-3}}</ref> several cases of ingestion of the berries have not shown them to be a problem, with one exception. Morton<ref |name="Morton1971">{{cite book |author=Morton JF |title=Plants Poisonous to People in Florida and Other Warm Areas |publisher=Hurricane House |location=Miami |year=1971}}</ref> cites two cases where children ate significant quantities (handfuls) of berries and had no significant effects and another two where berries were ingested in smaller amounts, with similar negative results", and in a new paragraph noted that "Ingestion of green berries over several weeks by a 2-year-old child resulted in diarrhea, vomiting, and blood clots in the stool. Anemia and purpura [discoloration of the skin caused by subcutaneous bleeding] were also noted. A solanine alkaloid isolated from the stool was hemolytic to human erythrocytes."<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fruthaler GJ|title=Solanine poisoning|journal=Ochsner Clinic Reports|year=1955|volume=1|issue=2|pages=50–52 |pmid=13244993 }}</ref>

Plant extracts have shown [[larvicidal]] activity against the mosquito ''[[Aedes aegypti]]'' while showing no toxicity to fish.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Patil CD, Patil SV, Salunke BK, Salunkhe RB | title = Bioefficacy of ''Plumbago zeylanica'' (Plumbaginaceae) and ''Cestrum nocturnum'' (Solanaceae) plant extracts against ''Aedes aegypti'' (Diptera: Culicide) and nontarget fish ''Poecilia reticulata'' | journal = Parasitol Res | year = 2011 | volume = 108 | issue = 5 | pages = 1253–1263 | doi=10.1007/s00436-010-2174-6| pmid = 21107859 | s2cid = 35903438 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Chetan Jawale | author2 = Rambhau Kirdak | author3 = Laxmikant Dama | title = Larvicidal activity of ''Cestrum nocturnum'' on ''Aedes aegypti'' | journal = Bangladesh Journal of Pharmacology | year = 2010 | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–40 | doi = 10.3329/bjp.v5i1.4714 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Plant extracts cause hematological changes in the freshwater fish when exposed to sub lethal concentrations.<ref>{{cite journal | author = CS JAWALE, LB DAMA | title = Haematological Changes In The Fresh Water Fish, Exposed To Sub-Lethal Concentration Of Piscicidal Compounds From (Fam: Solanaceae) | journal = National Journal of Life Sciences | year = 2010 | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 82–84 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215901825}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Jawale C. S. | author2 = Vinchurkar A. S. | author3 = Dama L. B., Pawar | title = ''Cestrum nocturnum'' (l) a prospective piscicide for control of predatory fish ''channa punctatus'' (bloch.) | journal = Trends in Fisheries Research | year = 2012 | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 14–17}}</ref>

===Psychoactivity===
The mechanisms of the plant's putative psychoactive effects are currently unknown, and anecdotal data are extremely limited and include an aphrodisiac power.<ref>{{cite news|title=Italian islands become 'sex pilgrimage' sites|author=Silvia Marchetti|date=6 October 2020|work=CNN Travel|url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/italy-fertility-islands/index.html}}</ref> In a rare discussion of traditional [[entheogen]]ic use of the plant, [[Claudia Müller-Ebeling|Müller-Ebeling]], [[Christian Rätsch|Rätsch]], and Shahi describe shamanic use of ''C. nocturnum'' in Nepal.<ref>{{cite book|isbn=0-89281-913-8|title=Shamanism and Tantra in the Himalayas|last1=Müller-Ebeling|first1=Claudia|last2=Rätsch|first2=Christian|last3=Shahi|first3=Surendra Bahadur|date=September 2002}}</ref> They describe experiencing "trippy" effects without mentioning unpleasant physical side effects. Rätsch's ''Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants'' also describes a handful of reports of ingestion of the plant without mentioning serious adverse side effects.

==Invasive potential==
''Cestrum nocturnum'' has become widely [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]] in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, southern China and the southernmost United States, and is difficult to eradicate. It is classed as a weed in some countries.

In Auckland, New Zealand, it has been reported as a seriously invasive weed to the Auckland Regional Council and is under investigation. NS Forest and Bird is compiling an inventory of wild cestrum sites in order to place the plant on the banned list. The inventory can be viewed via Google Maps.<ref>[http://maps.google.co.nz/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=106192109332937319052.000452fadea9e1a357b2a&ll=-36.765842,174.553528&spn=0.375695,0.602875&z=11 Cestrum wild locations – Google Maps]. Maps.google.co.nz. Retrieved on 2011-07-10.</ref> Some nurseries still sell it without warning customers of the dangers to native bush reserves.{{Citation needed|date= November 2017}}

== In culture ==
The inscription on American filmmaker [[David Lynch|David Keith Lynch]]'s gravestone at the [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery]] reads "Night Blooming Jasmine."<ref>{{cite web | title=David Lynch's grave stone bearing enigmatic phrase unveiled in Hollywood | date=7 April 2025 | url=https://ca.news.yahoo.com/david-lynch-grave-stone-bearing-223248719.html }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Night blooming Jasmine buds.jpg|''Cestrum nocturnum'' buds
Image:Cestrum nocturnum fruits 01.jpg|''Cestrum nocturnum'' fruit
Image:Cestrum nocturnum Blanco1.151.png
Image:Colpfl30.jpg
Image:Cestrum nocturnum on bush.jpg
Image:Jasmine_NightBloomimg1_Asit.jpg
Image:Night-blooming jasmine.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Cestrum nocturnum}}
* Huxley, A., ed. (1990). ''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. Macmillan.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060902193727/http://www.health.qld.gov.au/poisonsinformationcentre/plants_fungi/nibl_jessamine.asp Poisons Information Centre (Queensland): ''Cestrum nocturnum'']
* [http://www.floridata.com/ref/C/cestrum.cfm Floridata: Cestrum nocturnum]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q36125}}

[[Category:Cestrum|nocturnum]]
[[Category:Night-blooming plants]]
[[Category:Flora of Mexico]]
[[Category:Flora of Central America]]
[[Category:Flora of Colombia]]
[[Category:Flora of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Garden plants of South America]]

Monji anchar

2026-02-22T17:28:29Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{Short description|Traditional pickle of Kashmir}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}

{{Infobox food
| name = Monji Anchar
| image = File:Koshur anchar 055.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Traditional kohlrabi pickle of Kashmir
| upright = 1.2
| region =
| place_of_origin = [[Kashmir]]
| served = Cold
| main_ingredient = Kohlrabi,
spices
}}

'''Monji anchar''' ({{IPA|ks|mɔnd͡ʒi ãːt͡ʃaːr}}), is an aromatic [[kohlrabi]] pickle in [[Kashmiri cuisine]].<ref name="Garg-2021">{{cite web |last=Garg |first=Ruchika |date=23 February 2021 |title=Pick Your Pickle and Tickle Your Taste Buds |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/recipe/pick-your-pickle-and-tickle-your-taste-buds-101613889032247.html |access-date=23 March 2025 |website=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref><ref name="Charagi-2023">{{Cite web |last=Charagi |first=Nipa |date=1 February 2023 |title=The Kashmiri in California delivering ‘monje aachar’—and a taste of home |url=https://www.livemint.com/mint-lounge/food/the-kashmiri-in-california-delivering-monje-aachar-and-a-taste-of-home-111674805431837.html |website=[[Livemint]]}}</ref>

The pickle is traditional among both [[Muslims]] and [[Kashmiri Pandit]] households, but the ingredients and techniques vary, with Muslim versions typically including garlic, green chili, smoked mustard oil, and vinegar while Pandit versions typically use unsmoked mustard oil and omit garlic and vinegar.”<ref name="Garg-2021" />

The pickle is a staple of Kashmiri cuisine.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Iyer |first=Nandita |date=5 February 2021 |title=Recipes with kohlrabi borrowed from Kashmir |url=https://www.livemint.com/mint-lounge/food/recipes-with-kohlrabi-borrowed-from-kashmir-111612458674260.html |website=[[Livemint]]}}</ref> It is a common accompaniment to rice.<ref name="Charagi-2023" /> It is also traditionally served for [[Kashmiri Hindu festivals#Khetchmaavas|Khech Mavas]], [[Ramadan]] and [[Shivratri]].<ref name="Charagi-2023" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nabi |first=Daanish |date=17 April 2023 |title=Meet Srinagar's Aqib who's making a name in pickle industry |url=https://brighterkashmir.com/meet-srinagars-aqib-whos-making-a-name-in-pickle-industry |access-date=2025-03-23 |website=[[Brighter Kashmir]]}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

==Other variants==

Other vegetables such as carrot, cauliflower, chilis, [[lotus stem]], and turnips are also pickled, but those are not considered traditional.<ref name="Garg-2021" />
[[Category:Kashmiri cuisine]]
[[Category:Pickles]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Hamirpur

2026-02-22T04:12:25Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: adjust details based on references for consistency

{{short description|School in Hamirpur district, Himachal Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date = February 2019}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Hamirpur
| native_name = JNV Dungrin
| image_size = 100px
| alt = Logo of Navodaya schools
| caption = Pragyanam Brahma
{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|31.6382|N|76.5800|E}} 
| float = center
| zoom = 11
| width = 240 
| height = 200
| caption = {{center|Location of JNV Hamirpur}}
| mark-coord1 = {{coord|31.6382|N|76.6300|E}} 
| mark1 = Red pog.svg
| mark-size1 = 10
| label1 = JNV Hamirpur
| label-size1 = 12
| label-color1 = black
| label-pos1 = top
| mark-title1 =
| mark-image1 =
| mark-description1 = JNV Hamirpur
}}
| motto = Pragyanam Brahma
| motto_translation = Consciousness is [[Brahman]]
| location = Dungrin, [[Hamirpur district, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur]]
| city =
| state = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| postal_code = 176045
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|31.6382|N|76.6300|E|type:edu|display=inline,title|format=dms}}
| type = Public
| established = November 1987 
| opened =
| closed =
| superintendent =
| principal = G S Tomar
| principal_label =
| principal1 = Nishi Goyal 
| principal_label1 = Vice Principal
| faculty = 29
| staff = 18
| grades = VI - XII
| enrollment = 478(2020-21)
| campus_size = 24.5 acre
| campus_type = Rural
| colors =
| feeder_schools =
| affiliation = [[Central Board for Secondary Education|CBSE]]
| website = {{URL|www.jnvhamirpur.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Hamirpur''' or locally known as '''JNV Dungrin''' is a [[Boarding school|boarding]], [[co-educational]] school in [[Hamirpur district, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur district]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]] state in [[India]]. Navodaya Vidyalayas are funded by the Indian [[Ministry of Human Resource Development|Ministry of Human Resources Development]] and administered by Navodaya Vidyalaya Smiti, an autonomous body under the ministry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://navodaya.gov.in/nvs/en/Home1/|title=Navodaya Vidyalaya Smiti|website=Navodaya Vidyalaya Smiti|access-date=7 February 2019|archive-date=17 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417144104/http://navodaya.gov.in/nvs/en/Home1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== History ==
The school was established in 1987, and is a part of [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya]] schools. The permanent campus of this school is located at Dungrin, Hamirpur. This school is administered and monitored by [[Chandigarh]] regional office of [[Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti|Navodaya Vidyalaya Smiti]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nvsrochd.gov.in/?q=node/6|title=NVS RO Chandigarh - JNVs under Chandigarh Regional Office|website=NVS Chandigarh|access-date=7 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204174437/http://nvsrochd.gov.in/?q=node%2F6|archive-date=4 February 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Admission ==
Admission to JNV Hamirpur at class VI level is made through selection test conducted by Navodaya Vidyalaya Smiti. The information about test is disseminated and advertised in the district by the office of Hamirpur [[District collector (India)|district magistrate]] (Collector), who is also chairperson of Vidyalya Management Committee.

== Affiliations ==
JNV Hamirpur is affiliated to [[Central Board of Secondary Education]] with affiliation number 640008, following the curriculum prescribed by CBSE.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cbseaff.nic.in/cbse_aff/schdir_Report/AppViewdir.aspx?affno=640008|title=CBSE affiliation details of JNV Hamirpur|website=[[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]] - Online School Affiliation & Monitoring System|access-date=7 February 2019}}{{Dead link|date=November 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thelearningpoint.net/home/school-listings/cbse-3/JAWAHAR-NAVODAYA-VIDYALAYA-DUNGRIN-DISTT-HAMIRPUR-HIMACHAL-PRADESH-640008|title=Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya Dungrin Distt Hamirpur Himachal Pradesh|website=The Learning Point|access-date=7 February 2019}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya#List of schools|List of JNV schools]]
* [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Sirmaur]]
* [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Kothipura Bilaspur|Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Bilaspur]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://navodaya.gov.in/nvs/nvs-school/HAMIRPUR-HP/en/about_us/About-JNV/ Official Website of JNV Hamirpur]

{{Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya}}

[[Category:High schools and secondary schools in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas in Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1987]]
[[Category:1987 establishments in Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Education in Hamirpur district, Himachal Pradesh]]

{{HimachalPradesh-school-stub}}

Dharmendra Pratap Singh

2026-02-07T18:43:49Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: made basic biography w/ refs.

{{Short description|Tallest living man in India}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Dharmendra Pratap Singh
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth_year and age|1983}}
| known_for = Tallest living Indian
| height = 2.46m
| party = [[Samajwadi Party]]
}}
'''Dharmendra Pratap Singh''' (born 1982) is an [[Indian people|Indian]] who is among [[List of tallest people|the tallest living people]] at {{convert|8|ft|1.3|in|abbr=on|order=flip|m}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-23 |title=Meet Dharmendra Pratap Singh From UP, He Is India's "Tallest" Politician |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/meet-dharmendra-pratap-singh-indias-tallest-man-joins-samajwadi-party-560106.html |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=Indiatimes |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Agencies |date=2022-01-24 |title='India's tallest man' joins Samajwadi Party |url=https://www.millenniumpost.in/nation/indias-tallest-man-joins-samajwadi-party-466032 |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=MillenniumPost |language=en}}</ref> He currently lives in Lucknow, [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-23 |title=Who is Dharmendra Pratap Singh, India's 'tallest man', who has joined Akhilesh's party? |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/who-is-dharmendra-pratap-singh-tallest-man-of-india-who-has-joined-akhilesh-s-party-101642914211284.html |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Midlane |first=Tom |date=2015-05-26 |title=Meet India's tallest man - who says his 8'1 frame is stopping him finding love |url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/dharmendra-singh-meet-indias-tallest-5765071 |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=mirror |language=en}}</ref> He is currently listed as the tallest man in India by The [[Limca Book of Records]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=Outlook Web |date=2022-02-14 |title=India's Tallest Man Seeks Support From UP CM For Medical Treatment |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/india-news-indias-tallest-man-seeks-support-from-up-cm-for-medical-treatment/336501 |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=www.outlookindia.com/ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=LBR |first=Team |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c79aDwAAQBAJ&dq=dharmendra+pratap+singh+tallest&pg=PT84 |title=Limca Book of Records: India at Her Best |date=2018-05-05 |publisher=Hachette India |isbn=978-93-5195-240-4 |language=en}}</ref> He became the tallest living Indian in 2007, after the death of [[Vikas Uppal]], who was {{convert|8|ft|3|in|abbr=on|order=flip|m}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who is Dharmendra Pratap Singh, India's 'tallest man' who joined Samajwadi Party? |url=https://inshorts.com/en/amp_news/who-is-dharmendra-pratap-singh-indias-tallest-man-who-joined-samajwadi-party-1642921901741 |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=Inshorts - Stay Informed |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Robert Wadlow]], tallest man ever
* [[Sultan Kösen]], tallest living human
* [[Vikas Uppal]], tallest Indian ever
* [[Siddiqa Parveen]], tallest Indian woman

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Dharmendra Pratap}}
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People with acromegaly]]
[[Category:People with gigantism]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Indian circus performers]]

{{India-bio-stub}}

Chaitanyasinh Zala

2026-02-06T02:57:09Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: made initial post w/ refs.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}

'''Chaitanyasinh Zala''' (born 1978)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Chaitanyasinh Pratapsinh Zala(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- PADRA(VADODARA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate: |url=https://www.myneta.info/Gujarat2022/candidate.php?candidate_id=6014 |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Gujarat]]. He is a member of the [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]] from Padra Assembly constituency in [[Vadodara district]]. He won the [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-09 |title=Gujarat Assembly Election Results 2022: Full list of winners |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/gujarat-assembly-elections-2022-winning-candidates-constituency-8312674/ |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gujarat Election Result 2022: Constituency Wise Winning Candidates List |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/gujarat-election-results-2022-constituency-wise-winning-candidates-list |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Zala is from [[Padra]], Vadodara district, Gujarat. He is the son of Pratapsinh. He completed his LLB in 2014 at Anand Law College, which is affiliated with [[Sardar Patel University]]. Earlier, he did BSc in 1998 at Arts and Science College, [[Dabhoi]], which is affiliated with [[Gujarat University]].<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Zala won from [[Padra Assembly constituency]] representing Bharatiya Janata Party in the 2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election. He polled 66,266 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Jashpalsinh Padiyar of the [[Indian National Congress]], by a margin of 6,178 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=marathi |title=Gujarat padra Election Results, Gujarat Elections 2022 Vote Counting LIVE |url=https://marathi.abplive.com/electionselections/gujarat-assembly-election-2022/gujarat-padra-constituency-146.html |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=marathi.abplive.com |language=mr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Padra Election Result 2022 LIVE Updates: BJP's Chaitanyasinh Wins By Narrow Margin With 35,591 Votes, Congress's Jashpalsinh Second |url=https://www.news18.com/news/elections/padra-election-result-2022-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-6563647.html |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Election Commission of India |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenDec2022/ConstituencywiseS06146.htm?ac=146 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131170714/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenDec2022/ConstituencywiseS06146.htm?ac=146 |archive-date=2023-01-31 |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=results.eci.gov.in}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zala, Chaitanyasinh}}
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Gujarat MLAs 2022–2027]]
[[Category:People from Vadodara district]]
[[Category:Gujarat University alumni]]

Dainee

2026-02-06T01:20:50Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: made a entry from scratch.

{{Short description|2025 Indian Bengali survival thriller series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Dainee poster.jpeg
| caption = Teaser Poster
| alt_name =
| genre = [[Psychological horror (film and television)|Psychological horror]] [[Survival film|Survival]] [[Thriller film|thriller]]
| creator =
| developer =
| based_on = [[Witch hunts in India]]
| writer = {{ubl|Nirjhar Mitra|Shayak Roy|Nilanjan Chakraborty}}
| screenplay = Nirjhar Mitra
| director = Nirjhar Mitra
| creative_director =
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Mimi Chakraborty]]
* Koushani Mukherjee
* [[Sudip Mukherjee]]
* Biswajit Das
}}
| judges =
| voices =
| narrator =
| theme_music_composer = Mainak Mazoomdar
| open_theme =
| end_theme =
| composer = Mainak Mazoomdar
| country = India
| language = Bengali
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 6
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer =
| editor = Subhajit Singha
| location =
| cinematography = Turja Ghosh
| camera =
| runtime = 20-24 minutes
| company = No Country Films Production
| released = {{Start date|2025|03|14|df=y}}
| related =
}}

'''''Dainee''''' ({{Translation|''Witch''}}) is a 2025 Indian Bengali [[Survival film|dark survival]], [[Psychological horror (film and television)|psychological horror]], [[Thriller film|thriller]] web series.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |title=Mimi Chakraborty is the epitome of woman power in Dainee |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/mimi-chakraborty-is-the-epitome-of-woman-power-in-dainee/1369895 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]] |date=11 March 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Poddar |first1=Atreyee |title=Mimi Chakraborty takes on fear and myth in 'Dainee' |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2025/Feb/11/mimi-chakraborty-takes-on-fear-and-myth-in-dainee |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=11 February 2025}}</ref> Directed by Nirjhar Mitra and written by Mitra along with Shayak Roy and Nilanjan Chakraborty, the series was streamed on the OTT platform Hoichoi on 14 March 2025. Produced by No Country Films Production, the series revolves around the themes of [[witch hunting]], rural Bengal's dark realities, psychological tension, folklore, and the fight against oppression.<ref>{{cite news |title='Dainee' trailer: Mimi Chakraborty fights against bloodthirsty villagers to save her sister in new web series |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/mimi-chakraborty-fights-against-bloodthirsty-villagers-to-save-her-sister-in-new-hoichoi-series/cid/2087779#goog_rewarded |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=8 March 2025}}</ref>

The series stars [[Mimi Chakraborty]] in the lead role and Koushani Mukherjee Zanjeen in the titular role.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Niyogi |first1=Agnivo |title=Mimi Chakraborty's first-look poster for web series 'Dainee' unveiled on her birthday |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/hoichoi-unveils-first-look-of-web-series-starring-gaaner-oparey-actress/cid/2082876 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=11 February 2025}}</ref> [[Sudip Mukherjee]] and Biswajit Das play other pivotal roles.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dainee trailer: Mimi Chakraborty leads the survival battle of two sisters against superstition |url=https://www.neherald.com/showbiz/dainee-trailer-mimi-chakraborty-leads-the-survival-battle-of-two-sisters-against-superstition |access-date=5 August 2025 |work=NorthEast Herald |date=7 March 2025}}</ref> Mainak Mazoomdar composed the background score while Subhajit Singha handled the editing and Turja Ghosh did the cinematography. This series marks Mimi Chakraborty's second OTT venture after ''Jaha Bolibo Sotto Bolibo''. Critics widely applauded the direction, acting, background score, cinematography, and referred to Mimi's performance as her career-best one.<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news |title='Dainee': Mimi Chakraborty plays a fierce woman on warpath to protect her younger sister |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/hoichoi-drops-the-first-look-teaser-of-mimi-chakraborty-starrer-thriller-series-dainee/cid/2085050 |access-date=1 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=22 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="t2">{{cite news |last1=D. Gupta |first1=Pratim |title=Filmmaker Pratim D. Gupta writes about the Hoichoi series Dainee |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/pratim-d.-gupta-writes-about-dainee/1371291 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]] |date=13 March 2025}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
Pata and Lata are two half siblings living in the fictional village of Khuniabari in North Bengal. While Pata is the legitimate child of her parents, Lata was the illegitimate product of Pata's father's extramarital affair. He worked in a tea-estate in [[Dooars]]. Pata and Lata shared a cat and dog relationship since childhood. Pata lost her mother to cancer in her childhood. After it, she realised that she must move out of that place in order to live a better life. So, she left home in her childhood with her lover and settled in foreign after marrying him.

One day, she received the news of her father's death. Driven by the urge to take her share in the property, she returned back to India. She found out that as per the will, the property could be divided only when the two sisters are together. So, despite having deep seated hatred for Lata, she returned to her village Khuniabari. Upon reaching, she found an injured Lata, tied to a bamboo post and on the verge of being burnt alive for the well being of the village, after she was accused of witchcraft by the village chieftain Bhim Kumar Maheli {{aka}} Jaanguru. As the story unfolds, Pata fights the deep rooted superstitions and sinister forces in a desperate war for survival and justice, to save herself and her sister, forgetting all the differences and hatred which existed between them.

== Cast ==
* [[Mimi Chakraborty]] as Pata, Lata's half-sibling
** Anumegha Kahali as young Pata
* Koushani Mukherjee Zanjeen as Lata, Pata's half-sibling
* [[Sudip Mukherjee]] as Lata and Pata's father
* Biswajit Das as Bhim Kumar Maheli {{aka}} Jaanguru, the village chieftain
* Maithal as Jaanguru's son
* Shayak Roy as doctor of the local healthcare center
* Anirudhya Mashid as Santosh, Lata's lover turned husband
* Sujit Kumar Barman as Badsha, Pata's driver
* Shruti Das as Moni, Jaanguru's sister

== Production ==
=== Announcement ===
Hoichoi announced ''Dainee'' on 15 October 2024 along 10 other web series including ''Nikosh Chhaya'', ''[[Bishohori (web series)|Bishohori]]'', ''[[Kaalratri (web series)|Kaalratri]]'', ''[[Eken Babu (TV series)#Season 8 (2025)|Puro Puri Eken]]'' and others.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Subhadrika |title=Popular Bengali OTT platform announces 10 new shows for its next season |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2024/Oct/15/popular-bengali-ott-platform-announces-10-new-shows-for-its-next-season |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=15 October 2024}}</ref> They were announced as part of Hoichoi's "Hoichoi Festive Premiere" for their upcoming web series scheduled to release in 2025.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hoichoi rolls out 10 new shows as part of its festive premiere |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/hoichoi-rolls-out-10-new-shows-as-part-of-its-festive-premiere/1188769 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]] |date=24 October 2024}}</ref>

=== Development ===
Director Nirjhar Mitra conceived the idea about making this web series in 2014-15. He developed the concept about a tale of two sisters which revolves around the ideas of witch hunting and victimization of women, which is still prevalent in rural areas of India, particularly in the tribal dominated belts. Although Mitra was a bit hesitant initially about the relevance of the topic in the 21st century, later he came across several data and statistics which validated its relevance.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Subhadrika |title=Nirjhar Mitra opens up on directing Dainee |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2025/Mar/21/nirjhar-mitra-opens-up-on-directing-dainee |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=21 March 2025}}</ref>

On 18 October 2024, a short glimpse was released which served as the first look video of Mimi Chakraborty as the protagonist.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mitra |first1=Pooja |title=Mimi's next, 'Dainee', is a riveting tale of witch hunt |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/try-this/watch/mimi-chakrabortys-next-on-hoichoi-dainee-deals-with-witch-hunting-intrigues-cinephiles-with-teaser/cid/2082936 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=12 February 2025}}</ref> It marked the second OTT venture of [[Mimi Chakraborty]] after she made her OTT debut as a lawyer in the courtroom drama ''Jaha Bolibo Sotto Bolibo'' in 2024, which premiered on Hoichoi.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhattacharyya |first1=Torsha |title=জন্মদিনে 'ডাইনি' মিমি চক্রবর্তী, নতুন ওয়েব সিরিজে থাকছে একগুচ্ছ চমক |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/mimi-chakraborty-shares-new-web-series-dainee-look-on-her-birthday-entertainment-news-tollywood-1120115 |access-date=5 August 2025 |work=[[ABP Ananda]] |date=12 February 2025 |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhattacharyya |first1=Torsha |title=সিনেমার অফার ছেড়ে দিতে রাজি, কিন্তু কিছু জিনিসের সঙ্গে কখনও আপোস করব না: মিমি |url=https://bengali.abplive.com/entertainment/mimi-chakraborty-on-web-series-dainee-career-planning-tollywood-work-culture-entertainment-news-tollywood-1125845 |access-date=5 August 2025 |work=[[ABP Ananda]] |date=19 March 2025 |language=bn}}</ref> The series marked the OTT debut of the television actress Shruti Das.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dainee OTT Release Date: When and Where to Watch Mimi Chakraborty's Upcoming Series Online |url=https://www.gadgets360.com/entertainment/news/dainee-ott-release-date-when-and-where-to-watch-mimi-chakraborty-s-upcoming-series-online-7691466 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=Gadgets 360 |date=12 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Majumder |first1=Rahul |title=বসন্তে 'দুষ্টু কোকিল' নয়, বাংলার বুকে 'ডাইনি' হয়ে ফিরছেন 'মিমি'! |url=https://www.aajkaal.in/entertainment/popular-bengali-actress-mimi-chakraborty-s-upcoming-web-series-dainee-s-first-poster-released-ent-119633 |access-date=5 August 2025 |work=[[Aajkal]] |date=11 February 2025 |language=bn}}</ref>

=== Filming ===
Most of the filming was done in a village in [[Jalpaiguri]], [[North Bengal]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Subhadrika |title=Mimi Chakraborty opens up about her character and experience of working in Dainee |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2025/Mar/21/mimi-chakraborty-opens-up-about-her-character-and-experience-of-working-in-dainee |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=21 March 2025}}</ref>

== Themes ==
*'''Raw portrayal of rural Bengal'''
''Dainee'' portrays the raw picture of rural Bengal with its dark and often less spoken about superstitions. In many places of [[India]] including Bengal, particularly in the tribal dominated patriarchal belts, women are being victimised and often labelled as a ''dainee'' or [[witch]]. A woman is often blamed for practising [[witchcraft]] and [[Magic (supernatural)|sorcery]], and she is held responsible for death of her husband or father. The series revolves around the dark superstitious practice of [[witch hunt]], still prevalent in certain parts of Bengal, and the idea of survival by defying the age old social conventions. In the series, Lata gets branded as a witch and Pata tries to get her brutally injured sister out of the knuckles of the villagers. <ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |title=Mimi Chakraborty stars as a woman fighting for a cause in the upcoming Hoichoi series Dainee |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/mimi-chakraborty-stars-as-a-woman-fighting-for-a-cause-in-the-upcoming-hoichoi-series-dainee/1352175 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]] |date=25 February 2025}}</ref><ref name="t2"></ref>

*'''The bonding and essence of sisterhood'''
''Dainee'' explores the cavernous bonding of sisterhood. Pata, despite having a cat and dog relationship with Lata since childhood, stands firmly by her side and fights against all the odds in order to save her sister from being burnt alive after being branded as a witch by the village chieftain Bhim Kumar Maheli. The series shows how Pata fights tooth and nail against the world to save themselves from horrors of a vicious circle of [[witch hunt]] prevalent in rural Bengal.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ganguly |first1=Ruman |title=Dainee is a tale of sisterhood : Mimi Chakraborty |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/dainee-is-a-tale-of-sisterhood-mimi-chakraborty/articleshow/118472127.cms |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=22 February 2025}}</ref>

*'''Psychological tension melts with folklore'''
The series blends in the elements of mystery, superstition, dark reality and suspense to create a survival thriller drama, which is not about jump scares but an unsettling uneasy feeling that lingers long. The director has combined psychological tension with folklore, creating a new, unexplored genre in the Bengali film and OTT industry. In the series, wars aren't fought with fists and guns, but psychological pressure and shifting alliances. The locked gates of the local health center has been displayed as the physical and symbolic barrier between two parties. Both sides use a tense series of negotiations in which family members have been used as bargaining chips and exchange commodities.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sinha |first1=Addrita |title=Here's why Mimi Chakraborty's 'Dainee' is a must-watch |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2025/Mar/18/heres-why-mimi-chakrabortys-dainee-is-a-must-watch |access-date=1 August 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=18 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="t2"></ref>

== Episodes ==
{{Episode table |background=#b30b0a |overall=5 |title=22 |director=20 |writer=20 |airdate=18 |episodes={{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 1
|Title = Otit-er Taaney
|DirectedBy = Nirjhar Mitra
|WrittenBy = Nirjhar Mitra, Shayak Roy, Nilanjan Chakraborty
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|03|14}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 2
|Title = Ashani Shanket
|DirectedBy = Nirjhar Mitra
|WrittenBy = Nirjhar Mitra, Shayak Roy, Nilanjan Chakraborty
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|03|14}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 3
|Title = Chaal Bodol
|DirectedBy = Nirjhar Mitra
|WrittenBy = Nirjhar Mitra, Shayak Roy, Nilanjan Chakraborty
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|03|14}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 4
|Title = Biswashghatok
|DirectedBy = Nirjhar Mitra
|WrittenBy = Nirjhar Mitra, Shayak Roy, Nilanjan Chakraborty
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|03|14}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 5
|Title = Obhaagi
|DirectedBy = Nirjhar Mitra
|WrittenBy = Nirjhar Mitra, Shayak Roy, Nilanjan Chakraborty
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|03|14}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber = 6
|Title = Shesh Sanghat
|DirectedBy = Nirjhar Mitra
|WrittenBy = Nirjhar Mitra, Shayak Roy, Nilanjan Chakraborty
|OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2024|03|14}}
|ShortSummary =
|LineColor = b30b0a
}}
}}

== Marketing ==
The first poster of the series, which also served as the first look poster of Mimi Chakraborty from the film, was released on 11 February 2025.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Piya |title=Birthday girl Mimi Chakraborty shares an intriguing poster of her upcoming Hoichoi series Dainee |url=https://t2online.in/screen/bengali/birthday-girl-mimi-chakraborty-shares-an-intriguing-poster-of-her-upcoming-hoichoi-series-dainee/1331823 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]] |date=11 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=The first look of Dainee is out |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/the-first-look-of-dainee-is-out/articleshow/118138609.cms |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=11 February 2025}}</ref> An announcement video which also served as a first look teaser of the series that introduced the characters, was released on 21 February 2025.<ref name="telegraph"></ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Subhadrika |title=Makers unveil suspenseful yet curious announcement video of Mimi Chakraborty's upcoming Bengali web series 'Dainee' |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/tv/2025/Feb/22/makers-unveil-suspenseful-yet-curious-announcement-video-of-mimi-chakrabortys-upcoming-bengali-web-series-dainee |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=22 February 2025}}</ref> The trailer of the series was released on 7 March 2025 on Hoichoi's [[YouTube]] channel.<ref>{{cite web |title='Dainee' Trailer: Mimi Chakraborty and Koushani Mukhopadhyay Zanjeen starrer 'Dainee' Official Trailer |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/web-series/bengali/dainee-trailer-video-mimi-chakraborty-and-koushani-mukhopadhyay-zanjeen-starrer-dainee-official-trailer-video/videoshow/119074785.cms |website=[[Times of India]] |access-date=2 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sinha |first1=Addrita |title=Thrilling trailer of 'Dainee' starring Mimi Chakraborty unveiled |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/cinema/2025/Mar/08/thrilling-trailer-of-dainee-starring-mimi-chakraborty-unveiled |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The New Indian Express|Indulge Express]] |date=8 March 2025}}</ref>

== Release ==
''Dainee'' premiered on the OTT platform Hoichoi on 14 March 2025 with a [[Central Board of Film Certification#U/A certificate|U/A 16+]] certificate.<ref>{{cite news |title=A tale of two sisters caught in a witch-hunt; 'Dainee' to premiere soon on OTT platform |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/news/bengali/a-tale-of-two-sisters-caught-in-a-witch-hunt-dainee-to-premiere-soon-on-ott-platform/articleshow/114345757.cms |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=18 October 2024}}</ref>

== Reception ==
=== Critical reception ===
Sayani Rana of the ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' rated the series 4/5 stars and wrote "''Daine'' is about the witch which resides in the uneducated depths of our hearts. Nirjhar has shed light on the dark side of society through his series. Bengali viewers have been gifted a completely fresh story based on this series." She praised Mimi Chakraborty's facile acting and corporeal display, the short but eye-drawing acting of Koushani, Biswajit Das' ominous expressions and Nirjhar Mitra's direction. She also applauded the story-writing, cinematography as well as the background score.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rana |first1=Sayani |title=Dainee Review: রঙের উৎসবে রক্তে রাঙা মিমি! কেমন হল 'ডাইনি'? দর্শকদের প্রত্যাশা পূরণ করতে পারলেন নির্ঝর? |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/mimi-chakraborty-series-dainee-review-31741923262228.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250314091341/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/mimi-chakraborty-series-dainee-review-31741923262228.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 March 2025 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=14 March 2025 |language=bn}}</ref>

Poorna Banerjee of the ''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the series 3/5 stars and termed it as "A tense, socially relevant gripping thriller with powerful performances, particularly from Mimi Chakraborty. Her commanding performance elevates the series, making it an engaging experience despite its flaws." She also added "The series maintains a fast-paced, grim tone with little room for humour. The narrative is straightforward, with flashbacks providing context to the power dynamics at play. While the cinematography and tight editing enhance the intensity, the music and background score effectively heighten the drama."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Banerjee |first1=Poorna |title=Dainee Season 1 Review : Mimi delivers a gut-wrenching performance in this bloody drama |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/web-series/reviews/bengali/dainee/season-1/seasonreview/119074893.cms |access-date=1 August 2025 |work=[[Times of India]] |date=16 March 2025}}</ref>

Agnivo Niyogi of ''High On Films'' reviewed the series and noted "The director keeps the tension razor-sharp: the back-and-forth of hostage negotiations, betrayals, and shifting alliances ensures that every moment feels unpredictable. The constant back-and-forth between timelines could have easily disrupted the tension, but tight direction ensures they flow seamlessly." He particularly praised the performances of Mimi Chakraborty and Biswajit Das and termed them as "Every flicker of emotion on her face feels raw and lived-in" and "a masterclass in quiet menace", respectively. He also applauded the cinematography, editing and the background score.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Niyogi |first1=Agnivo |title=Dainee (2025) 'Hoichoi' Review: Mimi Chakraborty Leads a Gripping Survival Thriller on the Horrors of Witch-Hunting |url=https://www.highonfilms.com/dainee-2025-hoichoi-review/ |access-date=1 August 2025 |work=High On Films |date=24 March 2025}}</ref>

Biswadip Ray of ''[[Sangbad Pratidin]]'' reviewed the series and highlighted "The story of this fast paced series seems to be somewhat slowed down at times due to the non-linear storytelling. A sudden flashback at a moment of intense suspense can be a bit of a letdown. But that's not always the case. Overall, this web series is not only able to keep the viewer hooked, but it also makes you wonder at every moment what's going to happen next." He also complimented the directors vision behind creating every character, the screenplay, Biswajit Das' corporeal acting which splashes cruelty, the dialogues, cinematography and the apt background music.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dey |first1=Biswadip |title=টানটান চিত্রনাট্যে সমাজের 'ডাইনি' প্রথাকে কড়া জবাব মিমির! কেমন হল নয়া ওয়েব সিরিজ? |url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/film-review/review-of-hoichoi-web-series-dainee/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260125072324/https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/film-review/review-of-hoichoi-web-series-dainee/pid/1025956/ |archive-date=25 January 2026 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[Sangbad Pratidin]] |date=15 March 2025 |language=bn}}</ref>

Parama Dasgupta of ''[[Aajkal]]'' reviewed the series and opined "The acting is undoubtedly the biggest asset of this film. Although the flashbacks in the story told in a non-linear timeline slow down the pace by one and a half times, its appeal is not lost at all." She praised the acting acumen of Mimi Chakraborty, Koushani Mukherjee and Biswajit Das and the nail-biting editing but bemoaned the excessive use of violence, which according to him, adds nothing to the plot.<ref>{{cite news |last1=দাশগুপ্ত |first1=পরমা |title=অন্ধবিশ্বাসের সঙ্গে অসম যুদ্ধের গল্প, কতটা সফল হল 'ডাইনি'? |url=https://www.aajkaal.in/entertainment/review-of-hoichoi-series-dainee-starring-mimi-chakraborty-koushani-mukhopadhyay-janjeen-shruti-das-biswajit-das-161748 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260125071846/https://www.aajkaal.in/entertainment/review-of-hoichoi-series-dainee-starring-mimi-chakraborty-koushani-mukhopadhyay-janjeen-shruti-das-biswajit-das-161748 |archive-date=25 January 2026 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[Aajkal]] |date=30 March 2025 |url-status=live |language=bn}}</ref>

[[Pratim D. Gupta]] reviewed the series for ''[[The Telegraph (India)|t2 Online]]'' and wrote "Dainee is more than just a thriller; it’s a powerful social commentary on how regressive traditions continue to claim lives, even one quarter into the 21st century. Nirjhar’s vision makes Dainee an immersive, multi-layered experience. It’s his grip on tone, pacing, and atmosphere that makes every element work in perfect unison." He specially praised the acting prowess of Mimi Chakraborty and Biswajit Das and worded them as "a masterclass in controlled intensity" and "nothing encapsulates his menace more than that smirky grin that drips with condescension and cruelty", respectively. He also applauded the cinematography, editing and background score.<ref name="t2"/>

== Controversy ==
A controversy erupted on social media when television host and actress Paroma Banerjee ''Dainee'' to a ''[[Jatra (theatre)|jatra]]-type'' production.<ref>{{cite news |title='এত বেশি লিপ ফিলিং...', মিমিকে কটাক্ষ পরমার, তুলোধনা করলেন 'ডাইনি' সিরিজের |url=https://bangla.aajtak.in/cinema-and-tv-serial-news/story/rojgere-ginni-paroma-banerjee-criticized-mimi-chakrabortys-dainee-series-paroma-also-victimised-mimi-for-her-lip-feeling-mimi-chakraborty-related-news-and-gossip-sum-1192096-2025-04-01 |access-date=5 August 2025 |work=[[Aaj Tak]] |date=1 April 2025 |language=bn}}</ref> This comment received widespread criticism from fellow artistes and the audience, for being derogatory towards Bengal's traditional folk theatre. Veteran Jatra performer Kakoli Choudhury and prominent actors including [[Rahul Banerjee (actor)|Rahul Banerjee]] and [[Swastika Mukherjee]] criticised Paroma Chatterjee for being insensitive towards the struggles associated with a ''[[Jatra (theatre)|jatra]]'' performance and the raw talent of the artistes performing it.<ref>{{cite news |title=Paroma Banerjee faces backlash for 'jatra-type' remark about Hoichoi series 'Dainee' |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/paroma-banerjee-faces-backlash-over-jatra-type-remark-on-hoichoi-series-dainee/cid/2092752 |access-date=2 August 2025 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=6 April 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|35882492}}
*[https://www.hoichoi.tv/shows/dainee Dainee] on Hoichoi
*[https://www.primevideo.com/detail/Dainee/0PN8T1VL17OLE2MURPRB9KN3J3 Dainee] on [[Amazon Prime Video]]

[[Category:Bengali-language web series]]
[[Category:Indian drama web series]]
[[Category:Hoichoi original programming]]
[[Category:Thriller web series]]
[[Category:Crime thriller web series]]
[[Category:Psychological thriller web series]]
[[Category:2020s Indian television series]]
[[Category:Indian thriller television series]]

Rajjo (TV series)

2026-02-05T18:18:54Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: created - done

{{Short description|Indian television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Rajjo.jpg
| genre = {{plainlist|
*[[Romance film|Romance]]
*[[Drama (film and television)|Drama]]}}
| starring = {{plainlist|
*Celesti Bairagey
*[[Rajveer Singh (actor)|Rajveer Singh]]
*[[Gungun Uprari]]
*[[Surjit Saha]]}}
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 190
| producer = {{plainlist|
*Mukta Dhond
*Bodhisatva Datta}}
| writer = Mrinal Jha,

Bhavna Vyas
| runtime =
| company = Bits N Bots Media
| network = [[StarPlus]]
| location = [[Mumbai]]
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| first_aired = {{start date|2022|08|22|df=yes}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2023|03|05|df=yes}}
| related = ''[[Aalta Phoring]]''
}}
'''''Rajjo''''' is an Indian [[Hindi]]-language television [[Drama (film and television)|drama]] series that premiered on 22 August 2022 on [[StarPlus]] and digitally streams on [[Disney+ Hotstar]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/exclusive-alia-bhatt-lookalike-celesti-bangarey-bags-her-first-tv-show-will-play-an-athlete/articleshow/92875916.cms|title=Exclusive! Alia Bhatt's lookalike Celesti Bairagey bags her first TV show; will play an athlete|website=The Times of India|date=14 July 2022 }}</ref> The show is produced by Bits N Bots Media and stars Celesti Bairagey, [[Rajveer Singh (actor)|Rajveer Singh]] and [[Gungun Uprari]] in the titular roles.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/rajveer-singh-to-play-lead-in-the-tv-show-udti-ka-naam-rajjo/articleshow/92960472.cms|title=Rajveer Singh to play the lead in the TV show Rajjo|website=The Times of India|date=18 July 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/alia-bhatt-doppelganger-celesti-bairagey-bags-star-plus-new-show-photos-videos-8030805/lite/|title=Alia Bhatt doppelganger Celesti Bairagey bags Star Plus new show|website=The Indian Express|date=15 July 2022 }}</ref> It is an official Hindi remake of [[Star Jalsha]]’s ''[[Aalta Phoring]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Alia Bhatt 2.0: The new Aalta Phoring is Alia 2.0! Celesti Bairagey will be caught as Rajjo|url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/alia-bhatt-s-doppelganger-celesti-bairagey-to-play-lead-role-in-alta-phoring-s-hindi-remake-udti-ka-naam-rajjo-31657886904878.html|access-date=2022-08-19|website=Hindustan Times Bangla|date=15 July 2022 |language=bengali}}{{dead link|date=February 2026|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> It was replaced by ''[[Teri Meri Doriyaann]]'' in its timeslot.

==Plot==
The show revolves around the trials and tests of an aspiring athlete Rajjo from [[Uttarakhand]]. Her mother, Manorama, has a dark past, and hence is against Rajjo’s dreams of turning an athlete. After getting separated by her mother in [[2013 North India floods|Kedarnath flood]] and crossing-paths with a fertilizer businessman Arjun, how will Rajjo react to the past, and manage to win her dreams in the present?<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/rajjo-new-promo-encompasses-journey-1503101070.html/amp|title=Rajjo encompasses her journey of finding out about her mother's unfulfilled dream|website=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]]|date=17 August 2022 }}</ref>

==Cast==

===Main===
* Celesti Bairagey as Rajjo Dhaki Thakur – An aspiring athlete; Manorama and Pushkar's daughter; Kalindi, Niharika and Bunty's half-sister; Mukund, Sagar and Pankhuri's cousin; Vicky's ex-fiancé; Arjun's wife (2022—2023)
* [[Rajveer Singh (actor)|Rajveer Singh]] as Arjun Singh Thakur – A fertilizer businessman; Madhumalti and Pratap's younger son; Chirag's brother; Mukund, Rocky, Sagar and Pankhuri's cousin; Urvashi's ex-fiancé; Rajjo's husband. (2022—2023)
* [[Gungun Uprari]] as Manorama "Manno" Dhaki – A former athlete; Pushkar's ex-lover; Rajjo's mother. (2022—2023)

===Recurring===
* [[Pakkhi Hegde]] as Madhumalti Thakur – Pratap's wife; Chirag and Arjun's mother; Rocky's aunt; Siya's grandmother. (2022—2023)
* [[Surjit Saha]] as Bunty Chaudhary – Kavita and Pushkar's son; Kalindi and Niharika's brother; Rajjo's half-brother; Mukund, Sagar and Pankhudi's cousin (2022—2023)
* Siddharth Vasudev as Pushkar Chaudhary – Jhilmil's brother; Manorama's ex-lover; Kavita's husband; Kalindi, Niharika, Bunty and Rajjo's father; Siya's grandfather. (2022—2023)
* Kajal Sharma as Niharika Chaudhary – Pushkar and Kavita's younger daughter; Kalindi and Bunty's sister; Rajjo's half-sister.
* Avinash Sahijwani as Pratap Singh Thakur – Keshav's elder son; Kartik's brother; Madhumalti's husband; Chirag and Arjun's father; Siya's grandfather
* Jaya Binju as Kavita Chaudhary – Pushkar's wife; Kalindi, Niharika and Bunty's mother; Rajjo's step-mother; Siya's grandmother
* [[Maleeka Ghai]] as Jhilmil Chaudhary Thakur – Pushkar's sister; Kartik's wife; Mukund, Sagar and Pankhuri's mother.(2022)
* Premchand Singh as Kartik Singh Thakur – Keshav's younger son; Pratap's brother; Jhilmil's husband; Mukund, Sagar and Pankhuri's father. (2022)
* Utkarsh Gupta as Chirag Singh Thakur – Madhumalti and Pratap's elder son; Arjun's brother; Mukund, Rocky, Sagar and Pankhuri's cousin; Kalindi's husband; Siya's father. (2022—2023)
* [[Divyangana Jain]] as Kalindi Chaudhary Thakur – Kavita and Pushkar's elder daughter; Niharika and Bunty's sister; Rajjo's half-sister; Mukund, Sagar and Pankhudi's cousin; Chirag's wife; Siya's mother; Rocky's ex-lover (2022—2023)
* Aayushi Bhave Tilak as Urvashi – Dheeraj's daughter; Arjun's ex-fiancée. (2022)
* [[Ankit Bhardwaj]] as Mukund Singh Thakur – Jhilmil and Kartik's elder son; Sagar and Pankhuri's brother; Chirag, Arjun, Kalindi, Niharika, Bunty and Rajjo's cousin; Swara's husband
* Minoli Nandwana as Swara Thakur – Mukund's wife
* Vedant Sharan as Shesh - Rajjo’s one sided lover
* Itika Kabra as Siya Thakur – Kalindi and Chirag's daughter
* Niel Satpuda as Sagar Singh Thakur – Jhilmil and Kartik's younger son; Mukund and Pankhuri's brother; Chirag, Arjun, Kalindi, Niharika, Bunty and Rajjo's cousin
* Roselyn D'Souza as Pankhuri Thakur – Jhilmil and Kartik's daughter; Mukund and Sagar's sister; Chirag, Arjun, Kalindi, Niharika, Bunty and Rajjo's cousin
* [[Ravi Jhankal]] as Keshav Singh Thakur – Pratap and Kartik's father; Chirag, Mukund, Arjun, Sagar and Pankhuri's grandfather; Siya's great-grandfather
* Pratham Kunwar as Rocky – Madhumalti's nephew; Chirag and Arjun's cousin; Kalindi's lover
* [[Ankit Narang]] as Vicky – Rajjo's ex-fiancée
* Suraj Bharadwaj as Bharat
* Kalp Shah
* Sharanpreet Matharoo
* Harsh Chatrath as Dheeraj – Urvashi's father
* Kushagre Dua as Naman Singh Thakur – Anil and Shobha's son; Arjun's cousin

==Production==
===Broadcast===
The show was moved from its original time slot on 4 January 2023. It was replaced by [[Teri Meri Doriyaann]] in its original time slot.<ref>{{Cite news |title=It would just mean more hard work and we are fine with that, says Celesti Bairagey on her show Rajjo moving to a new time slot - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/it-would-just-mean-more-hard-work-and-we-are-fine-with-that-says-celesti-bairagey-on-her-show-rajjo-moving-to-a-new-time-slot/articleshow/96621904.cms |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=The Times of India |date=30 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Speaking on the same, actor [[Rajveer Singh (actor)|Rajveer Singh]] said, "''At the end of the day, it is the channel's decision. Our show is moving to that slot and I think we will do good in that slot, too. In the 7 pm slot, we have been consistent and so I don't feel that our show was moved due to low ratings. In fact, in the last two weeks, our ratings have improved. Maybe, the channel wants to make the 6.30 slot more engaging for viewers.''"<ref>{{Cite news |title=I am not disappointed that our show Rajjo is moving to an early evening slot: Rajveer Singh - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/i-am-not-disappointed-that-our-show-rajjo-is-moving-to-an-early-evening-slot-rajveer-singh/articleshow/96618469.cms |access-date=2022-12-30 |website=The Times of India |date=30 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

===Casting===
Celesti Bairagey was chosen after she released a video of herself in a ''[[Gangubai Kathiawadi]]'' clip, which went viral.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/alia-bhatt-s-doppelganger-celesti-bairagey-lands-first-tv-show-101657864247995-amp.html|title=Alia Bhatt's Dippelganger Celesti Bairaget lands in her first TV show|website=Hindustan Times|date=15 July 2022 }}</ref>

Post Bairagey, [[Rajveer Singh (actor)|Rajveer Singh]] and [[Gungun Uprari]] too were signed along with other actors to join the cast.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/bade-acche-lagte-hain-2-fame-utkarsh-gupta-to-play-an-important-role-in-upcoming-show-udti-ka-naam-rajjo/articleshow/92962224.cms|title=Bade Achhe Lagte Hain 2 fame Uttarkash Gupta to play an important role in upcoming show Rajjo|website=Times Of India|date=18 July 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/actor-and-model-surjit-saha-to-play-a-key-role-in-televisions-newest-offering-udti-ka-naam-rajjo/articleshow/93144699.cms|title=Actor and model Surjit Saha to play a key role in television's newest offering Rajjo|website=Times Of India|date=26 July 2022 }}</ref>

===Release===
The first promo of Rajjo was released in July 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/starplus-presents-rajjos-1503100846.html/amp|title=StarPlus presents Rajjo's new promo before {{as written|it's [sic]}} release on 22 August|website=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |date=16 August 2022 }}</ref> It replaced ''[[Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey]]'' from 22 August 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bizasialive.com/udti-ka-naam-rajjo-to-replace-kabhi-kabhie-ittefaq-sey-on-star-plus/ |title=Udti Ka Naam Rajjo to replace Kabhi Kabhie Ittefaq Sey on Star Plus|website=Biz Asia|date=15 July 2022 }}</ref>

===Title===
The show was initially promoted with the title ''Udti Ka Naam Rajjo'', before it was modified to ''Rajjo''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/divyangana-jain-plays-a-complicated-character-in-udti-ka-naam-rajjo/articleshow/93191755.cms|title=Divyangana Jain plays a complicated character in Udti Ka Naam Rajjo|website=Times Of India|date=28 July 2022 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* ''[https://www.hotstar.com/in/tv/rajjo/1260110252 Rajjo]'' on [[Disney+ Hotstar]]
{{StarPlus Shows}}
{{Portal bar|India|Television}}

[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Indian television soap operas]]
[[Category:StarPlus original programming]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:Indian romance television series]]
[[Category:2022 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2023 Indian television series endings]]

Cairn Energy and Government of India dispute

2026-01-26T23:17:10Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: made first article from scratch.

The '''[[Cairn Energy]]''' '''and''' '''[[Government of India]]''' '''dispute''' is mainly an ongoing tax and investment dispute which has its origins in 2005–2006.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=9 July 2021|title=Cairn Energy tax dispute India: All you need to know|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/retro-tax-and-cairn-energy-india-dispute-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/84263612.cms|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-09|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709093521/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/retro-tax-and-cairn-energy-india-dispute-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/84263612.cms |archive-date=2021-07-09 }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|last=Seth|first=Dilasha|date=2021-04-12|title=Arbitration case: Cairn Energy offers to invest $1.2 bn if India relents|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/arbitration-case-cairn-energy-offers-to-invest-1-2-bn-if-india-relents-121041200028_1.html|access-date=2021-07-09}}</ref> The case is closely linked to Cairn's partner in India, ''[[Vedanta Resources|Vedanta]]'', and to concepts such [[Ex post facto law|''Ex post facto'' law]] in the form of retrospective taxation, [[bilateral investment treaties]], and [[international arbitration]] between private and [[sovereign state|sovereign states]].

Proceedings in the ''private'' investor-state [[arbitration]] (''Cairn Energy PLC & Cairn UK Holdings Limited v. The Republic of India'') at the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in [[The Hague]] began on 22 September 2015 under [[United Nations Commission on International Trade Law]] (UNCITRAL) rules. The final [[arbitration award]] of {{Currency|1232 million|USD|passthrough=yes}} was issued on 21 December 2020 in favour of Cairn; though compensation claimed by Cairn had been {{Currency|5584 million|USD|passthrough=yes}}.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Cases {{!}} PCA-CPA — Cairn Energy PLC & Cairn UK Holdings Limited v. The Republic of India|url=https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/221/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203023519/https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/221/|archive-date=3 February 2020|access-date=2021-07-22|website=pca-cpa.org|publisher=Permanent Court of Arbitration}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> To enforce the arbitration award, Cairn has registered the award around the world including in countries such as United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Singapore, Mauritius, UAE, [[Cayman Islands]] and Netherlands.<ref name=":0" /> In May 2021, Cairn sued [[Air India]] in New York.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |author=Jonathan Stempel |author2=Euan Rocha|date=2021-05-15|title=Cairn Energy sues Air India to enforce $1.2 bln arbitration award - court filing|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/finance/cairn-energy-sues-air-india-enforce-12-bln-arbitration-award-court-filing-2021-05-15/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-22|website=Reuters|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515065617/https://www.reuters.com/business/finance/cairn-energy-sues-air-india-enforce-12-bln-arbitration-award-court-filing-2021-05-15/ |archive-date=2021-05-15 }}</ref> In July 2021, [[Tribunal de grande instance de Paris|Tribunal judiciaire de Paris]] accepts Cairn's claim to seize Indian properties in France.<ref name=":3" />

The case includes ''Vedanta Resources PLC v. Government of India'' in the [[Income Tax Appellate Tribunal]] of India,{{Sfn|Torterola|Mistelis|Ponomarov|2020|p=2}}<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bindra|first=Japnam|date=2020-09-16|title=Tribunal award in favour of Vedanta upheld by SC|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/sc-upholds-vedanta-s-arbitration-award-of-499-mln-from-govt-11600239772882.html|access-date=2021-07-22|website=mint|language=en}}</ref> as well as a case in the [[Delhi High Court|High Court of Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=5 March 2021|title=$1.4 billion Cairn arbitration award: Nirmala Sitharaman says it's her duty to appeal|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/1-4-billion-cairn-arbitration-award-finance-minister-says-its-her-duty-to-appeal/articleshow/81348282.cms|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-24|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305104128/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/1-4-billion-cairn-arbitration-award-finance-minister-says-its-her-duty-to-appeal/articleshow/81348282.cms |archive-date=2021-03-05 }}</ref>

India amended its income tax law in 2012, adding an amendment/clarification allowing for it to collect tax on old investments. While India applied the law on Cairn in 2015, it had done the same in 2014 to [[Vodafone]]. The case went to the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] and in September 2020, Vodafone got a ruling in its favour.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aryan|first=Aashish|date=2020-09-27|title=Retrospective taxation: the Vodafone case, and the Hague court ruling|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/retrospective-taxation-the-vodafone-case-and-the-hague-court-ruling-6613799/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-24|website=The Indian Express|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926163304/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/retrospective-taxation-the-vodafone-case-and-the-hague-court-ruling-6613799/ |archive-date=2020-09-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Kanekal|first1=Nikhi|last2=Ganz|first2=Kian|date=2012-03-17|title=Vodafone-Hutch deal {{!}} Retrospective change to I-T Act|url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/n4zC41fejoQ7ObfL4Bue6N/VodafoneHutch-deal--Retrospective-change-to-IT-Act.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-24|website=mint|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107040956/http://www.livemint.com:80/Politics/n4zC41fejoQ7ObfL4Bue6N/VodafoneHutch-deal--Retrospective-change-to-IT-Act.html |archive-date=2012-11-07 }}</ref> In August 2021 India scrapped its retrospective tax provision.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Chandorkar|first=Aashish|date=2021-08-09|title=A pragmatic laying to rest of the retrospective tax ghost|url=https://www.livemint.com/opinion/online-views/a-pragmatic-laying-to-rest-of-the-retrospective-tax-ghost-11628528203611.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-27|website=Livemint|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809180718/https://www.livemint.com/opinion/online-views/a-pragmatic-laying-to-rest-of-the-retrospective-tax-ghost-11628528203611.html |archive-date=2021-08-09 }}</ref>

== Timeline ==

=== Before 2000 ===
{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" |Year
! scope="col" style="width:31%;"|Cairn Energy
! scope="col" style="width:31%;"|Government of India
! scope="col" style="width:31%;"|Related events
|- valign="top"
| scope="row"|'''1950'''
|
|
* 26 January: [[Government of India]] formed
*29 July: India becomes [[List of parties to the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|party]] to and ratifies the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|Hague Conventions of 1899]]; therefore becoming party to the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in [[The Hague]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Contracting Parties {{!}} PCA-CPA|url=https://pca-cpa.org/en/about/introduction/contracting-parties/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720002734/https://pca-cpa.org/en/about/introduction/contracting-parties/|archive-date=20 July 2021|access-date=2021-07-22|website=pca-cpa.org|publisher=Permanent Court of Arbitration}}</ref>
|
|-
| scope="row"|'''1959'''
|
|
* India becomes a party to the [[Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards]]<ref name=":8">{{Cite news |date=9 March 2021|title=Cairn says it has identified Indian assets for seizing if it is not paid|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/business/2021/mar/09/cairn-says-it-has-identified-indian-assets-for-seizing-if-it-is-not-paid-2274388.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-24|work=The New Indian Express|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310084927/https://www.newindianexpress.com/business/2021/mar/09/cairn-says-it-has-identified-indian-assets-for-seizing-if-it-is-not-paid-2274388.html |archive-date=2021-03-10 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Subramanian|first=Samanth|date=9 July 2021|title=A Scottish energy company is using foreign courts to seize Indian assets|language=en-US|work=Quartz|url=https://qz.com/2030968/cairn-energy-is-using-foreign-courts-to-seize-indian-assets/|access-date=2021-07-13}}</ref>
|
|-
| scope="row"|'''1981'''
|
* [[Cairn Energy]] formed [[File:Cairn Energy PLC logo.svg|frameless|125x125px]]
|
|
|-
|'''1994'''
|
* Cairn invests in India's oil and gas sector.<ref name=":9">{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=2021-04-22|title=FM Sitharaman says looking at how best to sort out Cairn arbitration|work=Business Standard India|agency=PTI|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/fm-sitharaman-says-looking-at-how-best-to-sort-out-cairn-arbitration-121042201233_1.html|access-date=2021-07-24}}</ref>
|
|
|-
|'''1996'''
|
* Cairn becomes an operator of [[Ravva oil field]], Andhra Pradesh, India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ravva Oil and Gas Field|url=https://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/ravva-field/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-13|website=Offshore Technology|publisher=Verdict Media (verdict.co.uk)|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024071720/http://www.offshore-technology.com:80/projects/ravva-field/ |archive-date=2011-10-24 }}</ref>
|
|
|}

=== After 2000 ===

{| class="wikitable"
!Year
! scope="col" style="width:31%;"|Cairn Energy
! scope="col" style="width:31%;"|Government of India
! scope="col" style="width:31%;"|Related events
|-
|'''2004'''
|
* [[Cairn Energy]] completes its [[Mangala Area|Mangala area]] appraisal drilling.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 July 2014|title=Cairn completes Mangala oil field appraisal drilling|url=https://www.ogj.com/exploration-development/discoveries/article/17292248/cairn-completes-mangala-oil-field-appraisal-drilling|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-09|website=Oil and Gas Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709190923/https://www.ogj.com/exploration-development/discoveries/article/17292248/cairn-completes-mangala-oil-field-appraisal-drilling |archive-date=2021-07-09 }}</ref>
|
|
|-
|'''2006'''
|
* Cairn undergoes internal restructuring in India, forms [[Cairn India]], and transfers assets to it.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Singh|first=Sudheer Pal|date=2015-03-12|title=Cairn Energy tax dispute: How the issue unfolded|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/cairn-energy-tax-dispute-how-the-issue-unfolded-115031200166_1.html#:~:text=The%20Income%20Tax%20Department%20in,British%20petroleum%20explorer,%20Cairn%20Energy.&text=It%20all%20started%20eight%20years,its%20India%20assets%20to%20it.|access-date=2021-07-09}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=2015-03-14|title=I-T Dept slaps Rs 20,495 cr tax demand on Cairn India|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/it-dept-slaps-rs-20-495-cr-tax-demand-on-cairn-india-115031300634_1.html|access-date=2021-07-09}}</ref> ''Cairn India Holdings Limited'' was a [[Jersey company]].<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Chandra|first=Naomi|date=21 June 2021|others=TMT Law Practice|title=Repercussions Of Retrospective Tax Amendments In India – In Light Of Cairn And Vodafone|url=https://www.mondaq.com/india/corporate-tax/1080872/repercussions-of-retrospective-tax-amendments-in-india-in-light-of-cairn-and-vodafone-|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-30|website=www.mondaq.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730072302/https://www.mondaq.com/india/corporate-tax/1080872/repercussions-of-retrospective-tax-amendments-in-india-in-light-of-cairn-and-vodafone- |archive-date=2021-07-30 }}</ref>
|
|
|-
|'''2007'''
|
* Cairn India listed on the [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] (BSE).<ref name=":5" />
|
|
|-
|'''2009'''
| colspan="2" |
* [[File:PM Manmohan Singh addressing at the dedication ceremony of the Mangala Oil Field to the Nation, at Barmer, in Rajasthan on August 29, 2009.png|right|frameless|165x165px]]Prime Minister of India [[Manmohan Singh]] inaugurates Cairn's oil fields in Mangala area.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Ammar Zaidi|date=2009-08-29|title=PM launches Cairn India's oil fields in Barmer|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/business/pm-launches-cairn-india-s-oil-fields-in-barmer/story-wHFCacuhJazHz9e0wxSzLN.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-09|website=Hindustan Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183646/https://www.hindustantimes.com/business/pm-launches-cairn-india-s-oil-fields-in-barmer/story-wHFCacuhJazHz9e0wxSzLN.html |archive-date=2021-07-09 }}</ref>
|
|-
|'''2011'''
|
* Cain Energy sells 58.5% stake in Cairn India to [[Vedanta Resources]] for $8.67 billion.
|
|
|-
|'''2012'''
|
|
* [[File:Pranab mukherjee 2018.jpg|right|frameless|165x165px]]India under the [[United Progressive Alliance|UPA]] government and Finance Minister [[Pranab Mukherjee]] amends/clarifies its [[Income-tax Act, 1961]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news |author=Elizabeth Roche |author2=Gireesh Chandra Prasad|date=2021-07-08|title=Cairn versus India: What lies ahead|url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/why-cairn-energy-is-seizing-india-s-overseas-assets-11625764565529.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-09|work=Mint|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210708183648/https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/why-cairn-energy-is-seizing-india-s-overseas-assets-11625764565529.html |archive-date=2021-07-08 }}</ref>
|
|-
|'''2014'''
|
|
|
* Vodafone serves arbitration notices under India-Netherlands [[Bilateral investment treaty|Bilateral Investment Treaty]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Mankotia|first=Anandita Singh|date=11 July 2014|title=Budget 2014: Vodafone to continue international arbitration; 2012 retro-tax amendment stays|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/telecom/budget-2014-vodafone-to-continue-international-arbitration-2012-retro-tax-amendment-stays/articleshow/38126720.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-13}}</ref>
|-
|'''2015'''
| colspan="2" |
* The [[Income Tax Department]] in India imposed on Cairn a tax demand of {{INRConvert|20495|c|lk=on|year=2015}}, comprising tax of ₹10,248 crore and interest of ₹10,247 crore.<ref name=":1" />
*[[File:International Court of Justice HQ 2006.jpg|right|frameless|165x165px]]Cairn sues India at an [[investor-state dispute settlement]] tribunal, initiating international arbitration proceedings, citing violation of United Kingdom-India [[bilateral investment treaty]] (BIT).<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Cairn v. India {{!}} Investment Dispute Settlement Navigator {{!}} UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub|url=https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-dispute-settlement/cases/691/cairn-v-india|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620092931/https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-dispute-settlement/cases/691/cairn-v-india|archive-date=20 June 2021|access-date=2021-07-09|website=investmentpolicy.unctad.org|publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development}}</ref><ref name=":2" />
*22 September: [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] proceedings commence (''Cairn Energy PLC & Cairn UK Holdings Limited v. The Republic of India'').<ref name=":4" /> The tribunal consisted of Presiding Arbitrator Laurént Levy and one arbitrator appointed by each side.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Manoj|first=P.|date=23 December 2020|title=Blow to India, Cairn wins $1.2-b award in retrospective tax dispute|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/cairn-energy-wins-arbitration-against-india-in-tax-dispute/article33399998.ece|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-13|website=The Hindu @businessline|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223110933/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/cairn-energy-wins-arbitration-against-india-in-tax-dispute/article33399998.ece |archive-date=2020-12-23 }}</ref><ref name=":7" /> Representatives for Cairn included [[Quinn Emanuel Urquhart & Sullivan]] and [[Shepherd and Wedderburn]], for the Indian state [[Gourab Banerji]] and Professor Chester Brown.<ref name=":4" />
|
|-
|'''2016'''
| colspan="2" |
* 18 April: First procedural hearing.{{Sfn|Torterola|Mistelis|Ponomarov|2020|p=2}}
|
|-
|'''2017'''
|
* April: Cairn India merges with Vedanta.<ref>{{Cite news|date=12 April 2017|title=Cairn India merges with Vedanta|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/company/corporate-trends/vedanta-completes-cairn-merger/articleshow/58133946.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-30}}</ref>
|
|
|-
|'''2018'''
| colspan="2" |
* January-March: India's income tax department seizes a fraction of Cairns income;<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sarkar|first=Shivaji|date=24 July 2021|title=Cairn looking for arbitration money?|url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2021/columnists/cairn-looking-for-arbitration-money-.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-24|website=The Pioneer|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724120705/https://www.dailypioneer.com/2021/columnists/cairn-looking-for-arbitration-money-.html |archive-date=2021-07-24 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-04-15|title=Income tax department seizes Rs 440 crore dividend income of Cairn Energy|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/business-news/income-tax-department-seizes-rs-440-crore-dividend-income-of-cairn-energy/story-6adutLQlOfYATtAwzCdlwK.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-24|newspaper=Hindustan Times|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415091303/https://www.hindustantimes.com/business-news/income-tax-department-seizes-rs-440-crore-dividend-income-of-cairn-energy/story-6adutLQlOfYATtAwzCdlwK.html |archive-date=2018-04-15 }}</ref> that is Cairn Energy's 5% stake in Vedanta.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nair|first=Remya|date=2021-07-10|title=Cairn targets Indian assets in Paris: What is its dispute with Modi govt & why it's escalated|url=https://theprint.in/theprint-essential/cairn-targets-indian-assets-in-paris-what-is-its-dispute-with-modi-govt-why-its-escalated/693184/|access-date=2021-07-30|website=ThePrint|language=en-US}}</ref>
*A majority of Cairn Energy's seized shares are sold by the Income Tax Department.<ref>{{Cite news|date=25 November 2018|title=I-T dept sells shares of Cairn Energy to recover retrospective tax|work=The Economic Times|agency=PTI|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/i-t-dept-sells-shares-of-cairn-energy-to-recover-retrospective-tax/articleshow/66793898.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-07-30}}</ref>
*December: Following merits hearing and final hearing, Tribunal rules in favour of Cairn.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">[https://www.cairnenergy.com/media/2827/cairn-india-arbitration-background-international-december-2020.pdf Cairn Energy and Government of India - Retrospective tax arbitration proceedings]. Cairn Energy. Accessed on 13 July 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210121183102/https://www.cairnenergy.com/media/2827/cairn-india-arbitration-background-international-december-2020.pdf Archived] on 21 January 2021.</ref>
|
|-
|'''2020'''
| colspan="2" |
* 21 December: Final [[arbitration award]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Shah|first1=Aditi|last2=Ahmed|first2=Aftab|date=2020-12-23|title=Cairn Energy wins over $1.2 billion from India in tax arbitration case|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/cairn-energy-wins-over-12-billion-india-tax-arbitration-case-2020-12-23/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-13|website=Reuters|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523170628/https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/cairn-energy-wins-over-12-billion-india-tax-arbitration-case-2020-12-23/ |archive-date=2021-05-23 }}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> Compensation claimed by investor was {{Currency|5584 million|USD|passthrough=yes}} out of which {{Currency|1232 million|USD|passthrough=yes}} was awarded.<ref name=":7" />
|
* 25 September: Vodafone get positive ruling from Permanent Court of Arbitration.<ref>{{Cite news|date=25 December 2020|title=Vodafone retro tax case: All you need to know|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/vodafone-retro-tax-case-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/79950372.cms|access-date=2021-07-13}}</ref>
*24 December: India challenges Vodafone arbitration award in Singapore.<ref>{{Cite web|date=24 December 2020|editor-last=Noronha|editor-first=Peter|title=India Challenges Vodafone Arbitration Ruling In Singapore|url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/india-challenges-vodafone-arbitration-ruling-in-singapore-over-a-2-billion-retrospective-tax-dispute-2342888|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-30|website=NDTV|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224052313/https://www.ndtv.com/business/india-challenges-vodafone-arbitration-ruling-in-singapore-over-a-2-billion-retrospective-tax-dispute-2342888 |archive-date=2020-12-24 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''2021'''
|
* February-March: Cairn registers award and moves courts in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, Singapore, Mauritius, Netherlands, United Arab Emirates and the Cayman Islands.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" />
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |
* Cairn and [[Revenue Secretary|Government of India Revenue Secretary]] hold multiple meetings.<ref name=":9" />
|
|-
|
*17 May: Cairn sues [[Air India]] in New York.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Vishwanath|first=Apurva|date=2021-05-20|title=Explained: Why is Cairn Energy suing Air India?|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/cairn-energy-air-india-dispute-explained-7319804/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-09|website=The Indian Express|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518093110/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/cairn-energy-air-india-dispute-explained-7319804/ |archive-date=2021-05-18 }}</ref> Cairn is relying on judgments such as the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] judgement in the case of ''First National City Bank NA versus Banco Para El Comercio Exterior de Cuba'' (Bancec).<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-03-28|title=Cairn Energy to file lawsuits in US, other nations to seize Indian PSU assets for recovery of $1.2 bn arbitration award |url=https://www.firstpost.com/business/cairn-energy-to-file-lawsuits-in-us-other-nations-to-seize-indian-psu-assets-for-recovery-of-1-2-bn-arbitration-award-9474341.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-30|work=Firstpost|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328154404/https://www.firstpost.com/business/cairn-energy-to-file-lawsuits-in-us-other-nations-to-seize-indian-psu-assets-for-recovery-of-1-2-bn-arbitration-award-9474341.html |archive-date=2021-03-28 }}</ref>
* 11 June: [[Tribunal de grande instance de Paris|Tribunal judiciaire de Paris]] agrees to Cairns proposal to seize Indian assets in Paris.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2021-07-09|title=Cairn gets ruling to freeze Indian assets in Paris|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/business/companies/cairn-energy-secures-french-court-order-to-seize-20-indian-government-properties-7394639/|access-date=2021-07-13|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
|
* 22 March: India files counter appeal at The Hauge following an announcement by the Finance Minister [[Nirmala Sitharaman]] on 5 March that it's her "duty" to do so.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":0" />
[[File:The_Minister_of_State_for_Commerce_&_Industry_(Independent_Charge),_Smt._Nirmala_Sitharaman_addressing_a_press_conference,_in_New_Delhi_on_October_14,_2016.jpg|frameless|165x165px|right]]
* Indian government denies reports of any properties being seized.<ref name=":3" />
*5 August: Government of India introduces the Taxation Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2021, undoing the 2012 retrospective tax provision.<ref name=":11" />
|
* Devas Multimedia also files case against Air India.<ref>{{Cite web|date=23 July 2021|title=Cairn Energy, Devas Multimedia Filed Lawsuits to Seize Air India's Overseas Assets: Govt|url=https://www.moneylife.in/article/cairn-energy-devas-multimedia-filed-lawsuits-to-seize-air-indias-overseas-assets-govt/64634.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-24|website=Moneylife|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723081912/https://www.moneylife.in/article/cairn-energy-devas-multimedia-filed-lawsuits-to-seize-air-indias-overseas-assets-govt/64634.html |archive-date=2021-07-23 }}</ref>
*27 August: [[United States District Court for the District of Columbia|US District Court for the District of Columbia]] gives times till 10 September to Cairn to reply to a motion to dismiss petition.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 August 2021|title=US court sets timelines for Cairn India legal case|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/us-court-sets-timelines-for-cairn-india-legal-case/articleshow/85686450.cms|url-status=live|access-date=2021-08-27|newspaper=The Times of India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827123055/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/us-court-sets-timelines-for-cairn-india-legal-case/articleshow/85686450.cms |archive-date=2021-08-27 }}</ref>
|}

== See also ==

* [[Bifurcation (law)]]
* [[Energy law]]
* [[Ex post facto law|''Ex post facto'' law]]
* [[State immunity]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===

* {{Citation|last1=Torterola|first1=Ignacio|title=TDM IACL Case Report Cairn Energy PLC, Cairn UK Holdings Limited v. The Republic of India. PCA Case No. 2016-7 - Procedural Order No. 4 - Decision on the Respondent's Application for Bifurcation - 19 April 2017|date=2020|url=https://www.transnational-dispute-management.com/downloads/19805_case_report_cairn_v_india_po4_2017.pdf|page=6|editor-last=Massa|editor-first=Diego Luis Alonso|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501221101/https://www.transnational-dispute-management.com/downloads/19805_case_report_cairn_v_india_po4_2017.pdf|publisher=School of International Arbitration, Queen Mary, University of London, International Arbitration Case Law|archive-date=1 May 2021|last2=Mistelis|first2=Loukas|last3=Ponomarov|first3=Volodymyr}}
[[Category:Taxation in India]]
[[Category:Ex post facto case law]]
[[Category:Permanent Court of Arbitration cases]]
[[Category:Investor–state dispute settlement cases]]

Pardes (2021 TV series)

2026-01-08T18:56:19Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{Short description|Pakistani drama serial}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=November 2022}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=December 2025}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Pardes (tv serial).jpg
| genre = {{plainlist|
*Social
*[[Tragedy]]
*[[Family drama]]}}
| writer = [[Sarwat Nazir]]
| director = [[Marina Khan]]
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Sarmad Khoosat]]
*[[Shaista Lodhi]]
*[[Bushra Ansari]]
*[[Affan Waheed]]
*[[Dur-e-Fishan Saleem]]}}
| theme_music_composer = Naveed Nashad
| opentheme = {{plainlist|
*[[Amanat Ali (singer)|Amanat Ali]]
*Sithi Shah
}}
| country = Pakistan
| language = Urdu
| num_episodes = 35
| producer = {{plainlist|
*[[Humayun Saeed]]
*Shehzad Naseeb}}
| cinematography =
| animator =
| editor = {{plainlist|
*Akhter Zia
*Aslam Channa
*Abdul Wahab}}
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = 35-40 minutes per episode
| company = [[Six Sigma Plus]]
| network = [[ARY Digital]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2021|05|17|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{End date|2021|09|13|df=y}}
}}
'''Pardes''' ({{translation|Foreign Land}}) is a Pakistani television series directed by [[Marina Khan]] and written by [[Sarwat Nazir]].<ref name="comeback">{{cite web |url=https://jang.com.pk/en/news/1400-marina-khan-to-make-directorial-comeback-with-tv-serial |title=Marina Khan to make directorial comeback with TV serial |work=[[Daily Jang]] |access-date=31 December 2024 |date=5 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241214091820/https://jang.com.pk/en/1400-marina-khan-to-make-directorial-comeback-with-tv-serial-news |archive-date=14 December 2024}}</ref> It stars [[Bushra Ansari]], [[Sarmad Khoosat]], [[Shaista Lodhi]], [[Affan Waheed]] and [[Dur-e-Fishan Saleem]] in prominent roles. Produced by [[Humayun Saeed]] and Shehzad Naseeb under [[Six Sigma Plus]], the series aired double episodes weekly on [[ARY Digital]]. The series explores how a man's working abroad affects his relationships and his children's lives.

== Plot ==

Ahsan, the sole breadwinner of his family, works tirelessly to provide for his loved ones. His younger brother, Asim, is unemployed and lazy, but has a soft spot for their cousin, Nausheen. Despite his lack of employment, Asim's desire to marry Nausheen seems impossible. However, fate intervenes when Nausheen's father catches them together, leading to an impromptu marriage. As the family grows, Ahsan's mother, Mumtaz, pressures him to seek better opportunities abroad. Reluctantly, Ahsan leaves behind his wife, Zubeida, and daughter, Aimen, to work overseas in Muscat, toiling endlessly to provide for them while Zubeida works hard to keep the family afloat.

As time passes, Ahsan's children, Aimen and Zaid, enter adulthood. Aimen shoulders the responsibilities that Zaid neglects. Aimen's classmate, Ibad, harbors unrequited feelings for her. After years of living abroad, Ahsan returns home, his health significantly deteriorated. On his deathbed, he attempts to arrange Aimen's marriage to their cousin, Salman, but she refuses, fearing a life similar to her mother's because Salman has a future plan to go abroad for his career. Instead, she proposes Ibad as an alternative, and they get married.

After Ahsan's passing, Aimen begins her new life with Ibad. However, she faces challenges in her marital home, particularly from Ibad's stepsisters and brother-in-law. When Ibad embarks on a business trip to England, Aimen's past traumas resurface, and their marital life is put to the test.

== Cast ==
===Main cast===
* [[Dur-e-Fishan Saleem]] as Aimen, Zubeida and Ahsan's daughter
** Emaan Nayyab<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/845153-young-stars-of-today|title=Young 'stars' of today|work=The News International|location=Pakistan|author=Afreen Seher|date=6 June 2021|access-date=10 November 2022}}</ref> as Aimen (young)
* [[Affan Waheed]] as Ibad, Aimen's class fellow
* [[Shaista Lodhi]] as Zubeida "Zubi", Ahsan's wife and Aimen's mother<ref name="mag">{{cite web|url=http://magtheweekly.com/detail/12202-shaista-lodhi-to-pair-up-with-ace-actor-sarmad-khoosat-for-pardes |title=Shaista Lodhi to pair up with ace actor Sarmad Khoosat for 'Pardes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808002502/https://magtheweekly.com/detail/12202-shaista-lodhi-to-pair-up-with-ace-actor-sarmad-khoosat-for-pardes |work=Mag The Weekly |archive-date=8 August 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Sarmad Khoosat]] as Ahsan, Zubeida's husband and Aimen's father<ref name="mag"/>

===Supporting cast===
* [[Bushra Ansari]] as Mumtaz, Ahsan and Asim's mother
* [[Gohar Rasheed]] as Asim, Ahsan's younger brother
* [[Shermeen Ali]]<ref name="comeback"/> as Nausheen "Noshi", Asim's wife
* [[Atiqa Odho]] as Raheela, Ibad's mother
* [[Faiza Gillani]] as Nabeela, Ahsan's sister
* [[Hammad Shoaib]] as Salman, Nabeela's son
* [[Atabik Mohsin]] as Zaid, Aimen's brother
* Aliha Chaudry as Aliya, Ahsan's sister
* [[Jinaan Hussain]] as Sheema, Ibad's step-sister
* Yasir Ali Khan as Rohail, Ibad's step-brother
* [[Hina Javed]] as Rija, Rohail's wife
* Usman Mazhar as Manzoor, Nabeela's husband

===Recurring cast===
* [[Syed Mohammad Ahmed]] as Sadeeq, Nausheen's father
* Shazia Qaiser as Nausheen's mother and Mumtaz's sister

== Production ==
In March 2021, Shaista Lodhi revealed that she would return to acting after a three-year break with Marina Khan's directed ''Pardes'', playing Zubaida, a strong and sacrificing woman coping with her husband's absence who works abroad.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://images.dawn.com/news/1186878|title=Shaista Lodhi's upcoming series Pardes is about a husband and wife separated by distance|date=30 March 2021|work=Dawn Images|author=Irfan Ul Haq}}</ref> Lodhi was approached by [[Humayun Saeed]] and agreed to join the cast because Marina Khan was the director.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/30-Mar-2021/shaista-lodhi-returns-to-acting-with-marina-khan-s-upcoming-serial?version=|title=Shaista Lodhi returns to acting with Marina Khan's upcoming serial|work=[[Daily Pakistan]]|date=30 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201002213/https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/30-Mar-2021/shaista-lodhi-returns-to-acting-with-marina-khan-s-upcoming-serial?version=|archive-date=1 December 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> Sarmad Khoosat was cast to portray Ahsan, the eldest sibling and sole breadwinner of the family.<ref name="mag"/>

==Reception==
=== Critical reception ===
Gaitee Ara Siddiqi of ''[[The News International]]'' praised the series for its realistic portrayal, well-developed characters, and engaging storyline, with standout performances of Lodhi, Khoosat and Ansari.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/tns/detail/845144-pardes-the-untold-story |title=Pardes – The untold story |date=6 June 2021 |work=www.thenews.com.pk |author=Gaitee Ara Siddiqi |access-date=3 July 2021}}</ref>

=== Television rating points (TRPs) ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date !! Ep# !! TRPs !! {{Tooltip|Ref.|References}}
|-
|-
| 14 June 2021 || 9 & 10 || 6.6 || rowspan="5"|<ref name="ratings"/>
|-
| 21 June 2021 || 11 & 12 || 7.4
|-
| 28 June 2021 || 13 & 14 || 6.3
|-
| 26 July 2021 || 21 & 22 || 7.1
|-
| 2 August 2021 || 23 & 24 || 7.0
|-
|}

==Accolades==
{|class="wikitable style
!Ceremony
!Categories
!Recipients
!Result
!{{Tooltip|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
|rowspan="7"|[[21st Lux Style Awards]]
|Best TV Actor-Critics' Choice
|''[[Sarmad Khoosat]]''
|rowspan="3" {{nom}}
|rowspan="3" | <ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2387740/lsa-2022-and-the-nominees-are | title=LSA 2022: And the nominees are | date=23 November 2022 |work=The Express Tribune}}</ref>
|-
|Best TV Actress-Viewers' Choice
|''[[Dur-e-Fishan Saleem]]''
|-
|Best TV Writer
|''[[Sarwat Nazir]]''
|}

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="ratings">
* For episodes 10 and 11 see, {{cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/CQLxYiTA2Lw/|title=Impactful Drama|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/arydigital.tv/2597386800481919728|work=Instagram|date=16 June 2021|archive-date=10 January 2023|access-date=10 January 2023|url-access=limited}}{{cbignore}}

----
* For episode 11 and 12 see, {{cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/CQbSAjRggIQ/|title=Excellent Performance|date=22 June 2021|archive-date=10 January 2023|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/arydigital.tv/2601752412448490000|url-access=limited}}{{cbignore}}

----
* For episode 13 and 14 see, {{cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/CQvv9fSAbsI/|title=Impactful Story|archive-date=10 January 2023|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/arydigital.tv/2607513642933009160|url-access=limited}}

----
* For episode 21 and 22 see, {{cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/CR3TqBfF2Vo/|title=Strong Story!|date=26 July 2021|archive-date=10 January 2023|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/arydigital.tv/2627655358291076456|url-access=limited}}{{cbignore}}

----
* For episode 23 and 25 see, {{cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/CSJPlB8nNR3/|title=Depicting True Emotions|archive-date=10 January 2023|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/instagram/arydigital.tv/2632703972583724151|date=4 August 2021|url-access=limited}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
</references>

==External links==
* [https://www.arydigital.tv/videos/category/pardes/ Official website]
* {{IMDb title}}

{{ARY Digital Programs}}
[[Category:ARY Digital original programming]]
[[Category:2021 Pakistani television series debuts]]
[[Category:2021 Pakistani television series endings]]
[[Category:Pakistani drama television series]]
[[Category:Urdu-language television]]

KVG Medical College and Hospital

2026-01-06T00:13:30Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: Adding new post

{{Short description|Medical college in Karnataka, India}}
{{Orphan|date=December 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox university
| name = KVG Medical College & Hospital
| image =
| latin_name =
| motto =
| motto_lang =
| established = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2002}}
| closed =
| type = Private
| affiliation = [[Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences]]
| endowment =
| budget =
| rector =
| officer_in_charge =
| chairman =
| president =
| vice-president =
| superintendent =
| provost =
| principal =
| director =
| dean = Dr. Neelambikai Natarajan
| head_label =
| head =
| academic_staff =
| administrative_staff =
| students =
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| doctoral =
| other =
| state = [[Karnataka]]
| province =
| country = India
| former_names =
| free_label =
| free =
| athletics =
| sports =
| nickname =
| mascot =
| website = https://kvgmch.org/#
| logo =
}}

'''KVG Medical College and Hospital''' (KVGMC&H) in the state of [[Karnataka]], India, established in 2002. This is a private medical college and teaching hospital located in Sullia, [[Dakshina Kannada|Dakshina Kannada district]], Karnataka, India. The college offers undergraduate (MBBS) and postgraduate medical courses and provides clinical services through its attached hospital. It is managed by the Academy of Liberal Education(AOLE), Sullia.<ref>{{cite web |title=K.V.G. Medical College – MBBS Cutoff, Fees & Seat Matrix 2025 |url=https://neetsupport.com/college/kvgmch-karnataka |website=neetsupport.com |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==

The institution was started in 2002 under the guidance of the late [[Kurunji Venkataramana Gowda]], who founded the Academy of Liberal Education to develop education and healthcare in the Sullia region.<ref>{{cite web |title=K V G Medical Colleges Sullia |url=https://thecareerassistance.com/k-v-g-medical-colleges-sullia/ |access-date=7 December 2025}}</ref>

== Academics ==

KVG Medical College offers MBBS and postgraduate courses in multiple medical specialties. The college is affiliated to the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences (RGUHS), Bengaluru, and is recognized by the National Medical Commission (NMC).<ref>{{cite web |title=K V G Medical College |url=https://www.comedk.org/college-k-v-g-medical-college |access-date=7 December 2025}}</ref>

== Hospital ==

The attached teaching hospital provides inpatient and outpatient services and includes modular operation theatres, diagnostic services, intensive care units, trauma care and emergency services. The hospital has more than 600 beds and serves patients from rural and nearby regions.<ref>{{cite web |title=K V G Medical College Hospital Details |url=https://www.comedk.org/college-k-v-g-medical-college |access-date=7 December 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Karnataka}}

[[Category:Medical colleges in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Dakshina Kannada district]]

Khandrui

2025-12-31T12:06:51Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: revise

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Khandrui
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal # India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|21.964179|N|87.412562|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Paschim Medinipur district|Paschim Medinipur]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 6014
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 721445 (Turkagarh)
| area_code_type = Telephone/[[Subscriber trunk dialing|STD]] code
| area_code = 03229
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Medinipur (Lok Sabha constituency)|Medinipur]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Dantan (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dantan]]
| website = {{URL|paschimmedinipur.gov.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Khandrui''' is a village in the [[Dantan II]] [[Community development blocks in India|CD block]] in the [[Kharagpur subdivision]] of the [[Paschim Medinipur district]] in the state of [[West Bengal]], [[India]].

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=400| height=450| zoom=10
| coord={{coord|22|0|0|N|87|30|0|E}}| float=left|caption='''Cities and towns in the southern portion of Kharagpur subdivision (including Dantan I & II, Mohanpur, Keshiary, Narayangarh and Sabang CD blocks) of Paschim Medinipur district''' CT: census town, R: rural/ urban centre, H: historical/ religious centre Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1= {{coord|21|56|26|N|87|17|39|E}}| label-pos1=right|label1=Chaulia | numbered1=CT| mark-title1= [[Chaulia]] (CT)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=13| mark-size1=13|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1=#C40000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|22|4|39|N|87|19|30|E}} | label-pos2=left|label2=Deuli | numbered2=CT| mark-title2= [[Deuli, India]] (CT)
|mark-coord3={{coord|22|4|48|N|87|20|30|E}} | label-pos3=right|label3=Belda | numbered3=R| mark-title3= [[Belda]] (R)
|mark-coord4={{coord|21|54|38|N|87|16|12|E}} | label-pos4=right|label4=Dantan | numbered4=R| mark-title4= [[Dantan]] (R)
|mark-coord5={{coord|22|0|29|N|87|25|3|E}} | label-pos5=right|label5=Dhaneswarpur | numbered5=R| mark-title5= [[Dhaneswarpur]] (R)
|mark-coord6={{coord|21|57|51|N|87|28|46|E}} | label-pos6=right|label6=Kashmuli | numbered6=R| mark-title6= [[Kashmuli]] (R)
|mark-coord7={{coord|22|7|23|N|87|14|33|E}} | label-pos7=right|label7=Keshiary | numbered7=R| mark-title7= [[Keshiary]] (R)
|mark-coord8={{coord|21|57|51|N|87|24|25|E}} | label-pos8=left|label8=Khandrui | numbered8=R| mark-title8= Khandrui (R)|shape-color8=black| label-size8=13|label-color8=black 
|mark-coord9={{coord|22|13|20|N|87|33|43|E}} | label-pos9=left|label9=Lutunia | numbered9=R| mark-title9= [[Lutunia]] (R)
|mark-coord10={{coord|21|50|33|N|87|25|17|E}} | label-pos10=right|label10= Mohanpur | numbered10=R| mark-title10= [[Mohanpur, Paschim Medinipur]] (R)
|mark-coord11={{coord|22|10|2|N|87|23|5|E}} | label-pos11=right|label11= Narayangarh | numbered11=R| mark-title11= [[Narayangarh, Paschim Medinipur]] (R)
|mark-coord12={{coord|22|10|58|N|87|35|56|E}} | label-pos12=left|label12= Sabang | numbered12=R| mark-title12= [[Sabang, Paschim Medinipur]] (R)
|mark-coord13={{coord|21|59|33|N|87|17|47|E}}| label-pos13=right|label13= Moghalmari| numbered13=H| mark-title13= [[Moghalmari]] (H) |shape-color13=#AA6666
|mark-coord14={{coord|22|5|40|N|87|15|9|E}}| label-pos14=right|label14= Kurumbera Fort| numbered14=H| mark-title14= [[Kurumbera Fort]] (H) |shape-color14=#AA6666
|mark-coord15={{coord|22|13|23|N|87|40|48|E}}| label-pos15=right|label15= Bhemwa| numbered15=H| mark-title15= [[Bhemwa]] (H) |shape-color15=#AA6666
|mark-coord16={{coord|22|11|29|N|87|43|18|E}}| label-pos16=bottom|label16= Dubrajpur| numbered16=H| mark-title16= [[Dubrajpur, Paschim Medinipur]] (H) |shape-color16=#AA6666
|mark-coord17={{coord|22|11|10|N|87|40|7|E}}| label-pos17=left|label17= Kerur| numbered17=H| mark-title17= [[Kerur, Paschim Medinipur]] (H) |shape-color17=#AA6666
|mark-coord18={{coord|22|5|40|N|87|31|32|E}}| label-pos18=right|label18= Kolanda| numbered18=H| mark-title18= [[Kolanda, Paschim Medinipur]] (H) |shape-color18=#AA6666
|mark-coord19={{coord|22|12|40|N|87|35|2|E}}| label-pos19=right|label19= Shrirampur| numbered19=H| mark-title19= [[Shrirampur, Paschim Medinipur]] (H) |shape-color19=#AA6666
|mark-coord20={{coord|22|14|20|N|87|39|17|E}}| label-pos20=left|label20= Tilantapara| numbered20=H| mark-title20= [[Tilantapara]] (H) |shape-color20=#AA6666
|mark-coord21={{coord|22|7|53|N|87|32|4|E}}| label-pos21=right|label21= Adasimla| numbered21=H| mark-title21= [[Adasimla]] (H) |shape-color21=#AA6666
|arc-coordA={{coord|21|46|0|N|87|15|0|E}}|arc-textA= ODISHA| arc-text-colorA=hard grey| arc-angleA=20| arc-gapA=3.5| arc-radiusA=0.4}}

===Location===
Khandrui is located at {{coord|22.964179|N|87.412562|E|display=inline}}.

===Area overview===
Kharagpur subdivision, shown partly in the map alongside, mostly has [[Alluvium|alluvial]] soils, except in two CD blocks in the west – Kharagpur I and Keshiary, which mostly have [[Laterite|lateritic]] soils. Around 74% of the total cultivated area is cropped more than once.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Human%20Development%20Report| title = District Human Development Report Paschim Medinipur, 2011| work= page 27-28| publisher = Department of Planning and Statistics, Government of West Bengal |access-date = 10 September 2020}}</ref> With a density of population of 787 per km2nearly half of the district's population resides in this subdivision. 14.33% of the population lives in urban areas and 86.67% lives in the rural areas.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook | title = District Statistical Handbook Paschim Medinipur, 2013| work= Table 2.2, 2.4 (a)| publisher = Department of Planning and Statistics |access-date = 10 September 2020}}</ref>

Note: The map alongside presents some of the notable locations in the subdivision. All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map.

==Demographics==
According to the [[2011 Census of India]], Khandrui had a total population of 6,014, of which 3,036 (50%) were males and 2,978 (50%) were females. There were 824 persons in the age range of 0–6 years. The total number of literate persons in Khanduri was 3,884 (74.84% of the population over 6 years).<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_p190ca_census/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = CD block Wise Primary Census Abstract Data(PCA) | work= West Bengal – District-wise CD blocks|publisher= Registrar General and Census, India | access-date = 25 August 2020}}</ref>

==Healthcare==
Khandrui Rural Hospital, with 30 beds at Khandrui, PO Turkagarh, is the major government medical facility in Dantan II CD block.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/RH.pdf | title =Health & Family Welfare Department | work =Health Statistics – Rural Hospitals | publisher =Government of West Bengal | access-date =1 September 2020 | archive-date =8 October 2022 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20221008143352/https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/RH.pdf | url-status =dead }}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Turkagarh Royal Family|Khandaruigarh Royal Family]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Paschim Medinipur District}}

[[Category:Villages in Paschim Medinipur district]]

{{PaschimMedinipur-geo-stub}}

Abhinaya Krishna

2025-12-22T10:13:14Z

AntoniaWhetsel0:

{{short description|Indian film actor}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox person
|name= Abhinaya Krishna
|image= Adhire Abhi.jpg
|caption=
|other_names= Abhinaya Krishna, Adhire Abhi
|birth_name=Hari Krishna
|birth_date=
|birth_place= Telangana, India
|education= Masters in Electronics
|occupation= Actor, Director
|religion=
|notable_works=
|parents=
|children=
|awards= Limca Book of Records, Indian Book of Records, Best Debut Director
}}

'''Abhinaya Krishna''' is an Indian actor who works in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] films and television. Krishna debuted with the drama film ''[[Eeswar (2002 film)|Eeswar]]'' in 2002. He is working as an anchor, dancer, stand-up comedian.<ref>{{cite news |last1=TNN |title=Adhire Abhi spotted at Australian Parliament house |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/adhire-abhi-spotted-at-australian-parliament-house/articleshow/52042174.cms |access-date=20 September 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=29 April 2016 |language=en}}</ref>

==Career==
He is popularly known as Adhire Abhi in ''[[Jabardasth (TV series)|Jabardasth]]'' which telecasts on [[E TV (India)]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chelluri |first1=Sriram |title=Comedian Abhinaya Krishna of Jabardast fame to make his directorial debut soon |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/comedian-abhinaya-krishna-of-jabardast-fame-to-make-his-directorial-debut-soon/articleshow/64209372.cms |access-date=20 September 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=17 May 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Karamchetu |first1=Abhyudaya |title=A Jabardast career |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans/2016-07-31/A-Jabardast-career/245677 |accessdate=20 September 2019 |work=www.thehansindia.com |date=31 July 2016 |language=en}}</ref> He worked as creative director for ''[[Kaun Banega Crorepati|Meelo Evaru Koteeswarudu]]'', the [[Telugu language|Telugu]] version of ''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Adhire Abhi: Movies, Photos, Videos, News, Biography & Birthday |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/Adhire-Abhi |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 September 2019}}</ref>

He worked as an assistant director under director [[S. S. Rajamouli]] for ''[[Baahubali 2]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=That debacle changed me: Comedian Adire Abhi of Jabardasth fame |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/that-debacle-changed-me-comedian-adire-abhi-of-jabardasth-fame/articleshow/64269301.cms |access-date=2021-06-20 |website=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref>

He won BEST DEBUT DIRECTOR for his movie Chiranjeeva. This award was presented in Andhra Pradesh International Film Festival by Indian Film Makers Association

He created a record in LIMCA BOOK OF RECORDS for imitating 25 Actor's dancing Styles

He created a record in Indian Book of Records for completing shoot of a feature film in just 10 hours

==Filmography==

=== As Movie Actor ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-

! Year
! Title
! Role
|-
| rowspan="1" |2002 || ''[[Eeswar (2002 film)|Eeswar]]'' || Laddu
|-
| 2003 ||''[[Vishnu (2003 film)|Vishnu]]'' || Krishna
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Vidyardhi]]'' || Abhinaya
|-
| rowspan="1" |2005 || ''[[Gowtam SSC]]'' || Abhi
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Eega]]'' || Traffic Constable
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2017 || ''[[Baahubali 2: The Conclusion]]''|| Kumara Varma's assistant
|-
| ''[[Raagala 24 Gantallo]]'' ||
|-
|2021
|''Point Blank''
|Inspector
|-
|2025
|''The Devil's Chair''
|Karthik
|-
|}

=== As director ===
* ''[[Kaamakhya]]'' (2026)
* ''[[Chiranjeeva]]'' (2025)

=== As Television Actor ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-

! TV Channel
! Title
! Role
|-
| rowspan="1" |ETV || ''[[Jabardast]]'' || Team leader for 10 years
|-
| MAA TV ||''[[Rangam Dance Show]]'' || Celebrity Dancer
|-
| ZEE TV || ''[[Kitchen Maharani]]'' || Emcee
|-
| rowspan="1" |Gemini TV || ''Kirak Kabaddi'' ||Emcee
|-
| ETV || ''Adhurs 2'' || Emcee
|-
| rowspan="2" | ETV || ''[[Maha Maha Mass]]''|| Emcee
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Krishna, Abhinaya}}
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu television]]
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:Telugu comedians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Pratapgad

2025-12-05T06:59:45Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: refine article as per guidelines

{{Short description|Fort in Satara district, Maharashtra}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox military installation
| name = Pratapgad
| partof =
| location = Satara district, [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| image = [[File:Pratapgad The Fort of Valour.jpg|Pratapgad|300px]]
| caption = View of one of the bastions of Pratapgad.
| map_type = India Maharashtra
| coordinates = {{coord|17.936224|73.577607|type:landmark_region:IN-MH|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| module = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
|child = yes
|Part_of = [[Maratha Military Landscapes of India]]
|ID = 1739-007
|Year = 2025
|Criteria = Cultural: iv, vi
}}
| map_size = 300
| map_caption = Pratapgad fort in Maharashtra
| type = [[forts in India|Hill Fort]]
| code =
| built = 1656
| builder = [[Shivaji I]]
| architect = [[Hiroji Indulkar]]{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}
| materials =
| height = 3543 feet <ref name=S>{{Cite web|title=Pratapgad | District Satara, Government of Maharashtra, India | India|url=https://www.satara.gov.in/en/tourist-place/pratapgad/|access-date=2022-03-27|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=l>{{Cite web|last=|date=2019-02-19|title=प्रतापगड किल्ला जिथे शिवाजी महाराजांनी केला होता अफजल खानाचा वध!|url=https://www.lokmat.com/travel/pratapgarh-fort-where-shivaji-maharaj-had-killed-afzal-khan/|access-date=2022-03-27|website=Lokmat|language=mr-IN}}</ref>
| used =
| demolished =
| condition =
| ownership =
| open_to_public = Yes
| controlledby = {{flagcountry|Maratha Empire}} ({{small|1656-1818}}) {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg}} [[East India Company]] ({{small|1818-1857}})
* {{flagcountry|British Raj}} ({{small|1857-1947}})
{{flagcountry|India}} ({{small|1947-present}})
| garrison =
| current_commander =
| commanders =
| occupants =
| battles = [[Battle of Pratapgad]] (1659)
| events = Chatrapati Shivaji killed Afzal Khan in battle of Pratapgad (1659)<ref name=l/>
}}

'''Pratapgad''' is a mountain fort located in [[Satara district]], in the [[Western India]]n state of [[Maharashtra]]. The fort is situated 24 kilometres from the [[Mahabaleshwar]] hill station. The fort is now a tourist destination.

The fort's historical significance is due to the [[Battle of Pratapgad]], which took place here on 10 November 1659, between [[Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj]] and [[Bijapur Sultanate]] general [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2019-02-19 |title=प्रतापगड किल्ला जिथे शिवाजी महाराजांनी केला होता अफजल खानाचा वध! |url=https://www.lokmat.com/travel/pratapgarh-fort-where-shivaji-maharaj-had-killed-afzal-khan/ |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=[[Lokmat]] |language=mr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=अफझलखानाच्या थडग्याच्या जागेचा वाद पुन्हा पेटणार; माजी आमदारानं दिला 'हा' इशारा |url=https://maharashtratimes.com/maharashtra/satara/former-mla-nitin-shinde-warns-of-agitation-for-opening-of-afzal-khan-tomb/articleshow/88315710.cms |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=Maharashtra Times |language=mr}}</ref>
The fort was constructed on a hilltop, about 1,080 meters above sea level, with views of the surrounding landscapes. There are two main entrances to the fort, and the fort's gates are protected by high walls.It is divided into two parts – the lower fort and the upper fort. At present, the lower fort houses the main entrance, while the upper fort contains temples, a modern statue of Shivaji Maharaj, and several buildings.
The fort has several watch towers and bastion for providing strategic military advantages during its time of use.

==The Big Story==
{{Main|Battle of Pratapgarh}}
[[File:Mahabaleshwar Pratapgad 023.jpg|thumb|left|Before restoration works]]
The [[Maratha]] ruler [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj]] assigned [[Moropant Trimbak Pingle]], his prime minister, to undertake the construction of this fort in order to defend the banks of the [[Nira River|Nira]] and the [[Koyna River|Koyna rivers]], and to defend the ''Par pass''. It was completed in 1656.<ref name="MaharashtraGazeeter">{{cite web |title=Pratapgad Fort |url=http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/gazetteer/SATARA/places_Pratapgad.html |access-date=2008-08-23 |work=Satara District Gazetteer |publisher=Government of Maharashtra, Gazetteers Department}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kantak|first=M. R.|date=1978|title=The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of Chatrapati Shivaji's Swarajya|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931051|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute|volume=38|issue=1/4|pages=40–56|jstor=42931051 |issn=0045-9801}}</ref>

The Battle of Pratapgad between [[Shivaji Maharaj]] and [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]], a general of [[Adil Shahi dynasty]], was fought below the ramparts of this fort on 10 November 1659. This was the first major test of the fledgling kingdom's army, and set the stage of the establishment of the Maratha empire.<ref name=":1" />
Pratapgad Fort is a historical fort located in Satara district of Maharashtra, near Mahabaleshwar. It holds great significance in the history of the Maratha Empire and is known for its connection to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. The fort, built in 1656, stands as a symbol of valor and strategic brilliance.

Pratapgad continued to be involved in regional politics.{{Until when|date=October 2025}} [[Sakharam Bapu Bokil]], a well-known minister of Pune, was confined by his rival [[Nana Phadnis]] in Pratapgad in 1778. He was later moved from fort to fort until he died at [[Raigad Fort|Raigad]]. In 1796, Nana Phadnis, while escaping from the intrigues of [[Daulatrao Shinde]] and his minister Baloba, assembled a strong garrison in Pratapgad before heading to [[Mahad]]. In 1818, as part of the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]], Pratapgad was surrendered to the East India company.

==Geography==
[[File:Pratapgad (2).jpg|thumb|left|Overview of the fort.]]

{{Expand section|date=March 2022}}
Pratapgad fort is located at {{convert|15|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Poladpur]] and {{convert|23|km|mi|abbr=on}} west of [[Mahabaleshwar]], a popular [[hill station]] of Maharashtra. The fort stands {{convert|1080|m|ft}} above sea level and is built on a spur which overlooks the road between the villages of Par and Kinesvar.

The fort has a [[Tulja Bhawani]] temple from Chhatrapati Shivaji's time. It have [[murti]] of goddess Bhawani, which have eight hands ([[Marathi language|Marathi]] : ''Ashtbhuja''). Weapons of soldiers are on display near this temple.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://beinternetawesome.withgoogle.com/en_us/interland | title=Play Interland - be Internet Awesome }}</ref>

==Tourism==
[[File:Statue of Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj at Pratapgad.jpg|200 px|thumb|Statue of Shivaji at Pratapgad, inaugurated by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]],the then prime minister of India in 1957]]
[[Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation]] provides regular bus service.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gunaji|first1=Milind|title=Offbeat tracks in Maharashtra|date=2010|publisher=Popular Prakashan|location=Mumbai|isbn=9788179915783|pages=43–44|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHA9SzLMj3EC&q=pratapgad++mahabaleshwar+bus&pg=PA11}}</ref> There are small shops, restaurants and a handicrafts store. Many schools also arrange educational trips to the fort. The fort is also on many trekking routes of the area.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kapadia|first1=Harish|title=Trek the Sahyadris|date=2003|publisher=Indus Publ.|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788173871511|pages=144–146|edition=5.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oICZM5HKRbAC&q=pratapgad&pg=PA9}}</ref>

The fort has a large bronze equestrian statue of [[Shivaji Maharaj]]. It was unveiled by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], then [[Prime Minister of India]] on 30 November 1957.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Video : प्रतापगडावरील शिवरायांच्या पुतळ्याचं नेहरुंच्या हस्ते झालं होतं अनावरण |url=https://www.esakal.com/maharashtra/jawaharlal-nehru-inaugurating-the-statue-of-shivaji-maharaj-on-pratapgarh-fort-satara-aau85 |access-date=2022-03-10 |website=eSakal |date=19 February 2022 |language=mr-IN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Chowdhary|first=Charu|title=Pratapgad Fort: A Must-Visit on a Day Trip From Mahabaleshwar | India.com|url=https://www.india.com/travel/articles/pratapgad-fort-a-must-visit-on-a-day-trip-from-mahabaleshwar-3702157/|access-date=2022-03-27|website=www.india.com|date=28 June 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Go Offbeat When In Maharashtra|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/69772/offbeat-destinations-in-maharashtra|access-date=2022-03-27|magazine=[[Outlook India]]|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Shivpratap Din : शिवरायांचा 'हा' प्रसंग आठवला, तर अंगावर काटा आल्याशिवाय राहणार नाही |url=https://www.esakal.com/satara/celebrate-shiv-pratap-day-2021-at-pratapgad-satara-bam92 |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=[[eSakal]] |date=10 November 2021 |language=mr-IN}}</ref> The same year a road was constructed by the Public Works Department from Kumbhrosi village up to fort. A guest house and a small park was built inside the fort in 1960.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}}

==See also==
{{Portal|History}}
*[[List of forts in Maharashtra]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Satara district topics}}
{{Forts in Maharashtra}}

==External links==
{{commons}}

[[Category:Forts in Satara district]]
[[Category:1656 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Mahabaleshwar]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures of the Maratha Empire]]
[[Category:Maratha Military Landscapes of India]]

{{Fort-stub}}

Abdul Ahad Vakil

2025-10-17T17:10:22Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: reworked page additionally and added references

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Abdul Ahad Vakil
| birth_name =
| caption = Abdul Ahad Vakil in 2013 at his residence
| image = Abdul Ahad Vakil.jpg
| birth_date = February 1934<ref name="auto3"/>
| birth_place = [[Sopore]], [[Baramulla]], Jammu and Kashmir
| residence =
| death_date = 9 July 2014
| death_place = LD Colony, Goripora
| office = [[Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| constituency = [[Baramulla (Lok Sabha constituency)|Baramulla]]
| term_start = 1977
| term_end = 1979
| predecessor =
| successor =
| office1 =
| constituency1 =
| term1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| office2 =
| constituency2 =
| term_start2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| party = [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|National Conference]]
| religion =
| otherparty =
| spouse = Maryam Jan
| children = 4
| website =
| footnotes =
| date = |
| year = |
| source =
}}
'''Abdul Ahad Vakil''' (February 1934 – 9 July 2014) was an Indian politician and a [[Member of parliament]] elected in the [[6th Lok Sabha]] elections from [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]'s [[Baramulla (Lok Sabha constituency)|Baramulla constituency]]. He served as the state minister in 1983 and the [[Speaker of the Legislative Assembly (India)|speaker]] of the [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]] in 1996. He was the senior member of the [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|National Conference]].<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=http://loksabhaph.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/2632.htm|title=Members Bioprofile|website=loksabhaph.nic.in}}</ref>

==Life and background ==
Vakil was born in Jammu and Kashmir's Sopora district in February 1934. He did [[Masters of Arts]] and [[Bachelor of Laws]] during his education period and was initially studying at [[Amar Singh College]], [[Srinagar]] and later, moved to [[Aligarh Muslim University]] where He completed further studies.

Vakil was originally a [[lawyer]] in 1971 and then nominated as the member of the ''District Development Board'' in 1976.<ref name="auto3" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/nc-leader-vakil-passes-away-114071000977_1.html|title=NC leader Vakil passes away|agency=Press Trust of India|date=10 July 2014|via=Business Standard|newspaper=Business Standard India}}</ref>

==Social activities==
Vakil was regarded as the active social worker who was responsible for the establishment of the [[Government Degree College for Women, Sopore]] with science up to [[Bachelor of Science]]. During his political spanning, He opened several welfare centres for the [[Poverty|poor]], [[Widows]] and physically [[Physical disability|disabled]] people in Sopor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/former-speaker-abdul-ahad-vakil-passes-away/|title=Former speaker Abdul Ahad Vakil passes away}}</ref>

==Personal life ==
The son of Haji Abdul Razaq, he was married to Maryam Jan in 1960, with whom he had one son and three daughters.<ref name="auto3"/>

==Death==
Vakil died at the age of 79 at his residence LD Colony, Goripora. He then was admitted to [[Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences]] for medical treatment. After subsequently discharged, He died after multiple organ failure and chest ailment which is associated with [[respiratory disease]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://kashmirtimes.com/newsdet.aspx?q=34247|title=Abdul Ahad Vakil passes away|date=11 July 2014|work=Kashmir Times|accessdate=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/ahad-vakil-passes-away/|title=Ahad Vakil passes away|publisher=Daily Excelsior|date=11 July 2014|accessdate=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/nc-leader-vakil-passes-away/story-QdoAVAiDVipcJLdkOoL1YL.html|title=NC leader Vakil passes away|date=10 July 2014|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vakil, Abdul Ahad}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:2014 deaths]]
[[Category:India MPs 1977–1979]]
[[Category:Kashmiri politicians]]
[[Category:People from Sopore]]
[[Category:Speakers of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Jammu & Kashmir National Conference politicians]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 1996–2002]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Jammu and Kashmir]]

Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party

2025-10-16T18:18:01Z

AntoniaWhetsel0: brief enhanced structure after review and corrected details after review

{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}

{{Infobox Indian political party
|party_name = Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party
|logo = Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party Symbol.png
|flag = Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party logo.png
|abbreviation = JKAP
|colorcode = {{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}}
|president = [[Altaf Bukhari]]
|chairman =
|secretary = [[Rafi Ahmed Mir]], Vijay Bakaya
|political adviser =
|loksabha_leader =
|rajyasabha_leader =
|foundation = {{start date and age|8 March 2020}}
|founder =
|merger =
|merged =
|headquarters =
|publication =
|students =
|youth = [[Jammu and Kashmir Apni Youth Federation]]
|women =
|labour =
|peasants =
|membership =
|ideology =
|international =
|colours = Red {{Colorsample|#ff0000}} White {{Colorsample|#FFFFFF}} and blue {{Colorsample|#0000FF}}
|position =
|eci =
|alliance =
|national_convener =
|loksabha_seats =
|rajyasabha_seats =
|state_seats_name = [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
|state_seats =
{{Composition bar|0|90|hex={{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}}}}
|state2_seats_name = [[District Development Council]]s
|state2_seats =
{{Composition bar|12|280|hex={{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}}}}
|symbol =
|website = {{URL|https://jkapniparty.com/}}
|leader=}}

'''Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party''' (JKAP) is a political party established in March 2020 by Altaf Bukhari. The party focuses on regional development, addressing local issues, and advocating for the restoration of statehood to Jammu and Kashmir. It has positioned itself as an alternative to traditional political parties in the region, emphasizing a pragmatic approach to governance.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Apni Party attempts to shun BJP’s proxy tag |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/j-k/apni-party-attempts-to-shun-bjps-proxy-tag |work=The Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Altaf Bukhari launches Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/altaf-bukhari-launches-jammu-and-kashmir-apni-party/story-XYZ123 |work=Hindustan Times }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=J&K Apni Party Focused on People's Welfare |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/article/j-k-apni-party-focused-on-people-s-welfare-ABC456 |work=Indian Express}}</ref>

==History==

The Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party was formed on 8 March 2020 by thirty one former members of the [[Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party]], and [[Indian National Congress]] which included former members of the [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]] and cabinet ministers in the [[Government of Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/altaf-bukhari-launches-jammu-and-kashmir-apni-party-31-leaders-from-pdp-nc-congress-to-join-1653656-2020-03-08|title=Altaf Bukhari launches Jammu and Kashmir Apni party, 31 leaders from PDP, NC, Congress to join|agency=Asian News International |date=March 8, 2020 |magazine=India Today}}</ref> [[Altaf Bukhari]] was elected as the party's first president

An early success for the new party was its successful campaign to get the central Government of India to amend a recently promulgated law in order to make sure that government jobs in the region continue to be reserved for people with domiciled status.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/apr/05/new-domicile-order-for-jk-came-after-apni-party-president-altaf-bukharis-parley-with-centre-2125836.html|title=New domicile order for J&K came after Apni Party president Altaf Bukhari's parley with Centre|website=The New Indian Express|date=6 April 2020 }}</ref>

The Youth Wing is called Youth Apni Party, and the student wing is known as Jammu and Kashmir Apni Student Union. The Women's Wing is headed by Dilshad Shaheen as Provincial President for Kashmir and Pavneet Kour as Provincial President for Jammu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=KNS |date=16 February 2021 |title=Apni Party Constitutes Youth Wing |url=https://www.knskashmir.com/apni-party-constitutes-youth-wing-62802 |access-date=2022-05-21 |website=www.knskashmir.com |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=rising Kashmir |date=1 January 2024 |title=Without democratic setup people issues can't be solved: Pavneet Kour |url=https://risingkashmir.com/without-democratic-setup-people-issues-cant-be-solved-pavneet-kour/ |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=www.risingkashmir.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Policy platform==
The party describes itself as being "of the commoners, by the commoners, and for the commoners". One of its stated objective is to work for the full restoration of statehood to Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.presstrustofkashmir.com/2020/04/04/amending-new-domicile-law-a-welcome-step-but-our-demand-is-restore-statehood-protection-of-land-rafi-mir/|title=Amending new domicile law a welcome step but our demand is restored statehood, protection of land.Rafi Mir|first=PTK News|last=Room|date=April 4, 2020}}</ref> The party also believes that government jobs in Jammu and Kashmir should be reserved for long standing residents of the region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/india/jkap-welcomes-amendment-to-domicile-order-in-jammu-and-kashmir-pledges-to-continue-its-struggle-2273894.html|title=JKAP welcomes amendment to domicile order in Jammu and Kashmir, pledges to continue its struggle|date=April 4, 2020|website=Zee News}}</ref> It wants members of the displaced [[Kashmiri Pandit|Kashmiri Hindu]] community to be able to safely return to their homes in the Kashmir Valley.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/politics/altaf-bukhari-floats-jammu-and-kashmir-apni-party-outfit-aims-to-restore-statehood-ensure-safe-return-of-kashmiri-pandits-8130751.html|title=Altaf Bukhari floats Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party; outfit aims to restore statehood, ensure safe return of Kashmiri Pandits |date=March 8, 2020|website=Firstpost}}</ref> The party opposes dynastic politics.<ref name="auto" />

==Electoral performance==
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!style="background-color:{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}};color: white"|Election
!style="background-color:{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}};color:white"|House
!style="background-color:{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}};color:white"|Party leader
!style="background-color:{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}};color:white"|Seats contested
!style="background-color:{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}};color:white"|Seats won
!style="background-color:{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}};color:white"|+/- in seats
!style="background-color:{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}};color:white"|Overall vote %
!style="background-color:{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}};color:white"|Vote swing
|-
!Colspan="9"|Lok Sabha elections
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|[[18th Lok Sabha|18th]]
|[[Altaf Bukhari]]
|
|{{Composition bar|0|543|{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}}}}
|
|
|

|-
!Colspan="9"|Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly elections
|-
|[[2024 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
|[[13th Jammu and Kashmir Assembly|13th]]
|[[Altaf Bukhari]]
|
|{{Composition bar|0|95|{{party color|Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}}}}
|
|
|

|-
|}

== See also ==
* [[Politics of Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference]]
* [[Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party]]
* [[Jammu and Kashmir Workers Party]]
* [[Ikkjutt Jammu]]
* [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
* [[Indian National Congress]]
* [[List of political parties in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.facebook.com/ApniPartyOnline/ Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party on Facebook]
*[https://twitter.com/Apnipartyonline Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party on Twitter]
*[https://kashmirlife.net/apni-party-this-is-what-it-says-it-stands-for-225060/ Founding statement]
*[https://twitter.com/nitingokhale/status/1236560221595504641 Full list of founding members]

{{Indian political parties}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party}}
[[Category:State political parties in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party]]
[[Category:2020 establishments in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 2020]]