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International response to the 2005 Kashmir earthquake

2026-04-30T03:46:21Z

AnnieSneed66: starting new details.

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{{EngvarB|date=November 2020}}
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{{update|date=July 2018}}
{{Cleanup|reason=some or most parts written as if event is currently developing|date=November 2020}}
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[[Image:Humanitarian aid OCPA-2005-10-28-090517a.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] soldier gives a young [[Pakistanis|Pakistani]] [[Kashmiris|Kashmiri]] girl a drink of water as they are airlifted from [[Muzaffarabad]] to [[Islamabad]] ]]

The '''international response to the [[2005 Kashmir earthquake]]''' was widespread and immediate, as many countries, international organizations and [[non-governmental organization]]s offered an abundance of [[Humanitarian aid|relief aid]] to the affected regions − particularly [[Pakistan]], which was hit the hardest due to the earthquake's [[Epicenter|epicentre]] being around [[Muzaffarabad]], the capital city of Pakistani-administered [[Azad Kashmir|Azad Jammu and Kashmir]]. The aid given was in the form of monetary donations and pledges, as well as relief supplies including food, various medical supplies, tents and blankets. Rescue and relief workers as well as peacekeeping troops were sent from different parts of the world to the region, bringing along rescue equipment, including [[helicopter]]s and [[search and rescue dog|rescue dogs]]. The earthquake displaced some 3.3 million people, while killing around 80,000–100,000.

==Africa==
* {{TUN}} - The Tunisian government sent a C-130 plane with 14 tons of relief supplies, including food, blankets and medical supplies to Pakistan.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

==Asia==
* {{flag|Afghanistan|2004}} - The Afghan government sent four rescue helicopters from its nascent air force, as well as a fixed-wing plane loaded with four tons of medicine and army medical personnel, to help with disaster relief in the hardest-hit areas of Kashmir. The country also pledged US$500,000 in aid. The Afghan Red Crescent Society also announced that it would donate 20 tons of dried food and send teams of medical personnel. The aid was given to the local authorities, with Pakistan getting most of it because the damages were greater on the Pakistani side of the border.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}
* {{CAM}} – The [[Prime Minister of Cambodia]], [[Hun Sen]], pledged US$60,000 in assistance.<ref name="dawn1">{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/160813/japan-offers-20m-helicopters |title=Japan offers $20m, helicopters -DAWN - Top Stories; October 12, 2005 |publisher=DAWN |date=2005-10-12 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2010-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029175444/http://www.dawn.com/2005/10/12/top8.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{PRC}} - The [[Government of China|government]] of the People's Republic of China offered emergency aid worth US$6.2 million to help earthquake victims in Pakistan.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120712231652/http://en.chinabroadcast.cn/2238/2005-10-10/148@276019.htm China Crienglish]</ref> A 49-member international rescue team and the first batch of rescue materials were sent to Pakistan on October 9, 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2005-10/09/content_3599070.htm|title=外交部发言人介绍我向南亚地震受灾国援助情况|publisher=News.xinhuanet.com|access-date=2013-12-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208223202/http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2005-10/09/content_3599070.htm|archive-date=2013-12-08}}</ref> US$1 million in cash was sent out on October 10, 2005. Rescue teams with sniffer dogs were deployed throughout the region to search for and rescue any survivors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://big5.chinabroadcast.cn/gate/big5/gb.chinabroadcast.cn/8606/2005/10/10/106@732014.htm |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120710130555/http://big5.chinabroadcast.cn/gate/big5/gb.chinabroadcast.cn/8606/2005/10/10/106@732014.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-07-10 |title=中國向巴基斯坦地震提供的第二批救災物資啟運 |publisher=Big5.chinabroadcast.cn |date=2005-10-10 |access-date=2013-12-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4326150.stm |title=World | South Asia | Quake survivors found in Pakistan |publisher=BBC News |date=2005-10-10 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2006-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522114936/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4326150.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
*{{HKG}} - The [[Government of Hong Kong|government]] of [[Hong Kong]] approved a grant of [[Hong Kong dollar|HK$]]3.5 million from the Disaster Relief Fund to [[World Vision International|World Vision Hong Kong]] in order to undertake relief projects. Hong Kong procured and arranged to air-freight 20 tons of relief supply, including tents and blankets, to Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200510/21/P200510210236.htm |title=Relief for earthquake victims in Pakistan |publisher=Info.gov.hk |date=2005-10-21 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2012-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310055149/http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200510/21/P200510210236.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{IND}} - Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] offered quake assistance to Pakistan. Indian and Pakistani High Commissioners were in touch regarding cooperation in relief work. India sent 25 tons of relief material to [[Pakistan]] including food, blankets and medicine. Indian MNCs companies such as [[Infosys]] have offered aid up to $226,000. On October 12, an [[Ilyushin Il-76|Ilyushin-76]] cargo plane ferried across seven truckloads (about 82 [[ton]]s) of army medicines, 15,000 blankets and 50 tents and returned to New Delhi. A senior air force official also stated that they were asked by the Indian government to be ready to fly out another similar consignment.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/160975/indian-troops-cross-loc-to-back-up-relief-efforts |title=Indian troops cross LoC to back up relief efforts -DAWN - Top Stories; October 13, 2005 |publisher=DAWN |date=2005-10-13 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2010-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029165058/http://www.dawn.com/2005/10/13/top9.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> On October 14, India dispatched the second consignment to relief material to Pakistan, by train through the Wagah Border. The consignment included 5,000 blankets, 370 tents, 5 tons of plastic sheets and 12 tons of medicine. The third consignment was of medicine and relief material and was supposed to be sent, also by train.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20051104044231/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1518632,0008.htm Hindustan Times]</ref> India also pledged $25 million as aid to Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4381982.stm |title=South Asia | India offers Pakistan $25m in aid |publisher=BBC News |date=2005-10-27 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2013-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203122722/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4381982.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[India]] opened the first of three points at Chakan Da Bagh, in [[Poonch district, India|Poonch]], on the Line of Control (LoC) between India and Pakistan for the [[2005 Kashmir earthquake]] relief work. <ref>{{Cite web |title=White flags at the LoC |url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2005/nov/07nlook.htm |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=Rediff |language=en}}</ref>

* {{IDN}} - Indonesia sent a [[C-130 Hercules]] aircraft with a medical team, medicine and various emergency materials to Pakistan. The [[Indonesian Red Cross]] (PMI) also prepared to send humanitarian relief and a special team.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-10/10/content_3600941.htm |title=Xinhua - English |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |date=2005-10-10 |access-date=2013-12-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208223123/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-10/10/content_3600941.htm |archive-date=2013-12-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=6742 |title=PMI Ready to Send Humanitarian Aid to Pakistan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051210200055/http://www.antara.co.id/en/seenws/?id=6742 |archive-date=2005-12-10}}</ref>
* {{IRN}} - Iran dispatched different food items, blankets, tents and medicine through two aircraft.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_10-10-2005_pg1_5 |title=Leading News Resource of Pakistan |publisher=Daily Times |date=2005-10-10 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2013-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010018/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_10-10-2005_pg1_5 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{ISR}} - Israel offered aid to Pakistan and India immediately following the earthquake; Pakistan {{when|date=February 2011}} accepted the aid on the condition that the aid be channeled through a third-party organization such as the United Nations. The nature of the aid is unknown.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://uk.news.yahoo.com/09102005/323/israel-offers-aid-pakistan-quake.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051024082614/http://uk.news.yahoo.com/09102005/323/israel-offers-aid-pakistan-quake.html |archive-date=2005-10-24 |title=Israel offers aid to Pakistan after quake}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Keinon|first1=Herb|title=Pakistan accepts Israeli earthquake aid|url=https://www.jpost.com/Israel/Pakistan-accepts-Israeli-earthquake-aid|access-date=23 December 2015|publisher=The Jerusalem Post|date=15 October 2005|archive-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223190736/http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Pakistan-accepts-Israeli-earthquake-aid|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{JOR}} – [[Prince Rashid bin Al Hassan]], chief of the Jordanian Relief Agencies arrived in Pakistan on October 11, 2005, bringing with him a 50-bed mobile hospital to be deployed in [[Rawalakot]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/160962/jordan-sends-mobile-hospital |title=Jordan sends mobile hospital -DAWN - Top Stories; October 13, 2005 |publisher=DAWN |date=2005-10-13 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2010-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029165016/http://www.dawn.com/2005/10/13/top13.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{JPN}} - Japan provided experts and equipment for rescue operations. On October 11, 2005, Japan pledged a further US$20 million and stated that it was ready to dispatch dozens of troops and several transport helicopters to aid relief efforts. A statement by the Japanese Defense Ministry clarified on October 12, 2005, that they would be sending approximately 290 troops and three helicopters to help with the relief work in Pakistan.<ref name="dawn1"/><ref name="ref1">{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/asiapcf/10/08/quake.pakistan.assistance/index.html/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080519223133/http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/asiapcf/10/08/quake.pakistan.assistance/index.html |archive-date=2008-05-19 |title=Relief effort under way for quake victims|website=[[CNN]] }}</ref>
* {{KUW}} - The Kuwaiti government announced US$100 million in aid to Pakistan. Half of the aid package was expected to be offered in the form of relief assistance, while the other half (approximately $51 million) would be used to repair damaged infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islam-online.net/English/News/2005-10/10/article08.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824090335/http://www.islam-online.net/English/News/2005-10/10/article08.shtml |archive-date=2006-08-24 |title=Time of Essence As Quake Death Toll Could Soar}}</ref>
* {{MAS}} - Malaysia dispatched a search-and-rescue team to quake-ravaged Pakistan and US$1 million ([[Ringgit|MYR]] 3.8 million) to its government. The Malaysian team comprised 50 men from various agencies and non-governmental organizations, including the National Security Division, Special Malaysia Disaster Assistance and Rescue Team (SMART), Kuala Lumpur Hospital, Malaysian [[Red Crescent]] Society and Mercy Malaysia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2005/10/11/nation/12282223&sec=nation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051212034127/http://www.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2005%2F10%2F11%2Fnation%2F12282223&sec=nation |url-status=dead |archive-date=2005-12-12 |title=Search-and-rescue team and RM3.8m sent to Pakistan |publisher=Thestar.com.my |date=2005-10-11 |access-date=2013-12-01 }}</ref>
* {{NEP}} – Nepal offered US$50,000 in relief to Pakistan.<ref name="dawn1"/>
* {{PAK}} - In late 2006, a $20 billion development scheme was mooted by Pakistan for reconstruction and rehabilitation of the earthquake hit zones in Azad Kashmir.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/212814/ |title='Rs1.25 trillion to be spent in Azad Kashmir': Reconstruction in quake-hit zone -DAWN - National; October 01, 2006 |publisher=DAWN |date=2006-10-01 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2007-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312050641/http://www.dawn.com/2006/10/01/nat9.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> A land use plan for [[Muzaffarabad]] city had been prepared by [[Japan International Cooperation Agency]].
* {{QAT}} - A spokesman for the Qatari foreign ministry said that the country was also willing to give humanitarian assistance to Pakistan.
* {{SAU}} - Saudi [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|King Abdullah]] announced an emergency aid package worth 133 million dollars for Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Saudi gives 133 million dollars aid to Pakistan|url=http://www.lebanonwire.com/1005/05101509AFP.asp|access-date=23 December 2015|publisher=Lebanon Wire|date=15 October 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129040507/http://lebanonwire.com/1005/05101509AFP.asp|archive-date=29 November 2011}}</ref> Earlier, Saudi [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|King Abdullah]] ordered the rapid establishment of an airlift of doctors, medicine, tents and emergency supplies to the affected region.<ref>{{cite news|title=Saudi Arabia gives USD 133 mn aid to Pakistan|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/south-asia/saudi-arabia-gives-usd-133-mn-aid-to-pakistan_248803.html|access-date=23 December 2015|publisher=Zee News|date=15 October 2005|archive-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223193850/http://zeenews.india.com/news/south-asia/saudi-arabia-gives-usd-133-mn-aid-to-pakistan_248803.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Saudi public also made a big contribution to helping victims of the earthquake, on the call of Saudi government. The Saudi government went one step further by institutionalizing this assistance in the form of [https://web.archive.org/web/20181221172921/https://www.spapev.org/ Saudi Public Assistance for Pakistan Earthquake victims] (SPAPEV).
* {{SIN}} - [[Singaporean response to 2005 Kashmir earthquake]]: Prime Minister [[Lee Hsien Loong]], on behalf of the people of Singapore, expressed his deepest condolences and sympathies to the families of the victims. The [[Singapore Civil Defence Force]] was preparing to dispatch a 44-member [[Disaster Assistance and Rescue Team]] to help Pakistan's relief and rescue operations. Another two medical relief teams were also sent.
* {{KOR}} - The South Korean government sent US$500,000 along with blankets, relief food, and medical supplies to Pakistan as part of their initial response. A further $3 million in aid was announced by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade on October 10, 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.korea.net/news/news/newsView.asp?serial_no=20051011004&part=103 |title=Korea to provide $3 Mil. to help quake-hit Pakistan | Korea.net News |publisher=Korea.net |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927203807/http://www.korea.net/news/news/newsView.asp?serial_no=20051011004&part=103 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* {{TUR}} - Turkey sent 30 aircraft carrying medical teams to Pakistan.<ref name="ref1"/> Furthermore, on October 20, 2005, Turkey announced a relief package of US$150 million; financial assistance of $100 million and relief goods worth $50 million including 1 million blankets, 50,000 tonnes of flour and 25,000 tonnes of sugar.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/162218/turkey-offers-150m-relief |title=Turkey offers $150m relief -DAWN - Top Stories; October 21, 2005 |publisher=DAWN |date=2005-10-21 |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2010-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029171613/http://www.dawn.com/2005/10/21/top2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Turkish Red Crescent sent 90 health personnel to Pakistan, built tent cities and hospitals. The Turkish Red Crescent also started building a new tent city that will provide shelter for 70,000 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eng.kizilay.org.tr/articles/detail/detail3.asp?id=221 |title=Turkiye Kizilay Dernegi | Turkish Red Crescent Society |access-date=2006-03-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211021530/http://eng.kizilay.org.tr/articles/detail/detail3.asp?id=221 |archive-date=2006-02-11 }}</ref>
* {{ARE}} - The total monetary commitment, as of October 10, 2005, was US$100 million.<ref>{{cite web |last=Qayum |first=Khalid |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000087&sid=a.ZY.y0waCqw&refer=top_world_news |title=Top Worldwide |publisher=Bloomberg.com |date=2005-10-10 |access-date=2013-12-01 }}</ref> United Arab Emirates President [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan]], ordered the immediate dispatch of humanitarian aid to the region and rescue teams. The Dubai police also left for Pakistan.

==Europe==
* {{NOR}} - Norway provided some NOK 240 million ($38 million) in aid.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.helgeland-arbeiderblad.no/verden/article1814772.ece |title=Norge øker støtten til Pakistan |language=nb |publisher=helgeland-arbeiderblad.no |access-date=2013-12-01 |archive-date=2013-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203083217/http://www.helgeland-arbeiderblad.no/verden/article1814772.ece |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* {{POL}} - Poland sent rescue dogs, medics and other disaster specialists<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.psyratownicze.net/index.php?id=42 |title=OSP w Gdańsku {{!}} Relacja z Pakistanu |access-date=2008-04-10 |archive-date=2011-07-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724021838/http://www.psyratownicze.net/index.php?id=42 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{BEL}} - Belgian Federal Government allocated [[Euro|EUR]] 250,000 (PKR 18 million) and Flemish Government EUR 125,000 (PKR 9 million) for equipment and relief assistance in Pakistan and India. A 5 people strong rescue team was sent and 22 people of the special B-fast rescue team, departed for the region on October 11, 2005. The main purpose of the B-fast team was to set up a [[field hospital]] for performing basic operations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vrtnieuws.net/nieuwsnet_master/versie2/nieuws/details/051009AardbevingBis/index.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060109091903/http://www.vrtnieuws.net/nieuwsnet_master/versie2/nieuws/details/051009AardbevingBis/index.shtml |archive-date=2006-01-09 |title=Hulp vanuit de hele wereld naar Pakistan |language=nl}}</ref>
* {{CZE}} - The prime minister [[Jiří Paroubek]] announced on TV, that the Czech Republic would provide the victims with [[Czech koruna|CZK]] 25 million (PKR 61 million).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ceskenoviny.cz/index_view.php?id=151813 |title=ČeskéNoviny.cz |access-date=2005-10-13 |archive-date=2006-01-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060102105450/http://www.ceskenoviny.cz/index_view.php?id=151813 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{DEN}} - The Danish Government initially granted [[Danish krone|DKK]] 10 million (PKR 97 million) in aid, but later offered two additional grants of DKK 20 million each, making the total aid DKK 50 million (PKR 485 million).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Indland/2005/10/22/093032.htm |title=Yderligere 20 millioner til jordskælvsofre - dr.dk/Nyheder/Indland |date=22 October 2005 |access-date=2005-10-22 |archive-date=2005-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051024022542/http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Indland/2005/10/22/093032.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{EST}} - Estonia sent an 18-member medical [[emergency management|disaster relief team]] to the northern Pakistan city [[Batagram]]. The team worked there for two weeks, during which they built up a hospital tent complex, which was the main facility in the city for medical assistance<ref>[http://www.postimees.ee/241005/esileht/valisuudised/180854.php Postimees: Eestist jäi Pakistani sügav jälg] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130213033222/http://www.postimees.ee/241005/esileht/valisuudised/180854.php |date=2013-02-13 }}</ref>
* {{FIN}} - Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland allocated EUR 1 million to support the joint field hospital of Finnish and Norwegian Red Cross organizations. The hospital staff included 20 Finnish medical workers, who left for Pakistan on October 12, 2005, and October 13, 2005. Finland also donated 1.000 tents capable of housing 15.000 individuals.<ref>http://www.ulkoministerio.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=42241&intIGID=2&LAN=FI&Thread=42256,39489,19209,15871,29364,29021,25384,31792,42349,42324,42288,42241,&intThreadPosition=11{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[http://www.redcross.fi/ajankohtaista/aasia2005/fi_FI/sairaala_lahti/ Sivua ei löytynyt]{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* {{FRA}} - France continued its efforts to assist the earthquake victims in Pakistan. After sending many rescue teams with dogs and equipment for rescue operations, French aid to Pakistan was, in November 2005, reaching 10.5 million euros. In addition to this, once must have also considered France's contribution to EU programs and the generous contributions to various NGOs and private companies mobilized in France and in the stricken region since the first day of the quake.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/actu/articletxt.gb.asp?ART=50887 |title=Redirection |access-date=2005-12-14 |archive-date=2006-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217182410/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/actu/articletxt.gb.asp?ART=50887 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On the night of the earthquake, French authorities rushed 25 civil security personnel, 20 rescuers accompanied by dogs and specialized search and rescue material, 41 SAMU (France's emergency medical agency) personnel, and 18 military doctors along with relief materials.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/actu/articletxt.gb.asp?ART=50725 |title=Redirection |access-date=2005-12-14 |archive-date=2006-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060113073748/http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/actu/articletxt.gb.asp?ART=50725 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* {{GER}} - Germany sent a team of 16 [[Technisches Hilfswerk|THW]] experts with dogs and equipment for locating people in collapsed buildings.<ref>[http://www.thw.bund.de/cln_011/nn_244766/DE/content/meldungen/thw__im__ausland/pressemitteilungen/2005/10/meldung02.html__nnn=true THW - Homepage]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The [[German Red Cross]] stood by with tents, water-purification equipment and mobile hospitals, to support the work of its partner organizations in the region.<ref>[http://www.drk.de/a-internettagebuch/051008_erdbeben/bericht.htm Klarer Blick für die Not] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051210054722/http://www.drk.de/a-internettagebuch/051008_erdbeben/bericht.htm |date=2005-12-10 }}</ref>
* {{NLD}} - The Dutch Department of International Co-operation promised EUR 1 million. A team of 66 rescue workers arrived and worked in [[Bagh, Azad Kashmir|Bagh]]. The government added EUR 10 million, on October 11, 2005.
* {{RUS}} - Russia sent two flights carrying rescue teams with dogs and equipment for rescue operations, and it also sent a field hospital.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lenta.ru/articles/2005/10/10/pakistan/ |title=Lenta.ru: В мире: Кашмир в руинах |access-date=2005-10-13 |archive-date=2005-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051210194156/http://lenta.ru/articles/2005/10/10/pakistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{SWE}} - Sweden gave 196 million kronor (24,2 million dollars approximately). Sweden prepared to assist a rescue effort led by the [[UN]] in [[Pakistan]] according to Swedish [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Sweden)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] [[Laila Freivalds]].
* {{SUI}} - Switzerland dispatched ten disaster relief experts to Islamabad and the Swiss government pledged [[Swiss franc|CHF]] 1 million and non-governmental organizations pledged another CHF 750,000.
* {{GBR}} - [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]] said that Britain was sending out 60 disaster response workers including 50 medical staff. International Development Secretary [[Hilary Benn]] announced an initial allocation of PKR 10 million, or about [[Pound Sterling|GBP]] 95,000.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rescue workers fly to quake zone|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4321918.stm|access-date=23 December 2015|publisher=BBC News|date=8 October 2005|archive-date=5 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005151343/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4321918.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> As of mid-November 2005, Britain has pledged over GBP 100 million.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4447328.stm |title=BBC NEWS {{!}} UK {{!}} UK pledges extra £70m to Pakistan |date=17 November 2005 |access-date=2005-11-25 |archive-date=2023-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214205625/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4447328.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> On October 31, 2005 [[Virgin Atlantic]] operated a humanitarian aid charter flight to the capital of [[Pakistan]], [[Islamabad]] with 55 tonnes of [[aid]] for the affected by the [[2005 Kashmir earthquake|earthquake in Pakistan]].<ref>[http://www.virgin-atlantic.com/en/gb/allaboutus/pressoffice/pressreleases/news/pr311005.jsp VIRGIN ATLANTIC OPERATES RELIEF FLIGHT TO ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408181608/http://www.virgin-atlantic.com/en/gb/allaboutus/pressoffice/pressreleases/news/pr311005.jsp |date=2008-04-08 }} Accessed 2009-12-31</ref>

==Americas==
* {{CAN}} - Canada offered [[Canadian dollar|CAD]] 100,000 (PKR 5 million) to the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]] for early needs assessment. An additional CAD 200,000 (PKR 10 million) was provided to the [[Canadian High Commission in Pakistan]] to respond to urgent requirements, i.e. [[House|housing]], [[water]], [[food]] and [[clothing]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/news.asp?id=605 |title=Prime Minister of Canada: Statement by the Prime Minister on the earthquake in Pakistan and neighbouring countries |access-date=2005-10-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051210085945/http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/news.asp?id=605 |archive-date=2005-12-10 }}</ref> The [[Minister for International Cooperation (Canada)|Minister for International Cooperation]], [[Aileen Carroll]], also announced a pledge of CAD 20 million (PKR 1 billion),<ref>[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051010/boost_earthquake_ottawa_051010/20051010?hub=TopStories CTV.ca | Canada pledges $20 million in earthquake aid] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051220011839/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051010/boost_earthquake_ottawa_051010/20051010?hub=TopStories |date=2005-12-20 }}</ref> including 21 [[tonne]]s of [[blanket]]s, dispatched by [[Canadian Forces]] [[aircraft]], some of which are being routed to Pakistan from current operations in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ottawa will match Asian earthquake donation|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa-will-match-asian-earthquake-donations-pm-says-1.526481|access-date=23 December 2015|publisher=CBC News|date=11 October 2005|archive-date=23 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223195236/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa-will-match-asian-earthquake-donations-pm-says-1.526481|url-status=live}}</ref> The Canadian government also pledged to match all [[public]] funds as well as lease two [[helicopter]]s from the [[United Nations]]. A joint team of government officials also was sent to evaluate further assistance, including the possibility of sending the [[Disaster Assistance Response Team]] (DART).<ref>[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051011/martin_matching_fund_earthquake_051011/20051011?hub=TopStories CTV.ca | Martin pledges matching funds for South Asia aid]{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Also, due to the fact that many Canadians criticized their government of reacting slowly 10 months ago when the Asian tsunami hit, Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin challenged Canada by saying that his government will match whatever donations Canadians make over the next two weeks to NGOs operating in the region. On October 26, 2005, CIDA increased its funding to $57 million, including $10 million donated to the [[South Asia Earthquake Matching Fund]] and the other half to the UN and the Red Cross movement.<ref>[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051026/canada_funding_051026/20051026?hub=TopStories CTV.ca | Canada boosts funding for quake relief efforts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705201408/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20051026/canada_funding_051026/20051026?hub=TopStories |date=2007-07-05 }}</ref>
* {{CUB}} – President [[Fidel Castro]] offered, in a letter addressed to the President of Pakistan and made public by officials in [[Havana]], to send 200 doctors to Pakistan in order to help treat the victims of the earthquake. Some 2,260 Cuban health brigadistas, more than 1,400 of them doctors, were in the area of Kashmir. The fully equipped Cuban Field Hospitals was handed over to the Pakistani government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.periodico26.cu/english/health/units032206.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909205924/http://www.periodico26.cu/english/health/units032206.htm |archive-date=2006-09-09 |title=Cuba to Leave MASH Units with Earthquake Ravaged Pakistan}}</ref> The Cuban Government provided 234.5 tons of medicines and disposable materials, and 275.7 tons of most leading-edge equipment. More than 300 students of medicine took courses in the Cuban Field Hospitals. The Cuban Government decided to offer a wide and free medicine scholarships program for 1,000 young Pakistanis from rural communities.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://havanajournal.com/culture/entry/cuba-gives-pakistan-30-mobile-field-hospitals/ |title=Cuba gives Pakistan 30 mobile field hospitals - Cuba Culture News - Havana Journal |access-date=2006-04-26 |archive-date=2006-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514205507/http://havanajournal.com/culture/entry/cuba-gives-pakistan-30-mobile-field-hospitals/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first Cuban medical team was in Pakistan on October 14, six days after the earthquake, the fast acceptance of the aid was a surprise due to the close relation of Pakistan and the US; the two countries have not even exchanged Ambassadors at that time. The leading Pakistani newspaper ''Dawn'' quoted President Musharraf as saying that "one of the most heart-warming letters of support" following the earthquake was from Fidel Castro. In his letter, Castro said that it was difficult for him to rest when thousands of Pakistanis were spending their days in pain, awaiting surgery.<ref>[http://www.flonnet.com/fl2226/stories/20051230000606300.htm Helping hand from Cuba] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524023143/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2226/stories/20051230000606300.htm |date=2006-05-24 }}</ref>
* {{USA}} - The United States announced that it would provide an initial contribution of US$156 million (PKR 3 billion) for emergency relief in Pakistan, and teams from the United States were the first on the scene to deliver assistance. The [[Military of the United States|U.S. military]] also provided supplies and assistance. As of November 3, 2005, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) had 933 personnel providing relief and reconstruction assistance in support of the Pakistan earthquake relief effort. Five [[CH-47 Chinook]] and three [[UH-60 Black Hawk]] helicopters were moved into Pakistan immediately, and a [[C-17 Globemaster III]] military aircraft was assigned to bring blankets, tents and other relief supplies to the victims. The 212th Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH), established October 25 in Muzaffarabad, had 36 Intensive Care Unit beds, 60 intermediate minimal care beds, and two operating rooms. To date the MASH has performed 46 surgeries, and treated 548 non-surgical patients. Furthermore, a 23-member logistical support group was also being dispatched from McGuire Air Force Base in [[New Jersey]]. The [[United States Agency for International Development]] provided more than US$41.8 million for relief work in Pakistan, including nine completed airlifts of relief supplies. The airlifts delivered a total of 45,000 blankets, 1,570 winterized tents, 6,150 rolls of plastic sheeting for approximately 30,750 families, 15,000 water containers, 17 water bladders, 2 water purification units, 10 WHO emergency health kits, and 20 concrete cutting saws. USAID has also committed funds to the UN, other international organizations and NGOs. On Wednesday, November 9, 2005, business leaders from GE, UPS, Pfizer, Xerox, and Citigroup met with President Bush at the White House to announce the launch of the South Asia Earthquake Relief Fund and website.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usaid.gov/locations/asia_near_east/south_asia_quake |title=USAID: South Asia Earthquake |access-date=2005-11-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107221742/http://www.usaid.gov/locations/asia_near_east/south_asia_quake/ |archive-date=2005-11-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/10/politics/10prexy.html |title=Showing Speed and Loyalty, Bush Mobilizes Aid to Pakistan - New York Times |work=The New York Times |date=10 October 2005 |access-date=2017-02-19 |archive-date=2009-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310164354/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/10/politics/10prexy.html |url-status=live |last1=Sanger |first1=David E. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.southasiaearthquakerelief.org/ |title=South Asia Earthquake Relief |access-date=2005-11-09 |archive-date=2005-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051110115910/http://www.southasiaearthquakerelief.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Oceania==
* {{AUS}} - Parliamentary Secretary for Foreign Affairs [[Bruce Billson]] offered condolences and said that Australia was donating [[Australian dollar|A$]]500,000 ([[Pakistani rupee|PKR]]23 [[million]]) for medical and relief assistance to help provide medical help and shelter to affected communities. Later, Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]] said the Government has increased its total aid pledge to [[Australian dollar|A$]]5.5 million ([[Pakistani rupee|PKR]]250 [[million]]). On 11 October 2005, this was extended by [[Australian dollar|A$]]4.5 [[million]] ([[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 204 [[million]]), bringing its total contribution to [[Australian dollar|A$]]10 million ([[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 453 [[million]])<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.news.com.au/story/0,10117,16869921-29277,00.html |title=Australian quake aid rises to $5.5m {{!}} NEWS.com.au |access-date=2005-10-13 |archive-date=2006-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524101816/http://www.news.com.au/story/0,10117,16869921-29277,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Australia-donates-500000-for-quake/2005/10/09/1128796395377.html |title=Govt offers aid for earthquake victims - Breaking News - National - Breaking News |date=9 October 2005 |access-date=2005-10-13 |archive-date=2005-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051210221401/http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Australia-donates-500000-for-quake/2005/10/09/1128796395377.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/australia-to-donate-extra-45m-in-quake-aid/2005/10/11/1128796505217.html |title=Australia to donate $10m in quake aid - National - smh.com.au |date=11 October 2005 |access-date=2005-10-13 |archive-date=2005-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051210234434/http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/australia-to-donate-extra-45m-in-quake-aid/2005/10/11/1128796505217.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In a Ministerial Press Release Defence on November 9, 2005, Defence Minister Robert Hill announced an [[Australian Defence Force|ADF]] deployment of about 140 personnel; comprising a command element, an aviation detachment of four Blackhawk helicopters, and logistics and communication personnel. They were to be based in Islamabad and establish a central medical facility located in Dhanni a region 20 km north-east of Muzaffarabad to support efforts. The deployment lasted six months with an estimated cost of A$20 million.<ref name="ADF press release">{{cite web|title=ADF Medical Team to Deploy to Pakistan|url=http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/Hilltpl.cfm?CurrentId=5230|work=Australian Defense Minister: Media Release|publisher=Government of Australia|access-date=1 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231083044/http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/Hilltpl.cfm?CurrentId=5230|archive-date=31 December 2005|date=9 November 2005}}</ref><ref>[http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/Hilltpl.cfm?CurrentId=5230 Australian Government, Department of Defence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231083044/http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/Hilltpl.cfm?CurrentId=5230 |date=2005-12-31 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Australian-troops-arrive-in-Pakistan/2005/11/13/1131816800591.html |title=Australian troops arrive in Pakistan - Breaking News - National - Breaking News |date=13 November 2005 |access-date=2005-11-14 |archive-date=2012-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024041957/http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Australian-troops-arrive-in-Pakistan/2005/11/13/1131816800591.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{NZL}} - Caretaker Associate [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (New Zealand)|Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] [[Marian Hobbs]] said the government aid agency [[NZAID]] would make an initial contribution of [[New Zealand dollar|NZD]] 750,000 ([[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 31 [[million]]) to the international relief effort.<ref>[http://www.beehive.govt.nz/ViewDocument.aspx?DocumentID=24231 Beehive - New Zealand to assist following disasters] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060108093437/http://www.beehive.govt.nz/ViewDocument.aspx?DocumentID=24231 |date=2006-01-08 }}</ref> On 14 October 2005, this was extended by [[New Zealand dollar|NZD]] 750,000 ([[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 31 [[million]]), bringing its total contribution to [[New Zealand dollar|NZD]] 1.5 [[million]] ([[Pakistani rupee|PKR]] 62 [[million]])<ref>[http://www.beehive.govt.nz/ViewDocument.aspx?DocumentID=24251 Beehive - New Zealand doubles Pakistan earthquake aid] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051224065824/http://www.beehive.govt.nz/ViewDocument.aspx?DocumentID=24251 |date=2005-12-24 }}</ref>

==Multinational organizations==
* {{Flag|United Nations}} — An eight-member U.N. relief team arrived in Pakistan to aid in search-and-rescue operations, coordinate relief efforts and assess the impact of the quake. Agencies involved included the: [[United Nations Children's Fund]], [[United Nations World Food Programme]], [[United Nations Population Fund]] and the [[International Nongovernmental Organizations Forum]]. Supplies such as blankets, clothes, tents, food for infants and medicine were sent to the disaster regions. The [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]] released US$100,000 (PKR 5 million) of emergency fund for immediate relief aid.<ref name="ref1"/>
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of WHO.svg}} [[World Health Organization]] - WHO rushed 100,000 doses of [[Tetanus|anti-tetanus]] globulin to Pakistan as part of their relief effort. WHO had an extensive deployment in Pakistan's affected area.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/162065/who-to-send-100000-doses-of-tetanus-drug |title=WHO to send 100,000 doses of tetanus drug -DAWN - Top Stories; October 20, 2005 |date=20 October 2005 |access-date=October 21, 2005 |archive-date=January 1, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060101121322/http://www.dawn.com/2005/10/20/top5.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.whopak.org/disaster/maprelief.htm Earthquake disaster in Pakistan - WHO Response] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010063101/http://www.whopak.org/disaster/maprelief.htm |date=2007-10-10 }}</ref>
* {{Flag|European Union}} — The European Commission released EUR 3.6 million (PKR 260 million) on 9 October 2005. Funds were made available to partner humanitarian organisations through ECHO, the humanitarian aid department of the European Commission.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EVOD-6GZG93?OpenDocument&rc=3&emid=EQ-2005 |title=ReliefWeb » Document » European Commission funds urgent humanitarian aid for victims of earthquake |date=9 October 2005 |access-date=2005-10-13 |archive-date=2006-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060827171117/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EVOD-6GZG93?OpenDocument&rc=3&emid=EQ-2005 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{Flag|Organisation of the Islamic Conference}} (OIC) — Secretary general [[Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu]] expressed immense shock and sadness at the tragedy and conveyed his "profound and sincere condolences to the government and the brotherly people of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan". He strongly appealed to all OIC member states and the international community, to expeditiously extend all possible humanitarian assistance and support to the Government and people of Pakistan, to overcome the impact of this tragedy.<ref>[http://www.onlinenews.com.pk/details.php?id=88050 ONLINE - International News Network] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060113065529/http://www.onlinenews.com.pk/details.php?id=88050 |date=2006-01-13 }}</ref>
* [[World Bank Group]] - On October 9, 2005, the World Bank committed US$20 million for recovery in Pakistan. This amount was raised to $40 million on October 11, 2005. A further $100 million was offered to build "designed houses" in Northern Pakistan and Kashmir area.<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20675911~menuPK:34463~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html News & Broadcast - World Bank Offers Condolences, Support Following South Asian Earthquake]</ref><ref name="worldbank1">[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20678397~menuPK:34463~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html News & Broadcast - World Bank Increases Support To Pakistan Quake Zone]</ref>

==Non-governmental organizations==
*[http://humanaidfocus.org/ Human Aid Focus]- was the first NGO to start work in Bagh, Azad Kashmir and won numerous awards for their emergency response. After the 2005 earthquake, they continued working in the area building shelters, school and on women empowerment projects.
*[[Humanity First]]- The first to reach the earthquake zone. Doctors, paramedics and volunteers from the UK, Canada, USA and Pakistan opened medical and tent camps which continued to provide longterm health care and shelter to the victims of the earthquake.
*[[Direct Relief]] - Through October 31, 2006, Direct Relief provided 1.5 million courses of treatment of specifically requested medicines, supplies, and equipment, along with $1.1 million in cash grants to 12 clinics, hospitals, and organizations, to the relief effort, and continues to provide ongoing programmatic support to its partners.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.directrelief.org/pdf/Pakistan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061129073044/http://www.directrelief.org/pdf/Pakistan.pdf |archive-date=2006-11-29 |title=Special Report: Pakistan Earthquake One Year Update|date=2018-04-25 }}</ref>
* [[Oxfam]] - An emergency assessment and response team was dispatched to the region. A coordinator said that the "initial needs appear to be tents, blankets, medical kits, food aid, water and trauma counseling for those affected."<ref>
[http://www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/emergencies/country/asian_quake/index.htm Oxfam GB :: Current emergencies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051013061700/http://www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/emergencies/country/asian_quake/index.htm |date=2005-10-13 }}</ref>
* The [[Sarhad Rural Support Programme]] provided immediate relief efforts at a large scale following which it was involved in making damage assessments and paying compensation and monitoring the rebuilding of over 62,000 houses under the project named [[Earthquake Relief and Rehabilitation Project]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Protecting Livelihood in Conflict and Fragile States|url=https://www.microlinks.org/sites/microlinks/files/resource/files/Protecting_Livelihoods_SC_Compilation_0.pdf|publisher=USAID|date=January 2008|access-date=2016-04-06|archive-date=2016-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422013713/https://www.microlinks.org/sites/microlinks/files/resource/files/Protecting_Livelihoods_SC_Compilation_0.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The [[International Rescue Corps]] deployed a specialist Urban Search and Rescue team of 14 volunteers to Pakistan as part of the wider UK response.<ref>[http://www.intrescue.org.uk/press_news.htm IRC - Media - Press News] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230221256/http://www.intrescue.org.uk/press_news.htm |date=2005-12-30 }}</ref>
* [[Red crescent|Red Crescent]] - Emergency assessment and response teams were deployed in all parts of the affected region.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ifrc.org/cgi/pdf_appeals.pl?rpts05%2FSAeq08100501.pdf |title=Red Cross Red Crescent - Appeals |access-date=2005-10-13 |archive-date=2005-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051012034511/http://www.ifrc.org/cgi/pdf_appeals.pl?rpts05%2FSAeq08100501.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> A team of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) reached Muzaffarabad on October 10, 2005. Further teams deployed in Uri and Jammu with the Indian Red Cross Society. The ICRC set up a website to facilitate the contact between relatives and friends unable to get in touch with each other.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/ |title=International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) - Home |access-date=2019-04-29 |archive-date=2018-03-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311034431/https://www.icrc.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[The Salvation Army]] - Mobilized some truckloads of relief supplies.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.salvationarmy.org.uk/ |title=The Salvation Army: UK & Ireland |access-date=2005-10-13 |archive-date=2018-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325070247/http://www.salvationarmy.org.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[SOS Children's Villages]] announced an emergency relief program in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>[http://www.sos-childrensvillages.org/news-and-media/news/pages/emergency-relief-underway-for-earthquake-victims-in-india.aspx Kashmir Earthquake News : First Charity Report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080628205326/http://www.sos-childrensvillages.org/News-and-Media/News/Pages/Emergency-relief-underway-for-earthquake-victims-in-India.aspx |date=2008-06-28 }}</ref>
* [http://greenpakistan.org/ Subh-e-Nau: An Environment and Public Health Concern] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910091709/http://greenpakistan.org/ |date=2017-09-10 }} was the first to initiate an aid and volunteer coordination mechanism. It later studied and put together the SN Disability Reduction and Rehabilitation Strategy that was presented to the international relief community. The SN Disability Program then focused on rehabilitation of persons with spinal cord injury, with the help of national and international volunteers, mainly from Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://greenpakistan.org/disability-program/|title=Subh-e-Nau Disability Program|access-date=2017-08-28|archive-date=2017-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021183625/http://greenpakistan.org/disability-program/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://greenpakistan.org/portfolio/sn-disability-reduction-and-rehabilitation-program/|title=Subh-e-Nau Disability Reduction and Rehabilitation Strategy|access-date=2017-08-28|archive-date=2017-12-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206194607/http://greenpakistan.org/portfolio/sn-disability-reduction-and-rehabilitation-program/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canadianmedicalteams.org/cmat-trillium-rehab-team-releases-initial-report-on-physiorehab-activities-for-pakistan-quake-victims-in-rawalpindi/|title=CMAT Teams working with NGO Subh-e-Nau|date=2006-03-10|access-date=2017-08-28|archive-date=2017-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829033607/https://www.canadianmedicalteams.org/cmat-trillium-rehab-team-releases-initial-report-on-physiorehab-activities-for-pakistan-quake-victims-in-rawalpindi/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://icdr.utoronto.ca/our-community/exam-skills-preparation|title=Pakistan Working Group, International Center for Disability and Rehabilitation, University of Toronto|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828233313/http://icdr.utoronto.ca/our-community/exam-skills-preparation|archive-date=2017-08-28|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The [[Minhaj-ul-Quran|Minhaj Welfare Foundation]] has been active in [[Pakistan]] over a decade. At the time of the earthquake they established tent villages with supplies and full medical facilities.<ref>[http://welfare.minhaj.org/en/contents.minhaj?category=news&start=15&ids=15&e=1180642803 MWF - Welfare News] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928045355/http://welfare.minhaj.org/en/contents.minhaj?category=news&start=15&ids=15&e=1180642803 |date=2007-09-28 }}</ref>
* The [[Edhi Foundation]] has been active in [[Pakistan]] for two decades. They provided food, clothes, blankets and medicine to those affected by the disaster.<ref>[http://www.crescentlife.com/thisthat/community%20org/edhi_foundation.htm edhi foundation] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051013063804/http://www.crescentlife.com/thisthat/community%20org/edhi_foundation.htm |date=2005-10-13 }}</ref>
* The World Islamic Mission Welfare Trust - sent out phases of doctors to the area, including both General Physicians and Surgeons with tens of thousands of pounds worth of medicine. They also set up various dispensaries within affected areas, as well as collaborated with hospitals within the area to take airlifted injured survivors. Rehabilitation was the main focus after the immediate phase has passed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wimuk.com/ |title=wimuk.com - Home |access-date=2005-11-08 |archive-date=2007-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823195820/http://www.wimuk.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Strengthening Participatory Organization|SPO]] - Provided relief aid and medical goods at the Lady Reading and Khyber Hospitals, in Peshawar. Till date, goods worth 850 000 Rs. were sent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.spopk.org/ |title=.. SPO Pakistan .. |access-date=2005-11-08 |archive-date=2005-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051210185743/http://www.spopk.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[DEMIRA Deutsche Minenraeumer e.V.]] deployed an emergency team to Balakot district only hours after the earthquake. In cooperation with the Pakistan army DEMIRA set up a medical facility in the valley of Ghanool providing the hard-hit mountain communities with lifesaving triage and air ambulance.
* [[JEN Japan Emergency NGOs]] worked for the relief operation on 9 October 2005. Expert came from Japan to provide Non Food Items (NFIs) to the affected people in District Bagh. JEN worked in District Bagh until December 2008. JEN constructed 3 permanent structure (earthquake proof)Schools and 3 Shelter schools, each school contains 2 shelters.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.jen-npo.org/ | title=あなたの支援・寄付で世界の難民に自立を。特定非営利活動法人ジェン Jen | access-date=2014-01-07 | archive-date=2014-01-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106031633/http://www.jen-npo.org/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Estimate of financial aid==
On November 19, 2005, it was estimated that the international community as a whole pledged about US$5.8 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.standaard.be/Artikel/Detail.aspx?artikelId=DMF19112005_010 |title=De Standaard Online - Pakistan krijgt 5,8 miljard dollar |date=18 November 2005 |access-date=2005-12-13 |archive-date=2007-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930201505/http://www.standaard.be/Artikel/Detail.aspx?artikelId=DMF19112005_010 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Effects ==
A 2016 study showed that the Pakistanis affected by the international relief effort showed markedly higher trust in Europeans, Americans and Cubans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Andrabi|first1=Tahir|author-link=Tahir R. Andrabi|last2=Das|first2=Jishnu|date=2016-08-24|title=In Aid We Trust: Hearts and Minds and the Pakistan Earthquake of 2005|journal=Review of Economics and Statistics|volume=99|issue=3|pages=371–386|doi=10.1162/REST_a_00638|issn=0034-6535|citeseerx=10.1.1.716.5921|s2cid=3905755}}</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
{{Commons category|2005 Kashmir earthquake relief efforts}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051231045800/http://www.dinarstandard.com/current/CorporateRelief1005.htm Earthquake Jolts Corporate Responsibility]

[[Category:2005 Kashmir earthquake]]
[[Category:Humanitarian military operations]]
[[Category:International responses to natural disasters|Kashmir earthquake]]
[[Category:2005 in international relations]]
[[Category:Non-combat military operations involving Pakistan]]
[[Category:Kashmir]]

Agasti Behera

2026-04-23T16:23:20Z

AnnieSneed66: Starting New Article And Citations - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Agasti Behera
| birth_name =
| caption =
| image =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = [[Odisha Legislative Assembly|Member of Odisha Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Chhendipada Assembly constituency|Chhendipada]]
| term_start = 4 June 2024
| predecessor = Susanta Kumar Behera
| constituency1 =
| term1 =
| term_end1 =
| successor1 =
| office2 =
| constituency2 =
| term_start2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| other_party =
| website =
| alma_mater =
| profession = Politician
| date =
| year =
| source =
}}

'''Agasti Behera''' is an Indian politician. He was elected to the [[Odisha Legislative Assembly]] from [[Chhendipada Assembly constituency|Chhendipada]] as a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Agasti Behera Election Affidavit |url=https://www.myneta.info/Odisha2024/candidate.php?candidate_id=640 |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Chhendipada Election Result 2024 LIVE Updates Highlights: Agasti Behera of BJP Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/chhendipada-election-result-2024-live-updates-highlights-assembly-winner-loser-leading-trailing-mla-margin-8916500.html |website=News18 |access-date=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=BJP wins seven of nine seats in undivided Dhenkanal |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/odisha/2024/Jun/05/bjp-wins-seven-of-nine-seats-in-undivided-dhenkanal |website=The New Indian Express |access-date=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Odisha Assembly Election Result 2024; Check List of Winning Candidates |url=https://pragativadi.com/odisha-assembly-election-result-2024-check-list-of-winning-candidates/ |website=Pragativadi |access-date=23 September 2024}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Behera, Agasti}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Odisha]]
[[Category:Odisha MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Odisha-BJP-politician-stub}}

Malavika Prasad

2026-04-15T16:26:11Z

AnnieSneed66:

{{Short description|Indian footballer}}
{{Indian patronymic|Malavika|Prasad}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Malavika P
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| fullname = Malavika Prasad
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|2003|11|12|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Kasaragod]], [[Kerala]], India
| height = 1.63 m<ref name="AFC-squad-list">{{cite web |title=2026 AFC Women's Asian Cup Squad Lists |url=https://assets.the-afc.com/2026_AFC_Womens_Asian_Cup/Finals/Squad_Lists/AFC-Women's-Asian-Cup-Australia-2026%E2%84%A2-Final-Registration---Feb-25upd.pdf?source=url |publisher=Asian Football Confederation |access-date=27 February 2026 }}</ref>
| position = [[Forward (association football)|Forward]]
| currentclub = [[Sethu FC|Sethu]]
| clubnumber = 11
| youthyears1 = 2017–2019
| youthclubs1 = [[Kerala women's football team|Kerala]]
| years1 = 2019–2020
| clubs1 = Misaka United FC
| caps1 =
| goals1 =
| years2 = 2021
| clubs2 = Travancore Royals FC
| caps2 =
| goals2 =
| years3 = 2021–2022
| clubs3 = [[Kemp FC|Kemp]]
| caps3 =
| goals3 =
| years4 = 2022
| clubs4 = [[Rainbow AC|ASOS Rainbow]]
| caps4 =
| goals4 =
| years5 = 2022–2023
| clubs5 = [[Kerala Blasters FC (women)|Kerala Blasters]]
| caps5 =
| goals5 =
| years6 = 2024–
| clubs6 = [[Sethu FC|Sethu]]
| caps6 =
| goals6 =
| nationalyears1 = 2025–
| nationalteam1 = [[India women's national football team|India]]
| nationalcaps1 = 7
| nationalgoals1 = 1
| club-update =
| nationalteam-update = 15 April 2026
}}
'''Malavika Prasad''' (born 12 November 2003)<ref>{{Cite web |title=AIFF - 11 Malavika P. |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/82423?type=club |access-date=2025-02-15 |website=www.the-aiff.com}}</ref> is an Indian professional footballer from [[Kerala]], who plays as a forward for the [[Indian Women's League]] club [[Sethu FC|Sethu]] and the [[India women's national football team]].

== Early life and career ==
Prasad is from [[Kasaragod]], Kerala.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2024-07-31 |title=Arjun, Malavika win best player awards |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/arjun-and-malavika-win-best-player-awards-in-kerala-football-association/articleshow/112151309.cms |access-date=2025-02-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Before joining Sethu FC, she played for [[Kerala Blasters FC]], ASOS Rainbow Athletic Club, [[Kemp FC|Kemp Football Club]], Travancore Royals Football Club and Misaka United FC. She also represented the Kerala State sub–junior girls team in 2018–2019 and 2017–18. With lack of proper grounds to practice and short of funds, Kerala Blasters stopped the activities of their women's team in 2023 for some time and she moved on to the Madurai club, Sethu FC for the next season.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rayan |first=Stan |date=2023-06-06 |title=Not very expensive to run a women's team, says former international Bentla |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/kbfc-womens-team-aiff-fine-isl-walkout-vukomanovic-iwl-gokulam-news-updates/article66939215.ece |access-date=2025-02-15 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Agencies |date=2025-01-16 |title=Indian Women's League: Nita FA fights back to hold Sethu FC 2-2 |url=https://www.dtnext.in/news/sports/indian-womens-league-nita-fa-fights-back-to-hold-sethu-fc-2-2-819529 |access-date=2025-02-15 |website=www.dtnext.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sethu FC too good for Sports Odisha {{!}} I-League |url=https://i-league.org/sethu-fc-too-good-for-sports-odisha/ |access-date=2025-02-15 |language=en-US}}</ref>

She is named in the 32–Indian probables list for the National camp at [[RDS Stadium|Anantapur]], Andhra Pradesh by chief coach [[Crispin Chettri]], ahead of the Pink Ladies Cup to be held in UAE in February 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fascinating Fazila floods Indian Women's League with flux of goals {{!}} I-League |url=https://i-league.org/fascinating-fazila-floods-indian-womens-league-with-flux-of-goals/ |access-date=2025-02-15 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 February 2025 |title=Coach Crispin Chettri names 32 probables for the Pink Ladies Cup in Dubai |url=https://thebridge.in/football/crispin-chettri-names-32-probable-pink-ladies-cup-51894 |access-date=15 February 2025 |website=The Bridge |language=en}}</ref>

=== Senior India debut ===
Prasad made her Senior India debut in the first of the two FIFA Women's International Friendlies against Uzbekistan played on 30 May 2025 at the Padukone-Dravid Centre for Sports Excellence stadium, Bengaluru.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Debutants Manisha Naik, Malavika, Priyadharshini dream of more Blue Tigresses caps |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/article/debutants-manisha-naik-malavika-priyadharshini-dream-of-more-blue-tigresses-caps |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=www.the-aiff.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sportstar |first=Team |date=2025-05-30 |title=India women's football team suffers narrow defeat against Uzbekistan |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/india-womens-football-team-defeat-against-uzbekistan-match-report-fifa-international-friendly/article69638846.ece |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 June 2025 |title=Debutants Manisha Naik, Malavika, Priyadharshini dream of more Blue Tigresses caps |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/sports/football/debutants-manisha-naik-malavika-priyadharshini-dream-of-more-blue-tigresses-caps20250601185221/ |access-date=4 July 2025 |website=ANI}}</ref>

=== Awards ===
In July 2024, she was presented the [[Kerala Football Association|Kerala Football Association's]] Best Player award in the female category.<ref name=":0" />

==Career statistics==
===International===
{{Updated|15 April 2026}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
!National team!!Year!!Caps!!Goals
|-
| rowspan=2|[[India women's national football team|India]]
|2025
|5
|1
|-
|2026
|2
|0
|-
! colspan=2|Total
!7
!1
|}

:''Scores and results list India's goal tally first.''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+List of international goals scored by Malavika P.
! No. !! Date !! Venue !! Opponent !! Score !! Result !! Competition
|-
| 1. || 23 June 2025 || [[700th Anniversary Stadium]], [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]] || {{fbw|MNG}} || align=center| 10–0 || align=center| 13–0 || [[2026 AFC Women's Asian Cup qualification]]
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/82423?type=club Malavika P.] at [[All India Football Federation]].

{{India squad 2026 AFC Women's Asian Cup}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:P., Malavika}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2003 births]]
[[Category:Indian women's footballers]]
[[Category:India women's international footballers]]
[[Category:Footballers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Kerala]]
[[Category:People from Kasaragod district]]
[[Category:Women's association football forwards]]
[[Category:Kerala Blasters FC (women) players]]
[[Category:Sethu FC players]]
[[Category:Indian Women's League players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportswomen]]
[[Category:2026 AFC Women's Asian Cup players]]

Chamrajpet Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:20:40Z

AnnieSneed66: stub

{{Short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Karnataka, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Chamrajpet
|type= SLA
| constituency_no = 168
| map_image = 168-Chamrajpet constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
|state = [[Karnataka]]
|district = [[Bangalore Urban district|Bangalore Urban]]
|loksabha_cons = [[Bangalore Central Lok Sabha constituency|Bangalore Central]]
|established = 1951
|electors = {{formatnum:229914}} (2023)<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/15163-karnataka-2023/ |title=Karnataka Legislative Assembly Election - 2023 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |website=eci.gov.in |access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|7}}
|reservation = None
|mla = [[B. Z. Zameer Ahmed Khan]]
|party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|preceded_by = [[S. M. Krishna]]
}}
'''Chamrajpet Assembly constituency''' is one of the seats in the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]] in India. It is part of [[Bangalore Central Lok Sabha constituency]]. Its composition is around 44% Muslim and 20% Dalit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Assembly details: Chamrajpet |url=https://chanakyya.com/Assembly-Details/Karnataka/Chamrajpet |website=chanakyya.com}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1952 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || R. Anantharaman || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || Lakshmidevi Ramanna
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || rowspan="2" | R. Dayananda Sagar
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|-
| bgcolor="#FFF58A" | [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election|1972]] || [[Vatal Nagaraj]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1975 elections in India#Karnataka|1975 By-election]] {{efn|Election declared void by the Supreme Court}} || K. Prabhakara Reddy
|-
| [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1978]] || S. Pramila || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1983]] || M. Obanna Raju
|-
| [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || Mohammad Moienuddin
|-
| [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1989]] || R. V. Devaraj || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1994]] || [[Pramila Nesargi]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|1999]] || R. V. Devaraj || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2004]] || [[S. M. Krishna]]
|-
| [[2005 elections in India#Karnataka|2005 By-election]] || rowspan="5" | [[B. Z. Zameer Ahmed Khan]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (Secular)|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
|-
| [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
|-
| [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|}
{{notelist}}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2023 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2023 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Z. Zameer Ahmed Khan]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 77,631 |percentage = 62.22% |change = {{increase}}7.87 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bhaskar Rao |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 23,678 |percentage = 18.98% |change = {{decrease}}7.81 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = C. Govindaraj |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 19,086 |percentage = 15.30% |change = {{decrease}}0.83 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,130 |percentage = 0.91% |change = {{increase}}0.31 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Narasimha Murthy |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 916 |percentage = 0.73% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = V. Somashekar |party = Uttama Prajaakeeya Party |votes = 779 |percentage = 0.62% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 53,953 |percentage = 43.24% |change = {{increase}}15.67 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 124,805 |percentage = 54.28% |change = {{decrease}}0.15 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 124,767}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 229,914 |ref = |change = {{increase}}4.06 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}7.87 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2018 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2018 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Z. Zameer Ahmed Khan]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 65,339 |percentage = 54.35% |change = {{increase}}30.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. Lakshminarayana |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 32,202 |percentage = 26.79% |change = {{increase}}10.51 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. K. Altaf Khan |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 19,393 |percentage = 16.13% |change = {{decrease}}35.65 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 726 |percentage = 0.60% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 33,137 |percentage = 27.57% |change = {{decrease}}0.15 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 120,253 |percentage = 54.43% |change = {{decrease}}4.49 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 120,209}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 220,951 |ref = |change = {{increase}}20.73 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Dal (Secular) |swing = {{increase}}2.57 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2013 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web |title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2013 : To the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |website=eci.nic.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=2014-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220034253/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2013/StatReports2013.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Z. Zameer Ahmed Khan]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 56,339 |percentage = 51.78% |change = {{increase}}3.37 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. A. Bava |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 26,177 |percentage = 24.06% |change = {{increase}}6.92 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. V. Ganesh |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 17,720 |percentage = 16.28% |change = {{decrease}}10.08 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Usman Baig |party = Socialistic Democratic Party |votes = 2,942 |percentage = 2.70% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Subramani. T |party = Independent politician |votes = 917 |percentage = 0.84% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 30,162 |percentage = 27.72% |change = {{increase}}5.67 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 107,843 |percentage = 58.92% |change = {{increase}}18.02 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 108,814}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 183,020 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}15.73 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Janata Dal (Secular) |swing = {{increase}}3.37 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2008 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2008 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web |title=General Election Karnataka Legislative Assembly 2008 Election Statistics |url=https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |publisher=Government of Karnataka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201232433/https://www.ceokarnataka.kar.nic.in/PDFS/Previous%20Elections/Election%20Statistics%202008%20Final.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Z. Zameer Ahmed Khan]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 43,004 |percentage = 48.41% |change = {{increase}}6.05 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = V. S. Shama Sundar |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 23,414 |percentage = 26.36% |change = {{increase}}5.24 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sayeed Ahmedd |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 15,229 |percentage = 17.14% |change = {{decrease}}17.41 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = N. P. Samy |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 3,474 |percentage = 3.91% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Daiva Sagayam. M. C |party = All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes = 924 |percentage = 1.04% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Hidayath Ulla |party = Independent politician |votes = 897 |percentage = 1.01% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Johnson Chinnappan |party = Independent politician |votes = 534 |percentage = 0.60% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 19,590 |percentage = 22.05% |change = {{increase}}14.24 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 88,838 |percentage = 40.90% |change = {{decrease}}3.15 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 88,831}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 217,194 |ref = |change = {{increase}}103.20 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Janata Dal (Secular) |swing = {{increase}}6.05 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly By-election 2005 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2005 elections in India#Karnataka|2005 Karnataka Legislative Assembly by-election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/statistical-report/detailed-bye-election-results/ |title=Bye-Election Results - Election Commission of India |access-date=21 December 2025 |website=old.eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[B. Z. Zameer Ahmed Khan]] |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 19,943 |percentage = 42.36% |change = {{increase}}31.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. V. Devaraj |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 16,265 |percentage = 34.55% |change = {{decrease}}23.37 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pramila Nesargi |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 9,944 |percentage = 21.12% |change = {{decrease}}8.18 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,678 |percentage = 7.81% |change = {{decrease}}20.81 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 47,083 |percentage = 44.05% |change = {{decrease}}5.15 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 47,082}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 106,885 |ref = |change = {{increase}}9.97 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Dal (Secular) |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}15.56 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 2004 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006204912/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_2004/StatisticalReports_KT_2004.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[S. M. Krishna]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 27,695 |percentage = 57.92% |change = {{increase}}3.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mukhya Mantri Chandru |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 14,010 |percentage = 29.30% |change = {{decrease}}5.91 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ananth Nag |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 5,052 |percentage = 10.56% |change = {{increase}}3.74 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Naveed Ahmed. S (anu) |party = Independent politician |votes = 549 |percentage = 1.15% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 13,685 |percentage = 28.62% |change = {{increase}}9.71 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 47,819 |percentage = 49.20% |change = {{decrease}}8.41 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 47,819}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 97,194 |ref = |change = {{increase}}0.41 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}3.80 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006053217/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-KT99.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. V. Devaraj |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 30,179 |percentage = 54.12% |change = {{increase}}37.21 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Pramila Nesargi]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 19,636 |percentage = 35.21% |change = {{increase}}6.90 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Abdul Lateef Khan |party = Janata Dal (Secular) |votes = 3,801 |percentage = 6.82% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. Elumalai |party = All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes = 838 |percentage = 1.50% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,543 |percentage = 18.91% |change = {{increase}}16.78 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 55,763 |percentage = 57.61% |change = {{decrease}}1.80 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 55,763}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 96,795 |ref = |change = {{increase}}2.08 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Bharatiya Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}25.81 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1994 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1994 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1994 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006211324/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1994/StatisticalReport-KT94.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Pramila Nesargi]] |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 15,665 |percentage = 28.31% |change = {{increase}}15.76 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. V. Devaraj |party = Karnataka Pradesh Congress Committee |votes = 14,488 |percentage = 26.18% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = T. V. Maruthi |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 9,355 |percentage = 16.91% |change = {{decrease}}34.16 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Abdul Lateef Khan |party = Independent politician |votes = 7,449 |percentage = 13.46% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sri Rame Gowda |party = Janata Dal |votes = 6,778 |percentage = 12.25% |change = {{decrease}}16.47 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = N. Basheer Ahmed |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 566 |percentage = 1.02% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,177 |percentage = 2.13% |change = {{decrease}}20.21 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 56,328 |percentage = 59.41% |change = {{increase}}3.94 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 55,334}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 988 |percentage = 1.75% |change = {{decrease}}2.12 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 94,820 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}6.21 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Bharatiya Janata Party |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}22.76 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1989 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1989 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1989 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007070737/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1989/Statistical%20Report%20karnataka%201989.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. V. Devaraj |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 27,526 |percentage = 51.07% |change = {{increase}}18.13 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mohammad Moienuddin |party = Janata Dal |votes = 15,482 |percentage = 28.72% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. Srinivasa Murthy |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 6,763 |percentage = 12.55% |change = {{increase}}5.59 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. Obanna Raju |party = Janata Party |votes = 1,587 |percentage = 2.94% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. S. N. Gowda |party = Independent politician |votes = 667 |percentage = 1.24% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Saleemulla Khan |party = Independent politician |votes = 379 |percentage = 0.70% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,044 |percentage = 22.34% |change = {{increase}}12.35 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 56,075 |percentage = 55.47% |change = {{increase}}4.46 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 53,903}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 2,172 |percentage = 3.87% |change = {{increase}}2.88 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 101,098 |ref = |change = {{increase}}9.85 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}8.14 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006143216/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201985.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Mohammad Moienuddin |party = Janata Party |votes = 19,955 |percentage = 42.93% |change = {{increase}}6.75 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = C. Krishnappa |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 15,311 |percentage = 32.94% |change = {{increase}}13.14 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. Appu |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,648 |percentage = 10.00% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. Srinivasa Murthy |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 3,237 |percentage = 6.96% |change = {{decrease}}2.53 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. Prabhakara Reddy |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,855 |percentage = 3.99% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. H. Eswar |party = Independent politician |votes = 819 |percentage = 1.76% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,644 |percentage = 9.99% |change = {{decrease}}6.39 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 46,946 |percentage = 51.01% |change = {{increase}}39.36 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 46,480}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 466 |percentage = 0.99% |change = {{decrease}}1.36 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 92,034 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}78.31 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Janata Party |swing = {{increase}}6.75 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1983 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1983 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1983 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007124742/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1983/Statistical%20Report%201983%20karnatkaa.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = M. Obanna Raju |party = Janata Party |votes = 17,455 |percentage = 36.18% |change = {{decrease}}6.51 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. Pramila |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 9,553 |percentage = 19.80% |change = {{increase}}17.52 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. R. Mukhtar Ahmed |party = Independent politician |votes = 8,612 |percentage = 17.85% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Padma Joshi |party = Bharatiya Janata Party |votes = 4,578 |percentage = 9.49% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Angamuthu. M |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,357 |percentage = 9.03% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. Prabhakara Reddy |party = Independent politician |votes = 571 |percentage = 1.18% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = A. N. Sathya |party = Independent politician |votes = 526 |percentage = 1.09% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. H. Eswar |party = Independent politician |votes = 378 |percentage = 0.78% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mohamed Fazlul Huq Sayeed |party = Independent politician |votes = 316 |percentage = 0.65% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 7,902 |percentage = 16.38% |change = {{increase}}5.90 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 49,406 |percentage = 11.65% |change = {{decrease}}50.65 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 48,247}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,159 |percentage = 2.35% |change = {{increase}}0.21 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 424,243 |ref = |change = {{increase}}430.66 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Janata Party |swing = {{decrease}}6.51 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Karnataka |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007164123/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%20Karnataka%201978.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = S. Pramila |party = Janata Party |votes = 20,806 |percentage = 42.69% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Prabhakar. T. S |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 15,697 |percentage = 32.21% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Krishnaraju |party = All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes = 5,636 |percentage = 11.56% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Jayamma. B |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,944 |percentage = 6.04% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Narayanaswamy. K |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,183 |percentage = 2.43% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Khaleel Rahaman. S |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 1,112 |percentage = 2.28% |change = {{decrease}}25.06 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Narayanaswamy. K |party = Independent politician |votes = 359 |percentage = 0.74% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Keshva Murthy. V |party = Independent politician |votes = 346 |percentage = 0.71% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 5,109 |percentage = 10.48% |change = {{increase}}8.50 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 49,804 |percentage = 62.30% |change = {{increase}}6.47 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 48,736}}
{{Election box rejected |votes = 1,068 |percentage = 2.14% |change = {{increase}}2.14 }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 79,947 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}17.90 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Janata Party |loser = Independent politician |swing = {{increase}}13.37 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1972 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006074555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatisRep_Mysore_72.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Vatal Nagaraj]] |party = Independent politician |votes = 15,456 |percentage = 29.32% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = R. Dayananda Sagar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 14,412 |percentage = 27.34% |change = {{decrease}}9.50 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. N. Narayan |party = Independent politician |votes = 7,662 |percentage = 14.53% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = H. M. Ismail |party = Independent politician |votes = 7,624 |percentage = 14.46% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dr. B. K. Krishnaiah |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,403 |percentage = 6.45% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. M. Nanjappa |party = Indian National Congress (Organisation) |votes = 2,175 |percentage = 4.13% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = G. Narayana Kumar |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,091 |percentage = 2.07% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. Samuel |party = Swatantra Party |votes = 395 |percentage = 0.75% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,044 |percentage = 1.98% |change = {{decrease}}7.46 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 54,371 |percentage = 55.83% |change = {{increase}}4.44 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 52,720}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 97,379 |ref = |change = {{increase}}20.12 }}
{{Election box gain |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}7.52 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006083645/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Mysore%201967.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. Dayananda Sagar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 14,241 |percentage = 36.84% |change = {{decrease}}16.41 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. K. Krishniah |party = Independent politician |votes = 10,590 |percentage = 27.39% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Krishnamurthy |party = Independent politician |votes = 4,969 |percentage = 12.85% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = P. N. Narayan |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,415 |percentage = 8.83% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = N. Ranchiah |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,162 |percentage = 8.18% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. Ahmed |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,667 |percentage = 4.31% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. M. Yellappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 616 |percentage = 1.59% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 3,651 |percentage = 9.44% |change = {{decrease}}8.53 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 41,662 |percentage = 51.39% |change = {{increase}}4.47 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 38,660}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 81,067 |ref = |change = {{increase}}65.39 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}16.41 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006093153/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Mysore_1962.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. Dayananda Sagar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 11,897 |percentage = 53.25% |change = {{increase}}3.80 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. Rangaiah Naidu |party = Swatantra Party |votes = 7,882 |percentage = 35.28% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. S. Rama Rao |party = Communist Party of India |votes = 1,561 |percentage = 6.99% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = S. Sriram |party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 1,000 |percentage = 4.48% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 4,015 |percentage = 17.97% |change = {{increase}}3.75 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 22,998 |percentage = 46.92% |change = {{increase}}12.43 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 22,340}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 49,016 |ref = |change = {{increase}}12.48 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}3.80 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111195053/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Mysore_1957.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Lakshmidevi Ramanna |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 7,433 |percentage = 49.45% |change = {{decrease}}13.79 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = M. Rangaiah Naidu |party = Independent politician |votes = 5,296 |percentage = 35.23% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. T. Kempanna |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,722 |percentage = 11.46% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. C. Rangappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 580 |percentage = 3.86% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,137 |percentage = 14.22% |change = {{decrease}}33.21 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 15,031 |percentage = 34.49% |change = {{decrease}}16.33 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 15,031}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 43,576 |ref = |change = {{decrease}}0.25 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}13.79 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Mysore State Legislative Assembly election]] : Chamrajpet <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Mysore |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_MYSORE.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007130946/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatRep_51_MYSORE.pdf|archive-date=7 October 2010|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = R. Anantharaman |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 14,042 |percentage = 63.24% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. V. Lankappa |party = Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |votes = 3,512 |percentage = 15.82% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. S. Krishnamurthy |party = Socialist Party (India) |votes = 1,241 |percentage = 5.59% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = N. D. Shankar |party = Communist Party of India |votes = 1,181 |percentage = 5.32% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = N. S. Narayana Rao |party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 841 |percentage = 3.79% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. C. Rangappa |party = Independent politician |votes = 502 |percentage = 2.26% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = B. Venkata Rao |party = Independent politician |votes = 483 |percentage = 2.18% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = U. R. Ramachar |party = Independent politician |votes = 401 |percentage = 1.81% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,530 |percentage = 47.43% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 22,203 |percentage = 50.82% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 22,203}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 43,686 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of Karnataka Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Karnataka}}
{{coords|12.96|77.56|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Bengaluru Urban district]]
[[Category:Politics of Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Mysore State]]

Vedma Bhojju

2026-04-13T20:28:35Z

AnnieSneed66: started the details w/ infobox.

{{Short description|Indian politician from Telangana}}
{{BLP sources|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{infobox officeholder
| name = Vedma Bhojju Patel
| image = Bojju Vedma.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1986|06|16|df=yes}}{{citation needed|date=May 2025}}
| birth_place = Kallurguda, [[Utnoor]], [[Adilabad District]], Telangana, India
| birth_name = Vedma Bhojju
| website =
| office =
| term_start =
| term_end =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| governor =
| deputy =
| office1 = [[Telangana Legislative Assembly|Member of the Telangana Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start1 = 2023
| term_end1 =
| constituency1 = [[Khanapur, Telangana Assembly constituency|Khanapur]]
| successor1 =
| predecessor1 = [[Ajmeera Rekha]]
| party = [[File:Indian National Congress Flag.svg|25px]] [[Indian National Congress]]
| other_party =
| children = 2
| education =
| father = Vedma Bhimrao
| mother = Girijabai
| occupation = [[Politician]]
| source =
| alma_mater =
}}

'''Vedma Bhojju''' is an Indian politician and tribal rights advocate from Telangana. He currently serves as the Member of the Telangana Legislative Assembly representing the Khanapur constituency. A member of the Indian National Congress, Bhojju is known for his commitment to rural development and the welfare of Adivasi communities.

Vedma Bhojju contested and won the 2023 Telangana Legislative Assembly elections, defeating the incumbent from the Khanapur constituency.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vedma Bhojju Affidavit |url=https://myneta.info/Telangana2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=135 |website=MyNeta.info |access-date=May 14, 2025}}</ref> Since taking office, he has focused on addressing local issues including forest rights, land ownership, and infrastructure development. He has been particularly active in improving road connectivity, education access, and livelihood opportunities for underserved communities across the region.<ref>{{cite web |title=Adivasi MLA Vedma Bhojju: A Common Man in the Assembly |url=https://tv9telugu.com/telangana/adivasi-mla-vedma-bhojju-looks-like-a-common-man-and-stands-as-an-example-1145592.html |website=TV9 Telugu |access-date=May 14, 2025}}</ref>

==Early life==
Vedma Bhojju was born on June 16, 1986, to Vedma Bhimrao and Girijabai in Kallurguda, a tribal hamlet in Utnoor mandal, in the erstwhile Adilabad district of Telangana.<ref>{{cite web |title=Know Your MLA: Born in poverty, his goal is to end poverty |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/telangana/know-your-mla-born-in-poverty-his-goal-is-to-end-poverty-894026 |website=The Hans India |date=July 24, 2024 |access-date=May 14, 2025}}</ref> He belongs to the Gond tribal community and resides in an Indiramma housing unit allocated under a state welfare scheme.

Bhojju completed his education at government institutions, earning a Bachelor of Arts, B.Ed., M.A., and LLB.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vedma Bhojju Profile |url=https://www.telugupoliticalwiki.com/2023/12/vedma-bhojju.html |website=Telugu Political Wiki |access-date=May 14, 2025}}</ref> He became active in the Adivasi Student Association and later contributed to grassroots mobilization through the Adivasi Rights Struggle Committee (Thudumdebba). In 2021, he resigned from his government contract job and formally joined the Indian National Congress in the presence of PCC President Revanth Reddy.

He was appointed as [[Telangana Pradesh Congress Committee]] (TPCC) General Secretary on 9 June 2025.<ref name="AICC appoints 27 VPs and 69 general secretaries for TPCC">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=9 June 2025 |title=AICC appoints 27 VPs and 69 general secretaries for TPCC |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/aicc-appoints-27-vps-and-69-general-secretaries-for-tpcc/article69676082.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250610054127/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/aicc-appoints-27-vps-and-69-general-secretaries-for-tpcc/article69676082.ece |archive-date=10 June 2025 |access-date=10 June 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |language=en-IN}}</ref>

Bojju Was appointed as [[Nirmal district|Nirmal District]] Congress Committee (DCC) President on 22 November 2025.<ref name="Congress appoints new DCC presidents">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=22 November 2025 |title=Congress appoints new DCC presidents |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/new-dcc-presidents-appointed/article70312095.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251123141109/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/new-dcc-presidents-appointed/article70312095.ece |archive-date=23 November 2025 |access-date=23 November 2025 |publisher=The Hindu |language=en-IN}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://prsindia.org/mlatrack/vedma-bhojju)|PRS India profile]
* [https://tv9telugu.com/telangana/adivasi-mla-vedma-bhojju-looks-like-a-common-man-and-stands-as-an-example-1145592.html|TV9 Telugu article on Bhojju’s background]
* [https://www.telugupoliticalwiki.com/2023/12/vedma-bhojju.html|Telugu Political Wiki profile]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhojju, Vedma}}
[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Telangana MLAs 2018–2023]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Telangana]]

Dinesh K. Patnaik

2026-04-09T03:04:27Z

AnnieSneed66: done

{{Short description|High Commissioner of India to Canada}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = Dinesh K Patnaik IFS.jpg
| office4 = [[List of ambassadors and high commissioners of India|Ambassador of India to]] [[Cambodia]]<ref name="www.embindpp.gov.in">{{Cite web |date=27 January 2014 |title=Reception of 65th Republic day hosted by Ambassador Dinesh K Patnaik' |url=https://embindpp.gov.in/gallery?id=kazYe |website=Embassy of India Cambodia}}</ref>
| term_start4 = 10 September 2012
| term_end4 = 01 August 2015
| successor4 = Naveen Srivastava
| office3 = [[List of ambassadors and high commissioners of India|Ambassador of India to]] [[Morocco]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2021 |title=List of former Ambassadors |url=https://indianembassyrabat.gov.in/pages?id=mbk5e&subid=vbmOe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924071708/https://www.indianembassyrabat.gov.in/pages?id=mbk5e&subid=vbmOe |archive-date=24 September 2020 |website=indianembassyrabat.gov.in}}</ref>
| term_start3 = 22 September 2015
| term_end3 = 22 August 2016
| predecessor3 = Krishan Kumar
| successor3 = Dr Kheya Bhattacharya
| office2 = [[Additional Secretary to the Government of India|Additional Secretary (CPV&OIA) in]] [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|MEA]]
| term_start2 = 15 July 2019<ref name="ICCR">{{Cite web |date=December 2021 |title=Shri Dinesk K Patnaik |url=https://www.iccr.gov.in/minister/shri-dinesh-k-patnaik |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410232516/https://www.iccr.gov.in/minister/shri-dinesh-k-patnaik |archive-date=10 April 2020 |website=iccr.gov.in}}</ref>
| term_end2 = 02 February 2020
| appointer2 = [[Appointments Committee of the Cabinet]]
| office1 = Director General, [[Indian Council for Cultural Relations]]
| term_start1 = 04 February 2020<ref name="ICCR" />
| term_end1 = 19 December 2021<ref name="ICCR" />
| successor1 = [[Kumar Tuhin]]
| office = [[List of ambassadors and high commissioners of India|High Commissioner of India to]] [[Canada]]
| term_start = 28 August 2025
| predecessor = Sanjay Kumar Verma
| children = 2
| party =
| alma_mater = [[Delhi University]] 
[[Indian Institute of Management Calcutta|IIM Calcutta]] [[University of Vienna]]<ref name="linkedin.com">{{Cite web|date=26 June 2025|title= Dinesh K Patnaik Official Linkedin Account |url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/dinesh-patnaik-46073a3?utm_source=share&utm_campaign=share_via&utm_content=profile&utm_medium=android_app}}</ref><ref name="H.E. Dinesh K Patnaik">{{Cite web |date=December 2021 |title=H.E. Dinesh K Patnaik |url=https://www.wef.org.in/h-e-mr-dinesh-k-patnaik/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709133837/http://www.wef.org.in:80/h-e-mr-dinesh-k-patnaik/ |archive-date=9 July 2017}}</ref>
| profession = [[Diplomat]]
| spouse = Poonam Patnaik
| sibling =
| website =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1967|01|03}}
| birth_place = [[India]]
}}

'''Dinesh K. Patnaik''' (3 January 1967) is an [[Indian people|Indian]] [[diplomat]] from 1990 batch of the [[Indian Foreign Service]] who is currently serving as the [[List of ambassadors and high commissioners of India|High Commissioner of India to]] [[Canada]] since August 2025.<ref>{{cite web|date= 28 August 2025|title=Shri Dinesh K Patnaik appointed as the next High Commissner of India to Canada |url=https://www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/40054/Shri_Dinesh_K_Patnaik_appointed_as_the_next_High_Commissioner_of_India_to_Canada|website= [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs of India]]|access-date = 23 November 2025}}</ref> He previously served as the [[List of ambassadors and high commissioners of India|Indian Ambassador to]] [[Spain]], [[Morocco]] and [[Cambodia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press release |url=http://www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/34462/Shri+Dinesh+K+Patnaik+appointed+as+the+next+Ambassador+of+India+to+the+Kingdom+of+Spain |website=www.mea.gov.indate=01 November 2021}}</ref>

==Education==
Dinesh Patnaik studied at [[Delhi University]] where he completed his [[Master of Science]] in [[Physics]] and his [[Master of Business Administration|MBA]] from [[IIM Calcutta]] and his [[Master's degree|Master in Advanced Studies]] from the [[University of Vienna]].<ref name="linkedin.com">{{Cite web|date=26 June 2025|title= Dinesh K Patnaik Official Linkedin Account |url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/dinesh-patnaik-46073a3?utm_source=share&utm_campaign=share_via&utm_content=profile&utm_medium=android_app}}</ref><ref name="H.E. Dinesh K Patnaik">{{Cite web |date=December 2021 |title=H.E. Dinesh K Patnaik |url=https://www.wef.org.in/h-e-mr-dinesh-k-patnaik/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709133837/http://www.wef.org.in:80/h-e-mr-dinesh-k-patnaik/ |archive-date=9 July 2017}}</ref>

==Civil Service Career==
{{expand section|date=April 2023|reason=he is from the 1990 cadre but his work history only starts in 2012?}}
Patnaik served as India's Ambassador to [[Cambodia–India relations|Cambodia]] from September 2012 to August 2015, then to [[India–Morocco relations|Morocco]] between September 2015 and August 2016. He then worked as Deputy High Commissioner of [[India–United Kingdom relations|India in the United Kingdom]] between November 2018 and July 2019. He was [[Additional secretary to the Government of India|additional secretary]] for the [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]]' Indian Ocean Region (IOR) division; Consular, Passport and Visa (CPV) division; and Overseas Indian Affairs (OIA) division from November 2018 to February 2020, when he was appointed as the Director General of the [[Indian Council for Cultural Relations]] (ICCR).<ref name="www.dailypioneer.com.com">{{Cite web |date=February 2020 |title='Dinesh Patnaik new DG ICCR' |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2020/state-editions/dinesh-patnaik-new-iccr-dg.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230174528/https://www.dailypioneer.com/2020/state-editions/dinesh-patnaik-new-iccr-dg.html |archive-date=2021-12-30 |website=Daily Pioneer}}</ref> He became Ambassador of [[India–Spain relations|India to Spain]] in December 2021.<ref name="www.wef.org.in">{{Cite web |date=December 2021 |title=HE Dinesh K Patnaik |url=https://www.wef.org.in/h-e-mr-dinesh-k-patnaik/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709133837/http://www.wef.org.in:80/h-e-mr-dinesh-k-patnaik/ |archive-date=9 July 2017}}</ref><ref name="www.indiainfiji.gov.in">{{Cite web |date=October 2021 |title=About Dinesh K Patnaik DG ICCR |url=https://www.indiainfiji.gov.in/page/about-us/ |website=Indian embassy Fiji}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dinesh Patnaik appointed as next Ambassador of India to Spain |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/world/asia/dinesh-patnaik-appointed-as-next-ambassador-of-india-to-spain20211101181045/ |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=ANI News |language=en}}</ref>

Patnaik spoke at the [[Jaipur Literature Festival]] in at the [[British Library]] in [[London]] in 2021.<ref name="www.jlflitfest.org">{{Cite web |date=September 2021 |title='Speakers of JLF London fest 2021' |url=https://jlflitfest.org/london/speaker/dinesh-k-patnaik |website=JLF Literature fest London}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Patnaik and his wife Poonam have two daughters.<ref name="ICCR" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patnaik, Dinesh K}}
[[Category:Ambassadors of India to Morocco]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of India to Spain]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of India to Cambodia]]
[[Category:Indian civil servants]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Management Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Indian Foreign Service officers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1967 births]]

Naanu Nanna Hendthiru

2026-04-07T01:16:06Z

AnnieSneed66: done

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Naanu Nanna Hendthiru
| image = Naanu Nanna Hendthiru.jpg
| caption = VCD cover
| director = V. S. Reddy
| writer = K. Nanjunda (dialogues)
| story = [[K. Bhagyaraj]]
| starring = [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]] [[Soundarya]] [[Prema (actress, born 1977)|Prema]]
| based_on = ''[[Thaikulame Thaikulame]]'' (1995)
| producer = [[Rockline Venkatesh]]
| music = Ravichandran
| cinematography = G. S. V. Seetharam
| editing = Shyam
| studio = Rockline Productions
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1999|04|30}}
| runtime = 166 minutes
| language = Kannada
| country = India
| budget =
}}

'''''Naanu Nanna Hendthiru''''' (English: Me and my wives) is a 1999 Indian [[Kannada language]] [[comedy film|comedy]] [[drama film|drama]] film directed by V. S. Reddy and produced by [[Rockline Venkatesh]]. The film stars [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]] along with [[Soundarya]] and [[Prema (actress, born 1977)|Prema]] among others. Ravichandran has scored the music for the film.

The film was a remake of Tamil film ''[[Thaikulame Thaikulame]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://lehren.com/exclusive/making-of-gharwali-baharwali-anil-kapoor-raveena-tandon-bollywood-flashback/41463/ |title=Making of Gharwali Baharwali {{!}} Anil Kapoor {{!}} Raveena Tandon {{!}} Flashback | date = 10 September 2020 | work= [[Lehren]] | access-date=26 November 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004202335/https://lehren.com/exclusive/making-of-gharwali-baharwali-anil-kapoor-raveena-tandon-bollywood-flashback/41463/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The film was a box office success.{{Cn|date=November 2024}}

== Cast ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|Ravichandran]] as Sriram
* [[Soundarya]] as Seetha
* [[Prema (actress, born 1977)|Prema]] as Manisha (Voice by Sunethra Pandit)
* [[Doddanna]] as Sriram's father
* [[Mandya Ramesh]]
* [[Srinivasa Murthy]]
* [[Sanketh Kashi|Kashi]] as Kashi
* [[Bank Janardhan]]
* Jyothi
* Shobha Raghavendra
{{colend}}

== Production ==
In February 1999, shooting for the film began.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/3FAC79AFA4381E8665256940004D0DEA?OpenDocument|title=Remake Chandran!|date=27 February 1999|work=[[The Times of India]]|last=M.|first=Sandeep|via=csc.archive.org}}</ref> The first schedule took place in Bangalore and the second schedule was shot in Thailand for twenty days in March 1999.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=12 March 1999|title=Naanu Nanna Hendthiyaru: Schedule in Thailand |url=http://www.screenindia.com/old/march12/south.htm |url-status=dead |magazine=[[Screen (magazine)|Screen]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126142142/http://www.screenindia.com/old/march12/south.htm |archive-date=26 November 2010 |access-date=7 November 2024}}</ref> A scene with Ravichandran and the lead actresses was shot on a set at Kanteerva Studios.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expressindia.com/screen/mar19/south.htm|title=Naanu Nanna Hendthiru {{!}} After the producer's dharna|website=Express India|access-date=24 August 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001205063900/http://www.expressindia.com/screen/mar19/south.htm|archive-date=5 December 2000}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The music was composed by [[Ravichandran (Kannada actor)|V. Ravichandran]] in his debut as a film composer<ref>{{cite web |title=Naanu Nanna Hendthiyaru: Ravichandran tunes music |url=http://www.expressindia.com/screen/feb19/south.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000301142626/http://www.expressindia.com/screen/feb19/south.htm |archive-date=1 March 2000 |access-date=24 August 2025 |website=Screen}}</ref> and lyrics for the soundtrack were penned by [[K. Kalyan]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kannadasongmp3.blogspot.in/2011/04/naanu-nanna-hendthiru-1999.html |title=Songs list |access-date=19 April 2014 |archive-date=25 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131225050918/http://kannadasongmp3.blogspot.in/2011/04/naanu-nanna-hendthiru-1999.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Baare Chinna
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chithra]]
| lyrics1 =
| length1 =
| title2 = Nannavalu Nakkare
| extra2 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, K. S. Chithra
| lyrics2 =
| length2 =
| title3 = Naanu Nanna Hendthiru
| extra3 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, K. S. Chithra
| lyrics3 =
| length3 =
| title4 = Ready 123
| extra4 = [[Gurukiran]], [[L. N. Shastry]]
| lyrics4 =
| length4 =
| title5 = Ee Bhumige
| extra5 = L. N. Shastry, K. S. Chithra, Suma Shastry
| lyrics5 =
| length5 =
| title6 = Ee Jagave Namadu
| extra6 = L. N. Shastry, K. S. Chithra
| lyrics6 =
| length6 =
|}}

== Reception ==
A critic from ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote "ROCKLINE PRODUCTION’S yet another re- make, ''Naanu Nanna Hendtheeru'' has all the trappings such as exotic foreign locales, a surfeit of songs and dances, and a story full of drama that are so identifiable with its earlier productions. But the only impression the film leaves behind is that of the beautiful snow covered expanse of the Himalayas and that of colourful Malaysia, a far-fetched story, with its retrograde ideas on women and an inexpressive Ravichandran being the major cause for the film falling fiat".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/DB9EEFAFC171129E65256940004C8A57?OpenDocument|title=Naanu Nanna Hendtheeru|work=[[The Hindu]]|via=csc.archive.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609093946/http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/DB9EEFAFC171129E65256940004C8A57?OpenDocument|archive-date=9 June 2020}}</ref> ''[[Deccan Herald]]'''s Srikanth Srinivasa opined that "Ravichandran has improved his acting performance from his earlier films, he definitely needs to invest more time on improving his acting faculties rather on making a foray into music direction." He praised the performances of the rest of the actors, while adding that it seemed that the film was "ghost directed by Ravichandran," and that "[m]usic is defintely a casualty without [[Hamsalekha]]".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Srinivasa |first1=Srikanth |title=AT THE THEATRES: NAANU NANNA HENDATHIRU (Kannada) |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/may02/enter.htm |website=Deccan Herald |access-date=7 April 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990902161123/https://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/may02/enter.htm |archive-date=2 September 1999 |date=2 May 1999 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|14816108}}

{{V. Ravichandran}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naanu Nanna Hendthiru}}
[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:1999 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Kannada remakes of Tamil films]]
[[Category:Fiction about polygamy]]
[[Category:Comedy of remarriage films]]
[[Category:Rockline Entertainments films]]
[[Category:Kannada-language comedy-drama films]]

{{1990s-Kannada-film-stub}}
{{1990s-comedy-drama-film-stub}}

Mangla Rai

2026-04-02T12:37:10Z

AnnieSneed66: new

{{Short description|Indian professional wrestler (1916 – 1976)}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox professional wrestler
| name = Babu Mangla Rai
| birth_name = Mahamalla Babu Mangla Rai
| image =Mangla Rai.jpeg
| caption =
| birth_date = October 1916
| death_date = 24 June 1976. (aged 59)<ref>Kesari, Hindi Monthly Magazine July 1998.[[Varanasi]]</ref>
| birth_place = [[Joga Musahib]], [[Ghazipur]], Uttar Pradesh, India
| death_place = [[Varanasi]], India
| names = Mangla Rai
| height = 6 ft 5 in
| weight = {{convert|225|–|230|lb}} or {{convert|352|lb}}
}}

'''Mahamalla Babu Mangla Rai''' (October 1916 – June 1976) also known as "Rustam-e-Hind and Hind Kesari Mangla Rai"was the ring-name of Mangla Rai.

==Early life==
Legendary wrestler Rustam-e-Hind Mangla Rai was born in the month of October 1916 in a [[Bhumihar]] family of [[Joga Musahib]] Village in [[Ghazipur]] district of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. His father Ramchandra Rai and his uncle Radha Rai, were also well-known wrestlers. After attaining 16 years of age he joined police services as constable but his destiny was waiting for something very different and significant. He left his job and moved to Barma (Myanmar) where his father and uncle were residing and pursuing their professional careers. In Rangoon, Mangla started taking lessons in wrestling. In those days the great wrestler Shiv Murat Tiwari of Benaras was also practicing in an Akhara in Rangoon. He saw the physique of this young aspirant and began to train him. Shiv Murat Tiwari made Mangala a master of south-east Asian moves of wrestling. After a few years Mangla Rai came back to his motherland but he never forgot his first guru. He named his elder daughter 'Shiv Murat' paying gratitude to his guru.<ref name="The Wrestler's Body">Identity and Ideology in North India (1992), University of California Press, Joseph S. Alter, University of California Press</ref>

==Career==

===Training and diet===
Mangla Rai followed a tough regimen of exercises. After running 9 kilometers he used to do four thousand squats and two thousand five hundred pushups. Sometimes he used to do rope trainings. Mangla Rai was 6 feet 3 inches tall and weighed 160 Kilograms.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

===First encounter with Mustafa Pahelwan===
Mangla Rai came into public attention just after his first bout in Rangoon with Fattey Singh and Isha Nat. He made both the champions to bite the dust in the ring with his famous move 'gadahlet'. In 1933 he came back to India and challenged Mustafa Pahalwan of Allahabad. Mustafa took him as a novice but got floored within 5 minutes when Mangla Rai used bahralli with full force. A star of wrestling was born in India after this famous bout.
<ref name="The Wrestler's Body"/>

===Final encounter with Ghulam Gous===
After defeating Fakhr-e-Hind & Rustam-e-Pakistan Ghulam Ghous he earned the title of Rustam-e-Hind. In the three decades of his career he won ninety five percent of bouts. <ref>Rajasthan Patrika, Hindi Daily, Jaipur, 28 March 2015, Editorial</ref>

===Fight with George Constentine===
After beating Ghulam Gous in [[Benaras]] Bharat Narkesari Mangla Rai accepted the challenge of George Constantine. Romanian wrestler George was known as 'Tiger of Europe.' After defeating all his rivals in Europe he camped in Calcutta ([[Kolkata]]) challenging any one to dare him in the ring. Famous Puran Singh and Kesar Singh came forward to accept his challenge. But mahamalla Mangla Rai not only faced him but forced him to bite the dust.<ref>Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses, @ INFLIBNET, Gandhinagar, Gujarat</ref>

===Fight With Tiger Joginder Singh===
[[Tiger Joginder Singh]] was an Indian [[Professional wrestling|professional wrestler]] who was the first All Asia Tag Team Champion along with King Kong. He was considered one of the top professional wrestlers of India at that time. He was never defeated by his opponents but mahabali Mangla Rai floored him within ten minutes in a wrestling competition held in Bombay (Mumbai).<ref name="Kesari 1998">Kesari, Hindi Monthly Magazine July 1998. varanasi</ref>

===Famous bout with Kesar Singh===

It is believed that Kesar Singh was the only wrestler who was at equal strength with Mangla Rai and was never defeated by him. However records placed in personal diary of his mentor Pandaji of [[Varanasi]] speaks volumes about this renowned fight. It is stated in this record that 'Tiger of Punjab' Kesar Singh was floored by Hind Kesari Mangla Rai in Delhi but due to supporters pandemonium, the referee declared the match draw. In protest of this decision Mangla Rai refused to accept any award and prize money.<ref name="Kesari 1998"/>

===Death===

In the year of 1963 Mangla Rai faced his last bout of wrestling with renowned wrestler Meharddin. Mangla Rai was 47 year old while Meharddin was only 27 years, however Mangla Rai used his famous Bahralli dav and Meharddin was thrown out of the ring. But due to low endurance of aging Rustam-e-Hind, the fight was announced drawn. After this fight Mangla Rai announced his retirement from the career of wrestling. He started living a peaceful farmer's life in his native village. He discontinued the tough regimen of exercises and unfortunately he got diabetes. His health started deteriorating. Due to multiple organ failure he died on 24 June 1976 in the city of [[Varanasi]].<ref name="The Wrestler's Body"/>

===Legacy===

Mangla Rai took care of all his disciples, including Dukh Haran Jha of [[Darbhanga]], Sukhdev Pehlwan of [[Azamgarh]], Mohan Chaube of [[Mathura]], his younger brother Kamala Rai, Brahmachari Rai, Mathura Rai, and Baleshwar Pehlwan, all of them great wrestlers of their time. However Mangla Rai didn't allow any of them to use a single penny of their prize money, covering all of their expenses himself. Mangla Rai was a true Guru in old Indian tradition.
<ref name="Bharat Ke Vikhyat Malla Shiromani">Akhare Ki Ore (1972), Permanand Shukla, Choukhamba Prakashan, [[Varanasi]]</ref>

==Championships and accomplishments==
*"'''Rustam-e-Hind'''": After defeating Ghulam Ghous

Statue outside the village near "Shiv" temple

==See also==
*[[Akhara]]
*[[List of Pehlwani wrestlers]]
*[[Wrestling in India]]
*[[Pehlwani]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft6n39p104&chunk.id=0&doc.view=print The Wrestler’s Body: Identity and Ideology in North India]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rai, Mangla}}
[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:1976 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Ghazipur district]]
[[Category:Indian wrestlers]]
[[Category:People from Ghazipur]]
[[Category:Indian male sport wrestlers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Indian male professional wrestlers]]
[[Category:20th-century male professional wrestlers]]

Gujarat Legislative Assembly

2026-03-30T10:27:18Z

AnnieSneed66: minor enhance structure for accuracy and corrected details

{{Short description|Unicameral legislature of the Indian state of Gujarat}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name =Gujarat Legislative Assembly
| legislature = '''[[15th Gujarat Assembly]]'''
| foundation = {{Start date and years ago|1960|05|01|df=y|p=y}}
| disbanded = 
| preceded_by =[[Bombay Legislative Assembly]]
| succeeded_by =
| coa_pic = Government Of Gujarat Seal In All Languages.svg
| coa_caption = State Emblem of Gujarat
| coa_res = 100px
| house_type = Unicameral
| term_limits = 5 years
| leader1_type = [[List of governors of Gujarat|Governor]]
| leader1 = '''[[ Acharya Devvrat]]'''
| leader2_type = [[List of speakers of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly|Speaker]]
| leader2 = '''[[Shankar Chaudhary]]'''
| party2 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| election2 = 20 December 2022<ref name="auto">{{citation|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/gandhinagar/shankar-chaudhary-appointed-gujarat-assembly-speaker-jetha-bharwad-deputy-speaker|title=Shankar Chaudhary appointed as Gujarat Legislative Assembly Speaker|date=20 December 2022 }}</ref>
| leader3_type = Deputy Speaker
| leader3 = '''[[Purnesh Modi]]'''
| party3 = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| election3 = 16 February 2026<ref>{{citation|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/purnesh-modi-elected-deputy-speaker-of-gujarat-assembly/articleshow/128434626.cms|title= Purnesh Modi elected deputy speaker of Gujarat assembly|date=17 February 2026 }}</ref>
| leader4_type = [[List of Chief Ministers of Gujarat|Chief Minister (Leader of the House)]]
| leader4 = '''[[Bhupendrabhai Patel]]''', [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] since 13 September 2021
| election4 =
| leader5_type = Deputy Leader of the House 
[[List of Deputy Chief Ministers of Gujarat|(Deputy Chief Minister)]]
| leader5 = '''[[Harsh Sanghavi]]''', [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] since 17 October 2025
| election5 =
| leader6_type = [[Leader of Opposition in Gujarat Vidhansabha|Leader of the Opposition]]
| leader6 = '''Vacant'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gujarat.neva.gov.in/|title=Gujarat Legislative Assembly|website=gujarat.neva.gov.in|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250510080833/https://gujarat.neva.gov.in/|archive-date=10 May 2025|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-01-17 |title=Amit Chavda named CLP leader in Gujarat |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/amit-chavda-appointed-congress-legislature-party-leader-in-gujarat/article66385829.ece |access-date=2023-01-18 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
| party6 =
| members = '''182'''
| structure1 = India Gujarat Legislative Assembly 2025.svg
| structure1_res = 300px
| political_groups1 =
'''[[Government of Gujarat|Government]] (163)'''
:{{colorbox|{{party color|National Democratic Alliance}}}} [[National Democratic Alliance|NDA]] (163)
:*{{colorbox|#FF9933}} [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] (161)
:*{{color box|#B2B2B2}} [[Independent politician|IND]] (2)
'''Official Opposition'''
:''Vacant''{{efn|No party secured 10% of seats to form official opposition.}}
'''[[Parliamentary opposition|Other Opposition]] (18)'''
:*{{colorbox|#00BFFF}} [[Indian National Congress|INC]] (12)
:*{{Color box|{{Party color|Aam Aadmi Party}}}} [[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]] (4)
:*{{colorbox|#F50222}} [[Samajwadi Party|SP]] (1)
:*{{color box|#B2B2B2}} [[Independent politician|IND]] (1)
Vacant (1)
*{{Color box|#FFFFFF}} Vacant (1)
| voting_system1 = [[First-past-the-post voting|First past the post]]
| last_election1 = [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|1 and 5 December 2022]]
| next_election1 = [[Next Gujarat Legislative Assembly election|2027]]
| session_room = Gujarat_Vidhan_Sabha.jpg
| session_res = 250px
| meeting_place = {{coord|23|13|9|N|72|39|25|E|display=title, inline}} Vithalbhai Patel Bhavan, [[Gujarat Vidhan Sabha]], [[Gandhinagar]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
| website = {{url|www.gujaratassembly.gov.in}}
|native_name={{lang|gu|Gujarat Vidhan Sabha}}|native_name_lang=gu|body=Gujarat Legislative Assembly}}
The '''Gujarat Legislative Assembly''' ([[ISO 15919|ISO]]: ''Gujārāt Vidhān Sabhā''), is the [[unicameral]] legislature of the Indian state of [[Gujarat]], in the state capital [[Gandhinagar]]. Presently, 182 members of the Legislative Assembly are directly [[Elections in Gujarat|elected]] from single-member [[List of constituencies of Gujarat Legislative Assembly|constituencies]] (seats). It has a term of 5 years unless it is dissolved sooner. 13 constituencies are reserved for scheduled castes and 27 constituencies for scheduled tribes. From its majority party group or by way of a grand coalition cabinet of its prominent members, the state's Executive namely the [[Government of Gujarat]] is formed.<section end="Lead"/>

Since 1995, the Gujarat Legislative Assembly has been controlled by the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] with an absolute majority in the House.

==History==
Bhavsinhji Gohil, ruler of [[Bhavnagar State]], established ''The Peoples' Representative Assembly'' consisting of 38 members appointed by him. His succeeding son, Krishnakumar Sinhji, formed the Bhavnagar legislative assembly in 1941 having 55 members, consisting of 33 elected members, 16 nominated members by him and 6 ex-officio members. They had power to ask questions, move resolutions, discuss the budget and introduce bills in the assembly. This assembly used to meet at least twice in a year. [[Porbandar]] state assembly had same powers. [[Sayajirao Gaekwad III]], ruler of [[Baroda State]], had formed the Baroda legislative assembly in 1908.<ref name="vi">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVhNO2MwOCAC&q=architecture+building+assembly+vithalbhai&pg=PA107|title=Gandhinagar: Building National Identity in Postcolonial India|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|author=Kalia, Ravi|year=2004|pages=26, 33, 36, 37, 115|isbn=9781570035449|access-date=17 October 2020|archive-date=9 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009043104/https://books.google.com/books?id=RVhNO2MwOCAC&q=architecture+building+assembly+vithalbhai&pg=PA107#v=snippet&q=architecture%20building%20assembly%20vithalbhai&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since 1921, representatives were elected by the people of that area of the present Gujarat state except the princely states, and sent to the [[Bombay State]] legislative assembly. In 1952, [[Saurashtra (state)|Saurashtra State]] legislative assembly was constituted after the independence of India. It was functional till 31 October 1956. Saurashtra State was merged into the Bombay State under the States Reorganization Act, 1956.<ref name="vi"/>

On 1 May 1960, the Bombay State was bifurcated into [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]] states which resulted in formation of Gujarat legislative assembly. The 132 members of the former Bombay legislative assembly, elected from the territorial constituencies of Gujarat, formed the first Gujarat legislative assembly. The number of the members was increased to 154 in 1962, 168 in 1967 and 182 in 1975.<ref name="vi"/>

===Location===
After formation of Gujarat state in 1960, [[Ahmedabad]] was a capital of the state. The Assembly started functioning from the present day OPD building of [[Ahmedabad Civil Hospital]]. The new capital city, [[Gandhinagar]] was built in 1971. Later assembly was shifted to Central Library building, sector-17, Gandhinagar on 11 February 1971. The new assembly building, Vithalbhai Patel Bhavan, was completed and inaugurated in 1982. Since then the Gujarat legislative assembly functions there.<ref name="vi"/>

===Building===
President [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]] laid foundation stone of new assembly building, Vithalbhai Patel Bhavan on 20 March 1978. It was designed by H. K. Mewada, chief planner of Gandhinagar. The construction was completed in July 1982 and it is named after [[Vithalbhai Patel]], the first Indian speaker of [[Central Legislative Assembly]] during the [[British Raj|British period]]. It was inaugurated by the Governor [[Sharda Mukherjee]] on 8 July 1982.<ref name="vi"/>

It is constructed with [[Reinforced concrete]] and the outer walls of the building is affixed with Dholpur light pink stones. The building is constructed on the 133 square metre platform amid a water pool having diameter of 200 metres. This central building was linked with the Ministerial Secretariat by bridges formerly but now new buildings are constructed in between known as Swarnim Sankul. The building is 33.45 metres high including its octagonal dome. The constructed area of building is 8100 square metres while the total built up area of square platform is 17689 square metres. It has four floors with total built up area of 43350 square metres or total carpet area of 16180 square metres. The entrance of the building is reached by a flight of steps.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.gujaratassembly.gov.in/assembly.htm|title=Gujarat Vidhan Sabha|website=Gujarat Vidhan Sabha|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218153649/http://www.gujaratassembly.gov.in/assembly.htm|archive-date=18 December 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=15 April 2017}}</ref>

The Assembly hall is situated on the second floor. It is octagonal from inside. The octagonal roof is supported by eight V-shaped pillars and one pillar in the centre. These pillars tapers and forms octagonal dome on the hall. There is an arrangement of white floodlights on the top. The hall has a capacity of 232 seats though currently the assembly has only 182 elected members. The hall is viewed from the galleries on the third floor which has a capacity of 564 seats.<ref name=":0" />

There is a podium just under the Assembly hall which is used for ceremonies and functions. The downward floor of the Assembly hall makes an umbrella-like roof of the podium. The podium has some personal belongings of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and [[Vallabhbhai Patel]] on display. There are oil paintings of several national leaders, independence activists and personalities on its walls.<ref name=":0" />

It was constructed at the cost of {{INR}} 6 [[crore]].<ref name=":0" /> The assembly building along with other government offices is in Sector 10 of Gandhinagar, a capitol complex spanning 370 acres.<ref name="vi" />

==Structure==
{{See also|List of constituencies of the Gujarat Legislative Assembly}}
[[File:Wahlkreise zur Vidhan Sabha von Gujarat.svg|710x710px]]

At present, 13 constituencies are reserved for candidates of the [[Dalit|Scheduled Castes]], and 27 constituencies are reserved for candidates of the [[Adivasi|Scheduled tribes]].

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{{transcluded section|source=15th Gujarat Assembly}}
{{trim|{{#Section-h:15th Gujarat Assembly|Members of Legislative Assembly}}}}

==See also==
* [[Elections in Gujarat]]
* [[Politics of Gujarat]]
* [[Council of Ministers of Gujarat]]
* [[List of constituencies of Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
* [[15th Gujarat Assembly]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

*[https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/gujarat/news/gujarat-assembly-election-results-2022-latest-update-know-of-your-constituency-seat-winner-candidate-bjp-aap-congress/articleshow/96070131.cms Gujarat Assembly Elections - Nav Bharat Times]

== External links ==
* [https://gujarat.neva.gov.in/ Gujarat Legislative Assembly on eVidhan]
* [https://www.loksabhaelections.in/gujarat Gujarat Election 2019 Results Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209021843/https://www.loksabhaelections.in/gujarat |date=9 December 2022 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305015941/http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Gujarat/gujarat.pdf Official definitions of Gujarat Legislative Assembly constituencies]

{{Legislatures of India}}
{{Current Indian assemblies}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Gujarat Legislative Assembly| ]]
[[Category:Politics of Gujarat]]
[[Category:State lower houses in India]]
[[Category:Unicameral legislatures|Gujarat]]

Divij Sharan

2026-03-27T08:29:30Z

AnnieSneed66: quick update

{{short description|Indian tennis player}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox tennis biography
| name = Divij Sharan
| image = Sharan RG18 (3) (42077238415).jpg
| caption = Sharan at the [[2018 French Open]]
| country = {{IND}}
| residence = [[New Delhi]], [[Delhi]], India
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1986|3|2|df=y}}
| birth_place = Delhi, India
| height = {{convert|6|ft|0|in|m}}
| turnedpro = 2004
| plays = Left-handed (two-handed backhand)
| careerprizemoney = [[US$|$]]952,334
| singlesrecord = {{tennis record|won=0|lost=0|details=in [[ATP Tour|ATP World Tour]] and [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] main draw matches, and in [[Davis Cup]]|small=yes}}
| singlestitles = 0
| highestsinglesranking = No. 438 (30 July 2007)
| currentsinglesranking =
| AustralianOpenresult =
| FrenchOpenresult =
| Wimbledonresult =
| USOpenresult =
| doublesrecord = {{tennis record|won=111|lost=121|details=in [[ATP World Tour]] and [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] main draw matches, and in [[Davis Cup]]|small=yes}}
| doublestitles = 5
| highestdoublesranking = No. 36 (16 July 2018)
| currentdoublesranking = No. 397 (17 March 2025)
| AustralianOpenDoublesresult = 3R ([[2018 Australian Open – Men's doubles|2018]])
| FrenchOpenDoublesresult = 3R ([[2017 French Open – Men's doubles|2017]])
| WimbledonDoublesresult = QF ([[2018 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles|2018]])
| USOpenDoublesresult = 3R ([[2013 US Open – Men's doubles|2013]])
| Mixed = yes
| mixedrecord =
| mixedtitles =
| FrenchOpenMixedresult = 1R ([[2019 French Open – Mixed doubles|2019]])
| WimbledonMixedresult = 2R ([[2019 Wimbledon Championships – Mixed doubles|2019]], [[2021 Wimbledon Championships – Mixed doubles|2021]])
| updated = 19 March 2025
|medaltemplates=
{{Medal|Country|{{IND}}}}
{{Medal|Sport|Men's tennis}}
{{Medal|Competition|[[Asian Games]]}}
{{Medal|Gold|[[2018 Asian Games|2018 Jakarta]]|[[Tennis at the 2018 Asian Games – Men's doubles|Men's Doubles]]}}
{{Medal|Bronze|[[2014 Asian Games|2014 Incheon]]|[[Tennis at the 2014 Asian Games – Men's doubles|Men's Doubles]]}}
{{Medal|Competition|[[South Asian Games]]}}
{{Medal|Gold|[[2016 South Asian Games|2016 Guwahati]]|[[Tennis at the 2016 South Asian Games#Medalists|Mixed Doubles]]}}
{{Medal|Silver|[[2016 South Asian Games|2016 Guwahati]]|[[Tennis at the 2016 South Asian Games#Medalists|Men's Doubles]]}}
}}

'''Divij Sharan''' (born 2 March 1986) is an Indian professional [[tennis]] player. He specialises in doubles and competes on the [[ATP Tour|ATP World Tour]]. He has won five ATP doubles titles and represents [[India Davis Cup team|India]] in the [[Davis Cup]]. He won a gold medal in the [[Tennis at the 2018 Asian Games – Men's doubles|men's doubles at the 2018 Asian Games]].

== Early and Personal life==
Sharan was born in [[New Delhi]]. He began playing tennis at the age of seven at a local tennis academy. His favorite surfaces are grass and hard courts. His overall favorite shot is the volley. His idols growing up were [[Roger Federer]], [[Mahesh Bhupathi]] and [[Leander Paes]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sharan|first1=Divij|title=Divij Sharan Overview|url=http://www.atpworldtour.com/en/players/divij-sharan/sd46/overview|website=atpworldtour.com|access-date=15 February 2016|archive-date=30 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430092210/http://www.atpworldtour.com/en/players/divij-sharan/sd46/overview|url-status=live}}</ref>

He married British tennis player [[Samantha Murray Sharan|Samantha Murray]] in July 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=Divij Sharan ties the knot with Samantha Murray|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/sports/tennis/210719/divij-sharan-ties-the-knot-with-samantha-murray.html|website=Deccan Chronicle|date=21 July 2019 |access-date=22 July 2019|archive-date=28 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428214639/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/sports/tennis/210719/divij-sharan-ties-the-knot-with-samantha-murray.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Junior career==
Sharan's best junior world doubles ranking was No. 5 in 2003. His best result in Grand Slam junior championships was his semifinal appearance at the [[2004 French Open]] where he partnered with compatriot Tushar Liberhan.<ref name="itf junior">{{cite web|title=Divij SHARAN - ITF Junior Profile|url=https://www.itftennis.com/juniors/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=30020041|access-date=16 May 2018|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516174822/https://www.itftennis.com/juniors/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=30020041|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Roland Garros 2004 - Boys Doubles Drawsheet|url=https://www.itftennis.com/juniors/tournaments/tournament/info.aspx?tournamentid=1100006816|website=itftennis.com|access-date=16 May 2018|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516181729/https://www.itftennis.com/juniors/tournaments/tournament/info.aspx?tournamentid=1100006816|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Professional career==
===Early years===
Sharan turned pro in 2004. He found limited success in singles and developed as doubles specialist. He won his first Futures doubles title 3 years later, in 2007.<ref name="itf senior">{{cite web|title=Divij SHARAN - ITF Senior Profile|url=https://www.itftennis.com/procircuit/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=30020041|access-date=16 May 2018|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516181732/https://www.itftennis.com/procircuit/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=30020041|url-status=live}}</ref> He reached his first doubles ATP Challenger finals in 2010 at the [[Shimadzu All Japan Indoor Tennis Championships|Kyoto Challenger]] in Japan. He won his first doubles ATP Challenger title in September 2011 at the [[Ningbo Challenger]] in China.<ref>{{cite web|title=ATP Player activity - 2011|url=http://www.atpworldtour.com/en/players/divij-sharan/sd46/player-activity?year=2011|website=atpworldtour.com|access-date=16 May 2018|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516174842/http://www.atpworldtour.com/en/players/divij-sharan/sd46/player-activity?year=2011|url-status=live}}</ref> He continued to find success in doubles at both ITF and Challenger events. By the end of 2011, he had won 16 ITF titles and 1 ATP Challenger title.

===2012: Breakthrough===
2012 proved to be a breakthrough year for Sharan on the [[ATP Challenger Tour]]. He reached 8 ATP Challenger doubles finals and won 2 titles in the year. Sharan won the [[Busan Open Challenger Tennis|Busan Challenger]] with [[Yuki Bhambri]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Yuki-Divij clinch ATP Challenger title in Busan|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/Yuki-Divij-clinch-ATP-Challenger-title-in-Busan/articleshow/13121426.cms|access-date=16 May 2018|agency=PTI|date=13 May 2012|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516181309/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/Yuki-Divij-clinch-ATP-Challenger-title-in-Busan/articleshow/13121426.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Chang-Sat Bangkok Open|Bangkok Challenger]] with [[Vishnu Vardhan]]. In September, Sharan made his Davis Cup debut against [[New Zealand Davis Cup team|New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Davis Cup: Vishnu Vardhan, Divij Sharan help India stay in Group I|url=https://sports.ndtv.com/tennis/davis-cup-vishnu-vardhan-scores-easy-win-gives-india-2-0-lead-against-new-zealand-1547910|access-date=16 May 2018|date=15 September 2012|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517005207/https://sports.ndtv.com/tennis/davis-cup-vishnu-vardhan-scores-easy-win-gives-india-2-0-lead-against-new-zealand-1547910|url-status=live}}</ref> With his good run he entered into list of top 100 ranked doubles players and later finished the year close to top 100 doubles ranking at 107.

===2013: First ATP World Tour title, top 100 debut===
[[File:Divij Sharan WM13.JPG|left|thumb|Divij Sharan playing at Wimbledon in 2013]]
Sharan continued to impress at Challenger events. He reached 5 finals and won a title at the Kyoto Challenger. This was his first title with his most successful partner [[Purav Raja]]. The pair played together throughout the year and they found their biggest success by winning their first ATP World Tour title at the [[2013 Claro Open Colombia|2013 Claro Open]] in Bogota, Colombia. They defeated the second-seeded French-Dutch combination of [[Édouard Roger-Vasselin]] and [[Igor Sijsling]] in the final.<ref>{{cite news|title=Divij Sharan, Purav Raja win first ATP tour title in Bogota|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/divij-sharan-purav-raja-win-first-atp-tour-title-in-bogota-625449.html|access-date=16 May 2018|date=21 July 2013|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516181727/https://www.news18.com/news/india/divij-sharan-purav-raja-win-first-atp-tour-title-in-bogota-625449.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sharan entered the qualifying draw at the [[2013 Wimbledon Championships]] with Raja, with the pair successfully qualifying for the main draw. They lost in the first round to [[Nicholas Monroe]] and [[Simon Stadler]]. This was the first match at a Grand Slam event for both Raja and Sharan.<ref>{{cite news|title=Divij and Raja's Wimbledon debut ends in heart-breaking defeat|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/sports/divij-and-rajas-wimbledon-debut-ends-in-heart-breaking-defeat/article20627104.ece|access-date=22 May 2018|agency=PTI|date=25 June 2013|archive-date=8 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908180559/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/sports/divij-and-rajas-wimbledon-debut-ends-in-heart-breaking-defeat/article64102705.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> At the [[2013 US Open (tennis)|2013 US Open]], Sharan partnered with [[Lu Yen-hsun]] from Chinese Taipei. The pair reached the third round where they lost to [[Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi]] and [[Jean-Julien Rojer]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Divij Sharan bows out of US Open|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/tennis/divij-sharan-bows-out-of-us-open/article5088396.ece|access-date=22 May 2018|agency=PTI|date=3 September 2013|archive-date=14 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214061249/http://www.thehindu.com/sport/tennis/divij-sharan-bows-out-of-us-open/article5088396.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

As a result of this good run, Sharan finished the year inside the top 100 doubles rankings for the first time at 71.

===2014: Asian Games medal===
Sharan reached 4 Challenger finals and won 2 titles in the year 2014. He won the [[Shimadzu All Japan Indoor Tennis Championships|Kyoto Challenger]] with Purav Raja<ref>{{cite news|title=Divij and Raja clinch first Challenger title in Kyoto|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/Divij-and-Raja-clinch-first-Challenger-title-in-Kyoto/articleshow/31679368.cms|access-date=24 May 2018|agency=PTI|date=8 March 2014|archive-date=11 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811224754/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/Divij-and-Raja-clinch-first-Challenger-title-in-Kyoto/articleshow/31679368.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Shanghai Challenger]] with Yuki Bhambri. His best result at an ATP World Tour event was a semifinal appearance at the [[2014 Claro Open Colombia|2014 Claro Open]] where he had partnered with Canadian player [[Adil Shamasdin]].

At the [[2014 Asian Games]], Sharan won a bronze medal for India with Yuki Bhambri.<ref>{{cite news|title=Asian Games Tennis: Sanam Singh-Saketh Myneni Reach Doubles Final, Yuki Bhambri-Divij Sharan Get Bronze|url=https://sports.ndtv.com/asian-games-2014/asian-games-tennis-sanam-saketh-reach-doubles-final-yuki-divij-get-bronze-1512107|access-date=16 May 2018|date=28 September 2014|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517005331/https://sports.ndtv.com/asian-games-2014/asian-games-tennis-sanam-saketh-reach-doubles-final-yuki-divij-get-bronze-1512107|url-status=live}}</ref>

===2015: Out of top 100===
The year 2015 was not so successful for Sharan. He played with many different partners and reached 4 Challenger finals, winning 2 of them. He won the [[Guzzini Challenger]] with British partner [[Ken Skupski]]<ref>{{cite web|title=GUZZINI CHALLENGER Doubles Draw|url=http://www.protennislive.com/posting/2015/1743/mdd.pdf|website=protennislive.com|access-date=16 May 2018|archive-date=14 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214002538/http://www.protennislive.com/posting/2015/1743/mdd.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Türk Telecom İzmir Cup|Izmir Challenger]] with compatriot [[Saketh Myneni]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Divij Sharan, Saketh Myneni win ATP Izmir Cup|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/Divij-Sharan-Saketh-Myneni-win-ATP-Izmir-Cup/articleshow/49127350.cms|access-date=16 May 2018|agency=PTI|date=27 September 2015|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517005357/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/Divij-Sharan-Saketh-Myneni-win-ATP-Izmir-Cup/articleshow/49127350.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> He played only a singles match at ATP World Tour level and lost it. He finished the year ranked 134 as a doubles player.

===2016: Second ATP title, back to top 100===
Sharan made an excellent comeback in 2016. He partnered with Purav Raja and reached 6 ATP Challenger finals, winning 4 of them. They won the [[Manchester Trophy Challenger]], [[Aegon Surbiton Trophy]], [[Open Castilla y León]] and [[KPIT MSLTA Challenger|Pune Challenger]]. The pair also won their second ATP World Tour title at the [[Los Cabos Open]] in Mexico. They defeated the pair of [[Jonathan Erlich]] and Ken Skupski in the final.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Duo Surge To Los Cabos Title|url=https://www.atpworldtour.com/en/news/los-cabos-2016-doubles-final-raja-sharan|website=atpworldtour.com|access-date=16 May 2018|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517005546/https://www.atpworldtour.com/en/news/los-cabos-2016-doubles-final-raja-sharan|url-status=live}}</ref> Sharan finished the year with doubles ranking of No. 63.

===2017: Entry into the top 50===
Sharan started the new season on strong note. He reached his third ATP World Tour final at the [[2017 Aircel Chennai Open|2017 Chennai Open]] partnering with Purav Raja. In an all Indian final, they lost to the team of [[Rohan Bopanna]] and [[Jeevan Nedunchezhiyan]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chaudhuri|first1=Sharmistha|title=Chennai Open: Rohan Bopanna and Jeevan Nedunchezhiyan win doubles title|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/tennis/chennai-open-rohan-bopanna-and-jeevan-nedunchezhiyan-win-doubles-title/story-gYaKnkDFzAxGsMJ7mOQoFP.html|access-date=17 May 2018|date=9 January 2017|archive-date=2 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402163504/https://www.hindustantimes.com/tennis/chennai-open-rohan-bopanna-and-jeevan-nedunchezhiyan-win-doubles-title/story-gYaKnkDFzAxGsMJ7mOQoFP.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He then reached his fourth ATP World Tour final and won his third [[Association of Tennis Professionals|ATP]] title in Belgium at the [[European Open (tennis)|European Open]] with his new partner [[Scott Lipsky]]. They defeated the pair of [[Santiago González (tennis)|Santiago González]] and [[Julio Peralta]] in the final.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kumaraswamy|first1=K|title=No regular partner? No problem for Divij Sharan|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/no-regular-partner-no-problem-for-divij-sharan/articleshow/61189769.cms|access-date=17 May 2018|date=23 October 2017|archive-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517224424/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/no-regular-partner-no-problem-for-divij-sharan/articleshow/61189769.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sharan had good run on the Challenger Tour as well. He reached four finals winning two of it. He won titles in [[BNP Paribas Primrose Bordeaux|Bordeaux]] with Purav Raja<ref>{{cite news|title=Sharan, Raja win Bordeaux Challenger|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/sharan-raja-win-bordeaux-challenger/articleshow/58776718.cms|access-date=17 May 2018|agency=PTI|date=21 May 2017|archive-date=11 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811231804/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tennis/top-stories/sharan-raja-win-bordeaux-challenger/articleshow/58776718.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Bengaluru Open|Bangaluru]] with Mikhail Elgin. On the back of good results, Sharan entered the top-50 on 27 November 2017 and has been holding a spot inside the top-50 since then.

===2018: Asian Games gold medal, first Grand Slam quarter final===
Sharan started year with [[2018 Maharashtra Open|Maharashtra Open]] where he paired with compatriot [[Yuki Bhambri]]. The pair reached to the semis but lost to French pair of [[Pierre-Hugues Herbert]] and [[Gilles Simon]]. At [[2018 Australian Open|Australian Open]], he reached third round thus making his best performance at the event.

He won his first Challenger title of the season at [[2018 Canberra Challenger|Canberra Challenger]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Divij Sharan bags doubles Challenger title |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/tennis/divij-sharan-bags-doubles-challenger-title/article22431087.ece |access-date=29 January 2019 |date=12 January 2018 |archive-date=8 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908180718/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/tennis/divij-sharan-bags-doubles-challenger-title/article22431087.ece |url-status=live }}</ref> He continued with few more Challenger tournaments till April but later moved his focus entirely on ATP world tour.

At [[2018 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles|Wimbledon Championships]], Sharan reached his first Gland Slam quarter-finals. He partnered with [[Artem Sitak]] from New Zealand. They lost to eventual champions [[Mike Bryan]] and [[Jack Sock]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Srinivasan |first1=Kamesh |title=Divij happy with Wimbledon performance |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/tennis/divij-happy-with-wimbledon-performance/article24400953.ece |access-date=29 January 2019 |date=12 July 2018 |archive-date=20 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020005253/https://www.thehindu.com/sport/tennis/divij-happy-with-wimbledon-performance/article24400953.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sharan finished another year inside the top 50 with doubles ranking of 39.

===2019: Fourth and fifth titles===

Sharan began the year teaming up with his compatriot Rohan Bopanna. The new pairing started off with a bang by capturing the Pune open doubles title in front of the home crowd. This was Sharan's 4th title on ATP tour. Following this result the pair lost a few close matches and they mutually decided to end their partnership citing their low combined ranking as the primary reason behind the split. Divij then teamed up with the Brazilian doubles specialist Marcelo Demolinor and reached the doubles final in the Bavarian open. Following this he reached the round of 16 in Wimbledon. Divij won his 5th title in ATP tour teaming up with Igor Zelenay in St Petersburg, Russia to win his second title of the year.

==ATP career finals==

===Doubles: 7 (5 titles, 2 runners-up)===
{|
|- valign="top"
|
{|class="wikitable"
!Legend
|- style="background:#f3e6d7;"
|Grand Slam tournaments (0–0)
|- style="background:#ffffcc;"
|ATP World Tour Finals (0–0)
|- style="background:#e9e9e9;"
|ATP World Tour Masters 1000 (0–0)
|- style="background:#d4f1c5;"
|ATP World Tour 500 Series (0–0)
|-
|ATP World Tour 250 Series (5–2)
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
!Titles by surface
|-
|Hard (5–1)
|-
|Clay (0–1)
|-
|Grass (0–0)
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
!Titles by setting
|-
|Outdoor (3–2)
|-
|Indoor (2–0)
|}
|}

{|class="sortable wikitable"
!Result
!class="unsortable"|W–L
!{{ns}}Date{{ns}}
!Tournament
!Tier
!Surface
!Partner
!Opponents
!class="unsortable"|Score
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|1–0
|[[2013 Claro Open Colombia – Doubles|{{dts|Jul 2013}}]]
|[[Colombia Open]], Colombia
|250 Series
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Édouard Roger-Vasselin]] {{flagicon|NED}} [[Igor Sijsling]]
|7–6(7–4), 7–6(7–3)
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|2–0
|[[2016 Los Cabos Open – Doubles|{{dts|Aug 2016}}]]
|[[Los Cabos Open]], Mexico
|250 Series
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} Purav Raja
|{{flagicon|ISR}} [[Jonathan Erlich]] {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Ken Skupski]]
|7–6(7–4), 7–6(7–3)
|-
|bgcolor=FFA07A|Loss
|2–1
|[[2017 Aircel Chennai Open – Doubles|{{dts|Jan 2017}}]]
|[[Maharashtra Open|Chennai Open]], India
|250 Series
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} Purav Raja
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rohan Bopanna]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Jeevan Nedunchezhiyan]]
|3–6, 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|3–1
|[[2017 European Open – Doubles|{{dts|Oct 2017}}]]
|[[European Open (tennis)|European Open]], Belgium
|250 Series
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Scott Lipsky]]
|{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Santiago González (tennis)|Santiago González]] {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Julio Peralta]]
|6–4, 2–6, [10–5]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|4–1
|[[2019 Maharashtra Open – Doubles|{{dts|Jan 2019}}]]
|[[Maharashtra Open]], India
|250 Series
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} Rohan Bopanna
|{{flagicon|GBR}} [[Luke Bambridge]] {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Jonny O'Mara]]
|6–3, 6–4
|-
|bgcolor=FFA07A|Loss
|4–2
|[[2019 BMW Open – Doubles|{{dts|May 2019}}]]
|[[Bavarian International Tennis Championships|Bavarian Championships]], Germany
|250 Series
|Clay
|{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Marcelo Demoliner]]
|{{flagicon|DEN}} [[Frederik Nielsen]] {{flagicon|GER}} [[Tim Pütz]]
|4–6, 2–6
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|5–2
|[[2019 St. Petersburg Open – Doubles|{{dts|Sep 2019}}]]
|[[St. Petersburg Open]], Russia
|250 Series
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|SVK}} [[Igor Zelenay]]
|{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Matteo Berrettini]] {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Simone Bolelli]]
|6–3, 3–6, [10–8]
|}

==Challenger and Futures finals==

===Singles: 3 (0–3)===
{|
|-valign=top
|
{|class=wikitable style=font-size:97%
!Legend (singles)
|-bgcolor=moccasin
|ATP Challenger Tour (0–0)
|-bgcolor=#cffcff
|ITF Futures Tour (0–3)
|}
|
{|class=wikitable style=font-size:97%
!Titles by surface
|-
|Hard (0–2)
|-
|Clay (0–0)
|-
|Grass (0–1)
|-
|Carpet (0–0)
|}
|}

{|class="sortable wikitable"
!Result
!class="unsortable"|W–L
!{{ns}}Date{{ns}}
!Tournament
!Tier
!Surface
!Opponent
!class="unsortable"|Score
|-
|bgcolor=FFA07A|Loss
|0–1
|{{dts|Nov 2007}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Pakistan F2, [[Lahore]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Grass
|{{flagicon|PAK}} [[Aqeel Khan]]
|6–4, 3–6, 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=FFA07A|Loss
|0–2
|{{dts|Oct 2008}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Nigeria F4, [[Lagos]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|SVK}} [[Kamil Čapkovič]]
|4–6, 6–4, 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=FFA07A|Loss
|0–3
|{{dts|Jun 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F7, [[Delhi]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|SWE}} [[Patrik Rosenholm]]
|4–6, 4–6
|}

===Doubles: 73 (37–36)===
{|
|-valign=top
|
{|class=wikitable style=font-size:97%
!Legend (doubles)
|-bgcolor=e5d1cb
|-bgcolor=moccasin
|ATP Challenger Tour (18–27)
|-bgcolor=cffcff
|ITF Futures Tour (19–9)
|}
|
{|class=wikitable style=font-size:97%
!Titles by surface
|-
|Hard (26–27)
|-
|Clay (5–6)
|-
|Grass (4–2)
|-
|Carpet (2–1)
|}
|}

{|class="sortable wikitable"
!Result
!class="unsortable"|W–L
!{{ns}}Date{{ns}}
!Tournament
!Tier
!Surface
!Partner
!Opponents
!class="unsortable"|Score
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|0–1
|{{dts|Jul 2006}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Romania F11, [[Târgu Mureș]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Clay
|{{flagicon|ROU}} Bogdan-Victor Leonte
|{{flagicon|ROU}} [[Adrian Cruciat]] {{flagicon|ROU}} [[Victor Ioniță]]
|4–6, 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|1–1
|{{dts|Mar 2007}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Nigeria F1, [[Benin City]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} Navdeep Singh
|{{flagicon|CHI}} [[Guillermo Hormazábal]] {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Hans Podlipnik Castillo]]
|6–1, 6–3
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|2–1
|{{dts|Mar 2007}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Nigeria F2, [[Benin City]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} Navdeep Singh
|{{flagicon|ROU}}Bogdan-Victor Leonte {{flagicon|NAM}} [[Jurgens Strydom]]
|6–4, 6–4
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|2–2
|{{dts|May 2007}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Kuwait F2, [[Mishref]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} Navdeep Singh
|{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Thomas Oger]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Nicolas Tourte]]
|3–6, 2–6
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|2–3
|{{dts|Mar 2008}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F4, [[Gurgaon]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|TPE}} [[Lee Hsin-han]] {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Wang Yu (tennis)|Wang Yu jr.]]
|6–7(4–7), 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|3–3
|{{dts|Sep 2008}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F6, [[Chennai]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Clay
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashutosh Singh (tennis)|Ashutosh Singh]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sunil-Kumar Sipaeya]]
|6–3, 4–6, [10–7]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|3–4
|{{dts|Sep 2008}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F7, [[New Delhi]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashutosh Singh (tennis)|Ashutosh Singh]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sunil-Kumar Sipaeya]]
|2–6, 2–6
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|4–4
|{{dts|Oct 2008}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Nigeria F3, [[Lagos]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rohan Gajjar]]
|{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Pavel Chekhov (tennis)|Pavel Chekhov]] {{flagicon|BLR}} Pavel Katliarov
|7–6(8–6), 6–7(2–7), [10–7]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|5–4
|{{dts|Mar 2009}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F1, [[Chandigarh]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} Mithun Murali {{flagicon|IND}} [[Vijay Sundar Prashanth]]
|4–6, 7–5, [10–7]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|6–4
|{{dts|May 2009}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F4, [[New Delhi]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} Tushar Liberhan {{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishal Punna]]
|6–1, 6–3
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|7–4
|{{dts|Jul 2009}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F5, [[New Delhi]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rohan Gajjar]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|6–1, 7–5
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|8–4
|{{dts|Jul 2009}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F6, [[New Delhi]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vivek Shokeen]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashutosh Singh (tennis)|Ashutosh Singh]]
|6–3, 6–4
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|8–5
|{{dts|Oct 2009}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F10, [[Kolkata]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rohan Gajjar]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|4–6, 5–7
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|9–5
|{{dts|Oct 2009}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F11, [[Pune]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rohan Gajjar]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|7–5, 6–3
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|0–1
|[[2010 Shimadzu All Japan Indoor Tennis Championships – Doubles|{{dts|Mar 2010}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Shimadzu All Japan Indoor Tennis Championships|Kyoto]], Japan
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Carpet (i)
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|AUT}} [[Martin Fischer (tennis)|Martin Fischer]] {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Philipp Oswald]]
|1–6, 2–6
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|9–6
|{{dts|Mar 2010}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F1, [[Kolkata]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vivek Shokeen]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashutosh Singh (tennis)|Ashutosh Singh]]
|3–6, 2–6
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|10–6
|{{dts|Apr 2010}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F3, [[Vijayawada]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sriram Balaji]] {{flagicon|IND}} Vignesh Peranamallur
|2–6, 6–3, [10–3]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|11–6
|{{dts|Jul 2010}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Great Britain F8, [[Manchester]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Grass
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IRL}} [[Barry King (tennis)|Barry King]] {{flagicon|USA}} Ashwin Kumar
|6–2, 7–5
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|11–7
|{{dts|Jul 2010}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Great Britain F9, [[Ilkley]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Grass
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|GBR}} Andrew Fitzpatrick {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Josh Goodall]]
|6–3, 5–7, [3–10]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|12–7
|{{dts|Jul 2010}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Great Britain F11, [[Chiswick]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|GBR}} James Chaudry {{flagicon|GBR}} George Coupland
|6–2, 6–2
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|0–2
|[[2010 Karshi Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Aug 2010}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Karshi Challenger|Karshi]], Uzbekistan
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Gong Maoxin]] {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Li Zhe (tennis)|Li Zhe]]
|3–6, 1–6
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|12–8
|{{dts|Oct 2010}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Spain F35, [[Martos]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|ESP}} Agustín Boje-Ordóñez {{flagicon|ESP}} Pablo Martín-Adalia
|6–3, 6–7(2–7), [8–10]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|12–9
|{{dts|Jan 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Cambodia F1, [[Phnom Penh]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|THA}} [[Danai Udomchoke]] {{flagicon|THA}} [[Kittipong Wachiramanowong]]
|4–6, 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|13–9
|{{dts|Mar 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Australia F2, [[Berri, South Australia|Berri]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Grass
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|AUS}} Chris Letcher {{flagicon|AUS}} Brendan Moore
|4–6, 6–3, [10–8]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|14–9
|{{dts|Mar 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F1, [[Mumbai]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|GER}} [[Gero Kretschmer]] {{flagicon|GER}} [[Alexander Satschko]]
|7–6(7–4), 7–6(7–5)
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|15–9
|{{dts|Mar 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F2, [[Kolkata]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Clay
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sriram Balaji]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ashutosh Singh (tennis)|Ashutosh Singh]]
|7–6(7–1), 7–6(7–5)
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|16–9
|{{dts|Apr 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F3, [[Chandigarh]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|TPE}} [[Lee Hsin-han]] {{flagicon|JPN}} Bumpei Sato
|6–4, 4–6, [10–7]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|17–9
|{{dts|Jun 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|India F7, [[Delhi]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rohan Gajjar]]
|{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Takuto Niki]] {{flagicon|RUS}} Vitali Reshetnikov
|6–2, 7–6(9–7)
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|18–9
|{{dts|Jul 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|France F11, [[Bourg-en-Bresse]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Clay
|{{flagicon|FRA}} Laurent Rochette
|{{flagicon|BEL}} Alexandre Folie {{flagicon|FRA}} Florian Reynet
|7–6(7–1), 6–0
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|19–9
|{{dts|Jul 2011}}
|style="background:#cffcff;"|France F12, [[Saint-Gervais-les-Bains|Saint-Gervais]]
|style="background:#cffcff;"|Futures
|Clay
|{{flagicon|NED}} [[Antal van der Duim]]
|{{flagicon|FRA}} Simon Cauvard {{flagicon|FRA}} Baptiste Dupuy
|6–3, 6–2
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|1–2
|[[2011 Ningbo Challenger – Men's doubles|{{dts|Sep 2011}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Ningbo Challenger|Ningbo]], China
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Karan Rastogi]]
|{{flagicon|CZE}} [[Jan Hernych]] {{flagicon|EST}} [[Jürgen Zopp]]
|3–6, 7–6(7–3), [13–11]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|1–3
|[[2011 Samsung Securities Cup – Men's doubles|{{dts|Oct 2011}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Samsung Securities Cup|Seoul]], South Korea
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|THA}} [[Sanchai Ratiwatana]] {{flagicon|THA}} [[Sonchat Ratiwatana]]
|4–6, 6–7(3–7)
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|1–4
|[[2012 McDonald's Burnie International – Men's doubles|{{dts|Feb 2012}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Burnie International|Burnie]], Australia
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[John Peers (tennis)|John Peers]] {{flagicon|AUS}} [[John-Patrick Smith]]
|2–6, 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|2–4
|[[2012 Busan Open Challenger Tennis – Doubles|{{dts|May 2012}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Busan Open|Busan]], South Korea
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Yuki Bhambri]]
|{{flagicon|TPE}} [[Hsieh Cheng-peng]] {{flagicon|TPE}} [[Lee Hsin-han]]
|1–6, 6–1, [10–5]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|2–5
|[[2012 Penza Cup – Doubles|{{dts|Jul 2012}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Penza Cup|Penza]], Russia
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Yuki Bhambri]]
|{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Konstantin Kravchuk]] {{flagicon|AUT}} [[Nikolaus Moser]]
|7–6(7–5), 3–6, [7–10]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|2–6
|[[2012 Beijing International Challenger – Men's doubles|{{dts|Aug 2012}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Beijing International Challenger|Beijing]], China
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Yuki Bhambri]]
|{{flagicon|THA}} [[Sanchai Ratiwatana]] {{flagicon|THA}} [[Sonchat Ratiwatana]]
|6–7(3–7), 6–2, [6–10]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|2–7
|[[2012 Samarkand Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Aug 2012}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Samarkand Challenger|Samarkand]], Uzbekistan
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Clay
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|UKR}} [[Oleksandr Nedovyesov]] {{flagicon|UKR}} [[Ivan Sergeyev (tennis)|Ivan Sergeyev]]
|4–6, 6–7(1–7)
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|3–7
|[[2012 Chang-Sat Bangkok Open – Doubles|{{dts|Sep 2012}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Bangkok Challenger|Bangkok]], Thailand
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|TPE}} [[Lee Hsin-han]] {{flagicon|TPE}} [[Peng Hsien-yin]]
|6–3, 6–4
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|3–8
|[[2012 Shanghai Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Sep 2012}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Shanghai Challenger|Shanghai]], China
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Yuki Bhambri]]
|{{flagicon|THA}} [[Sanchai Ratiwatana]] {{flagicon|THA}} [[Sonchat Ratiwatana]]
|4–6, 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|3–9
|[[2012 Aegon Pro-Series Loughborough – Men's doubles|{{dts|Nov 2012}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[GB Pro-Series Loughborough|Loughborough]], Great Britain
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[James Cerretani]] {{flagicon|CAN}} [[Adil Shamasdin]]
|4–6, 5–7
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|4–9
|[[2013 All Japan Indoor Tennis Championships – Doubles|{{dts|Mar 2013}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Shimadzu All Japan Indoor Tennis Championships|Kyoto]], Japan
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Carpet (i)
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Chris Guccione (tennis)|Chris Guccione]] {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Matt Reid (tennis)|Matt Reid]]
|6–4, 7–5
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|4–10
|[[2013 Torneo Internacional AGT – Doubles|{{dts|Apr 2013}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Torneo Internacional Challenger León|León]], Mexico
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Chris Guccione (tennis)|Chris Guccione]] {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Matt Reid (tennis)|Matt Reid]]
|3–6, 5–7
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|4–11
|[[2013 Soweto Open – Men's doubles|{{dts|May 2013}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Soweto Open|Johannesburg]], South Africa
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Prakash Amritraj]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Rajeev Ram]]
|6–7(1–7), 6–7(1–7)
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|4–12
|[[2013 Aegon Nottingham Challenge – Men's doubles|{{dts|Jun 2013}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Aegon Nottingham Challenge|Nottingham]], Great Britain
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Grass
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|THA}} Sanchai Ratiwatana {{flagicon|THA}} Sonchat Ratiwatana
|7–6(7–5), 6–7(3–7), [8–10]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|4–13
|[[2013 Tashkent Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Oct 2013}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Tashkent Challenger|Tashkent]], Uzbekistan
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Mikhail Elgin]] {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Teymuraz Gabashvili]]
|4–6, 4–6
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|4–14
|[[2014 State Bank of India ATP Challenger Tour – Doubles|{{dts|Feb 2014}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Emami Kolkata Open ATP Challenger Tour|Kolkata]], India
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Vishnu Vardhan]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Saketh Myneni]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sanam Singh]]
|3–6, 6–3, [4–10]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|5–14
|[[2014 All Japan Indoor Tennis Championships – Doubles|{{dts|Mar 2014}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Shimadzu All Japan Indoor Tennis Championships|Kyoto]], Japan
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Carpet (i)
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|THA}} [[Sanchai Ratiwatana]] {{flagicon|NZL}} [[Michael Venus (tennis)|Michael Venus]]
|5–7, 7–6(7–3), [10–4]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|6–14
|[[2014 Shanghai Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Sep 2014}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Shanghai Challenger|Shanghai]], China
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Yuki Bhambri]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Somdev Devvarman]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sanam Singh]]
|7–6(7–2), 6–7(4–7), [10–8]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|6–15
|[[2014 Indore Open ATP Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Oct 2014}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Indore Open ATP Challenger|Indore]], India
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Yuki Bhambri]]
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Adrián Menéndez Maceiras]] {{flagicon|KAZ}} [[Aleksandr Nedovyesov]]
|6–2, 4–6, [3–10]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|6–16
|[[2015 Gemdale ATP Challenger China International Shenzhen – Doubles|{{dts|Mar 2015}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Pingshan Open|Shenzhen]], China
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Saketh Myneni]]
|{{flagicon|GER}} [[Gero Kretschmer]] {{flagicon|GER}} [[Alexander Satschko]]
|1–6, 6–3, [2–10]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|6–17
|[[2015 Sarasota Open – Doubles|{{dts|Apr 2015}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Sarasota Open|Sarasota]], USA
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Clay
|{{flagicon|KOR}} [[Chung Hyeon]]
|{{flagicon|ARG}} [[Facundo Argüello (tennis)|Facundo Argüello]] {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Facundo Bagnis]]
|6–3, 2–6, [11–13]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|7–17
|[[2015 Guzzini Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Jul 2015}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Guzzini Challenger|Recanati]], Italy
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|GBR}} [[Ken Skupski]]
|{{flagicon|SRB}} [[Ilija Bozoljac]] {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Flavio Cipolla]]
|4–6, 7–6(7–3), [10–6]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|8–17
|[[2015 Türk Telecom İzmir Cup – Doubles|{{dts|Sep 2015}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Türk Telecom İzmir Cup|Izmir]], Turkey
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Saketh Myneni]]
|{{flagicon|TUN}} [[Malek Jaziri]] {{flagicon|UKR}} [[Denys Molchanov]]
|7–6(7–5), 4–6, [0–1] ret.
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|8–18
|[[2015 KPIT MSLTA Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Oct 2015}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[KPIT MSLTA Challenger|Pune]], India
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|AUT}} [[Maximilian Neuchrist]]
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Gerard Granollers]] {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Adrián Menéndez Maceiras]]
|6–1, 3–6, [6–10]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|8–19
|[[2016 Savannah Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Apr 2016}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Savannah Challenger|Savannah]], USA
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Clay
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Brian Baker (tennis)|Brian Baker]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Ryan Harrison]]
|7–5, 6–7(4–7), [8–10]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|9–19
|[[2016 Aegon Manchester Trophy – Doubles|{{dts|Jun 2016}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Manchester Trophy Challenger|Manchester]], Great Britain
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Grass
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|GBR}} [[Ken Skupski]] {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Neal Skupski]]
|6–3, 3–6, [11–9]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|10–19
|[[2016 Aegon Surbiton Trophy – Men's doubles|{{dts|Jun 2016}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Surbiton Trophy|Surbiton]], Great Britain
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Grass
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|GBR}} [[Ken Skupski]] {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Neal Skupski]]
|6–4, 7–6(7–3)
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|11–19
|[[2016 Open Castilla y León – Men's doubles|{{dts|Jul 2016}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Open Castilla y León|Segovia]], Spain
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Quino Muñoz]] {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Akira Santillan]]
|6–3, 4–6, [10–8]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|12–19
|[[2016 KPIT MSLTA Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Oct 2016}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[KPIT MSLTA Challenger|Pune]], India
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|SUI}} [[Luca Margaroli]] {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Hugo Nys]]
|3–6, 6–3, [11–9]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|12–20
|[[2016 Slovak Open – Men's doubles|{{dts|Nov 2016}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Slovak Open|Bratislava]], Slovakia
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|GBR}} [[Ken Skupski]] {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Neal Skupski]]
|6–4, 3–6, [5–10]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|13–20
|[[2017 BNP Paribas Primrose Bordeaux – Doubles|{{dts|May 2017}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[BNP Paribas Primrose Bordeaux|Bordeaux]], France
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Clay
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Santiago González (tennis)|Santiago González]] {{flagicon|NZL}} [[Artem Sitak]]
|6–4, 6–4
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|13–21
|[[2017 Tashkent Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Oct 2017}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"| [[Tashkent Challenger|Tashkent]], Uzbekistan
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Yuki Bhambri]]
|{{flagicon|CHI}} [[Hans Podlipnik Castillo]] {{flagicon|BLR}} [[Andrei Vasilevski (tennis)|Andrei Vasilevski]]
|4–6, 2–6
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|13–22
|[[2017 Brest Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Oct 2017}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Brest Challenger|Brest]], France
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|GBR}} [[Scott Clayton (tennis)|Scott Clayton]]
|{{flagicon|NED}} [[Sander Arends]] {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Antonio Šančić]]
|4–6, 5–7
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|14–22
|[[2017 Bengaluru Open – Doubles|{{dts|Nov 2017}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"| [[Bengaluru Open|Bangalore]], India
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Mikhail Elgin]]
|{{flagicon|CRO}} [[Ivan Sabanov]] {{flagicon|CRO}} [[Matej Sabanov]]
|6–3, 6–0
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|15–22
|[[2018 Canberra Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Jan 2018}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Canberra Challenger|Canberra]], Australia
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|ISR}} [[Jonathan Erlich]]
|{{flagicon|CHI}} [[Hans Podlipnik Castillo]] {{flagicon|BLR}} [[Andrei Vasilevski (tennis)|Andrei Vasilevski]]
|7–6(7–1), 6–2
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|16–22
|[[2019 Jinan International Open – Men's doubles|{{dts|Sep 2019}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Jinan International Open|Jinan]], China
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Matthew Ebden]]
|{{flagicon|KOR}} [[Nam Ji-sung]] {{flagicon|KOR}} [[Song Min-kyu (tennis)|Song Min-kyu]]
|7–6(7–4), 5–7, [10–3]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|16–23
|[[2020 Moneta Czech Open – Doubles|{{dts|Sep 2020}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[2020 Moneta Czech Open|Prostějov]], Czech Republic
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Clay
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sriram Balaji]]
|{{flagicon|CZE}} [[Zdeněk Kolář]] {{flagicon|CZE}} [[Lukáš Rosol]]
|2–6, 6–2, [6–10]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|16–24
|[[2022 San Marcos Open Aguascalientes – Doubles|{{dts|Apr 2022}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[San Marcos Open Aguascalientes|Aguascalientes]], Mexico
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Clay
|{{flagicon|POR}} [[Gonçalo Oliveira]]
|{{flagicon|COL}} [[Nicolás Barrientos]] {{flagicon|MEX}} [[Miguel Ángel Reyes-Varela]]
|5-7, 3-6
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|16–25
|[[2022 Indy Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Jul 2022}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Indy Challenger|Indianapolis]], USA
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|MEX}} [[Hans Hach Verdugo]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Hunter Reese]]
|6-7(3-7), 6–3, [7-10]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|17–25
|[[2022 Istanbul Challenger – Doubles|{{dts|Sep 2022}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Istanbul Challenger|Istanbul]], Turkey
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Arjun Kadhe]] {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Fernando Romboli]]
|6–4, 3–6, [10–8]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|17–26
|[[2022 Internationaux de Tennis de Vendée – Doubles|{{dts|Oct 2022}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Internationaux de Tennis de Vendée|Mouilleron-le-Captif]], France
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|NED}} [[Sander Arends]] {{flagicon|NED}} [[David Pel]]
|7–6(7–1), 6–7(6–8), [6–10]
|-
|bgcolor=98FB98|Win
|18–26
|[[2022 HPP Open – Doubles|{{dts|Nov 2022}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[HPP Open|Helsinki]], Finland
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Reese Stalder]] {{flagicon|GRE}} [[Petros Tsitsipas]]
|6–7(5–7), 6–3, [10–8]
|-
|bgcolor=#FFA07A|Loss
|18–27
|[[2023 Challenger Club Els Gorchs – Doubles|{{dts|Mar 2023}}]]
|style="background:moccasin;"|[[Challenger Club Els Gorchs|Les Franqueses del Vallès]], Spain
|style="background:moccasin;"|Challenger
|Hard
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Purav Raja]]
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Anirudh Chandrasekar]] {{flagicon|IND}} [[Vijay Sundar Prashanth]]
|5–7, 1–6
|}

==Doubles performance timeline==
{{Performance key}}

''Current through the [[2021 US Open – Men's doubles|2021 US Open]]''

{|class=wikitable style=text-align:center;font-size:97%
!Tournament!![[2013 ATP World Tour|2013]]!![[2014 ATP World Tour|2014]]!![[2015 ATP World Tour|2015]]!![[2016 ATP World Tour|2016]]!![[2017 ATP World Tour|2017]]!![[2018 ATP World Tour|2018]]!![[2019 ATP Tour|2019]]!![[2020 ATP Tour|2020]]!![[2021 ATP Tour|2021]]!!SR!!W–L
|-
|align=left|[[Australian Open]]
|A
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2014 Australian Open – Men's doubles|1R]]
|A
|A
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2017 Australian Open – Men's doubles|1R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2018 Australian Open – Men's doubles|3R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2019 Australian Open – Men's doubles|1R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2020 Australian Open – Men's doubles|2R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2021 Australian Open – Men's doubles|1R]]
|0 / 6
|3–6
|-
|align=left|[[French Open]]
|A
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2014 French Open – Men's doubles|1R]]
|A
|A
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2017 French Open – Men's doubles|3R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2018 French Open – Men's doubles|2R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2019 French Open – Men's doubles|2R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2020 French Open – Men's doubles|1R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2021 French Open – Men's doubles|1R]]
|0 / 6
|4–6
|-
|align=left|[[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2013 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles|1R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2014 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles|1R]]
|A
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|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2017 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles|2R]]
|bgcolor=ffebcd|[[2018 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles|QF]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2019 Wimbledon Championships – Men's doubles|3R]]
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|align=left|[[US Open (tennis)|US Open]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2013 US Open – Men's doubles|3R]]
|A
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|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2018 US Open – Men's doubles|2R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2019 US Open – Men's doubles|1R]]
|bgcolor=afeeee|[[2020 US Open – Men's doubles|2R]]
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==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{ATP}}
* {{ITF}}
* {{Davis Cup player}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharan, Divij}}
[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male tennis players]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Delhi]]
[[Category:Tennis players at the 2014 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Tennis players at the 2018 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists in tennis]]
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists in tennis]]
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2014 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2018 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games gold medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games tennis players for India]]
[[Category:South Asian Games gold medalists for India]]
[[Category:South Asian Games silver medalists for India]]
[[Category:South Asian Games medalists in tennis]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]

Shyam Sundar M.

2026-03-26T10:08:16Z

AnnieSneed66: started the entry first draft.

{{Short description|Indian chess grandmaster (born 1992)}}
{{Indian patronymic|Shyam Sundar|Mohanraj}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox chess player
|image = Sundar Shyam 2012.jpg
|caption = Shyam Sundar in 2012
| country = [[India]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1992|5|28}}
| birth_place = [[Vellore]], India
| title = [[Grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]] (2013)
| peakrating = 2554 (February 2017)
| FideID = 5019141
}}

'''Shyam Sundar Mohanraj''' is an Indian [[chess]] grandmaster. He is a national coach for India, and many of his students have become grandmasters, such as [[Pranav V]], [[Srihari L. R.]], and [[Harikrishnan A Ra]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/chess/ability-to-defend-in-precarious-game-situations-is-hallmark-of-praggnanandhaas-talent-india-coach-m-shyam-sundar/articleshow/102947134.cms|title=Ability to defend in precarious game situations is hallmark of Praggnanandhaa's talent: India coach M Shyam Sundar|newspaper=The Times of India|date=22 August 2023|agency=PTI|accessdate=27 July 2025}}</ref>

==Career==
In April 2012, he caused an upset by defeating [[Liviu-Dieter Nisipeanu]] in the Dubai Open.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/chess/shyam-sundar-upsets-nisipeanu-in-dubai-open-chess/articleshow/12735440.cms|title=Shyam Sundar upsets Nisipeanu in Dubai Open chess|newspaper=The Times of India|agency=PTI|date=19 April 2012|accessdate=27 July 2025}}</ref>

In December 2015, he and [[Jorden van Foreest]] tied for first in the Groningen Open with a score of 7.5/9. He lost the title to van Foreest on tiebreaks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chessbase.in/news/test-your-chess-with-shyam|title=Test your chess with Shyamsundar|date=14 January 2016|first=Sagar|last=Shah}}</ref>

In March 2024, he and Jachym Nemek tied for first place with a score of 6.5/7 in the Prague International Chess Festival 2024 H Rapid Open. Shyam won the event due to better tiebreaks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chessbase.in/news/Shyam-Sundar-M-wins-Prague-International-Chess-Festival-2024-Rapid-Open-Saravana-Krishnan-third|title=Shyam Sundar M wins Prague International Chess Festival 2024 Rapid Open, Saravana Krishnan third|first=Shahid|last=Ahmed|date=12 March 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Indian grandmasters}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shyam Sundar M.}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1992 births]]
[[Category:Chess Grandmasters]]
[[Category:People from Vellore]]
[[Category:Chess coaches]]
[[Category:National team coaches]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian chess players]]

Amdavad ni Gufa

2026-03-22T01:24:35Z

AnnieSneed66: Starting Initial Details W/ Infobox - done

{{short description|Art gallery in India}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Amdavad ni Gufa
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| former_names = Husain-Doshi ni Gufa
| alternate_names =
| status = Accessible
| image = Amdavad ni gufa.jpg
| image_alt = Whole structure from outside
| image_size =
| caption =
| pushpin_map = India Ahmedabad#India Gujarat#India
| map_caption =
| altitude =
| building_type =
| architectural_style = [[Modern architecture|Modern]], [[blobitecture]], [[Novelty architecture|novelty]]
| structural_system =
| cost =
| ren_cost =
| client = [[M. F. Husain]]
| owner =
| current_tenants =
| landlord =
| location = [[Ahmedabad]]
| address = Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Campus, near [[CEPT University]], opp. [[Gujarat University]], University Road
| location_town = [[Ahmedabad]], [[Gujarat]]
| location_country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|23|2|10|N|72|32|58|E|display=inline, title}}
| groundbreaking_date =
| construction_start_date = 1992
| completion_date = 1995
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| architect = [[B. V. Doshi]]
| architecture_firm = Vāstu Shilpā Consultants
| structural_engineer =
| services_engineer =
| civil_engineer =
| other_designers = M. F. Husain
| quantity_surveyor =
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}}

'''Amdavad ni Gufa''' ({{audio|En-Amdavad ni Gufa.ogg|pronunciation|help=yes}}) is an underground [[Art museum|art gallery]] in [[Ahmedabad]], India. Designed by the architect [[Balkrishna Vithaldas Doshi]], it exhibits works of the Indian artist [[Maqbool Fida Husain]]. The gallery represents a unique juxtaposition of architecture and art.<ref name=jt>{{cite book |last=Lang |first=Jon T. |title=Concise History Of Modern Indian Architecture |publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]] |isbn=8178240173 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxyGbhlKQXQC&q=amdavad+ni+gufa&pg=PA163 |access-date=6 December 2012 |page=164 |year=2002}}</ref> The cave-like underground structure has a roof made of multiple interconnected domes, covered with a [[mosaic]] of tiles.<ref name=gt/> On the inside, irregular tree-like columns support the domes. It was earlier known as '''Husain-Doshi ni Gufa'''.<ref name=gt>{{cite web|title=Hussain Doshi Gufa|url=http://www.gujarattourism.com/showpage.aspx?contentid=141&webpartid=949|publisher=Gujarat Tourism|access-date=6 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101212081356/http://gujarattourism.com/showpage.aspx?contentid=141&webpartid=949|archive-date=12 December 2010|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

There are facilities for special painting exhibitions and for projecting films. Gardens and a [[café]] are located above ground.<ref name="gt" />

==Etymology==
The gallery is called ''gufa'' ("cave" in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]) because of its resemblance to a [[cave]].<ref name="its">{{cite news | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/supplement/story/20110725-art-struck-746844-2011-07-14 | title=Art struck | newspaper=[[India Today]] | date=14 July 2011 | access-date=6 December 2012 | last=Mulchandani | first=Anil }}</ref> It was known earlier as Husain-Doshi ni Gufa, after its architect, B.V. Doshi, and the artist, [[M.F. Husain]]. Later it was renamed after the city of [[Ahmedabad]], known locally as ''Amdavad''.<ref name=ang>{{cite book |first1=Maqbul Fida |last1=Husain |author-link1=M. F. Husain |first2=Balkrishna V. |last2=Doshi |author-link2=B. V. Doshi |title=Amdavad-ni-gufa |publisher=Vāstu Shilpā Foundation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekwJywAACAAJ&q=amdavad+ni+gufa |access-date=6 December 2012 |year=2008}}</ref>

==Development==
[[File:Chaumukhiji temple, Girnar.jpg|thumb|left|The [[mosaic]] tiles on the roofs of the [[Girnar Jain temples|Jain temples at Girnar]]]]
The structure's [[contemporary architecture]] draws on ancient and natural themes. The domes are inspired by the shells of [[tortoise]]s and by soap bubbles. The [[mosaic]] tiles on the roof are similar to those found on the roofs of the [[Girnar Jain temples|Jain temples at Girnar]], and the mosaic snake is from [[Hindu mythology]]. The Buddhist caves of [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] inspired Doshi to design the interior with circles and ellipses, while Husain's wall paintings are inspired by [[Cave painting|Paleolithic cave art]].<ref name=ds>{{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Dennis |title=20th Century Architecture: A Visual History |publisher=Images Publishing |isbn=1864700858 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQUi8kRKWrMC&q=hussain+doshi+gufa&pg=PA440 |access-date=6 December 2012 |page=440 |year=2002}}</ref> The interior is divided by tree trunks or columns similar to those found at [[Stonehenge]].<ref name=ang/><ref name=art>{{cite book |first1=Kester |last1=Rattenbury |first2=Rob |last2=Bevan |first3=Kieran |last3=Long |title=Architects Today |publisher=Laurence King Publishing |isbn=1856694925 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmFooNzPaN0C&q=hussain+doshi+gufa&pg=RA2-PA1986 |access-date=6 December 2012 |pages=46–47 |year=2006}}</ref><ref name=jkw>{{cite book |last=Waters |first=John Kevin |title=Blobitecture: Waveform Architecture and Digital Design |publisher=[[Quarto Group|Rockport Publishers]] |isbn=1592530001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTbb-VZuff0C&q=hussain+doshi+gufa&pg=PT92 |access-date=6 December 2012 |pages=183 |year=2003}}</ref>

==Construction==
While visiting Ahmedabad, Husain asked his friend Doshi to design a permanent art gallery for the exhibition of his works.<ref name=ang/> Together they planned an underground structure capable of withstanding the area's severe summer heat.<ref name="dna">{{cite news | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_tracing-mf-husains-footprints-in-ahmedabad_1553439 | title=Tracing MF Husain's footprints in Ahmedabad | newspaper=[[Daily News and Analysis|DNA]] | date=10 June 2011 | access-date=6 December 2012 }}</ref><ref name="ia">{{cite web | url=http://www.indian-architects.com/en/projects/30261_amdavad_ni_gufa/16/indexAZ | title=Amdavad ni Gufa | publisher=Indian Architects | access-date=6 December 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065649/http://www.indian-architects.com/en/projects/30261_amdavad_ni_gufa/16/indexAZ | archive-date=4 March 2016 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

[[Computer-aided design|Computer-assisted]] planning facilities were used to resolve the structure's unorthodox design.<ref name=jkw/><ref name=ia/><ref name=uk>{{cite web |title=Hussain Doshi Gufa |url=http://www.ahmedabad.org.uk/museums/hussain-doshi-gufa.html |publisher=ahmedabad.org.uk |access-date=6 December 2012}}</ref> A simple floor of wire [[mesh]] and [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] was used instead of a traditional [[foundation (engineering)|foundation]].<ref name=ds/><ref name=jkw/> All the structure's components are self-supporting, relieving stress by their ubiquitous continuity. [[Ferrocement]], only one inch thick, was used for the undulating walls and domes in order to reduce load.<ref name=jkw/><ref name=ia/> The cave was constructed by unskilled tribal labourers using only hand tools.<ref name=uk/> Broken [[ceramic]] crockery<ref name=ds/> and waste tiles were used to cover the domes' exterior, which bears a transversal mosaic of a snake.<ref name="gt"/><ref name=jkw/><ref name=ia/>

Work was carried out in two phases: the first was the construction of the main cave as an underground art gallery, while the second covered the surrounding structures including the paving, the café, and a separate art gallery for exhibitions.<ref name=ang/>

==Structure==
[[File:Amdavad ni Gufa3.jpg|thumb|Amdavad ni Gufa exterior|400px|right]]
The gallery space is below ground level. A partially hidden staircase leads to a circular door which opens into a cave-like space. Though designed to display paintings, the cave has no straight walls, instead using a continuation of the curved dome structure which extends down to the floor. The domes themselves are supported by irregularly shaped inclined columns, similar to those found in natural caves. They are also said to resemble the trunks of trees.<ref name=jt/> The entire design is made up of circles and ellipses.<ref name=ang/> Light arrives though snouts, creating spots of light on the floor which move around as the day progresses, intended to create a mystic atmosphere.<ref name=ang/><ref name=ds/><ref name=jkw/><ref name=dna/>

Structure:-
Ahemdabad Ni Gufa is an underground art gallery in Ahemdabad. It exhibits the work of the famous artist Maqbool Fida Hussain. The gallery represents a unique juxtaposition of architecture and art. The cave-like underground structure has a roof made of multiple interconnected domes, covered with a mosaic of tiles. Inside it, there are irregular tree-like columns that support the domes lines taken from https://www.architectsworld.in/2019/12/amdavad-ni-gufa-basic-facts-about.html

==Art==
Husain used the gallery's walls as a canvas, painting on them with bold strokes and bright colours. The artwork depicts human figures and motifs of animals, including his famous [[horse]] figures. He also decorated features such as doors and even [[Air conditioning|air conditioners]]. The figures were designed to resemble ancient cave paintings in a modern environment. Husain also placed a few metal sculptures of human figures between the inclining columns.<ref name=ang/> His largest work, ''Sheshnag'' (the divine serpent), stretches over a length of {{convert|100|ft}}.<ref name=dna/>

==Exhibition Gallery==
There is an art exhibition gallery space which is available on rent to artists to exhibit their artworks. It is one of the most frequently visited art gallery in the city. Art exhibitions of artists from around the country as well as international artists happen at the exhibition gallery weekly.

==Timings==
The Gufa and the Exhibition Gallery are open on all days, except on Mondays and public holidays, from 4:00 p.m. to 8:00 p.m.

==Photo Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:AmdavadNiGufa.JPG| Signbord painted by Husain
Image:Amdavad ni Gufa, Ahmedabad.JPG|Exterior
Image:Caves of Ahmedabad.JPG|Secretly guarded door
Image:Ahmedabad caves.JPG|Entrance
Image:Amdavad ni gufa-3.jpg|Entrance door decorated by M.F. Husain
Image:Amdavad ni Gufa1.JPG|Snouts for entry of light
Image:Amdavad ni Gufa2.JPG|Tile mosaics
Image:Statue--zen cafe.jpg|Metal sculpture on display
Image:Zen cafe.JPG|Zen cafe
Image:Husain-Doshi Gufa - Inside 1.jpg|Inside of Hussain Doshi Gufa
Image:Husain-Doshi Gufa - Inside 2.jpg|Inside of Hussain Doshi Gufa
Image:Husain-Doshi Gufa - Inside 3.jpg|Inside of Hussain Doshi Gufa
Image:Husain-Doshi Gufa - Inside 4.jpg|Inside of Hussain Doshi Gufa
Image:Husain-Doshi Gufa - Inside 5.jpg|Inside of Hussain Doshi Gufa
</gallery>

==References==
{{Commons category}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Ahmedabad topics}}
{{Modern architecture|state=autocollapse}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1995 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Art museums and galleries established in 1995]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures by Indian architects]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Ahmedabad]]
[[Category:Modernist architecture in India]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Ahmedabad]]

Polynesia

2026-03-21T23:24:14Z

AnnieSneed66: general expand section after review additionally and fixed typos

{{Short description|Subregion of Oceania}}
{{About|the wider region in the Pacific|the French collectivity|French Polynesia|the genus of moth|Polynesia (moth)|the point of land in the South Orkney Islands|Signy Island}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Polynesia
| image_map = Map OC-Polynesia.PNG
| map_caption = Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the [[Polynesian Triangle]].
| subdivision_type = Largest cities
| subdivision_name =
| population_total = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 765,884,6
| population_as_of = {{UN_Population|Year}}
| population_footnotes =
| population_demonym = [[Polynesians|Polynesians]]
| blank_name_sec1 = Other information
| blank1_name_sec1 = Countries
| blank1_info_sec1 = {{Collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
|title = '''[[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Oceania|6]]'''
|{{flag|Cook Islands|size=23px}} (in free association with [[New Zealand]])
|{{flag|New Zealand|size=23px}}
|{{flag|Niue|size=23px}} (in free association with [[New Zealand]])
|{{flag|Samoa|size=23px}}
|{{flag|Tonga|size=23px}}
|{{flag|Tuvalu|size=23px}}
}}
| blank1_name_sec2 =
| blank1_info_sec2 =
| footnotes =
| demographics1_title2 =
| demographics1_info2 =
| demographics1_title3 =
| demographics1_info3 =
| demographics1_title4 =
| demographics1_info4 =
| demographics1_title5 =
| demographics1_info5 =
| blank2_name_sec1 = Dependencies
| blank2_info_sec1 = {{Collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
|title = [[Dependent territory|External]] |{{flag|French Polynesia|size=23px}} ([[France]]) {{flag|Pitcairn Islands|size=23px}} ([[United Kingdom]]){{flag|Tokelau|size=23px}} ([[New Zealand]]) {{flag|Wallis and Futuna|size=23px}} ([[France]]) }}
{{Collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
|title = [[Dependent territory|Internal]] | {{flag|Easter Island|size=23px}} ([[Chile]]) {{flag|Hawaii|size=23px}} ([[United States]]) {{flag|Rotuma|size=23px}} ([[Fiji]]) }}
| blank3_info_sec1 =
| blank4_name_sec1 =
}}
'''Polynesia'''{{efn|{{langx|to|Polinisia}}; {{langx|mi|Poronihia}}; {{langx|haw|Polenekia}}; {{langx|fj|Polinisia}}; {{langx|sm|Polenisia}}; {{langx|rar|Porinetia}}; {{langx|ty|Pōrīnetia}}; {{langx|tvl|Polenisia}}; {{langx|tkl|Polenihia}}; {{langx|fr|Polynésie}}; {{langx|es|Polinesia}}. From {{langx|grc|πολύς}} ({{transliteration|grc|polýs}}) "many" and {{lang|grc|νῆσος}} ({{transliteration|grc|nêsos}}) "island".}} ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|p|ɒ|l|ᵻ|ˈ|n|iː|z|i|ə|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Vealhurl-Polynesia.wav}} {{respell|POL|in|EE|zee|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|US|-|ˈ|n|iː|ʒ|ə}} {{respell|-|EE|zhə}}) is a [[subregion]] of [[Oceania]], made up of more than 1,000 [[island]]s scattered over the central and southern [[Pacific Ocean]]. The [[indigenous people]] who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are called [[Polynesians]]. They have many things in common, including [[Polynesian languages|linguistic relations]], [[Polynesian culture|cultural practices]], and [[Tradition|traditional beliefs]].<ref name=trh/>

The term {{lang|fr|Polynésie}} was first used in 1756 by the French writer [[Charles de Brosses]], who originally applied it to all the [[list of islands in the Pacific Ocean|islands of the Pacific]]. In 1831, [[Jules Dumont d'Urville]] proposed a narrower definition during a lecture at the [[Société de Géographie]] of Paris. By tradition, the islands located in the [[South Seas|southern Pacific]] have also often been called the '''South Sea Islands''',<ref>Russell, Michael (1849). ''Polynesia: A History of the South Sea Islands, including New Zealand''.</ref> and their inhabitants have been called [[South Sea Islanders]]. The [[Hawaiian Islands]] have often been considered to be part of the South Sea Islands because of their relative proximity to the southern Pacific islands, even though they are in fact located in the [[Pacific Ocean|North Pacific]]. Another term in use, which avoids this inconsistency, is "the [[Polynesian Triangle]]" (from the shape created by the layout of the islands in the Pacific Ocean). This term makes clear that the grouping includes the Hawaiian Islands, which are located at the northern [[Vertex (geometry)|vertex]] of the referenced "triangle".

[[File:Pacific Culture Areas (Philippines+Vanuatu Correction).svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Polynesia is one of three major cultural areas of the [[List of islands in the Pacific Ocean|Pacific Ocean islands]], along with [[Melanesia]] and [[Micronesia]].]]

[[File:Oceania UN Geoscheme - Map with Zones.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Subregions ([[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], Polynesia, and [[Australasia]]), as well as sovereign and dependent islands of [[Oceania]]]]

[[File:Mapa Polinesia.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Outline of sovereign (dark orange) and dependent islands (bright orange)]]

==Geography==
===Geology===
[[File:Moorea baie cook.JPG|thumb|Cook's Bay on [[Moorea]], [[French Polynesia]]]]
[[File:Mokoliʻi Insel.jpg|thumb|Mokoliʻi Isle near [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]]]]

Polynesia is characterized by a small amount of land spread over a very large portion of the mid- and southern [[Pacific Ocean]]. It comprises approximately {{convert|117000|to |118000|sqmi|km2|order=flip}} of land, of which more than {{convert|103000|sqmi|km2|order=flip|abbr=on}} are within [[New Zealand]]. The Hawaiian archipelago comprises about half the remainder.

Most Polynesian islands and [[archipelago]]s, including the [[Hawaiian Islands]] and [[Samoan Islands|Samoa]], are composed of volcanic islands built by [[hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] (volcanoes). The other land masses in Polynesia—[[New Zealand]], [[Norfolk Island]], and [[Ouvéa]], the Polynesian outlier near [[New Caledonia]]—are the unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken continent of [[Zealandia]].<ref name=mortimer>{{cite journal |last1=Mortimer |first1=Nick |last2=Campbell |first2=Hamish J. |title=Zealandia: Earth's Hidden Continent |journal=GSA Today |volume=27 |year=2017 |pages=27–35 |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/27/3/article/GSATG321A.1.htm |doi=10.1130/GSATG321A.1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217064642/https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/27/3/article/GSATG321A.1.htm |archive-date=17 February 2017}}</ref>

Zealandia is believed to have mostly sunk below sea level 23 million years ago, and recently partially resurfaced due to a change in the movements of the [[Pacific Plate]] in relation to the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/the-sinking-of-moas-ark/YDUUTEL7ZFWBKYACAOEVLJ6LQ4/ |title=The sinking of Moa's Ark |publisher=New Zealand Herald |date=28 September 2007 |access-date=24 June 2022}}</ref> The Pacific plate had previously been subducted under the [[Australian Plate]]. When that changed, it had the effect of uplifting the portion of the continent that is modern-day New Zealand.

The convergent plate boundary that runs northwards from New Zealand's North Island is called the [[Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone]]. This [[subduction]] zone is associated with the volcanism that gave rise to the [[Kermadec Islands|Kermadec]] and [[Tonga]]n islands.

There is a [[transform fault]] that currently traverses New Zealand's South Island, known as the [[Alpine Fault]].

Zealandia's continental shelf has a total area of approximately {{convert|1400000|sqmi|km2|order=flip|abbr=on}}.

The oldest rocks in Polynesia are found in New Zealand and are believed to be about 510 million years old. The oldest Polynesian rocks outside Zealandia are to be found in the Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain and are 80 million years old.

===Geographical area===
Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the [[Polynesian Triangle]], although some islands inhabited by [[Polynesians]] are situated outside that area. Geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is drawn by connecting the points of [[Hawaii]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Easter Island]]. The other main island groups located within the Polynesian Triangle are [[Samoa]], [[Tonga]], the [[Cook Islands]], [[Tuvalu]], [[Tokelau]], [[Niue]], [[Wallis and Futuna]], and [[French Polynesia]].

Also, small Polynesian settlements are in [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Solomon Islands]], the [[Caroline Islands]], and [[Vanuatu]]. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this great triangle is [[Rotuma]], situated north of [[Fiji]]. The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits, but speak a non-[[Polynesian languages|Polynesian language]]. Some of the [[Lau Islands]] to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga. However, in essence, Polynesia remains a cultural term referring to one of the three parts of [[Oceania]] (the others being [[Melanesia]] and [[Micronesia]]).

===Island groups===
The following islands and island groups are either nations or overseas territories of former colonial powers. The residents are native Polynesians or contain archaeological evidence indicating Polynesian settlement in the past.{{efn|Islands that were uninhabited at contact but which have archaeological evidence of Polynesian settlement include Norfolk Island, Pitcairn, New Zealand's [[Kermadec Islands]] and some small islands near Hawaii.}} Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the general triangle that geographically defines the region.

==== Polynesian area ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style=width:9em | [[List of sovereign states|Country]] / [[Dependent territory|Territory]]
! Notes
|-
| {{flag|American Samoa}}
| [[Territories of the United States#Incorporated vs. unincorporated territories|Unincorporated]] and [[Territories of the United States#Organized vs. unorganized territories|unorganized territory]] of the [[United States]]; self-governing under the supervision of the [[Office of Insular Affairs]]
|-
| {{flag|Cook Islands}}
| [[Political status of the Cook Islands and Niue|State in free association]] with [[New Zealand]]
|-
| {{flag|Easter Island}}
| [[Provinces of Chile|Province and special territory]] of [[Chile]]
|-
| {{flag|French Polynesia}}
| [[Overseas country of France|Overseas country]] of [[France]]
|-
| {{flag|Hawaii}}
| [[U.S. state]]
|-
| {{flag|New Zealand}}
| [[Sovereign state]]
|-
| {{flag|Niue}}
| [[Political status of the Cook Islands and Niue|State in free association]] with [[New Zealand]]
|-
| {{flag|Norfolk Island}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Atholl |author1-link=Atholl Anderson |last2=White |first2=Peter |year=2001 |title=Prehistoric Settlement on Norfolk Island and its Oceanic Context |journal=Records of the Australian Museum |volume=27 |issue=Supplement 27 |pages=135–141 |doi=10.3853/j.0812-7387.27.2001.1348 |url=http://australianmuseum.net.au/Uploads/Journals/17923/1348_complete.pdf |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093613/http://australianmuseum.net.au/uploads/journals/17923/1348_complete.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>
| [[States and territories of Australia#External territories|External territory]] of [[Australia]]<ref name="ag">{{cite web|url=http://www.ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/TerritoriesofAustralia_NorfolkIsland_NorfolkIslandGovernanceandAdministration |title=Governance & Administration |publisher=Attorney-General's Department |date=28 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100920094021/http://ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/TerritoriesofAustralia_NorfolkIsland_NorfolkIslandGovernanceandAdministration |archive-date=20 September 2010 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Pitcairn Islands}}
| [[British Overseas Territories|British Overseas Territory]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Rotuma}} [[Rotuma]]
| [[Fiji]]an [[local government in Fiji|dependency]]
|-
| {{flag|Samoa}}
| Sovereign state
|-
| {{flag|Tokelau}}
| [[Realm of New Zealand#Tokelau|Non-self-governing territory]] of [[New Zealand]]
|-
| {{flag|Tonga}}
| Sovereign state
|-
| {{flag|Tuvalu}}
| Sovereign state
|-
| {{flag|Wallis and Futuna|local}}
| [[Overseas collectivity]] of [[France]]
|}

The [[Line Islands]] and the [[Phoenix Islands]], most of which are parts of [[Kiribati]], had no permanent settlements until European colonization, but are often considered to be parts of the [[Polynesian Triangle]].

Polynesians once inhabited the [[Auckland Islands]], the [[Kermadec Islands]], and [[Norfolk Island]] in pre-colonial times, but these islands were uninhabited by the time European explorers arrived.

The oceanic islands to the east of Easter Island, such as [[Clipperton Island]], the [[Galápagos Islands]], and the [[Juan Fernández Islands]], were in the past formerly categorized on rare occasion as part of Polynesia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanley |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unz2v_HT5q0C&dq=%22galapagos%22+%22polynesia%22+%22oceania%22&pg=PA43 |title=South Pacific Handbook |date=1979 |publisher=Moon Publications |page=43 |isbn=978-0-918373-29-8 |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Moncrieff |first1=Robert Hope |title=The World of To-day A Survey of the Lands and Peoples of the Globe as Seen in Travel and Commerce: Volume 4 |date=1907 |publisher=Oxford University |page=222 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPVaAAAAQAAJ&q=%22easter+island%22+%22clipperton+island%22+%22oceania%22 |access-date=28 March 2022}}</ref><ref name="class">{{cite web |last1=Udvardy |first1=Miklos D.F. |title=A Classification of the Biogeographical Provinces of the World |url=https://fnad.org/Documentos/A%20Classification%20of%20the%20Biogeographical%20Provinces%20of%20the%20World%20Miklos%20D.F.%20Udvardy.pdf |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=7 March 2022 |archive-date=4 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504205134/https://fnad.org/Documentos/A%20Classification%20of%20the%20Biogeographical%20Provinces%20of%20the%20World%20Miklos%20D.F.%20Udvardy.pdf}}</ref> No evidence of prehistoric contact with either Polynesians or the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] has been found.

====Outliers====
{{Main|Polynesian outlier}}

=====Micronesia=====
* [[Kapingamarangi]] (in the [[Federated States of Micronesia]])
* [[Nukuoro]] (in the Federated States of Micronesia)
* [[Wake Island]] (a part of the [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]])

=====Sub-Antarctic islands=====
* [[Auckland Islands]] (the most southerly known evidence of Polynesian settlement)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = O'Connor | first1 = Tom | year = 2004 | title = Polynesians in the Southern Ocean: Occupation of the Auckland Islands in Prehistory | journal = New Zealand Geographic | volume = 69 | pages = 6–8 }}</ref><ref>[[Atholl Anderson|Anderson, Atholl]] and O'Regan, Gerard R. (2000) "To the Final Shore: Prehistoric Colonisation of the Subantarctic Islands in South Polynesia", pp. 440–454 in ''Australian Archaeologist: Collected Papers in Honour of Jim Allen'' Canberra: Australian National University.</ref><ref>[[Atholl Anderson|Anderson, Atholl]] and O'Regan, Gerard R. (1999) "The Polynesian Archaeology of the Subantarctic Islands: An Initial Report on Enderby Island". Southern Margins Project Report. Dunedin: Ngai Tahu Development Report</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Atholl Anderson |last=Anderson |first=Atholl |title=Subpolar Settlement in South Polynesia |journal= Antiquity |year=2005|doi=10.1017/S0003598X00114930|volume =79 |issue =306 |pages= 791–800|s2cid=162770473 }}</ref>

=====Melanesia=====
* [[Anuta]] (in [[Solomon Islands]])
* [[Bellona Island]] (in Solomon Islands)
* [[Emae]] (in Vanuatu)
* [[Fiji]] (excluding [[Rotuma]] and the [[Lau Islands]])
* [[Mele (island)|Mele]] (in [[Vanuatu]])
* [[Nuguria]] (in [[Papua New Guinea]])
* [[Nukumanu Islands]] (in Papua New Guinea)
* [[Ontong Java Atoll]] (in the Solomon Islands)
* [[Pileni]] (in the Solomon Islands)
* [[Rennell Island|Rennell]] (in the Solomon Islands)
* [[Sikaiana]] (in the Solomon Islands)
* [[Takuu Atoll]] (in Papua New Guinea)
* [[Tikopia]] (in the Solomon Islands)

==History{{anchor|History of the Polynesian people}}==
===Origins and expansion===
{{Main|Austronesian peoples}}

{{See also|Mariana Islands#History|Lapita culture}}

[[File:Polynesian Migration.svg|thumb|The Polynesian spread of colonization in the Pacific]]
[[File:AhuTongariki.jpg|thumb|[[Moai]] at Ahu Tongariki on [[Easter Island|Rapa Nui]]]]

The Polynesian people are considered, by linguistic, archaeological, and human genetic evidence, a subset of the sea-migrating [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian people]]. Tracing [[Polynesian languages]] places their [[prehistory|prehistoric]] origins in [[Island Melanesia]], [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], and ultimately, in [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|Taiwan]].

Between about 3000 and 1000 BC, speakers of [[Austronesian languages]] spread from Taiwan into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]].<ref name="matrilineality2003">{{Cite journal|last1=Hage |first1=P. |last2=Marck |first2=J. |year=2003 |title=Matrilineality and Melanesian Origin of Polynesian Y Chromosomes |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=44 |issue=S5 |pages= S121|doi=10.1086/379272 |s2cid=224791767 }}</ref><ref name="Kayser, M. 2006"/><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1073/pnas.97.15.8225| pmid = 10899994| title = Polynesian origins: Insights from the Y chromosome |journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 97| issue = 15| pages = 8225–8228| year = 2000| last1 = Su | first1 = B.| last2 = Jin | first2 = L.| last3 = Underhill | first3 = P.| last4 = Martinson | first4 = J.| last5 = Saha | first5 = N.| last6 = McGarvey | first6 = S. T.| last7 = Shriver | first7 = M. D.| last8 = Chu | first8 = J.| last9 = Oefner | first9 = P.| last10 = Chakraborty | first10 = R.| last11 = Deka | first11 = R.| bibcode = 2000PNAS...97.8225S| pmc = 26928| doi-access = free}}</ref>

There are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia. These are outlined well by Kayser ''et al.'' (2000)<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00734-X| pmid = 11069104| title = Melanesian origin of Polynesian Y chromosomes |journal = Current Biology | volume = 10| issue = 20| pages = 1237–46| year = 2000| last1 = Kayser | first1 = M. | last2 = Brauer | first2 = S. | last3 = Weiss | first3 = G. | last4 = Underhill | first4 = P. | last5 = Roewer | first5 = L. | last6 = Schiefenhövel | first6 = W. | last7 = Stoneking | first7 = M. | s2cid = 744958| doi-access = free | bibcode = 2000CBio...10.1237K}}</ref> and are as follows:
* Express Train model: A recent (c. 3000–1000 BC) expansion out of Taiwan, via the [[Philippines]] and eastern [[Indonesia]] and from the northwest ("[[Bird's Head Peninsula|Bird's Head]]") of [[New Guinea]], on to [[Island Melanesia]] by roughly 1400 BC, reaching western Polynesian islands around 900 BC followed by a roughly 1000 year "pause" before continued settlement in central and eastern Polynesia. This theory is supported by the majority of current genetic, [[Austronesian languages|linguistic]], and archaeological data.
* Entangled Bank model: Emphasizes the long history of Austronesian speakers' cultural and genetic interactions with indigenous Island Southeast Asians and Melanesians along the way to becoming the first Polynesians.
* Slow Boat model: Similar to the express-train model but with a longer hiatus in Melanesia along with admixture — genetically, culturally and linguistically — with the local population. This is supported by the Y-chromosome data of Kayser ''et al.'' (2000), which shows that all three [[haplotype]]s of Polynesian Y chromosomes can be traced back to Melanesia.<ref name="Kayser, M. 2006"/>

In the archaeological record, there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BC,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kirch |first=P. V. |year=2000 |title=On the road of the wings: an archaeological history of the Pacific Islands before European contact |location=London |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23461-1}} Quoted in Kayser, M.; ''et al.'' (2006).</ref> "[[Lapita culture|Lapita]] peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] of northwest [[Melanesia]]. This culture is seen as having adapted and evolved through time and space since its emergence "Out of [[Taiwan]]". They had given up rice production, for instance, which required [[paddy field]] agriculture unsuitable for small islands. However, they still cultivated other ancestral Austronesian staple [[cultigen]]s like ''[[Dioscorea]]'' yams and [[taro]] (the latter are still grown with smaller-scale paddy field technology), as well as adopting new ones like [[breadfruit]] and [[sweet potato]].

[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|upright=2|left|thumb|Map showing the migration and expansion of the [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]] which began at about 3000 BC from [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|Taiwan]]. The Polynesian branch is shown in green.]]

The results of research at the Teouma Lapita site ([[Efate Island]], [[Vanuatu]]) and the Talasiu Lapita site (near [[Nuku'alofa]], [[Tonga]]) published in 2016 supports the Express Train model; although with the qualification that the migration bypassed [[New Guinea]] and [[Island Melanesia]]. The conclusion from research published in 2016 is that the initial population of those two sites appears to come directly from [[Taiwan]] or the northern [[Philippines]] and did not mix with the '[[Australo-Melanesian|Australo-Papuans]]' of [[New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]].<ref name="Nat16">{{cite journal |last= Pontus Skoglund |display-authors=etal |title= Genomic insights into the peopling of the Southwest Pacific |journal= Nature |date=27 October 2016 |volume=538 |issue=7626 |pages=510–513 |pmid=27698418 |pmc=5515717 |doi=10.1038/nature19844 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..510S}}</ref> The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the [[Teouma]] and Talasiu Lapita sites is that they lack Australian or Papuan affinities and instead have affinities to mainland Asian populations.<ref name="TT-Sup">{{cite journal | title=Genomic insights into the peopling of the Southwest Pacific – Supplementary Note 1: The Teouma site / Supplementary Note 2: The Talasiu site |journal=Nature |date=3 October 2016 |volume=538 |issue=7626 |pages=510–513 |doi=10.1038/nature19844 |pmid=27698418 |pmc=5515717 |last1=Skoglund |first1=Pontus |last2=Posth |first2=Cosimo |last3=Sirak |first3=Kendra |last4=Spriggs |first4=Matthew |last5=Valentin |first5=Frederique |last6=Bedford |first6=Stuart |last7=Clark |first7=Geoffrey R. |last8=Reepmeyer |first8=Christian |last9=Petchey |first9=Fiona |last10=Fernandes |first10=Daniel |last11=Fu |first11=Qiaomei |last12=Harney |first12=Eadaoin |last13=Lipson |first13=Mark |last14=Mallick |first14=Swapan |last15=Novak |first15=Mario |last16=Rohland |first16=Nadin |last17=Stewardson |first17=Kristin |last18=Abdullah |first18=Syafiq |last19=Cox |first19=Murray P. |last20=Friedlaender |first20=Françoise R. |last21=Friedlaender |first21=Jonathan S. |last22=Kivisild |first22=Toomas |last23=Koki |first23=George |last24=Kusuma |first24=Pradiptajati |last25=Merriwether |first25=D. Andrew |last26=Ricaut |first26=Francois-X. |last27=Wee |first27=Joseph T. S. |last28=Patterson |first28=Nick |last29=Krause |first29=Johannes |last30=Pinhasi |first30=Ron |bibcode=2016Natur.538..510S}}</ref>

A 2017 DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage resulting in a mixed Austronesian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians (as with other modern Austronesians, with the exception of [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|Taiwanese aborigines]]). Research at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites implies that the migration and intermarriage, which resulted in the mixed Austronesian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians,<ref name="Kayser, M. 2006"/> occurred after the first initial migration to Vanuatu and Tonga.<ref name="Nat16"/><ref name="IB-Dec16">{{cite web |title= First ancestry of Ni-Vanuatu is Asian: New DNA Discoveries recently published |date= December 2016 |publisher= Island Business |url= https://islandsbusiness.com/component/k2/item/1685-first-ancestry-of-ni-vanuatu-is-asian-new-dna-discoveries-recently-published |access-date= 11 January 2017 |archive-date= 30 July 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180730171015/https://islandsbusiness.com/component/k2/item/1685-first-ancestry-of-ni-vanuatu-is-asian-new-dna-discoveries-recently-published }}</ref>

A complete [[human mitochondrial genetics|mtDNA]] and [[whole genome sequencing|genome-wide SNP]] comparison (Pugach ''et al.'', 2021) of the remains of early settlers of the [[Mariana Islands]] and early Lapita individuals from [[Vanuatu]] and [[Tonga]] also suggest that both migrations originated directly from the same ancient Austronesian source population from the [[Philippines]]. The complete absence of "Papuan" admixture in the early samples indicates that these early voyages bypassed eastern [[Indonesia]] and the rest of [[New Guinea]]. The authors have also suggested a possibility that the early Lapita Austronesians were direct descendants of the early colonists of the Marianas (which preceded them by about 150 years), which is also supported by pottery evidence.<ref name="Pugach">{{cite journal |last1=Pugach |first1=Irina |last2=Hübner |first2=Alexander |last3=Hung |first3=Hsiao-chun |last4=Meyer |first4=Matthias |last5=Carson |first5=Mike T. |last6=Stoneking |first6=Mark |title=Ancient DNA from Guam and the Peopling of the Pacific |date=2021 |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=118 |issue=1 |article-number=e2022112118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2022112118 |pmid=33443177 |pmc=7817125 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11822112P |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The most eastern site for Lapita archaeological remains recovered so far is at [[Mulifanua]] on [[Upolu]]. The Mulifanua site, where 4,288 pottery shards have been found and studied, has a "true" age of {{circa|1000 BC}} based on [[radiocarbon dating]] and is the oldest site yet discovered in Polynesia.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Roger C. |last1=Green |first2=Helen M. |last2=Leach |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_98_1989/Volume_98,_No._3/New_information_for_the_Ferry_Berth_site,_Mulifanua,_Western_Samoa,_by_H._M._Leach,_p_319-330/p1?page=0&action=searchresult&target= |title=New Information for the Ferry Berth Site, Mulifanua, Western Samoa |journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=98 |year=1989 |issue=3 |pages=319–329 |jstor=20706295 |access-date=1 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510004830/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_98_1989/Volume_98%2C_No._3/New_information_for_the_Ferry_Berth_site%2C_Mulifanua%2C_Western_Samoa%2C_by_H._M._Leach%2C_p_319-330/p1?page=0&action=searchresult&target= |archive-date=10 May 2011}}</ref> This is mirrored by a 2010 study also placing the beginning of the human archaeological sequences of Polynesia in [[Tonga]] at 900 BC.<ref name="burley128">{{Cite journal |first1=David V. |last1=Burley |first2=Andrew |last2=Barton |first3=William R. |last3=Dickinson |first4=Sean P. |last4=Connaughton |first5=Karine |last5=Taché |year=2010 |title= Nukuleka as a Founder Colony for West Polynesian Settlement: New Insights from Recent Excavations |journal=Journal of Pacific Archaeology |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=128–144 |doi=10.70460/jpa.v1i2.26 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Within a mere three or four centuries, between 1300 and 900 BC, the Lapita [[archaeological culture]] spread 6,000 km further to the east from the Bismarck Archipelago, until reaching as far as [[Fiji]], [[Tonga]], and [[Samoa]].<ref name="Belwood1">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Polynesians – Prehistory of an Island People |year= 1987 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |pages=45–65 |isbn=978-0-500-27450-7}}</ref> A cultural divide began to develop between Fiji to the west, and the distinctive Polynesian language and culture emerging on Tonga and Samoa to the east. Where there was once faint evidence of uniquely shared developments in Fijian and Polynesian speech, most of this is now called "borrowing" and is thought to have occurred in those and later years more than as a result of continuing unity of their earliest dialects on those far-flung lands. Contacts were mediated especially through the [[Tovata]] confederacy of Fiji. This is where most Fijian-Polynesian linguistic interactions occurred.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/images/diaporamas_colloque/Pawley.pdf |title=Why do Polynesian island groups have one language and Melanesian island groups have many? Patterns of interaction and diversification in the Austronesian colonization of Remote Oceania |last=Pawley |first=Andrew |date=2007 |page=25 |access-date=4 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609180125/https://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/images/diaporamas_colloque/Pawley.pdf |archive-date=2022-06-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p49471/pdf/161.pdf |title=Colonisation and culture change in the early prehistory of Fiji |last1=Clark |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Anderson |first2=Atholl |author2-link=Atholl Anderson |publisher=Terra Australis |pages=417–418 |access-date=4 September 2021}}</ref>

In the chronology of the exploration and first populating of Polynesia, there is a gap commonly referred to as the [[long pause]] between the first populating of [[Fiji]] ([[Melanesia]]), Western Polynesia of [[Tonga]] and [[Samoa]] among others and the settlement of the rest of the region. In general this gap is considered to have lasted roughly 1,000 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Finney|first=Ben|date=1977|title=Voyaging Canoes and the Settlement of Polynesia |journal=Science |volume=196 |issue=4296 |pages=1277–1285 |doi=10.1126/science.196.4296.1277 |jstor=1744728 |pmid=17831736 |bibcode=1977Sci...196.1277F |s2cid=2836072}}</ref> The cause of this gap in voyaging is contentious among archaeologists with a number of competing theories presented including climate shifts,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Finney|first=Ben R.|date=1985|title=Anomalous Westerlies, El Niño, and the Colonization of Polynesia |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=9–26 |doi=10.1525/aa.1985.87.1.02a00030 |jstor=677659 |bibcode=1985AAnth..87....9F |issn=0002-7294 |doi-access=free}}</ref> the need for the development of new voyaging techniques,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Piazza |first1=Anne |last2=Di Piazza |first2=Philippe |last3=Pearthree |first3=Erik |date=2007-08-01 |title=Sailing virtual canoes across Oceania: revisiting island accessibility |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=34 |issue=8 |pages=1219–1225 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.013 |bibcode=2007JArSc..34.1219D |issn=0305-4403}}</ref> and cultural shifts.

After the long pause, dispersion of populations into central and eastern Polynesia began. Although the exact timing of when each island group was settled is debated, it is widely accepted that the island groups in the geographic center of the region (i.e. the [[Cook Islands]], [[Society Islands]], [[Marquesas Islands]], etc.) were settled initially between 1000 and 1150 AD,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wilmshurst|first1=J. M. |last2=Hunt |first2=T. L. |last3=Lipo |first3=C. P. |last4=Anderson |first4=A. J. |year=2010 |title=High-precision radiocarbon dating shows recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Polynesia |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=5 |pages=1815–20 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.1815W |doi=10.1073/pnas.1015876108 |pmc=3033267 |pmid=21187404 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Irwin |first=Geoffry |date=1990|title=Voyaging by Canoe and Computer: experiments in the settlement of the Pacific Ocean |journal=Antiquity |volume=64 |issue=242 |pages=34–50 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00077280 |s2cid=164203366}}</ref> and ending with more far-flung island groups such as [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaii]], [[New Zealand]], and [[Easter Island]] settled between 1200 and 1300 AD.<ref name="huntlipo2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=T. L. |last2=Lipo |first2=C. P. |year=2006 |title=Late Colonization of Easter Island |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5767 |pages=1603–1606 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1603H |doi=10.1126/science.1121879 |pmid=16527931 |s2cid=41685107 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="huntlipo2011">{{Cite book |last1=Hunt |first1=Terry |title=The Statues that Walked: Unraveling the Mystery of Easter Island |last2=Lipo |first2=Carl |publisher=Free Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4391-5031-3}}</ref>

Tiny populations may have been involved in the initial settlement of individual islands;<ref name="burley128" /> although Professor Matisoo-Smith of the Otago study said that the founding Māori population of New Zealand must have been in the hundreds, much larger than previously thought.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.stuff.co.nz/science/100455675/the-ancient-origins-of-new-zealanders |title= Who were the first humans to reach New Zealand (with map) |publisher= Stuff (Fairfax) |date=22 January 2018}}</ref> The Polynesian population experienced a [[founder effect]] and genetic drift.<ref name=Murray-McIntosh>{{cite journal |last1=Murray-McIntosh |first1=Rosalind P. |last2=Scrimshaw |first2=Brian J. |last3=Hatfield |first3=Peter J. |last4=Penny |first4=David |title=Testing migration patterns and estimating founding population size in Polynesia by using human mtDNA sequences |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=21 July 1998 |volume=95 |issue=15 |pages=9047–9052 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.15.9047 |pmid=9671802 |pmc=21200 |bibcode=1998PNAS...95.9047M |bibcode-access=free |doi-access=free}}</ref> The Polynesian may be distinctively different both [[genotype|genotypically]] and [[phenotype|phenotypically]] from the parent population from which it is derived. This is due to new population being established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population which also causes a loss of genetic variation.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=15280221 |pmc=1470966 |year=2004 |last1=Provine |first1=W. B. |author-link=Will Provine |title=Ernst Mayr: Genetics and speciation |journal=Genetics |volume=167 |issue=3 |pages=1041–6 |doi=10.1093/genetics/167.3.1041|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=6777243 |pmc=1214177 |doi-access=free |year=1980 |last1=Templeton |first1=A. R. |title=The theory of speciation via the founder principle |journal=Genetics |volume=94 |issue=4 |pages=1011–38 |doi=10.1093/genetics/94.4.1011}}</ref>

[[Atholl Anderson]] wrote that analysis of [[human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|mitochondrial DNA]] (mtDNA, female) and [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y chromosome]] (male) concluded that the ancestors of Polynesian women were [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]] while those of Polynesian men were [[Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]]. Subsequently, it was found that 96% (or 93.8%)<ref name="Kayser, M. 2006">{{cite web |url=http://static1.squarespace.com/static/53ca9138e4b09ce5b336e6a8/t/53d3ba34e4b0dc5a2065db41/1406384692136/KayserStonekingMBE2006.pdf |doi=10.1093/molbev/msl093 |title=Melanesian and Asian Origins of Polynesians: MtDNA and y Chromosome Gradients Across the Pacific |year=2006 |last1=Kayser |first1=Manfred |last2=Brauer |first2=Silke |last3=Cordaux |first3=Richard |last4=Casto |first4=Amanda |last5=Lao |first5=Oscar |last6=Zhivotovsky |first6=Lev A. |last7=Moyse-Faurie |first7=Claire |last8=Rutledge |first8=Robb B. |last9=Schiefenhoevel |first9=Wulf |last10=Gil |first10=David |last11=Lin |first11=Alice A. |last12=Underhill |first12=Peter A. |last13=Oefner |first13=Peter J. |last14=Trent |first14=Ronald J. |last15=Stoneking |first15=Mark |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=2234–2244 |pmid=16923821 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220303060447/http://static1.squarespace.com/static/53ca9138e4b09ce5b336e6a8/t/53d3ba34e4b0dc5a2065db41/1406384692136/KayserStonekingMBE2006.pdf |archive-date=Mar 3, 2022}}</ref> of Polynesian mtDNA has an Asian origin, as does one-third of Polynesian Y chromosomes; the remaining two-thirds from New Guinea and nearby islands; this is consistent with matrilocal residence patterns.<ref name="Kayser, M. 2006"/> Polynesians existed from the intermixing of few ancient Austronesian-Melanesian founders, genetically they belong almost entirely to the Haplogroup B (mtDNA), which is the marker of Austronesian expansions. The high frequencies of mtDNA Haplogroup B in the Polynesians are the result of founder effect and represents the descendants of a few Austronesian females who intermixed with Papuan males.<ref name=Murray-McIntosh/><ref>Assessing Y-chromosome Variation in the South Pacific Using Newly Detected, By Krista Erin Latham [https://books.google.com/books?id=wSeSv6qWoroC&dq=very+few+successful+East+Asian+women+polynesian&pg=PA105] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713121627/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wSeSv6qWoroC&pg=PA105&dq=very+few+successful+East+Asian+women+polynesian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mIHbVKjqM8ndPeCEgbAM&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA|date=2015-07-13}}</ref>

A genomic analysis of modern populations in Polynesia, published in 2021,<ref name="GN2021">{{ cite journal|last1=Ioannidis |first1=A.G. |last2=Blanco-Portillo |first2=J. |last3=Sandoval |first3=K. |display-authors=etal |s2cid-access=free |title=Paths and timings of the peopling of Polynesia inferred from genomic networks |year=2021 |volume=597 |issue=7877 |journal=Nature |pages=522–526 |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03902-8 |pmid=34552258 |pmc=9710236 |bibcode=2021Natur.597..522I |s2cid=237608692}}</ref> provides a model of the direction and timing of Polynesian migrations from Samoa to the islands to the east. This model presents consistencies and inconsistencies with models of Polynesian migration that are based on archaeology and linguistic analysis.<ref name="PK2021">{{ cite journal|last=Kirch|first= Patrick V. |title= Modern Polynesian genomes offer clues to early eastward migrations|url= https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-01719-z|year= 2021|volume= 597|issue= 7877|journal= Nature|pages=477–478 |doi= 10.1038/d41586-021-01719-z|pmid= 34552247 |bibcode= 2021Natur.597..477K |s2cid= 237606683 |url-access= subscription}}</ref> The 2021 genomic model presents a migration pathway from Samoa to the [[Cook Islands]] (Rarotonga), then to the [[Society Islands]] (Tōtaiete mā) in the 11th century AD, the western [[Austral Islands]] (Tuha'a Pae) and the [[Tuamotus|Tuāmotu Archipelago]] in the 12th century AD, with the migrant pathway branching to the north to the [[Marquesas]] (Te Henua 'Enana), to [[Raivavae]] in the south, and to the easternmost destination on [[Easter Island]] (Rapa Nui), which was settled in approximately 1200 AD via [[Mangareva]].<ref name="PK2021"/>

===Culture===
The Polynesians were [[matrilineality|matrilineal]] and [[matrilocal residence|matrilocal]] [[Stone Age]] societies upon their arrival in [[Tonga]], [[Samoa]] and the surrounding islands, after having spent at least some time in the Bismarck Archipelago. The modern Polynesians still show human genetic results of a Melanesian culture which allowed indigenous men, but not women, to "marry in" – useful evidence for matrilocality.<ref name="matrilineality2003"/><ref name="Kayser, M. 2006"/><ref name="autogenerated365">{{Cite journal|last= Hage |first= P. |year= 1998 |title= Was Proto Oceanic Society matrilineal?|jstor= 20706828 |journal= Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume= 107 |issue= 4 |pages= 365–379}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last= Marck |first= J. |year= 2008 |title= Proto Oceanic Society was matrilineal |journal= Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume= 117 |issue= 4 |pages= 345–382 |jstor= 20707458}}</ref>

Although matrilocality and matrilineality receded at some early time, Polynesians and most other Austronesian speakers in the Pacific Islands were and are still highly "matricentric" in their traditional jurisprudence.<ref name="autogenerated365"/> The Lapita pottery for which the general archaeological complex of the earliest "Oceanic" Austronesian speakers in the Pacific Islands are named also lapsed in Western Polynesia. Language, social life and [[material culture]] were very distinctly "Polynesian" by 1000 BC.

Early European observers detected [[theocracy|theocratic]] elements in traditional Polynesian government.<ref>
For example:
{{cite book
|last1 = Moerenhout
|first1 = Jacques Antoine
|translator-last1 = Borden
|translator-first1 = Arthur R.
|year = 1993
|orig-date = 1837
|title = Travels to the Islands of the Pacific Ocean
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9ygxAQAAIAAJ
|publication-place = Lanham, Maryland
|publisher = University Press of America
|page = 295
|isbn = 978-0-8191-8898-4
|access-date = 20 March 2024
|quote = It was not rare, either, to see the priestly functions and the administrative united under one head in such a way as to give a government the character of a true theocracy, which always happened when a dead chief was replaced by a brother or near relative already invested with the priestly functions [...] the grand priest was almost always a brother or near relative of his chief [...].
}}
</ref>

Linguistically, there are five sub-groups of the [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian language group]]. Each represents a region within Polynesia and the categorization of these language groups by Green in 1966 helped to confirm that Polynesian settlement generally took place from west to east. There is a very distinct "East Polynesian" subgroup with many shared innovations not seen in other Polynesian languages. The Marquesas dialects are perhaps the source of the oldest Hawaiian speech which is overlaid by Tahitian-variety speech, as Hawaiian oral histories would suggest. The earliest varieties of New Zealand Māori speech may have had multiple sources from around central Eastern Polynesia, as Māori oral histories would suggest.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Green |first=Roger |date=1966 |title=Linguistic Subgrouping within Polynesia: The Implications for Prehistoric Settlement |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=6–38 |jstor=20704347 |issn=0032-4000}}</ref>

===Political history===

====Cook Islands====
{{See also|History of the Cook Islands}}

The Cook Islands are made up of 15 islands comprising the Northern and Southern groups. The islands are spread out across many square kilometers of a vast ocean. The largest of these islands is called Rarotonga, which is also the political and economic capital of the nation.

The Cook Islands were formerly known as the Hervey Islands, but this name refers only to the Northern Groups. It is unknown when this name was changed to reflect the current name. It is thought that the Cook Islands were settled in two periods: the Tahitian Period, when the country was settled between 900 and 1300 AD, and the Maui Settlement, which occurred in 1600 AD, when a large contingent from Tahiti settled in Rarotonga, in the Takitumu district.

The first contact between Europeans and the native inhabitants of the Cook Islands took place in 1595 with the arrival of Spanish explorer [[Álvaro de Mendaña]] in [[Pukapuka]], who called it ''San Bernardo'' (Saint Bernard). A decade later, navigator [[Pedro Fernández de Quirós]] made the first European landing in the islands when he set foot on [[Rakahanga]] in 1606, calling it ''Gente Hermosa'' (Beautiful People).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ck/rakahang.htm|title=Rakahanga – Island of Beautiful People|publisher=www.ck}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/rarotonga-and-the-cook-islands/history#269027|title=History of Rarotonga & the Cook Islands: European explorers |publisher=Lonely Planet}}</ref>

Cook Islanders are ethnically Polynesians or Eastern Polynesia. They are culturally associated with Tahiti, Eastern Islands, New Zealand Māori and Hawaii.

====Fiji====
{{See also|History of Fiji|Seru Epenisa Cakobau|Fiji during the time of Cakobau}}

The [[Lau Islands]] were subject to periods of Tongan rulership and then Fijian control until their eventual conquest by Seru Epenisa Cakobau of the Kingdom of Fiji by 1871. In around 1855 a Tongan prince, [[Enele Ma'afu]], proclaimed the Lau islands as his kingdom, and took the title [[Tui Lau]].

Fiji had been ruled by numerous divided chieftains until Cakobau unified the landmass. The Lapita culture, the ancestors of the Polynesians, existed in Fiji from about 1000 BC until they were displaced by the Melanesians about a thousand years later. (Both Samoans and subsequent Polynesian cultures adopted Melanesian painting and tattoo methods.)

In 1873, Cakobau ceded a Fiji heavily indebted to foreign creditors to the United Kingdom. It became independent on 10 October 1970 and a republic on 28 September 1987.

Fiji is classified as Melanesian and (less commonly) Polynesian.

====Hawaii====
{{Main|History of Hawaii|Kingdom of Hawaii}}

{{Expand section|date=October 2024}}

<gallery mode=packed heights=135>
File:John Cleveley the Younger, Views of the South Seas (No. 4 of 4).jpg|On February 14, 1779, Capt. [[James Cook]] was killed on the island of Hawaii.
File:Jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine (after Louis Choris), Temple du Roi dans la baie Tiritatéa (c. 1816, published 1822).jpg |A depiction of a royal ''[[heiau]]'' (Hawaiian temple) at [[Kealakekua Bay]], c. 1816
File:Entrevue de l'expedition de M. Kotzebue avec le roi Tammeamea dans l'ile d'Ovayhi, Iles Sandwich (detailed).jpg|King [[Kamehameha I]] receiving the Russian naval expedition of [[Otto von Kotzebue]]. Drawing by [[Louis Choris]] in 1816.
File:Two natives with outrigger canoes at shoreline, Honolulu, Hawaii.jpg|Polynesians with [[outrigger boat|outrigger canoes]] at [[Waikiki|Waikiki Beach]], [[Oahu|Oahu Island]], early 20th century
</gallery>

====Kiribati====
{{Main|History of Kiribati}}

{{Expand section|date=November 2024}}

====Marquesas Islands====
{{Main|History of the Marquesas}}

{{Expand section|date=October 2024}}

====New Zealand====
{{Main|Māori people}}

[[File:An account of the voyages undertaken by the order of His present Majesty for making discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, and successively performed by Commodore Byron, Captain Wallis, Captain (14796336363).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Māori [[Waka (canoe)|war canoe]] (waka) drawn after [[James Cook]]'s voyage to New Zealand.<ref>Hawkesworth J, Wallis JS, Byron J, Carteret P, Cook J, Banks J (1773) [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=A781.03&viewtype=text ''An Account of the Voyages Undertaken by the Order of His Present Majesty for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere''], vol 1, chap 10. W. Strahan and T. Cadell in the Strand.</ref>]]

Beginning in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, Polynesians began to migrate in waves to [[New Zealand]] via their [[Māori migration canoes|canoes]], settling on both the [[North Island|North]] and [[South Island|South]] islands as well as the [[Chatham Islands]]. Over the course of several centuries, the Polynesian settlers formed distinct cultures that became known as the [[Māori people|Māori]] on the New Zealand mainland, while those who settled in the [[Chatham Islands]] became the [[Moriori people]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roberton |first=J.B.W. |year=1956 |title=Genealogies as a basis for Maori chronology |journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=45–54 |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_65_1956/Volume_65,_No._1/Genealogies_as_a_basis_for_Maori_chronology,_by_J._B._W._Roberton,_p_45%9654/p1 |access-date=2021-10-06 |archive-date=2020-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310165840/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_65_1956/Volume_65%2C_No._1/Genealogies_as_a_basis_for_Maori_chronology%2C_by_J._B._W._Roberton%2C_p_45%EF%BF%BD54/p1}}</ref> Beginning the 17th century, the arrival of Europeans to New Zealand drastically impacted Māori culture. [[Pākehā settlers|Settlers from Europe]] (known as "{{lang|mi|[[Pākehā]]}}") began to colonize New Zealand in the 19th century, leading to tension with the indigenous Māori.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Christina A. |date=June 1997 |title=A dangerous people whose only occupation is war: Maori and Pakeha in 19th century New Zealand |journal=Journal of Pacific History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=109–119|doi=10.1080/00223349708572831}}</ref> On October 28, 1835, a group of Māori tribesmen issued a [[Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand|declaration of independence]] (drafted by Scottish businessman [[James Busby]]) as the "[[United Tribes of New Zealand]]", in order to resist potential efforts at colonizing New Zealand by the [[French colonial empire|French]] and prevent [[merchant ship]]s and their cargo which belonged to Māori merchants from being seized at foreign ports. The new state received recognition from the [[The Crown|British Crown]] in 1836.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/declaration-of-independence-taming-the-frontier |title=Taming the frontier Page 4 – Declaration of Independence |date=23 September 2016 |website=NZ History |publisher=Ministry for Culture and Heritage |access-date=20 August 2017}}</ref>

In 1840 [[Royal Navy]] officer [[William Hobson]] and several Māori chiefs signed the [[Treaty of Waitangi]], which transformed New Zealand into a [[colony]] of the [[British Empire]] and granting all Māori the status of British subjects.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Orange |first1=Claudia |title=Treaty of Waitangi – Creating the Treaty of Waitangi |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/treaty-of-waitangi/page-1 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=7 June 2018 |date=20 June 2012}}</ref> However, tensions between {{lang|mi|Pākehā}} settlers and the Māori over settler encroachment on Māori lands and disputes over land sales led to the [[New Zealand Wars]] (1845–1872) between the [[Colony of New Zealand|colonial government]] and the Māori. In response to the conflict, the colonial government initiated a series of [[New Zealand land confiscations|land confiscations]] from the Māori.<ref>[[Keith Sinclair]], ''A History of New Zealand'', Penguin, 2000, page 146 {{ISBN|0-14-029875-4}}</ref> This social upheaval, combined with epidemics of infectious diseases from Europe, devastated both the Māori population and their social standing in New Zealand. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the Māori population began to recover, and efforts were made to redress social, economic, political and economic issues facing the Māori in wider New Zealand society. Beginning in the 1960s, a [[Māori protest movement|protest movement]] emerged seeking redress for [[Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements|historical grievances]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=R. J. |title=The Genesis of Maori Activism |date=1984 |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=93 |issue=3 |pages=267–281 |jstor=20705873 |issn=0032-4000}}</ref> In the [[2013 New Zealand census]], roughly 600,000 people in New Zealand identified as being Māori.

==== Niue ====
{{Main|History of Niue}}

{{Expand section|date=October 2024}}

==== Samoa ====
{{Main|History of Samoa}}

[[File:F 2 070 182 Uk Uni grinding stone 1957 Myer's plantation, Samoa.jpg|thumb|Grinding stones discovered from [[archaeology of Samoa|archaeology in Samoa]]]]
In the 9th century, the [[Tui Manu'a|Tui Manuʻa]] controlled a vast maritime empire comprising most of the settled islands of Polynesia. The Tui Manuʻa is one of the oldest Samoan titles in Samoa. Traditional [[oral literature]] of Samoa and Manu'a talks of a widespread [[Polynesians|Polynesian]] network or [[confederation|confederacy]] (or "empire") that was prehistorically ruled by the successive Tui Manuʻa dynasties. Manuan genealogies and religious oral literature also suggest that the Tui Manuʻa had long been one of the most prestigious and powerful paramount of Samoa. Oral history suggests that the Tui Manuʻa kings governed a confederacy of far-flung islands which included [[Fiji]], [[Tonga]] as well as smaller western Pacific [[chiefdom]]s and [[Polynesian outlier]]s such as [[Uvea (Wallis and Futuna)|Uvea]], [[Futuna Island, Wallis and Futuna|Futuna]], [[Tokelau]], and [[Tuvalu]]. Commerce and exchange routes between the western Polynesian societies are well documented and it is speculated that the Tui Manuʻa dynasty grew through its success in obtaining control over the oceanic trade of currency goods such as finely woven ceremonial mats, whale [[ivory]] "[[tabua]]", [[obsidian]] and [[basalt]] tools, chiefly red feathers, and seashells reserved for royalty (such as polished [[nautilus]] and the egg [[cowry]]).

Samoa's long history of various ruling families continued until well after the decline of the Tui Manuʻa's power, with the western isles of Savaiʻi and Upolu rising to prominence in the post-Tongan occupation period and the establishment of the [[tafaʻifa]] system that dominated Samoan politics well into the 20th century. This was disrupted in the early 1900s due to colonial intervention, with east–west division by [[Tripartite Convention (1899)]] and subsequent annexation by the [[German Empire]] and the United States. The German-controlled Western portion of Samoa (consisting of the bulk of Samoan territory – Savaiʻi, Apolima, Manono and Upolu) was occupied by New Zealand in WWI, and administered by it under a Class C [[League of Nations mandate]]. After repeated efforts by the Samoan independence movement, the New Zealand Western Samoa Act of 24 November 1961 granted Samoa independence, effective on January 1, 1962, upon which the Trusteeship Agreement terminated. The new Independent State of Samoa was not a monarchy, though the Malietoa titleholder remained very influential. It effectively ended however with the death of [[Malietoa Tanumafili II]], the country's head of state, on May 11, 2007.

====Tahiti====
{{Main|Pōmare dynasty|Kingdom of Tahiti}}

{{Expand section|date=October 2024}}

==== Tonga ====
{{Main|History of Tonga|Tuʻi Tonga Empire}}

[[File:Tasman-dagboek-a.jpg|thumb|The arrival of [[Abel Tasman]] in [[Tongatapu]], 1643; drawing by [[Isaack Gilsemans]] ]]

In the 10th century, the [[Tuʻi Tonga Empire]] was established in Tonga, and most of the Western Pacific came within its sphere of influence, up to parts of the [[Solomon Islands]]. The Tongan influence brought Polynesian customs and language throughout most of Polynesia. The empire began to decline in the 13th century.

After a bloody civil war, political power in Tonga eventually fell under the [[Tuʻi Kanokupolu]] dynasty in the 16th century.

In 1845, the ambitious young warrior, strategist, and orator [[George Tupou I|Tāufaʻāhau]] united Tonga into a more Western-style kingdom. He held the chiefly title of Tuʻi Kanokupolu, but had been baptised with the name Jiaoji ("George") in 1831. In 1875, with the help of the missionary [[Shirley Waldemar Baker]], he declared Tonga a constitutional monarchy, formally adopted the western royal style, emancipated the "serfs", enshrined a code of law, land tenure, and freedom of the press, and limited the power of the chiefs.

Tonga became a [[British protectorate]] under a Treaty of Friendship on 18 May 1900, when European settlers and rival Tongan chiefs tried to oust the second king. Within the [[British Empire]], which posted no higher permanent representative on Tonga than a British Consul (1901–1970), Tonga formed part of the [[British Western Pacific Territories]] (under a High Commissioner who residing in [[Fiji]]) from 1901 until 1952. Despite being under the protectorate, Tonga retained its monarchy without interruption. On June 4, 1970, the [[Kingdom of Tonga]] became independent from the British Empire.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/06/05/archives/tongas-150-polynesian-islands-now-independent-tongas-150-polynesian.html |title=Tonga's 150 Polynesian Islands Now Independent |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=5 June 1970 |access-date=6 October 2021}}</ref>

====Tuvalu====
{{Main|History of Tuvalu}}

[[File:Canoe carving on Nanumea.jpg|thumb|upright|Canoe carving on [[Nanumea]] atoll, Tuvalu]]

The [[reef]] islands and [[atoll]]s of [[Tuvalu]] are identified as being part of West Polynesia. During pre-European-contact times there was frequent canoe voyaging between the islands as [[Polynesian navigation]] skills are recognised to have allowed deliberate journeys on double-hull sailing canoes or [[outrigger boat|outrigger canoes]].<ref name="Belwood10">{{cite book |last1= Bellwood|first1= Peter|title=The Polynesians – Prehistory of an Island People |year= 1987 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |pages=39–44}}</ref> Eight of the nine islands of Tuvalu were inhabited; thus the name, Tuvalu, means "eight standing together" in [[Tuvaluan language|Tuvaluan]]. The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from Samoa and [[Tonga]] into the Tuvaluan atolls, with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone for migration into the [[Polynesian outlier|Polynesian outlier communities]] in [[Melanesia]] and [[Micronesia]].<ref name="Belwood2">{{cite book |last1= Bellwood|first1= Peter|title=The Polynesians – Prehistory of an Island People|year= 1987 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |pages=29, 54|isbn=978-0-500-27450-7}}</ref><ref name="Bayard">{{cite book |last1=Bayard|first1=D.T.|title=The Cultural Relationships of the Polynesian Outiers |year= 1976 |publisher=Otago University, Studies in Prehistoric Anthropology, Vol. 9}}</ref><ref name="Kirch">{{cite journal|last1=Kirch|first1=P.V. |title=The Polynesian Outiers|year= 1984 |volume=95 |issue=4|journal= Journal of Pacific History|pages=224–238|doi=10.1080/00223348408572496}}</ref>

Stories as to the ancestors of the Tuvaluans vary from island to island. On [[Niutao]],<ref name="PAS">{{cite book |author=Sogivalu, Pulekau A. |title=A Brief History of Niutao|year=1992 |publisher= Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific|isbn=978-982-02-0058-6}}</ref> [[Funafuti]] and [[Vaitupu]] the founding ancestor is described as being from [[Samoa]];<ref name="Genesis 1983">{{cite book |author=O'Brien, Talakatoa |title=Tuvalu: A History, Chapter 1, Genesis |year=1983 |publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific and Government of Tuvalu}}</ref><ref name="Kennedy">{{cite journal |author=Kennedy, Donald G. |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_38_1929/Field_notes_on_the_culture_of_Vaitupu%2C_Ellice_Islands%2C_by_Donald_Gilbert_Kennedy%2C_p_1-99/p1?action=null |title=Field Notes on the Culture of Vaitupu, Ellice Islands |journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society |volume=38 |year=1929 |pages=2–5 |access-date=2011-10-28 |archive-date=2008-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015043119/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_38_1929/Field_notes_on_the_culture_of_Vaitupu%2C_Ellice_Islands%2C_by_Donald_Gilbert_Kennedy%2C_p_1-99/p1?action=null}}</ref> whereas on [[Nanumea]] the founding ancestor is described as being from [[Tonga]].<ref name="Genesis 1983"/>

The extent of influence of the [[Tuʻi Tonga]] line of Tongan kings, which originated in the 10th century, is understood to have extended to some of the islands of Tuvalu in the 11th to mid-13th century.<ref name="Kennedy"/> The oral history of [[Niutao]] recalls that in the 15th century Tongan warriors were defeated in a battle on the reef of Niutao. Tongan warriors also invaded Niutao later in the 15th century and again were repelled. A third and fourth Tongan invasion of Niutao occurred in the late 16th century, again with the Tongans being defeated.<ref name="PAS"/>

Tuvalu was first sighted by Europeans in January 1568 during the voyage of Spanish navigator [[Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira]] who sailed past the island of [[Nui (atoll)|Nui]], and charted it as ''Isla de Jesús'' (Spanish for "Island of Jesus") because the previous day was the feast of the [[Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus|Holy Name]]. Mendaña made contact with the islanders but did not land.<ref name="HEMaude59">{{cite journal |first=H. E. |last=Maude |title=Spanish Discoveries in the Central Pacific: A Study in Identification |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_68_1959/Volume_68,_No._4/Spanish_discoveries_in_the_Pacific,_by_H._E._Maude,_p_285-326/p1 |year=1959 |volume=68 |issue=4 |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |pages=284–326 |access-date=2020-09-25 |archive-date=2018-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210235215/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_68_1959/Volume_68%2C_No._4/Spanish_discoveries_in_the_Pacific%2C_by_H._E._Maude%2C_p_285-326/p1}}</ref> During Mendaña's second voyage across the Pacific he passed [[Niulakita]] in August 1595, which he named ''La Solitaria'', meaning "the solitary one".<ref name="HEMaude59"/><ref name="KSDDM">{{cite book |first1=Keith S. |last1=Chambers |first2=Doug |last2=Munro |title=The Mystery of Gran Cocal: European Discovery and Mis-Discovery in Tuvalu |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_89_1980/Volume_89,_No._2/The_%26apos%3Bmystery%26apos%3B_of_Gran_Cocal%3A_European_discovery_and_mis-discovery_in_Tuvalu,_by_Doug_Munro,_p_167-198/p1 |year=1980 |publisher=89(2) The Journal of the Polynesian Society |pages=167–198 |access-date=2020-09-25 |archive-date=2018-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215134048/http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/Volume_89_1980/Volume_89%2C_No._2/The_%26apos%3Bmystery%26apos%3B_of_Gran_Cocal%3A_European_discovery_and_mis-discovery_in_Tuvalu%2C_by_Doug_Munro%2C_p_167-198/p1}}</ref>

Fishing was the primary source of protein, with the [[Tuvaluan cuisine]] reflecting food that could be grown on low-lying atolls. Navigation between the islands of Tuvalu was carried out using outrigger canoes. The population levels of the low-lying islands of Tuvalu had to be managed because of the effects of periodic droughts and the risk of severe famine if the gardens were poisoned by salt from the storm surge of a [[tropical cyclone]].

==Links to the Americas==
{{Further|Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories#Polynesian, Melanesian, and Austronesian contact}}

The [[sweet potato]], called {{lang|mi|kūmara}} in [[Māori language|Māori]] and {{lang|qu|kumar}} in [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]], is native to the Americas and was widespread in Polynesia when Europeans first reached the Pacific. Remains of the plant in the Cook Islands have been radiocarbon-dated to before 1400, and the present scholarly consensus<ref name="plos">{{cite journal|last1=Barber|first1=Ian|last2=Higham|first2=Thomas F. G.|journal=[[PLOS One]]|title=Archaeological science meets Māori knowledge to model pre-Columbian sweet potato (''Ipomoea batatas'') dispersal to Polynesia's southernmost habitable margins|date=14 April 2021|volume=16|issue=4|article-number=e0247643|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0247643|pmid=33852587|pmc=8046222|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1647643B|doi-access=free}}</ref> is that it was brought to central Polynesia {{circa|1300}} by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back, from where it spread across the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Van Tilburg |first=Jo Anne |year=1994 |title=Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press}}</ref> Some genetic evidence suggests that sweet potatoes may have reached Polynesia via seeds at least 100,000 years ago, pre-dating human arrival;<ref name="Fox">{{cite news |last1=Fox |first1=Alex |title=Sweet potato migrated to Polynesia thousands of years before people did |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-04488-4 |access-date=21 June 2019 |work=Nature |date=12 April 2018}}</ref> however, this hypothesis fails to account for the similarity of names.

There are also other possible material and cultural evidence of [[Pre-Columbian era|Pre-Columbian]] contact by Polynesia with the Americas with varying levels of plausibility. These include [[chicken]]s, [[coconut]]s, and [[bottle gourd]]s. The question of whether Polynesians reached the Americas and the extent of cultural and material influences resulting from such a contact remains highly contentious among anthropologists.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Terry L. |editor2-last=Storey |editor2-first=Alice A. |editor3-last=Matisoo-Smith |editor3-first=Elizabeth A. |editor4-last=Ramirez-Aliaga |editor4-first=Jose Miguel |title=Polynesians in America: Pre-Columbian Contacts with the New World |date=2011 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-2006-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncWCVCaWMuAC}}</ref>

One of the most enduring misconceptions about Polynesians was that they originated from the Americas. This was due to [[Thor Heyerdahl]]'s proposals in the mid-20th century that the Polynesians had migrated in two waves of migrations: one by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] from the northwest coast of Canada by large whale-hunting dugouts; and the other from South America by "bearded white men" with "reddish to blond hair" and "blue-grey eyes" led by a high priest and sun-king named "Kon-Tiki" on [[balsa]]-log rafts. He claimed the "white men" then "civilized" the dark-skinned natives in Polynesia. He set out to prove this by embarking on a highly publicized [[Kon-Tiki expedition|''Kon-Tiki'' expedition]] on a primitive raft with a [[Scandinavia#Scandinavian as an ethnic term and as a demonym|Scandinavian]] crew. It captured the public's attention, making the ''Kon-Tiki'' a household name.<ref name="Sharp_1963_122128">Sharp, Andrew (1963). ''Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia'', Longman Paul Ltd. pp. 122–128.</ref><ref name="Finney_1963_5">Finney, Ben R. (1976) "New, Non-Armchair Research". In Ben R. Finney, ''Pacific Navigation and Voyaging'', The Polynesian Society Inc. p. 5.</ref><ref name="Andersson">{{cite book |last1=Andersson |first1=Axel |title=A Hero for the Atomic Age: Thor Heyerdahl and the Kon-Tiki Expedition |date=2010 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-906165-31-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrhPH-9mnd8C}}</ref>

None of Heyerdahl's proposals have been accepted in the scientific community.<ref>Robert C. Suggs ''The Island Civilizations of Polynesia'', New York: New American Library, p.212-224.</ref><ref>Kirch, P. (2000). ''On the Roads to the Wind: An archaeological history of the Pacific Islands before European contact''. [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]]: [[University of California Press]], 2000.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Barnes, S.S. |display-authors=etal |title=Ancient DNA of the Pacific rat (Rattus exulans) from Rapa Nui (Easter Island) |url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Hunt/pdfs/Barnesetal2006.pdf |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1536–1540 |year=2006 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.02.006|bibcode=2006JArSc..33.1536B|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719205425/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Hunt/pdfs/Barnesetal2006.pdf |archive-date=July 19, 2011}}</ref> The anthropologist [[Wade Davis (anthropologist)|Wade Davis]] in his book ''The Wayfinders'', criticized Heyerdahl as having "ignored the overwhelming body of linguistic, ethnographic, and ethnobotanical evidence, augmented today by genetic and archaeological data, indicating that he was patently wrong."<ref>Davis, Wade (2010) ''The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World'', Crawley: University of Western Australia Publishing, p. 46.</ref> Anthropologist [[Robert Carl Suggs]] included a chapter titled "The Kon-Tiki Myth" in his 1960 book on Polynesia, concluding that "The ''Kon-Tiki'' theory is about as plausible as the tales of [[Atlantis]], [[Mu (mythical lost continent)|Mu]], and 'Children of the Sun'. Like most such theories, it makes exciting light reading, but as an example of scientific method it fares quite poorly."<ref>Robert C. Suggs, ''The Island Civilizations of Polynesia'', New York: New American Library, p.224.</ref> Other authors have also criticized Heyerdahl's hypothesis for its implicit [[racism]] in attributing advances in Polynesian society to "white people", at the same time ignoring relatively advanced [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] maritime technology in favor of a primitive balsa raft.<ref name="Andersson"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magelssen |first1=Scott |title=White-Skinned Gods: Thor Heyerdahl, the Kon-Tiki Museum, and the Racial Theory of Polynesian Origins |journal=TDR/The Drama Review |date=March 2016 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=25–49 |doi=10.1162/DRAM_a_00522 |s2cid=57559261}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coughlin |first1=Jenna |title=Trouble in Paradise: Revising Identity in Two Texts by Thor Heyerdahl |journal=Scandinavian Studies |date=2016 |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=246–269 |jstor=10.5406/scanstud.88.3.0246 |doi=10.5406/scanstud.88.3.0246 |s2cid=164373747 }}</ref>

In July 2020, a novel high-density genome-wide DNA analysis of Polynesians and Native South Americans reported that there has been [[genetic admixture|intermingling]] between Polynesian people and [[pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia|pre-Columbian]] [[Zenú|Zenú people]] in a period dated between 1150 and 1380 AD.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Native South Americans were early inhabitants of Polynesia |last=Wallin |first=Paul |date=8 July 2020 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=583 |issue=7817 |pages=524–525 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-01983-5 |pmid=32641787 |bibcode=2020Natur.583..524W |s2cid=220436442 |quote=DNA analysis of Polynesians and Native South Americans has revealed an ancient genetic signature that resolves a long-running debate over Polynesian origins and early contacts between the two populations.|doi-access=free }}</ref> Whether this happened because of [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous American]] people reaching eastern Polynesia or because the northern coast of South America was visited by Polynesians is not clear yet.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wade |first=Lizzie |date=8 July 2020 |title=Polynesians steering by the stars met Native Americans long before Europeans arrived |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/polynesians-steering-stars-met-native-americans-long-europeans-arrived |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717034835/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/07/polynesians-steering-stars-met-native-americans-long-europeans-arrived |archive-date=17 July 2020 |access-date=11 July 2020 |work=[[Science (journal)|Science]] }}</ref>

==Cultures==
{{Main|Polynesian culture}}

[[File:Paul Gauguin 056.jpg|Painting of ''Tahitian Women on the Beach'' by [[Paul Gauguin]]—[[Musée d'Orsay]]|thumb]]

Polynesia divides into two distinct cultural groups, East Polynesia and West Polynesia. The culture of West Polynesia is conditioned to high populations. It has strong institutions of marriage and well-developed judicial, monetary and trading traditions. West Polynesia comprises the groups of [[Tonga]], [[Samoa]] and surrounding islands. The pattern of settlement to East Polynesia began from Samoan Islands into the Tuvaluan atolls, with [[Tuvalu]] providing a stepping stone to migration into the [[Polynesian outlier|Polynesian outlier communities]] in [[Melanesia]] and [[Micronesia]].<ref name="Belwood2" /><ref name="Bayard" /><ref name="Kirch" />

Eastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to smaller islands and atolls, principally [[Niue]], the [[Cook Islands]], [[Tahiti]], the [[Tuamotus]], the [[Marquesas]], [[Hawaii]], [[Easter Island|Rapa Nui]], and smaller central-pacific groups. The large islands of [[New Zealand]] were first settled by Eastern Polynesians who adapted their culture to a non-tropical environment.

Unlike western [[Melanesia]], leaders were chosen in Polynesia based on their hereditary bloodline. Samoa, however, had another system of government that combines elements of heredity and real-world skills to choose leaders. This system is called [[Fa'amatai]]. According to Ben R. Finney and Eric M. Jones, "On Tahiti, for example, the 35,000 Polynesians living there at the time of European discovery were divided between high-status persons with full access to food and other resources, and low-status persons with limited access."<ref name="polynesia"/>
[[File:TahuhuNgatiAwa.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Wood carving|Carving]] from the ridgepole of a [[Māori people|Māori]] house, ca 1840]]

Religion, farming, fishing, weather prediction, out-rigger canoe (similar to modern [[catamaran]]s) construction and [[navigation]] were highly developed skills because the population of an entire island depended on them. Trading of both luxuries and mundane items was important to all groups. Periodic droughts and subsequent famines often led to war.<ref name="polynesia">Finney, Ben R. and Jones, Eric M. (1986). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iKnaLbRtQasC&pg=PA176 Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience]''". [[University of California Press]]. p.176. {{ISBN|0-520-05898-4}}</ref> Many low-lying islands could suffer severe famine if their gardens were poisoned by the salt from the storm surge of a [[tropical cyclone]]. In these cases fishing, the primary source of protein, would not ease the loss of [[food energy]]. Navigators, in particular, were highly respected and each island maintained a house of navigation with a canoe-building area.

Settlements by the Polynesians were of two categories: the hamlet and the village. The size of the island inhabited determined whether or not a hamlet would be built. The larger [[volcanic island]]s usually had hamlets because of the many zones that could be divided across the island. Food and resources were more plentiful. These settlements of four to five houses (usually with gardens) were established so that there would be no overlap between the zones. Villages, on the other hand, were built on the coasts of smaller islands and consisted of thirty or more houses—in the case of atolls, on only one of the group so that food cultivation was on the others. Usually, these villages were fortified with walls and palisades made of stone and wood.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, 1995</ref>

However, New Zealand demonstrates the opposite: large volcanic islands with fortified villages.

As well as being great navigators, these people were [[Oceanian art#Polynesia|artists and artisans]] of great skill. Simple objects, such as fish-hooks would be manufactured to exacting standards for different catches and decorated even when the decoration was not part of the function. Stone and wooden weapons were considered to be more powerful the better they were made and decorated. In some island groups weaving was a strong part of the culture and giving woven articles as gifts was an ingrained practice. Dwellings were imbued with character by the skill of their building. Body decoration and jewelry is of an international standard to this day.

The religious attributes of Polynesians were common over the whole Pacific region. While there are some differences in their spoken languages they largely have the same explanation for the creation of the earth and sky, for the gods that rule aspects of life and for the religious practices of everyday life. People traveled thousands of miles to celebrations that they all owned communally.

Beginning in the 1820s large numbers of missionaries worked in the islands, converting many groups to Christianity. Polynesia, argues Ian Breward, is now "one of the most strongly Christian regions in the world ... Christianity was rapidly and successfully incorporated into Polynesian culture. War and slavery disappeared."<ref>Ian Breward in {{cite book |last1=Farhadian |first1=Charles E. |last2=Hefner |first2=Robert W. |title=Introducing World Christianity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6qjCRE85QjYC&pg=PA228 |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=218–229 |isbn=978-1-4051-8248-5}}; quote at p 228</ref>

==Demographics==
The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each description.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="border:1px solid #aaa; font-size:90%;"
|- style="background:#ececec;"|
! Region, followed by country<ref name="region">Regions and constituents as per [[:File:United Nations geographical subregions.png|UN categorisations/map]] except [[#endnote CCAU|notes 2–3]], 6. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 3, 5–7, 9) may be in [[List of countries spanning more than one continent|one or both of]] Oceania and Asia or North America. </ref>
! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|Area]] (km2)
! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries by population|Population]] ({{UN_Population|Year}}){{UN_Population|ref}}
! data-sort-type="number" | [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|Population density]] (per km2)
! [[Capital (political)|Capital]]
! [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2|ISO 3166-1]]
|-
| {{flag|American Samoa}} (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 199
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|American Samoa}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 279.4
| [[Pago Pago]], [[Fagatogo]]<ref name="ASamoa">[[Fagatogo]] is the seat of government of [[American Samoa]]. </ref>
| AS
|-
| '''{{flag|Cook Islands}}'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 240
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Cook Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 72.4
| [[Avarua]]
| CK
|-
| {{flag|Easter Island}} (Chile)
| style="text-align:right;"| 164
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,761
| style="text-align:right;"| 35.1
| [[Hanga Roa]]
| CL
|-
| {{flag|French Polynesia}} (France)
| style="text-align:right;"| 4,167
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|French Polynesia}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 67.2
| [[Papeete]]
| PF
|-
| {{flag|Hawaii}} (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 16,636
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,360,301
| style="text-align:right;"| 81.8
| [[Honolulu]]
| US
|-
| {{flag|Johnston Atoll}} (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 276.6
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| style="text-align:right;"| 0
| [[Johnston Atoll]]
| UM
|-
| {{flag|Midway Atoll}} (United States)
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,355
| style="text-align:right;"| 39
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.37
| [[Midway Atoll]]
| UM
|-
| '''{{flag|New Zealand}}'''{{efn|Part of [[Australasia]] according to the UN}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 268,680
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|New Zealand}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 17.3
| [[Wellington]]
| NZ
|-
| '''{{flag|Niue}}'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 260
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Niue}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.2
| [[Alofi]]
| NU
|-
| {{flag|Pitcairn Islands}} (United Kingdom)
| style="text-align:right;"| 47
| style="text-align:right;"| 47
| style="text-align:right;"| 1
| [[Adamstown, Pitcairn Island|Adamstown]]
| PN
|-
| '''{{flag|Samoa}}'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,944
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Samoa}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 66.3
| [[Apia]]
| WS
|-
| {{flag|Tokelau}} (New Zealand)
| style="text-align:right;"| 10
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tokelau}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 128.2
| [[Atafu]] (''de facto'')
| TK
|-
| '''{{flag|Tonga}}'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 748
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tonga}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 143.2
| [[Nuku{{fakau'a}}alofa]]
| TO
|-
| '''{{flag|Tuvalu}}'''
| style="text-align:right;"| 26
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Tuvalu}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 426.8
| [[Funafuti]]
| TV
|-
| {{flag|Wallis and Futuna|local}} (France)
| style="text-align:right;"| 274
| style="text-align:right;"| {{UN_Population|Wallis and Futuna Islands}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 43.4
| [[Mata-Utu]]
| WF
|- class=sortbottom
! scope=row style="text-align:center;"| '''Polynesia''' (total excluding New Zealand)
| style="text-align:right;"| 25,715
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,047,444
| style="text-align:right;"| 79.6
|- class=sortbottom
! scope=row style="text-align:center;"| '''Polynesia''' (total including New Zealand)
| style="text-align:right;"| 294,395
| style="text-align:right;"| 7,177,171
| style="text-align:right;"| 24.4
|}

==Languages==
{{Main|Polynesian languages}}

Polynesian languages are all members of the family of [[Oceanic languages]], a sub-branch of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] language family. Polynesian languages show a considerable degree of similarity. The [[vowels]] are generally the same—/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/, pronounced as in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[German language|German]]—and the consonants are always followed by a vowel. The languages of various island groups show changes in [[consonant]]s. The [[glottal stop]] /ʔ/ is increasingly represented by an inverted comma or [[ʻokina]]. In the [[Society Islands]], the original [[Proto-Polynesian language|Proto-Polynesian]] ''*k'' and ''*[[Voiced velar nasal|ŋ]]'' (or the ng sound) have merged as /ʔ/, ''*s'' changed to /h/, and ''*w'' changed to /v/; so the name for the ancestral homeland, deriving from Proto-Nuclear Polynesian ''*sawaiki'',<ref name="pollexSawaiki">{{cite web|url=http://pollex.org.nz/entry/sawaiki/ |title=Polynesian Lexicon Project Online |publisher=Pollex.org.nz }}</ref> becomes Havaiʻi. In New Zealand, where ''*s'' changed to /h/, the ancient home is [[Hawaiki]]. In the Cook Islands, where /ʔ/ replaces ''*s'' (with a likely intermediate stage of ''*h'') and /v/ replaces ''*w'', it is ʻAvaiki. In the Hawaiian islands, where /ʔ/ and /h/ replace ''*k'' and ''*s'', respectively, the largest island of the group is named [[Hawaiʻi (island)|Hawaiʻi]]. In Samoa, where /v/ and /ʔ/ replace ''*w'' and ''*k'', respectively, the largest island is called [[Savaiʻi]].<ref name=trh>{{cite book
|url=http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BucViki-t1-body-d1-d7.html
|via=NZ Electronic Text Centre, Victoria University, NZ Licence CC BY-SA 3.0
|title=Vikings of the Sunrise
|first=Te Rangi (Sir Peter Henry Buck)
|last=Hiroa
|page=67
|year=1964|edition=reprint
|publisher=Whitcombe and Tombs Ltd.
|access-date=2 March 2010
}}</ref>

[[Maritime Polynesian Pidgin]] based on Tahitian, Māori and Hawaiian was a common regional [[trade language]] used between European voyagers and local islanders between 18th to 19th centuries before supplanted by English.<ref>{{cite book|pages=7–17 |title=Language contact in the early colonial Pacific: Maritime Polynesian Pidgin before Pidgin English |first=Emanuel J.|last=Drechsel|year=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781139057561 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-contact-in-the-early-colonial-pacific/9E4DA477392ABDA61F4C0CA7D3812FFF}}</ref>

==Economy==
With the exception of New Zealand, the majority of independent Polynesian islands derive much of their income from foreign aid and remittances from those who live in other countries. Some encourage their young people to go where they can earn good money to remit to their stay-at-home relatives. Many Polynesian locations, such as [[Easter Island]], supplement this with tourism income. Some have more unusual sources of income, such as [[Tuvalu]] which marketed its '[[.tv]]' internet top-level domain name or the Cooks that relied on [[postage stamp]] sales.

[[File:Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi]], [[Prime Minister of Samoa]] from 1998 to 2021, who initiated the [[Polynesian Leaders Group]] in late 2011.]]

Aside from New Zealand, another focus area of economic dependence regarding tourism is Hawaii. Hawaii is one of the most visited areas within the Polynesian Triangle, entertaining more than ten million visitors annually, excluding 2020. The economy of Hawaii, like that of New Zealand, is steadily dependent on annual tourists and financial counseling or aid from other countries or states. "The rate of tourist growth has made the economy overly dependent on this one sector, leaving Hawaii extremely vulnerable to external economic forces."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Matsuoka|first1=Jon|last2=Kelly|first2=Terry|date=1988-12-01|title=The Environmental, Economic, and Social Impacts of Resort Development and Tourism on Native Hawaiians|url=https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw/vol15/iss4/3|journal=The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare|volume=15|issue=4|doi=10.15453/0191-5096.1868 |s2cid=141987142 |issn=0191-5096|doi-access=free}}</ref> By keeping this in mind, island states and nations similar to Hawaii are paying closer attention to other avenues that can positively affect their economy by practicing more independence and less emphasis on tourist entertainment.

==Inter-Polynesian cooperation==
The first major attempt at uniting the Polynesian islands was by [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] in the 1930s, when various theorists (chiefly [[Hachirō Arita]]) began promulgating the idea of what would soon become known as the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]. Under the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, all nations stretching from [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Northeast Asia]] to [[Oceania]] would be united under one, large, cultural and economic bloc which would be free from Western [[imperialism]]. The policy theorists who conceived it, along with the Japanese public, largely saw it as a pan-Asian movement driven by ideals of freedom and independence from Western colonial oppression. In practice, however, it was frequently corrupted by militarists who saw it as an effective policy vehicle through which to strengthen Japan's position and advance its dominance within Asia. At its greatest extent, it stretched from [[Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina|Japanese occupied Indochina]] in the west to the [[Gilbert Islands]] in the east, although it was originally planned to stretch as far east as [[Hawaii]] and [[Easter Island]] and as far west as [[India]]. This never came to fruition, however, as Japan was defeated during [[World War II]] and subsequently lost all power and influence it had.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tolland|first= John|author-link=John Toland (historian) |title= The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945|pages= 447–448 |quote=It had been created by idealists who wanted to free Asia from the white man. As with many dreams, it was taken over and exploited by realists... Corrupted as the Co-Prosperity Sphere was by the militarists and their nationalist supporters, its call for pan-asianism remained relatively undiminished}}</ref><ref name="Weinberg">Weinberg, L. Gerhard. (2005). ''Visions of Victory: The Hopes of Eight World War II Leaders'' p.62-65.</ref>

After several years of discussing a potential regional grouping, three sovereign states (Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu) and five self-governing but non-sovereign territories formally launched, in November 2011, the [[Polynesian Leaders Group]], intended to cooperate on a variety of issues including culture and language, education, responses to climate change, and trade and investment. It does not, however, constitute a political or monetary union.<ref>[http://pacific.scoop.co.nz/2011/09/nz-may-be-invited-to-join-proposed-polynesian-triangle-ginger-group/ "NZ may be invited to join proposed 'Polynesian Triangle' ginger group"], Pacific Scoop, 19 September 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=64516 "New Polynesian Leaders Group formed in Samoa"], Radio New Zealand International, 18 November 2011</ref><ref name="Savali">{{cite news |title=American Samoa joins Polynesian Leaders Group, MOU signed |url=https://www.samoanews.com/american-samoa-joins-poly-leaders-group-mou-signed |access-date=30 July 2020 |work=Samoa News |agency=Savalii |date=20 November 2011}}</ref>

==Navigation==
{{Main|Polynesian navigation}}

Polynesia comprised islands diffused throughout a triangular area with sides of four thousand miles. The area from the Hawaiian Islands in the north, to Easter Island in the east and to New Zealand in the south were all settled by Polynesians.

[[Navigator]]s traveled to small inhabited islands using only their own senses and knowledge passed by [[oral tradition]] from navigator to apprentice. In order to locate directions at various times of day and year, navigators in Eastern Polynesia memorized important facts: the motion of specific [[star]]s, and where they would rise on the [[horizon]] of the ocean; [[weather]]; times of travel; wildlife species (which congregate at particular positions); directions of swells on the ocean, and how the crew would feel their motion; colors of the sea and sky, especially how clouds would cluster at the locations of some islands; and angles for approaching harbors.

[[File:Priests traveling across kealakekua bay for first contact rituals.jpg|thumb|right|Polynesian (Hawaiian) navigators sailing multi-hulled [[canoe]], c. 1781]]
[[File:Va'a canoe, Matavai village, Savaii, Samoa MS.JPG|thumb|right|A common fishing canoe ''va'a'' with outrigger in [[Savaiʻi]] island, [[Samoa]], 2009]]

These [[wayfinding]] techniques, along with [[outrigger]] [[canoe]] construction methods, were kept as [[guild]] secrets. Generally, each island maintained a guild of navigators who had very high status; in times of famine or difficulty these navigators could trade for aid or evacuate people to neighboring islands. On his first voyage of Pacific exploration Cook had the services of a Polynesian navigator, [[Tupaia (navigator)|Tupaia]], who drew a hand-drawn chart of the islands within {{convert|2000|mi|km|abbr=on|order=flip}} radius (to the north and west) of his home island of [[Ra'iatea]]. Tupaia had knowledge of 130 islands and named 74 on his chart.<ref name="Druett2">{{cite book |last1= Druett |first1= Joan|title=Tupaia – The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Polynesian Navigator |year= 1987 |publisher=Random House, New Zealand|pages=226–227|isbn=978-0-313-38748-7}}</ref> Tupaia had navigated from Ra'iatea in short voyages to 13 islands. He had not visited western Polynesia, as since his grandfather's time the extent of voyaging by Raiateans has diminished to the islands of eastern Polynesia. His grandfather and father had passed to Tupaia the knowledge as to the location of the major islands of western Polynesia and the navigation information necessary to voyage to [[Samoa]], [[Tonga]] and Melanesian island of [[Fiji]].<ref name="Druett1">{{cite book |last1= Druett |first1= Joan|title=Tupaia – The Remarkable Story of Captain Cook's Polynesian Navigator |year= 1987 |publisher=Random House, New Zealand |pages=218–233|isbn=978-0-313-38748-7}}</ref> As the Admiralty orders directed Cook to search for the [[Terra Australis|"Great Southern Continent"]], Cook ignored Tupaia's chart and his skills as a navigator. To this day, original traditional methods of Polynesian Navigation are still taught in the [[Polynesian outlier]] of [[Duff Islands|Taumako Island]] in the [[Islands of the Solomon Islands|Solomon Islands]].

From a single chicken bone recovered from the archaeological site of El Arenal-1, on the [[Arauco Peninsula]], Chile, a 2007 research report looking at radiocarbon dating and an ancient DNA sequence indicate that Polynesian navigators may have reached the Americas at least 100 years before Columbus (who arrived 1492 AD), introducing chickens to South America.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/05/science/05chic.html |title=First Chickens in Americas Were Brought From Polynesia |first=John Noble |last=Wilford |work=The New York Times |date=June 5, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Storey | first1 = A. A.
| last2 = Ramirez | first2 = J. M.
| last3 = Quiroz | first3 = D.
| last4 = Burley | first4 = D. V.
| last5 = Addison | first5 = D. J.
| last6 = Walter | first6 = R.
| last7 = Anderson | first7 = A. J.
| last8 = Hunt | first8 = T. L.
| last9 = Athens | first9 = J. S.
| last10 = Huynen
| doi = 10.1073/pnas.0703993104 | first10 = L.
| last11 = Matisoo-Smith | first11 = E. A.
| title = Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction of Polynesian chickens to Chile
| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
| volume = 104
| issue = 25
| pages = 10335–10339
| year = 2007
| pmid = 17556540
| pmc =1965514
| bibcode = 2007PNAS..10410335S
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> A later report looking at the same specimens concluded:

<blockquote>A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may represent a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Gongora | first1 = J.
| last2 = Rawlence | first2 = N. J.
| last3 = Mobegi | first3 = V. A.
| last4 = Jianlin | first4 = H.
| last5 = Alcalde | first5 = J. A.
| last6 = Matus | first6 = J. T.
| last7 = Hanotte | first7 = O.
| last8 = Moran | first8 = C.
| last9 = Austin | first9 = J. J.
| doi = 10.1073/pnas.0801991105
| last10 = Ulm | first10 = S.
| last11 = Anderson | first11 = A. J.
| last12 = Larson | first12 = G.
| last13 = Cooper | first13 = A.
| title = Indo-European and Asian origins for Chilean and Pacific chickens revealed by mtDNA
| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
| volume = 105
| issue = 30
| pages = 10308–10313
| year = 2008
| pmid = 18663216
| pmc =2492461
| bibcode = 2008PNAS..10510308G
| doi-access = free
}}</ref>
</blockquote>

Knowledge of the traditional Polynesian methods of navigation was largely lost after contact with and colonization by Europeans. This left the problem of accounting for the presence of the Polynesians in such isolated and scattered parts of the Pacific. By the late 19th century to the early 20th century, a more generous view of Polynesian navigation had come into favor, perhaps creating a romantic picture of their canoes, seamanship and navigational expertise.

In the mid to late 1960s, scholars began testing sailing and paddling experiments related to Polynesian navigation: [[David Henry Lewis|David Lewis]] sailed his catamaran from Tahiti to New Zealand using [[celestial navigation|stellar navigation]] without instruments and [[Ben Finney]] built a 12-meter (40-foot) replica of a Hawaiian double canoe "Nalehia" and tested it in Hawaii.<ref>Lewis, David. [http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document/?wid=4479 "A Return Voyage Between Puluwat and Saipan Using Micronesian Navigational Techniques"]. In Ben R. Finney (1976), ''Pacific Navigation and Voyaging'', The Polynesian Society Inc.</ref> Meanwhile, Micronesian ethnographic research in the Caroline Islands revealed that traditional stellar navigational methods were still in everyday use. Recent re-creations of Polynesian voyaging, as done by the Honolulu-based [[Polynesian Voyaging Society]], have used methods based largely on Micronesian methods and the teachings of Micronesian navigator [[Mau Piailug]].

It is probable that the Polynesian navigators employed a whole range of techniques including use of the stars, the movement of ocean currents and wave patterns, the air and sea interference patterns caused by islands and [[atoll]]s, the flight of birds, the winds and the weather. Scientists think that long-distance Polynesian voyaging followed the seasonal paths of [[bird migration|birds]]. There are some references in their oral traditions to the flight of birds and some say that there were range marks onshore pointing to distant islands in line with these [[flyway]]s. One theory is that they would have taken a [[frigatebird]] with them. These birds refuse to land on the water as their feathers will become waterlogged making it impossible to fly. When the voyagers thought they were close to land they may have released the bird, which would either fly towards land or else return to the canoe. It is likely that the Polynesians also used wave and swell formations to navigate. It is thought that the Polynesian navigators may have measured the time it took to sail between islands in "canoe-days" or a similar type of expression.{{cn|date=October 2025}}

Another navigational technique may have involved following sea turtle migrations. While other navigational techniques may have been sufficient to reach known islands, some research finds only sea turtles could have helped Polynesian navigators reach new islands. Sea turtle migrations are feasible for canoes to follow, at shallow depths, slower speeds, and in large groups. This could explain how Polynesians were able to find and settle the majority of Pacific Islands.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilmé |first1=Lucienne |last2=Waeber |first2=Patrick O. |last3=Ganzhorn |first3=Joerg U. |date=February 2016 |title=Marine turtles used to assist Austronesian sailors reaching new islands |journal=Comptes Rendus Biologies |volume=339 |issue=2 |pages=78–82 |doi=10.1016/j.crvi.2015.12.001 |pmid=26857090 |issn=1631-0691|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Also, people of the Marshall Islands used special devices called [[Marshall Islands stick chart|stick charts]], showing the places and directions of swells and wave-breaks, with tiny seashells affixed to them to mark the positions of islands along the way. Materials for these maps were readily available on beaches, and their making was simple; however, their effective use needed years and years of study.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Marshall Islands Stick Chart |last=Bryan |first=E.H. |year=1938 |journal=Paradise of the Pacific |volume=50 |pages=12–13 |issue=7 |url=http://www.ethnomath.org/resources/bryan1938.pdf |access-date=2008-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604091519/http://www.ethnomath.org/resources/bryan1938.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-04}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|Islands|Oceania}}



* [[:Category:Films set in Polynesia|Films set in Polynesia]]
* [[Polynesian narrative]]
* [[Polynesian Society]]
* [[Polynesian Voyaging Society]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=William |year=1829 |title=Polynesian Researches, During a Residence of Nearly Six Years in the South Sea Islands, Volume 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/polynesianresea10elligoog |publisher=Fisher, Son & Jackson}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=William |year=1829 |title=Polynesian Researches, During a Residence of Nearly Six Years in the South Sea Islands, Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/polynesianresea12elligoog |publisher=Fisher, Son & Jackson}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=William |year=1832 |title=Polynesian Researches, During a Residence of Nearly Six Years in the South Sea Islands, Volume 3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aFFEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1 |edition=Second |publisher=Fisher, Son & Jackson}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gatty |first=Harold |year=1999 |title=Finding Your Ways Without Map or Compass |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-40613-8}}

==External links==
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}
* {{Commonscatinline}}
*{{Wikisource-inline|1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Polynesia|single=true}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130501080025/http://www.abc.net.au/gnt/history/Transcripts/s1066068.htm Interview with David Lewis] (archived 1 May 2013)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121101004253/http://tritonfilms.com/lewisreview.htm Lewis commenting on ''Spirits of the Voyage''] (archived 1 November 2012)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130717071049/http://www.maori.info/ Useful introduction to Maori society, including canoe voyages] (archived 17 July 2013)
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/15/1037080913844.html Obituary: David Henry Lewis—including how he came to rediscover Pacific Ocean navigation methods]

{{Polynesia}}
{{Regions of Oceania}}
{{List of Oceanian capitals by region}}
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
{{Culture of Oceania|state=autocollapse}}
{{Regions of the world}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Polynesia| ]]
[[Category:1750s neologisms]]
[[Category:Asia-Pacific]]
[[Category:Islands of Oceania]]
[[Category:Regions of Oceania]]

Kra–Dai languages

2026-03-21T17:33:12Z

AnnieSneed66: small cleaned up intro as per guidelines and updated info

{{Short description|Language family of Asia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Kra–Dai
| altname = Tai–Kadai, Daic
| region = Southern China, [[Hainan Island]], [[Southeast Asia]], and [[Northeast India]]
| familycolor = Tai-Kadai
| speakers = {{est.}} 93 million
| protoname = [[Proto-Kra–Dai language|Proto-Kra–Dai]]
| family = One of the world's primary [[Language family|language families]]
| child1 = [[Kra languages|Kra]]
| child2 = [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
| child3 = [[Biao language|Biao]]–[[Lakkia language|Lakkia]]
| child4 = [[Be languages|Be]]–[[Jizhao language|Jizhao]]
| child5 = [[Tai languages|Tai]]
| child6 = [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]–[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]

| glotto = taik1256
| glottorefname = Tai–Kadai
| map = Taikadai-en.svg
| mapcaption = Distribution of the Tai–Kadai language family. {{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{legend|blue|[[Kra languages|Kra]]}}
{{legend|#DB4FFF|[[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]}}
{{legend|#B000A6|[[Be languages|Be]]}}
{{legend|#80FF00|[[Hlai languages|Hlai]]}}
{{Col-2}}
{{legend|#FFEC19|[[Northern Tai languages|Northern Tai]]}}
{{legend|#FF4C00|[[Central Tai languages|Central Tai]]}}
{{legend|#FF9D00|[[Southwestern Tai languages|Southwestern Tai]]}}
{{Col-end}}
| ethnicity = [[Kra–Dai-speaking peoples|Kra–Dai peoples]]
}}

The '''Kra–Dai languages''' ({{IPAc-en|'|k|r|ɑː|.|d|aɪ}} {{respell|KRAH|dy}}), also known as '''Tai–Kadai''' ({{IPAc-en|'|t|ai|.|k|@|,|d|aɪ}} {{respell|TIE|kə|DYE}}) and '''Daic''' ({{IPAc-en|'|d|ai|.|I|k}} {{respell|DYE|ik}}), are a [[language family]] in [[mainland Southeast Asia]], [[southern China]], and [[northeastern India]]. All languages in the family are [[tonal language|tonal]], including [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Lao language|Lao]], the national languages of [[Thailand]] and [[Laos]], respectively.<ref>Diller, Anthony, Jerry Edmondson, Yongxian Luo. (2008). ''The Tai–Kadai Languages''. London [etc.]: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1457-5}}</ref> Around 93 million people speak Kra–Dai languages; 60% of those speak Thai.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Taikadai.html|title=Taikadai|website=www.languagesgulper.com|access-date=15 October 2017}}</ref> ''[[Ethnologue]]'' lists 95 languages in the family, with 62 of these being in the [[Tai languages|Tai branch]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=818-16| title = Ethnologue Tai–Kadai family tree}}</ref>

==Names==
The name "Kra–Dai" was proposed by Weera Ostapirat (2000), as Kra and Dai are the reconstructed [[Exonym and endonym|autonyms]] of the [[Kra languages|Kra]] and [[Tai languages|Tai]] branches, respectively.<ref name=Ostapirat2000 /> "Kra–Dai" has since been used by the majority of specialists working on Southeast Asian linguistics, including [[Peter K. Norquest|Norquest]] (2007),<ref name=norquest /> Pittayaporn (2009),<ref name=pittayaporn>Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. 2009. The phonology of Proto-Tai. Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University</ref><ref name=jenks>Peter Jenks and Pittayawat Pittayaporn. [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199772810/obo-9780199772810-0178.xml Kra-Dai Languages]. Oxford Bibliographies in "Linguistics", Ed. Mark Aranoff. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> [[William H. Baxter|Baxter]] & [[Laurent Sagart|Sagart]] (2014),<ref>{{citation| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction| given1 = William H. | surname1 = Baxter | given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5| postscript = .}}</ref> and Enfield & [[Bernard Comrie|Comrie]] (2015).<ref>N. J. Enfield and B. Comrie, Eds. 2015. ''Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: The State of the Art''. Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter.</ref>

The name "Tai–Kadai" was used in older references and continues to be used in ''[[Ethnologue]]'' and ''[[Glottolog]]'', but Ostapirat (2000) and others suggest that it is problematic and confusing, preferring the name "Kra–Dai" instead.<ref name="Ostapirat2000">Ostapirat, Weera. (2000). "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/weera2000proto.pdf Proto-Kra]." ''Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area'' '''23''' (1): 1–251.</ref> "Tai–Kadai" comes from an obsolete bifurcation of the family into two branches, Tai and Kadai, which had first been proposed by [[Paul K. Benedict]] (1942).<ref name="Benedict1942"/> In 1942, Benedict placed three Kra languages ([[Gelao languages|Gelao]], Laqua ([[Qabiao language|Qabiao]]), and [[Lachi language|Lachi]]) together with [[Hlai languages|Hlai]] in a group that he called "Kadai", from ''ka'', meaning "person" in Gelao and Laqua and ''dai'', a form of a Hlai autonym.<ref name="Benedict1942">{{cite journal| first = Paul K. | last = Benedict | author-link = Paul K. Benedict| title = Thai, Kadai, and Indonesian: A New Alignment in Southeastern Asia| journal = American Anthropologist | year = 1942 | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 576–601| jstor = 663309 | doi = 10.1525/aa.1942.44.4.02a00040 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Benedict's (1942) "Kadai" group was based on his observation that Kra and Hlai languages have [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]-like numerals. However, this classification is now universally rejected as obsolete after Ostapirat (2000) demonstrated the coherence of the Kra branch, which does not subgroup with the Hlai branch as Benedict (1942) had proposed. "Kadai" is sometimes used to refer to the entire Kra–Dai family, including by Solnit (1988).<ref name="Solnit1988">Solnit, David B. 1988. "The position of Lakkia within Kadai." In ''Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai'', Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit (eds.). pages 219–238. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.</ref><ref name=edmondson1988 /> Adding to the confusion, some other references{{which|date=February 2024}} restrict the usage of "Kadai" to only the Kra branch of the family.

The name "Daic" is used by [[Roger Blench]] (2008).<ref>Blench, Roger. 2008. ''[http://rb.rowbory.co.uk/Language/Daic/Daic%20prehistory%20paper%20EURASEAA%202008.pdf The Prehistory of the Daic (Tai-Kadai) Speaking Peoples] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429082046/http://rb.rowbory.co.uk/Language/Daic/Daic%20prehistory%20paper%20EURASEAA%202008.pdf |date=29 April 2019 }}''. Presented at the 12th EURASEAA meeting Leiden, 1–5 September 2008. ([http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Leiden%202008/Prehistory%20of%20Daic%20peoples%20Leiden%202008%20ppt.pdf PPT slides])</ref>

==Origin==
[[File:Gerner Tai-Kadai migration route.png|thumb|300px|Migration route of the [[Kra–Dai people]] from their [[Urheimat|original homeland]] of [[Taiwan]] via China to [[Mainland Southeast Asia]], according to Matthias Gerner's "Northeast to Southwest Hypothesis".<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Gerner |first1=Matthias |date=2014 |title=Project Discussion: The Austro-Tai Hypothesis |conference=The 14th International Symposium on Chinese Languages and Linguistics (IsCLL-14) |page=158 |url=http://iscll-14.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files-pdf/Papers/Session4/Gerner.pdf}}</ref>]]

James R. Chamberlain (2016) proposes that the Tai–Kadai (Kra–Dai) language family was formed as early as the 12th century BCE in the middle of the [[Yangtze basin]], coinciding roughly with the establishment of the [[Chu (state)|Chu fiefdom]] and the beginning of the [[Zhou dynasty]].<ref name="Chamberlain-Kra-Dai">Chamberlain, James R. (2016). "[https://www.academia.edu/26296118/Kra-Dai_and_the_Proto-History_of_South_China_and_Vietnam Kra-Dai and the Proto-History of South China and Vietnam]", pp. 27–77. In ''Journal of the Siam Society'', Vol. 104, 2016.</ref> The high diversity of Kra–Dai languages in southern China, especially in [[Guizhou]] and [[Hainan]], points to that being an origin of the Kra–Dai language family, founding the nations that later became Thailand and Laos in what had been [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] territory. Genetic and linguistic analyses show great homogeneity among Kra–Dai-speaking people in Thailand.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Srithawong|first1=Suparat|last2=Srikummool|first2=Metawee|last3=Pittayaporn|first3=Pittayawat|last4=Ghirotto|first4=Silvia|last5=Chantawannakul|first5=Panuwan|last6=Sun|first6=Jie|last7=Eisenberg|first7=Arthur|last8=Chakraborty|first8=Ranajit|last9=Kutanan|first9=Wibhu|date=July 2015|title=Genetic and linguistic correlation of the Kra-Dai-speaking groups in Thailand|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|volume=60|issue=7|pages=371–380|doi=10.1038/jhg.2015.32|issn=1435-232X|pmid=25833471|s2cid=21509343|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Although the position of Kra–Dai in relation to Austronesian is still contested, some propose that Kra–Dai and Austronesian are genetically connected. Weera Ostapirat (2005) sets out a series of regular sound correspondences between them, assuming a model of a primary split between the two; they would then be co-ordinate branches.{{sfn|Blench|2017|p=11}} Ostapirat (2013) continues to maintain that Kra–Dai and Austronesian are sister language families, based on certain phonological correspondences.{{sfn|Ostapirat|2013|pp=1–10}} On the other hand, Laurent Sagart (2008) proposes that Kra–Dai is a later form of what he calls "FATK" (Formosan Ancestor of Tai–Kadai) a branch of Austronesian belonging to the subgroup "Puluqic", developed in Taiwan, whose speakers migrated back to the mainland, to Guangdong, Hainan, and north Vietnam, around the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE.{{sfn|Sagart|2008|pp=146–152}} Upon their arrival in this region, they underwent linguistic contact with an unknown population, resulting in a partial relexification of FATK vocabulary.{{sfn|Sagart|2008|p=151}} Erica Brindley (2015) supports Sagart's hypothesis, arguing that the radically different Kra-Dai history of migration to the mainland (as opposed to the Philippines for Proto-Austronesian) and extended contact with Austro-Asiatic and Sinitic speakers would make the relationship appear more distant. She also suggests that the presence of only the most basic Austronesian vocabulary in Kra-Dai makes this scenario of relexification more plausible.{{sfn|Brindley|2015|p=51}}

Besides various concrete pieces of evidence for a Kra–Dai existence in present-day Guangdong, remnants of Kra–Dai languages spoken further north can be found in unearthed [[Chinese bronze inscriptions|inscriptional materials]] and non-Han [[Stratum (linguistics)#Substratum|substrata]] in [[Min Chinese|Min]] and [[Wu Chinese]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Wolfgang Behr (2002, 2006, 2009, 2017){{sfn|Behr|2002}}{{sfn|Behr|2006}}{{sfn|Behr|2009}} points out that most non-Sinitic words found in Chu inscriptional materials are of Kra–Dai origin. For example, the Chu graph for 'one, once' written as [[File:Neng2.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] (? < [[Old Chinese|OC]] '''*nnəŋ''') in the ''E jun qijie'' 鄂君啟筯 bronze tally and in Warring States bamboo inscriptions, which represents a Kra–Dai areal word; compare Proto-Tai '''*hnïŋ''' ''='' '''*hnɯŋ''' (Siamese 22nɯŋ, Dai 33nɯŋ, Longzhou nəəŋA etc.) 'one, once'.{{sfn|Behr|2017|p=12}}

In the early 1980s, Wei Qingwen (韦庆稳), a [[Zhuang language|Zhuang]] linguist, proposed that the [[Old Yue language]] recorded in the [[Song of the Yue Boatman]] is in fact a language ancestral to Zhuang.{{sfn|Holm|2013|p=785}} Wei used reconstructed [[Old Chinese]] for the characters and discovered that the resulting vocabulary showed strong resemblance to modern Zhuang.{{sfn|Edmondson|2007|p= 16}} Later, [[Zhengzhang Shangfang]] (1991) followed Wei's proposal but used Thai script for comparison, since this orthography dates from the 13th century and preserves archaisms not found in modern pronunciation.{{sfn|Edmondson|2007|p= 16}}{{sfn|Zhengzhang|1991|pp= 159–168}} Zhengzhang notes that 'evening, night, dark' bears the C tone in Wuming Zhuang ''xamC2'' and ''ɣamC2'' 'night'. The item ''raa'' normally means 'we (inclusive)' but in some places, e.g., Tai Lue and White Tai, it means 'I'.{{sfn|Edmondson|2007|p=17}} However, [[Laurent Sagart]] criticizes Zhengzhang's interpretation as anachronistic, because however archaic the Thai script is, the Thai language was only written 2,000 years after the song had been recorded; even if [[Kam–Tai languages|Proto-Kam–Tai]] had emerged by the 6th century BCE, its pronunciation would have been substantially different from Thai.{{sfn|Sagart|2008|p=143}}

[[File:Chinese plain 5c. BC with Yue-en.png|350px|thumb|right|Map of the Chinese plain at the start of the [[Warring States Period]], in the 5th century BC.]]

==Internal classification==
[[File:"tooth" in Kra-Dai languages.svg|thumb|300x300px|Example of the divergence among the Kra-Dai languages, using the word for "tooth".]]
Kra–Dai consists of at least five well-established branches, namely Kra, Kam–Sui, Tai, Be, and Hlai (Ostapirat 2005:109).

;[[Tai languages|Tai]]: southern China and Southeast Asia
;[[Kra languages|Kra]]: southern China, northern Vietnam; called ''Kadai'' in ''[[Ethnologue]]'' and ''Geyang'' (仡央) in Chinese
;[[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]: [[Guizhou]] and [[Guangxi]], China
;[[Be languages|Be]]: [[Hainan]]; possibly also includes [[Jizhao language|Jizhao]] of [[Guangdong]]
;[[Hlai languages|Hlai]]: [[Hainan]]

Chinese linguists have also proposed a [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]] group that includes [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]], [[Tai languages|Tai]], and [[Be languages|Be]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Liang Min 梁敏 & Zhang Junru 张均如. 1996. ''Dongtai yuzu gailun'' 侗台语族概论 / ''An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages''. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. {{ISBN|9787500416814}}</ref><ref>Ni Dabai 倪大白. 1990. ''Dongtai yu gailun'' 侗台语概论 / ''An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages''. Beijing: Central Nationalities Research Institute Press 中央民族学院出版社.</ref>

Kra–Dai languages that are not securely classified and may constitute independent Kra–Dai branches include the following:
* '''[[Lakkia language|Lakkia]]''' and '''[[Biao language|Biao]]''', which may or may not subgroup with each other, are difficult to classify due to aberrant vocabulary but are sometimes classified as [[sister group|sisters]] of [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]] (Solnit 1988).<ref name="Solnit1988"/>
* '''[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]''' of southern Hainan, China, is an aberrant Kra–Dai language traditionally classified as a [[Hlai languages|Hlai language]], although Jiamao contains many words of non-Hlai origin.
* '''[[Jizhao language|Jizhao]]''' of [[Guangdong]], China, is currently unclassified within Kra–Dai but appears to be most closely related to [[Be languages|Be]] (Ostapirat 1998).<ref name="Ostapirat1998">Ostapirat, W. (1998). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23756759 A Mainland Bê Language? / 大陆的Bê语言?]. ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'', 26(2), 338–344</ref>

Kra–Dai languages of mixed origins are:
* ''[[Hezhang Buyi language|Hezhang Buyi]]'': [[Northern Tai languages|Northern Tai]] and [[Kra languages|Kra]]
* ''[[E language|E]]'': [[Northern Tai languages|Northern Tai]] and [[Pinghua]] Chinese
* ''[[Caolan language|Caolan]]'': [[Northern Tai languages|Northern Tai]] and [[Central Tai languages|Central Tai]]
* ''[[Jiamao language|Jiamao]]'': [[Hlai languages|Hlai]] and other unknown elements ([[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]?)

===Edmondson and Solnit (1988)===
An early but influential classification, with the traditional Kam–Tai clade, was [[Jerold A. Edmondson|Edmondson]] and Solnit's classification from 1988:<ref name=edmondson1988>Edmondson, Jerold A. and David B. Solnit, editors. 1988. Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. vii, 374 p.</ref><ref name="Tai">Edmondson, Jerold A. and David B. Solnit, editors. 1997. Comparative Kadai: the Tai branch. Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 124. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. vi, 382 p.</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Kra–Dai'''
** [[Kra languages|Kra]] (Geyang)
** [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]
** [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]]
*** {{tree list/branching}}
**** [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]]–[[Biao language|Biao]]
**** [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
*** {{tree list/branching}}
**** [[Be languages|Be]]
**** [[Tai languages|Tai]]
{{tree list/end}}
This classification is also used by Liang and Zhang (1996),<ref>Liang Min & Zhang Junru. 1996. ''An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages''. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press.</ref> Chamberlain (2016: 38),<ref>Chamberlain, James R. 2016. Kra–Dai and the proto-history of South China and Vietnam. ''Journal of the Siam Society'' 104. 27–77.</ref> and ''Ethnologue'', though by 2009 Lakkia was made a third branch of Kam–Tai and Biao was moved into Kam–Sui.

===Ostapirat (2005); Norquest (2007)===
Weera Ostapirat (2005:128) suggests the possibility of Kra and Kam–Sui being grouped together as Northern Kra–Dai and Hlai with Tai as Southern Kra–Dai.<ref name=Ostapirat2005/> [[Peter K. Norquest|Norquest]] (2007) has further updated this classification to include [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]] and [[Be languages|Be]]. Norquest notes that Lakkia shares some similarities with Kam–Sui, while Be shares some similarities with Tai. Norquest (2007:15) notes that Be shares various similarities with [[Northern Tai languages]] in particular.<ref name="norquest">Norquest, Peter K. 2007. [http://gradworks.umi.com/32/84/3284367.html ''A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Hlai'']. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona.</ref> Following Ostapirat, Norquest adopts the name Kra–Dai for the family as a whole. The following tree of Kra–Dai is from Norquest (2007:16):

{{tree list}}
* '''Kra–Dai'''
** Northern
*** [[Kra languages|Kra]]
*** Northeastern 
**** [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]]
**** [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
** Southern
*** [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]
*** Be–Tai
**** [[Tai languages|Tai]]
**** [[Be languages|Be]]
{{tree list/end}}

Additionally, Norquest (2007) also proposes a reconstruction for Proto-Southern Kra–Dai.

===Norquest (2015, 2020)===
A classification of Kra–Dai by Norquest (2015, 2020) is provided as follows:<ref name="Norquest-Brill">{{cite book|last=Norquest|first=Peter|title=A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Hlai|publisher=Brill|date=29 September 2015|isbn=978-90-04-30052-1|doi=10.1163/9789004300521|hdl=10150/194203}}</ref><ref>Norquest, Peter. 2020. ''[http://hdl.handle.net/2429/74055 A Hypothesis on the Origin of Preglottalized Sonorants in Kra–Dai]''. 38th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia. {{doi|10.14288/1.0389866}}</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Kra–Dai'''
** [[Kra languages|Kra]]
** Eastern Kra–Dai
*** [[Biao language|Biao]]
*** Lakkja–Kam–Tai
**** [[Lakkia language|Lakkja]]
**** [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]] 
***** [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
***** Western Kam–Tai 
****** [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]
****** Be–Tai
******* [[Be languages|Ong-Be]]
******* [[Tai languages|Tai]]
{{tree list/end}}

===Norquest (2021)===
Based on shared lexical innovations, Norquest (2021) significantly revised his classification of Kra–Dai. Together, [[Biao language|Biao]] and [[Lakkia language|Lakkja]] form the most divergent subgroup of Kra–Dai. Be–Tai and Hlai are placed together as part of a "Hlai–Tai" group.<ref name="WOL-MSEA-13">{{cite book|last=Norquest|first=Peter|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia|chapter=Classification of (Tai–)Kadai/Kra–Dai languages|publisher=De Gruyter|date=2021|doi=10.1515/9783110558142-013|pages=225–246|isbn=9783110558142 |s2cid=238672319 }}</ref>

{{tree list}}
* '''Kra–Dai'''
** [[Biao language|Biao]]–[[Lakkia language|Lakkja]]
** [[Kam–Tai languages|Kam–Tai]]
*** [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]]
*** Kra–Tai
**** [[Kra languages|Kra]]
**** Hlai–Tai
***** [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]
***** Be–Tai
****** [[Be languages|Be]]
****** [[Tai languages|Tai]]
{{tree list/end}}

==Hypotheses regarding external relationships==
===Austro-Tai===
{{Main|Austro-Tai languages}}
[[File:Genesis of Daic languages and their relation with Austronesians.png|thumb|Proposed genesis of Daic languages and their relation to [[Austronesian languages]] ([[Roger Blench|Blench]], 2018)<ref name="Blench2018">{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/37593287|title=Tai-Kadai and Austronesian are Related at Multiple Levels and their Archaeological Interpretation (draft)|last1=Blench|first1=Roger|year=2018|quote=The volume of cognates between Austronesian and Daic, notably in fundamental vocabulary, is such that they must be related. Borrowing can be excluded as an explanation}}</ref>]]

Several scholars have presented evidence that Kra–Dai may be related to, or even a branch of, the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]].<ref>{{cite journal|surname=Sagart|given=Laurent|author-link=Laurent Sagart|year=2004|url=http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/09/09/06/PDF/THE_HIGHER_PHYLOGENY_OF_AUSTRONESIAN.pdf|title=The higher phylogeny of Austronesian and the position of Tai–Kadai|journal=Oceanic Linguistics|volume=43|issue=2|pages=411–440|doi=10.1353/ol.2005.0012|s2cid=49547647}}</ref> There are a number of possible cognates in the core vocabulary, displaying regular sound correspondences. Among proponents, there is yet no agreement as to whether they are a sister group to Austronesian in a family called [[Austro-Tai languages|Austro-Tai]], a back-migration from [[Formosan languages|Taiwan]] to the mainland or a later migration from the Philippines to Hainan during the Austronesian expansion.{{sfn|Ostapirat|2013|pp = 1–10}}

The inclusion of [[Japonic languages|Japanese]] in the Austro-Tai family, as proposed by [[Paul K. Benedict]] in the late 20th century,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Japanese/Austro-Tai|last=Benedict|first=Paul K.|date=1990|publisher=Karoma|isbn=978-0-89720-078-3}}</ref> is not supported by the current proponents of the Austro-Tai hypothesis.

===Sino-Tai===
The Kra–Dai languages were formerly considered to be part of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan family]], partly because they contain large numbers of words that are similar to Sino-Tibetan languages. However, Western scholars generally consider them to be Sinitic loanwords and note that basic vocabulary words in Kra–Dai languages often have cognates with Austronesian instead.<ref name=Ostapirat2005>Ostapirat, Weera. (2005). "Kra–Dai and Austronesian: Notes on phonological correspondences and vocabulary distribution", pp. 107–131 in Sagart, Laurent, Blench, Roger & Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (eds.), ''The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics.'' London/New York: Routledge-Curzon.</ref> Outside China, the Kra–Dai languages are now classified as an independent family. In China, they are called ''Dong–Tai'' (侗台) or ''Zhuang–Dong'' (壮侗) languages and are generally included, along with the [[Hmong–Mien languages]], in the Sino-Tibetan family.<ref>Luo, Yongxian. 2008. Sino-Tai and Tai-Kadai: Another look. In Anthony V. N. Diller and Jerold A. Edmondson and Yongxian Luo (eds.), ''The Tai-Kadai Languages'', 9–28. London & New York: Routledge.</ref>

===Hmong–Mien===
Kosaka (2002) has argued specifically for a [[Proto-Hmong–Mien#Kra-Dai|Miao–Dai family]]. Based on proposed lexical cognates, he proposes a genetic relation between Hmong–Mien and Kra–Dai languages. He further suggests that similarities between Kra–Dai and Austronesian are due to later areal contact in the coastal areas of eastern and southeastern China or an older ancestral relation (Proto-[[East Asian languages|East Asian]]).<ref name="Kosaka">Kosaka, Ryuichi. 2002. "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/kosaka2002affiliation.pdf On the affiliation of Miao-Yao and Kadai: Can we posit the Miao–Dai family]." ''[[Mon-Khmer Studies]]'' 32:71–100.</ref>

===Japonic===
[[Alexander Vovin|Vovin]] (2014) has proposed that the location of the [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] [[Urheimat]] (linguistic homeland) is in southern China. He argues for typological evidence that Proto-Japanese may have been a monosyllabic, SVO syntax and isolating language, which is also characteristic of Kra–Dai languages. According to him, these common features are however not due to a genetic relationship but rather the result of intense contact.<ref name=Vovin>Vovin, Alexander (2014). [https://www.academia.edu/7869241/Out_of_Southern_China ''Out Of Southern China? --some linguistic and philological musings on the possible Urheimat of the Japonic language family--''] ''XXVIIes Journées de Linguistique d'Asie Orientale 26–27 juin 2014''.</ref>

==Reconstruction==
{{main|Proto-Kra–Dai language}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Language}}
* [[Austric languages]]
* [[Proto-Hlai language]]
* [[Proto-Hmong–Mien language]]
* [[Proto-Kam–Sui language]]
* [[Proto-Kra language]]
* [[Proto-Tibeto-Burman language]]
* [[Proto-Tai language]]
* [[Sino-Austronesian languages]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|40em}}
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* {{cite journal |first=Wolfgang |last=Behr |author-mask=3 |title=Dialects, diachrony, diglossia or all three? Tomb text glimpses into the language(s) of Chǔ |journal=TTW-3, Zürich, 26.-29.VI.2009, "Genius Loci" |url=https://www.academia.edu/1693898 |pages=1–48 |year=2009 }}
* {{cite journal |first=Wolfgang |last=Behr |author-mask=3 |title=Some Chŭ 楚 words in early Chinese literature |journal=EACL-4, Budapest |url=https://www.academia.edu/1693898 |pages=1–21 |year=2006 }}
* {{cite journal |first=Wolfgang |last=Behr |author-mask=3 |title=Stray loanword gleanings from two Ancient Chinese fictional texts |journal=16e Journées de Linguistique d'Asie Orientale, Centre de Recherches Linguistiques Sur l'Asie Orientale (E.H.E.S.S.), Paris |url=https://www.academia.edu/1693935 |pages=1–6 |year=2002 }}
* [[Roger Blench|Blench, Roger]]. 2004. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/China/Geneva%20paper%202004%20submit.pdf ''Stratification in the peopling of China: how far does the linguistic evidence match genetics and archaeology?''] Paper for the Symposium "Human migrations in continental East Asia and Taiwan: genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence". Geneva 10–13 June 2004. Université de Genève.
* {{cite book |first=Roger |last=Blench |editor-first1=Junko |editor-last1=Habu |editor-first2=Peter |editor-last2=Lape |editor-first3=John |editor-last3=Olsen |title=Handbook of East and Southeast Asian Archaeology |chapter=Origins of Ethnolinguistic Identity in Southeast Asia |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-493-96521-2 |year=2017 |chapter-url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Blench%20Springer%20Handbook%20chapter%20final%20Dec%202014.pdf |orig-year=2015 }}
* {{cite book |first=Erica F. |last=Brindley |title=Ancient China and the Yue |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iiBTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 |isbn=978-1-107-08478-0 |year=2015 }}
* Edmondson, J.A. and D.B. Solnit eds. 1997. ''Comparative Kadai: the Tai branch''. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. {{ISBN|0-88312-066-6}}
* {{cite journal |first=Jerold A. |last=Edmondson |title=The power of language over the past: Tai settlement and Tai linguistics in southern China and northern Vietnam |journal=Studies in Southeast Asian Languages and Linguistics, Jimmy G. Harris, Somsonge Burusphat and James E. Harris, ed. Bangkok, Thailand: Ek Phim Thai Co. LTD. |url=http://www.uta.edu/faculty/jerry/pol.pdf |pages=1–25 |year=2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101150947/http://www.uta.edu/faculty/jerry/pol.pdf |archivedate=1 January 2014 |access-date=17 July 2021 }}
* {{cite journal |first=David |last=Holm |title=A Layer of Old Chinese Readings in the Traditional Zhuang Script |journal=Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277325470 |pages=1–45 |year=2014 |volume=79 }}
* {{cite book |first=David |last=Holm |author-mask=3 |title=Mapping the Old Zhuang Character Script: A Vernacular Writing System from Southern China |publisher=BRILL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fblyTyd9PlsC&q=Mapping%20the%20Old%20Zhuang%20Character%20Script%3A%20A%20Vernacular%20Writing%20System%20from&pg=PA785 |isbn=978-9-004-22369-1 |year=2013 }}
* {{cite journal |first=Hui |last=Li |title=Daic Background Vocabulary in Shanghai Maqiao Dialect |journal=Proceedings for Conference of Minority Cultures in Hainan and Taiwan, Haikou: Research Society for Chinese National History |url=http://loca.fudan.edu.cn/lh/Doc/D02.pdf |pages=15–26 |year=2001 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=27 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180327144856/http://loca.fudan.edu.cn/lh/Doc/D02.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite journal |first=Weera |last=Ostapirat |title=Austro-Tai revisited |journal=Plenary Session 2: Going Beyond History: Reassessing Genetic Grouping in SEA the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, May 29–31, 2013, Chulalongkorn University |url=http://jseals.org/seals23/ostapirat2013austro-taih.pdf |pages=1–10 |year=2013 }}
* {{cite book |first=Laurent |last=Sagart |editor-first1=Alicia |editor-last1=Sanchez-Mazas |editor-first2=Roger |editor-last2=Blench |editor-first3=Malcolm D. |editor-last3=Ross |editor-first4=Ilia |editor-last4=Peiros |editor-first5=Marie |editor-last5=Lin |title=Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics (Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia) 1st Edition |chapter=The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia |publisher=Routledge |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/3077307 |pages=133–157 |isbn=978-0-415-39923-4 |year=2008 }}
* {{cite journal |first=Shangfang |last=Zhengzhang |title=Decipherment of Yue-Ren-Ge (Song of the Yue boatman) |journal= Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=159–168 |year=1991|doi=10.3406/clao.1991.1345 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* Chamberlain, James R. (2016). Kra-Dai and the Proto-History of South China and Vietnam. ''Journal of the Siam Society, 104'', 27-76.
* Diller, A., J. Edmondson, & Yongxian Luo, ed., (2005). ''The Tai–Kadai languages''. London [etc.]: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-7007-1457-X}}
* [[Jerold A. Edmondson|Edmondson, J. A.]] (1986). ''Kam tone splits and the variation of breathiness''.
* Edmondson, J. A., & Solnit, D. B. (eds.) (1988). ''Comparative Kadai: linguistic studies beyond Tai''. Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics, no. 86. Arlington, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics. {{ISBN|0-88312-066-6}}
* Mann, Noel, Wendy Smith and Eva Ujlakyova. 2009. [http://li.payap.ac.th/images/stories/survey/Linguistic%20Clusters%20of%20Mainland%20Southeast%20Asia%20A%20Description%20of%20the%20Clusters.pdf ''Linguistic clusters of Mainland Southeast Asia: an overview of the language families''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324073521/http://li.payap.ac.th/images/stories/survey/Linguistic%20Clusters%20of%20Mainland%20Southeast%20Asia%20A%20Description%20of%20the%20Clusters.pdf |date=24 March 2019 }} Chiang Mai: Payap University.
* {{cite book|last=Norquest|first=Peter|title=The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia|chapter=Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages|publisher=De Gruyter|date=2021|doi=10.1515/9783110558142-013|pages=225–246|isbn=9783110558142|s2cid=238672319}}
* Ostapirat, Weera. (2000). "[http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/weera2000proto.pdf Proto-Kra]." ''Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area'' '''23''' (1): 1-251.
* Somsonge Burusphat, & Sinnott, M. (1998). ''Kam–Tai oral literatures: collaborative research project between''. Salaya Nakhon Pathom, Thailand: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University. {{ISBN|974-661-450-9}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115654/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/classification.php?node=Tai%E2%80%93Kadai Word lists of Tai–Kadai languages from the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database]
* [http://ids.clld.org/contributors/ilyapeiros Tai–Kadai word lists by Ilya Peiros] ([[Intercontinental Dictionary Series]])
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=\data\thai\kdai StarLing: Tai–Kadai 100-word lists] and [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?baseid=+95&root=config&morpho=0&text_proto=&method_proto=substring&ic_proto=on&text_meaning=&method_meaning=substring&ic_meaning=on&text_any=&method_any=substring&sort=proto&ic_any=on&first=1 etymology]
** [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?baseid=+98&root=config&morpho=0&text_proto=&method_proto=substring&ic_proto=on&text_meaning=&method_meaning=substring&ic_meaning=on&text_any=&method_any=substring&sort=proto&ic_any=on&first=1 StarLing: Zhuang–Tai 100-word lists] and [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?baseid=+97&root=config&morpho=0&text_proto=&method_proto=substring&ic_proto=on&text_meaning=&method_meaning=substring&ic_meaning=on&text_any=&method_any=substring&sort=proto&ic_any=on&first=1 etymology]
** [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?baseid=+100&root=config&morpho=0&text_proto=&method_proto=substring&ic_proto=on&text_meaning=&method_meaning=substring&ic_meaning=on&text_any=&method_any=substring&sort=proto&ic_any=on&first=1 StarLing: Kam–Sui 100-word lists] and [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?baseid=+99&root=config&morpho=0&text_proto=&method_proto=substring&ic_proto=on&text_meaning=&method_meaning=substring&ic_meaning=on&text_any=&method_any=substring&sort=proto&ic_any=on&first=1 etymology]
* [[:wikt:Appendix:Kra–Dai Swadesh lists|Appendix:Kra–Dai Swadesh lists]] (from Wiktionary's [[wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists|Swadesh list appendix]])
* [[:wikt:Appendix:Vocabulary lists of Southeast Asian languages#Kra-Dai|Kra–Dai vocabulary lists]] (from Wiktionary's [[wikt:Appendix:Vocabulary lists|Vocabulary lists appendix]])

{{Tai–Kadai languages}}
{{Language families}}
{{Eurasian languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kra-Dai languages}}
[[Category:Kra–Dai languages| ]]
[[Category:Language families]]
[[Category:Sino-Austronesian languages]]

English cricket team in India, Pakistan and Ceylon in 1961–62

2026-03-21T05:46:59Z

AnnieSneed66: update content further and corrected details

{{short description|Cricket team tour of India in 1961-62}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox cricket series
|series= English cricket team in India in 1961-62
|partof=
|image=
|caption=
|date= 11 November 1961 - 15 January 1962
|place= {{flagicon|IND}} [[India]]
|result=India won the 5-Test series 2-0
|team1={{cr|IND}}
|team2={{cr|ENG}}
|captain1=[[Nari Contractor]]
|captain2=[[Ted Dexter]]
|runs1=[[Vijay Manjrekar]] (556) [[M. L. Jaisimha]] (399) [[Chandu Borde]] (314)
|runs2=[[Ken Barrington]] (594) [[Ted Dexter]] (409) [[Geoff Pullar]] (337)
|wickets1=[[Salim Durani]] (23) [[Chandu Borde]] (16) [[Vasant Ranjane]] (9)
|wickets2=[[Tony Lock]] (22) [[David Allen (cricketer)|David Allen]] (21) [[Barry Knight (cricketer)|Barry Knight]] (8)
|previous = [[Indian cricket team in England in 1959|England 1959]]
|next = [[English cricket team in India in 1963–64|India 1963–64]]
}}

The [[England national cricket team]], organised by [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] (MCC), toured [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Dominion of Ceylon|Ceylon]] from October 1961 to February 1962. They played five [[Test cricket|Test]] matches against the [[India national cricket team]], with India winning two matches and the other three being drawn; and three Tests against the [[Pakistan national cricket team]], with England winning the first match and the other two drawn. The itinerary was unusual in that England began in Pakistan with three matches, including the first Test at the [[Gaddafi Stadium]] in [[Lahore]], and then went on an extensive five-Test tour of India before crossing into [[East Pakistan]] (now [[Bangladesh]]), where they played their second Test against Pakistan at the [[Bangabandhu National Stadium]] in [[Dhaka]]. For the third Test against Pakistan, they travelled to the [[National Stadium, Karachi]] before completing the tour in February with three games in Ceylon. Ceylon (now [[Sri Lanka]]) was not a Test-qualified team at that time and played a single first-class match against MCC in [[Colombo]] which was won by MCC.<ref name="CATI">{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/2/Marylebone_Cricket_Club_in_India,_Pakistan_and_Ceylon_1961-62.html |publisher=CricketArchive |title=England in India, Pakistan and Ceylon 1961–62 |access-date=13 July 2014}}</ref>

==Test matches in India==

===1st Test===

{{Test match|
date = 11–16 November 1961 |
team1 = {{cr|ENG}} |
team2 = {{cr|IND}} |

score-team1-inns1 = 500/8 [[declaration and forfeiture|dec.]] (173.0 overs) |
runs-team1-inns1 = [[Ken Barrington]] 151 |
wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Vasant Ranjane]] 4-76 (21.0 overs) |

score-team2-inns1 = 390 (168.0 overs) |
runs-team2-inns1 = [[Salim Durani]] 71 |
wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Tony Lock]] 4-74 (45.0 overs) |

score-team1-inns2 = 184/5 [[declaration and forfeiture|dec.]] (58.0 overs) |
runs-team1-inns2 = [[Ken Barrington]] 52 |
wickets-team1-inns2 = [[Salim Durani]] 2-28 (11.0 overs) |

score-team2-inns2 = 180/5 (73.0 overs) |
runs-team2-inns2 = [[Vijay Manjrekar]] 84 |
wickets-team2-inns2 = [[Peter Richardson (cricketer)|Peter Richardson]] 2-10 (6.0 overs) |

result = Match drawn |
venue = [[Brabourne Stadium]], [[Mumbai|Bombay]], [[India]] |
umpires = Santosh Ganguli and Bapu Joshi |
report = [https://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/25/25206.html scorecard] |
motm = |
rain = |
}}

===2nd Test===

{{Test match|
date = 1–6 December 1961 |
team1 = {{cr|IND}} |
team2 = {{cr|ENG}} |

score-team1-inns1 = 467/8 [[declaration and forfeiture|dec.]] (198.0 overs) |
runs-team1-inns1 = [[Polly Umrigar]] 147 |
wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Tony Lock]] 3-93 (44.0 overs) |

score-team2-inns1 = 244 (106.3 overs) |
runs-team2-inns1 = [[Bob Barber (cricketer)|Bob Barber]] 69 |
wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Subhash Gupte]] 5-90 (40.0 overs) |

score-team2-inns2 = 497/5 (184.0 overs) |
runs-team2-inns2 = [[Ken Barrington]] 172 |
wickets-team2-inns2 = [[Chandu Borde]] 1-44 (16.0 overs) |

result = Match drawn |
venue = [[Green Park Stadium|Modi Stadium]], [[Kanpur]], [[India]] |
umpires = Mohammad Yunus and Samar Roy |
motm = |
report = [https://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/25/25240.html scorecard] |
rain = |
}}

===3rd Test===

{{Test match|
date = 13–18 December 1961 |
team1 = {{cr|IND}} |
team2 = {{cr|ENG}} |

score-team1-inns1 = 466 (177.3 overs) |
runs-team1-inns1 = [[Vijay Manjrekar]] 189 |
wickets-team1-inns1 = [[David Allen (cricketer)|David Allen]] 4-87 (47.0 overs) |

score-team2-inns1 = 256/3 (114.0 overs) |
runs-team2-inns1 = [[Ken Barrington]] 113 |
wickets-team2-inns1 = [[A. G. Kripal Singh]] 1-27 (12.0 overs) |

result = Match drawn |
venue = [[Feroz Shah Kotla]], [[Delhi]], [[India]] |
umpires = [[S. V. Kumaraswamy]] and Badami Satyaji Rao |
motm = |
report = [https://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/25/25253.html scorecard] |
rain = |
}}

===4th Test===

{{Test match|
date = 30 December 1961 – 4 January 1962|
team1 = {{cr|IND}} |
team2 = {{cr|ENG}} |

score-team1-inns1 = 380 (156.0 overs) |
runs-team1-inns1 = [[Chandu Borde]] 68 |
wickets-team1-inns1 = [[David Allen (cricketer)|David Allen]] 5-67 (34.0 overs) |

score-team2-inns1 = 212 (79.2 overs) |
runs-team2-inns1 = [[Peter Richardson (cricketer)|Peter Richardson]] 62 |
wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Salim Durani]] 5-47 (23.2 overs) |

score-team1-inns2 = 252 (101.2 overs) |
runs-team1-inns2 = [[Chandu Borde]] 61 |
wickets-team1-inns2 = [[David Allen (cricketer)|David Allen]] 4-95 (43.2 overs) |

score-team2-inns2 = 233 (116.2 overs) |
runs-team2-inns2 = [[Ted Dexter]] 62 |
wickets-team2-inns2 = [[Salim Durani]] 3-66 (33.2 overs) |

result = India won by 187 runs |
venue = [[Eden Gardens]], [[Calcutta]], [[India]] |
umpires = Habib Choudhury and S. K. Raghunatha Rao |
motm = |
report = [https://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/25/25284.html scorecard] |
rain = |
}}

===5th Test===

{{Test match|
date = 10–15 January 1962 |
team1 = {{cr|IND}} |
team2 = {{cr|ENG}} |

score-team1-inns1 = 428 (144.3 overs) |
runs-team1-inns1 = [[Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi|Nawab of Pataudi, Jr.]] 103 |
wickets-team1-inns1 = [[David Allen (cricketer)|David Allen]] 3-116 (51.3 overs) |

score-team2-inns1 = 281 (110.1 overs) |
runs-team2-inns1 = [[M. J. K. Smith]] 73 |
wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Salim Durani]] 6-105 (36.0 overs) |

score-team1-inns2 = 190 (94.3 overs) |
runs-team1-inns2 = [[Vijay Manjrekar]] 85 |
wickets-team1-inns2 = [[Tony Lock]] 6-65 (39.3 overs) |

score-team2-inns2 = 209 (92.3 overs) |
runs-team2-inns2 = [[Ken Barrington]] 48 |
wickets-team2-inns2 = [[Salim Durani]] 4-72 (34.0 overs) |

result = India won by 128 runs |
venue = [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Chennai|Nehru Stadium]], [[Madras]], [[India]] |
umpires = I. Gopalakrishnan and Sambhu Pan |
motm = |
report = [https://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/25/25296.html scorecard] |
rain = |
}}

==Test matches in Pakistan==
England played three Tests against Pakistan in a split series, the first match being played in October 1961 and the latter two in the new year following the tour of India. England won the first and the other two were drawn. England were captained by [[Ted Dexter]] and Pakistan by [[Imtiaz Ahmed (cricketer, born 1928)|Imtiaz Ahmed]]. After this, England would not win another test series in Pakistan for 39 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/15605/report/63901/pakistan-vs-england-3rd-test-england-tour-pakistan-2000-01|title = England beat Pakistan by six wickets}}</ref>

===1st Test===
{{Two-innings cricket match
| date = 21–26 October 1961 (5-day match)
| team1 = {{cr-rt|PAK}}
| team2 = {{cr|ENG}}

| score-team1-inns1 = 387/9[[Declaration and forfeiture|d]] (142.5 overs)
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Javed Burki]] 138
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Butch White]] 3/65 (22 overs)

| score-team2-inns1 = 380 (174.1 overs)
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Ken Barrington]] 139
| wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Mohammad Munaf (cricketer)|Mohammad Munaf]] 4/42 (31.1 overs)

| score-team1-inns2 = 200 (75.5 overs)
| runs-team1-inns2 = [[Afaq Hussain]] 35[[not out|*]]
| wickets-team1-inns2 = [[Alan Brown (cricketer, born 1935)|Alan Brown]] 3/27 (14 overs)

| score-team2-inns2 = 209/5 (59 overs)
| runs-team2-inns2 = [[Ted Dexter]] 66[[not out|*]]
| wickets-team2-inns2 = [[Intikhab Alam]] 2/37 (16 overs)

| result = England won by 5 wickets
| report = [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/25/25182.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Gaddafi Stadium|Lahore Stadium]], [[Lahore]]
| umpires = [[Khwaja Saeed|Ahmed Saeed]] and [[Shujauddin (umpire)|Shujauddin]]
| toss = Pakistan won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain = 23 October was taken as a rest day.
| notes = [[Alan Brown (cricketer, born 1935)|Alan Brown]], [[Eric Russell (cricketer)|Eric Russell]], and [[Butch White]] (all ENG); and [[Afaq Hussain]] (PAK) made their Test debuts.
}}

===2nd Test===
{{Two-innings cricket match
| date = 19–24 January 1962 (5-day match)
| team1 = {{cr-rt|PAK}}
| team2 = {{cr|ENG}}

| score-team1-inns1 = 393/7[[Declaration and forfeiture|d]] (192.3 overs)
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Javed Burki]] 140
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Tony Lock]] 4/155 (73 overs)

| score-team2-inns1 = 439 (181 overs)
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Geoff Pullar]] 165
| wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Antao D'Souza]] 4/94 (46 overs)

| score-team1-inns2 = 216 (134.1 overs)
| runs-team1-inns2 = [[Hanif Mohammad]] 104
| wickets-team1-inns2 = [[David Allen (cricketer)|David Allen]] 5/30 (23.1 overs)

| score-team2-inns2 = 38/0 (16 overs)
| runs-team2-inns2 = [[Peter Richardson (cricketer)|Peter Richardson]] 21[[not out|*]]
| wickets-team2-inns2 =

| result = Match drawn
| report = [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/25/25306.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Bangabandhu National Stadium|Dacca Stadium]], [[Dhaka|Dacca]]
| umpires = [[Daud Khan (cricketer)|Daud Khan]] and [[Shujauddin (umpire)|Shujauddin]]
| toss = Pakistan won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain = 22 January was taken as a rest day.
| notes =
}}

===3rd Test===
{{Two-innings cricket match
| date = 2–7 February 1962 (5-day match)
| team1 = {{cr-rt|PAK}}
| team2 = {{cr|ENG}}

| score-team1-inns1 = 253 (95 overs)
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Alimuddin (cricketer)|Alimuddin]] 109
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Barry Knight (cricketer)|Barry Knight]] 4/66 (19 overs)

| score-team2-inns1 = 507 (233.5 overs)
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Ted Dexter]] 205
| wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Antao D'Souza]] 5/112 (57.5 overs)

| score-team1-inns2 = 404/8 (167 overs)
| runs-team1-inns2 = [[Hanif Mohammad]] 89
| wickets-team1-inns2 = [[Ted Dexter]] 3/86 (32 overs)

| score-team2-inns2 =
| runs-team2-inns2 =
| wickets-team2-inns2 =

| result = Match drawn
| report = [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/25/25319.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[National Stadium, Karachi|National Stadium]], [[Karachi]]
| umpires = [[Daud Khan (cricketer)|Daud Khan]] and [[Shujauddin (umpire)|Shujauddin]]
| toss = Pakistan won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain = 5 February was taken as a rest day.
| notes =
}}

==Ceylon==
MCC won their first-class fixture in Colombo by 8 wickets. Ted Dexter captained MCC and [[Sri Lanka cricket team|Ceylon]] were led by [[C. I. Gunesekera|Ievers Gunasekara]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/25/25325.html |publisher=CricketArchive |title=Ceylon v MCC 1962 |access-date=13 July 2014}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1960S/1961-62/ENG_IN_IND/ England in India: Nov 1961/Jan 1962] at ESPNcricinfo
* [https://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1960S/1961-62/ENG_IN_PAK/ England in Pakistan, 1961-62] at ESPNcricinfo
* [http://test-cricket-tours.co.uk/page_3161010.html England to India & Pakistan 1961-62] at Test Cricket Tours

{{International cricket tours of India}}
{{International cricket tours of Pakistan}}
{{International cricket tours of Sri Lanka}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:English cricket team in India in 1961-62}}
[[Category:1961 in English cricket]]
[[Category:1962 in English cricket]]
[[Category:1961 in Indian cricket]]
[[Category:1962 in Indian cricket]]
[[Category:1961 in Pakistani cricket]]
[[Category:1962 in Pakistani cricket]]
[[Category:1962 in Ceylon]]
[[Category:English cricket tours of India|1961-62]]
[[Category:English cricket tours of Pakistan|1961-62]]
[[Category:English cricket tours of Sri Lanka|1962]]
[[Category:Indian cricket seasons from 1945–46 to 1969–70]]
[[Category:Pakistani cricket seasons from 1947–48 to 1969–70]]
[[Category:Sri Lankan cricket seasons from 1880–81 to 1971–72]]
[[Category:International cricket competitions from 1960–61 to 1970]]

Fatehpur, Rajasthan Assembly constituency

2026-03-14T15:35:23Z

AnnieSneed66: starting initial stub needs work

{{Short description|Constituency of the Rajasthan legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{for|the constituency in Himachal Pradesh|Fatehpur, Himachal Pradesh Assembly constituency}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Fatehpur
| map_image = Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan-32-Fatehpur.svg
| mla = [[Hakam Ali Khan]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| latest_election_year = 2018
| loksabha_cons = [[Jhunjhunu (Lok Sabha constituency)|Jhunjhunu]]
| established = 1957
| state = [[Rajasthan]]
| district = [[Sikar district]]
| type= SLA
}}

'''Fatehpur Assembly constituency''' is one of [[List of constituencies of Rajasthan Vidhan Sabha|constituencies]] of [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]] in the [[Jhunjhunu Lok Sabha constituency]]. Current MLA of Fatehpur constituency is [[Hakam Ali Khan]] of INC who won against Sunita Kumari of BJP by 853 votes in 2018 assembly elections and against Sharawan Chaudhari of BJP by 25,993 votes in 2023 assembly elections. Hakam Ali Khan is younger brother of former three time MLA Bhanwaru Khan.

Fatehpur constituency covers all voters from [[Fatehpur, Rajasthan|Fathehpur tehsil]].<ref name="election2008">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order 2008]</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
| 1957 || [[Abdul Gaffar Khan]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<ref name="election1957">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Rajasthan_1957.pdf 1957 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1962 ||[[Babu Ram]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}<ref name="election1962">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Rajasthan_1962.pdf 1962 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1967 || [[Alam Ali Khan]] || {{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party}}<ref name="election1967">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Rajasthan%201967.pdf 1967 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1972 || [[Jhabar Mal]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress (Organisation)}}<ref name="election1972">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_RJ_72.pdf 1972 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1977 || Alam Ali Khan || {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}<ref name="election1977">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1977/Statistical%20Report%201977%20Rajasthan.pdf 1977 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1980 || [[Trilok Singh]] || {{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist)}}<ref name="election1980">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Rajasthan.pdf 1980 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1985 || [[Ask Ali]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}<ref name="election1985">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%201985%20Rajasthan.pdf 1985 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1990 || [[Dilsukhrai]] || {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}<ref name="election1990">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_RJ_90.pdf 1990 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1993 || [[Banwari Lal (politician)|Banwari Lal]] || {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}<ref name="election1993">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1993/StatRep_RJ_93.pdf 1993 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 1998 || [[Bhanwaru Khan]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}<ref name="election1998">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1998/StatisticalReport-RAJ98.pdf 1998 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 2003 || Bhanwaru Khan<ref name="election2003">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_NOV_2003/StatisticalReports_RAJ_Nov2003.pdf 2003 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 2008 || Bhanwaru Khan<ref name="election2008-1">[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/AE2008/Stats_report_RJ2008.pdf 2008 Rajasthan Assembly results]</ref>
|-
| 2013 || [[Nand Kishore Maharia]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| 2018 || [[Hakam Ali Khan]] || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| 2023 || Hakam Ali Khan
|}

==Election results==
=== 2023 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Fatehpur<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9645-statistical-data-of-rajasthan-la-2018/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan LA 2018 |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 12 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="election2023">{{Cite web |title=Rajasthan General Legislative Election 2023|url=https://www.eci.gov.in/rajasthan-legislative-election-2023-including-statistical-report |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Hakam Ali Khan]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:84194}}
|percentage = 46.38
|change = -0.71
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sharawan Choudhary S/O Prem Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:58201}}
|percentage = 32.06
|change = -14.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jannayak Janata Party
|candidate = Nand Kishore Maharia
|votes = {{formatnum:23851}}
|percentage = 13.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Madhu Sudan
|party = Independent
|votes = {{formatnum:8786}}
|percentage = 4.84
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Sharwan Choudhary S/O Pitharam
|party = Independent
|votes = {{formatnum:2221}}
|percentage = 1.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:762}}
|percentage = 0.42
|change = -0.26
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:25993}}
|percentage = 14.32
|change = +13.82
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:181512}}
|percentage = 71.24
|change = -2.83
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 ===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election]]: Fatehpur<ref name=election2018 name="election2018-1">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9645-statistical-data-of-rajasthan-la-2018/ |title=Statistical Data of Rajasthan LA 2018 |website=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 12 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="election2018"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Hakam Ali Khan]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = {{formatnum:80354}}
|percentage = 47.09
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sunita Kumari
|votes = {{formatnum:79494}}
|percentage = 46.59
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Abid Hussain
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|votes = {{formatnum:3931}}
|percentage = 2.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Zarina Banu
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:1965}}
|percentage = 1.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1165}}
|percentage = 0.68
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:860}}
|percentage = 0.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:170627}}
|percentage = 74.07
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Independent
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord|28.00|74.96|display=title}}

[[Category:Sikar district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Politics of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Constituencies established in 1957]]
[[Category:1957 establishments in Rajasthan]]

Simon Almeida

2026-03-14T10:50:53Z

AnnieSneed66: started a page v1.

{{Short description|Indian Roman Catholic prelate (born 1960)}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = Priest
| honorific-prefix = [[The Reverend]]
| name = Simon Almeida
| honorific-suffix =
| title = Bishop of Poona
| image =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| religion = Roman Catholic
| church = Roman Catholic Church
| diocese = Poona
| see = Poona
| archdiocese =
| province = [[Archdiocese of Bombay|Bombay]]
| metropolis =
| appointed = 1 November 2025
| term = 2025–present
| retired =
| predecessor = [[John Rodrigues]]
| successor =
| opposed =
| other_post =
| previous_post = Deputy Secretary, Western Region Bishops’ Council; parish priest (various parishes in the Diocese of Poona)

| ordination = 1 April 1990
| ordained_by = [[Valerian D'Souza]]
| consecration = 17 January 2026
| consecrated_by = [[Filipe Neri Ferrão]]
| cardinal =
| created_cardinal_by =
| rank =
| laicized =

| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1960|11|4|df=yes}}
| birth_place = Ghas, [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| baptised = 
| death_date = 
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| resting_place_coordinates =
| nationality = Indian
| residence =
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| occupation =
| profession =
| education = St. Pius X College, Mumbai; University of Bombay (B.A. Psychology; M.A. Sociology); Ateneo de Manila University (M.A. Pastoral Studies)
| alma_mater =
| motto = To make all things new in Christ (Rev 21:5) ''ख्रिस्ताठायी सर्वांगीण नुतनीकरणासाठी (प्रकटीकरण २१:५)''
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| coat_of_arms =
| coat_of_arms_alt =

| feast_day =
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| module =
| module2 =
| other =
}}

'''Simon Almeida''' (born 4 November 1960) is an Indian Roman Catholic prelate who has been appointed as the Bishop of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Poona|Diocese of Poona]] on 1 November 2025 by [[Pope Leo XIV]].<ref name=vatican>{{Cite web |url=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2025/11/01/0821/01465.html#india |title=Rinunce e nomine |publisher=Vatican Press |date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025 |language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/fr-simon-almeida-appointed-as-the-new-bishop-of-poona-10340578/ |title=Fr Simon Almeida appointed as the new Bishop of Poona |publisher=The Indian Express |date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Simon Almeida was born on 4 November 1960 in Ghas (now in the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Vasai|Diocese of Vasai]]), [[Maharashtra]], [[India]].<ref name="vatican"/> He completed his primary education at St. Gonsalo Garcia Primary School and secondary education at Holy Cross High School, Nirmal.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://catholicconnect.in/news/fr-simon-almeida-appointed-new-bishop-of-poona |title=Fr. Simon Almeida Appointed New Bishop of Poona |publisher=Catholic Connect |date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025}}</ref> In 1978, he entered the Prakash Bhavan Minor Seminary in [[Pune]].<ref name="eich">{{Cite web |url=http://bistum-eichstaett.de/aktuelle-meldungen-details/news/neuer-bischof-fuer-die-partnerdioezese-poona0/ |title=Neuer Bischof für die Partnerdiözese Poona |publisher=Bistum Eichstätt |date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025 |language=de}}</ref>

He pursued philosophical and theological studies at St. Pius X College in [[Goregaon]], [[Mumbai]].<ref name="vatican"/> Almeida earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in Psychology and a Master of Arts in Sociology from the [[University of Bombay]].<ref name="vatican"/><ref name="indianexpress">{{Cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/fr-simon-almeida-appointed-as-the-new-bishop-of-poona-10340578/ |title=Fr Simon Almeida appointed as the new Bishop of Poona |publisher=The Indian Express |date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025}}</ref> He further obtained a Diploma in Foundations for Pastoral Renewal and Steward Leadership in the Church of the Poor from the East Asian Pastoral Institute, [[Manila]] (2000–2001) and a Master of Arts in Pastoral Studies from [[Ateneo de Manila University]], [[Quezon City]], [[Philippines]] (2000–2002).<ref name="indianexpress"/><ref name="catholicconnect">{{Cite web |url=https://catholicconnect.in/news/fr-simon-almeida-appointed-new-bishop-of-poona |title=Fr. Simon Almeida Appointed New Bishop of Poona |publisher=Catholic Connect |date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025}}</ref>

==Priesthood==
Almeida was ordained a priest on 1 April 1990 for the Diocese of Poona by Bishop [[Valerian D'Souza]]. During his 35 years of priestly ministry, he held various pastoral and administrative roles within the diocese.

His positions include:
* Assistant Parish Priest, [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, Pune]] (1990–1994)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Assistant Parish Priest, St. Ignatius Parish, Kirkee (1994–1996)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Diocesan Director for Youth (1996–2000)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Rector, Prakash Bhavan Minor Seminary, Pune (2002–2003)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Parish Priest, [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, Pune]] (2003–2008)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Member, Presbyteral Council (from 2003)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Parish Priest, St. Francis Xavier Parish, Chinchwad (2008–2013)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Member, College of Consultors (from 2009)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Financial Administrator, Diocese of Poona (2010–2015)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Parish Priest, St. Anne’s Church, Solapur Bazaar (2013–2019)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Parish Priest, St. John Paul II Church, Wakad (2019–2023)<ref name="vatican"/>
* Additional Secretary (later Deputy Secretary), Western Region Bishop’s Council (2023–2025)<ref name="vatican"/><ref name="indianexpress"/>
* Parish Priest, St. Joseph’s Church, Ghorpuri, Pune (from June 2025)<ref name="indianexpress"/><ref name="eich"/>

==Episcopate==
On 1 November 2025, Pope Leo XIV appointed Almeida as the Bishop of Poona, succeeding Bishop [[John Rodrigues]], who was appointed Coadjutor Archbishop of Bombay on 30 November 2024.<ref name="vatican"/><ref name="fides">{{Cite web |url=https://www.fides.org/it/news/76985-ASIA_INDIA_Nomina_del_Vescovo_di_Poona |title=Nomina del Vescovo di Poona |publisher=Agenzia Fides |date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025 |language=it}}</ref><ref name="donaukurier">{{Cite web |url=https://www.donaukurier.de/lokales/landkreis-eichstaett/papst-ernennt-neuen-oberhirten-partnerbistum-von-eichstaett-in-indien-hat-neuen-bischof-19842529 |title=Papst ernennt neuen Oberhirten: Partnerbistum von Eichstätt in Indien hat neuen Bischof |publisher=Donau Kurier |date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025 |language=de}}</ref>

Simon Almeida received episcopal ordination from Cardinal [[Filipe Neri Ferrao]] on 17 January 2026 and was installed as the Bishop of Poona in the same ceremony. The co-consecrators were Archbishop [[John Rodrigues]] and Archbishop [[Elias Gonsalves]].<ref name="examiner">{{cite news |title=The Examiner Catholic Newsweekly's post |url=https://www.facebook.com/theexaminermumbai/posts/the-solemn-episcopal-ordination-and-installation-of-the-new-bishop-took-place-on/1462874212510811/ |access-date=14 March 2026 |work=The Examiner |date=20 January 2026}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Catholic-hierarchy|bishop|balmes|Bishop Simon Almeida}}
* [https://gcatholic.org/p/77175 GCatholic.org]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Almeida, Simon}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Ateneo de Manila University alumni]]

Prodosh Dasgupta

2026-03-14T04:37:04Z

AnnieSneed66: Put Up Stub

{{Short description|Indian Bengali sculptor (1912–1991)}}
{{Infobox artist
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1912|01|10}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1991|07|29|1912|01|10}}
| birth_place = Bharakar, [[Bikrampur]]-[[Dhaka]], [[British India]]
| alma_mater =
| death_place = [[Delhi]]
| notable_works =
| movement =
| known_for = Sculpting
| image =
| title = [[Royal Society of Arts|FRSA]]
| children = [[Prabuddha Dasgupta]]
}}
'''Prodosh Dasgupta''' (January 10, 1912 – July 29, 1991) was a prominent Indian Bengali [[sculptor]] of the 1940s. He was one of those who combined the philosophy of Indian classical sculpture with the geometry of modern Western sculpture to create unique works of art. At that time he and a few others formed the [[Calcutta Group]] which later played an important role in the evolution of art in [[India]] and [[Bengal]].<ref name="সংসদ">অঞ্জলি বসু সম্পাদিত, ''সংসদ বাঙালি চরিতাভিধান'', দ্বিতীয় খণ্ড, সাহিত্য সংসদ, কলকাতা, জানুয়ারি ২০১৯, পৃষ্ঠা ২২৭,২২৮ (in Bengali) {{ISBN|978-81-7955-292-6}}</ref><ref name = Prinseps>{{cite web | title = Prodosh Dasgupta (1912-1991)| url = https://prinseps.com/research/prodosh-dasgupta-sculpture-work-style-biography/| access-date =2021-05-12}}</ref><ref name = JNAF>{{cite web | title = Prodosh Dasgupta| url = https://jnaf.org/artist/prodosh-dasgupta/| access-date =2021-05-12}}</ref> Due to his multifaceted talents, he has also made important contributions as a poet, writer, art critic and teacher.<ref name = ABP>{{cite web | title = বিভিন্ন বিষয়ে গড়ে ওঠে শিল্পীর নান্দনিক চেতনা (in Bengali)| url = http://archives.anandabazar.com/archive/1120922/22chitra1.html| access-date =2021-05-12}}</ref><ref name = AkarPrakar>{{cite web | title = Prodosh Das Gupta (1912 - 1991)| url = https://www.akarprakar.com/artists/prodosh-das-gupta| access-date =2021-05-12}}</ref>

==Birth and education==
Dasgupta was born on January 10, 1912, in Bharakar, [[Bikrampur]]-[[Dhaka]], present-day [[Bangladesh]], in [[British India]]. Father Nalininath Dasgupta was a District Judge. That's why he spent a lot of his school life in [[Krishnanagar, Nadia|Krishnanagar]], [[Bengal]] being a student at [[Krishnagar Collegiate School]]. After graduating from [[Calcutta University]] in 1932, he studied [[sculpture]] for two years at [[Lucknow College of Arts and Crafts|Lucknow School of Arts]] under Hiranmoy Roychaudhuri. During his stay in [[Lucknow]], he also took training in [[Hindustani classical music]] from [[Shrikrishna Narayan Ratanjankar]]. From 1934, he was under the tutelage of [[D. P. Roy Choudhury]] at the [[Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai|Madras Art and Crafts School]] for three years. In 1937, he went to study sculpture from there, first at the [[London Royal Academy]] and later [[Paris]].

==Career==
Dasgupta came back to [[India]] in 1940 and set up his own studio in [[Calcutta]] and started working. In 1943, he formed the [[Calcutta Group]], an organization of young artists in Calcutta, and was its secretary from its inception till 1953. In 1950, he joined the [[University of Baroda]] as a professor in the Department of Sculpture. However, he started teaching at [[Government College of Art and Craft]] in [[Kolkata]] in the following year. In 1955, he was elected a Fellow of the '[[Royal Society of Arts]]' in [[England]]. From 1957 to 1970, he was the director of the [[National Gallery of Modern Art]] in [[Delhi]]. He has travelled abroad many times to give lectures or exhibit his sculptures. In 1960, he was the president of the Vienna Conference.<ref name="সংসদ" />

==Notable works==
His own aesthetic consciousness was developed in the context of the [[Indian independence movement]] and the social and political conditions of the time, in literary and musical thought, in the context of East and West. At the mature stage, he worked on various forms in many experiments. Many manifestations of his sculptures with spherical, cylindrical, conical or elliptical forms have been observed in his exhibitions. For example-

* ''In Bondage'' (1943)
* ''Jai Hind'' (1948)
* ''Genesis'' (1971)
* ''Egg Bride'' (1973)
* ''Sun Voysipassarra'' (1975)
* ''Sunflower'' (1978)
* ''Philosopher'' (1984)<ref name = ABP />
[[Netaji]]'s statue at the south-east of the Raj Bhavan at [[Dharmatala]] in Kolkata, [[West Bengal]] was sculpted by him. The then [[Prime Minister of India]] [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] unveiled the statue on 23 December 1965. He also designed the full-size white stone statue of Acharya [[Prafulla Chandra Ray]] in College Square, Kolkata.
[[File:Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Statue near Esplanade, Kolkata.jpg|thumb|Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Statue by Dasgupta near Esplanade, Kolkata]]

==Literary works==
The books written by Dasgupta are –

* ''Fallen Leaves and Other Poems'' (1969)
* ''Temple Terracottas of Bengal'' (1971)
* ''Sculpture'' (1945)
* ''My Sculpture'' (1955)
* ''Memoirs of art''
* ''In search of models''

==Demise==
Dasgupta died on 29 July in 1991 in [[Delhi]].

== References ==

{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dasgupta, Prodosh}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:1991 deaths]]

Cybercrime

2026-03-13T05:22:49Z

AnnieSneed66: cleanup content also and cleaned formatting based on references

{{Short description|Type of crime based in computer networks}}
{{Distinguish|Virtual crime}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Criminology}}

'''Cybercrime''' encompasses a wide range of [[criminal]] activities that are carried out using [[digital devices]] and/or [[Computer network|networks]]. It has been variously defined as "a crime committed on a computer network, especially the [[Internet]]; Cybercriminals may exploit vulnerabilities in computer systems and networks to gain unauthorized access, steal sensitive information, disrupt services, and cause financial or reputational harm to individuals, organizations, and governments.<ref name="Sukhai 128–132">{{Cite book |last=Sukhai |first=Nataliya B. |chapter=Hacking and cybercrime |date=2004-10-08 |pages=128–132 |title=Proceedings of the 1st annual conference on Information security curriculum development |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1059524.1059553 |location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=ACM |doi=10.1145/1059524.1059553 |isbn=1-59593-048-5 |s2cid=46562809 |access-date=10 December 2023 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054810/https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1059524.1059553 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Cybercrimes refer to socially dangerous acts committed using computer equipment against information processed and used in cyberspace.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Информационное право|url= https://urait.ru/book/informacionnoe-pravo-559788 |access-date=2025-08-08}}</ref>

In 2000, the tenth [[United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders]] classified cyber crimes into five categories: unauthorized access, damage to computer data or programs, sabotage to hinder the functioning of a computer system or network, unauthorized interception of data within a system or network, and computer espionage.<ref name="Sukhai 128–132"/>

Internationally, both state and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including [[espionage]], financial [[theft]], and other cross-border crimes. Cybercrimes crossing international borders and involving the actions of at least one nation-state are sometimes referred to as [[cyberwarfare]]. [[Warren Buffett]] has stated that cybercrime is the "number one problem with mankind",<ref>{{Cite web|title=BUFFETT: This is 'the number one problem with mankind'|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/buffett-this-is-the-number-one-problem-with-mankind/articleshow/58555300.cms|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Business Insider|archive-date=9 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609040043/https://www.businessinsider.in/BUFFETT-This-is-the-number-one-problem-with-mankind/articleshow/58555300.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> and that it "poses real risks to humanity".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Warren Buffett: 'Cyber poses real risks to humanity'|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/warren-buffett-cyber-attacks-131445079.html|access-date=2021-05-17|website=finance.yahoo.com|date=30 April 2019|language=en-US|archive-date=2 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602052925/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/warren-buffett-cyber-attacks-131445079.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[World Economic Forum|World Economic Forum's]] (WEF) 2020 ''[[Global Risks Report]]'' highlighted that organized cybercrime groups are joining forces to commit criminal activities online, while estimating the likelihood of their detection and prosecution to be less than 1 percent in the US.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=15 January 2020|title=The Global Risk Report 2020|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risk_Report_2020.pdf|journal=World Economic Forum|volume=15th Edition|pages=102|access-date=17 May 2021|archive-date=27 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927171154/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risk_Report_2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> There are also many [[Internet privacy|privacy]] concerns surrounding cybercrime when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, legally or otherwise.

The World Economic Forum's 2023 ''Global Risks Report'' ranked cybercrime as one of the top 10 risks facing the world today and for the next 10 years.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Heading |first1=Sophie |last2=Zahidi |first2=Saadia |date=January 2023 |title=The Global Risks Report 2023, 18th Edition |url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risks_Report_2023.pdf |website=World Economic Forum |access-date=3 February 2024 |archive-date=5 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205151654/https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Global_Risks_Report_2023.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Characteristics and classification ==
A cybercrime is understood as a culpable unlawful act (an action or omission) committed by a subject in cyberspace using computer networks, which is prohibited by current legislation under the threat of punishment.

The Russian scholar [[Rassolov Ilya Mikhailovich|I. M. Rassolov]], in his works, points out the following characteristics of cybercrimes:

# The use of computer networks and international information exchange, which constitutes the principal distinguishing feature of a crime in the sphere of high technologies. In this case, the computer and its networks act as the object of the crime, the instrument of the crime, or the means on which unlawful acts are prepared.
# The transnational nature of the crimes under consideration (they are committed in the global information space) and the international character of the participants in the criminal community.
# A stable tendency toward the "organized" nature of cybercrimes and their expansion beyond national boundaries.
# The presence of a criminal pyramid consisting of at least three levels of interaction.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://znanium.ru/catalog/document?id=390421 |title= Law and the Internet: Theoretical Problems
|accessdate=20 November 2024}}</ref>

Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities, including computer fraud, [[financial crime]]s, scams, [[cybersex trafficking]], and [[Ad fraud|ad-fraud]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gordon |first=Sarah |date=25 July 2006 |title=On the definition and classification of cybercrime |journal=Journal in Computer Virology |volume=2 |pages=13–20 |doi=10.1007/s11416-006-0015-z |s2cid=3334277}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{Cite journal|last=Richet|first=Jean-Loup|date=2022-01-01|title=How cybercriminal communities grow and change: An investigation of ad-fraud communities|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|volume=174|issue=121282|article-number=121282|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121282|s2cid=239962449|issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A proposed taxonomy classifies cybercrime into two top-level groups: ''pure-technology cybercrime'' and ''cyber-advanced crime''. Pure-technology cybercrime "targets or victimizes the computer technology ecosystem" to "disrupt the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of a computer-technology ecosystem", while cyber-advanced crime "uses computer technology to target or victimize natural persons, governments, business entities, or property" in order to "deprive, disrupt or damage entities or assets."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chandra |first1=Akhilesh |last2=Snowe |first2=Melissa J. |date=2020-09-01 |title=A taxonomy of cybercrime: Theory and design |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1467089520300348 |journal=International Journal of Accounting Information Systems |series=2019 UW CISA Symposium |volume=38 |article-number=100467 |doi=10.1016/j.accinf.2020.100467 |issn=1467-0895|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Computer fraud ===
{{Main|Computer fraud}}
Computer fraud is the act of using a computer to take or alter electronic data, or to gain unlawful access to a computer or system.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lehman |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Phelps |first2=Shirelle |title=West's Encyclopedia of American Law, Vol. 3 | edition=2 |date=2005 |publisher=Thomson/Gale |location=Detroit |isbn=9780787663742 |page=137}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=April 2025|reason=Unable to find any mention of computer fraud in the source}} Computer fraud that involves the use of the Internet is also called [[internet fraud]]. The legal definition of computer fraud varies by jurisdiction, but typically involves accessing a computer without permission or authorization.

Forms of computer fraud include [[hack (computer security)|hacking]] into computers to alter information, distributing malicious code such as [[computer worm]]s or [[computer virus|viruses]], installing [[malware]] or [[spyware]] to steal data, [[phishing]], and [[advance-fee scam]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Computer and Internet Fraud|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/computer_and_internet_fraud|access-date=2020-11-01|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|archive-date=10 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810065203/https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/computer_and_internet_fraud|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other forms of fraud may be committed using computer systems, including [[bank fraud]], [[Carding (fraud)|carding]], [[identity theft]], [[extortion]], and [[Classified information|theft of classified information]]. These types of crimes often result in the loss of personal or financial information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pratt|first1=Travis C.|last2=Holtfreter|first2=Kristy|last3=Reisig|first3=Michael D.|year=2010|title=Routine Online Activity and Internet Fraud Targeting: Extending the Generality of Routine Activity Theory|journal=Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency|volume=47|issue=3|pages=267–296|doi=10.1177/0022427810365903|s2cid=146182010}}</ref>

===Digital arrest===
{{anchor | Arrest }}
[[Digital arrest scam|Digital arrest]] is a form of online fraud where perpetrators impersonate law enforcement officials to deceive victims. This scam typically involves contacting individuals via phone, falsely claiming they are implicated in criminal activity related to a parcel containing illegal goods, drugs, counterfeit documents, or other contraband. In some variations, scammers target the victim's relatives or friends, falsely stating the victim is in custody due to criminal involvement or an accident. Victims are then coerced into remaining on camera and isolating themselves, while the fraudsters extract personal and financial information under the guise of an official investigation, ultimately transferring the victim's assets to [[money mule]] accounts.<ref name=drin1/>

To detect and prevent the fraud, be wary of unsolicited calls from supposed law enforcement demanding immediate payment or personal information. Legitimate law enforcement agencies rarely conduct investigations in this manner. Verify the identity of the caller independently by contacting the relevant agency directly through official channels. Remember, the government agencies never put anyone under digital arrest, it's not permissible.<ref name=drin1>[https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/digital-arrest-police-cybercrime-skype-9333423/ What is ‘digital arrest’, and what can you do to ensure you don't fall victim to cybercriminals?], Indian Express, 17 May 2024.</ref>

===Fraud factories===
{{Main|Fraud factory}}
{{See also|Scam centers in Cambodia}}
A fraud factory is a collection of large fraud organizations, usually involving cyber fraud and [[human trafficking]] operations.

===Cyberterrorism===
{{Main|Cyberterrorism}}
The term ''cyberterrorism'' refers to acts of [[terrorism]] committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources.<ref>Parker D (1983) ''Fighting Computer Crime,'' U.S.: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]].</ref> Acts of disruption of [[computer network]]s and personal computers through [[computer viruses|viruses]], [[computer worm|worm]]s, [[phishing]], [[malicious software]], hardware, or programming scripts can all be forms of cyberterrorism.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Botnets, Cybercrime, and Cyberterrorism: Vulnerabilities and Policy Issues for Congress|url=https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL32114.html|access-date=5 September 2021|website=www.everycrsreport.com|language=en|archive-date=29 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929021137/https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/RL32114.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Government officials and [[information technology]] (IT) security specialists have documented a significant increase in network problems and server scams since early 2001. In the United States there is an increasing concern from agencies such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Morgan |first=Steve |date=2020-11-13 |title=Cybercrime To Cost The World $10.5 Trillion Annually By 2025 |url=https://cybersecurityventures.com/hackerpocalypse-cybercrime-report-2016/ |access-date=2024-07-19 |website=Cybercrime Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Cyberextortion===
Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to or threatened with attacks by malicious hackers, often through [[denial-of-service attack]]s. Cyber extortionists demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and provide "protection". According to the FBI, cyber extortionists are increasingly attacking corporate websites and networks, crippling their ability to operate, and demanding payments to restore their service. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI, and many go unreported in order to keep the victim's name out of the public domain. Perpetrators often use a [[distributed denial-of-service attack]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lepofsky |first=Ron |title=Cyberextortion by Denial-of-Service Attack |url=http://www.ere-security.ca/PDF/Cyberextortion%20by%20DoS,%20Risk%20Magazine%20June%202006.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706175959/http://www.ere-security.ca/PDF/Cyberextortion%20by%20DoS%2C%20Risk%20Magazine%20June%202006.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> However, other cyberextortion techniques exist, such as [[doxing]] and [[bug poaching]]. An example of cyberextortion was [[Sony Pictures Entertainment hack|the Sony Hack of 2014]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mohanta |first=Abhijit |date=6 December 2014 |title=Latest Sony Pictures Breach : A Deadly Cyber Extortion |url=http://www.cyphort.com/latest-sony-pictures-breach-deadly-cyber-extortion/ |access-date=20 September 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925133121/http://www.cyphort.com/latest-sony-pictures-breach-deadly-cyber-extortion/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Ransomware ===
{{main|Ransomware}}
Ransomware is a type of malware used in cyberextortion to restrict access to files, sometimes threatening permanent data erasure unless a ransom is paid. Ransomware is a global issue with 153 countries affected by this type of attack in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ransomware Trends 2024: Insights for Global Cybersecurity Readiness |url=https://www.cyberpeace.org/resources/blogs/ransomware-trends-2024-insights-for-global-cybersecurity-readiness |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=www.cyberpeace.org |language=en}}</ref>The number of attacks is constantly growing, with 5,263 attacks in 2024.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=2024 Breaks Records With Highest Ever Ransomware Attacks |url=https://www.darkreading.com/threat-intelligence/2024-breaks-records-with-highest-ever-ransomware-attacks |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=www.darkreading.com |language=en}}</ref> And this is the number of large and successful attacks with serious consequences, the total number of attempted attacks, including in automatic mode in 2021, amounted to more than 300 million attacks worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Sead Fadilpašić |date=2022-02-22 |title=Ransomware attacks saw a huge rise in 2021 |url=https://www.techradar.com/news/ransomware-attacks-saw-a-huge-rise-in-2021 |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=TechRadar |language=en}}</ref> Nearly a third of the major attacks (1,424) in 2024 targeted industrial enterprises (up 15% by 2023), affecting critical infrastructure and services, causing severe losses.<ref name=":5" /> In some cases, attacks on medical facilities also resulted in human casualties. Between 2016 and 2021 ransomware caused the deaths of between 42 and 67 patients due to the treatment difficulties created.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Pearson |first=Jordan |title=Ransomware Is 'More Brutal' Than Ever in 2024 |url=https://www.wired.com/story/state-of-ransomware-2024/ |access-date=2025-04-15 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028}}</ref> In 2024 an attack on UK pathology provider Synnovis resulted in thousands of surgeries and appointments being canceled.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Coker |first=James |date=2024-07-02 |title=Ransomware Attack Demands Reach a Staggering $5.2m in 2024 |url=https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/ransomware-demands-staggering-5m/ |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=Infosecurity Magazine |language=en-gb}}</ref> Ransom amounts in attacks are also continuously and significantly increasing. According to the 2022 Unit 42 Ransomware Threat Report, in 2021, the average ransom demand in Norton cases was $2.2 million (up 144%), and the number of victims whose personal data ended up in the dark web's information dumps increased by 85%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 25, 2022 |title=The Growing Ransomware Threat: 4 Trends and Insights |url=https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/resources/infographics/2022-unit-42-ransomware-threat-report-infographic |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054810/https://www.paloaltonetworks.com/resources/infographics/2022-unit-42-ransomware-threat-report-infographic |archive-date=18 July 2024 |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=Palo Alto Networks |language=en-US}}</ref> Losses in 2021 and 2022 are nearly $400 million.<ref>{{Cite web |title=100+ ransomware statistics for 2023 and beyond - Norton |url=https://us.norton.com/blog/emerging-threats/ransomware-statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054811/https://us.norton.com/blog/emerging-threats/ransomware-statistics |archive-date=18 July 2024 |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=us.norton.com |language=en}}</ref> In 2024, the average ransom amount is $5.2 million, with the two largest ransoms demanded from healthcare organizations - $100 million from India's Regional Cancer Center (RCC) and $50 million from Synnovis.<ref name=":6" />

===Cybersex trafficking===
{{Main|Cybersex trafficking}}
Cybersex trafficking is the transportation of victims for such purposes as coerced prostitution or the [[live streaming]] of coerced sexual acts or [[rape]] on webcam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carback |first=Joshua T. |date=2018 |title=Cybersex Trafficking: Toward a More Effective Prosecutorial Response |journal=Criminal Law Bulletin |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=64–183 |ref=none}} p. 64.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=November 28, 2016 |title=IJM Seeks to End Cybersex Trafficking of Children and #RestartFreedom this Cyber Monday and Giving Tuesday |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ijm-seeks-to-end-cybersex-trafficking-of-children-and-restartfreedom-this-cyber-monday-and-giving-tuesday-300368744.html |website=PR Newswire |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417112847/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ijm-seeks-to-end-cybersex-trafficking-of-children-and-restartfreedom-this-cyber-monday-and-giving-tuesday-300368744.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Cybersex Trafficking |url=https://www.ijmuk.org/our-work/cybersex-trafficking |website=IJM |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=21 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521145630/https://www.ijmuk.org/our-work/cybersex-trafficking |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=July 18, 2013 |title=Cyber-sex trafficking: A 21st century scourge |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/17/world/asia/philippines-cybersex-trafficking/index.html |website=CNN |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=18 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718165038/https://www.cnn.com/2013/07/17/world/asia/philippines-cybersex-trafficking/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Victims are abducted, threatened, or deceived and transferred to "cybersex dens".<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 13, 2020 |title=Senator warns of possible surge in child cybersex traffic |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/04/13/2006955/senator-warns-possible-surge-child-cybersex-traffic |website=The Philippine Star |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=18 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418114854/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/04/13/2006955/senator-warns-possible-surge-child-cybersex-traffic |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=October 18, 2019 |title=Duterte's drug war and child cybersex trafficking |url=https://theaseanpost.com/article/dutertes-drug-war-and-child-cybersex-trafficking |website=The ASEAN Post |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=22 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522000102/https://theaseanpost.com/article/dutertes-drug-war-and-child-cybersex-trafficking |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 1, 2020 |title=Norwegian national, partner nabbed; 4 rescued from cybersex den |url=https://news.mb.com.ph/2020/05/01/norwegian-national-partner-nabbed-4-rescued-from-cybersex-den/ |website=Manila Bulletin |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729013030/https://news.mb.com.ph/2020/05/01/norwegian-national-partner-nabbed-4-rescued-from-cybersex-den/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The dens can be in any location where the cybersex traffickers have a computer, tablet, or phone with an internet connection.<ref name="auto1"/> Perpetrators use [[social media]] networks, [[Videotelephony|video conferences]], dating pages, online chat rooms, apps, [[dark web]] sites,<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |date=June 30, 2018 |title=Cheap tech and widespread internet access fuel rise in cybersex trafficking |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/cheap-tech-widespread-internet-access-fuel-rise-cybersex-trafficking-n886886 |website=NBC News |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=24 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124163943/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/cheap-tech-widespread-internet-access-fuel-rise-cybersex-trafficking-n886886 |url-status=live }}</ref> and other platforms.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 11, 2019 |title=Senate to probe rise in child cybersex trafficking |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/11/11/1967750/senate-probe-rise-child-cybersex-trafficking |website=The Philippine Star |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=13 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113001822/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/11/11/1967750/senate-probe-rise-child-cybersex-trafficking |url-status=live }}</ref> They use [[online payment|online payment systems]]<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 15, 2019 |title=Global taskforce tackles cybersex child trafficking in the Philippines |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-trafficking-children/global-taskforce-tackles-cybersex-child-trafficking-in-the-philippines-idUSKCN1RR1D1 |website=Reuters |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=16 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416114212/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-trafficking-children/global-taskforce-tackles-cybersex-child-trafficking-in-the-philippines-idUSKCN1RR1D1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=June 17, 2018 |title=Webcam slavery: tech turns Filipino families into cybersex child traffickers |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-trafficking-technology/webcam-slavery-tech-turns-filipino-families-into-cybersex-child-traffickers-idUSKBN1JE00X |website=Reuters |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=12 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912045346/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-philippines-trafficking-technology/webcam-slavery-tech-turns-filipino-families-into-cybersex-child-traffickers-idUSKBN1JE00X |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[cryptocurrencies]] to hide their identities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2, 2019 |title=How the internet fuels sexual exploitation and forced labor in Asia |url=https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/3008403/how-internet-fuels-sexual-exploitation-and-forced-labour |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=29 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429221407/https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/3008403/how-internet-fuels-sexual-exploitation-and-forced-labour |url-status=live }}</ref> Millions of reports of cybersex incidents are sent to authorities annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sencanada.ca/en/content/sen/chamber/421/debates/194db_2018-04-18-e|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241210012704/https://sencanada.ca/en/content/sen/chamber/421/debates/194db_2018-04-18-e|archive-date=December 10, 2024|title=1st Session, 42nd Parliament, Volume 150, Issue 194|date=April 18, 2018|website=Senate of Canada}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2021|reason=Article says "Since 2012, more than 2 million..." and "Now, in 2018, six years later, this number is, sadly, steadily rising", but doesn't provide the numbers to estimate the annual rate of reports ("more" and "steadily rising" might mean any number above 2mil, with minimum 333 thousand reports per year (2mil/6years) - the wording is "since 2012" and not "in 2012"). The phrase "For over 30 years, I have worked to put an end to child cybersex trafficking" might hint that the article uses "cybersex trafficking" in a more general sense (as opposed to the "live video" in this article), meaning all kinds of CSAI, since 2019-30=1989: year that predates consumer-ready livestreaming over the Internet (earliest livestreaming seems to have happened in the 90-es)}} New legislation and police procedures are needed to combat this type of cybercrime.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 11, 2019 |title=Cybersex trafficking spreads across Southeast Asia, fuelled by internet boom. And the law lags behind |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3026664/how-cambodias-outdated-laws-make-it-harder-tackle-cybersex |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=16 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516104350/https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3026664/how-cambodias-outdated-laws-make-it-harder-tackle-cybersex |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are an estimated 6.3 million victims of cybersex trafficking, according to a recent report by the International Labour Organization.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Estimates of Modern Slavery Forced Labour and Forced Marriage |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_854733.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=22 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222090009/https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_854733.pdf |access-date=22 December 2022 |website=International Labour Organization}}</ref> This number includes about 1.7 million [[Child sexual abuse|child victims]]. An example of cybersex trafficking is the 2018–2020 [[Nth room case]] in [[South Korea]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 24, 2020 |title=What is 'Nth Room' case and why it matters |url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20200424000512 |website=Korea Herald |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519160804/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20200424000512 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Cyberwarfare===
{{Main|Cyberwarfare}}
According to the U.S. [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], cyberspace has emerged as an arena for national-security threats through several recent events of geostrategic importance, including the attack on [[Estonia]]'s infrastructure in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. In August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyberattacks against [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. Fearing that such attacks may become a normal part of future warfare among nation-states, military commanders see a need to develop cyberspace operations.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Dennis |last=Murphy |date=February 2010 |title=War is War? The utility of cyberspace operations in the contemporary operational environment.. |url=http://www.carlisle.army.mil/DIME/documents/War%20is%20War%20Issue%20Paper%20Final2.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320012856/http://www.carlisle.army.mil/DIME/documents/War%20is%20War%20Issue%20Paper%20Final2.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2012 |publisher=Center for Strategic Leadership}}</ref>

===Computers as a tool===
{{Main|Internet fraud|Spamming|Phishing|Carding (fraud)}}
When an individual is the target of cybercrime, the computer is often the tool rather than the target. These crimes, which typically exploit human weaknesses, usually do not require much technical expertise. These are the types of crimes which have existed for centuries in the offline world. Criminals have simply been given a tool that increases their pool of potential victims and makes them all the harder to trace and apprehend.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Cybercrime definition|date = June 28, 2006|url = http://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06/|access-date = |website = www.crime-research.org|first = Aghatise E.|last = Joseph|archive-date = 18 July 2024|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054813/https://www.crime-research.org/articles/joseph06/|url-status = live}}</ref>

Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:
*Fraud and identity theft (although this increasingly uses malware, hacking or phishing, making it an example of "computer as target" as well as "computer as tool")
*Information warfare
*Phishing scams
*[[E-mail spam|Spam]]
*Propagation of illegal, obscene, or [[offensive content]], including harassment and threats

The unsolicited sending of bulk [[email]] for commercial purposes (spam) is unlawful [[E-mail spam legislation by country|in some jurisdictions]].

Phishing is mostly propagated via email. Phishing emails may contain links to other websites that are affected by malware.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Save browsing |url=http://googleonlinesecurity.blogspot.jp/2012/06/safe-browsing-protecting-web-users-for.html |website=google |access-date=5 October 2014 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305144600/https://googleonlinesecurity.blogspot.jp/2012/06/safe-browsing-protecting-web-users-for.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Or they may contain links to fake online banking or other websites used to steal private account information.

===Obscene or offensive content===
The content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, [[obscene]], or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances, it may be illegal. What content is unlawful varies greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.

One area of [[internet pornography]] that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is [[child pornography]], which is illegal in most jurisdictions in the world.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

===Ad-fraud===
{{See also|Ad fraud|Click fraud}}

Ad-frauds are particularly popular among cybercriminals, as such frauds are lucrative and unlikely to be prosecuted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wilbur|first1=Kenneth C.|last2=Zhu|first2=Yi|date=2008-10-24|title=Click Fraud|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mksc.1080.0397|journal=Marketing Science|volume=28|issue=2|pages=293–308|doi=10.1287/mksc.1080.0397|issn=0732-2399|access-date=30 October 2021|archive-date=5 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005143633/https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mksc.1080.0397|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Jean-Loup Richet, a professor at the [[Sorbonne Business School]], classified the large variety of ad-frauds committed by cybercriminals into three categories: identity fraud, attribution fraud, and ad-fraud services.<ref name="auto2"/>

Identity fraud aims to impersonate real users and inflate audience numbers. The techniques used for identity fraud include traffic from bots (coming from a hosting company, a data center, or compromised devices); [[cookie stuffing]]; falsification of user characteristics, such as location and browser type; fake social traffic (misleading users on social networks into visiting the advertised website); and fake social media accounts that make a bot appear legitimate.

Attribution fraud impersonates the activities of real users, such as clicks and conversations. Many ad-fraud techniques belong to this category: the use of hijacked and malware-infected devices as part of a [[botnet]]; click farms (companies where low-wage employees are paid to click or engage in conversations); incentivized browsing; video placement abuse (delivered in display banner slots); hidden ads (which will never be viewed by real users); domain spoofing (ads served on a fake website); and clickjacking, in which the user is forced to click on an ad.

Ad-fraud services include all online infrastructure and hosting services that might be needed to undertake identity or attribution fraud. Services can involve the creation of spam websites (fake networks of websites that provide artificial backlinks); link building services; hosting services; or fake and scam pages impersonating a famous brand.

===Online harassment{{anchor|Harassment}}===
{{See also|Cyberbullying|Online predator|Cyberstalking|4=Cyber Racism|5=Internet troll}}
{{Globalize|section|date=March 2016}}

Whereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, [[harassment]] directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals, often focusing on gender, [[Cyber racism|race]], religion, nationality, or sexual orientation.

Committing a crime using a computer can lead to an enhanced sentence. For example, in the case of ''[[United States v. Neil Scott Kramer]]'', the defendant was given an enhanced sentence according to the [[U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual]] §2G1.3(b)(3) for his use of a [[cell phone]] to "persuade, induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual conduct." Kramer appealed the sentence on the grounds that there was insufficient evidence to convict him under this statute because his charge included persuading through a computer device and his cellular phone technically is not a computer. Although Kramer tried to argue this point, the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual states that the term "computer" means "an electronic, magnetic, optical, [[Electrochemistry|electrochemical]], or other high-speed data processing device performing logical, arithmetic, or storage functions, and includes any data storage facility or communications facility directly related to or operating in conjunction with such device."

In the United States, at least 41 states have passed laws and regulations that regard extreme online harassment as a criminal act. These acts can also be prosecuted on the federal level, because of US Code 18 Section 2261A, which states that using computers to threaten or harass can lead to a sentence of up to 20 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal CyberStalking Bill Info |url=http://www.haltabuse.org/resources/laws/federal.shtml |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=www.haltabuse.org |archive-date=6 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106105338/http://www.haltabuse.org/resources/laws/federal.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Several countries besides the US have also created laws to combat online harassment. In China, a country with over 20 percent of the world's internet users, in response to the [[Human flesh search engine|Human Flesh Search Engine]] bullying incident, the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council passed a strict law against cyberbullying.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China has more internet users than any other country, according to Mary Meeker's Internet Trends Report |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/06/most-people-on-the-internet-live-in-this-country/ |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=World Economic Forum|date=27 June 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chinese Authorities Address Online Bullying – Cybersmile |url=https://www.cybersmile.org/news/chinese-authorities-address-online-bullying |access-date=2019-11-02 |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054813/https://www.cybersmile.org/news/chinese-authorities-address-online-bullying |url-status=live }}</ref> The United Kingdom passed the [[Malicious Communications Act 1988|Malicious Communications Act]], which states that sending messages or letters electronically that the government deems "indecent or grossly offensive" and/or language intended to cause "distress and anxiety" can lead to a prison sentence of six months and a potentially large fine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Legal Perspective – Cybersmile |url=https://www.cybersmile.org/advice-help/category/cyberbullying-and-the-law |access-date=2019-11-02 |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718054816/https://www.cybersmile.org/advice-help/category/cyberbullying-and-the-law |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Malicious Communications Act 1988 |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/27/section/1/data.htm |access-date=2019-11-02 |website=www.legislation.gov.uk |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055342/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/27/section/1/data.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>  Australia, while not directly addressing the issue of harassment, includes most forms of online harassment under the Criminal Code Act of 1995. Using telecommunication to send threats, harass, or cause offense is a direct violation of this act.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Criminal Code Act 1995 |url=http://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2019C00043/Html/Volume_1 |access-date=2019-11-02 |website=www.legislation.gov.au |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055324/https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2019C00043/Html/Volume_1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Although [[freedom of speech]] is protected by law in most democratic societies, it does not include all types of speech. Spoken or written threats can be criminalized because they harm or intimidate. This applies to online or network-related threats.

Cyberbullying has increased drastically with the growing popularity of online social networking. As of January 2020, 44 percent of adult internet users in the United States had "personally experienced online harassment".<ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S. internet users who have experienced online harassment 2020|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/333942/us-internet-online-harassment-severity/|access-date=2021-04-05|website=Statista|language=en|archive-date=18 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055336/https://www.statista.com/statistics/333942/us-internet-online-harassment-severity/|url-status=live}}</ref> Online harassment of children often has negative and even life-threatening effects. According to a 2021 survey, 41 percent of children develop social anxiety, 37 percent develop depression, and 26 percent have suicidal thoughts.<ref>{{Cite web|title=All the Latest Cyber Bullying Statistics and What They Mean In 2021|url=https://www.broadbandsearch.net/blog/cyber-bullying-statistics|access-date=2021-04-05|website=BroadbandSearch.net|language=en|archive-date=23 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423045240/https://www.broadbandsearch.net/blog/cyber-bullying-statistics|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[United Arab Emirates]] was found to have purchased the [[NSO Group]]'s mobile spyware [[Pegasus (spyware)|Pegasus]] for [[mass surveillance]] and a campaign of harassment of prominent activists and journalists, including [[Ahmed Mansoor]], [[Latifa bint Mohammed Al Maktoum (born 1985)|Princess Latifa]], [[Princess Haya bint Hussein|Princess Haya]], and others. [[Ghada Owais]] was one of the many high-profile female journalists and activists who were targeted. She filed a lawsuit against UAE ruler [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] along with other defendants, accusing them of sharing her photos online.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/i-will-not-be-silenced-women-targeted-hack-leak-attacks-n1275540|title='I will not be silenced': Women targeted in hack-and-leak attacks speak out about spyware|accessdate=1 August 2021|website=NBC News|date=August 2021|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801101606/https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/i-will-not-be-silenced-women-targeted-hack-leak-attacks-n1275540|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Drug trafficking===
[[Darknet market]]s are used to buy and sell [[controlled substances]] online. Some [[drug trafficker]]s use [[End-to-end encryption|encrypted]] messaging tools to communicate with drug mules or potential customers. The dark web site [[Silk Road (marketplace)|Silk Road]], which started operations in 2011, was the first major online marketplace for drugs. It was permanently shut down in October 2013 by the FBI and Europol. After Silk Road 2.0 went down, Silk Road 3 Reloaded emerged. However, it was just an older marketplace named [[Darknet market|Diabolus Market]] that used the Silk Road name in order to get more exposure from the Silk Road brand's earlier success.<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2014 |title=We talked to the opportunist imitator behind Silk Road 3.0 |website=[[The Daily Dot]] |url=http://www.dailydot.com/layer8/silk-road-3-blake-benthall/ |access-date=2016-10-04 |archive-date=5 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005205525/http://www.dailydot.com/layer8/silk-road-3-blake-benthall/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Darknet markets have had a rise in traffic in recent years for many reasons, such as the anonymous purchases and often a system of reviews by other buyers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Arora |first=Beenu |title=Council Post: Five Key Reasons Dark Web Markets Are Booming |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2020/04/23/five-key-reasons-dark-web-markets-are-booming/ |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=Forbes |language=en |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729020116/https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2020/04/23/five-key-reasons-dark-web-markets-are-booming/ |url-status=live }}</ref> There are many ways in which darknet markets can financially drain individuals. Vendors and customers alike go to great lengths to keep their identities a secret while online. Commonly used tools for hiding their online presence include [[virtual private networks|virtual private networks (VPNs)]], [[Tails (operating system)|Tails]], and the [[Tor Browser]]. Darknet markets entice customers by making them feel comfortable. Although people can easily gain access to a Tor browser, actually gaining access to an illicit market is not as simple as typing it in on a search engine, as one would with Google. Darknet markets have special links that change frequently, ending in [[.onion]] as opposed to the typical [[.com]], .net, and [[.org]] domain extensions. To add to privacy, the most prevalent currencies on these markets are [[Bitcoin]] and [[Monero]], which allows transactions to be anonymous.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Guide: What is Bitcoin and how does Bitcoin work? - CBBC Newsround |language=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/25622442 |access-date=2020-06-23 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407042830/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/25622442 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Reynolds |first=Sam |date=March 31, 2025 |editor-last=Reback |editor-first=Sheldon |title=It's Back to BTC for Darknet Markets After Monero's Binance Delisting: Chainalysis |url=https://www.coindesk.com/markets/2025/03/31/it-s-back-to-bitcoin-for-darknet-markets-after-monero-s-binance-delisting-chainalysis |access-date=2025-05-13 |website=[[CoinDesk]] |language=en}}</ref>

A problem that marketplace users sometimes face is [[exit scam]]ming.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Christian |first=Jon |date=2015-02-04 |title=The 'Exit Scam' Is the Darknet's Perfect Crime |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/darknet-slang-watch-exit-scam/ |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=Vice |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055329/https://www.vice.com/en/article/xyw7xn/darknet-slang-watch-exit-scam |url-status=live }}</ref> In cases of individual vendors, a vendor with a high rating acts as if they are selling on the market and has users pay for products they never receive.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 'Exit Scam' Is the Darknet's Perfect Crime |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/darknet-slang-watch-exit-scam/ |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=Vice.com |date=4 February 2015 |language=en |archive-date=24 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624105505/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/xyw7xn/darknet-slang-watch-exit-scam |url-status=live }}</ref> The vendor then closes their account after receiving money from multiple buyers and never sending what was paid for. Any vendor on a darknet market, all of which are involved in illegal activities, has no reason not to engage in exit scamming when they no longer want to be a vendor. In 2019, an entire market known as Wall Street Market allegedly exit scammed, stealing $30 million in bitcoin.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Winder|first=Davey|title=Did A Bitcoin Exit Scam Cause Dark Web Wall Street Market Crash?|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/daveywinder/2019/05/03/did-a-bitcoin-exit-scam-cause-dark-web-wall-street-market-crash/|access-date=2021-09-25|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>

The FBI has cracked down on these markets. In July 2017, the FBI seized one of the biggest markets, commonly called [[AlphaBay|Alphabay]], which re-opened in August 2021 under the control of DeSnake, one of the original administrators.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brandom |first=Russell |date=2019-02-17 |title=The golden age of dark web drug markets is over |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/2/17/18226718/alphabay-takedown-drug-marketplace-federal-arrest |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref><ref name="WIRED">{{cite magazine |last1=Greenberg |first1=Andy |title=He Escaped the Dark Web's Biggest Bust. Now He's Back |url=https://www.wired.com/story/alphabay-desnake-dark-web-interview/ |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast Publications]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923132523/https://www.wired.com/story/alphabay-desnake-dark-web-interview/ |archive-date=September 23, 2021 |date=September 23, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Investigators pose as buyers and order products from darknet vendors in the hope that the vendors leave a trail the investigators can follow. In one case an investigator posed as a firearms seller, and for six months people purchased from them and provided home addresses. The FBI was able to make over a dozen arrests during this six-month investigation.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=26 June 2016 |title=7 Ways the Cops Will Bust You on the Dark Web |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/7-ways-the-cops-will-bust-you-on-the-dark-web/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715015429/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/vv73pj/7-ways-the-cops-will-bust-you-on-the-dark-web |archive-date=15 July 2020 |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=Vice.com |language=en}}</ref> Another crackdown targeted vendors selling [[fentanyl]] and [[opiates]]. With thousands of people dying each year due to drug overdose, investigators have made internet drug sales a priority.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-03-24 |title=America's Drug Overdose Epidemic: Data to Action |url=https://www.cdc.gov/injury/features/prescription-drug-overdose/index.html |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> Many vendors do not realize the extra criminal charges that go along with selling drugs online, such as money laundering and illegal use of the mail.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Consequences of Mailing Drugs and Other Banned Substances |url=https://www.cottenfirm.com/blog/2019/september/the-consequences-of-mailing-drugs-and-other-bann/ |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=www.cottenfirm.com|date=26 September 2019 }}</ref> In 2019, a vendor was sentenced to 10 years in prison after selling cocaine and methamphetamine under the name JetSetLife.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Darknet drug vendor sentenced to 10 years prison |url=https://www.dea.gov/press-releases/2019/04/12/darknet-drug-vendor-sentenced-10-years-prison |access-date=2020-06-23 |website=www.dea.gov |language=en}}</ref> But despite the large amount of time investigators spend tracking down people, in 2018 only 65 suspects who bought and sold illegal goods on some of the biggest markets were identified.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Feds Crack Down on Darknet Vendors of Illicit Goods |url=https://www.bankinfosecurity.com/feds-crack-down-on-darknet-vendors-illicit-goods-a-11145 |access-date=2020-07-14 |website=www.bankinfosecurity.com |language=en |archive-date=14 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714200159/https://www.bankinfosecurity.com/feds-crack-down-on-darknet-vendors-illicit-goods-a-11145 |url-status=live }}</ref> Meanwhile, thousands of transactions take place daily on these markets.

==Notable incidents==
* One of the highest-profile banking computer crimes occurred over a course of three years beginning in 1970. The chief teller at the Park Avenue branch of New York's [[Union Dime Savings Bank]] embezzled over $1.5 million from hundreds of accounts.<ref name="Weitzer" />
* In 2014, the [[Sony Pictures Entertainment hack]] not only exposed sensitive company data but also led to extortion demands, marking one of the most publicized corporate cyberattacks to date.
* A hacking group called MOD (Masters of Deception) allegedly stole passwords and technical data from [[Pacific Bell]], [[Nynex]], and other telephone companies as well as several big credit agencies and two major universities. The damage caused was extensive; one company, [[Southwestern Bell]], suffered losses of $370,000.<ref name="Weitzer" />
* In 1983, a 19-year-old UCLA student used his PC to break into a Defense Department International Communications system.<ref name="Weitzer">{{Cite book |last=Weitzer |first=Ronald |title=Current Controversies in Criminology |publisher=Pearson Education Press |year=2003 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |page=150}}</ref>
* Between 1995 and 1998 the [[News Corporation (1980–2013)|Newscorp]] satellite pay-to-view encrypted [[Sky Digital (UK & Ireland)|SKY-TV]] service was hacked several times during an ongoing technological [[arms race]] between a pan-European hacking group and Newscorp. The original motivation of the hackers was to watch ''Star Trek'' reruns in Germany, which was something which Newscorp did not have the copyright permission to allow.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=David |last1=Mann |first2=Mike |last2=Sutton |date=6 November 2011 |title=>>Netcrime |journal=British Journal of Criminology |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=201–229 |citeseerx=10.1.1.133.3861 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a014232 }}</ref>
* On 26 March 1999, the [[Melissa (computer virus)|Melissa worm]] infected a document on a victim's computer, then automatically emailed that document and a copy of the virus to other people.
* In February 2000, an individual going by the alias of [[MafiaBoy]] began a series of [[denial-of-service attack]]s against high-profile websites, including [[Yahoo!]], [[Dell, Inc.]], [[E*TRADE]], [[eBay]], and [[CNN]]. About 50 computers at [[Stanford University]], along with computers at the University of California at Santa Barbara, were among the [[zombie computer]]s sending pings in the [[DDoS|distributed denial-of-service]] attacks. On 3 August 2000, Canadian federal prosecutors charged MafiaBoy with 54 counts of illegal access to computers.
* The [[Stuxnet]] worm corrupted SCADA microprocessors, particularly the types used in [[Siemens]] centrifuge controllers.
* The [[Russian Business Network]] (RBN) was registered as an internet site in 2006. Initially, much of its activity was legitimate. But apparently the founders soon discovered that it was more profitable to host illegitimate activities and to offer its services to criminals. The RBN has been described by [[VeriSign]] as "the baddest of the bad".<ref name="econ20070930">{{Cite news |date=30 September 2007 |title=A walk on the dark side |newspaper=The Economist |url=http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9723768 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110134626/http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9723768 |archive-date=10 November 2007}}</ref> It provides web hosting services and internet access to all kinds of criminal and objectionable activities that earn up to $150 million in one year. It specializes in [[Personally identifiable information|personal identity theft]] for resale. It is the originator of [[MPack (software)|MPack]] and an alleged operator of the now defunct [[Storm botnet]].
* On 2 March 2010, Spanish investigators arrested three men suspected of infecting over 13 million computers around the world. The botnet of infected computers included PCs inside more than half of the [[Fortune 1000]] companies and more than 40 major banks, according to investigators.<ref>{{Cite news|date=3 March 2010|title=Spanish police crack massive 'zombie computer' network|work=France 24|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20100303-spanish-police-crack-massive-zombie-computer-network}}</ref>
* In August 2010, the US Department of Homeland Security shut down the international [[child sex ring]] Dreamboard. The website had approximately 600 members and may have distributed up to 123 [[terabyte]]s of child pornography (roughly equivalent to 16,000 DVDs). To date this is the single largest US prosecution of an international child pornography ring; 52 arrests were made worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2011 |title=DHS: Secretary Napolitano and Attorney General Holder Announce Largest U.S. Prosecution of International Criminal Network Organized to Sexually Exploit Children |url=https://www.dhs.gov/ynews/releases/20110803-napolitano-holder-announce-largest-prosecution-criminal-network.shtm |access-date=2011-11-10 |publisher=Dhs.gov |archive-date=17 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230617182832/https://www.dhs.gov/news/2011/08/03/secretary-napolitano-and-attorney-general-holder-announce-largest-us-prosecution |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In January 2012, [[Zappos.com]] experienced a security breach compromising the credit card numbers, personal information, and billing and shipping addresses of as many as 24 million customers.<ref>{{Cite news |first=David K. |last=Li |date=17 January 2012 |title=Zappos cyber attack |work=New York Post |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/national/zappos_cyber_attack_pWsrU60crm8SGHJWYGuP7K |access-date=14 February 2013 |archive-date=18 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418113048/http://www.nypost.com/p/news/national/zappos_cyber_attack_pWsrU60crm8SGHJWYGuP7K |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In June 2012, [[LinkedIn]] and [[eHarmony]] were attacked, and 65 million [[password hash]]es were compromised. Thirty thousand passwords were cracked, and 1.5 million eHarmony passwords were posted online.<ref>{{Cite news |first=Salvador |last=Rodriguez |date=6 June 2012 |title=Like LinkedIn, eHarmony is hacked; 1.5 million passwords stolen |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-xpm-2012-jun-06-la-fi-tn-eharmony-hacked-linkedin-20120606-story.html |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028034448/http://articles.latimes.com/2012/jun/06/business/la-fi-tn-eharmony-hacked-linkedin-20120606 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In December 2012, the [[Wells Fargo]] website experienced a denial-of-service attack that potentially compromised 70 million customers and 8.5 million active viewers. Other banks thought to be compromised included [[Bank of America]], [[J. P. Morgan]], [[U.S. Bancorp|U.S. Bank]], and [[PNC Bank|PNC Financial Services]].<ref>{{Cite news |first=Rick |last=Rothacker |date=12 Oct 2012 |title=Cyber attacks against Wells Fargo "significant," handled well: CFO |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/net-us-wellsfargo-cyberattacks-idUSBRE89B1C620121012}}</ref>
* On 23 April 2013, the Twitter account of the Associated Press was hacked. The hacker posted a hoax tweet about fictitious attacks on the White House that they claimed left then-[[Barack Obama|President Obama]] injured.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2013 |title=AP Twitter Hack Falsely Claims Explosions at White House |publisher=Samantha Murphy |url=http://mashable.com/2013/04/23/ap-hacked-white-house/ |access-date=23 April 2013}}</ref> The hoax tweet resulted in a brief plunge of 130 points in the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]], the removal of $136 billion from the [[S&P 500]] index,<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 April 2013 |title=Fake Tweet Erasing $136 Billion Shows Markets Need Humans |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-23/fake-report-erasing-136-billion-shows-market-s-fragility.html |access-date=23 April 2013 |archive-date=23 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423204458/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-23/fake-report-erasing-136-billion-shows-market-s-fragility.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the temporary suspension of AP's Twitter account. The Dow Jones later restored its session gains.
*In May 2017, 74 countries logged a [[ransomware]] cybercrime called "[[WannaCry]]".<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 May 2017 |title=Unprecedented cyber attacks wreak global havoc |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/unprecedented-cyberattacks-wreak-global-havoc |website=Straits Times |access-date=13 May 2017 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718055914/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/unprecedented-cyberattacks-wreak-global-havoc |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Illicit access to camera sensors, microphone sensors, phonebook contacts, all internet-enabled apps, and metadata of mobile telephones running Android and iOS was reportedly provided by Israeli spyware that was found to be in operation in at least 46 nation-states around the world. Journalists, royalty, and government officials were among the targets.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/sep/18/israeli-spyware-found-phones-45-countries-us-inclu/|title=Israeli spyware found on phones in 45 countries, U.S. included|work=[[The Washington Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sfgate.com/business/technology/article/Researchers-find-hints-of-Israeli-spyware-around-13237819.php |title=Researchers find hints of Israeli spyware around globe - SFGate |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924105848/https://www.sfgate.com/business/technology/article/Researchers-find-hints-of-Israeli-spyware-around-13237819.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2018 |title=Your Smartphone could be running Israeli Spyware! |url=https://www.siasat.com/news/smartphone-or-israeli-spywarehow-safe-your-smartphone-1400791/ |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=24 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924110052/https://www.siasat.com/news/smartphone-or-israeli-spywarehow-safe-your-smartphone-1400791/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Earlier accusations that Israeli weapons companies were meddling in international telephony<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2016 |title=Phone hackers for hire: A peek into the discreet, lucrative business tapped by the FBI |url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/3062396/security/phone-hackers-for-hire-a-peek-into-the-discreet-lucrative-business-tapped-by-the-fbi.html |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=16 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516013335/http://www.pcworld.com/article/3062396/security/phone-hackers-for-hire-a-peek-into-the-discreet-lucrative-business-tapped-by-the-fbi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and smartphones<ref>{{Cite news |last=Beaumont |first=Peter |date=26 August 2016 |title=Israeli firm accused of creating iPhone spyware |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/26/israeli-firm-accused-of-creating-iphone-spyware |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060430/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/26/israeli-firm-accused-of-creating-iphone-spyware |url-status=live }}</ref> have been eclipsed by the [[Pegasus (spyware)|2018 Pegasus spyware revelations]].
*In December 2019, [[United States Intelligence Community|US intelligence officials]] and ''[[The New York Times]]'' revealed that [[ToTok (app)|ToTok]], a messaging application widely used in the [[United Arab Emirates]], is a [[Espionage|spying]] tool for the UAE. An investigation revealed that the Emirati government was attempting to track every conversation, movement, relationship, appointment, sound, and image of those who installed the app on their phones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chat App ToTok Is Spy Tool For UAE – Report |url=https://www.silicon.co.uk/mobility/mobile-apps/totok-spy-tool-for-uae-325873 |access-date=27 December 2019 |website=Silicon UK Tech News |date=27 December 2019 |archive-date=27 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227191240/https://www.silicon.co.uk/mobility/mobile-apps/totok-spy-tool-for-uae-325873 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*On February 5, 2025, [[La Razón (Madrid)|''La Razon'']] reported the arrest of a young man known as 'Natohub' who is suspected of hacking and selling information from Spanish government computer systems, NATO, United Nations, U.S. Army and other international computer systems from his home in Alicante, Spain.<ref>Christian Dos Santos. (5 February 2025). "Who is 'Natohub', the 18-year-old hacker arrested for cyberattacking the Civil Guard, the DGT, the SEPE and NATO." [https://www.larazon.es/espana/quien-natohub-hacker-18-anos-detenido-ciberatacar-guardia-civil-sepe-otan_2025020567a350790b2ad20001b4a0f5.html La Razon website] Retrieved 7 February 2025.</ref>

==Combating computer crime==
Due to cybercriminals using the internet for cross-border attacks and crimes, the process of prosecuting cybercriminals has been difficult. The number of vulnerabilities that a cybercriminal could use as points of opportunity to exploit has also increased over the years. From 2008 to 2014 alone, there has been a 17.75% increase in vulnerabilities across all online devices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jardine |first=Eric |date=2015 |title=Global Cyberspace Is Safer than You Think: Real Trends in Cybercrime |url=http://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2634590 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |language=en |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2634590 |issn=1556-5068 |access-date=10 December 2023 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060424/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2634590 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The internet's expansive reach causes the damage inflicted to people to be magnified since many methods of cybercrime have the opportunity to reach many people. The availability of virtual spaces<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barnard-Wills |first1=David |last2=Ashenden |first2=Debi |date=2012-03-21 |title=Securing Virtual Space: Cyber War, Cyber Terror, and Risk |journal=Space and Culture |language=en |doi=10.1177/1206331211430016 |s2cid=146501914}}</ref> has allowed cybercrime to become an everyday occurrence.<ref name=":0" /> In 2018, the [[Internet Crime Complaint Center]] received 351,937 complaints of cybercrime, which led to $2.7 billion lost.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Facts + Statistics: Identity theft and cybercrime |url=https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-identity-theft-and-cybercrime |access-date=2 December 2019 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060424/https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics-identity-theft-and-cybercrime |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Investigation===
In a criminal investigation, a computer can be a source of evidence (see [[digital forensics]]). Even when a computer is not directly used for criminal purposes, it may contain records of value to criminal investigators in the form of a [[logfile]]. In many countries,<ref name="Zehra Ali">{{Cite web |last=Zehra Ali |date=21 January 2018 |title=Mandatory Data Retention Worldwide |url=https://www.privacyend.com/mandatory-data-retention/ |access-date=17 December 2018 |archive-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217110743/https://www.privacyend.com/mandatory-data-retention/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Internet service provider]]s are required by law to keep their logfiles for a predetermined amount of time.

There are many ways for cybercrime to take place, and investigations tend to start with an [[IP Address]] trace; however, that does not necessarily enable detectives to solve a case. Different types of high-tech crime may also include elements of low-tech crime, and vice versa, making cybercrime investigators an indispensable part of modern law enforcement. Methods of cybercrime detective work are dynamic and constantly improving, whether in closed police units or in the framework of international cooperation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RS_No79/No79_15RC_Group2.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319194419/http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RS_No79/No79_15RC_Group2.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2015 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref>
[[File:Tommy Tuberville touring the National Computer Forensic Institute in 2021.jpg|thumb|Senator [[Tommy Tuberville]] touring the National Computer Forensic Institute in [[Hoover, Alabama]], in 2021]]
In the United States, the FBI<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Cyber Crime |url=https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/cyber |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=Federal Bureau of Investigation |language=en-us}}</ref> and the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] (DHS)<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2012-06-19 |title=Combating Cyber Crime |url=https://www.dhs.gov/cisa/combating-cyber-crime |access-date=2019-11-01 |website=Department of Homeland Security |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060426/https://www.cisa.gov/combatting-cyber-crime |url-status=live }}</ref> are government agencies that combat cybercrime. The FBI has trained agents and analysts in cybercrime placed in their field offices and headquarters.<ref name=":1" /> In the DHS, the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] has a Cyber Intelligence Section that works to target financial cybercrimes. They combat international cybercrime and work to protect institutions such as banks from intrusions and information breaches. Based in Alabama, the Secret Service and the Alabama Office of Prosecution Services work together to train professionals in law enforcement at the National Computer Forensic Institute.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=NCFI - About |url=https://www.ncfi.usss.gov/ncfi/pages/about.xhtml?dswid=-4902 |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=www.ncfi.usss.gov |archive-date=31 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231015231/https://www.ncfi.usss.gov/ncfi/pages/about.xhtml?dswid=-4902 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Investigation |url=https://www.secretservice.gov/investigation/ |access-date=2019-12-03 |website=www.secretservice.gov |archive-date=16 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916015010/https://www.secretservice.gov/investigation/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The NCFI provides "state and local members of the law enforcement community with training in cyber incident response, investigation, and forensic examination in cyber incident response, investigation, and forensic examination."<ref name=":3" />

Investigating cyber crime within the United States and globally often requires partnerships. Within the United States, cyber crime may be investigated by law enforcement, the Department of Homeland Security, among other federal agencies. However, as the world becomes more dependent on technology, cyber attacks and cyber crime are going to expand as threat actors will continue to exploit weaknesses in protection and existing vulnerabilities to achieve their end goals, often being data theft or exfiltration. To combat cybercrime, the United States Secret Service maintains an Electronic Crimes Task Force which extends beyond the United States as it helps to locate threat actors that are located globally and performing cyber related crimes within the United States. The Secret Service is also responsible for the National Computer Forensic Institute which allows law enforcement and people of the court to receive cyber training and information on how to combat cyber crime. The United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement is responsible for the Cyber Crimes Center (C3) providing cyber crime related services for federal, state, local and international agencies. Finally, the United States also has resources relating to Law Enforcement Cyber Incident Reporting to allow local and state agencies to understand how, when, and what should be reported as a cyber incident to the federal government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Combatting Cyber Crime {{!}} CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/combatting-cyber-crime |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.cisa.gov |language=en |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060453/https://www.cisa.gov/combatting-cyber-crime |url-status=live }}</ref>

Because cybercriminals commonly use encryption and other techniques to hide their identity and location, it can be difficult to trace a perpetrator after a crime is committed, so prevention measures are crucial.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Brenner |first=Susan W. |title=Cybercrime : criminal threats from cyberspace |date=2010 |publisher=Praeger |isbn=9780313365461 |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |oclc=464583250}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-08-18 |title=The Importance of Understanding Encryption in Cybersecurity |url=https://www.floridatechonline.com/blog/information-technology/the-importance-of-understanding-encryption-in-cybersecurity/ |access-date=2019-12-04 |website=Florida Tech Online |language=en-US |archive-date=4 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204014723/https://www.floridatechonline.com/blog/information-technology/the-importance-of-understanding-encryption-in-cybersecurity/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Prevention ===
The Department of Homeland Security also instituted the Continuous Diagnostics and Mitigation (CDM) Program.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cisa.gov/cdm|title=Continuous Diagnostics and Mitigation Program | CISA|website=www.cisa.gov|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=6 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406154053/https://www.cisa.gov/cdm|url-status=live}}</ref> The CDM Program monitors and secures government networks by tracking network risks and informing system personnel so that they can take action. In an attempt to catch intrusions before the damage is done, the DHS created the Enhanced Cybersecurity Services (ECS).<ref name=ECS_1>{{cite web| url=https://www.cisa.gov/enhanced-cybersecurity-services-ecs| title=Enhanced Cybersecurity Services (ECS)| publisher=[[Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency]]| date=2024| access-date=6 January 2024| archive-date=23 February 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223022025/https://www.cisa.gov/enhanced-cybersecurity-services-ecs| url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency|Cyber Security and Infrastructure Security Agency]] approves the private partners that provide intrusion detection and prevention services through the ECS.<ref name=ECS_1/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Detection and Prevention {{!}} CISA |url=https://www.cisa.gov/detection-and-prevention |access-date=2019-11-01 |website=www.cisa.gov |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107023624/https://www.cisa.gov/detection-and-prevention |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Cybersecurity professionals have been skeptical of prevention-focused strategies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-26 |title=Report: 74% of security leaders say that prevention-first strategies will fail |url=https://venturebeat.com/2022/04/26/report-74-of-security-leaders-say-that-prevention-first-strategies-will-fail/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=VentureBeat |language=en-US |archive-date=28 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728111735/https://venturebeat.com/2022/04/26/report-74-of-security-leaders-say-that-prevention-first-strategies-will-fail/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The mode of use of cybersecurity products has also been called into question. [[Shuman Ghosemajumder]] has argued that individual companies using a combination of products for security is not a scalable approach and has advocated for the use of cybersecurity technology primarily at the platform level.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ghosemajumder |first=Shuman |date=2017-12-04 |title=You Can't Secure 100% of Your Data 100% of the Time |work=Harvard Business Review |url=https://hbr.org/2017/12/you-cant-secure-100-of-your-data-100-of-the-time |access-date=2022-05-03 |issn=0017-8012 |archive-date=28 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828214607/https://hbr.org/2017/12/you-cant-secure-100-of-your-data-100-of-the-time |url-status=live }}</ref> Law enforcement agencies often struggle with applying traditional policing methods to digital crimes, which evolve faster than investigative practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Curtis |first1=Joanna |last2=Oxburgh |first2=Gavin |date=2023-12-01 |title=Understanding cybercrime in 'real world' policing and law enforcement |journal=The Police Journal |language=EN |volume=96 |issue=4 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1177/0032258X221107584 |issn=0032-258X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

On a personal level, there are some strategies available to defend against cybercrime, such as:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nikishin |first=A. |date=2015 |chapter=ICS Threats. A Kaspersky Lab view, predictions and reality |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/ic.2015.0003 |title=Cyber Security for Industrial Control Systems |pages=01 (43 .) |publisher=Institution of Engineering and Technology |doi=10.1049/ic.2015.0003 |isbn=978-1-78561-010-3}}</ref>

* Keeping one’s software and operating system update to benefit from security patches
* Using anti-virus software that can detect and remove malicious threats
* Using strong passwords with a variety of characters that aren't easy to guess
* Not opening/downloading attachments from spam emails
* Not clicking on links from scam emails
* Not giving out personal information over the internet unless one can verify that the destination is safe
* Contacting companies about suspicious requests of one’s information

===Legislation===
Because of weak laws, cybercriminals operating from developing countries can often evade detection and prosecution. In countries such as the [[Philippines]], laws against cybercrime are weak or sometimes nonexistent. Cybercriminals can then strike from across international borders and remain undetected. Even when identified, these criminals can typically avoid being extradited to a country such as the US that has laws that allow for prosecution. For this reason, agencies such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] have used deception and subterfuge to catch criminals. For example, two Russian hackers had been evading the FBI for some time. The FBI set up a fake computing company based in Seattle, Washington. They proceeded to lure the two Russian men into the United States by offering them work with this company. Upon completion of the interview, the suspects were arrested. Clever tricks like that are sometimes a necessary part of catching cybercriminals when weak laws and limited international cooperation make it impossible otherwise.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kshetri |first=Nir |title=Diffusion and Effects of Cyber Crime in Developing Countries |url=http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=21efdb54-ad43-447f-ab46-ce7fa854a98f%40sessionmgr4003&hid=4109&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=55328703/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018103250/http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=21efdb54-ad43-447f-ab46-ce7fa854a98f%40sessionmgr4003&hid=4109&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=buh&AN=55328703/ |archive-date=18 October 2015 |access-date=29 April 2015}}</ref>

The first cyber related law in the United States was the Privacy Act of 1974 which was only required for federal agencies to follow to ensure privacy and protection of personally identifiable information (PII). However, since 1974, in the United States other laws and regulations have been drafted and implemented, but there is still a gap in responding to current cyber related crime. The most recent cyber related law, according to NIST, was the NIST Small Business Cybersecurity Act, which came out in 2018, and provides guidelines to small businesses to ensure that cybersecurity risks are being identified and addressed accurately.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NIST Cybersecurity Program History and Timeline {{!}} CSRC |url=https://csrc.nist.gov/nist-cyber-history |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=csrc.nist.gov |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060958/https://csrc.nist.gov/nist-cyber-history |url-status=live }}</ref>

During President Barack Obama's presidency three cybersecurity related bills were signed into order in December 2014. The first was the Federal Information Security Modernization Act of 2014, the second was the National Cybersecurity Protection Act of 2014, and the third was the Cybersecurity Enhancement Act of 2014. Although the Federal Information Security Modernization Act of 2014 was just an update of an older version of the act, it focused on the practices federal agencies were to abide by relating to cybersecurity. While the National Cybersecurity Protection Act of 2014 was aimed toward increasing the amount of information sharing that occurs across the federal and private sector to improve cybersecurity amongst the industries. Finally, the Cybersecurity Enhancement Act of 2014 relates to cybersecurity research and education.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kesan |first1=Jay P. |title=Cybersecurity and privacy law in a nutshell |last2=Hayes |first2=Carol M. |date=2019 |publisher=West Academic Publishing |isbn=978-1-63460-272-3 |series=Nutshell series |location=St. Paul, MN}}</ref>

In April 2015, then-President Barack Obama released an executive order that allows the US to freeze the assets of convicted cybercriminals and block their economic activity within the United States.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Northam |first=Jackie |title=U.S. Creates First Sanctions Program Against Cybercriminals |newspaper=NPR |date=April 2015 |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2015/04/01/396811276/u-s-creates-first-sanctions-program-against-cybercriminals/ |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060933/https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/04/01/396811276/u-s-creates-first-sanctions-program-against-cybercriminals/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The European Union adopted cybercrime directive 2013/40/EU, which was elaborated upon in the [[Council of Europe]]'s [[Budapest Convention on Cybercrime]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Adrian Cristian |last=Moise |year=2015 |title=Analysis of Directive 2013/40/EU on attacks against information systems in the context of approximation of law at the European level |url=http://jolas.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/jolas_sia38.pdf |journal=Journal of Law and Administrative Sciences |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208231600/http://jolas.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/jolas_sia38.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2015}}</ref>

It is not only the US and the European Union that have been introducing measures against cybercrime. On 31 May 2017, China announced that its new cybersecurity law was taking effect.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2017 |title=China's new cybersecurity law takes effect today |website=[[CNBC]] |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/31/chinas-new-cybersecurity-law-takes-effect-today.html |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718060935/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/31/chinas-new-cybersecurity-law-takes-effect-today.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Australia, legislation to combat cybercrime includes the [[Criminal Code Act 1995]], the [[Telecommunications Act 1997]], and the [[Enhancing Online Safety Act 2015]].

===Penalties===
Penalties for computer-related crimes in [[New York (state)|New York State]] can range from a fine and a short period of jail time for a Class A misdemeanor, such as unauthorized use of a computer, up to 3 to 15 years in prison for a Class C felony, such as computer tampering in the first degree.<ref name="OMH">{{Cite web |title=Criminal Justice System for Adults in NYS |url=https://www.omh.ny.gov/omhweb/forensic/manual/html/chapter1.htm |access-date=17 December 2018 |archive-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217111209/https://www.omh.ny.gov/omhweb/forensic/manual/html/chapter1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

However, some former cybercriminals have been hired as information security experts by private companies due to their inside knowledge of computer crime, a phenomenon which theoretically could create [[Moral hazard|perverse incentives]]. A possible counter to this is for courts to ban convicted hackers from using the internet or computers, even after they have been released from prison{{Spaced ndash}}though as computers and the internet become more and more central to everyday life, this type of punishment becomes more and more draconian. Nuanced approaches have been developed that manage cyber offenders' behavior without resorting to total computer or internet bans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2011 |title=Managing the Risks Posed by Offender Computer Use - Perspectives |url=http://appaweb.csg.org/Perspectives/Perspectives_V35_N4_P40.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105202421/http://appaweb.csg.org/Perspectives/Perspectives_V35_N4_P40.pdf |archive-date=5 November 2013 |access-date=25 January 2015}}</ref> These approaches involve restricting individuals to specific devices which are subject to monitoring or searches by probation or parole officers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=Art |url=http://www.ccthomas.com/details.cfm?P_ISBN13=9780398087289 |title=The Cybercrime Handbook for Community Corrections: Managing Risk in the 21st Century |publisher=Thomas |year=2012 |isbn=9780398087289 |location=Springfield |access-date=25 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402094342/http://www.ccthomas.com/details.cfm?P_ISBN13=9780398087289 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A 2023 GAO report noted that the United States lacks coordination and sufficient resources to effectively counter growing cybercrime threats.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cain |first=Marisol Cruz |last2=Goodwin |first2=Gretta L. |date=2025-01-22 |title=The U.S. Is Less Prepared to Fight Cybercrime Than It Could Be |url=https://www.gao.gov/blog/u.s.-less-prepared-fight-cybercrime-it-could-be |access-date=2025-04-30 |website=U.S. Government Accountability Office |language=en}}</ref>

=== Awareness ===
Cybercrime is becoming more of a threat in our society. According to Accenture's State of Cybersecurity, security attacks increased 31% from 2020 to 2021. The number of attacks per company increased from 206 to 270. Due to this rising threat, the importance of raising awareness about measures to protect information and the tactics criminals use to steal that information is paramount. However, despite cybercrime becoming a mounting problem, many people are not aware of the severity of this problem. This could be attributed to a lack of experience and knowledge of technological issues. There are 1.5 million cyber-attacks annually, which means that there are over 4,000 attacks a day, 170 attacks every hour, or nearly three attacks every minute, with studies showing that only 16 percent of victims had asked the people who were carrying out the attacks to stop.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Feinberg |first=T |year=2008 |title=Whether it happens at school or off-campus, cyberbullying disrupts and affects. |journal=Cyberbullying |pages=10}}</ref> Comparitech's 2023 study shows that cybercrime victims have peaked to 71 million annually, which means there is a cyberattack every 39 seconds.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-07 |title=The Ultimate List of Cyber Attack Stats (2024) |url=https://explodingtopics.com/blog/cybersecurity-stats |access-date=2024-03-23 |website=Exploding Topics |language=en |archive-date=23 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240323183440/https://explodingtopics.com/blog/cybersecurity-stats |url-status=live }}</ref> Anybody who uses the internet for any reason can be a victim, which is why it is important to be aware of how to be protected while online.

=== Intelligence ===
As cybercrime proliferated, a professional ecosystem evolved to support individuals and groups seeking to profit from cybercrime activities. The ecosystem has become quite specialized, and includes malware developers, botnet operators, professional cybercrime groups, groups specializing in the sale of stolen content, and so forth. A few of the leading cybersecurity companies have the skills and resources to follow the activities of these individuals and groups.<ref name=DT_1>{{cite web| title=Dridex: Tidal waves of spam pushing dangerous financial Trojan| url=https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/dridex-financial-trojan| publisher=[[Gen Digital|Symantec]]| date=16 February 2016| access-date=6 January 2024| archive-date=6 January 2024| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106135415/https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/dridex-financial-trojan| url-status=live}}</ref> A wide variety of information that can be used for defensive purposes is available from these sources, for example, technical indicators such as hashes of infected files<ref name="fireeye.com">{{Cite web |title=Insights into Iranian Cyber Espionage: APT33 Targets Aerospace and Energy Sectors and has Ties to Destructive Malware « Insights into Iranian Cyber Espionage: APT33 Targets Aerospace and Energy Sectors and has Ties to Destructive Malware |url=https://www.fireeye.com/blog/threat-research/2017/09/apt33-insights-into-iranian-cyber-espionage.html |access-date=2018-01-03 |website=FireEye |archive-date=6 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006082415/https://www.fireeye.com/blog/threat-research/2017/09/apt33-insights-into-iranian-cyber-espionage.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and malicious IPs/URLs,<ref name="fireeye.com" /> as well as strategic information profiling the goals and techniques of the profiled groups. Much of it is freely available, but consistent, ongoing access typically requires a subscription. Some in the corporate sector see a crucial role for [[artificial intelligence]] in the future development of cybersecurity.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Janofsky |first=Adam |date=19 September 2018 |title=How AI Can Help Stop Cyberattacks |language=en-US |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-ai-can-help-stop-cyberattacks-1537322940 |access-date=2018-09-20 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920123113/https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-ai-can-help-stop-cyberattacks-1537322940 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Noyes |first=Katherine |title=This company uses A.I. to stop cyberattacks before they start |language=en |work=Computerworld |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/3081326/security/this-company-uses-ai-to-stop-cyberattacks-before-they-start.html |access-date=2018-09-20 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920122924/https://www.computerworld.com/article/3081326/security/this-company-uses-ai-to-stop-cyberattacks-before-they-start.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Interpol's Cyber Fusion Center began a collaboration with key cybersecurity players to distribute information on the latest online scams, cyber threats, and risks to internet users. Since 2017, reports on social engineering frauds, ransomware, phishing, and other attacks have been distributed to security agencies in over 150 countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cybercrime threat response|url=https://www.interpol.int/en/Crimes/Cybercrime/Cybercrime-threat-response|access-date=2021-05-17|website=www.interpol.int|language=en|archive-date=28 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428163611/https://www.interpol.int/en/Crimes/Cybercrime/Cybercrime-threat-response|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Spread of cybercrime===
The increasing prevalence of cybercrime has resulted in more attention to computer crime detection and prosecution.

Hacking has become less complex as hacking communities disseminate their knowledge through the internet.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}} Blogs and social networks have contributed substantially to information sharing, so that beginners can benefit from older hackers' knowledge and advice.

Furthermore, hacking is cheaper than ever. Before the [[cloud computing]] era, in order to spam or scam, one needed a variety of resources, such as a dedicated server; skills in server management, network configuration, and network maintenance; and knowledge of Internet service provider standards. By comparison, a [[software-as-a-service]] for mail is a scalable and inexpensive bulk e-mail-sending service for marketing purposes that could be easily set up for spam.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richet |first=Jean-Loup |date=2011 |title=Adoption of deviant behavior and cybercrime 'Know how' diffusion |journal=York Deviancy Conference}}</ref> Cloud computing could help cybercriminals leverage their attacks, whether brute-forcing a password, improving the reach of a botnet, or facilitating a spamming campaign.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Richet |first=Jean-Loup |date=2012 |title=How to Become a Black Hat Hacker? An Exploratory Study of Barriers to Entry Into Cybercrime. |journal=17th AIM Symposium}}</ref>

==List of cybercrime law enforcement agencies==
===Supranational===
* [[ASEAN]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 November 2017 |title=ASEAN Declaration to Prevent and Combat Cybercrime |url=https://asean.org/asean-declaration-prevent-combat-cybercrime/ |access-date=5 June 2022 |website=ASEAN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703044553/https://asean.org/asean-declaration-prevent-combat-cybercrime/ |archive-date=3 July 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Europol|EUROPOL]]
* [[Interpol|INTERPOL]]
===National===
* {{flag|Australia}}: [[Australian High Tech Crime Centre]]
* {{flag|Denmark}}: [[National Special Crime Unit (Denmark)|National Special Crime Unit]]
*{{flag|China}} [[Cyberspace Administration of China]],[[Ministry of State Security (China)]],[[Ministry of Public Security (China)]],[[People's Liberation Army Cyberspace Force]]
* {{flag|Greece}}: [[Cyber Crime Unit (Hellenic Police)|Cyber Crime Unit]] ([[Hellenic Police]])
* {{flag|India}}: [[Cyber Crime Investigation Cell]] ([[Greater Mumbai Police]])
*{{flag|Iran}} [[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Cyber Command]], [[Iranian Public Security Police]]
* {{flag|Japan}}: [[:ja:サイバー警察局|Cyber Police Department]] ([[National Police Agency (Japan)|National Police Agency of Japan]])
* {{flag|Philippines}}:
** Anti-Cybercrime Group ([[Philippine National Police]])
** Cybercrime Division ([[National Bureau of Investigation (Philippines)|National Bureau of Investigation]])
** Cybercrime Investigation and Coordinating Center ([[Office of the President of the Philippines|Office of the President]])
** Office of Cybercrime ([[Department of Justice (Philippines)|Department of Justice]])
* {{flag|South Korea}}: [[Cyber Terror Response Center]] ([[National Police Agency (South Korea)|Korean National Police Agency]])
* {{flag|Turkey}}: Anti-Cybercrime Department ([[General Directorate of Security (Turkey)|General Directorate of Security]])
* {{flag|United Kingdom}}: [[National Cyber Crime Unit]]
* {{flag|United States}}:
** [[FBI Cyber Division|Federal Bureau of Investigation Cyber Division]]
** [[National Security Agency]]
** [[National White Collar Crime Center]]

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*[[Computer Fraud and Abuse Act]]
*[[Computer security]]
*[[Computer trespass]]
*[[Cloud computing security]]
*[[Budapest Convention on Cybercrime]]
*[[Cybercrime countermeasures]]
*[[Cyber defamation law]]
*[[Cyber-]]
*[[Cyberheist]]
*[[Data diddling]]
*[[Darknet]]
*[[Deep web]]
*[[Domain hijacking]]
*[[Electronic evidence]]
*[[Hacking back]]
* (Illegal) [[drop catching]]
*[[Industrial espionage|Economic and industrial espionage]]
*[[Immigration and Customs Enforcement]] (ICE)
*[[Initial access broker]]
*[[Internet homicide]]
*[[Internet suicide pact]]
*[[Legal aspects of computing]]
*[[List of computer criminals]]
*[[Metasploit Project]]
*[[National Crime Agency]] (NCA)
*[[Penetration test]]
*[[Police National E-Crime Unit]]
*[[Protected computer]]
*[[Techno-thriller]]
*[[Trespass to chattels]]
*[[United States Secret Service]]
*[[Virtual crime]]
*[[White-collar crime]]
* [[Web shell]]
*[[BQT.Lock cyberattack group]]}}

==References==
{{reflist|1=30em}}
Cyber Crime. (n.d.). [Folder]. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved April 24, 2024, from [https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/cyber Cybercrime]

Herrero, J., Torres, A., Vivas, P., & Urueña, A. (2022). Smartphone Addiction, Social Support, and Cybercrime Victimization: A Discrete Survival and Growth Mixture Model: Psychosocial Intervention. Psychosocial Intervention, 31(1), 59–66. [https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2022a3 Smartphone Addiction, Social Support, and Cybercrime Victimization: A Discrete Survival and Growth Mixture Model]

==Further reading==
* Balkin, J., Grimmelmann, J., Katz, E., Kozlovski, N., Wagman, S. & Zarsky, T. (2006) (eds) ''Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment'', [[New York University Press]], New York.
* Bowker, Art (2012) "The Cybercrime Handbook for Community Corrections: Managing Risk in the 21st Century" Charles C. Thomas Publishers, Ltd. Springfield.
* Brenner, S. (2007) ''Law in an Era of Smart Technology,'' Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]
* Broadhurst, R., and Chang, Lennon Y.C. (2013) "[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-5218-8_4#page-1 Cybercrime in Asia: trends and challenges]", in B. Hebenton, SY Shou, & J. Liu (eds), Asian Handbook of Criminology (pp. 49–64). New York: Springer ({{ISBN|978-1-4614-5217-1}})
* Chang, L.Y. C. (2012) ''[http://www.e-elgar.com/shop/cybercrime-in-the-greater-china-region?___website=uk_warehouse Cybercrime in the Greater China Region: Regulatory Responses and Crime Prevention across the Taiwan Strait]''. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. ({{ISBN|978-0-85793-667-7}})
* Chang, Lennon Y.C., & Grabosky, P. (2014) "[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-349-67284-4_15#page-1 Cybercrime and establishing a secure cyber world]", in M. Gill (ed) Handbook of Security (pp. 321–339). NY: Palgrave.
*Csonka P. (2000) Internet Crime; the Draft council of Europe convention on cyber-crime: A response to the challenge of crime in the age of the internet? ''Computer Law & Security Report'' Vol.16 no.5.
* Easttom, C. (2010) ''Computer Crime Investigation and the Law''
* Fafinski, S. (2009) ''Computer Misuse: Response, regulation and the law'' Cullompton: Willan
* Glenny, M. [https://archive.org/details/darkmarketcybert0000glen ''DarkMarket : cyberthieves, cybercops, and you''], New York, NY : Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-307-59293-4}}
* Grabosky, P. (2006) ''Electronic Crime,'' New Jersey: [[Prentice Hall]]
* Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2016). [https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/cyber-crimes-against-women-in-india/book253900 Cyber Crimes against Women in India]. New Delhi: SAGE Publishing. {{ISBN|978-9385985775}}.
* Jaishankar, K. (Ed.) (2011). [https://books.google.com/books?id=cWOQWx4QPFYC Cyber Criminology: Exploring Internet Crimes and Criminal behavior.] Boca Raton, FL, US: CRC Press, Taylor, and Francis Group.
* McQuade, S. (2006) ''Understanding and Managing Cybercrime,'' Boston: [[Allyn & Bacon]].
* McQuade, S. (ed) (2009) ''The Encyclopedia of Cybercrime,'' Westport, CT: [[Greenwood Press]].
* National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2025. ''[[doi:10.17226/29048|Cybercrime Classification and Measurement]]''. The National Academies Press.
* Parker D (1983) ''Fighting Computer Crime,'' U.S.: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]].
* Pattavina, A. (ed) ''Information Technology and the Criminal Justice System,'' Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
*{{Cite book |first=Paul |last=Taylor |title=Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime |publisher=Routledge; 1 edition |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-18072-6 |edition=3 November 1999 |page=200}}
* Richet, J.L. (2013) From Young Hackers to Crackers, ''International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction (IJTHI)'', 9(3), 53–62.
* {{Cite journal|last=Richet|first=J.L.|date=2022|title=How cybercriminal communities grow and change: An investigation of ad-fraud communities|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|volume=174|issue=121282|article-number=121282|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121282|s2cid=239962449|issn=0040-1625|doi-access=free}}
* Robertson, J. (2 March 2010). Authorities bust 3 in infection of 13m computers. Retrieved 26 March 2010, from Boston News: [https://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2010/03/02/authorities_bust_3_in_infection_of_13m_computers/ Boston.com]
* Rolón, D. N. [http://de.scribd.com/doc/215756732/Dario-N-Rolon-Vigilancia-informatica-y-responsabilidad-penal-de-proveedores-de-internet Control, vigilancia y respuesta penal en el ciberespacio], Latin American's New Security Thinking, Clacso, 2014, pp. 167/182
* Walden, I. (2007) ''Computer Crimes and Digital Investigations,'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Wall, D.S. (2007) ''Cybercrimes: The transformation of crime in the information age,'' Cambridge: Polity.
* Williams, M. (2006) ''Virtually Criminal: Crime, Deviance and Regulation Online,'' Routledge, London.
* Yar, M. (2006) ''Cybercrime and Society,'' London: Sage.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Cybercrime}}
{{wikibooks|1= The Computer Revolution |2= Security/Computer Crime |3= Computer Crime}}
*[http://www.cybercrimejournal.com International Journal of Cyber Criminology]
*[https://www.ibm.com/services/business-continuity/cyber-attack Common types of cyber attacks]
*[https://www.ibm.com/services/business-continuity/ransomware-attack Countering ransomware attacks]

===Government resources===
*[http://www.cybercrime.gov/ Cybercrime.gov] from the [[United States Department of Justice]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100528122405/http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/topics/technology/electronic-crime/welcome.htm National Institute of Justice Electronic Crime Program] from the [[United States Department of Justice]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213634/https://www2.fbi.gov/cyberinvest/cyberhome.htm FBI Cyber Investigators home page]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080608160657/http://www.ustreas.gov/usss/financial_crimes.shtml#Computer US Secret Service Computer Fraud]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041118085257/http://www.ahtcc.gov.au/ Australian High Tech Crime Centre]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131014171419/http://www.nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/about-us/what-we-do/national-cyber-crime-unit UK National Cyber Crime Unit] from the [[National Crime Agency]]

{{Information security}}
{{English criminal law navbox}}
{{Scams and confidence tricks}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cybercrime| ]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:Computer security]]
[[Category:Organized crime activity]]
[[Category:Harassment and bullying]]

Exclusive economic zone of India

2026-03-12T16:22:18Z

AnnieSneed66: General cleanup and content improvements

{{short description|Economic zone exclusive to India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
[[File:Map of the Territorial Waters of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean.png|thumb|EEZs in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.]]

[[India]] has the 18th-largest [[exclusive economic zone]] (EEZ) with a total size of {{convert|2305143|km²|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="searoundus">{{cite web |url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez.aspx |title=Sea Around Us – Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity |access-date=1 April 2017}}</ref> It includes the [[Lakshadweep]] island group in the [[Laccadive Sea]] off the southwestern coast of India<ref>{{cite web|title=Lakshadweep |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Lakshadweep.aspx |publisher=encyclopedia.com |access-date=1 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127104251/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Lakshadweep.aspx |archive-date=27 January 2010 }}</ref> and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] and the [[Andaman Sea]].<ref name="tribune-watchtower">{{cite news |last1=Sawhney |first1=Pravin |title=A watchtower on the high seas |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/comment/a-watchtower-on-the-high-seas/720929.html |newspaper=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |access-date=16 April 2019 |date=30 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416050217/https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/comment/a-watchtower-on-the-high-seas/720929.html |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> India's EEZ is bordered to the west by [[Pakistan]], to the south by the [[Maldives]] and [[Sri Lanka]] and to the east by [[Bangladesh]], [[Myanmar]], [[Exclusive economic zone of Thailand|Thailand]], [[Exclusive economic zone of Malaysia|Malaysia]] and [[Exclusive economic zone of Indonesia|Indonesia]]. Based on new scientific data, India has petitioned United Nations to extend its EEZ from 200 [[Nautical mile]]s to 350 nautical miles.<ref name=EEZind1>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-hopes-to-double-its-eez/article2096905.ece |title=India hopes to double its EEZ |first=P. |last=Sunderarajan |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=1 April 2017|date=12 June 2011 }}</ref>

==Historic context==

{{see also | Greater India | Indianisation | History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia | Indo-Mesopotamia relations | Indo-Roman trade relations | Maritime Silk Route }}
[[file:Hinduism Expansion in Asia de.svg|thumb|Historic Greater India zone and expansion of Indian-origin polities and religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism).]]
{{expand section |date=March 2026}}

== Legal framework ==

India legally defined the concept of EEZ in the ''"Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and Other Maritime Zones Act, 1976"''. In June 1997, India also ratified [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|UNCLOS]]. India also enacted the ''"Maritime Zones of India (Regulation of fishing by foreign vessels) Act, 1981"'' prohibiting fishing by foreign vessel within Indian EEZ without a license. Additionally, India has also enacted laws regulation the fishing and [[Fishery Survey of India|fisheries]] by Indian fishing vessels operating in the EEZ.<ref name=EEZind2>[https://www.geographyandyou.com/exclusive-economic-zone-seas-around-india/ The Exclusive Economic Zone of the Seas around India], 24 January 2018.</ref>

==Importance of EEZ==
{{see also | Coastal India }}
[[File:Indian_cultural_zone.svg|thumb|right|240x180px|[[Greater India]]: Conceptually related to EEZ, the historic Indian cultural influence expanded across Southeast Asia through numerous Indianized Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms along the [[Maritime Silk Route]], such as in Indonesia and Malaysia ([[Srivijaya]], [[Majapahit]], [[Kalingga]], [[Kutai]], [[Singhasari]], [[Tarumanagara]], [[Pan Pan (kingdom)|Pan Pan]], [[Gangga Negara]] and [[Langkasuka]]), Indochina ([[Champa]], [[Kingdom of Funan|Funan]], and [[Chenla]]), Thailand ([[Dvaravati]]), and Myanmar ([[Pagan Kingdom|Pagan]]).]]

===Economic importance ===
{{anchor | Economic | Economy }}
{{see also | Economy of India | List of countries by largest historical GDP }}

An EEZ provides a nation greater access to oil, natural gas, minerals, [[Fishing in India|commercial fishing]] and other marine resources, freedom of navigation, international trade, national security, and strategic leverage over other nations.<ref name=EEZind1/><ref name=EEZind2/> With 7,500 km [[Coastal India|coastline]] and an EEZ of over 2.3 million km2, India has exclusive control over the resources in its EEZ including navigation of [[National Shipping Board|seafaring trade and transport vessels]] in this area.<ref name=EEZind2/> As per 2014 study, India exploits only 3.2 million tonnes per year marine fishery resources out of potential 3.92 million tonne in its coastal areas.<ref name=EEZind2/>

===Regional maritime security ===
{{anchor | Regional | Security }}
{{see also | Countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal | Maritime Silk Route | Foreign trade of India | Bay_of_Bengal#Channels| l4 = Channels in Bay of Bengal }}

Piracy, poaching or [[illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing|illegal fishing]] by foreign vessels, freedom of navigation, transgression of foreign vessels into Indian EEZ, and conflicting claims are major issues in EEZ. [[Piracy in the Strait of Malacca]] is a major concern for all the nations. Studies have shown decline in fishing stocks and destruction of several [[marine ecology|marine ecological]] areas in Indian EEZ due to organized illegal poaching and fishing resulting in depletion of many [[Endangered Species|endangered]] and [[Threatened species|threatened]] species. Freedom of the navigation has become a cause of concern due to piracy. National security is also threatened by actions of China around Indian EEZ. Conflicting claims over EEZ by nations leads to disputes, such as India-Pakistan [[Sir Creek]] dispute. In the past, UNCLOS has granted several contradicting claims while increasing the EEZ based on the evidence related to the length of continental shelf. These UNCLOS contradictions have resulted into overlapping EEZ claims by several nations competing for the resources in the expanded EEZ.<ref name=EEZind2/>

===National security and geostrategy ===
{{anchor | Regional | Security }}
{{see also | Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean region | Maritime domain awareness | Maritime power }}

The [[Indian Coast Guard]] near the shore and the [[Indian Military]]'s integrated [[Andaman and Nicobar Command]] off-shore play the important role in protecting India's EEZ while [[Andaman_and_Nicobar_Command#Strategic_Importance_of_ANC||exercising control]] over the geostratgically important [[Bay_of_Bengal#Channels|channels in Bay of Bengal]] and the important [[Choke_point#Historical_examples|international chokepoint]] of [[Strait of Malacca]].<ref name=stra2>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200706233421/http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publication/growing-strategic-importance-andaman-nicobar-islands/ The Growing Strategic Importance of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands]}}, Future Directions org, 15 JUNE 2017.</ref><ref name=stra3>[https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/more-muscle-for-india-s-andaman-and-nicobar-defence-posts-to-counter-hawkish-china/story-8YkEo28c3WZM9Lqq2iiJnK.html More muscle for India's Andaman and Nicobar defence posts to counter hawkish China], [[Hindustan Times]], 26 Aug 2017.</ref>

==India's EEZ==
{{anchor | IndianEEZ}}

===India's existing EEZ area ===
{{anchor | ExistingEEZ}}

{| class="wikitable"
! EEZ !! Area (km2 / mi2)
|-
| [[Mainland India]] and [[Lakshadweep]]
| {{convert|1641514|km2|sqmi}}
|-
| [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
| {{convert|663629|km2|sqmi}}
|-
| Total
| {{convert|2305143|km2|sqmi}}
|}

===India's increased EEZ claim area ===
{{anchor | NewEEZ | ClaimedEEZ}}

====Summary of new claims ====
{{anchor | SummaryNewEEZ | SummaryNewClaims}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Area !! Additional Claim Area (km2 / mi2)
|-
| [[Arabian Sea]]
| {{convert|1200000|km2|sqmi}}
|-
| [[Bay of Bengal]] and [[Indian Ocean]]
| {{convert|300000|km2|sqmi}}
|-
| Total
| {{convert|1500000|km2|sqmi}}
|}

==== Arabia Sea - India's 2025 revised new claims under review by CLCS====
{{anchor | ArabianSeaClaim | 2025ArabianSeaClaim }}

As of early 2026, India is actively pursuing an expanded maritime claim, specifically focusing on its [[Extended Continental Shelf]] (ECS) in the Central Arabian Sea. The new claims are based on updated technical data from India’s [[National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research]] (NCPOR), providing evidence that the seabed is a natural prolongation of India’s landmass. In April 2025, after India's original 2009 claim was rejected by the [[Convention on the Continental Shelf]] (CLCS) in March 2023 due to objections from Pakistan regarding the Sir Creek area, India submitted revised partial claims for the Central Arabian Sea by splitting its submission to isolate disputed Sir Creek areas from uncontested ones, allowing the CLCS to review in the 64th CLCS session (August 2025), with ongoing consultations likely extending into 2026. If accepted, this extension, combined with the 2 million sq. km EEZ, would give India control over a total seabed area of roughly 3.2 million sq. km, nearly equal to its total landmass. In the Sir Creek dispute Pakistan objects to India’s EEZ claims in the Western Arabian Sea, resulting in an EEZ claim overlap of 100 nautical miles.<ref name="UN_Submission_2025">{{cite web |title=Submissions to the Commission: Submission by India |url=https://www.un.org |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2026-03-12}}</ref><ref name="Maritime_Tactics">{{cite news |last=Singh |first=A. |date=2025-04-15 |title=India's Tactical Shift in the Arabian Sea Maritime Claim |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com |access-date=2026-03-12}}</ref><ref name="ECS_Expansion">{{cite journal |last=Gupta |first=R. |year=2025 |title=Geopolitics of India's Continental Shelf |journal=Journal of Indian Ocean Studies |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=45-52}}</ref> If granted, the total seabed area under Indian jurisdiction would nearly equal its terrestrial landmass, providing exclusive rights to explore polymetallic nodules and hydrocarbons.<ref name="Resource_Security">{{cite report |title=Strategic Mineral Resources in the Indian EEZ |publisher=Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India |year=2025}}</ref>

==== Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean - India's 2025 revised new claims under review by CLCS====
{{anchor | IoRClaim| 2025IoRClaim}}

India has also claimed additional 300,000 square km in the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean, which are under evaluation.<ref name="Resource_Security"/>

==== 2009-2010 claims by India - rejected by CLCS in March 2023 due to objections by Pakistan====
{{anchor | 2009Claim | 2009Claims | OldClaim | OldClaims }}

Earlier in 2009-2010, based on the new 6,000 pages sedimentary and scientific evidence, India petitioned United Nations for increasing Indian EEZ from 200 nautical miles to 350 nautical miles. Extension of EEZ from 200 to 350 nautical mile will almost double India's present EEZ. UNCLOS permits extension of EEZ beyond the usual 200 nautical miles limit, to a maximum of 350 nautical miles, if the evidence shows that [[continental shelf]] extends beyond 200 nautical miles. For the integrated management and mapping of the EEZ, India's [[Ministry of Earth Sciences]] (MoES) initiated an ongoing project in 1999 which was only 30% complete in 2018. A team of 60 scientists from several national institutes began undertaking multi-disciplinary studies on [[Digital geological mapping|geo-scientific mapping]], [[Physical geography|physiography]], [[sedimentology]], [[paleoclimatology]] and [[Geology of the Himalaya#Sub-Himalaya (Churia Hills or Sivaliks) tectonic plate|Himalayan tectonics]], [[Water resources in India|hydrology of India]] and [[monsoon of South Asia]], [[Mineral resource estimation|mineral resource availability]]. Scientists and researchers involved in the studies come from several institutes and universities, such as the [[National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research]] (NCPOR), [[National Institute of Oceanography, India]] (NIO), [[National Institute of Ocean Technology]] (NIOT), [[Geological Survey of India]] (GSI) and many universities. These studies also enhance the preparedness against environmental hazards and socio-economic well-being of people living in Coastal India.<ref name=EEZind2/>

== Neighbouring EEZs ==
{{anchor | Bordering | Border | EEZ | Maritime | Neighbouring | Neighbour| Neighboring | Neighbor }}
{{see also | History of Indian influence on Southeast Asia | Indianisation }}
Neighbouring EEZ of other nations from west to east are:

{| class="wikitable"
! EEZ !! Dispute (Y/N) !! Distance !! Comments
|-
| [[Exclusive economic zone of Pakistan|Pakistan]]
| Yes
| Contiguous
| [[Sir Creek#Indo-Pakistani Border Dispute|Sir Creek dispute]]

|-
| [[Exclusive economic zone of Maldives|Maldives]]
| No 
| Contiguous
| Resolved under [[India–Maldives relations#1976 Maritime treaty|India–Maldives maritime treaty]], and both agreed that [[Minicoy Island]] will remain part of India.

|-
| [[Exclusive economic zone of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]
| No 
| Contiguous
| Resolved under [[India–Sri Lanka maritime boundary agreements|Indo-Sri Lankan Maritime agreements]]. Sri Lanka's [[Katchatheevu]] island on [[Adam's Bridge|Ram Setu]] is the nearest Island to Indian part of Ram Setu.<ref name=ktech1>[https://www.livemint.com/Politics/acjYPxP6XuKnlTLqJ2P3QI/Katchatheevu-The-big-issue-over-a-small-island.html Katchatheevu: The big issue over a small island], [[Livemint]], 15 Jun 2016.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6V2KCgAAQBAJ&q=Kachchatheevu&pg=PT482|title=The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy|last1=Malone|first1=David M.|last2=Mohan|first2=C. Raja|last3=Raghavan|first3=Srinath|date=2015-07-23|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=9780191061196|language=en}}</ref>

|-
| [[Exclusive economic zone of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]]
| No 
| Contiguous .
| Resolved through [[Bangladesh–India border#Maritime|India–Bangladesh maritime arbitration]]. [[Saint Martin's Island]], a small coral island in the north-eastern part of the Bay of Bengal, about 9 km south of the tip of the [[Cox's Bazar]] is nearest Bangladeshi island to India's Mizoram.

|-
| [[Exclusive economic zone of Myanmar|Myanmar]]
| No 
| Contiguous.
| India's [[Landfall Island]] is 40 km from Myanmar's [[Coco Islands]]. India is developing Myanmar's strategic [[Sittwe Port]] as part of [[Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project]].<ref name="Bhar1">{{cite news|last=Purushothaman|first=Vakkom|url=http://tntmagazine.in/news/mizoram/kaladan-multi-modal-transit-transport-project-to-link-sea-route-in-myanmar-with-mizoram/|title=Kaladan Multi Modal Transit Transport Project to link sea route in Myanmar with Mizoram|newspaper=The Northeast Times|access-date=11 August 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415053036/http://tntmagazine.in/news/mizoram/kaladan-multi-modal-transit-transport-project-to-link-sea-route-in-myanmar-with-mizoram/|archive-date=15 April 2012}}</ref><ref name=update3>[https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/india-starts-construction-of-1600-cr-mizoram-myanmar-kaladan-road/article23577107.ece India starts construction of ₹1,600-cr Mizoram-Myanmar Kaladan road ], Business Line, 17 April 2018.</ref> See also [[India–Myanmar barrier#EEZ|India–Myanmar maritime boundary]].

|-
| [[Exclusive economic zone of Indonesia|Indonesia]]
| No 
| Contiguous.
| India's southernmost territory [[Indira Point]] is 135 km north of Indonesia's northernmost territory [[Rondo Island]].<ref name=rondo8>James Horsburgh, 1852, [https://books.google.com/books?id=faCjf8FPR14C&dq=rondo+island&pg=PA63 The India Directory, Or, Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies], Page 63.</ref><ref name=indo1>{{Cite web |url=http://indonesia-tourism.com/blog/2012/05/rondo-island-the-rich-uninhabited-island/ |title=Rondo Island, The Rich Uninhabited Island |access-date=5 July 2020 |archive-date=3 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103172516/http://indonesia-tourism.com/blog/2012/05/rondo-island-the-rich-uninhabited-island/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> India is developing Indonesia's [[Sabang, Indonesia#Port|Sabang deepsea port]] under [[India–Indonesia relations#Strategic|strategic economic and military partnership]].<ref name=portbuild1>[https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/eyeing-southeast-asia-india-builds-port-in-indonesia/articleshow/68490478.cms Eyeing Southeast Asia, India builds port in Indonesia], [[The Economic Times|Economic Times]], 20 March 2019.</ref>

|-
| [[Exclusive economic zone of Thailand|Thailand]]
| No 
| Contiguous.
| Thailand has treaty-defined maritime boundaries with India, Myanmar, Indonesia and Malaysia. India's [[Tillangchong]] island north of Camorta Island in Nicobar is 440 km from Thailand's [[Similan Islands#Geography|Ko Huyong]] in [[Similan Islands]] group). India's [[Campbell Bay (Great Nicobar)|Campbell Bay]] on [[Great Nicobar Island]] is 488 km from Thailand's [[Ko Racha|Ko Racha Noi]] (Ko Raya Noi) island in [[Phuket Province]].

|-
| [[Exclusive economic zone of Malaysia|Malaysia]]
| No 
| Not applicable as India and Malaysia do not share any EEZ boundary.
| India's Campbell Bay on [[Great Nicobar Island]] is 630 km from Malaysia's nearest island [[Langkawi]] in [[Strait of Malacca]] [[Choke_point#Historical_examples|choke point]].
|}

==Gallery ==

<gallery>
File:Indian Exclusive Economic Zones.PNG|Indian EEZ.

File:Peopling of eurasia.jpg|According to the [[Early human migrations|Coastal hypothesis]], [[Recent African origin of modern humans|early modern humans spread from Africa]] along the northern rim of the Indian Ocean.

File:Indian Ocean Monsoon.jpg|During summer, warm continental masses draw moist air from the Indian Ocean, producing heavy rainfall. The process is reversed during winter, resulting in dry conditions.

</gallery>

==See also ==
{{portal | India }}
* [[Climate of India]]
* [[Borders of India]]
* [[List of disputed territories of India|Disputed territories of India]]
* [[Extreme points of India]]
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Outline of India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{World topic|title=[[Exclusive economic zone]]s|Exclusive economic zone of|noredlinks=yes}}

[[Category:Exclusive economic zones|India]]
[[Category:Borders of India]]
[[Category:Economy of India]]

Balidaan (1971 film)

2026-03-03T23:40:16Z

AnnieSneed66: updated layout to improve readability and updated info

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Balidaan (1971 film)
| image = Balidaan poster.jpg

| caption =
| director = Ravi Tandon
| producer = Aroon Varma
| story = [[Manoj Kumar]] and Balkrishna Mouj
| screenplay = [[Manoj Kumar]] and Balkrishna Mouj
| starring = [[Manoj Kumar]] [[Saira Banu]] Dev Kumar
| music = [[Shankar–Jaikishan]]
| cinematography = Nariman A. Irani
| editing = Hari Pathare
| studio = Varma Films Enterprises
| distributor = Varma Films Enterprises
| released = {{Film date|1971}}
| runtime =
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| budget =
| gross =

}}

''''' Balidaan ''''' is a [[List of Bollywood films of 1971|1971]] [[Bollywood]] [[drama film]]. The film stars [[Saira Banu]] and [[Manoj Kumar]]. The film was directed by [[Ravi Tandon]] and the story as well as the screenplay/dialog were written by Manoj Kumar and Balkishan Mouj.<ref name=Balidaan1>{{cite web|title= Balidaan (1971) Hindi Movie Review, Songs, Trailer |
url= https://muvyz.com/moviepage/gv398196 |website=muvyz.com|publisher=Muvyz, Ltd.|access-date=July 13, 2021}}</ref>
<ref name=Balidaan2>{{cite web|title=Balidaan Movie Review
|url= https://www.indianfilmhistory.com/movie-details/balidaan-1
|publisher=Indian Film History|access-date=July 13, 2021}}</ref>
<ref name=Balidaan3>{{cite web|title= Balidaan (1971) Cast - Actor, Actress, Director, Producer, Music Director | url= https://www.cinestaan.com/movies/balidaan-365/cast-crew
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210714124112/https://www.cinestaan.com/movies/balidaan-365/cast-crew
| url-status= live
| archive-date= 14 July 2021
|publisher=Cinestaan|access-date=July 13, 2021}}</ref>

==Plot==
Central to the plot of ''Balidaan'' is a reworking of the legendary outlaw hero [[Robin Hood]], who is believed to have robbed from the rich and given to the poor. Numerous [[List of films and television series featuring Robin Hood|films]] have adapted the Robin Hood story and several real-life people who have also followed his ideology.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kiwireport.com/real-life-robin-hoods-stole-rich-gave-poor/ |title= Real Life Robin Hoods Who Stole From The Rich And Gave To The Poor |first=Dana|last=Sivan|publisher=KiwiReport.com|date=December 22, 2016|access-date=July 12, 2021}}</ref> In this Hindi-language adaptation, Raja (Manoj Kumar) is a dacoit, a bandit who robs and kills the wealthy and then distributes this wealth to the poor, to whom he feels this wealth rightfully belonged.

A smart police officer, Ramesh Singh (Dev Kumar) is assigned by the Police Commissioner (Satyendra Kapoor) to the task of arresting Raja and bringing him to justice. Much of the movie revolves around the careful attempts made by Ramesh to capture Raja and the clever ways in which Raja and his accomplices (Bindu, Ranvir Raj, Mac Mohan) are able to retard these attempts and escape being caught by the police. During the course of these actions, a love interest develops between Raja and Sheela (Saira Banu).

Will Raja be punished ultimately for being the dacoit who looted and killed the wealthy? Will he leave a legacy for being the savior who pillaged the wealthy and returned their wealth to the poor, to whom this wealth supposedly belonged? The movie progresses with letting viewers decide whether Raja was just another bandit or a savior of the poor.

==Cast==
*[[Manoj Kumar]] as Raja
*[[Saira Banu]] as Sheela
*[[Dev Kumar]] as Ramesh Singh
*[[Bindu (actress)|Bindu]] as an accomplice of Raja
*Ranvir Raj as an accomplice of Raja
*Mac Mohan as an accomplice of Raja
*[[Bharat Bhushan]] as Suraj
*[[Purnima (Hindi actress)|Purnima]] as Suraj's wife
*Satyendra Kappor as the Police Commissioner
*Man Mohan as Vijay Singh

==Songs==
Music was composed by [[Shankar–Jaikishan]] and [[Verma Malik]] wrote the lyrics
.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hindigeetmala.net/movie/balidaan_1971.htm |title= Lyrics and video of Songs from the film Balidaan (1971) |publisher=Hindigeetmala.com |date= |accessdate=2021-07-10}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! # !! Title !! Singer
|-
| 1
|"O Jhoothi Mohabbat Ke Bhookhe Darinde"
|[[Lata Mangeshkar]]
|-
| 2
|"Chale Aao Dil Mein"
|Lata Mangeshkar
|-
| 3
| "Pranam Karo Iss Dharti Ko Jisne Diyya"
| [[Mahendra Kapoor]]
|-
| 4
| "Haaye Haaye Re Daiyya Moyi Mai To Kyo Jawaan Huyi"
| Mahendra Kapoor and [[Asha Bhosle]]
|-
| 5
| "Manjira Baaj Raha Chun Chun Chha Chhun"
| Mahendra Kapoor
|-
| 6
| "Pranam Karo Iss Dharti Ko Jisne Diyya"
| [[Krishna Kalle]]
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=0452143|title=Balidaan}}

[[Category:1971 films]]
[[Category:1971 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1971 Indian films]]
[[Category:1971 drama films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language drama films]]

Nila (1994 film)

2026-03-03T04:54:51Z

AnnieSneed66: Put Up Pg

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Nila (1994 film).jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[Nambirajan]]
| writer = Nambirajan
| producer = S. Sreedevi S. Vengatesh
| starring = {{unbulleted list|[[Jayaram]]|[[Vineetha]]}}
| cinematography = A. Sabhabathy
| editing = A. P. Manivannan
| music = [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| studio = Shri Sairam Arts
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1994|11|24}}
| runtime = 140 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Nila''''' ({{translation|Moon}}) is a 1994 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romance film]] directed by [[MGR Nambi|Nambirajan]]. The film stars [[Jayaram]] and [[Vineetha]], with an ensemble supporting cast including [[Yuvarani]], [[Goundamani]], [[Senthil]], [[Gandhimathi]], [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]], [[Manjula Vijayakumar]] and [[Prakash Raj]]. It was released on 24 November 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |title=nila ( 1994 ) |url=http://cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/newfilmdb.cgi?name=nila |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029131330/http://cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/newfilmdb.cgi?name=nila |archive-date=2006-10-29 |access-date=2015-02-19 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref> The film was remade in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as ''Maa Ayana Bangaram'' (1997).{{Cn|date=October 2024}}

== Plot ==
Ayyanar is a kind-hearted person and a [[kulfi]] street vendor. One day, out of pity Ayyanar gives refuge to a girl suffering from [[amnesia]] and behaving like a child. Ayyanar and Aatha, who is like his own mother, take care of her. Ayyanar names the girl "Nila". In the meantime, the medical student Subha falls in love with Ayyanar. Living with a woman without getting married is not well seen, so Ayyanar and Nila get married. Afterwards, Ayyanar and Nila live happily, Nila even becomes pregnant. After her delivery, Nila regains her memory and is transferred in a better hospital. There, Nila meets her real family and her fiancé.

The real name of Nila is Ramya. She lived with her parents in [[Delhi]] and she was engaged to Ramesh. One day, an earthquake struck in Delhi and they were all separated, her family thought that she was dead.

When Ayyanar comes to see his wife, Nila in the first place rejects him but she then decides to live as "Nila" with Ayyanar and their newborn baby. What transpires next forms the rest of the story.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
*[[Jayaram]] as Ayyanar
*[[Vineetha]] as Nila / Ramya
*[[Yuvarani]] as Subha
*[[Goundamani]]
*[[Senthil]] as Dinku
*[[Gandhimathi]] as Aatha
*[[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]] as Vijay, Ramya's father
*[[Manjula Vijayakumar]] as Lakshmi, Ramya's mother
*[[Prakash Raj]] as Ramesh
*[[Jai Ganesh]] as Subha's father
*[[Idichapuli Selvaraj]] as Munusamy
*Karikalan as Vadivelu
*[[Ponnambalam (actor)|Ponnambalam]]
*[[LIC Narasimhan]]
*[[Loose Mohan]]
*[[Bonda Mani]]
*[[M. R. Krishnamurthy]]
*Krishnamoorthy
*Sanjay
*[[Pasi Narayanan]]
*[[Thideer Kannaiah]]
*Thayir Vadai Desigan
*[[Vellai Subbaiah]]
*[[Bayilvan Ranganathan]]
*Velmurugan
*Ramakrishna Iyer
*Sahadevan
*Mahadevan
*Kavithasri
*[[Pasi Sathya]]
}}

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack was composed by [[Deva (composer)|Deva]], with lyrics written by [[Vaali (poet)|Vaali]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nila/ Pattukottai Periyappa |url=https://avdigital.in/products/nila-pattukottai-periyappa |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111055324/https://avdigital.in/products/nila-pattukottai-periyappa |archive-date=11 November 2022 |access-date=7 May 2023 |website=AVDigital}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nila (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |url=https://music.apple.com/in/album/nila-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1577986953 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230507150937/https://music.apple.com/in/album/nila-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1577986953 |archive-date=7 May 2023 |access-date=7 May 2023 |website=[[Apple Music]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singer(s) !! Duration
|-
| "Mele Idi Idikkum" || [[Mano (singer)|Mano]], [[Swarnalatha]] || 5:20
|-
| "Raasa Mela Aasai" || [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chithra]] || 5:06
|-
| "Rukku Namba" || K. S. Chithra || 5:04
|-
| "Naidu Hallu" || Mano || 4:46
|-
| "Chinna Chinna" || Mano, [[Jayaram]] || 4:57
|-
| "Soodaaga Suttu" || [[Gangai Amaran]], [[Malgudi Subha]] || 5:03
|}

== Reception ==
On 25 November 1994, Malini Mannath, writing for ''[[The Indian Express]]'', called it an extended version of ''[[Moondram Pirai]]'', adding, "the director has managed to keep proceedings interesting".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=25 November 1994 |title=Forget and beget |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19941125&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=15 October 2020 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=6 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:1994 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1994 films]]
[[Category:1994 Indian films]]
[[Category:1994 romance films]]
[[Category:Films directed by MGR Nambi]]
[[Category:Films scored by Deva (composer)]]
[[Category:Indian romance films]]
[[Category:Tamil films remade in other languages]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romance films]]

The Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet

2026-03-02T03:40:36Z

AnnieSneed66: Article updated with improved flow

{{short description|School in Telangana State, Begumpet, Secunderabad, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Hyderabad Public School
| logo =
| image = Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| motto = Be Vigilant
| motto_translation =
| location = [[Begumpet]]
| city = [[Hyderabad]]
| state = [[Telangana State]]
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = 
| other_name = HPS, Begumpet
| former_name = Jagirdars College
| type = [[Public school (privately funded)]]
| established = {{Start date and age|1923|df=yes}}
| founder = [[Nizam]] VII of Hyderabad
| opened =
| closed =
| district = Hyderabad State Capital
| grades =
| superintendent =
| principal = Dr. Skand Bali
| staff =
| faculty = 155
| gender = 
| age_range = 
| enrollment = 3200 (pre-primary to 12th grade)
| campus_size = 152 acres (89 acres of which allotted by H.E. Lady Viqar-ul-Umara)
| campus_type =
| team_name =
| newspaper =
| colors = 
| communities =
| feeder_schools =
| website = {{URL|www.hpsbegumpet.org.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''The Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet''' ('''HPS, Begumpet''') is a privately funded [[Public school (India)|public school]] in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], [[Telangana State|Telangana]], [[India]]. The school has grades from [[K–12|pre-primary to the 12th]] (ages 3 to 17). The school is affiliated with the [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations]] (ICSE, ISC) and is managed by the Hyderabad Public School Society and the Board of Governors.

== History ==
[[File:A_cricket_match_being_played_with_the_main_building_of_the_Hyderabad_Public_School_in_the_background.png|thumb|A cricket match being played with the main building of the Hyderabad Public School in the background, c. 1940s]]
It was established in 1923 as Jagirdars College by the Seventh [[Nizam]] of Hyderabad, [[Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII|Mir Osman Ali Khan]], and served as a school exclusively for the sons of [[nawab]]s, [[jagirdar]]s and other aristocrats and elites. After the [[Zamindari system]] was abolished in 1950, it was renamed as the Hyderabad Public School in 1951.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet|url=http://www.my-telugu.com/tour/districts/hyderabad/historical/public-school.shtml|access-date=2011-09-20|publisher=My-Telugu.com}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Shahzore|first=Mohammed Najeeb|date=2021-04-10|title=HPS represents a glorious era which surprisingly continues till date|url=https://www.siasat.com/hps-represents-a-glorious-era-which-surprisingly-continues-till-date-2122612/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=The Siasat Daily|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Campus ==
The school has a {{convert|122|acre|km2|adj=on}} campus with buildings built in the [[Indo-Saracenic]] style.<ref name=":1" />

==Recognition==
HPS, Begumpet has widely been recognized as one of the best lower educational institutions in India. Accolades include:

* '''Education World''': The Hyderabad Public School was ranked first in [[Telangana]] & [[Hyderabad]] and sixth in India in the Co-ed Day-cum-Boarding Schools category for 2018–19.<ref>{{Citation|title=Education World Rankings|url=https://www.educationworld.in/school-ranking/?school=Co-ed%20Day-cum-Boarding%20School|publisher=Education World|access-date=2018-11-05}}</ref>
* '''Future 50 Award''': The Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet has been ranked as one among the Future 50 schools shaping the success in the Country.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Future 50 schools shaping success|url=https://www.future50schools.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/full-magazine2.pdf|archive-date=13 August 2018|access-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813175307/https://www.future50schools.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/full-magazine2.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''Education Today's India School Merit Awards''': The Hyderabad Public School has been ranked third in India and first in the state and city under India's Top 20 Day-cum-Boarding Schools for exemplary contribution to the education field.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.educationtoday.co/school-rankings-2017/school-ranking-details.php?id=108|title=The Hyderabad Public School|last=EducationToday.co|website=Educationtoday.co|language=en|access-date=2018-08-13|archive-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813175508/http://www.educationtoday.co/school-rankings-2017/school-ranking-details.php?id=108|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''India's Best Standalone Senior Secondary School and Best Innovative K-12 School Awards''': In 2018, at the GTF Education Summit & Awards conducted by Global Triumph foundation in New Delhi, The Hyderabad Public School was honoured as India's Best Standalone Senior Secondary School and Best Innovative K-12 School.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globaltriumphfoundation.com/awards|title=Awards{{!}} Global Triumph Foundation|website=globaltriumphfoundation.com|language=en|access-date=2018-08-11}}</ref>
* '''Great Place to Study by Global League Institute''': The school was selected in the list of 'great places to study' by the Global League Institute based on the Student Satisfaction Survey. The honour was awarded by the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|British House of Commons]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2018|title=The Hyderabad Public School Begumpet|url=https://greatplacetostudy.org/presentation/The%20Great%20Indian%20Schools%202018.pdf|journal=Forbes India Marquee|pages=50|archive-date=13 August 2018|access-date=13 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180813175014/https://greatplacetostudy.org/presentation/The%20Great%20Indian%20Schools%202018.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://emag.youandi.com/1719994/You-I-Monthly-Magazine/July-2018-Issue-23-Richa-Chadha#dual/40/1|title=youandimag You & I Monthly Magazine dated Mon, 2 Jul 18|access-date=2018-08-11}}</ref>

== Notable alumni ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Name
!Occupation
!References
|-
|[[Satya Nadella]]
|[[Chief executive officer|CEO]] of [[Microsoft]]
|<ref name="Nadella">{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/world/all-for-love-when-satya-nadella-surrendered-his-green-card-for-h1-b-visa-4083165.html|title=All for love: When Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella surrendered his Green Card for wife Anu|website=[[Firstpost]]|date=26 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103222307/http://www.firstpost.com/world/all-for-love-when-satya-nadella-surrendered-his-green-card-for-h1-b-visa-4083165.html|archive-date=3 November 2017|url-status=live|access-date=5 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/exec/nadella/default.aspx|title=Satya Nadella: Executive Vice President, Cloud and Enterprise|website=[[Microsoft]] }}</ref>
|-

|Shailesh Jejurikar
|President & CEO of [[Procter & Gamble]]
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/p-g-appoints-shailesh-jejurikar-as-the-global-coo-121073000998_1.html|title=Shailesh Jejurikar: Chief Operating Officer, Proctor and Gamble|newspaper=Business Standard India |date=31 July 2021 |agency=Press Trust of India }}</ref>
|-
|[[Ajaypal Singh Banga]]
| President of the [[World Bank]] Former CEO of [[Mastercard]] Vice Chairman of [[General Atlantic]] Chairman of [[Exor (company)|Exor]]
|-
|[[Shantanu Narayen]]
|President and CEO of [[Adobe Inc.]]
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adobe.com/about-adobe/leaders/shantanu-narayen.html|title=Shantanu Narayen, President and Chief Executive Officer – Adobe Executive Profiles|website=adobe.com}}</ref>

|-
|[[Prem Watsa]]
|Business magnate and CEO of [[Fairfax Financial]]
|<ref name="Nadella" />

|-
|[[Jonnalagedda Chalapati]]
|Air Marshal
|<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dammala |first=Rachel |date=2023-06-05 |title=Hyderabad Public School: A Century of Leadership and Excellence |work=Deccan Chronicle |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/education/040623/hyderabad-public-school-centenary.html}}</ref>

|-
|[[Raghu Ram Pillarisetti]]
|[[Padma Shri]] Awardee & Founding Director, KIMS-Ushalakshmi Centre for Breast Diseases at [[Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences (hospital group)|KIMS Hospitals]]
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rabindra |date=2022-11-14 |title=Distinguished Alumni of the Hyderabad Public School (HPS) Begumpet, Meet for the Curtain Raiser of the Centenary Celebrations! |url=http://businessnewsthisweek.com/education/distinguished-alumni-of-the-hyderabad-public-school-hps-begumpet-meet-for-the-curtain-raiser-of-the-centenary-celebrations/ |access-date=2023-08-04 |website=Business News This Week |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian doctor {{!}} Dr Raghu Ram Pillarisetti {{!}} Breast Cancer {{!}} Global Indian |url=https://www.globalindian.com/story/brand-india/keeping-abreast-with-cancer-care-dr-raghu-ram-delivers-early-diagnosis-saves-lives/ |access-date=2023-08-04 |website=The Global Indian |language=en-US}}</ref>

|-
|T. K. Kurien
|CEO of [[Wipro]]
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/satya-nadella-s-story-to-inspire-youngsters-with-humble-backgrounds-114020501311_1.html|title=Satya Nadella's story to inspire youngsters with humble backgrounds|last=IANS|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=5 February 2014|via=Business Standard}}</ref>
|-
|Soumith Chintala
|Cofounder & Lead of [[PyTorch]]
|<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=soumithchintala|number=1397225828300230657|title=Soumith speaks about Satya Nadella launching PyTorch at Azure}}</ref>
|-
|[[Megha Mittal]]
|Former chairman and MD of Italian fashion house [[Escada]]
|<ref name="https://hpsbegumpet.org.in/alumni-portal/">{{cite web |title=Hyderabad Public School, notable alumni |url=https://hpsbegumpet.org.in/relations/}}</ref>
|-
|[[Karan Bilimoria, Baron Bilimoria]]
|Founder and CEO, [[Cobra Beer]]
|<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/the-hyderabad-public-school-institution-which-produces-nadellas-of-the-world/story-iMnuv3TgD6JFYzVuVh9bpJ.html|title=The Hyderabad Public School: Institution which produces Nadellas of the world|date=2014-02-06|access-date=2018-11-26|language=en|website=hindustantimes.com/}}</ref>
|-
|[[Saad Bin Jung]]
|Cricketer and conservationist
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cozy in the Wild |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2015/mar/21/cozy-in-the-wild-731490.html |access-date=2023-06-13 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
|-
|[[Syed Akbaruddin]]
|Indian diplomat and [[Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations]]
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/the-school-of-dreams/articleshow/61800591.cms|title=What do Satya Nadella, Ajay Banga, Syed Akbaruddin have in common? It's the Hyderabad Public School – Mumbai Mirror -|work=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=2018-04-03}}</ref>
|-
|[[Menaka Guruswamy]]
|Senior advocate in the [[Supreme Court of India]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150730/lifestyle-health-and-wellbeing/article/top-legal-honour-oxford-harvard-and-now-yale|title=A top legal honour: Oxford, Harvard and now Yale|last=reddy|first=gayatri|date=2015-07-31|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en|access-date=2019-05-21}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]
|Former Civil Aviation Minister
|<ref>{{Cite news|last=Reporter|first=B. S.|date=2014-05-26|title=Ashok Gajapathi Raju|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/ashok-gajapathi-raju-114052600980_1.html|access-date=2021-07-03}}</ref>
|-
|[[M. M. Pallam Raju]]
|Former [[Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)|Minister of Human Resource Development]]
|<ref name="auto" />
|-
|[[Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy]]
|Former [[List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh|Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh]]
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/from-classmate-to-kirans-deputy/article2072583.ece|title=From classmate to Kiran's deputy|newspaper=The Hindu|date=3 June 2011}}</ref>
|-
|[[Y. S. Jaganmohan Reddy]]
|Former [[List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh|Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh]]
|<ref name="thehansindia.com" /><ref name="ranker.com" />
|-
|[[Gaddam Vivek Venkatswamy]]
|[[Lok Sabha]] MP
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-12-19|title=Hyderabad Public School plans mega anniversary blast|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/131219/news-current-affairs/article/hyderabad-public-school-plans-mega-anniversary-blast|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Asaduddin Owaisi]]
|[[Lok Sabha]] MP
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Suares|first=Coreena|date=2019-06-01|title=Hyderabad Public School plans big bash for its students-turned-leaders|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/010619/hyderabad-public-school-plans-big-bash-for-its-students-turned-leaders.html|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Akbaruddin Owaisi]]
|[[Telangana]] MLA
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Mekapati Goutham Reddy]]
|MLA
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Nagarjuna (actor)|Nagarjuna]]
|Actor and producer in the [[Telugu cinema|Telugu film industry]] and entrepreneur
|<ref name="thehansindia.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans/2014-02-05/Hyderabad-Public-School-where-Eagles-soar-/84780|title=Hyderabad Public School, where Eagles soar|date=5 February 2014|website=The Hans India}}</ref><ref name="ranker.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.ranker.com/list/famous-hyderabad-public-school-alumni-and-students/reference|title=Famous Hyderabad Public School Alumni|website=Ranker}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ram Charan]]
|Actor and producer in the [[Telugu cinema|Telugu film industry]] and entrepreneur
|<ref name="thehansindia.com" /><ref name="ranker.com" />
|-
|[[Sharwanand]]
| Actor in the Telugu film industry
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Rana Daggubati]]
|Actor in the Telugu film industry
|<ref name="thehansindia.com" /><ref name="ranker.com" />
|-
|[[Sumanth]]
|Actor in the Telugu film industry
|<ref name="https://hpsbegumpet.org.in/alumni-portal/" />
|-
|[[Harsha Bhogle]]
|Cricket commentator
|<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://indianexpress.com/profile/columnist/harsha-bhogle/ |title=Harsha Bhogle, Indian Express Columns|date=6 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
|-
|[[D. Bala Venkatesh Varma]]
|Diplomat
|<ref name="https://hpsbegumpet.org.in/alumni-portal/" />
|-
|[[Ramendra Kumar (author)|Ramendra Kumar]]
|Author of children's books
|
|-
|[[Nikhil Siddhartha]]
|Actor in the Telugu film industry
|<ref name="https://hpsbegumpet.org.in/alumni-portal/" />
|-
|[[Sridhar Tayur]]
|Entrepreneur and professor at [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
|-
|[[Teja Sajja]]
|Actor in the Telugu Film Industry
|}

== See also ==
*[[The Hyderabad Public School, Ramanthapur]]
*[[List of schools in Hyderabad, India]]
{{Portal|Hyderabad}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.hpsbegumpet.org.in/ Official website]

{{Hyderabad topics}}
{{Coord|17.4442|78.4572|type:edu_region:IN|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet, The}}
[[Category:Heritage structures in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1923]]
[[Category:Private schools in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Boarding schools in Telangana]]
[[Category:1923 establishments in India]]

The Radio Quarantine

2026-02-18T13:43:25Z

AnnieSneed66:

{{Short description|Indian radio}}
{{Distinguish|Radio Quarantine Kolkata}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}

'''The Radio Quarantine''' was a Bangalore-based internet community radio launched on 26 March operated by a network of independent composers and musical instrument makers.

== History ==
The Radio Quarantine was launched in the city of [[Bangalore]], [[Karnataka]] on 26 March 2020, a day after the launch of [[Radio Quarantine Kolkata]] and was operated by a network of independent [[composers]] and [[musical instrument]] makers called the Indian Sonic Research Organisation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=I. S. |first= |date=17 April 2020 |title=The coronavirus is bringing about a boom in new radio stations |work=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/prospero/2020/04/17/the-coronavirus-is-bringing-about-a-boom-in-new-radio-stations |url-status=live |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108015130/https://www.economist.com/prospero/2020/04/17/the-coronavirus-is-bringing-about-a-boom-in-new-radio-stations |archive-date=8 January 2021 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Neurekar |first=Malavika |date=7 April 2020 |title=Radio Quarantine: Indian artists are trying to create a space for music and community in lockdown |url=https://scroll.in/article/957996/radio-quarantine-indian-artists-are-trying-to-create-a-space-for-music-and-community-in-lockdown |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107005132/https://scroll.in/article/957996/radio-quarantine-indian-artists-are-trying-to-create-a-space-for-music-and-community-in-lockdown |archive-date=7 January 2021 |access-date=4 January 2021 |website=[[Scroll.in]] |language=en-US}}</ref> It went live every night from 9 p.m.. Its programs were primarily run by the musician [[Yashas Shetty]], one of the members of the network.<ref name=":6" /> The radio was hosted on the website radio.artscienceblr.org and operated out of Shetty's residence in Benson Town, Bangalore. Within the first 21 days, the station had attracted a significant audience of listeners both locally and internationally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ahuja |first=Simran |date=23 April 2020 |title=Going live this lockdown |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2020/apr/23/going-live-this-lockdown-2133904.html |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

The station broadcast music on episodes with specific lockdown related themes such as ''Isolation'', ''Taking a Break'', ''Dancing on Your Own'', etc and hosted discussion shows about ongoing political and social issues in India.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6" /> The songs featured on the station including a wide rage of genres and time periods, and were compared with those on Radio Quarantine Kolkata in terms of their eclecticism. The genres included both eastern and western classical compositions, contemporary Japanese musicians and Hindi and English pop from the 1980s.<ref name=":6" /> The station also accepted song requests and listeners were encouraged to make submissions.<ref name=":2" />

The political ecologist Savita Vijayakumar had collaborated with the station and arranged invitations for a number of guest speakers on its discussion shows, which were hosted by Shetty. The shows have featured discussions on the dangers posed by science with the cosmologist [[Martin Rees]], on the crisis faced by migrants and other workers in midst of the pandemic with the activist and unionist [[Kavita Krishnan]], and on various other topics with individuals such as the sound engineer Umashankar Mantravadi and writer [[Arshia Sattar]], among others.<ref name=":6" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Educational podcasts]]
[[Category:Radio stations in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Radio stations established in 2020]]
[[Category:2020 podcast debuts]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Radio Quarantine}}

ICCCNT

2026-02-13T08:49:07Z

AnnieSneed66:

#REDIRECT [[International Conference on Communications]]

Suma Sudhindra

2026-02-12T21:17:12Z

AnnieSneed66: started new page with sources.

{{Short description|Indian classical musician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Suma Sudhindra
| image =
| image_size =
| landscape = 
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| alias =
| birth_date = 
| birth_place = India
| origin = [[Karnataka]], India
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| genre = [[Carnatic music]]
| occupation = Musician, instrumentalist, [[Saraswati veena|veena]]
| instrument = [[Saraswati veena|Veena]]
| years_active = 
| label =
| website = {{url|https://www.sumasudhindra.co.in/}}
}}

'''Suma Sudhindra''' is a classical musician and [[Saraswati veena|veena]] exponent from [[India]], in the [[Carnatic Music]] genre. She was awarded [[Karnataka]]'s second highest civilian award, the [[Rajyotsava Prashasti|Rajyotsava Award]], in the year 2001.

==Early days and personal life==

She was trained by her gurus vidhwan Raja Rao and vidhwan [[Chitti Babu (musician)|Chitti Babu]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}

She is based in Bangalore. Her spouse is a dentist and she has two daughters.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/5139/fusion-not-just-mere-confusion.html | title=Fusion is not just mere confusion | date=30 May 2009 | agency=Deccan Herald | accessdate=17 March 2015 | author=Chandaraju, Aruna}}</ref> She is an avid [[bonsai]] collector.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/307425/small-beautiful.html | title=Small is beautiful | date=25 January 2013 | agency=Deccan Herald | accessdate=17 March 2015}}</ref>

==Career==

She has the Chittibabu style known for the melodic sounds of the Veena. She has widely toured and given performances in [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]]. She has also led numerous veena ensembles over the years.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/synchronised-strings/article5220948.ece | title=Synchronised strings | date=10 October 2013 | accessdate=17 March 2015 | author=Ramkumar, Madhavi | location=Bangalore}}</ref>

===Carnatic-Jazz===
She has rendered numerous fusion performances along with Dutch Jazz group Spinifex for many years.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/231792/a-different-melody-altogether.html | title=A different melody altogether | date=4 March 2012 | agency=Deccan Herald | accessdate=17 March 2015 | author=Mazumdar, Subhra}}</ref>

===Other initiatives===

Suma is the Director outreach for the Centre For Indian Music Experience (IME), a new kind of museum in the making where one can touch, feel and experience music.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/columns/sunday-read/Touch-feel-and-make-music/articleshow/24764071.cms | title=Touch, feel and make music | date=27 October 2013 | agency=Bangalore mirror | accessdate=17 March 2015 | author=Madhukar, Jayanthi}}</ref>

She co-founded the Artists’ Introspective Movement (AIM) along with [[kuchipudi]] danseuse Veena Murthy Vijay. AIM organizes the Bangalore International Arts Festival (BIAF) since 2007. BIAF is a cultural platform for artists.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/city-gears-up-for-arts-fest/article5142743.ece | title=City gears up for arts fest | date=19 September 2013 | agency=The Hindu | accessdate=17 March 2015}}</ref>

==Awards & felicitations==

* Karnataka Rajyotsava Award in 2001<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Rajyotsava-awards-for-ace-barber-IAS-topper/articleshow/559537427.cms | title=Rajyotsava awards for ace barber, IAS topper | date=30 Oct 2001 | agency=The Times of India | accessdate=17 March 2015 | location=Bangalore}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sudhindra, Suma}}
[[Category:Saraswati veena players]]
[[Category:Musicians from Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educators]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women educators]]
[[Category:Indian women music educators]]
[[Category:Indian women violinists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Rajyotsava Award 2001]]
[[Category:Carnatic violinists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian violinists]]
[[Category:Indian jazz musicians]]
[[Category:Women jazz musicians]]
[[Category:Indian women classical musicians]]
[[Category:Women Carnatic musicians]]
[[Category:Carnatic musicians]]
[[Category:Women musicians from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women musicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women musicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian violinists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award]]

Kanti Mardia

2026-02-11T05:46:49Z

AnnieSneed66: starting new post

{{Short description|Indian statistician (born 1935)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Kanti V. Mardia {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OBE}}
|image = Kanti mardia.jpg
|image_size = 200px
|caption = Mardia in 2008
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1935|04|03}}
|birth_place =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|field = Statistics
|work_institutions = [[University of Leeds]]
|education = PhD (1965) from [[University of Rajasthan]], PhD (1967) and DSc (1973) from [[University of Newcastle Upon Tyne]]
|alma_mater = [[Ismail Yusuf College]], [[University of Bombay]], [[University of Poona]], [[University of Rajasthan]], [[University of Newcastle Upon Tyne]]
|known_for = [[Bivariate von Mises distribution]] [[Multivariate Pareto distribution]] [[Multivariate normal distribution#Multivariate normality tests|Mardia test]]
|prizes = [[Guy Medal]] (Silver, 2003) [[Wilks Memorial Award]] (2013)
|footnotes =
|signature =
}}

'''Kantilal Vardichand''' "'''Kanti'''" '''Mardia''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OBE}} (born 1935) is an Indian-British statistician specialising in [[directional statistics]], [[multivariate analysis]], [[geostatistics]], statistical [[bioinformatics]] and [[statistical shape analysis]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Geometry Driven Statistics |series=Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2015 |isbn=9781118866573 |editor-last=Dryden |editor-first=Ian L. and John T. Kent |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118866641}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2014-02-04 |title='Statistics provides a challenge somewhat akin to Sherlock Holmes' task: how to find hidden truth in any data, from small to big.' An interview with Samuel S. Wilks Award winner Kanti Mardia |url=https://www.statisticsviews.com/article/statistics-provides-a-challenge-somewhat-akin-to-sherlock-holmes-task-how-to-find-hidden-truth-in-any-data-from-small-to-big-an-interview-with-samuel-s-wilks-award-winne/ |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=Stats & Data Science Views |language=en-GB}}</ref> He was born in [[Sirohi]], [[Rajasthan]], India in a [[Jainism|Jain]] family and now resides and works in [[Leeds]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Mukhopadhyay |first=Nitis |date=May 2002 |title=A Conversation with Kanti Mardia |url=https://projecteuclid.org/journals/statistical-science/volume-17/issue-1/A-Conversation-with-Kanti-Mardia/10.1214/ss/1023799001.full |journal=[[Statistical Science]] |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=113–148, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3182813 |doi=10.1214/ss/1023799001 |issn=0883-4237 |via=Project Euclid}}</ref> He is known for his series of tests of multivariate normality based measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis<ref>L. Baringhaus and N. Henze (1992) Limit Distributions for Mardia's Measure of Multivariate Skewness. The Annals of Statistics 20(4):1889–1902</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cain |first1=Meghan K. |last2=Zhang |first2=Zhiyong |last3=Yuan |first3=Ke-Hai |date=2017-10-01 |title=Univariate and multivariate skewness and kurtosis for measuring nonnormality: Prevalence, influence and estimation |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-016-0814-1 |journal=Behavior Research Methods |language=en |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=1716–1735 |doi=10.3758/s13428-016-0814-1 |pmid=27752968 |issn=1554-3528|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis. Biometrika 57:519–530</ref> as well as work on the statistical measures of shape.<ref>{{cite journal|title= The statistical analysis of shape data| author= Mardia KV and IL Dryden |year=1989| journal=Biometrika| volume=76| issue=2| pages=271–281| doi=10.1093/biomet/76.2.271}}</ref>

==Life and career==
Mardia was educated at the [[Ismail Yusuf College]] at the [[University of Bombay]] (BSc 1955, MSc in statistics 1957), the [[University of Poona]] (MSc in pure mathematics 1961), the [[University of Rajasthan]] (PhD 1965) and the [[University of Newcastle Upon Tyne]] (PhD 1967, DSc 1973).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-05-11 |title=University of Leeds, Kanti Mardia - Education |url=http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/education.html |access-date=2024-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511122804/http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/education.html |archive-date=11 May 2009 }}</ref> He held academic positions at the [[The Institute of Science, Mumbai|Institute of Science, Mumbai]] and the [[University of Hull]].

Mardia was appointed professor of applied statistics and head of the Department of Statistics in the School of Mathematics at the [[University of Leeds]] in 1973. He retired in 2000 with the title [[emeritus]] professor and is currently senior research professor of applied statistics at [[University of Leeds|Leeds]], where he has held the Leverhulme Emeritus Fellowship since 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/calendar/emeritus.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926134723/http://www.leeds.ac.uk/calendar/emeritus.htm|url-status=dead|title=University of Leeds, List of Emeritus Professors|archivedate=26 September 2012}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231210082206/http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/ University of Leeds, Staff Profile]</ref> He has been a long-term visiting professor at the University of Oxford since 2013, and was adjunct faculty with the [[Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad]] from 2012 to 2014.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

He helped establish both the Centre of Medical Imaging Research (CoMIR) and the Centre of Statistical Bioinformatics (CoSB) at Leeds, and was initially the director of CoMIR.<ref name=":3" /> He has written several books and edited conference proceedings.

In 1973, Mardia founded the University of Leeds Annual Statistics Research Workshops, designed to promote interdisciplinary research. These workshops attract an international audience and focus on applied statistical topics.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Leeds Annual Statistical Research Workshop (LASR) 2024 {{!}} LASR2024 |url=https://conferences.leeds.ac.uk/lasr2024/ |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=conferences.leeds.ac.uk}}</ref>

Mardia has received a number of honours, including a 2003 [[Guy Medal|Guy Medal in Silver]] from the [[Royal Statistical Society]], which noted "his many path breaking contributions to statistical science ... and his lasting leadership role in interdisciplinary research";<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=Statistics in a Changing Society - 175 Years of Progress |url=https://rss.org.uk/RSS/media/File-library/Conference/RSS-2009-abstracts-booklet.pdf |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=Royal Statistical Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
| title = Guy Medal in Silver
| publisher = [[Royal Statistical Society]]
| access-date = 22 January 2008
| url = http://www.rss.org.uk/main.asp?page=2478
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080118235720/http://www.rss.org.uk/main.asp?page=2478
| archive-date = 18 January 2008
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> the 2013 [[Wilks Memorial Award]] from the [[American Statistical Association]], which noted his "seminal results in shape analysis, spatial statistics, multivariate analysis, directional data analysis, and bioinformatics";<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2013 |title=Samuel S. Wilks Memorial Award |url=https://magazine.amstat.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/Amst_October2013.pdf |journal=Amstat News |issue=436 |pages=21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Samuel S. Wilks Memorial Award |url=https://www.amstat.org/your-career/awards/samuel-s-wilks-memorial-award |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212011855/https://www.amstat.org/your-career/awards/samuel-s-wilks-memorial-award |archive-date=2022-02-12 |access-date=30 September 2024 |publisher=[[American Statistical Association]]}}</ref> the 2019 Lifetime Achievement Award from the International Indian Statistical Association;<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |date=2019 |title=Lifetime Achievement Award |url=https://www.intindstat.org/public/uploads/newsletters/IISAfa19-fall.pdf |journal=IISA Fall 2019 Newsletter}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lifetime Achievement Award |url=https://www.intindstat.org/recipients |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220112191710/https://www.intindstat.org/recipients |archive-date=2022-01-12 |access-date=2024-10-01 |publisher=[[International Indian Statistical Association]]}}</ref> the 2020 Mahatma Gandhi Medal of Honour from the NRI Institute;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahatma Gandhi Medal of Honour |url=https://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/honours.html#MGM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103145713/https://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/honours.html |archive-date=2023-11-03 |access-date=23 December 2022 |publisher=University of Leeds, Kanti Mardia - Honours}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> and the 2021 OneJAIN Life Achievement Award from the Jain All-Party Parliamentary Group.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = OneJAIN Life Achievement Award
| publisher = University of Leeds, Staff Profile
| access-date = 23 December 2022
| url = https://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/
}}</ref> He is the founding Vice-President of International Indian Statistical Association, and a Fellow of the American Statistical Association, the [[Institute of Mathematical Statistics]], and the Royal Statistical Society.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Kanti Mardia in UK Honours List |url=https://imstat.org/2023/03/31/kanti-mardia-in-uk-honours-list/ |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=[[Institute of Mathematical Statistics]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=American Statistical Association Fellows |url=https://ww2.amstat.org/fellows/ |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=[[American Statistical Association]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mardia Prize |url=https://rss.org.uk/training-events/events/honours/mardia-prize/ |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=[[Royal Statistical Society]]}}</ref> The Karlsruhe Institute of Technology's 2020 Virtual Symposium on Directional Statistics was dedicated to Mardia.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2021-03-23 |title=2020 Virtual Symposium on Directional Statistics |url=https://isas.iar.kit.edu/de/1435.php |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=Karlsruhe Institute of Technology |language=en}}</ref> He gave the 40th Fisher Memorial Lecture on 18 November 2022 at the Oxford Mathematical Institute.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fisher Memorial Lecture |url=http://www.senns.uk/FisherWeb.html#FL40 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221224035920/http://www.senns.uk/FisherWeb.html#FL40 |archive-date=2022-12-24 |access-date=23 December 2022 |publisher=Fisher Memorial Trust}}</ref> A [[festschrift]] honoring his work resulted in an edited volume, ''Geometry Driven Statistics''.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

The inaugural Mardia Lecture Series was launched by the University of Leeds on 7 November 2024 in recognition of his contribution to statistical science, with the opening lecture delivered by [[Peter Green (statistician)|Prof. Peter Green FRS]] of the University of Bristol.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sciences |first=Faculty of Engineering and Physical |date=2024-11-07 |title=The Mardia Lecture: "Seeing patterns that aren't there – and other statistical problems in investigating medical misconduct" Professor Peter Green FRS |url=https://eps.leeds.ac.uk/maths/events/event/6401/the-mardia-lecture-seeing-patterns-that-aren-t-there-and-other-statistical-problems-in-investigating-medical-misconduct-professor-peter-green-frs |access-date=2025-11-02 |website=eps.leeds.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>

Mardia's 90th birthday was celebrated at the 2025 edition of the triennial Adista conference on statistics, Mardia himself joining by video call to address the attendees and discuss the future of directional statistics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-10 |title=International Workshop on Advances in Directional Statistics (ADISTA) |url=https://www.uni.lu/fstm-en/events/international-workshop-on-advances-in-directional-statistics-adista/ |access-date=2025-11-02 |website=FSTM EN |language=en-GB}}</ref>

He is a practicing Jain and strict vegetarian.<ref name=":0" /> His 1990 book ''The Scientific Foundations of Jainism'' introduced the Four Noble Truths of Jains.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jain eLibrary: ''The Scientific Foundations of Jainism'' |url=https://jainelibrary.org/ |access-date=2024-10-14 |website=Use "Mardia" in the search bar.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mardia |first=Kanti |date=2008 |title=Modern Science and the Four Noble Truths of Jains |url=http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/FourNobleTruths-2.pdf |journal=Young Jains International Newsletter |location=London, UK |volume=22 |issue=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110401151811/http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/FourNobleTruths-2.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mardia |first=Kanti V. |title=Jainism in scientific terms |url=https://jainpedia.org/themes/principles/jain-beliefs/jainism-in-scientific-terms/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211018023048/http://www.jainpedia.org/themes/principles/jain-beliefs/jainism-in-scientific-terms.html#c3386 |archive-date=18 October 2021 |access-date= |website=JAINpedia}}</ref> His subsequent book Destructive Emotions: Jain Perspectives, published in 2024 was awarded Best Book 2025 by the prestigious [https://isjs.in/ International School for Jain Studies]. In 1987 he founded the Yorkshire Jain Foundation.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Yorkshire Jain Foundation |url=http://www.yjf.org.uk/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003143611/http://www.yjf.org.uk/index.htm |archive-date=3 October 2011 |access-date=2024-10-14}}</ref>

Mardia was appointed [[Officer of the Order of the British Empire]] (OBE) in the [[2023 New Year Honours]] for services to statistical science.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=63918|supp=y|page=N14|date=31 December 2022}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Mukherjee |first=Arundhati |date=2023-01-16 |title=British Indian statistician conferred prestigious UK honour |url=https://www.iglobalnews.com/newsviews/british-indian-statistician-conferred-prestigious-uk-honour |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=iGlobal News |language=en}}</ref>

==Books==
*''Families of Bivariate Distributions'' (1970)
*''Multivariate Analysis'', coauthored with John T. Kent and John Bibby (1979)
*''Directional Statistics'', coauthored with Peter Jupp, (1999) (first published under the title ''Statistics of Directional Data,'' 1972)
*''Bayesian Methods in Structural Bioinformatics'', co-edited with Thomas Hamelryck and Jesper Ferkinghoff-Borg (2012)
*''Statistical Shape Analysis'', coauthored with [[Ian L. Dryden]] (2016) (first edition 1998)
*''Spatial Analysis'', coauthored with John T. Kent (2022)
*''Multivariate Analysis Second Edition'', coauthored with John T. Kent and Charles C. Taylor (2024)
*''The Scientific Foundations of Jainism'' (1990)
*''Living Jainism: An Ethical Science'', coauthored with Aidan Rankin (2013)
*''Destructive Emotions: Jain Perspectives'' (2024)

== Mardia Prize ==
The Mardia Prize, awarded by the Royal Statistical Society, was founded by Mardia in 2015 to foster collaboration between statisticians and scientists via "workshops in emerging interdisciplinary areas".<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.statslife.org.uk/news/3304-rss-fellow-to-support-cutting-edge-interdisciplinary-workshops |title=RSS fellow to support cutting edge interdisciplinary workshops | StatsLife |access-date=19 August 2019 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819115928/https://www.statslife.org.uk/news/3304-rss-fellow-to-support-cutting-edge-interdisciplinary-workshops |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mardia Prize |url=https://rss.org.uk/training-events/events/honours/mardia-prize/ |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=Royal Society of Statistics}}</ref> The first award was given in 2016<ref>{{Cite web |title=Professor Mardia makes the presentation of the Mardia Prize to Dr Fiona Underwood at the annual Royal Statistical Society on 7 September 2016 |url=http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/MardiaPrize.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817144612/http://www1.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/MardiaPrize.html |archive-date=2017-08-17 |access-date=2025-04-06 |website=maths.leeds.ac.uk}}</ref> (Topic: renewable natural resources management, food security, climate change and the illegal wildlife trade) with the second in 2018<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statslife.org.uk/news/3844-2018-mardia-prize-to-support-extreme-weather-research |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819115929/https://www.statslife.org.uk/news/3844-2018-mardia-prize-to-support-extreme-weather-research |archive-date=19 August 2019 |title=2018 Mardia Prize to support extreme weather research {{!}} StatsLife}}</ref> (Topic: [[extreme weather]] research) and the third in 2019<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.statslife.org.uk/news/4214-2019-mardia-prize-to-support-workshops-on-economics-of-mental-health |title=2019 Mardia Prize to support workshops on economics of mental health | StatsLife |access-date=19 August 2019 |archive-date=19 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819115926/https://www.statslife.org.uk/news/4214-2019-mardia-prize-to-support-workshops-on-economics-of-mental-health |url-status=dead }}</ref> (Topic: economics of mental health).

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://eps.leeds.ac.uk/maths/staff/4059/professor-kanti-mardia-obe University of Leeds Faculty Profile, Kanti Mardia] [https://web.archive.org/web/20241001004631/https://eps.leeds.ac.uk/maths/staff/4059/professor-kanti-mardia-obe Archived] 30 September 2024
*[http://www.maths.leeds.ac.uk/Statistics/workshop/leeds2000/bookstein-review.html Review of the LASR on the occasion of Mardias 65th Birthday] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070502232621/http://www.maths.leeds.ac.uk/statistics/workshop/leeds2000/bookstein-review.html |date=2 May 2007 }} by [[Fred Bookstein]].
*[https://www.onejainuk.org/ Yorkshire Jain Foundation]
*[http://www.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/Newsletter_Feb2009.pdf In Conversation with Prof. Kanti V. Mardia . . .] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727022018/http://www.maths.leeds.ac.uk/~sta6kvm/Newsletter_Feb2009.pdf |date=27 July 2011 }} in Research Newsletter of the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad. February 2009.

{{Guy Medal}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mardia, Kanti}}
[[Category:Directional statistics]]
[[Category:Savitribai Phule Pune University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Rajasthan alumni]]
[[Category:University of Mumbai alumni]]
[[Category:Alumni of Newcastle University]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Hull]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Leeds]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Statistical Association]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1935 births]]
[[Category:People from Sirohi district]]
[[Category:British Jains]]
[[Category:Spatial statisticians]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to England]]
[[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:20th-century British statisticians]]
[[Category:Indian statisticians]]
[[Category:Ismail Yusuf College alumni]]

Kajal Raghwani

2026-02-09T18:45:15Z

AnnieSneed66:

{{Short description|Indian actress}}
{{Indian patronymic|Kajal|Raghwani}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kajal Raghwani
| caption =
| native_name =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Pune]], [[Maharastra]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Actress]]
| height =
| years_active = 2011–present
}}

'''Kajal Raghwani''' is an Indian actress.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri/movies/news/Kajal-Raghwani-goes-bold-in-Lagi-Tohse-Lagan/articleshow/47327554.cms |title=Kajal Raghwani goes bold in 'Lagi Tohse Lagan'|newspaper=The Times of India |date=10 January 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri/movies/news/Pavan-Singh-to-romance-Kajal-Raghwani-in-Tere-Jaisa-Yaar-Kahan/articleshow/50703423.cms |title=Pawan Singh to romance Kajal Raghwani in 'Tere Jaisa Yaar Kahan' |work=The Times of India|date=13 January 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kajalraghwani.in/kajal-raghwani-biography-hot-photos-movies/ |title=Kajal Raghwani Biography, Hot Photos, Movies - Kajal Raghwani |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410105948/https://www.kajalraghwani.in/kajal-raghwani-biography-hot-photos-movies/ |archivedate=10 April 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref> She has worked in [[List of Bhojpuri films|Bhojpuri films]] like ''[[Pratigya 2]]'', ''[[Hukumat]]'', ''[[Patna Se Pakistan]]'', ''[[Muqaddar (2017 film)|Muqaddar]]'', ''[[Mehandi Laga Ke Rakhna]]'' and ''[[Mai Sehra Bandh Ke Aaunga]]''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri/movies/news/Aashiq-Awara-to-release-on-Holi/articleshow/50352057.cms |title='Aashiq Awara' to release on Holi|newspaper=The Times of India |date=13 January 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amarujala.com/photo-gallery/uttar-pradesh/varanasi/kajal-raghwani-birthday-celebrated-today |title=16 साल की उम्र में इस अभिनेत्री ने बड़े पर्दे पर रखा था कदम, आज मना रहीं जन्मदिन}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri/movies/news/First-look-of-Bhojpuriya-Raja-unveiled/articleshow/50845417.cms |title=First look of 'Bhojpuriya Raja' unveiled|newspaper=The Times of India |date=13 January 2017 }}</ref> Raghwani is considered as one of the highest paid Bhojpuri actress.<ref name="Kajalpaid" />

== Filmography ==
{{BLP sources section|date=November 2025}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Key
| style="background:#ffc;"| {{dagger|alt=Films that have not yet been released}}
| Denotes films that have not yet been released
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Film
! Role
! Language
! Notes
|-
|2011||''Sugna''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2013||''Rihai''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2014||''Pratigya 2''||
||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2014||''[[Devra Bhail Deewana]]''||
||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2015||''[[Patna Se Pakistan]]''||Komal
||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2015||''Hukumat''|| ||Bhojpuri|| <ref>{{cite news | title=Hukumat Movie: Showtimes, Review, Songs, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=13 February 2015 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri/movie-details/hukumat/movieshow/61221890.cms | access-date=9 November 2025}}</ref>
|-
|2015||''Baj Gail Danka''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2016||''Bhojpuriya Raja''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2016||''Jaaneman''||
||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2016||''Inteqaam''||Sweta
||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2016||''Aashik Aawara''||
||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2016||''Dabang Aashiq''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2016||''Lagi Tohse lagan''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2017||''Jai Mehraru Jai Sasurari''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2017||''[[Majaz: Ae Gham-e-Dil Kya Karun]]''|| ||Hindi, Urdu
|-
|2017||''Tere Jaisa Yaar Kahan''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2017||''Ham Hain Hindustani''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2017||''Sarkar Raj''|| Cameo||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2017||''[[Mehandi Laga Ke Rakhna (Bhojpuri film)|Mehandi Laga Ke Rakhna]]''|| Kajal ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2017||''Pyar Ke Rang Hazaar''|| ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2017||''[[Mai Sehra Bandh Ke Aaunga]]''|| Pooja ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2018||''[[Muqaddar (2017 film)|Muqaddar]]''|| Herself ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2018||''Deewanapan''|| Herself ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2018||''[[Dulhan Ganga Paar Ke]]''|| Radha ||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2018||''Bairi Kangana 2''||Chanda||Bhojpuri||
|-
|2018||''[[Sangharsh (2018 film)|Sangharsh]]''|| Rukhmani || rowspan="12" |Bhojpuri||
|-
|2018||''[[Balam Ji Love You]]'' ||Meera||
|-
|2018|| ''[[Naagdev]]''||Nageena/ Shivani||
|-
|2018||''[[Dabang Sarkar]]'' ||Cameo||
|-
|2019||''[[Maine Unko Sajan Chun Liya]]''||Sona||
|-
|2019||''[[Coolie No. 1 (2019 film)|Coolie No. 1]]''||Rani||
|-
|2019 ||''[[Vivah (2019 film)|Vivah]]''||Cameo||
|-
|2019|| ''[[Baaghi- Ek Yoddha]]''||
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri/movies/news/khesari-lal-yadav-and-kajal-raghwani-starrer-baaghi-baaghi-ek-yodha-trailer-is-out/articleshow/71048430.cms |title=Khesari Lal Yadav and Kajal Raghwani starrer 'Baaghi Ek Yodha' trailer is out |date=9 September 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=10 September 2019}}</ref>
|-
|2019|| ''[[Kashi Vishwanath (film)|Kashi Vishwanath]]''||
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri/movies/news/ritesh-pandey-and-kajal-raghwani-starrer-kashi-vishwanath-to-release-on-june-21/articleshow/69785070.cms |title=Ritesh Pandey and Kajal Raghwani starrer 'Kashi Vishwanath' to release on June 21 |date=14 June 2019 |work=The Times of India |access-date=27 May 2020}}</ref>
|-
|2021
|''[[Dulhan Wahi Jo Piya Man Bhaye (2021 film)|Dulhan Wahi Jo Piya Man Bhaye]]''
|Diya
|
|-
|2021
| ''[[Litti Chokha (film)|Litti Chokha]]''
|
|<ref>{{Cite news |title=खेसारीलाल यादव की फिल्म 'लिट्टी चोखा' जल्द होगी रिलीज |url=https://www.newsnationtv.com/entertainment/bhojpuri-cinema/khesari-lal-yadav-bhojpuri-film-litti-chokha-to-be-released-soon-173591.html |access-date=23 February 2021 |website=News Nation |language=hi |date=11 January 2021}}</ref>
|-
|2025
|[[Mere Husband Ki Shadi Hai]]
|
|
|-
|}

==Media image==
Raghwani is considered in the media as one of the highest paid Bhojpuri actress.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri/web-stories/top-10-actresses-who-rule-the-bhojpuri-industry/photostory/91401562.cms |title=Check out the list of 10 actresses who rule the Bhojpuri film industry |work=The Times of India |access-date=11 September 2023}}</ref><ref name="Kajalpaid">{{Cite news |url=https://hindi.news18.com/photogallery/entertainment/bhojpuri-top-5-highest-paid-bhojpuri-actress-akshra-singh-amrapali-dubey-monalisa-kajal-raghwani-rani-chatterjee-5154257-page-4.html |title=From Amrapali Dubey to Monalisa: Highest paid actresses in Bhojpuri cinema |work=News18 |access-date=28 January 2024}}</ref> She is also one of the most followed Bhojpuri actress on [[Instagram]] with over 5.4 million followers.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bhojpuri-cinema/most-popular-bhojpuri-actors-actresses-instagram-followers-see-list-here/articleshow/90821439.cms |title=These 10 Bhojpuri stars are a sensation on social media, know how many Instagram followers they have |work=Navbharat Times |access-date=31 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.jagrantv.com/amp-stories-hi/entertainment/monalisa-to-amrapali-dubey-these-are-the-most-followed-bhojpuri-actresses-on-instagram-ws926 |title=Monalisa to Amrapali Dubey: Most followed Bhojpuri actresses on Instagram |work=Jagran TV |access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref>

==Awards==
Raghwani received the Bhojpuri Best Actress People's Choice Award in 2016 at the [[International Bhojpuri Film Awards]] (IBFA) held in Dubai.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bhojpurixp.com/ibfa-awards-winners-list-2016/ |title=IBFA AWARDS WINNERS LIST 2016 |work=Bhojpuri Xp |access-date=26 September 2018 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726140519/https://www.bhojpurixp.com/ibfa-awards-winners-list-2016/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Bhojpuri actresses]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|7457659}}
{{commons category|Kajal Raghwani}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Raghwani, Kajal}}
[[Category:Actresses in Bhojpuri cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Urdu cinema]]
[[Category:People from Begusarai]]
[[Category:Actresses from Bihar]]

Anant Ramachandra Gokhale

2026-02-08T12:20:29Z

AnnieSneed66:

{{Short description|Indian educationalist (1907–1978)}}
SSSS{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Essay-like|date=December 2017}}
{{more citations needed|date=December 2017}}
{{Orphan|date=December 2017}}
}}
[[File:Anant Ramachandra Gokhale.jpg|thumb|Anant Ramachandra Gokhale]]

'''Anant Ramachandra Gokhale''' (14 February 1907 – 25 June 1978) was an educationalist. In 20th-century India, many great personalities walked in multifaceted fields of Indian society. Many amongst them served the nation in different capacities through various occupations. Some of them contributed immensely in the field of education all over India. Gokhale was among such personalities who worked all his life for women's education and welfare.

Anant Ramachandra Gokhale, popularly known as ''A.R. Gokhale'' or ''Nanasaheb'' was born in [[Ichalkaranji]], then a small state (now in [[Kolhapur District]]) of [[Maharashtra]] in a [[Chitpavan]] Brahmin family. His parents Ramachandra Vishnu Gokhale, himself a Sanskrit scholar and Mathurabai played an important role in ensuring higher education for their son. Anant Ramachandra Gokhale spent his early life in [[Belgaum]], [[Karnataka]]. He finished his high school education from Beynon Smith High School Belgaum which was run by the missionaries. After matriculation, he studied in [[Willingdon College|Willingdon College Sangli]] and graduated from [[Rajaram College|Rajaram College Kolhapur]] in the year 1927. He also did his M.A. in English and Sanskrit from [[Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute|Deccan College Pune]] and B.T. from Tilak College of Education, Pune.

Anant Ramachandra Gokhale started his life as school teacher in American Missionary School, [[Vengurla]] where he came across Dr. Robert H. H. Goheen, an American academic who was known for his selfless service and simple living with high thinking. Dr. Goheen's son [[Robert F. Goheen]] went on to become the president of [[Princeton University]] and United States Ambassador to India. Gokhale also worked with the New English High School Satara.

A.R.Gokhale was associated with the [[Servants of India Society]], formed by Namdar [[Gopal Krishna Gokhale]]. A.R.Gokhale was involved in the activities of Bharat Sevak Samaj, founded by India's first [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru]]. He was also a member of Maharashtra Samajik Parishad.

== Servants of India Society ==
Anant Ramachandra Gokhale's life took a new turn in the 1930s when he was influenced by the preachings of great scholar of mathematics and leader Namdar Gopal Krishna Gokhale and joined the Servants of India Society which was founded by him in Pune. 
The Servants of India Society was running an English Daily ''[[The Hitavada]]'' since 1911. With his flair for journalism and great command over English, Marathi and Sanskrit, Gokhale went on deputation to Delhi in early 1930s as a special correspondent for the newspaper and covered the proceedings of Central Legislative Assembly (Now known as [[Lok Sabha]]). He had a great opportunity to closely observe and meet leaders like [[Motilal Nehru|Pandit Motilal Nehru]], Barrister [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] who then represented the [[Indian National Congress]], [[Vithalbhai Patel]], the co-founder of [[Swaraj Party]], Barrister [[M. R. Jayakar]] of Pune who was a founder of [[University of Poona|Pune Vidyapeeth]], and several other leaders. Thus his life was enriched by a spell of journalism.

== Influence of women's education ==
A.R. Gokhale, during his college days in the 1920s was highly influenced by great personalities like [[Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve]] who had started Hingne Stree Shikshan Sanstha for destitute and child widows who lived life of Alawan. The institute grew up to become [[Shreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women's University]]. Thus the tradition of women's emancipation from slavery flourished in Maharashtra. Another pioneer of women education [[Ramabai Ranade]], wife of [[Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade]] of Bombay High Court had founded Pune Sevasadan Society in Pune in the 1909 for poor and destitute child widows to make them self-reliant and independent through education. Her contemporary, [[Pandita Ramabai]] was also a fountainhead of women's liberation.

The women in the [[Central Provinces and Berar]] had a similar fate like rest of Maharashtra. In Nagpur, then the capital of Central Provinces and Berar, eminent people like Bhawani Shankar Niyogi, who later became the Chief Justice of Nagpur High Court, Justice W. R. Puranik of Nagpur High Court and Colonel K. V. Kukade and their friends were impressed by the work of Pune Sevasadan Society and the Nagpur branch of Pune Sevasadan came into existence on 2 January 1927 with G. B. Garud as Nagpur Sevasadan's first Superintendent. He served there till 1936.

In the year 1936, A.R. Gokhale, concluded his tenure with [[The Hitavada]] and moved to Nagpur along with his wife Mrs. Sushilabai Gokhale, herself a [[Fergusson College]], Pune graduate, to follow his ideals and there began a long journey with Sevasdan Nagpur.

== Sevasadan Education Society ==
Anant Ramchnadra Gokhale's life turned a new corner to devote 40 years of life to women's education in 1936. Pune Sevasadan was looking for a young graduate couple in those days and had plans to take Nagpur Sevasadan forward. Gokhale and his wife Sushilabai Gokhale, both of whom were English, Marathi and Sanskrit scholars and orators was an apt couple to take over the reins and nurture Nagpur Sevasadan. Thus A.R.Gokhale became the superintendent of Sevasadan at a young age of 29. He was a teacher of English in high school for the 9th, 10th and 11th standards. Though he was the Superintendent of the school and was devoted to other aspects like school administration, fund raising for construction of buildings, he was also teaching English to female students of the school.

Gokhale took keen interest in the administration and also laid foundation of fledgling Sevasadan into a bigger institution. Nagpur Sevasadan had begun its journey in a rented bungalow in [[Dhantoli]]. He always wanted Sevasadan to move into a large premises and was in real sense a creator of converting this dream into reality for the benefit of destitute women and girls. He was continuously talking to the then Central Provinces and Berar Government and secured a plot for the school from them in the year 1939. Sevasadan shifted to its new building in 1940. His work did not stop only at the creation of one building, but he was toiling hard for the betterment of women's education and erected buildings for a High School, Pre-Primary Teachers Training College and Women's Hostel to bring Nagpur Sevasadan to its current status.

In those days, women in India were dependent on their families for survival because they were uneducated. The child widows had no choice to remarry and had to work for well-to-do families with a meagre income and no future, thus being exploited by the society as they were poor and uneducated. Their condition was pitiable, so it was necessary to make them educated and self-supportive. Nagpur Sevasadan gave them shelter in its women's hostel. Gokhale started many schemes in the society for their welfare. He brought in the concept of 'Earn and Learn' for these women so they could live their lives with respect in the society. The women who could not afford education and had no place to stay were accommodated in the women's hostel allowing them to work for the school and paid for the work done by them and also take up education and attend classes in the school or in the training colleges of Sevasadan.

Gokhale was a well known figure in Nagpur as a social worker and educator. During those days, the girl students hailing from [[Hyderabad State]] appeared for [[All India Secondary School Examination|S.S.C examination]] of Nagpur Board and used to come to Nagpur for examinations in the summer. The poor girls had no accommodations for short period of 2 months. Gokhale ensured the girl students were allowed to stay in Sevasadan Hostel and helping them. Similarly, girls from refugee families who migrated from Pakistan were supported by him for taking up the exam in Nagpur, making facilities available for those students in the premises of Nagpur Sevasadan. For him, he preached what he taught ensuring equality among all his students irrespective of caste, creed and religion.

During the 1950s, there were no trained teachers for Balak Mandirs (Children School). So Gokhale and his wife started a Pre-Primary Teachers Training College for women and Mrs. Gokhale as its Principal helped the institute to bring out qualified teachers.

Gokhale was a founder President of Superintendents’ Association (now known as Headmasters' Association) in the 1940s for safeguarding the interests of the institutions. He was the President again in the early 1970s. Through his tireless efforts, construction of a hall for the Association's office and meetings came into a reality at Laxmi Nagar, Nagpur.

Gokhale breathed Sevasadan all through his life and developed the institute for women's education and their welfare.

== End of an era ==
Gokhale died in Sevasadan on 25 June 1978 at the age of 71. He dedicated his life to Sevasadan, where he was involved in its activities until his death.

Nagpur Sevasadan celebrated Mr. A.R. Gokhale's birth centenary year in 2006–2007 and installed his statue in the premises of Nagpur Sevasadan as a mark of respect and a book<ref>"Kai. A.Ra.Gokhale Smrutigandh", Publisher Dr.Kshama Limaye, 2006-07</ref> was published in his memory on the same occasion. The congratulatory message for the said book was received from Hon.Prof.Ram Shevalkar and Dr. Rajan Welukar then Vice Chancellor of YCMOU.

Current website<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sevasadannagpur.org/past-management.html |title=SevaSadan Nagpur |website=sevasadannagpur.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030110604/http://sevasadannagpur.org/past-management.html |archive-date=2016-10-30}} </ref> of Sevasadan Nagpur acknowledges Mr.A.R.Gokhale as past management committee member.

The school is still run carrying the same principles and morals for which it was founded way back in 1927.

== Publications ==
# Sevasadan Speaks<ref>A.R.Gokhale (1977),"Sevasadan Speaks", Poona Seva Sadan Society</ref> is a book describing celebrations on the occasion of Golden Jubilee of Nagpur Sevasadan in the year 1977.
# Biography of [[Charles Freer Andrews]]: He was a missionary who served in India in the early 1920s and was closely associated with [[Annie Besant]]’s [[Indian Home Rule movement|Home Rule League]]. He was an educator and social reformer in India and close friend of Mahatma Gandhi and an influential factor in convincing Gandhi to return to India from South Africa.
# [[Sadhu Sundar Singh]], a saint from Punjab who was a missionary in the early 1920s.

== Gallery ==

<gallery>
File:Anant Ramachandra Gokhale With Acharya Vinoba Bhave.jpg|With Acharya Vinoba Bhave
File:With Vasantrao Naik , the then Chief Minister of Maharashtra.jpg|With Vasantrao Naik, the then Chief Minister of Maharashtra
File:Statue Inaguration.jpg|Statue Inauguration
File:Anant Ramchandra Gokhale Statue.jpg|Anant Ramchandra Gokhale Statue
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gokhale, Anant}}
[[Category:1978 deaths]]
[[Category:1907 births]]
[[Category:Shivaji University alumni]]
[[Category:Savitribai Phule Pune University alumni]]

Ayngaran International

2026-02-07T20:55:56Z

AnnieSneed66: Improved wording and formatting

{{Short description|Tamil film distribution company}}
{{About||the film|Ayngaran (film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2020}}
{{multiple issues|{{more citations needed|date=August 2014}}
{{Notability|Companies|date=October 2012}}}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Ayngaran International
| logo = Logo_of_Ayngaran_International.jpg
| caption =
| native_name = Tamil
| type = [[Film Producer|Film production]] [[Film distribution]]
| foundation = Jan 14, 1987
| location_city = Thanikachalam Rd, Thillaiganga Nagar, Parthasarathi Puram, T. Nagar, [[Chennai]], Tamil Nadu 600017
| key_people = K Karunamoorthi Rohan Manickavasagar
| num_employees = 67
| industry = Film Distribution
| parent =
| revenue = $12 Million
| operating_income =
| homepage = {{URL|www.ayngaran.com}}
}}
'''Ayngaran International''' is a [[film distribution]] and [[film production|production]] company, based in the United Kingdom. The chairman of the company is K. Karunamoorthy. It also operates a chain of retail video stores located in the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Malaysia, and Singapore.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=35581892 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20140527175901/http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=35581892 | url-status=dead | archive-date=27 May 2014 | title=Ayngaran International Ltd - Company Profile and News }}</ref>

As of 2008, the company debuted as an independent film studio, opening offices in India. Its first production was ''[[Karuppu Roja]]'' (1996).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dietandweightlosstoday.com/news/Karuppu-Roja.html |title=Latest News and Information on Karuppu Roja |access-date=26 May 2014 |archive-date=9 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109235304/http://dietandweightlosstoday.com/news/Karuppu-Roja.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==History==

===Film production===
Ayngaran International made its first foray into film production with the 1996 horror film ''[[Karuppu Roja]]'', directed by [[Aabavanan]], but the venture's failure prompted them to prioritise European distribution ventures. In 2006, Ayngaran International entered into a [[joint venture]] with [[Eros International]] and announced plans to begin producing and distributing films on a larger scale. Its first distribution venture as a joint venture, [[S. Shankar|Shankar]]'s [[Rajinikanth]]-starrer ''[[Sivaji (film)|Sivaji]]'', became a very profitable venture and soon after, Ayngaran announced plans to begin producing films.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://chennai365.com/news/sivaji-blazes-success-trail-for-tamil-films/|title = Chennai365 | Sivaji blazes success trail for Tamil films}}</ref> Subsequently, it was announced that they would produce the director and actor's next collaboration, ''[[Enthiran]]'' (2010), dubbed as the most expensive Tamil film ever made, along with Eros International. However, in December 2008, Eros International withdrew from the joint venture after financial difficulties caused by the box-office failure of ''[[Drona (2008 film)|Drona]]'' (2008) and ''[[Yuvvraaj]]'' (2008),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.mid-day.com/news/2008/dec/301208-Rajinikanth-Aishwarya-Rai-Enthiran-Hollywood-HBO-simultaneous-release.htm |title=Hollywood dreams |work=[[Mid-Day]] |first=S. Suresh |last=Kumar |date=30 December 2008 |access-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118162001/http://archive.mid-day.com/news/2008/dec/301208-Rajinikanth-Aishwarya-Rai-Enthiran-Hollywood-HBO-simultaneous-release.htm |archive-date=18 January 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> while Ayngaran International itself, struggled with the [[2008 financial crisis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-slide-shows/movie-4/endhiran/endhiran-06.html |title=The Journey: From Robot to Endhiran — Hurdles and setbacks! |publisher=Behindwoods |access-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118102633/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-slide-shows/movie-4/endhiran/endhiran-06.html |archive-date=18 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The film's production and release rights were consequently sold on to [[Sun Pictures]], who released the film.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/dec/18sun-pictures-to-produce-endhiran.htm |title= Sun Pictures to produce Rajni's Endhiran |work=Rediff.com |date=18 December 2008 |access-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118102809/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/dec/18sun-pictures-to-produce-endhiran.htm |archive-date=18 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

After enjoying success as the worldwide co-distributors of the [[Ajith Kumar]]-starrer ''[[Billa (2007 film)|Billa]]'' (2007), they signed the actor on to appear in their production ''[[Aegan (film)|Aegan]]'' (2008), which was directed by [[Raju Sundaram]]. Simultaneously they produced [[Prabhu Deva]]'s ''[[Villu (film)|Villu]]'' (2009) with [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]] in the lead role, but both films did not perform well commercially.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ajithfans.com/news/2008/10/22/ajithfanscom-exclusive-on-todays-aegan-press-meet/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=23 October 2015 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181956/http://www.ajithfans.com/news/2008/10/22/ajithfanscom-exclusive-on-todays-aegan-press-meet/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The failure of both their big-budget films and their other venture [[Vishnuvardhan (director)|Vishnuvardhan]]'s ''[[Sarvam]]'' (2009), coupled with their withdrawal from ''Enthiran'', put the release of several of their other projects into doubt. While smaller films like ''[[Peraanmai]]'' (2009) and ''[[Angadi Theru]]'' (2010) managed to release and perform well at the box office, other ventures including [[Mysskin]]'s ''[[Nandalala]]'' (2010), ''[[Murattu Kaalai (2012 film)|Murattu Kaalai]]'' (2012) and the [[Prabhu Deva]]-starrer ''[[Kalavaadiya Pozhuthugal]]'' (2017) experienced severe delays as a result of financial restraints, however latter got released in 2017. Likewise Ayngaran's films shot in the late 2000s like the [[Jai (actor)|Jai]]-starrer ''Arjunan Kadhali'' and the [[Jeevan (Tamil actor)|Jeevan]]-starrer ''Krishnaleelai'' remain unreleased, while projects such as the [[A. R. Rahman]] musical, [[Kadhir]]'s ''Manavar Dhinam'' with [[Vinay Rai|Vinay]], were shelved after being launched.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.indiaglitz.com/vinay-in-maanavar-dhinam-tamil-news-41961.html| title = Vinay in 'Maanavar Dhinam' - Tamil News - IndiaGlitz.com| date = October 2008}}</ref>

The studio continued distributing films throughout the 2010s and made a return to production through ''[[Kaththi]]'' (2014), which was co-produced by Lyca Productions. The success of the film meant that Ayngaran International were actively looking to make a return to the film industry, and announced that they would finance [[Anand Shankar]]'s ''Marma Manithan'' with [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]] and [[Kajal Aggarwal]] starring. However, subsequently they opted against making the film and the project was taken up by different producers.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.indiaglitz.com/bindhu-madhavi-replaces-priya-anand-in-vikrams-marma-manithan-tamil-news-135917.html| title = Bindu Madhavi In Priya Anand Out for Vikram - Tamil News - IndiaGlitz.com| date = 22 June 2015}}</ref>

==Retail stores==
Ayngaran International has several retail stores across the world, located in cities such as [[London]], [[Toronto]], [[Paris]], [[Sydney]], and [[Singapore]]. Other partner sites are located in [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Malaysia]].

==Filmography==
Ayngaran introduced the six-track DTS sound system to the Indian Cinema Industry through its inaugural production feature ''[[Karuppu Roja]]'' in 1996.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;"
! colspan="4" style="background: LightSteelBlue;" |As Producer
|-
! Year !! Film !! Director !! Cast
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Karuppu Roja]]'' || Paneer || [[Ramki (actor)|Ramki]], [[Vineetha]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |2008|| ''[[Mayabazar (2008 film)|Mayabazaar]]'' (Malayalam) || Thomas Sebastian || [[Mammootty]], [[Sheela (Tamil actress)|Sheela Kaur]], [[Tisca Chopra]]
|-
| ''[[Aegan]]'' || [[Raju Sundaram]] || [[Ajith Kumar]], [[Nayanthara]]
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2009 ||''[[Villu (film)|Villu]]'' || [[Prabhu Deva]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Nayanthara]]
|-
| ''[[Sarvam]]'' || [[Vishnuvardhan (director)|Vishnuvardhan]] || [[Arya (actor)|Arya]], [[Trisha (actress)|Trisha]]
|-
| ''[[Peraanmai]]'' || [[S. P. Jananathan]] || [[Jayam Ravi]], [[Vasundhara Kashyap|Vasundhara]], [[Saranya Nag|Saranya]], Liyasree, [[Sai Dhanshika|Dhansika]], [[Varsha Ashwathi]], [[Roland Kickinger]]
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2010 || ''[[Angadi Theru]]'' || [[Vasanthabalan]] || [[Mahesh (Tamil actor)|Mahesh]], [[Anjali (actress born 1986)|Anjali]], [[A. Venkatesh (director)|A. Venkatesh]]
|-
| ''[[Nandalala]]''||[[Myshkin (director)|Mysskin]] || [[Myshkin (director)|Mysskin]], Ashwath Ram, [[Snigdha Akolkar]]
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Murattu Kaalai (2012 film)|Murattu Kaalai]]'' || [[K. Selva Bharathy]] || [[Sundar C]], [[Sneha (actress)|Sneha]], [[Sindhu Tolani]]
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Kalavaadiya Pozhuthugal]]'' || [[Thangar Bachan]] || [[Prabhu Deva]], [[Bhumika Chawla]], [[Prakash Raj (actor)|Prakash Raj]]
|-
|2024 || ''[[Nirangal Moondru]]'' || [[Karthick Naren]] || [[Atharvaa]], [[R. Sarathkumar]], [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]]
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;"
! colspan="4" |As Overseas Distributor
|-
!Year
!Film
!Director
!Cast
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2000 || ''[[Kannukkul Nilavu]]'' || [[Fazil (director)|Fazil]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Shalini (actress)|Shalini]]
|-
| ''[[Alai Payuthey]]'' || [[Mani Ratnam]] || [[R. Madhavan]], [[Shalini (actress)|Shalini]]
|-
| rowspan="1" | 2004 || ''[[Attahasam]]'' || [[Saran (director)|Saran]] || [[Ajith Kumar]], [[Pooja Umashankar|Pooja]]
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2005 || ''[[Sachein]]'' || [[John Mahendran]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Genelia D'Souza]], [[Bipasha Basu]]
|-
| ''[[Ullam Ketkumae]]'' || [[Jeeva (director)|Jeeva]] || [[Shaam (actor)|Shaam]], [[Arya (actor)|Arya]], [[Asin]], [[Pooja Umashankar|Pooja]]
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2007 || ''[[Pokkiri]]'' || [[Prabhu Deva]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Asin]]
|-
| ''[[Billa (2007 film)|Billa]]''|| [[Vishnuvardhan (director)|Vishnuvardhan]] || [[Ajith Kumar]], [[Nayanthara]], [[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]]
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2008 || ''[[Dasavathaaram]]'' || [[K. S. Ravikumar]] || [[Kamal Haasan]], [[Asin]]
|-
| ''[[Muniyandi Vilangial Moonramandu]]'' || [[Thirumurugan (director)|Thirumurugan]] || [[Bharath (actor)|Bharath]], [[Shamna Kasim|Poorna]]
|-
| ''[[Kuselan]]'' || [[P. Vasu]] || [[Rajinikanth]], [[Pasupathy]], [[Meena (actress)|Meena]]
|-
| ''[[Seval]]'' || [[Hari (director)|Hari]] || [[Bharath (actor)|Bharath]], [[Poonam Bajwa]], [[Simran (actress)|Simran]]
|-
| ''[[Aegan]]'' || [[Raju Sundaram]] || [[Ajith Kumar]], [[Nayanthara]]
|-
| ''[[Thiruvannamalai (film)|Thiruvannamalai]]'' || [[Perarasu]] || [[Arjun Sarja]], [[Pooja Gandhi]]
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2009 ||''[[Villu (film)|Villu]]'' || [[Prabhu Deva]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Nayanthara]]
|-
|''[[Ayan (film)|Ayan]]'' || [[K. V. Anand]] || [[Suriya]], [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]], [[Tamannaah Bhatia]]
|-
|''[[Kanthaswamy]]'' || [[Susi Ganesan]] || [[Vikram (actor)|Vikram]], [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]], [[Shriya Saran]]
|-
|''[[Aadhavan]]'' || K. S. Ravikumar || [[Suriya]], [[Nayanthara]], [[Vadivelu]]
|-
|''[[Vettaikaaran (2009 film)|Vettaikaaran]]'' || [[B. Babusivan]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Anushka Shetty]], [[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]]
|-
| rowspan="4"| 2010 || ''[[Aayirathil Oruvan (2010 film)|Aayirathil Oruvan]]'' || [[Selvaraghavan]] || [[Karthi]], [[Reema Sen]], [[Andrea Jeremiah]], [[R. Parthiban]]
|-
| ''[[Aasal]]'' || Saran || [[Ajith Kumar]], [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]], [[Sameera Reddy]], [[Bhavana (actress)|Bhavana]]
|-
| ''[[Angadi Theru]]'' || [[Vasanthabalan]] || [[Mahesh (Tamil actor)|Mahesh]], [[Anjali (actress born 1986)|Anjali]], [[A. Venkatesh (director)|A. Venkatesh]]
|-
| ''[[Uthamaputhiran (2010 film)|Uthamaputhiran]]'' || [[Mithran R. Jawahar]] || [[Dhanush]], [[Genelia D'Souza]]
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2011 ||''[[Avan Ivan]]'' || [[Bala (director)|Bala]] || [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]], [[Arya (actor)|Arya]]
|-
|''[[Mankatha]]'' || [[Venkat Prabhu]] || [[Ajith Kumar]], [[Arjun Sarja]], [[Trisha Krishnan]], [[Raai Laxmi]]
|-
|''[[Velayudham]]'' || [[Mohan Raja]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Hansika Motwani]], [[Genelia D'Souza]], [[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]]
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Murattu Kaalai (2012 film)|Murattu Kaalai]]''|| [[K. Selva Bharathy]] || [[Sundar C]], [[Sneha (actress)|Sneha]], [[Sneha (actress)|Sneha]], [[Sindhu Tolani]]
|-
| rowspan="3" |2014 || ''[[Jilla]]''|| [[R. T. Neason]] || [[Mohanlal]], [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Kajal Aggarwal]]
|-
| ''[[Naan Sigappu Manithan (2014 film)|Naan Sigappu Manithan]]''|| [[Thiru (director)|Thiru]] || [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]], [[Lakshmi Menon (actress)|Lakshmi Menon]]
|-
|''[[Kaththi]]''|| [[AR Murugadoss]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Samantha Ruth Prabhu]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |2015 || ''[[Puli (2015 film)|Puli]]''|| [[Chimbu Deven]] || [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[Sridevi]], [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]], [[Sudeepa]], [[Hansika Motwani]], [[Shruti Haasan]]
|-
| ''[[Anegan]]''|| K. V. Anand || [[Dhanush]], [[Karthik (actor)|Karthik]], [[Amyra Dastur]]
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2016 || ''[[Thodari]]''|| [[Prabhu Solomon]] || [[Dhanush]], [[Keerthy Suresh]]
|-
| ''[[Achcham Yenbadhu Madamaiyada]]''|| [[Prabhu Solomon]] || [[Silambarasan]], [[Manjima Mohan]]
|-
| 2017 || ''[[Kalavaadiya Pozhuthugal]]''|| [[Thangar Bachan]] || [[Prabhu Deva]], [[Bhumika Chawla]], [[Prakash Raj]]
|-
| 2021 || ''[[Enemy (2021 film)|Enemy]]''|| [[Anand Shankar]] || [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]], [[Arya (actor)|Arya]] [[Mirnalini Ravi]], [[Mamta Mohandas]]
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2022 || ''[[Thiruchitrambalam]]''|| [[Mithran R. Jawahar]] || [[Dhanush]], [[Raashii Khanna]], [[Priya Bhavani Shankar]], [[Nithya Menen]]
|-
| ''[[Naane Varuvean]]''|| [[Selvaraghavan]] || [[Dhanush]], [[Indhuja Ravichandran]], [[Elli AvrRam]]
|-
| rowspan="6" |2023 || ''[[Dada (2023 film)|Dada]]''|| Ganesh K. Babu || [[Kavin (actor)|Kavin]], [[Aparna Das]]
|-
|''[[Single Shankarum Smartphone Simranum]]''|| Vignesh Sha PN || [[Shiva (actor)|Shiva]], [[Megha Akash]], [[Anju Kurian]]
|-
|''[[Agilan]]''|| N Kalyana Krishnan || [[Jayam Ravi]], [[Priya Bhavani Shankar]], [[Tanya Ravichandran]]
|-
|''[[Yaathisai]]''|| Dharani Rasendran || Shakthi Mithran, Seyon, Rajalakshmi, Vaidehi Amarnath
|-
|''[[Jailer (2023 Tamil film)|Jailer]]'' || [[Nelson Dilipkumar]] || [[Rajinikanth]], [[Vinayakan]], [[Ramya Krishnan]], [[Vasanth Ravi]]
|-
|''[[Mark Antony (2023 film)|Mark Antony]]'' || [[Adhik Ravichandran]] || [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]], [[S. J. Suryah]]
|-
| rowspan="7" |2024 || ''[[Romeo (2024 film)|Romeo]]'' || Vinayak Vaithianathan || [[Vijay Antony]], [[Mirnalini Ravi]], [[VTV Ganesh]], [[Yogi Babu]]
|-
|''[[Rathnam (film)|Rathnam]]''|| [[Hari (director)|Hari]] || [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]], [[Priya Bhavani Shankar]]
|-
|''[[Raayan]]''|| [[Dhanush]] || [[Dhanush]], [[Dushara Vijayan]], [[S. J. Suryah]], [[Prakash Raj]]
|-
|''[[Brother (2024 film)|Brother]]'' || [[M. Rajesh]] || [[Jayam Ravi]], [[Priyanka Mohan]], [[Bhumika Chawla]], [[Natty Subramaniam]]
|-
| ''[[Bloody Beggar]]''|| Sivabalan Muthukumar || [[Kavin (actor)|Kavin]], [[Radha Ravi]], [[Redin Kingsley]]
|-
|''Paraman'' || J. Sabarish || [[Supergood Subramani]], [[Vaiyapuri]]
|-
|''[[Nirangal Moondru]]'' || [[Karthick Naren]] || [[Atharvaa]], [[R. Sarathkumar]], [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]]
|-
| rowspan="8" |2025 || ''Poorveegam'' || G.Krishnan || [[Bose Venkat]], [[Ilavarasu]], [[Sriranjani (Tamil actress)|Sriranjani]]
|-
| ''[[Dinasari]]'' || G Sankar || [[Srikanth (actor, born 1979)|Srikanth]], Cynthia Lourde
|-
| ''[[Akkenam]]'' || Uday K || [[Keerthi Pandian]], [[Arun Pandian ]]
|-
|''[[Paranthu Po]]'' || [[Ram (director)|Ram]] || [[Shiva (actor)|Shiva]], Mithul Ryan, [[Grace Antony]], [[Anjali (actress)|Anjali]], [[Vijay Yesudas]], [[Aju Varghese]]
|-
|''[[Thanal (2025 film)|Thanal]]'' || Ravindra Madhava || [[Atharvaa]], [[Ashwin Kakumanu]], [[Lavanya Tripathi]]
|-
|''Sareeram'' || GV Perumal || Tharsan Priyan, Charmy Vijayalakshmi, [[Shakeela]], [[Jangiri Madhumitha]]
|-
|''Thadai Athai Udai'' || Arivazhakan Murugesan || [[Mahesh (Tamil actor)|Mahesh]], Guna Babu, Ganesh, Mahaadeer Mohammad
|-
|''[[Retta Thala]]'' || Kris Thirukumaran || [[Arun Vijay]], [[Siddhi Idnani]], [[Tanya Ravichandran]]
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.ayngaran.com Ayngaran International Official Website]
* [http://www.uk.imdb.com/company/co0110172/ IMDB Profile]

[[Category:Film distributors of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Film production companies of Tamil Nadu]]

Arjan Dhillon discography

2026-01-28T01:13:29Z

AnnieSneed66: Starting The Entry W/ Refs

{{Short description|Indian singer songwriter discography}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox artist discography
| Artist = [[Arjan Dhillon]]
| Image =
| Studio = 8
| EP = 3
| Mixtape =
| Option name = As featured artist
| Option = 3
| 1Option name = As songwriter
| 1Option = 19
}}
The discography of Indian singer, rapper and songwriter [[Arjan Dhillon]] consists of eight [[studio album]]s, one [[mixtape]], three [[extended play]]s, thirty-nine singles, including three songs as a featured artist, and nineteen tracks as a songwriter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://open.spotify.com/artist/64DvMieEUCdrYKmEIhDt8G?si=dRNUjL8MSGqtE-bOgyzrYw|title= Arjan Dhillon discography|via=open.spotify.com}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Arjan Dhillon on Apple Music |url=https://music.apple.com/in/artist/arjan-dhillon/1426451834|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Albums==
=== Studio albums ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:14em;" | Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:19em;" | Details
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Peak chart positions
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Canadian Albums Chart|CAN]] <ref>
* ''Saroor'': {{cite magazine |title=Billboard Canadian Albums: Week of July 15, 2023 |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/canadian-albums/2023-07-15/ |access-date=11 July 2023 |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]}}</ref>
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Official New Zealand Music Chart|NZ]] <ref>
* ''Saroor'': {{cite web |date=10 July 2023 |title=NZ Top 40 Albums Chart |url=https://aotearoamusiccharts.co.nz/archive/albums/2023-07-07 |access-date=8 July 2023 |publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]}}
* Chobar: https://aotearoamusiccharts.co.nz/archive/albums/2024-02-09
* ''Patander'': {{cite web|url=https://aotearoamusiccharts.co.nz/archive/albums/2024-11-22|title=Official Top 40 Albums|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=22 November 2024|access-date=22 November 2024}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"| ''Awara''
|
* Released: 25 November 2021<ref>{{cite web | url=https://kiddaan.com/awara-review-arjan-dhillon-unleashes-his-best-artistery-so-far-in-the-latest-album/ | title=Awara REVIEW: Arjan Dhillon Unleashes His Best Artistery So Far in the Latest Album! | date=24 November 2021 }}</ref>
* Music: Yeah Proof, Mxrci, Arsh Heer, Desi Crew, J Statik, Jay B Singh .
* Label: Brown Studios
* Format: [[Music download|Digital download]], [[Streaming media|streaming]]
| — || —
|-
!scope="row"| ''Jalwa''
|
* Released: 17 October 2022<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 October 2022|title=Arjan Dhillon's much awaited album "Jalwa" out now! Details inside.|url=https://www.ptcpunjabi.co.in/arjan-dhillons-much-awaited-album-jalwa-out-now|access-date=3 November 2022|website=PTC Punjabi}}</ref>
* Music: Mxrci, The Kidd, Preet Hundal, Jay B Singh, Desi Crew, Yeah Proof
* Label: Brown Studios
* Format: Digital download, streaming
| — || —
|-
!scope="row"| A for Arjan
|
* Released: 25 November 2022<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 October 2022|title=Arjan Dhillon's much awaited album "Jalwa" out now! Details inside.|url=https://www.ptcpunjabi.co.in/arjan-dhillons-much-awaited-album-jalwa-out-now|access-date=3 November 2022|website=PTC Punjabi}}</ref>
* Music: Mxrci, The Kidd, Arsh Heer, Jay B Singh, Opi Music, Yeah Proof
* Label: Brown Studios
* Format: Digital download, streaming
| — || —
|-
! scope="row"| ''Saroor''
|
* Released: 29 June 2023
* Music: Mxrci, The Kidd, Preet Hundal
* Label: Panj-Aab Records
* Format: Digital download, streaming
| 7 || 24
|-
! scope="row"| ''Chobar''
|
* Released: 2 February 2024<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-14 |title=Breaking: Punjabi Emcee Arjan Dhillon & MXRCI's Massive LP 'Chobar' Razes Through Billboard Canada Top 100 Albums Chart, Debuts With 10th Spot - Culture Haze |url=https://culturehaze.com/arjan-dhillon-mxrcis-massive-lp-chobar-razes-through-billboard-canada-top-100-albums-chart-debuts-at-10th-spot/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Music: Mxrci
* Label: Brown Studios
* Format: Digital download, streaming
| 10 || 23
|-
! scope="row"| ''Patander''
|
* Released: 11 November 2024
* Music: Mxrci
* Label: Brown Studios
* Format: Digital download, streaming
| — || 24
|-
!scope="row"|''A for Arjan 2''
|
*Released: 25 August 2025
*Music: Mxrci, Arsh Heer, The Culprit, Opi Music
*Label: Panj-Aab Records
*Format: Digital download, streaming
| -
| -
|-
!scope="row"|''Shikhar''
|
*Released: 25 August 2025
*Music: Various
*Label: Brown Studios
*Format: Digital download, streaming
| -
| -
|}

== Extended plays ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
! scope="col" style="width:14em;" | Title
! scope="col" style="width:19em;" | Details
|-
!scope="row"|''The Future: Volume 1''
|
* Released: November 25, 2020
* Music: The Kidd, Mxrci
* Label: Brown Studios
* Format: [[Music download|Digital download]], [[Streaming media|streaming]]
|-
!scope="row"|''Gutt''
|
* Released: May 26, 2021
* Music: Mxrci, Desi Crew
* Label: Brown Studios
* Format: Digital download, streaming
|-
!scope="row"|''Vatt Da Raula''
|
* Released: November 23, 2021
* Music: Desi Crew
* Label: Brown Studios
* Format: Digital download, streaming
|-
!scope="row"|''Manifest'' (with Mxrci)
|
* Released: April 5, 2024
* Label: Panj-Aab Records
* Format: Digital download, Streaming
|-
!scope="row"|''The Revolution''
|
* Released: February 19, 2025
* Music : Mxrci
* Label: Panj-Aab Records
* Format: Digital download, Streaming
|}

== Singles ==

=== As lead artist ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Year
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Music
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Album
|-
! scope="col" | [[UK Asian Music Chart|UK Asian]]<ref>Arjan Dhillon Chart History https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/63601/arjan-dhillon/</ref>
! scope="col" | [[Official Charts|UK Punjabi]]
|-
! scope="row"| "Ishq Jeha Ho Gya"
|2018
|—
|—
|Preet Hundal
|[[Afsar (2018 film)|Afsar]] soundtrack
|-
!scope="row"|"Shera Samb Lai"
| 2019
|—
|—
| rowspan="2" |The Kidd
| rowspan="7" {{Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row"|"Jatt Di Janeman"
| rowspan="12" | 2020
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row" | "Uber"
|—
|—
| Preet Hundal
|-
! scope="row"|"Bai Bai"
|—
|—
| Mxrci
|-
! scope="row"|"My Fellas"
|—
|—
| Preet Hundal
|-
! scope="row"|"Kala Jaadu" {{Small|(featuring Yung Delic)}}
|—
|—
| Mxrci
|-
! scope="row"|"Mull Pyar Da"
|—
|—
| Jay B Singh
|-
! scope="row"|"Daaru Sasti"
|—
|—
| rowspan="2" | The Kidd
| rowspan="4" |''The Future EP vol.1''
|-
! scope="row" |"Jatt Disde"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row" |"Badmashi"
|—
|—
| rowspan="3" | Mxrci
|-
! scope="row" |"Kath"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"|"Panjab Kithe Dabda"
|—
|—
| rowspan="4" |
|-
! scope="row"|"Soorme Aoun Tareeka Te"
|—
|—
| Desi Crew
|-
! scope="row"|"Likhari"
| rowspan="21" | 2021
|—
|—
|rowspan="3" | Mxrci
|-
! scope="row"|"Jutti"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"|"Gutt"
|—
|—
|''Gutt''
|-
! scope="row"|"Ki Pta"
|—
|—
| Yeah Proof
| rowspan="2" |
|-
! scope="row"|"Jaagde Raho"
|—
|—
| Desi Crew
|-
! scope="row"| "Begani Raat"
|—
|—
|The Kidd
| rowspan="3" |''Gutt''
|-
! scope="row"| Downtown
|
|
|
|-
! scope="row"| 2 BHK
|
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|"Pindan De Naa"
|—
|—
| Bling Singh
| rowspan="5" |
|-
! scope="row"|"Pehli Peshi"
|—
|—
| J Statik
|-
! scope="row"|"My Rulez"
|—
|—
| Yeah Proof
|-
! scope="row"| "Jaan"
|—
|—
|
|-
! scope="row" |"Kalli Sohni"
|—
|—
|Yeah Proof
|-
! scope="row"| "Vatt Da Raula"
|—
|—
| rowspan="2" |Desi Crew
| rowspan="2" |''Vatt Da Raula''
|-
!scope="row"| Buckle (with Gurlez Akhtar)
|
|
|-
! scope="row"|"Score"
|—
|—
| Arsh Heer
| rowspan="6" | ''Awara''
|-
! scope="row"|"Shamma Payiaan"
|—
|—
|Yeah Proof
|-
! scope="row"| "Fire Fur"
|
|
|Mxrci
|-
! scope="row"| "Hold On"
|
|
|Desi Crew
|-
! scope="row"| "Mandeer"
|—
|—
|J Statik
|-
! scope="row"| "Danabaad"
|—
|—
|Yeah Proof
|-
! scope="row" | "Votaan"
| rowspan="20" |2022
|—
|—
| rowspan="2" |Mxrci
| rowspan="8" |
|-
! scope="row" | "Jawani"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row" | Nabzan
|
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | "Setting"
|—
|—
| Desi Crew
|-
! scope="row"|"Thabba Ku Zulfan"
(Tribute to [[Shiv Kumar Batalvi]])<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.5dariyanews.com/news/370474-Thabba-Ku-Zulfan-Arjan-Dhillon-To-Pay-Tribute-To-Poet-Shiv-Kumar-Batalvi-With-His-Upcoming-Song | title=Thabba Ku Zulfan: Arjan Dhillon to Pay Tribute to Poet Shiv Kumar Batalvi with His Upcoming Song }}</ref>
|—
|—
| Yeah Proof
|-
! scope="row"|"Nakhre"
|—
|—
| Mxrci
|-
! scope="row"|"Photo"<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.5dariyanews.com/news/381157-Photo-Nimrat-Khaira-Arjan-Dhillon-Again-Join-Hands-For-Forthcoming-Song | title=Photo: Nimrat Khaira & Arjan Dhillon Again Join Hands for Forthcoming Song }}</ref> {{small|(with [[Nimrat Khaira]])}}
|—
|—
| Preet Hundal
|-
! scope="row"|"Panjab Warga"
|—
|—
| Jay B Singh
|-
! scope="row"| "25-25"
|28<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40 {{!}} Official Charts Company |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-music-chart/20221028/asian/ |access-date=2022-11-01 |website=www.officialcharts.com |language=en}}</ref>
|19<ref>{{Cite web |title=Official Punjabi Music Chart Top 20 {{!}} Official Charts Company |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/punjabi-chart/20221030/punjabi/ |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=www.officialcharts.com |language=en}}</ref>
| rowspan="3" | Mxrci
| rowspan="7" | ''Jalwa''
|-
!scope="row"| "It's My Time"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row" | "Hazur"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "Hommie Call"
|—
|—
|Desi Crew
|-
! scope="row"| "Munde Pinda De"
|—
|—
|The Kidd
|-
! scope="row"| "Drunk Arjan"
|—
|—
|Jay B
|-
! scope="row"| "Maharani Jinda"
|—
|—
|Preet Hundal
|-
! scope="row" | "Trucker"
|—
|—
| Preet Hundal
|{{Non-album single}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Milde"
|—
|—
| rowspan="8" |Mxrci
| rowspan="4" |''A for Arjan''
|-
! scope="row"| "Please"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "More Beautiful"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "Heer"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "Salute"
| rowspan="18" |2023
|40
|—
| rowspan="6" |
|-
! scope="row"| "Old Me"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "65 Inch Ghodian"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "Night Out"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "Raah Warga"
|—
|—
|Jay B Singh
|-
! scope="row"| "Munda Nahi Bolda"
|—
|—
| rowspan="5" |Mxrci
|-
! scope="row"| "Panjab Intro – Saroor"
|—
|—
| rowspan="5" | ''Saroor''
|-
! scope="row" | "Ilzaam"
|26
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "Long Back"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "Worldwide"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row" | Jaan Vaariye
|—
|—
|The Kidd
|-
! scope="row" | "Same Like Me"
|—
|—
| rowspan="3" |Mxrci
| rowspan="2" |
|-
! scope="row"| "Lip Shade"
|—
|—
|-
! scope="row"| "Custom Plates" (with Mxrci)
|—
|—
| ''Mxrci Season''
|-
! scope="row"| "Flat"
|—
|
|Yeah Proof
| rowspan="4" |
|-
! scope="row"| "Ghar Bharte"
|
|
| rowspan="11" |Mxrci
|-
! scope="row"| "No Debts"
|
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Chah Pindan Di"
|
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Glorious"
| rowspan="8" |2024
|39
|—
| rowspan="4" |Chobar
|-
! scope="row" | "Suits You"
|
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Hot Shit"
|32
|—
|-
!scope="row"| "Kuz Saal"
|
|
|-
!scope="row"| "Fly" (with Mxrci)
|
|
|Manifest
|-
!scope="row"| "Chidi Udd" (with Mxrci)
|
|
| rowspan="3" |
|-
!scope="row"| "Je Jatt Vigad Geya"
|
|
|-
!scope="row"| "Air Hostess"
|
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Ok Hoye Paye Haan"
| rowspan="10" |2025
|—
|—
| rowspan="7" |Mxrci
|
|-
! scope="row"| "Smooth"
|—
|—
|Badnaam
|-
!scope="row" | Gears
|
|
|The Revolution
|-
! scope="row" |Jindey
|
|
| rowspan="3" |
|-
! scope="row" |Kikran De Phull
|
|
|-
!scope="row" |Pyar diyaan Gallan
|
|
|-
!scope="row" |Ki Kariye
|
|
|A For Arjan 2
|-
!scope="row" |Kavita
|
|
|
|Shikhar
|-
!scope="row" |Bulle
|
|
| rowspan="2" |Mxrci
| rowspan="2" |
|-
!scope="row" |Kahli Aa
|
|
|}

=== As featured artist ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"style="text-align:center;"
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Song
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Year
! scope="col" | Peak chart position
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Music producer
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Album
|-
! scope="col" | [[UK Asian Music Chart|UK Asian]]
|-
! scope="row" | ''Koke'' {{small|([[Shipra Goyal]] featuring Arjan dhillon)}}
| 2021
|—
| Dr.Zeus
|
|-
! scope="row" |''Ki Karde Je'' {{small|([[Nimrat Khaira]] feat. Arjan Dhillon)}}
|2022
|36<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asian Music Chart Top 40 {{!}} Official Charts Company |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-music-chart/20220401/asian/ |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=www.officialcharts.com |language=en}}</ref>
|Desi Crew
|Nimmo
|-
! scope="row" |''Chill Mode'' {{small|(Gagan Kokri feat. Arjan Dhillon)}}
|2022
|—
|Mxrci
|Coz Of God
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Arjan also credited as songwriter for lead artist

== Other charted songs ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of other charted songs, showing year released and album name
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Year
! scope="col" colspan="1"| Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Album
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Official New Zealand Music Chart|NZ Hot]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://aotearoamusiccharts.co.nz/archive/hot-singles/2024-11-15|title=Hot 40 Singles|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|date=15 November 2024|access-date=15 November 2024}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| "Greatest"
| rowspan="5"| 2024
| 21
| rowspan="5"| ''Patander''
|-
! scope="row"| "Paparazzi"
| 29
|-
! scope="row"| "Never Ever"
| 33
|-
! scope="row"| "Big Flex"
| 24
|-
! scope="row"| "Brats"
| 25
|}

== Soundtrack contributions ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" | Film
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Music
! scope="col" | Label
|-
!scope="row" |[[Afsar (2018 film)|Afsar]]
|2018
|''Ishq Jeha Ho Gya''
|Preet Hundal
|White Hill Music
|-
!scope="row" |[[Badnaam (film)|Badnaam]]
|2025
|''Smooth''
|Mxrci
|Flow Fire
|}

==Songwriting discography==

{| class="wikitable"
|+As lyricist (songwriter)
! Song
! Year
! Artist(s)
! Music producer
! Album
|-
| ''Suit''
| 2017
| [[Nimrat Khaira]]
| Preet Hundal
|
|-
| ''Sun Sohniye''
| rowspan="6" | 2018
| [[Ranjit Bawa]] & Nimrat Kaira
| Jaidev Kumar
| rowspan="4" | [[Afsar (2018 film)|Afsar]] soundtrack
|-
| ''Udhar Chalda''
| [[Gurnam Bhullar]] & Nimrat Khaira
| rowspan="3" | Preet Hundal
|-
| ''Khat''
| rowspan="2" | Nimrat Khaira
|-
| ''Ravaya Na Kar''
|-
| ''Ranihaar''
|Nimrat Khaira
|Preet Hundal
| rowspan="5" |
|-
| ''Muchh''
| Nishawn Bhullar
| Deep Jandu
|-
| ''Tohar''
| rowspan="3" | 2019
| rowspan="2" | Nimrat Khaira
| Preet Hundal
|-
| ''Lehnga''
| The Kidd
|-
| ''Pind Puchdi''
| Hustinder
| Inder Dhumman
|-
| ''Luna''
| rowspan="2"| 2021
| [[Diljit Dosanjh]]
| Intense
| Moon Child Era
|-
| ''What Ve''
|Diljit Dosanjh & Nimrat Khaira
| Desi Crew
|
|-
|''Challa''
| rowspan="7" |2022
| rowspan="6" |Nimrat Khaira
|Desi Crew
| rowspan="6" |Nimmo
|-
|''Jhanjhar''
| rowspan="3" |Yeah Proof
|-
|''Sheesha''
|-
|''Chunni Lot''
|-
|''Handsome''
|J Statik
|-
|''Boliyan''
|Desi Crew
|-
|Hullare
|G Khan
|Proof
|6G (EP)
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dhillon, Arjan}}
[[Category:Discographies of Indian artists]]
[[Category:Hip-hop discographies]]
[[Category:Contemporary R&B discographies]]
[[Category:Pop music discographies]]

The Polyester Prince

2026-01-24T20:04:45Z

AnnieSneed66: started some post more to come

{{Short description|Biography of Dhirubhai Ambani written by Hamish McDonald}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Australian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox book
| name = ''The Polyester Prince''
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = The Polyester Prince.jpg
| image_size =
| alt = The first edition
| author = [[Hamish McDonald]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = Australia
| language = English
| series =
| genre = [[Non-Fiction]];[[Biography]]
| published = 1998 ([[Allen & Unwin]])
| media_type = Print (paperback)
| pages = 297 pp
| isbn = 1-86448-468-3
| isbn_note = {{ISBNT|978-1864484687}}
| dewey =
| congress =
| oclc =
| preceded_by =
| followed_by = Ambani and Sons
}}

'''''The Polyester Prince: The Rise of Dhirubhai Ambani''''' is a biography of the Indian business tycoon and founder of [[Reliance Industries|Reliance Industries Limited]] (RIL) [[Dhirubhai Ambani]] by [[Hamish McDonald]], an Australian journalist and author. This book was published in 1998 in [[Australia]] by [[Allen & Unwin]] but never published in India.

[[HarperCollins|HarperCollins India]], the publisher who owned the rights to the Indian edition, halted all publication attempts after RIL applied for and secured temporary [[injunction]]s on the grounds of anticipatory [[defamation]].<ref name=":10" /> This injunction was made with the argument that the material of the book contained allegations, unethical and corrupt business dealings with politicians and more that would leave Ambani defenceless for the damage it would cause harm to both his and his companies' reputation. The injunction application was passed by the [[Delhi High Court]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=28 January 2008 |title=Pirates bring Ambani book out of closet|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/pirates-bring-ambani-book-out-of-closet/story-o3dTvwbevo8EkRRGHov0AN.html|access-date=23 May 2021 |work=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref> HarperCollins pulped the printed yet unbound pages of the book after receiving further warnings that RIL would apply for further injunctions in all of [[High courts of India|India's twenty-two high courts]] and deciding it was not worth the cost to defend the book's [[publication right]]s.<ref name=":11" /> While the book was never made available to the public due to the injunction and warnings there are pirated photocopied versions available on the streets of Mumbai and New Delhi as well as online stores that now sell for prices above its original price sold in Australia.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|last=Gopalan|first=Krishna|date=5 December 2010|title=A pirate's exploits|url=https://www.fortuneindia.com/ideas/a-pirates-exploits/101140|access-date=30 April 2021|website=Fortune; India}}</ref>

McDonald published ''Ambani & Sons'' by [[Roli Books]] in [[India]] 12 years after ''The Polyester Prince'' with no legal issues. This sequel contained a sanitised version of the original's content as well as six new chapters pertaining to the events surrounding Ambani's sons and RIL after he died in 2002.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kumar|first=Ashutosh|date=1 March 2013|title=Book Review: Ambani & Sons|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2319510X13483519|journal=Asia-Pacific Journal of Management Research and Innovation |language=en |volume=9|issue=1 |pages=125–126 |doi=10.1177/2319510X13483519 |s2cid=184544098 |issn=2319-510X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== Background ==
=== Dhirubhai Ambani and RIL ===
Dhirubhai Ambani (born 28 December 1932) was the child of school teachers in a small village in Gir Somnath, now known as [[Gujarat]], India.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Dhirubhai Ambani {{!}} Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dhirubhai-Ambani|access-date=24 May 2021 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Around the age of 17, Ambani travelled to [[Aden]], [[Yemen]], a former British colony on the [[Arabian Peninsula]], to work at a trading firm called [[Antonin Besse]] and Company (Besse & Co.).<ref>{{Cite news|last=Grover|first=Priyamvada |date=28 December 2018|title=Remembering Dhirubhai Ambani, the polyester prince who made himself king of India Inc.|work=The Print|url=https://theprint.in/features/remembering-dhirubhai-ambani-the-polyester-prince-who-made-himself-king-of-india-inc/169949/|access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> Due to the [[Partition of India|1947 partition of India and Pakistan]], many Indian textile companies migrated to [[Bangladesh]] hindering the industry as the cotton mills were in [[Mumbai|Bombay]].<ref>{{Cite web|last1=University|first1=© Stanford|last2=Stanford|last3=California 94305|title=1947 Partition of India & Pakistan|url=https://exhibits.stanford.edu/1947-partition/about/1947-partition-of-india-pakistan|access-date=23 May 2021 |website=The 1947 Partition Archive - Spotlight at Stanford|date=12 June 2017 |language=en}}</ref> In 1957, Ambani founded Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) targeting the polyester industry due to the decrease in competitors after the 1947 partition and the [[Licence Raj]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mazumdar|first=Surajit|date=16 January 2017 |title=From "Outsider" to Insider: The Case of Reliance|url=http://journals.openedition.org/samaj/4278|journal=South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal|issue=15|doi=10.4000/samaj.4278|s2cid=157468157 |issn=1960-6060|doi-access=free}}</ref> RIL since has expanded to undertake business deals and products consisting of energy, petrochemicals, natural resources and communications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Valk|first=Reimara|date=June 2017|title=Interview with Dr Sunil Kumar Singh, Vice President-HR Reliance Industries Ltd, India|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2322093717705184|journal=South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=96–105|doi=10.1177/2322093717705184|s2cid=164512307 |issn=2322-0937|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Ambani died from a stroke in July 2002, passing the chairmanship of RIL to his sons [[Mukesh Ambani]] and [[Anil Ambani]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ninan|first=T.N |year=2012 |title=Dhirubhai Ambani and Reliance Industries.|journal=The New Oxford Companion to Economics in India|edition=3|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

=== Hamish McDonald's coverage of Ambani ===
Hamish McDonald is an Australian journalist and author of many books about Indonesia and India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=1 November 2010|title=A New Perspective|url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A241239663/STND?u=usyd&sid=STND&xid=eec037f9|journal=India Business Journal|publisher=Athena Information Solutions Pvt. Ltd|via=Gale OneFile: News}}</ref> He lived in India from 1990 to 1996 working as the [[New Delhi]] bureau chief of the [[Far Eastern Economic Review]] (FEER) and now works as the [[Asia-Pacific]] editor for [[The Sydney Morning Herald]] newspaper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fernández Pérez|first=Paloma|date=1 December 2012|title=Mahabharata in polyester: the making of the world's richest brothers and their feud|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2012.687529|journal=Business History|volume=54|issue=7|pages=1194–1196|doi=10.1080/00076791.2012.687529|s2cid=218590787 |issn=0007-6791|via=ResearchGate|url-access=subscription}}</ref> During his work for FEER, McDonald was invited to the wedding of Anil Ambani and [[Tina Ambani|Tina Munim]] in 1991. The initial relationship between McDonald, RIL and Ambani centred on documenting the company's expansion into international markets. In 1992 McDonald decided that he wanted to write a book on Ambani and the interconnections with business and politics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Ghosh|first1=Subir|title=Sue the Messenger: How Legal Arm-Twisting by Corporates Is Shackling Reportage and Undermining Democracy in India|last2=Guha Thakurta|first2=Paranjoy|publisher=Guha Thakurta|year=2016|isbn=9789384439811|location=India}}</ref> Ambani and Reliance approved of the idea, with the understanding that for this project to go forward Ambani would have the final say.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=McDonald|first=Hamish|title=The Polyester Prince: The Rise of Dhirubhai Ambani|publisher=Allen & Unwin|year=1998|isbn=1-86448-468-3|location=Australia}}</ref>

The following year, rumours began to circulate that the government was rigged in favour of RIL to obtain [[oil exploration]] contracts.<ref name=":2" /> McDonald wrote articles about the [[Panna-Mukta oilfield|Panna-Mukta oil fields]], damaging his relationship with Ambani who described them as "defamatory" without taking any legal action at the time.<ref name=":0" /> As a result, Ambani and RIL distanced themselves from McDonald and cut off networking connections.<ref name=":1" />

== Synopsis ==
[[File:Dhirubhai Ambani 2002 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|249x249px|A stamp of India dedicated to Dhirubhai Ambani by the [[Ministry of Communications (India)|Ministry of Communications]], [[Government of India]] in 2002. ]]
''The Polyester Prince'' chronicles Dhirubhai Ambani's life from childhood to founder of RIL following India's independence in 1947, and highlights how India's [[Independent India|post-independence]] industry development was achieved by both fair and foul means.

The first section of the book explores the events of Ambani's young adult life that influenced his understanding of business and developed his skillset that later went on to help him found RIL. This section explores how the mixture of Ambani's working experience as a young adult at trading companies along with post-independence India's changing business landscape lead to Ambani's debut in the wealthy social circles of India and rise in his power.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bowring|first=Philip|date=16 January 1999|title=THE POLYESTER PRINCE: The Rise of Dhirubhai Ambani; BOOKS|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/16/style/IHT-books-the-polyester-princethe-rise-of-dhirubhai-ambani.html|journal=International Herald Tribune|pages=7|via=Gale OneFile: News}}</ref>

The latter part of the book centers on Ambani's different business dealings, both successful and criticised as he founds and expands RIL. Throughout the book, McDonald describes the ethical costs associated with Ambani's [[management]] of the political environment using his status in wealthy social circles that included [[politician]]s, stock market speculators and more to path the way for RIL to become India's largest [[Private sector|private-sector]] [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=RIL becomes India's biggest company in revenue terms|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/reliance-becomes-indias-biggest-company-in-revenue-terms/articleshow/69427335.cms?from=mdr|access-date=23 May 2021}}</ref>

== Release ==

=== Composition and publication ===
In July 1995 McDonald quit his job working at FEER to devote full time to the development of his book.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last1=Ghosh|first1=Subir|last2=Guha Thakurta|first2=Paranjoy|date=30 April 2016|title=The Unhappy Prince: How Reliance Buried a Book|url=https://thewire.in/books/the-unhappy-prince-how-dhirubhai-ambani-buried-a-book|access-date=16 May 2021 |website=The Wire}}</ref> McDonald and his unfavourable relationship with Ambani was made evident in 1996 when he went to interview Ratibhai Muchhala who worked as the export manager for Ambani. However, upon reaching Muchhala's office, McDonald was met with Dinesh Sheth, Dhirubhai's personal assistant at the time who explained that Ambani would prefer this project to cease development.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bw Online Bureau|date=4 November 2004|title='Times have changed'|work=Business World|url=http://www.businessworld.in/article/-Times-Have-Changed-/08-11-2014-68626/|access-date=17 May 2021}}</ref> McDonald continued to investigate Ambani through talking to individuals such as Ambani's main competitors like [[Nusli Wadia]], the owner of [[Bombay Dyeing]] in an attempt to understand Ambani's actions during the polyester wars.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2012 |title=Nusli Wadia explains his loss to Ambani in polyester war|url=https://www.firstpost.com/business/nusli-wadia-explains-his-loss-to-ambani-in-polyester-war-514427.html|access-date=24 May 2021 |website=Firstpost}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Guha Thakurta|first=Paranjoy|date=11 September 2014|title=Polyester Prince Revisited|url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2014/37/insight/polyester-prince-revisited.html|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|edition=37|publisher=Sameeksha Trust|volume=49|pages=50–53|via=Gale Academic OneFile}}</ref> McDonald continued to connect the life events of Ambani through Ambani's colleagues, rivals and even the former [[Prime minister|Prime Minister]] [[Vishwanath Pratap Singh]] after realising that McDonald's book was not a hagiography of Dhirubhai Ambani.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite news|last=Debroy|first=Bibek|date=2 October 2010 |title=The return of The Polyester Prince|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/the-return-of-the-polyester-prince-110100200093_1.html|access-date=24 May 2021}}</ref> The original book received criticism on the sources behind McDonalds writing as it sourced media reports and interviewing Ambani's competitors which may have skewed the writing to negatively portray Ambani.<ref name=":14" />

In 1997, before McDonald finished his final [[manuscript]] of ''The Polyester Prince: The Rise of Dhirubhai Ambani'' he was met with a letter from Kanga & Co, the lawyers of Ambani and Reliance Industries. This letter detailed that their client believes the information in the proposed [[publication]] would generate unwelcome media which would not only negatively impact their client and his families name but also potentially harm RIL.<ref name=":1" /> Ambani described the upcoming book to contain defamatory information due to the current unfavourable relationship between the author and Ambani after the release of McDonalds articles in 1993 on the Panna-Mukta oil fields.<ref name=":2" /> Finally, this letter served as a warning that if the book would attempt to be published will be met with legal actions in the form of injunctions.<ref name=":1" /> McDonald ignored these warnings and continued to work on his manuscript. RIL, however, continued to fight the upcoming publication of the book by sending further letters from [[Ashurst Australia|Ashurt Australia]], their lawyers based in [[Sydney]], Australia, to Allen & Unwin, McDonald Australian publishers repeating that the information contained in the proposed publishment would induce injuries to Ambani and RIL that they could not defend.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Chandran|first=Mini|title=The Writer, the Reader and the State: Literary Censorship in India|publisher=SAGE Publications Pvt Ltd.|year=2017|isbn=9789386446077|edition=1|location=India}}</ref> Patrick Gallagher, the founder and chairman of Allen & Unwin proceeded with the publication of ''The Polyester Prince: The Rise of Dhirubhai Ambani'', beginning the initial print of 3,000 copies in 1997 and finally publishing the book in early 1998 in Australia.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=John|first=Varun Sood & Satish|date=25 August 2010 |title=McDonald set to roll out his Ambani sequel|url=https://www.livemint.com/Home-Page/D6RQ0IehSXNbJNISctrEoI/McDonald-set-to-roll-out-his-Ambani-sequel.html|access-date=23 May 2021 |website=mint|language=en}}</ref> HarperCollins India, the Indian editors of the book and the holder of the Indian rights had finished editing the manuscript and had printing pages that were yet to be bound into a book was met with legal trouble from RIL which halted its publication in India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McDonald|first=Hamish|date=3 March 2014|title=The Polyester Prince|url=https://magazine.outlookindia.com/story/the-polyester-prince/289578?_cscSuccessPayload=%7B|work=Outlook}}</ref>

=== Legal injunction on publication in India ===
RIL and Ambani applied for a legal injunction from the [[Ahmedabad]] and Delhi High Courts towards the publishment of the book in India on the anticipatory grounds that the publication contained defamatory material towards both RIL and Dhirubhai Ambani.<ref name=":5" /> The Delhi High Court passed a [[verdict]] in favour with RIL and Ambani's, allowing them to procure a temporary injunction against publication.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The polyester prince: Insights from a banned biography – Ashoka Business Review|url=http://ashokabusinessreview.org/lit-art/the-polyester-prince-insights-from-a-banned-biography/|access-date=23 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref> This temporary injunction restricted the publishment of the book for a while however upon the approval of the temporary injunction HarperCollins removed printed pages of the book and halted all publication attempts.<ref name=":3" /> Allen & Unwin would not stop the publishment of the book in Australia however would not attempt to publish the book within Indian jurisdictions.<ref name=":14">{{Cite news|last=Bobb|first=Dilip|date=11 October 2010|title=Book: Old Yarn Retailed: The Dhirubhai Ambani sequel has too much Reliance on Indian media reports.|work=India Today; New Delhi|publisher=Living Media India, Limited|publication-place=New Delhi|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/leisure/story/20101011-old-yarn-retailed-744296-2010-10-01|access-date=20 April 2021|issn=0254-8399}}</ref>

Upon a meeting with Renuka Chatterjee, who was heading HarperCollins India at the time told McDonald that they received further legal threats along with pre-publication injunction notices on the grounds of anticipated defamation that threatened that RIL would apply for these injunctions in all twenty-two Indian high courts.<ref name=":7" /> Saying that<blockquote><nowiki>''</nowiki>As of now the book is not happening. The matter is sub judice. The Ambanis’ have secured an injunction in the Delhi High Court against the publication."<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Malik|first=Ashok|date=21 December 1998|title=Book review: Hamish Mcdonald's 'Polyester Prince'|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/books/story/19981221-book-review-hamish-mcdonalds-polyester-prince-827570-1998-12-21|access-date=20 May 2021 |website=India Today|language=en}}</ref></blockquote>HarperCollins India was not prepared to defend the book as the publishment case could continue over several years and become costly. As a result, they withdrew the book and halted its publication which resulted in the book never being released to Indian markets.<ref name=":7" />

=== Pirated versions found In India ===
Due to the injunctions on the Indian version of the book it was never made available on public markets for purchase however the injunction has seemed to increase its value. In recent years [[pirated]] photocopied versions have appeared on Mumbai and Delhi's streets for prices ranging from Rs 50 to Rs 1,600 (approximately US$0.69 to US$22).<ref>{{Cite web|title=A pirate's exploits|url=https://www.fortuneindia.com/ideas/a-pirates-exploits/101140|access-date=24 May 2021 |website=www.fortuneindia.com|date=5 November 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":13" /> Moreover, the available copies on internet sites such as [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]] were selling for up to US$500 due to the unauthorised content it contained.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 October 2010 |title=Ambani & Sons – revived from the Polyester Prince they pulped |url=https://ridingtheelephant.wordpress.com/2010/10/03/ambani-sons-revived-from-the-polyester-prince-they-pulped/|access-date=24 May 2021 |website=Riding the Elephant|language=en}}</ref> ''Ambani & Sons'', the sequel to the book was published in 2010 and contained similar content to its predecessor however had certain [[allegation]]s, [[scandal]]s and more that were found in the original removed.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web|last1=Doctor|first1=Vikram|last2=Sabarinath|first2=M|date=29 September 2010|title=Ambani split paved way for book 'Ambani & Sons'|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/ambani-split-paved-way-for-book-ambani-sons/articleshow/6639496.cms?from=mdr|access-date=5 May 2021|website=Economic Times|publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd.}}</ref>

== Sequel ==
''Ambani & Sons'' was published by Roli Books in India in 2010<ref name=":4" /> and published by [[University of New South Wales|NewSouth Publishing]] as ''Mahabharata in Polyester: The Making of the World’s Richest Brothers and Their Feud'' in Australia. This book was widely considered to be the [[sequel]] to ''The Polyester Prince: The Rise of Dhirubhai Ambani'' as it includes the original 17 chapters with an additional six chapters pertaining to the events following Dhirubhai Ambani's death in 2002, Ambani's sons, Mukesh and Anil Ambani.<ref>{{Cite news|date=6 November 2010|title=A durable yarn; The Ambani brothers|newspaper=The Economist|edition=8707|volume=397|pages=105|via=Gale OneFile: News}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite news|last=Crabtree|first=James|date=20 March 2012|title=Anil Ambani and Sons: Volume Two|work=Financial Times}}</ref>

''Ambani & Sons'' consists of 23 chapters split into two sections. The first 17 chapters [[chronicle]] the rise of Dhirubhai Ambani from childhood to a business tycoon with large commercial success.<ref name=":6" /> The first section of the book explores how the [[stock market]]s were manipulated, competitors [[Harassment|harassed]] and other unethical business partners and [[corruption]] that occurred and resulted in RIL obtaining a large [[market share]] in the Indian marketplace. The new six chapters follow Anil and Mukesh Ambanis’ feud over the Reliance group.'''<ref name=":12" />'''

There are a few differences between the Indian and Australian publications of the sequel due to Pramod Kapur, the founder and publisher of Roli Books,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gandhi: An Illustrated Biography – Roli Books – Home|url=https://rolibooks.com/gandhi-an-illustrated-biography/|access-date=23 May 2021 |language=en-GB}}</ref> asking McDonald to remove some [[Controversy|controversial]] passages that were found in ''The Polyester Prince'' such as the attempted murder allegation of Nusli Wadia. Such controversial passages still appear in the Australian publication of the book. As a result of the sanitation of ''Ambani & Sons'' along with [[Reliance Industries|fight]] between Mukesh Ambani and Anil Ambani that has gained large attention from the media, this book was not met with the same [[legal threat]]s as ''The Polyester Prince''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Elliott|first=John|date=4 October 2010|title=Ambani & Sons - Polyester dynasty|work=Financial Times}}</ref><ref name=":15" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Subject bar|book=The Polyester Prince|portal1=Biography|portal2=Books|portal3=Literature|portal4=India |portal5=Business}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Polyester Prince, The}}
[[Category:Biographies about businesspeople]]
[[Category:Indian biographies]]
[[Category:Unauthorized biographies]]
[[Category:Allen & Unwin books]]
[[Category:Book censorship in India]]
[[Category:Ambani family]]
[[Category:Books about businesspeople]]
[[Category:Reliance Industries]]
[[Category:Censored books]]
[[Category:Works subject to a lawsuit]]

Halol

2026-01-24T18:46:48Z

AnnieSneed66:

{{for|the medicine|Halol (drug)}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2012}}
{{cleanup rewrite|date=January 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = city
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Gujarat#India3
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Gujarat, India
| coordinates = {{coord|22.5|N|73.47|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gujarat]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Panchmahal district|Panchmahal]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 14
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 499
| population_total = 41108
| population_as_of = 2001
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = GJ-17
| website = {{URL|gujaratindia.com}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Halol''' is a city and a [[municipality]] ([[tehsil]]) in [[Panchmahal district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Gujarat]]. Located in western India, it has an average elevation of 499 metres (1637 feet). Halol is a major manufacturing hub of [[Western India]], home to manufacturing facilities of numerous domestic and multinational companies like [[MG Motor India]], [[Siemens Gamesa]], [[JCB (heavy equipment manufacturer)|JCB India]], [[Hero Motocorp]], [[Sun Pharma]], [[Toto Ltd.|TOTO India]], [[CEAT (company)|CEAT Tyres]], [[LM Wind Power]], Polycab India, etc.

==Demography==
{{As of|2011}} India [[census]], Halol city had a population of 61000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Males constituted 53% of the population and females 47%. Halol had an average literacy rate of 72%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy was 76%, and female literacy was 66%. In Halol, 14% of the population was under 6 years of age.

==Geography==
Situated at Latitude = 22° 30′ 0″ N (22.5) and Longitude = 73° 28′ 0″ E (73.46667)
There is a large body of water that was built in 1938 to provide the city with a dependable water supply. Halol is around 40 km from [[Bodeli]], [[Vadodara]] and [[Godhra]].
It is also near to the tourist spot [[Pavagadh]], a World Heritage Site [[Champaner]].

==Hospitals==

Many hospitals and clinics like [[Referral Hospital]], [[Shree Rang Hospital]], [[Niramay Hospital]] are available in the city. [[Halol hospital]] and [[ICU hospital]] with all the necessary facilities and emergency treatment for dealing with cardiac and diabetic conditions. also it has multispeciality ayurveda and panchakarma hospital named [[Mahakali Ayurveda Clinic and Panchakarma Centre]]

==Industry==
[[File:Ms highschool halol.jpg|thumb|M S Highschool, Halol]]
[[File:Lucky Studio at 2012.jpg|Lucky Studio in 2012|thumb|220x220px]]
[[File:Halol bus station Gujarat.jpg|thumb|GSRTC bus station, Halol]]

Many large companies are located here including [[MG Motor India]], [[Alembic Pharma]], [[Siemens Gamesa]], [[Hero Motocorp]], [[Sun Pharma]], [[Toto Ltd.|TOTO India]], [[CEAT (company)|CEAT Tyres]], [[JCB (heavy equipment manufacturer)|JCB]], [[LM Wind Power]], Polycab India, etc.

==Schools and colleges==
In the city of Halol there are various Gujarati, English and [[Hindi]] medium schools. They include Gujarat Natural Farming Science University, V.M English medium school, MGM English medium School Halol(Krishna's School), M S High School(Gujarati Medium) Halol, Saraswati Vidya Mandir (Gujarati / English Medium) Halol, Kalrav English/Gujarati School Halol, Veer New Look Central School Halol (CBSE), M&V Commerce and Arts College Halol and Nutan Kedavni trust School (Gujarati Med.).

==Places of interest==
* Lucky Studio is a movie studio located in Maghasar village, Halol, [[Panchmahal district]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]], about 3km from Halol. It was founded in 1950 by the late Shri Ibrahim Nadiadwala.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Information |first1=Film |title=SANTOSH SINGH JAIN RE-ELECTED PRESIDENT {{!}} 27 September 2019 – Film Information |url=https://filminformation.com/flash-back/santosh-singh-jain-re-elected-president-27-september-2019/ |date=27 September 2019}}</ref> Samay Ni Santa Kukdi (1969), [[Desh Re Joya Dada Pardesh Joya]] (1998), [[Maiyar Ma Mandu Nathi Lagtu]] (2001), Superhit Film, and other Gujarati films have been produced in this studio. It has produced over 100 films in Gujarati and Hindi.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ray of hope for Lucky Studio |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/ray-of-hope-for-lucky-studio/articleshow/4030918.cms |website=The Times of India |date=25 January 2009}}</ref>

* [[Pavagadh Shwetambar Jain Mandir]] * At about 10 km from Halol a very ancient Shwetambar Jain temple is situated. According to Shwetambar records also, this Mandir Ji is very ancient. There is a reference available of a Mandir Ji called “Sarvatobhadra” (auspicious on all sides) built here at the instance of Minister Sri Tejpal during the 13th Vikram century. Also, a reference is available about the ceremonial installation and consecration of the hands of Acharya Sri Vijaysensuriji of a temple built at the instance of Sri Jayawant Sheth in Vikram year 1638. IN Vikram year 1746 Gani Sri Shilvijayji Maharaj has referred to a temple here of Sri Neminath Bhagwan. In a laudatory poem about Sri Jiravala Parshvanath composed by Sri Dipvijayji Maharaj in the 19th Vikram century, the Mandir Ji existing here is described in detail. At one time, this shrine was considered to be of equal rank to the shrine at Mt. Shatrunjay. The remnants of ancient ruins lying scattered on the mountain remind one of its antiquity.
* [[Tomb of Sikandar Shah]] *

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Cities and towns in Panchmahal district]]

Dauli

2026-01-22T16:49:55Z

AnnieSneed66: quick update

{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2017}}

{{Infobox settlement
|name = Dauli
|native_name =
|native_name_lang = mr
|settlement_type = Village
|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_alt =
|image_caption =
|etymology =
|nickname =
|coordinates = 
|population_total =
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = India
|subdivision_type1 = State
|subdivision_name1 = Maharashtra
|subdivision_type2 =
|subdivision_name2 =
|website = 
}}
'''Dauli''' is a small [[village]] in [[Ratnagiri district]], [[Maharashtra]] state in [[Western India]].<ref name="COI-1"/> The [[2011 Census of India]] recorded a total of 358 residents in the village.<ref name="COI-1"/> Dauli's geographical area is {{convert|898|hectare|acre}}.<ref name="COI-1"/>

==References==
<references>

<ref name="COI-1">{{cite web | url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2732_PART_B_DCHB_RATNAGIRI.pdf | title=District Census Handbook | publisher=[[Census of India]] | accessdate=16 April 2016}}</ref>

</references>

[[Category:Villages in Ratnagiri district]]

Dahod Lok Sabha constituency

2026-01-19T05:01:58Z

AnnieSneed66: creating

{{Short description|Constituency of the Indian parliament in Gujarat}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = LS
| name = Dahod
| map_image = દાહોદ – Dahod.svg
| map_caption =
| reservation = ST
| incumbent_image = Jasvantsinh Bhabhor cropped.jpg
| established = 1957
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| mp = [[Jasvantsinh Sumanbhai Bhabhor]]
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
| state = [[Gujarat]]
| assembly_cons = [[Santrampur Assembly constituency|Santrampur]] [[Fatepura Assembly constituency|Fatepura]] [[Jhalod Assembly constituency|Jhalod]] [[Limkheda Assembly constituency|Limkheda]] [[Dahod Assembly constituency|Dahod]] [[Garbada Assembly constituency|Garbada]] [[Devgadhbariya Assembly constituency|Devgadhbariya]]
}}
'''Dahod''' is one of the [[Lok Sabha]] parliamentary constituencies in [[Gujarat]] state in western [[India]]. This constituency is reserved for [[adivasi|Scheduled Tribes]].

==Assembly segments==
Presently, Dahod Lok Sabha constituency comprises seven assembly segments. These are:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceogujarat.nic.in/site/download/FINAL_ROLL_2009.pdf |title=Parliament Constituency wise Electors Detail, Polling Stations & EPIC - Loksabha Election 2009 |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Gujarat website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416162919/http://ceogujarat.nic.in/site/download/FINAL_ROLL_2009.pdf |archive-date=2009-04-16 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! width="50px" style="font-size:75%" |Constituency number
! width="200px" |Name
! width="120px" style="font-size:75%" |Reserved for ([[Dalit|SC]]/[[Adivasi|ST]]/None)
! width="150px" |District
! colspan="2"|Party
! colspan="2"|2024 Lead
|-
|123
|[[Santrampur Assembly constituency|Santrampur]]
|ST
|[[Mahisagar district|Mahisagar]]
| {{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=7}}
| {{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=7}}
|-
|129
|[[Fatepura]]
|ST
| rowspan="6" |[[Dahod district|Dahod]]
|-
|130
|[[Jhalod Assembly constituency|Jhalod]]
|ST
|-
|131
|[[Limkheda Assembly constituency|Limkheda]]
|ST
|-
|132
|[[Dahod Assembly constituency|Dahod]]
|ST
|-
|133
|[[Garbada Assembly constituency|Garbada]]
|ST
|-
|134
|[[Devgadhbariya]]
|None
|}

== Members of Parliament ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Winner
! colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
|Jaljibhai Koyabhai Dindod
|bgcolor={{party color|Indian National Congress}}|
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|P H D Bheel
| {{Full party name with color|Swatantra Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|1962^
|Hirabhai Kunverbhai
|-
|[[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Bhaljibhai Ravjibhai Parmar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
| rowspan="7" |[[Damor Somjibhai Punjabhai]]
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}"|
|[[Indian National Congress|Indian National Congress (I)]]
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=5}}
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Babubhai Khimabhai Katara]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[Prabha Kishor Taviad|Dr. Prabha Kishor Taviad]]
|bgcolor={{party color|Indian National Congress}}|
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Jasvantsinh Sumanbhai Bhabhor]]
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|}
^ by poll

== Election results ==

===General elections 2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general election]]: [[Dahod]]<ref name="2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Dahod">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=2024 Loksabha Elections Results - Dahod |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S0619.htm |access-date=31 July 2024 |date=4 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240731092912/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S0619.htm |archive-date=31 July 2024}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate= [[Jasvantsinh Bhabhor]]
|party= Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes=6,88,715
|percentage=61.59
|change={{up}}8.75
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate= [[Prabha Kishor Taviad]]
|party= Indian National Congress
|votes=3,55,038
|percentage=31.75
|change={{down}}9.09
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = 34,938
|percentage = 3.12
|change = {{up}}0.12
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|party =[[Independent politician|IND]]
|candidate = Meda Devendrakumar Laxmanbhai
|votes =11,075
|percentage = 0.99
|change =''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party =Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate =Bhabhor Dhulabhai Ditabhai
|votes = 8,632
|percentage = 0.77
|change ={{down}}0.30
}}

{{Election box majority|
|votes =3,33,677
|percentage =29.83
|change ={{up}}17.83
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =11,19,204
|percentage =59.65
|change ={{down}}6.92
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner = BJP
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== General elections 2019 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general elections]]: [[Dahod]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Jasvantsinh Sumanbhai Bhabhor]]|votes=5,61,760|percentage=52.84|change={{decrease}}-3.93|Result=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Babubhai Khimabhai Katara]]|votes=4,34,164|percentage=40.84|change={{increase}}+8.66|Result=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the above|None of the Above]]|votes=31,936|percentage=3.00|change=-0.59|Result=}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Bahujan Samaj Party|candidate=Bhabhor Dhulabhai Ditabhai|votes=11,339|percentage=1.07|change=}}{{Election box candidate|party=[[Independent politician|IND]]|candidate=Devdha Samsubhai Khatarabhai|votes=11,142|percentage=1.05|change=+1.05}}{{Election box majority||votes=1,27,596|percentage=12.00|change=-13.58}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=10,64,391|percentage=66.57|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== General elections 2014 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general elections]]: [[Dahod District|Dahod]]<ref>CEO Gujarat. ''[http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Contesting_Candidates_LS2014.PDF Contesting Candidates LS2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514025434/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Contesting_Candidates_LS2014.PDF |date=14 May 2014 }}''</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS0620.htm?ac=20|title=Constituencywise-All Candidates|publisher=ECI|access-date=17 May 2014|archive-date=17 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517135238/http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS0620.htm?ac=20|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Jasvantsinh Sumanbhai Bhabhor]]|votes=5,11,111|percentage=56.77|change=+20.83|Result=Win}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Prabha Kishor Taviad|Dr. Prabhaben Kishorsinh Taviyad]]|votes=2,80,787|percentage=31.18|change=-15.71%|Result=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=Singajibhai Jaljibhai Katara|votes=28,958|percentage=3.22|change=-2.30%|Result=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=None of the above|candidate=[[None of the above|None of the Above]]|votes=32,305|percentage=3.59|change=---|Result=}}{{Election box candidate|party=[[Independent politician|IND]]|candidate=Bhura Navalabhai Manabhai|votes=11,244|percentage=1.25|change=+1.25}}
{{Election box majority||votes=2,30,354|percentage=25.58|change=14.63}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=9,01,435|percentage=63.85|change=+19.12}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== General elections 2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general elections]]: [[Dahod District|Dahod]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |title= 25 Constituency Wise Detailed Result|access-date=2014-05-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811090059/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-11 }}</ref><ref>CEO Gujarat. ''[http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Contesting_Candidates_LS2014.PDF Contesting Candidates LS2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514025434/http://ceo.gujarat.gov.in/download/Contesting_Candidates_LS2014.PDF |date=14 May 2014 }}''</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS0620.htm?ac=20|title=Constituencywise-All Candidates|publisher=ECI|access-date=17 May 2014|archive-date=17 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517135238/http://eciresults.nic.in/ConstituencywiseS0620.htm?ac=20|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Dr. [[Prabha Kishor Taviad]]|votes=2,50,586|percentage=46.89|change=+2.90|Result=Win}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=Somjibhai Damor|votes=1,92,050|percentage=35.94|change=-8.12|Result=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Samajwadi Party|candidate=K C Munia|votes=29,700|percentage=5.56|change=|Result=}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=Katara Singjibhai Jaljibhai|votes=29,522|percentage=5.52|change=}}{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Nationalist Congress Party|candidate=Meda Kalsinhbhai Tajsinhbhai|votes=15,057|percentage=2.82|change=}}

{{Election box majority||votes=58,536|percentage=10.95|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=5,34,423|percentage=44.73|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}

{{Election box end}}

===General elections 2004===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Indian general elections]]: [[Dahod district|Dohad]]}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Janata Party|candidate=[[Babubhai Khimabhai Katara]]|votes=2,28,154|percentage=44.06|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Dr. [[Prabha Kishor Taviad]]|votes=2,27,793|percentage=43.99|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Navshakti Party|candidate=[[Somjibhai Damor]]|votes=45,597|percentage=8.81|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Communist Party of India (Marxist)|candidate=Katara Sigjibhai Jaljibhai|votes=16,301|percentage=3.15|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=361|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=5,17,845|percentage=42.71|change=}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Dahod district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Gujarat}}
{{coord|22.8|74.3|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dahod Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Dahod district]]

Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry

2026-01-14T13:37:47Z

AnnieSneed66: rework information further and cleaned formatting for consistency

#REDIRECT [[Fazal Elahi Chaudhry]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Brahmana

2026-01-13T16:57:47Z

AnnieSneed66: correct references further

{{short description|Layer of Hindu text within the Vedas}}
{{About|the Hindu theological texts|similar words|Brahman (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}
[[File:1636 CE Samaveda, Sadvimsha Brahmana (Pañcaviṃśabrāhmaṇa supplement), Benares Sanskrit college, Edward Cowell collection, sample i, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A 17th-century manuscript page of Sadvimsha Brahmana, a Pañcaviṃśa-Brāhmaṇa supplement (Sanskrit, Devanagari). It is found embedded in the [[Samaveda]].]]
The '''Brahmanas''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|r|ɑː|m|ə|n|ə|z}}; [[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|ब्राह्मणम्}}, [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: ''Brāhmaṇam'') are [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[śruti]] works attached to the [[Samhita]]s (hymns and mantras) of the [[Rigveda|Rig]], [[Samaveda|Sama]], [[Yajurveda|Yajur]], and [[Atharvaveda|Atharva]] Vedas. They are a secondary layer or classification of [[Sanskrit]] texts embedded within each Veda, which explain and instruct on the performance of [[Yajna|Vedic rituals]] (in which the related Samhitas are recited). In addition to explaining the symbolism and meaning of the [[Samhita]]s, Brahmana literature also expounds scientific knowledge of the [[Vedic period|Vedic Period]], including [[observational astronomy]] and, particularly in relation to altar construction, [[geometry]]. Divergent in nature, some Brahmanas also contain mystical and philosophical material that constitutes [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Upanishad]]s.<ref name=":5" />

Each Veda has one or more of its own Brahmanas, and each Brahmana is generally associated with a particular [[Shakha]] or Vedic school. Less than twenty Brahmanas are currently extant, as most have been lost or destroyed. Dating of the final codification of the ''Brahmanas'' and associated Vedic texts is controversial, as they were likely recorded after several centuries of oral transmission.<ref>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791470824}}, page 47</ref> The oldest Brahmana is dated to about 900 [[BCE]], while the most recent are dated to around 700 BCE.<ref name="mw">[[Michael Witzel]], "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.</ref><ref name="bcp">Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521343541}}, pages 42–43</ref>

== Nomenclature and etymology ==
''Brahmana'' (or ''Brāhmaṇam'', [[Sanskrit]]: ब्राह्मणम्) can be loosely translated as '[[explanation]]s of sacred knowledge or [[doctrine]]' or '[[Brahmin|Brahmanical]] explanation'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=brAhmaNas&direct=se&anz=100|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit: 'brahmana'|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref> According to the [[Monier Monier-Williams|Monier-Williams]] Sanskrit dictionary, 'Brahmana' means:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://faculty.washington.edu/prem/mw/b.html|title=Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary – b: 'brāhmaṇa'|website=faculty.washington.edu|access-date=2020-01-24|archive-date=25 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325053343/http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/mw/b.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

* 'Explanations of sacred knowledge or doctrine [especially] for the use of the [[Brahmin|Brāhmans]] in their [[Yajna|sacrifices]]'.
* 'The Brāhmaṇa portion of the [[Vedas|Veda]] (as distinct from its [[Samhita|Mantra]] and [[Upanishads|Upanishad]] portion) and consisting of a class of works called Brāhmaṇas (they contain rules for the employment of the Mantras or hymns at various sacrifices, with detailed explanations of their origin and meaning and numerous old legends)'.
* According to '[[Sayana|Sāyaṇa]] to contain two parts: 1. ''vidhi'', rules or directions for [sacrificial] rites [and] 2. ''artha-vāda'', explanatory remarks'.

=== Etymology ===
[[Martin Haug|M. Haug]] states that [[Etymology|etymologically]], 'the word ['Brahmana' or 'Brahmanam'] is derived from [[Brahmin|brahman]] which properly signifies the [[Brahman|Brahma]] priest who must know all [[Vedas]], and understand the whole course and meaning of the [[Yajna|sacrifice]]... the [[dictum]] of such a Brahma priest who passed as a great authority, was called a Brahmanam'.<ref name=":4" />

=== Synonyms ===
S. Shrava states that [[synonym]]s of the word 'Brahmana' include:<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfVedicLiteratureBrahmanaAndAranyakaWorksSShr|title=History Of Vedic Literature Brahmana And Aranyaka Works S Shr|last=Dr. Narinder Sharma|pages=6–9, 21–22 (Kausitaki and Samkhyana), 39–40 (Jaiminiya Brahmana), 43–83 (chapter 3: Lost Brahmanas)|language=en}}</ref>

* '''Vyakhyana:''' In Brahmana works such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] (6.7.4.6),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe41/sbe4152.htm|title=Satapatha Brahmana Part III (SBE41): Sixth Kânda: VI, 7, 4. Fourth Brâhmana|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref> 'the word ''vyakhyana'' also is a [[synonym]] of the commonly used word brahmana'. Definitions of 'Vyakhyana' (व्याख्यान) include 'explaining', 'exposition', 'elucidation', 'expounding', 'interpretation', and 'lecture'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=vyakhyana&direct=se&anz=100|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit: 'Vyakhyana'|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref>
* '''Pravachana':''' Another 'synonym of the brahmana word is ''pravachana''<nowiki/>'. Definitions of 'Pravachana' (प्रवचन) include 'expounding', 'teaching', 'exposition', and 'oral instruction'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=pravachana&direct=se&anz=100|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit: 'Pravachana'|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref>
* '''Vijnayate:''' Is 'used to denote a reference from a brahmana work. The word has first of all been used in the [[Gopatha Brahmana]]'. Definitions of 'Vijnayate' include 'It is a fact that...' and 'be distinguished or discerned'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?tran_input=vijJAyate&direct=se&script=hk&link=yes&mode=3|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit: 'Vijnayate'|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref>

== Overview ==
[[File:Yajna1.jpg|thumb|Performance of [[Yajna]].|alt=|250x250px]]
R. Dalal states that the 'Brahmanas are texts attached to the [[Samhita]]s [hymns] – [[Rigveda|Rig]], [[Samaveda|Sama]], [[Yajurveda|Yajur]] and [[Atharvaveda|Atharva]] Vedas – and provide explanations of these and guidance for the priests in [[Yajna|sacrificial]] rituals'.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&q=Arsheya+Brahmana&pg=PT59|title=The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts|last=Dalal|first=Roshen|date=2014-04-15|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-81-8475-763-7|pages=Chapter 2|language=en}}</ref> S. Shri elaborates, stating 'Brahmanas explain the hymns of the [[Samhita]]s and are in both prose and verse form... The Brahmanas are divided into Vidhi and Arthavada. Vidhi are commands in the performance of Vedic [[Yajna|sacrifices]], and Arthavada praises the rituals, the glory of the [[Deva (Hinduism)|Devas]] and so on. The belief in [[reincarnation]] and transmigration of soul started with [the] Brahmanas... [The] Brahmana period ends around 500 BC[E] with the emergence of [[Buddhism]] and it overlaps the period of [[Aranyaka]]s, [[Sutra]]s, [[Smriti]]s and the first [[Upanishads]]'.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mMf1DQAAQBAJ&q=Arsheya+Brahmana&pg=PT295|title=Demystifying Brahminism and Re-Inventing Hinduism: Volume 1 – Demystifying Brahminism|last=Shri|first=Satya|date=2017-01-23|publisher=Notion Press|isbn=978-1-946515-54-4|pages=(Brahmana Period)|language=en}}</ref>

M. Haug states that the 'Veda, or scripture of the Brahmans, consists, according to the opinion of the most eminent divines of [[Hindustan]], of two principal parts, viz. Mantra [<nowiki/>[[Samhita]]] and Brahmanam... Each of the four Vedas ([[Rigveda|Rik]], [[Yajurveda|Yajus]], [[Samaveda|Saman]], and [[Atharvaveda|Atharvan]]) has a Mantra, as well as a Brahmana portion. The difference between both may be briefly stated as follows: That part which contains the sacred prayers, the invocations of the different deities, the sacred verses for chanting at the [[Yajna|sacrifices]], the sacrificial formulas [is] called ''Mantra''... The Brahmanam [part] always presupposes the Mantra; for without the latter it would have no meaning... [they contain] speculations on the meaning of the mantras, gives precepts for their application, relates stories of their origin... and explains the secret meaning of the latter'.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/aitareyabrahmana04hauguoft|title=The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda|last=Haug|first=Martin|date=1922|publisher=Bahadurganj, Allahabad Sudhindra Nath Vasu|others=Robarts – University of Toronto|pages=ix–x (overview), xi (etymology), xl (lost Brahmanas; Kausitaki and Samkhyana)}}</ref>

[[Julius Eggeling|J. Eggeling]] states that 'While the Brâhma''n''as are thus our oldest sources from which a comprehensive view of the [[Yajna|sacrificial ceremonial]] can be obtained, they also throw a great deal of light on the earliest [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] and [[Linguistics|linguistic]] speculations of the [[Hindus]]. Another, even more interesting feature of these works, consists in the numerous [[legend]]s scattered through them. From the archaic style in which these [[myth]]ological tales are generally composed, as well as from the fact that not a few of them are found in Brâhma''n''as of different [[Shakha|schools]] and [[Vedas]], though often with considerable variations, it is pretty evident that the ground-work of many of them goes back to times preceding the composition of the Brâhma''n''as'.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe12/sbe1202.htm|title=Satapatha Brahmana Part 1 (SBE12): Introduction|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2020-01-24}}</ref>

The [[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]] (IGNCA) states that while 'the Upanishads speculate on the nature of the universe, and the relationship of the one and the many, the immanent and transcendental, the Brahmanas make concrete the world-view and the concepts through a highly developed system of ritual-yajna. This functions as a strategy for a continuous reminder of the inter-relatedness of man and nature, the five elements and the sources of energy'.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32TjMr-7zgoC&q=shatapatha+brahmana+kanva+english&pg=PR20|title=काण्वशतपथब्राह्मणम्|last=Arts|first=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts|date=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1127-0|pages=v-vi, xix–xx|language=en}}</ref>

=== Performance of rituals ===
The Brahmanas are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explanations on the symbolic importance of sacred words and ritual actions.<ref name="ebri">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref> Academics such as P. Alper, [[Klaus Klostermaier|K. Klostermaier]] and [[Max Muller|F.M, Muller]] state that these instructions insist on exact pronunciation (accent),<ref>The pronunciation challenge arises from the change in meaning, in some cases, if something is pronounced incorrectly; for example hrA, hrada, hradA, hradya, hrag, hrAm and hrAsa, each has different meanings; see Harvey P. Alper (2012), Understanding Mantras, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807464}}, pages 104–105</ref> ''[[Vedic meter|chhandas]]'' (छन्दः, meters), precise pitch, with coordinated movement of hand and fingers – that is, perfect delivery.<ref name="klkl">[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421093}}, pages 67–69</ref><ref>[[Max Muller]], {{Google books|qdQXYYp9e50C|A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature}}, page 147</ref> Klostermaier adds that the [[Shatapatha Brahmana|Satapatha Brahamana]], for example, states that verbal perfection made a mantra infallible, while one mistake made it powerless.<ref name="klkl" /> Scholars suggest that this [[Orthology (language)|orthological]] perfection preserved Vedas in an age when writing technology was not in vogue, and the voluminous collection of Vedic knowledge were taught to and memorized by dedicated students through [[Svādhyāya#Svadhyaya as a historical practice|Svādhyāya]], then remembered and verbally transmitted from one generation to the next.<ref name="klkl" /><ref>[[Gavin Flood]] (Ed) (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., {{ISBN|1-4051-3251-5}}, pages 67–69</ref> It seems breaking silence too early in at least one ritual is permissible in the Satapatha (1.1.4.9), where 'in that case mutter some Rik [<nowiki/>[[Rigveda]]] or Yagus-text [<nowiki/>[[Yajurveda]]] addressed to [[Vishnu]]; for Vishnu is the sacrifice, so that he thereby regains obtains a hold on the [[Yajna|sacrifice]], and penance is there by done by him'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe12/sbe1206.htm|title=Satapatha Brahmana Part 1 (SBE12): First Kânda: I, 1, 4. Fourth Brâhmana|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2020-01-28}}</ref>

=== The Nirukta ===
Recorded by the [[grammar]]ian [[Yāska|Yaska]], the [[Nirukta]], one of the six [[Vedanga]]s or 'limbs of the Vedas' concerned with correct [[etymology]] and interpretation of the [[Vedas]], references several Brahmanas to do so. These are (grouped by Veda):<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/TheNighantuAndTheNirukta|title=The Nighantu And The Nirukta|last=Lakshman Sarup|date=1967|pages=282 (archive.org e-reader numbering; Appendix 1)|language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Veda
!Brahmana
!Comment
|-
|'''[[Rigveda]]'''
|[[Aitareya Brahmana|Aitareya]] and Kausitaki
|
|-
|'''[[Samaveda]]'''
|[[Sadvimsha Brahmana|Sadvimsa]], Mantra, and Daivata
|The Mantra Brahmana is from the first two chapters of the Chandogya Brahmana.
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''[[Yajurveda]]'''
|[[Shatapatha Brahmana|Shatapatha]]
|There are two versions or recensions by different [[Shakha]]s: [[Madhyandina Shakha|Madhyandina]] and [[Kanva Shakha|Kanva]].
Both apply to the [[Yajurveda#Shukla Yajurveda|Śukla]] (White) Yajurveda.
|-
|[[Taittiriya Brahmana|Taittiriya]]
|Applies to the [[Yajurveda#Krishna Yajurveda|Krishna]] (Black) Yajurveda
|-
|'''[[Atharvaveda]]'''
|[[Gopatha Brahmana|Gopatha]]
|The only surviving (i.e. extant) Brahmana of this [[Vedas|Veda]].
|}

=== Commentaries of Sayana ===
The [[14th century|14th Century]] [[Sanskrit]] scholar [[Sayana]] composed numerous commentaries on [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature, including the [[Samhita]]s, Brahmanas, [[Aranyaka]]s, and [[Upanishads]]. B.R. Modak states that 'king [[Bukka Raya I|Bukka]] [1356–1377 CE] requested his preceptor and minister Madhavacharya to write a commentary on the Vedas, so that even common people would be able to understand the meaning of the Vedic Mantras. Madhavacharya told him that his younger brother Sayana was a learned person and hence he should be entrusted with the task'.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rL1RtLr2KkC&q=brahmana&pg=PA17|title=Sayana|last=Modak|first=B. R.|date=1995|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-7201-940-2|pages=16–18|language=en}}</ref> Modak also lists the Brahmanas commented upon by Sayana (with the exception of the Gopatha):<ref name=":13" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Veda
!Brahmana
!Comment
|-
|'''[[Rigveda]]'''
|[[Aitareya Brahmana|Aitareya]]
|
|-
|'''[[Samaveda]]'''
|[[Panchavimsha Brahmana|Panchavimsha]], [[Sadvimsha Brahmana|Sadvimsa]], Samavidhana, Arsheya, Daivata, Chandogya, Samhitopanishad, Vamsha
|All 8 Brahmanas are of the Kauthuma [[Shakha]].
|-
|'''[[Yajurveda]]'''
|[[Taittiriya Brahmana|Taittirita]], Shatapatha (Mâdhyandina [[recension]])
|
|-
|'''[[Atharvaveda]]'''
|[[Gopatha Brahmana|Gopatha]]
|See the main article on the Gopatha Brahmana.
|-
| colspan="3" |'''Note:''' It seems only a few commentaries of Sayana have been translated into English.
|}

=== Abbreviations and schools ===
For ease of reference, academics often use common [[abbreviation]]s to refer to particular Brahmanas and other Vedic, post-Vedic (e.g. [[Puranas]]), and [[Sanskrit]] literature. Additionally, particular Brahmanas linked to particular Vedas are also linked to (i.e. recorded by) particular [[Shakha]]s or schools of those Vedas as well. Based on the abbreviations and Shakhas provided by works cited in this article (and other texts by [[Maurice Bloomfield|Bloomfield]], [[Arthur Berriedale Keith|Keith]], [[William Dwight Whitney|W. D, Whitney]], and H.W. Tull),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15782|title=A Vedic Concordance (1906)|last=Bloomfield|first=Maurice|date=1906|pages=xv–xxii|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaH4uKI7MaEC&q=Chandogya+Brahmana+CB&pg=PR10|title=The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads|last=Keith|first=Arthur Berriedale|date=1970|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-0645-0|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSMEUYzirNQC&q=Chandogya+Brahmana+CB&pg=PR26|title=Sanskrit Grammar: Including Both, the Classical Language and the Older Dialects of Veda and Brāhmaṇa|last=Whitney|first=William Dwight|date=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-0621-4|pages=Abbreviations|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=auqGWz2l9pYC&q=KathB+Katha+brahmana&pg=PA123|title=The Vedic Origins of Karma: Cosmos as Man in Ancient Indian Myth and Ritual|last=Tull|first=Herman Wayne|date=1989-01-01|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-0094-4|pages=123|language=en}}</ref> [[Extant literature|extant]] Brahmanas have been listed below, grouped by [[Vedas|Veda]] and [[Shakha]]. Note that:

* "--" indicates the abbreviation or school has not been provided or found
* There are variations of how the translated names of Vedas, Shakhas, and Brahmanas are spelt
*Lost or fragmentary Brahmanas (e.g. the Kathaka Brahmana, KathB) have not been listed (see the section of Lost Brahmanas, below)

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" |Rigveda
! colspan="3" |'''Samaveda'''
! colspan="3" |'''YajurVedaa'''
! colspan="3" |'''Atharvaveda'''
|-
!Name
!Abbreviation
![[Shakha]]
!Name
!Abbreviation
![[Shakha]]
!Name
!Abbreviation
![[Shakha]]
!Name
!Abbreviation
![[Shakha]]
|-
|[[Aitareya Brahmana|Aitareya]]
|AB, AiB
|[[Shakala Shakha|Shakala]]
|[[Panchavimsha Brahmana|Panchavimsha]]'''c'''
|PB
| rowspan="2" |Kuthuma-Ranayaniya / Tandin
|[[Shatapatha Brahmana|Shatapatha]]'''f'''
|SB, CB
| rowspan="2" |Mâdhyandina
|[[Gopatha Brahmana|Gopatha]]
|GB
|Paippalada and [[Shaunaka]]
|-
|Kausitaki / Samkhyana'''b'''
|KB
|Baskala
|[[Tandya Brahmana|Tandya]]'''c'''
|TMB, PB
|Shatapatha'''f'''
|SBM, MSB, CB
| colspan="3" rowspan="13" |
|-
| colspan="3" rowspan="12" |
|[[Sadvimsha Brahmana|Sadvimsa]]'''c'''
|SB, SadvB
| rowspan="10" |Kauthuma
|Shatapatha'''f'''
|SBK, CBK
|Kanva
|-
|Adbhuta'''c'''
|AdB
|[[Taittiriya Brahmana|Taittiriya]]
|TB
| rowspan="3" |[[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |Samavidhana
| rowspan="2" |Svidh, SVB
|Taittiriya Chardi
| –
|-
|Pravargya'''g'''
|
|-
|Daivata'''d'''
|DB
|Vadhula – Anvakhyana'''h'''
| VadhAnva
|Vadhula
|-
|Samhitopanishad
|Samhitopanisad.B
| colspan="3" rowspan="7" |
|-
|Arsheya
|<nowiki>--</nowiki>
|-
|Vamsha
|VB
|-
|Chandogya'''e'''
| –
|-
|Mantra'''e'''
|MB, SMB
|-
|Jaiminiya
|JB, Jaim. Br.
| rowspan="2" |Jaiminiya
|-
|Jaiminiya Arsheya
|<nowiki>--</nowiki>
|-
| colspan="12" |'''a:''' The [[Yajurveda#Shukla Yajurveda|Śukla]] (White) Yajurveda referred to by the Shatapatha Brahmana is the ''Vajasaneyi Samhita'' (Mâdhyandina [[recension]]: VS, Vag. S.; Kanva recension: VSK). The [[Yajurveda#Krishna Yajurveda|Krishna]] (Black) Yajurveda referred to by the Taittiriya Brahmana is the [[Taittiriya Shakha|''Taittiriya Samhita'']] (TS).
'''b:''' The Kausitaki and Samkhyana are generally considered to be the same Brahmana. Also called the Cankhayana Brahmana.<ref name=":6" />

'''c:''' The Panchavismsha and Tandya are the same Brahmana. The Sadvimsa Brahmana is considered to be an appendix to the Panchavismsha / Tandya Brahmana. The Adbhuta Brahmana is from the last part of the Sadvimsa Brahmana and deals with 'omens and supernatural things'.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&q=adbhuta&pg=PA37|title=Ancient India|last=Majumdar|first=Ramesh Chandra|date=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0436-4|pages=36–39|language=en}}</ref> Attributed by Caland to the Kuthuma-Ranayaniya Shakha,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Caland. W|url=https://archive.org/details/pancavimsabrahma032052mbp|title=Pancavimsa Brahmana|date=1931|publisher=The Asiatic Society Of Bengal|others=Osmania University, Digital Library Of India|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pancavimsabrahma032052mbp/page/n48 1]}}</ref> but by Macdonell to the Tandin [[Shakha]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=A Macdonell|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.282476|title=Vedic Index Of Names And Subjects Vol I 1912|date=1912|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.282476/page/n321 305]}}</ref>

'''d:''' Also called the Devatadhyaya Brahmana.

'''e:''' The Mantra Brahmana (also called the Samaveda-Mantrabrahmana, SMB) is from the first two chapters of the Chandogya Brahmana (also called the Chandogyaopanishad and the Upanishad Brahmana); the remaining chapters of the Chandogya Brahmana form the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].

'''f:''' Also called the Catapatha Brahmana (CB; this abbreviation also denotes the Mâdhyandina [[recension]])

'''g:''' Part of the [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya]] [[Aranyaka]]; explains the Pravargya rite. Generally not considered a Brahmana-proper, although it has been published as one.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Houben|first=Jan E. M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnZZl-oZnyEC&q=Taittiriya+Pravargya+brahmana|title=The Pravargya Brāhmaṇa of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka: An Ancient Commentary on the Pravargya Ritual|date=1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0868-3|language=en}}</ref>

'''h:''' Linked with the Krishna (Black) Yajurveda, it is 'actually part of the Vadhula Shrauta Sutra'.<ref name=":0" />
|}

=== Recensions by Disciples of Vyasa ===
S. Sharva states that in 'the brahmana literature this word ['brahmana'] has been commonly used as detailing the ritualism related to the different sacrifices or [[yajna]]s... The known [[recension]]s [i.e. schools or [[Shakha]]s] of the [[Vedas]], all had separate brahmanas. Most of these brahmanas are [[Lost literary work|not extant]].... [<nowiki/>[[Pāṇini|Panini]]] differentiates between the old and the new brahmanas... [he asked] Was it when [[Vyasa|Krishna Dvaipayana Vyasa]] had propounded the Vedic recensions? The brahmanas which had been propounded prior to the exposition of recensions by [<nowiki/>[[Vyasa]]] were called as old brahmanas and those which had been expounded by his disciples were known as new brahmanas'.<ref name=":1" />

== Rigveda ==
The [[Aitareya Brahmana|Aitareya]], Kausitaki, and [[Sankhyayana Brahmana|Samkhyana]] Brahmanas are the two (or three) known extant Brahmanas of the [[Rigveda]]. [[Arthur Berriedale Keith|A.B. Keith]], a translator of the Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas, states that it is 'almost certainly the case that these two [[Sankhyayana Brahmana|[Kausitaki and Samkhyana] Brahmanas]] represent for us the development of a single tradition, and that there must have been a time when there existed a single... text [from which they were developed and diverged]'.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.84867|title=Rigveda Brahmanas The Aitareya And Kausitaki Brahmanas Of The Rigveda|last=Keith|first=Arthur Berriedale|date=1920|pages=22, 28, 37–38 (Kausitaki), 49 (Kausitaki date), 348 (Kausitaki quote: 1.2)}}</ref> Although S. Shrava considers the Kausitaki and Samkhyana Brahmanas to be separate although very similar works,<ref name=":1" /> M. Haug considers them to be the same work referred to by different names.<ref name=":4" />

=== Aitareya Brahmana ===
{{Main|Aitareya Brahmana}}

{{blockquote|The [[sun]] does never set nor rise. When people think the sun is setting (it is not so). For, after having arrived at the end of the day, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making night to what is below and day to what is on the other side...Having reached the end of the night, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making day to what is below and night to what is on the other side. In fact, the sun never sets. Nor does it set for him who has such a knowledge. Such a one becomes united with the sun, assumes its form, and enters its place.|source=Aitareya Brahmanam of the RigVeda, translated by Martin Haug (1922), Book 3, Chapter 4, Section 44<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/aitareyabrahmana04hauguoft|title=The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda|last=Haug|first=Martin|date=1922|publisher=Bahadurganj, Allahabad Sudhindra Nath Vasu|others=Robarts – University of Toronto|pages=[https://archive.org/details/aitareyabrahmana04hauguoft/page/163 163]–164}}</ref>}}

[[File:1827 CE manuscript copy, Vedic era Aitareya Brahmana, Schoyen Collection Norway.jpg|thumb|Page from the [[Aitareya Brahmana]].]]

As detailed in the main article, the [[Aitareya Brahmana]] (AB) is ascribed to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya of the [[Shakala Shakha]] (Shakala school) of the [[Rigveda]], and is estimated to have been recorded around 600-400 [[Common Era|BCE]].<ref name=":3" /> It is also linked with the Ashvalayana Shakha.<ref name=":0" /> The text itself consists of eight ''pañcikā''s (books), each containing five ''adhyaya''s (chapters), totaling forty in all. C. Majumdar states that 'it deals principally with the great [[Soma (drink)|Soma]] sacrifices and the different ceremonies of royal inauguration'.<ref name=":8" />

Haug states that the legend about this Brahmana, as told by [[Sayana]], is that the 'name "Aitareya" is by Indian tradition traced to ''Itara''... An ancient [[Rishi|Risi]] had among his many wives one who was called ''Itara''. She had a son ''Mahidasa'' by name [i.e. Mahidasa Aitareya]... The Risi preferred the sons of his other wives to Mahidasa, and went even so far as to insult him once by placing all his other children in his lap to his exclusion. His mother, grieved at this ill-treatment of her son, prayed to her family deity (''[[Kuladevata]]''), [and] the Earth ([[Bhūmi|Bhumi]]), who appeared in her celestial form in the midst of the assembly, placed him on a throne (''[[simhasana]]''), and gave him as a token of honour for his surpassing all other children in learning a boon (vara) which had the appearance of a Brahmana [i.e. the Aitareya]'.<ref name=":4" /> P. Deussen agrees, relating the same story.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC&q=mahidasa+itara+sayana&pg=PA7|title=Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda|last=Deussen|first=Paul|date=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1468-4|pages=7|language=en}}</ref> Notably, The story itself is remarkably similar to the legend of a [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] boy called [[Dhruva]] in the [[Puranas]] (e.g. [[Bhagavata Purana]], Canto 4, Chapter 8-12).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/sb/4/|title=Srimad Bhagavatam, Canto 4: The Creation of the Fourth Order|last=Prabhupada|first=A.C.|website=vedabase.io|language=en|access-date=2020-01-25}}</ref>

=== Kausitaki / Samkhyana Brahmana ===

{{blockquote|The [[Deva (Hinduism)|gods]] and the [[Asura]]s were in conflict over these worlds. From them [[Agni]] departed, and entered the seasons. The gods, having been victorious and having slain the Asuras, sought for him; [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]] and [[Varuna]] discerned him. Him (the gods) invited, him they instructed, to him they offered a boon. He chose this as a boon, '(Give) me the fore-offering and the after-offerings for my own, and the [[ghee]] of the waters and make of plants.' Therefore they say 'Agni's are the fore-offerings and the after-offerings; Agni's is the butter.' Then indeed did the gods prosper, the Asuras were defeated. He prospers himself, his foe is defeated, who knows thus.|source=Rigveda Brahmanas: The Aitareya And Kausitaki Brahmanas Of The [[Rigveda]], translated by [[Arthur Berriedale Keith]] (1920), Kausitaki Brahmana, Adhyaya I, Verse 2<ref name=":3" />}}
[[File:Tools used for Yajna.jpg|thumb|Tools used for [[Yajna]].]]
The [[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]] (IGNCA) states that the 'Kaushitaki Brahmana [is] associated with Baskala [[Shakha]] of [the] [[Rigveda]] and [is] also called Sankhyayana Brahmana. It is divided into thirty chapters [adhyayas] and 226 Khanda[s]. The first six chapters dealing with food sacrifice and the remaining to [[Soma (drink)|Soma]] sacrifice. This work is ascribed to [[Sankhyayana]] or Kaushitaki'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vedicheritage.gov.in/brahmanas/kausitaki-shankhyayana-brahmana/|title=Kausitaki (Shankhayana) Brahmana|website=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, Ministry of Culture, Government of India}}</ref> S. Shrava disagrees, stating that it 'was once considered that [the] Kaushitaki or Samkhayana was the name of the same brahmana... [but the Samkhayana] differs, though slightly, from the Kaushitaki Brahmana'.<ref name=":1" /> C. Majumdar states that it 'deals not only with the [[Soma (drink)|Soma]], but also other sacrifices'.<ref name=":8" />

Keith estimates that the Kaushîtaki-brâhmana was recorded around 600–400 BCE, adding that it is more 'scientific' and 'logical' than the Aitareya Brahmana, although much 'of the material of the Kausitaki, and especially the legends, has been taken over by the Brahmana from a source common to it and the Aitareya, but the whole has been worked up into a harmonious unity which presents no such irregularities as are found in the Aitareya. It is clearly a redaction of the tradition of the school made deliberately after the redaction of the Aitareya'.<ref name=":3" />

==== Kaushitaki Brahmana Upanishad ====
[[Max Müller]] states that the [[Kaushitaki Upanishad]] – also called the ''Kaushitaki Brahmana Upanishad'' (KBU) – 'does not form part of the Kaushîtaki-brâhmana in 30 adhyâyas which we possess, and we must therefore account for its name by admitting that the [[Aranyaka|Âranyaka]], of which it formed a portion, could be reckoned as part of the Brâhmana literature of the [[Rigveda|Rig-veda]] (see Aitareya-âranyaka, Introduction, p. xcii), and that hence the [[Upanishads|Upanishad]] might be called the Upanishad of the Brâhmana of the Kaushîtakins'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe01/sbe01020.htm|title=The Upanishads, Part 1 (SBE01): Introduction to the Upanishads: IV. The Kaushîtaki-Brâhmana-Upanishad|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2020-01-25}}</ref>

== Samaveda ==
W. Caland states that of the [[Samaveda]], three [[Shakha]]s (schools or branches) 'are to be distinguished; that of the Kauthumas, that of the Ranayaniyas, and that of the Jaiminiyas'.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.203661|title=Pancavimsa Brahmana|last=Caland. W|date=1931|pages=i–iii}}</ref>

=== Panchavimsha / Tandya Brahmana ===
{{Main|Panchavimsha Brahmana}}

{{blockquote|[[Vishnu|Visnu]] is the [[Yajna|sacrifice]]; what here (on this day) is not brought about, that he brings about through Vishnu (who is) the sacrifice.|source=Pancavimsa Brahmana, translated by W. Caland (1931), Prapathaka XIII (13), Adhyaya 5, Verse 5<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.203661|title=Pancavimsa Brahmana|last=Caland.W|date=1931|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.203661/page/n370 323]}}</ref>}}

[[Willem Caland|Caland]] states that the [[Panchavimsha Brahmana|Panchavimsha]] / Tandya Brahmana of the Kauthuma [[Shakha]] consists of 25 prapathakas (books or chapters).<ref name=":7" /> C. Majumdar states that it 'is one of the oldest and most important of Brahmanas. It contains many old legends, and includes the ''Vratyastoma'', a ceremony by which people of non-Aryan stock could be admitted into the Aryan family'.<ref name=":8" />

==== Sadvimsa Brahmana ====
[[File:1636 CE Samaveda, Sadvimsha Brahmana (Pañcaviṃśabrāhmaṇa supplement), Benares Sanskrit college, Edward Cowell collection, sample i, Sanskrit, Devanagari.jpg|thumb|Sadvimsha Brahmana page.]]
The Sadvimsa Brahmana is also of the Kauthuma Shakha, and consists of 5 adhyayas (lessons or chapters). Caland states it is 'a kind of appendix to the [Panchavimsha Brahmana], reckoned as its 26th book [or chapter]... The text clearly intends to supplement the Pancavimsabrahmana, hence its desultory character. It treats of the [[Subrahmanya]] formula, of the one-day-rites that are destined to injure (''abhicara'') and other matters. This brahmana, at least partly, is presupposed by the Arseyakalpa and the Sutrakaras'.<ref name=":7" />

===== Adbhuta Brahmana =====
Caland states that the Adbhuta Brahmana, also of the Kauthuma Shakha, is the 'latest part [i.e. 5th adhyaya of the Sadvimsa Brahmana], that which treats of Omina and Portenta [<nowiki/>[[Omen]]s and [[Divination]]]'.<ref name=":7" /> Majumdar agrees.<ref name=":8" />

=== Samavidhana Brahmana ===
Caland states that the Samavidhana Brahmana of the Kauthuma Shakha is 'in 3 prapathakas [books or chapters]... its aim is to explain how by chanting various samans [hymns of the [[Samaveda]]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/saman|title=Saman, Sāman, Shaman, Śāman: 2 definitions|last=www.wisdomlib.org|date=2019-01-04|website=www.wisdomlib.org|access-date=2020-01-27}}</ref> some end may be attained. It is probably older than one of the oldest dharmasastras, that of Gautama'.<ref name=":7" /> M. S. Bhat states that it is not properly a Brāhmaṇa text, but belongs to the [[Vidhāna]] literature.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bhat |first=M. S. |title=Vedic Tantrism: A Study of Ṛgvidhāna of Śaunaka with Text and Translation |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |year=1998 |orig-date=1987 |isbn=8120801970 |page=16}}</ref>

=== Daivata Brahmana ===
[[File:12th-century Samaveda samhita and brahmanam, Aranyaganam Prapathaka 1-6, page 1 front, Raghunath temple archives, Jammu.jpg|thumb|Page from the [[Samaveda]] samhita and brahmanam.]]
Caland states that the Daivata Brahmana of the Kauthuma Shakha is 'in 3 prapathakas [books or chapters]... It deals with the deities to which the samans are addressed'.<ref name=":7" /> Dalal adds that the 'first part of the Devatadhyaya is the most important as it provides rules to determine the deities to whom the samans are dedicated. Another section ascribes colours to different verses, probably as aids to memory or for meditation... [It] includes some very late passages such as references to the four yugas or ages'.<ref name=":0" />

=== Samhitopanishad Brahmana ===
Caland states that the Samhitopanishad Brahmana of the Kauthuma Shakha is 'in 5 khandas [books]... It treats of the effects of recitation, the relation of the saman [hymns of the [[Samaveda]]] and the words on which it is chanted, the ''daksinas'' to be given to the religious teacher'.<ref name=":7" /> Dalal agrees, stating that it 'describes the nature of the chants and their effects, and how the riks or Rig Vedic verses were converted into samans. Thus it reveals some of the hidden aspects of the [[Samaveda|Sama Veda]]'.<ref name=":0" />

=== Arsheya Brahmana ===
Caland states that the Arsheya Brahmana of the Kauthuma Shakha is <nowiki>''</nowiki>in 3 prapathakas [books or chapters]... This quasi-brahmana is, on the whole, nothing more than an anukramanika, a mere list of the names of the samans [hymns of the [[Samaveda]]] occurring in the first two ganas [of the Kauthumas, i.e. the Gramegeya-gana / Veya-gana and the Aramyegeya-gana / Aranya-gana]'.<ref name=":7" /> The nature of the ganas noted are discussed in the same text. As illustrated below, this Brahmana is virtually identical to the Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana of the Jaiminiya [[Shakha]].

=== Vamsha Brahmana ===
Caland states that the Vamsha Brahmana of the Kauthuma Shakha is 'in 3 khandas [books]... it contains the lists of teachers of the Samaveda'.<ref name=":7" /> Notably, Dalal adds that of the 53 teachers listed, the 'earliest teacher, [[Kashyapa]], is said to have received the teaching from the god, [[Agni]]'.<ref name=":0" />

=== Jaiminiya Brahmana ===

{{blockquote|He should proceed thus: Having taken a water-pot or a water-jar he should go pouring it out from the garhapatya to the ahavaniya with the verse: "Here [[Vishnu|Visnu]] strode". The ''rc'' [RigVeda verse, e.g. 1.22.17] is a divine purification, water is a divine purification. Whatever here is unappeased of the [[Yajna|sacrifice]] and whatever is impure, for all that, water forms the means of appeasing. So by water they appease it.|source=Jaiminya Brahmana, translated by Hendrik Bodewitz (1973), Book 1, Section 52 ('Vehicles or animals pass between the fires')<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/jaiminiyabrahmana|title=Jaiminiya Brahmana Book 1 (English)|last=Bodewitz|first=Hendrik|year=1973|pages=[https://archive.org/details/jaiminiyabrahmana/page/n138 155]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa I, 1–65|last1=Bodewitz|first1=H. W|date=1973|publisher=E.J. Brill|isbn=978-90-04-03604-8|location=Leiden|language=en|oclc=660020}}</ref>}}
[[File:16th-century Jaiminiya Mimamsa Sutra Bhasya, Sanskrit, Telugu script, Andhra Pradesh.jpg|thumb|349x349px|Page form the [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa sutra]] of Jaiminimi, who also recorded the Jaiminiya Brahmana and other works.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mimamsasutra00jaimuoft|title=The Mimamsa sutra of Jaimini. Translated by Mohan Lal Sandal|last=Jaimini|date=1923|publisher=Allahabad Panini Office|others=Robarts – University of Toronto}}</ref>|alt=]]
It seems that this Brahmana has not been fully translated to date, or at least a full translation has not been made available.

S. Shrava states that the Jaiminiya Brahmana of the Jaiminiya Shakha, also called the T''alavakara Brahmana'', 'is divided into 1348 khandas [verses]... Many of the sentences of this brahmana are similar to those found in Tamdya, Sadavimsam, [[Shatapatha Brahmana|Satapatha]] [Brahmanas] and [the] [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittirya Samhita]] [Krishna/Black [[Yajurveda]]]. Many of the hymns are found for the first time in it. Their composition is different from that available in Vedic literature. Most of the subjects described in it are completely new and are not found in other bramanas like Tamdya, etc... In the beginning khandas, details of daily oblation to the sacrificial fire are described... This brahmana was compiled by Jaimini a famous preceptor of [[Samaveda]] and the worthy disciple of [[Vyasa|Krishna Dvaipayana Vedavyasa]] and his disciple Talavakara'.<ref name=":1" />

==== Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana ====
Dalal states that the Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana of the Jaiminiya Shakha 'is similar to the Arsheya Brahmana of the Kauthuma school but for the fact that the names of the [[rishi]]s in the two are different. Unlike the Kauthuma texts, this lists only one rishi per saman'.<ref name=":0" />

==== Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana ====
{{Main|Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana}}

As detailed in the main article, also called the ''Talavakara Upanishad Brahmana'' and ''Jaiminiyopanishad Brahmana'', it is considered an [[Aranyaka]] – not a Brahmana – and forms part of the [[Kena Upanishad]].

=== Chandogya Brahmana ===

{{blockquote|Now that light which shines above this heaven, higher than all, higher than everything, in the highest world, beyond which there are no other worlds, that is the same light which is within man.|source=Chandogya Upanishad, edited by F.M. Muller (1879), Prapathaka 3 (Prapathaka 5 of the Chandogya Brahmana), Khanda 13, Verse 7<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/1UpanishadsVol1ChandogyaKenaAitreyaKausitakiIsa|title=1 Upanishads Vol 1 Chandogya, Kena, Aitreya, Kausitaki, Isa|last=nindi punj|language=en}}</ref>}}

The [[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]] (IGNCA) states that the Chandogya Brahmana, also called the ''chanddogyopanishad Brahmana,'' 'is divided into ten prapathakas (chapters). Its first two prapathakas (chapters) form the Mantra Brahmana (MB) and each of them is divided into eight khandas (sections). Prapathakas 3–10 form the [[Chandogya Upanishad]]'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vedicheritage.gov.in/brahmanas/chandogyopanishad-brahmana/|title=CHANDOGYOPANISHAD BRAHMANA|website=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, Ministry of Culture, Government of India}}</ref> K.G. Witz states it is of the Kauthuma Shakha (see below).<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jnPlEqwe_UC&q=%22Mantra+Brahmana%22&pg=PA217|title=The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction|last=Witz|first=Klaus G.|date=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-1573-5|pages=217|language=en}}</ref>

==== Mantra Brahmana ====
{{Verse translation|ad etad dhridayam tava tad astu hridayam mama,
Yad idam hridayam mama tad astu hridayam tava|That heart of thine shall be mine,
and this heart of mine shall be thine.|lang=en|attr1=Mantra Brahmana, [[transliteration]] and translation of Chapter 1, Sukta 3<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/1UpanishadsVol1ChandogyaKenaAitreyaKausitakiIsa|title=Upanishads Vol 1 Chandogya, Kena, Aitreya, Kausitaki, Isa|editor-last=Muller|editor-first=F. Max |year=1879|pages=lxxxvii (including footnote 2)}}</ref>}}

K. G. Witz states that the Mantra Brahmana is 'a text in two chapters which mostly give Vedic Mantras which should be used in rites such as for birth and marriage. The combined text [with 8 chapters forming the [[Chandogya Upanishad]]] is [also] called [the] Upanishad Brahmana and is one of the eight canonical Brahmanas of the Kauthumas. The fact that the Upanishad was combined with the Mantra Brahmana into a single text is significant. Just as everyone in society is blessed and made part of the overall divine societal, social and world order by the household rites in the Mantra Brahmana, so everyone can direct his life toward the Infinite Reality by the numerous upasanas and vidyas of the Chandogya Upanishad.'<ref name=":11" />

R. Mitra is quoted as stating that of 'the two portions differ greatly, and judged by them they appear to be productions of very different ages, though both are evidently relics of pretty remote antiquity. Of the two chapters of the Khandogya-Brahmana [Chandogya Brahmana, forming the Mantra Brahmana], the first includes eight suktas [hymns] on the ceremony of marriage and the rites necessary to be observed at the birth of a child. The first Sukta is intended to be recited when offering an oblation to [[Agni]] on the occasion of a marriage, and its object is to pray for prosperity [on] behalf of the married couple. The second prays for a long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny [i.e. children]. The third is the marriage pledge by which the [couple] bind themselves to each other. Its spirit may be guessed from a single verse. In talking of the unanimity with which they will dwell, the bridegroom addresses his bride, "That heart of thine shall be mine, and this heart of mine shall be thine" [as quoted above]'.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/1UpanishadsVol1ChandogyaKenaAitreyaKausitakiIsa|title=Upanishads Vol 1 Chandogya, Kena, Aitreya, Kausitaki, Isa|editor-last=Muller|editor-first=F. Max |year=1879|pages=lxxxvii|language=en}}</ref>

== Yajurveda ==

=== Śukla (White) Yajurveda: Shatapatha Brahmana ===
{{Main|Shatapatha Brahmana}}{{Verse translation|tarhi videgho māthava āsa <nowiki>|</nowiki> sarasvatyāṃ sa tata eva prāṅdahannabhīyāyemām pṛthivīṃ taṃ gotamaśca rāhūgaṇo videghaśca māthavaḥ paścāddahantamanvīyatuḥ sa imāḥ sarvā nadīratidadāha sadānīretyuttarādgirernirghāvati tāṃ haiva nātidadāha tāṃ ha sma tām purā brāhmaṇā na tarantyanatidagdhāgninā vaiśvānareṇeti|Mâthava, the Videgha, was at that time on the (river) Sarasvatî. He ([[Agni]]) thence went burning along this earth towards the east; and Gotama Râhûgana and the Videgha Mâthava followed after him as he was burning along. He burnt over (dried up) all these rivers. Now that (river), which is called 'Sadânîrâ,' flows from the northern (Himâlaya) mountain: that one he did not burn over. That one the Brâhmans did not cross in former times, thinking, 'it has not been burnt over by Agni Vaisvânara.'|lang=en|attr1=Satapatha Brahmnana, [[transliteration]] of Kanda I, Adhyâya IV, Brâhmana I, Verse 14<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_01_u.htm|title = Satapatha-Brahmana 1}}</ref>|attr2=Satapatha Brahmana, [[translation]] by [[Julius Eggeling]] (1900), Kanda I, Adhyâya IV, Brâhmana I, Verse 14<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe12/sbe1217.htm|title=Satapatha Brahmana Part 1 (SBE12): First Kânda: I, 4, 1. Fourth Adhyâya. First brâhmana|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2020-01-07}}</ref>}}
[[File:13th-century Shatapatha Brahmana 14th Khanda Prapathaka 3-4, page 1r and 1v, Sanskrit, Devanagari script.jpg|thumb|Extract from a 13th-century manuscript of the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] (Khanda 14).]]
The 'final form' of the Satapatha Brahmana is estimated to have been recorded around 1000–800 BCE, although it refers to [[Astronomy|astronomical]] phenomena dated to 2100 BCE, and, as quoted above, historical events such as the drying up of the [[Sarasvati River|Sarasvati river]], which is believed to have occurred around 1900 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kak|first=Subhash C.|title=Astronomy of the Satapatha Brahmana|url=https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol28_1_2_SCKak.pdf|journal=Indian Journal of History of Science|year=1993 |volume=28|issue=1 |page=15 |bibcode=1993InJHS..28...15K |via=Indian National Science Academy}}</ref> It provides [[Science|scientific]] knowledge of [[geometry]] and [[observational astronomy]] from the [[Vedic period]], and is considered significant in the development of [[Vaishnavism]] as the possible origin of several [[Puranas|Puranic]] legends and [[avatar]]s of the [[Rigveda|RigVedic]] god [[Vishnu]], all of which ([[Matsya]], [[Kurma]], [[Varaha]], [[Narasimha]], and [[Vamana]]) are listed in the [[Dashavatara]].

[[Moriz Winternitz|M. Winternitz]] states that this Brahmana is 'the best known, the most extensive, and doubtless, also on account of its contents, the most important of all the Brahmanas'.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.97551|title=A History Of Indian Literature, vol.1|last=Winternitz|first=M.|date=1927|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.97551/page/n213 187]–225, 192}}</ref> Eggeling states that 'The Brâhma''n''a of the Vâ''g''asaneyins bears the name of ''S''atapatha, that is, the Brâhma''n''a 'of a hundred paths,' because it consists of a hundred lectures (adhyâyas). Both the [[Yajurveda|Vâ''g''asaneyi-sa''m''hitâ]] [Yajurveda] and the [[Shatapatha Brahmana|''S''atapatha-brâhma''n''a]] have come down to us in two different [[recension]]s, those of the [[Madhyandina Shakha|Mâdhyandina]] and the [[Kanva Shakha|Kâ''n''va schools]]':<ref name=":2" />

* '''Mâdhyandina recension:''' Ascribed to [[Yajnavalkya|Yājñavalkya]] Vājasaneya, it consists of 14 khandas ('books') which can be divided into two major parts. The first nine khandas are commentaries of the corresponding [[samhita]] of the Śukla (white) [[Yajurveda]]. The final five khandas cover supplementary and ritualistically newer material; and the final book constitutes the [[Brihadaranyaka|Bṛhad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad]].<ref name=":2" />
* '''Kanva recension:''' Ascribed to [[Adi Shankara|Samkara]], it consists of 17 khandas. The IGNCA adds that 'the division of Kandika [verses] is more rational in the [[Kanva]] text than in the other... The name 'Satapatha', as Eggeling has suggested, might have been based on the number of Adhyayas [chapters] in the Madhyandina which is exactly one hundred. But the Kanva recension, which has one hundred and four Adhyayas is also known by the same name. In Indian tradition words like 'sata' and 'sahasra', indicating numbers, do not always stand for exact numbers'.<ref name=":9" />

=== Krishna (Black) Yajurveda: Taittiriya Brahmana ===
{{Main|Taittiriya Brahmana}}
{{blockquote|When the completion of [[yajna]] does not happen in a year (''[[samvatsara]]'') then everything is not stable. Then one has to seek the grace of [[Vishnu]] ([[Vamana]]) by performing a special rite on the ''[[ekadashi]]'' day. Yajna means Vishnu (worshipping Vishnu). They perform yajna only for stabilising. They depend on [[Indra]] and [[Agni]]. Indra and Agni give the abode for Gods ([[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]]). Devas only seek shelter in them and only depend on them.|source=[[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya]] Brahmana, translated by R.L. Kashyap (2017), Ashtaka 1, Prapathaka 2, Anuvaka 5, Verses 1–7<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8sBtAEACAAJ|title=Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa: Text in Devanāgari and Translation|date=2017|publisher=Sri Aurobindo Kapāli Sāstry Institute of Vedic Culture|isbn=978-81-7994-166-9|pages=107 (Volume 1)|language=en}}</ref>}}
[[File:Taittiriya Samhita Vedas, Devanagari script, Sanskrit pliv.jpg|thumb|Page of the [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya]] [[Samhita]].|alt=|217x217px]]
Ascribed to the sage Tittiri (or Taittiri), the Taittiriya Brahmana of the [[Taittiriya Shakha]] consists of three ''Ashtakas'' (books or parts) of commentaries on the performance of [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[Yajna|sacrificial rituals]], [[astronomy]], and information about the gods. It is stated by the [[Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts]] (IGNCA) to be 'mixed of [[mantra]]s and Brahmans... composed in poetic and prose manner'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://vedicheritage.gov.in/brahmanas/taittiriya-brhamana/|publisher=Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts |title=Taittiriya Brahmana|website=Vedic Heritage}}</ref>

M. Winternitz adds that the "Taittiriya-Brahmana of the Black [[Yajurveda]] is nothing but a continuation of the Taittiriya-Samhita, for the Brahmanas were already included in the Samhitas of the Black Yajurveda. The Taittiriya-Brahmana, therefore, contains only later additions to the Samhita."<ref name=":5" />

According to the [[Monier Monier-Williams|Monier-Williams]] [[Sanskrit]] Dictionary, Taittiri was a disciple of [[Yaska]] (300–400 BCE),<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sanskritdictionary.com/?q=tittiri&iencoding=iast&lang=sans|title=Sanskrit Dictionary: 'tittiri'|website=www.sanskritdictionary.com|access-date=2020-01-09}}</ref> although according to the [[Vishnu Purana]] (Book 3, Chapter 5), Taittiri and Yaska were disciples of [[Vaisampayana|Vaiśampáyana]] (500–600 BCE).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp079.htm|title=The Vishnu Purana: Book III: Chapter V|website=www.sacred-texts.com|access-date=2020-01-25}}</ref> According to [[Horace Hayman Wilson|H.H. Wilson]], in the [[Anukramaṇī|Anukramańí]] (index of the black Yajurveda), it 'is there said that Vaiśampáyana taught it to Yaska, who taught it to Tittiri, who also became a teacher; whence the term Taittiríya, for a grammatical rule explains it to mean, 'The Taittiríyas are those who read what was said or repeated by Tittiri'.'<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/worksbylatehorac08wils|title=Works by the late Horace Hayman Wilson (Vol. 8), The Vishnu Purana Books III and IV|last=Wilson|first=H. H. (Horace Hayman)|date=1862|publisher=London : Trübner|others=Princeton Theological Seminary Library|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worksbylatehorac08wils/page/54 54] (footnote 1)}}</ref>

==== Taittiriya Chardi ====
Although the Taittiriya Chardi Brahmana is mentioned (i.e. listed) by academics such as S. Shri<ref name=":12" /> and S.N. Nair,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzFvE0IR7rkC&q=Taittiriya+Chardi&pg=PT56|title=Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice|last=Nair|first=Shantha N.|date=2008|publisher=Pustak Mahal|isbn=978-81-223-1020-7|language=en}}</ref> no further information could be found.

==== Taittiriya Pravargya ====
{{Main|Pravargya}}
The Taittiriya Pravargya is a commentary on the Pravargya ritual, contained in the [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya Aranyaka]]. This is not listed or referred to as a Brahmana in the works cited.

=== Vadhula – Anvakhyana ===
Dalal states that the Vadhula (or Anvakhyana) Brahmana of the Vadhula [[Shakha]] is 'a Brahmana type of text, though it is actually part of the Vadhula Shrauta Sutra'.<ref name=":0" /> However, B.B. Chaubey states that about 'the nature of the text there has been confusion whether ''VadhAnva'' [Vadhula Anvakhyana Brahmana] is a Brahmana, or an Anubrahmana ['work resembling a brahmana' or 'according to the brahmana'],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=Anubrahmana&direct=au&anz=100|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit: 'Anubrahmana'|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref> or an Anvakhyana ['explanation keeping close to the text' or 'minute account or statement'].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=Anvakhyana&direct=au&anz=100|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit: 'Anvakhyana'|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2020-01-26}}</ref> When Caland found some newly discovered MSS [manuscript] of the Vadhula School he was not sure about the nature of the text. Because of the composite nature of the MS [manuscript] he took the text as part of the Srautasurta of the Vadhulas. However, he was not unaware of the Brahmanic character of the text... according to Caland, the word Anvakhyana was given as a specific name to the Brahmanas, or Brahmana-like passages of the Vadhulasutra'.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/VadhulaAnvakhyanaBrahmana|title=Vadhula Anvakhyana Brahmana|pages=10–11|language=sa}}</ref>

== Atharvaveda ==
[[File:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png|thumb|250x250px|[[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]] [[samhita]] page.]]According to [[Maurice Bloomfield|M. Bloomfield]], the 9 [[shakha]]s – schools or branches – of the [[Atharvaveda]] are:<ref name=":10" />

* Paippalada, Paippaladaka, Paippaladi, Pippalada, or Paopalayana: A 'patronymic derived from the name of a teacher Pippaladi'.
* Tauda, Taudayana, Stauda, or Staudayana: There is 'nothing to the real history of the name'.
* Mauda or Maydayana
* Saunakiya, [[Shaunaka|Saunaka]], or Saunakin
* Jajala: 'The acarya eponymous of the school seems to have been Jajali, as reported by the [[Mahābhāṣya|Mahabhasya]]'.
* Jalada or Jaladayana
* Brahmavada
* Devadarsa or Devadarsin
* Caranavaidya

=== Gopatha Brahmana ===
{{Main|Gopatha Brahmana}}

{{blockquote|These (waters) which having encircled the seed, the ocean, rested into (it); those (waters) flowed together towards the east, south, west, and north. In that those (waters) flowed together (towards it), therefore, it is called samudra (ocean). Frightened they said to the lord, alone may we choose as King. And in that having encircled (the ocean), rested into (it), that became Varana. Him who is (really) Varana they call mystically [[Varuna]]. Gods are fond of mystical (presentation) as it were, and haters of direct (presentation).|source=Gopatha Brahmana, translated by H.C. Patyal (1969), Prapathaka I.1.7<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/151631|title=Gopatha brahmana english translation with notes and introduction|last=Kasjikar|first=C.G.|journal=University|date=19 May 1969 |hdl=10603/151631}}</ref>|author=|title=}}

Bloomfield states that the [[Gopatha Brahmana]] 'does not favour us with a report of the name of its author or authors. it is divided into two parts, the purva-brahmana in five prapathakas (chapters), and the uttara-brahmana in six prapathakas. The purva shows considerable originality, especially when it is engaged in the glorification of the [[Atharvan]] and its priests; this is indeed its main purpose. Its materials are by no means all of the usual Brahmana-character; they broach frequently upon the domain of [[Upanishads|Upanishad]]... The uttara has certainly some, though probably very few original sections'.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.188909|title=The Atharveda And The Gopatha Brahmana|last=Maurice Bloomfield|date=1899|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.188909/page/n18 11]-13 (Shakhas of the ArtharvaVeda), 101–103}}</ref>

S.S. Bahulkar states that the 'Gopatha Brahmana (GB.) is the only brahmana text of AV [<nowiki/>[[Atharvaveda]]], belonging to both the recensions [<nowiki/>[[Shakha]]s], viz. Saunaka and Paippalada'.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5AydkGbl5gC&q=Gopatha+Brahmana&pg=PA10|title=Vedic texts, a revision: Prof. C.G. Kashikar felicitation volume|last=Bahulkar|first=S. S.|date=1990|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-0806-5|pages=10|language=en}}</ref> Dalal agrees, stating the 'aim of this Brahmana seems to be to incorporate the Atharva [Veda] in the Vedic ritual, and bring it in line with the other three Vedas. This Brahmana is the same for the Paippalada and Shaunaka shakhas, and is the only existing Brahmana of the Artharva Veda'.<ref name=":0" /> C. Majumdar states that 'although classed as a Brahmana, [it] really belongs to the [[Vedanga]] literature, and is a very late work'.<ref name=":8" />

== Lost Brahmanas ==
[[Martin Haug|M Haug]] states that there 'must have been, as we may learn from [[Pāṇini|Panini]] and [[Patanjali]]'s [[Mahābhāṣya|Mahabhasya]], a much larger number of Brahmanas belonging to each [[Vedas|Veda]]; and even Sayana, who lived only about four [now five] hundred years ago, was acquainted with more than we have now'.<ref name=":4" />

S. Shrava states that 'Innumerable manuscripts of the valuable [Vedic] literature have been lost due to atrocities of the rulers and invaders, ravages of time, and utter disregard and negligence. These factors contributed to the loss of hundreds of manuscripts. Once their number was more than a few hundred. Had these been available today the ambiguity in the interpretation of [[Samhita|Vedic hymns]] could not have crept in'.<ref name=":1" /> Based on references in other Sanskrit literature, Shrava lists many of these lost works:<ref name=":1" />

=== Rigveda ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Brahmana
!Description
|-
|'''Paimgi, Paimgya, Paimgayani'''
|Also referred to as 'Madhuka' by the [[Bṛhaddevatā|Brhaddevata]]. Referenced in other Sanskrit texts such as the [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Nidana Sutra]], as well as the Kaushitaki, [[Shatapatha Brahmana|Shatapatha]], and [[Aitareya Brahmana|Aitareya]] Brahmanas.
|-
|'''Bahvricha'''
|Possibly a sub-division or [[recension]] related to the [[Mandukya Upanishad]]. Referenced in other Sanskrit texts such as the ''[[Apastamba Dharmasutra|Apastamba]] [[Śrauta|Srauta]] Sutra,'' and in commentaries such as by Devapala on the [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kathaka Grihya Sutra]], and by [[Śabara|Sabara]] on the [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimasa Darsana]].
|-
|'''Asvalayana'''
|Possibly considered the same as the [[Aitareya Brahmana]]. Referenced by '[[Raghunandana]] in the ''Malamasa Prakarana'' of his Smrititattva'.
|-
|'''Galava Brahmana'''
|One of the five [[Shakala Shakha|Sakala]] recensions of the Rigveda. The sage Galava, who prepared the 'proper sequences of the readings from the Rigveda' was also known as ''Babhravya,'' and is mentioned in Sanskrit texts such as the [[Pratishakhyas|Rikpratisakhya]], [[Nirukta]], and [[Bṛhaddevatā|Brihaddevata]].
|}

=== Samaveda ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Brahmana
!Description
|-
|'''Bhallavi'''
|Recorded by the sage Bhallavi. 'A [[Śruti|sruti]] of Bhallavi recension is available in [[Sureśvara|Suresvara]]'s [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]' (219). Also referred to in [[Adi Shankara|Samkara]]'s commentary on the [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]], amongst other Sanskrit works.
|-
|'''Kalabavi'''
|A [[recension]] of the [[Samaveda]]. Quoted in works such as the Upagrantha [[Sutra]].
|-
|'''Rauruki'''
|Referred to in works such as Gobhila Grihya [[Sutra]] and the commentary of [[Sayana]] on the [[Panchavimsha Brahmana|Tamdya Brahmana]] (also known as the Panchavimsha Brahmana).
|-
|'''Satyayana'''
|Referred to by [[Jayaditya|Jayadita]].
|-
|'''Talavakara'''
|Recorded by the sage Telavakara. Possibly a [[recension]] of the [[Jaiminiya Brahmana]] or the same text named after a different [[Rishi]].
|}

=== Yajurveda ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Brahmana
!Description
|-
|'''Charaka'''
|Main Brahmana of the [[Charaka]] recension of the Yajurveda. Similar to the [[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]], referred to in works such as the commentary of Devaraja Yajva on the [[Nighantu|Nightantu]].
|-
|'''Svetasvatara'''
|This is 'a sub-division of the [[Charaka]]s according to [[Shaunaka|Charanvyuha]]'. The [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] is from the [[Aranyaka]] of this Brahmana.
|-
|'''Kathaka'''
|This is 'a sub-division of the [[Charaka]] recension of [the] Yajurveda. Kathas were northern Charakas'. Referred to in works such as the ''Kathaka Samkalana''. and portions have been published by [[Willem Caland|Caland]] and [[Leopold von Schroeder|Schroeder]].
|-
|'''Maitrayani'''
|Recorded by the sage Maitrayani. Referred to in works such as the [[Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra|Baudhayana Srauta Sutra]].
|-
|'''Jabala'''
|Recorded by [[Acharya]] Mahasala Satyakama Jabala, a disciple of [[Yajnavalkya]] (see also [[Jabala Upanishad]]).
|-
|'''Khandikeya'''
|A division of the [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya school]]. Referenced by the Bhashika [[Sutra]].
|-
|'''Aukheya'''
|Referred to in the Bhashika [[Sutra]].
|-
|'''Haridravika'''
|Referred to in the commentary of [[Sayana]] on the Rigveda.
|-
|'''Tumburu'''
|Recension of both the Yajurveda and Samaveda. Referred to in the [[Mahābhāṣya|Mahabhashya]] by [[Patañjali]].
|-
|'''Ahvaraka'''
|This is 'a sub-division of the Charakas'. Referred to in works such as the ''Sampradaya Paddhati''.
|-
|'''Kankati'''
|Referred to in the [[Apastamba Dharmasutra|Apastamba]] Srauta Sutra.
|-
|'''Baral'''
|A division of the [[Mudgal]]. Referred to in works such as the Manava and Bharadvaja Sutra
|}
|-
|'''Chhagaleya'''
|A division of the [[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya school]]. Referred to in works such as the [[Baudhayana Shrauta Sutra|Baudhayana Srauta Sutra]].
|}

=== Unknown ===
The Brahmanas listed below are often only mentioned by name in other texts without any further information such as what Veda they are attached to.
{| class="wikitable"
!Brahmana
!Description
|-
|'''Aruneya'''
|Referred to in the [[Tantras (Hinduism)|Tantra]] [[Vārttikakāra|Varttika]].
|-
|'''Saulabha'''
|Possibly a [[recension]] of the [[Rigveda]]. Referred to in the Samkhyana Grihya [[Sutra]], Asvalayana Grihya Sutra, and Kaushitaki Brahmana.
|-
|'''Sailali'''
|Referred to in the [[Apastamba Dharmasutra|Apastamba]] Srauta Sutra.
|-
|'''Parasara'''
|Possibly a [[recension]] of the [[Rigveda]]. Referred to in the [[Mahābhāṣya|Mahabhasya]].
|-
|'''Mashasaravi'''
|Referred to in works such as the [[Pāṇini|Ganapatha]] by [[Pāṇini]]
|-
|'''Kapeya'''
|Referred to in the ''Satyashada Srauta [[Sutra]].''
|-
|'''Rahasyamnaya'''
|Referred to in the [[Smriti]] Ratnakara.
|-
|'''Nirukta'''
|Referred to in the [[Taittiriya Upanishad]] (see also the [[Nirukta]]).
|-
|'''Anvakhyana'''
|Referred to by [[Willem Caland|Caland]], who published extracts in the fourth volume of [[Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae|Acta Orientalia]] in 1926. This is available in German.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.71001|title=Acta Orientalia (Volume IV)|last=Konow|first=Sten|date=1926|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.71001/page/n39 35]}}</ref>
|-
|'''Bashkala'''
| rowspan="2" |Referred to in a list of manuscripts in the library of ''Kavindracharya Saravati''.
|-
|'''Mandukeya'''
|-
|'''Trikharvva'''
| rowspan="2" |Recensions mentioned by [[Sayana]].
|-
|'''Karadvisha'''
|}

== Manuscripts and translations ==

=== Rigveda ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Brahmana
!Sanskrit
!Transliteration
!English
|-
|[[Aitareya Brahmana|'''Aitareya''']]
|archive.org: [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.405445/page/n141/mode/2up|version 1]], [[iarchive:bub man 0869c3469d43f35e259e0aee6ea91a9d/page/n29/mode/2up|version 2]]
|[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/rv/ab/ab.htm TITUS (e-text)]
|[[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.24205/page/n173/mode/2up|archive.org]] ([[Martin Haug|M. Haug]])
|-
|'''Kausitaki / Samkhyana'''
|
|[http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/kausibru.htm Gretil (e-text)]
|[[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.84867/page/n7/mode/2up|archive.org]] ([[Arthur Berriedale Keith|A.B. Keith]]; includes the Aitareya Brahmana)
|}

=== Yajurveda ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Brahmana
!Sanskrit
!Transliteration
!English
|-
| rowspan="2" |Shatapatha (Mâdhyandina)
| rowspan="2" |archive.org: Part [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.311865/mode/2up|One]], [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.311864/mode/2up|Two]], and [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.311866/mode/2up|Three]]
|Gretil (e-text): Part [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_01_u.htm One], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_02_u.htm Two], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_03_u.htm Three], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_04_u.htm Four] [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_05_u.htm Five], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_06_u.htm Six], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_07_u.htm Seven], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_08_u.htm Eight], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_09_u.htm Nine], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_10_u.htm Ten], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_11_u.htm Eleven], Twelve (N/A), [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_13_u.htm Thirteen], [http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/satapath/sb_14_u.htm Fourteen]
|[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/index.htm Sacred-Texts.com (e-texts)]
|-
|[http://vedavid.org/1sb/sbverse.html Vedavid.org (e-text)]
[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/yvw/sbm/sbm.htm TITUS (e-text)]
|Archive.org: Part [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.38188/page/n3/mode/2up|One]], [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.238722/page/n3/mode/2up|Two]], [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.37911/page/n3/mode/2up|Three]], [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.48505/page/n9/mode/2up|Four]], and [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.37912/page/n3/mode/2up|Five]]
|-
|Shatapatha (Kanva)
|
|
|
|-
|[[Taittiriya Shakha|Taittiriya]]
|archive.org: [[iarchive:in.gov.ignca.7919/page/n391/mode/2up|version 1]], [[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.486522/mode/2up|version 2]]
|[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/yvs/tb/tb.htm TITUS (e-text)]
|SAKSHI: [https://vedah.com/product/taittiriya-brahmana-volume-1/ Volume 1], [https://vedah.com/product/taittiriya-brahmana-volume-2/ Volume 2]
|-
|Taittiriya Chardi
|
|
|
|-
|Vadhula – Anvakhyana
|[[iarchive:VadhulaAnvakhyanaBrahmana/page/n61/mode/2up|archive.org]]
|
|
|}

=== Atharvaveda ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Brahmana
!Sanskrit
!Transliteration
!English
|-
|'''Gopatha'''
|archive.org: [https://archive.org/stream/Complete_Works_of_Jibananda_Vidyasagara/Gopatha_Brahmana_-_Jibananda_Vidyasagara_1891#mode/2up version 1] (Complete Works of Jibananda Vidyasagara),
[[iarchive:gopathabrahmanao00gopauoft/page/26/mode/2up|version 2]] (Rajendralala Mitra and Harachandra Vidyabhushana)
|[http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/1_veda/2_bra/gopbra_u.htm Gretil (e-text)]
[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/av/gb/gb.htm TITUS (e-text)]
|[https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/151631 Shodhganga] (C.G. Kashikar)
|}

=== Lost Brahmanas (fragments) ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Brahmanas
!English
|-
|Ahvaraka, Kaukati, Kalabavi, Caraka, Chagaleya, Jabali, Jaiminya, Pamgayanu, Bhallavi, Masasaravi, Maitrayaniya, Rauruki, Satyayana, Sailali, Svetasvatara, and Haridravika.
|[[iarchive:in.ernet.dli.2015.62507/page/n9/mode/2up|archive.org]] (B. Ghosh)
|}

==See also==
*[[Hinduism]]
*[[Vedas]]
*[[Vedic literature]]
*[[Upanishad]]
*[[Samhita]]
*[[Aranyaka]]
*[[Āgama (Hinduism)]]
*[[Shruti]]
*[[Vedanga]]
*[[Upaveda]]
*[[Purana]]
*[[Vedic Period]]
*[[Vedic Sanskrit]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Brahmanas}}

{{Hinduism topics}}

[[Category:Brahmanas| ]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]
[[Category:Historical Vedic religion]]

Han Willhoft-King

2026-01-07T13:07:53Z

AnnieSneed66:

{{Short description|English footballer (born 2006)}}
{{Infobox football biography
|name = Han Willhoft-King
|image =
|fullname = Gabriel Han Willhoft-King<ref name=wf>{{WorldFootball.net|gabriel-willhoft-king}}</ref>
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2006|1|24|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[London]], England
|height = 1.74 m<ref name=wf/>
|position = [[Midfielder]]
|youthyears1 = 2012–2024
|youthclubs1 = [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C. Under-21s and Academy|Tottenham Hotspur]]
|youthyears2 = 2024–2025
|youthclubs2 = [[Manchester City F.C. EDS and Academy|Manchester City]]
|nationalyears1 = 2021
|nationalteam1 = [[England national under-16 football team|England U16]]
|nationalcaps1 = 2
|nationalgoals1 = 0
|club-update =
|nationalteam-update =
}}
'''Gabriel Han Willhoft-King''' (born 24 January 2006), commonly known as '''Han Willhoft-King''', is an English former [[Association football|professional footballer]] who last played as a [[midfielder]] for [[Manchester City F.C. EDS and Academy|Manchester City]].

==Early life==
Willhoft-King was born in [[London]] to a British-Indian father who grew up in [[Jakarta]], Indonesia and Chinese-American mother with parents from [[Liaoning]], China and [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sohu.com/a/633990868_627135|title=有华人血统，17岁热刺小将获评英超新星！盘点英籍华裔精英运动员...|trans-title=With Chinese ancestry, the 17-year-old Tottenham youngster was named a Premier League Rising Star! Taking stock of elite British-Chinese athletes...|date=23 January 2023|access-date=2 September 2023|website=sohu.com|language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indonewstoday.com/olahraga/2738915461/profil-gabriel-han-willhoft-king-wonderkid-tottenham-hotspur-yang-memiliki-keturunan-indonesia|title=Profil Gabriel Han Willhoft-King, Wonderkid Tottenham Hotspur yang Memiliki Keturunan Indonesia|trans-title=Profile of Gabriel Han Willhoft-King, Tottenham Hotspur Wonderkid Who Has Indonesian Ancestry|first=Raden Dikky|last=Adinegara|date=26 May 2023|access-date=17 August 2023|website=indonewstoday.com|language=id}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bola.okezone.com/read/2023/08/15/51/2865091/sulit-datangkan-gabriel-han-willhoft-king-untuk-perkuat-timnas-indonesia-u-17-bima-sakti-beberkan-penyebabnya|title=Sulit Datangkan Gabriel Han Willhoft-King untuk Perkuat Timnas Indonesia U-17, Bima Sakti Beberkan Penyebabnya|trans-title=Difficult to Bring in Gabriel Han Willhoft-King to Strengthen the U-17 Indonesian National Team, Bima Sakti Explains the Causes|first=Andre Bagus|last=Syaeful|date=15 August 2023|access-date=17 August 2023|website=bola.okezone.com|language=id}}</ref>

==Club career==
Willhoft-King joined the academy of [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] at the age of six, progressing through their academy and being named by English newspaper ''[[The Guardian]]'' as the best player in his age-group at the club in September 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/ng-interactive/2022/sep/27/next-generation-2022-20-of-the-best-talents-at-premier-league-clubs|title=Next Generation 2022: 20 of the best talents at Premier League clubs|first1=Marcus|last1=Christenson|first2=Steven|last2=Bloor|first3=Garry|last3=Blight|date=27 September 2022|access-date=17 August 2023|website=theguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hitc.com/en-gb/2022/09/27/tottenham-hotspur-han-willhoft-king/|title='Smooth' Tottenham teenager picked out for praise with big future predicted|date=27 September 2022|access-date=17 August 2023|website=hitc.com}}</ref> He turned down a contract offer from Tottenham and left the club at the end of the 2023–24 season following the conclusion of his scholarship.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.tottenhamhotspur.com/news/2024/june/player-update/| title=Player update| work=Tottenham Hotspur| date=5 June 2024| access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.premierleague.com/news/4030168/| title=Premier League clubs publish 2023/24 retained lists| work=Premier League| date=8 June 2024| access-date=8 June 2024}}</ref> After leaving Tottenham, he planned to go to [[University of California]] but instead joined [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] during the summer of 2024.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://sports.yahoo.com/manchester-city-sign-tottenham-midfielder-190000898.html| title=Manchester City sign Tottenham midfielder destined for University of California| website=yahoo sports| date=10 September 2024| access-date=21 December 2024}}</ref>

After a season at Manchester City, Willhoft-King confirmed in a 2025 interview with ''[[The Guardian]]'' that he had retired from professional football and had matriculated as a law undergraduate at [[Brasenose College, Oxford]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The teenager who quit Manchester City for Oxford University: 'I felt I could do more'|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2025/nov/15/han-willhoft-king-teenager-quit-manchester-city-for-oxford-university-law?CMP=Share_AndroidApp_Other|website=The Guardian|access-date=16 November 2025|language=en}}</ref>

==International career==
Due to his ancestry, Willhoft-King is eligible to represent [[England national football team|England]], [[China national football team|China]], [[German national football team|Germany]], [[United States men's national soccer team|the US]], [[Indonesia national football team|Indonesia]], and [[Indian national football team|India]] at international level.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.laitimes.com/en/article/3p0y2_45pxx.html|title=The England U16 national team has a young player born in 2006, Gabriel Han Willhoft-King, who plays for Tottenham Hotspur in the Premier League, which belongs|date=4 June 2022|access-date=17 August 2023|website=laitimes.com}}</ref> He made two appearances for the England under-16 side in 2021, featuring in a 3–2 win over Scotland and a 3–1 win over [[Turkey national under-16 football team|Turkey]].<ref name=wf/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sohu.com/a/553619741_100209108|title=华裔球员金瀚签约热刺两年！已入选英格兰青年队，但国足仍可征召|trans-title=Chinese player Jin Han signs with Tottenham for two years! Has been selected for the England youth team, but can still be called up by the national football team|date=2 June 2022|access-date=2 September 2023|website=sohu.com|language=zh}}</ref>

In July 2023, he was considered for selection to the Indonesia under-17 side by manager [[Bima Sakti]] ahead of the [[2023 FIFA U-17 World Cup]], with Sakti stating that Willhoft-King's parents had been contacted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indosport.com/sepakbola/20230721/profil-dan-agama-gabriel-han-willhoft-king-dari-tottenham-ke-indonesia-u-17/profil-gabriel-han-willhoft-king|title=Profil dan Agama Gabriel Han Willhoft-King, Dari Tottenham ke Timnas demi Piala Dunia U-17|trans-title=Profile and Religion of Gabriel Han Willhoft-King, From Tottenham to the National Team for the U-17 World Cup|date=21 July 2023|access-date=17 August 2023|website=indosport.com|language=id}}</ref> However, later in the same month, Sakti announced that Willhoft-King's call-up had been cancelled, after his parents confirmed that he did not have an Indonesian passport, and the naturalisation process would take too long.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/olahraga/20230727120720-142-978475/pemain-tottenham-gabriel-han-batal-bela-timnas-u-17-karena-paspor|title=Pemain Tottenham Gabriel Han Batal Bela Timnas U-17 karena Paspor|trans-title=Tottenham player Gabriel Han cancels defending the U-17 national team due to passport|date=27 July 2023|access-date=17 August 2023|website=cnnindonesia.com|language=id}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Willhoft-King, Han}}
[[Category:2006 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Footballers from London]]
[[Category:English people of American descent]]
[[Category:English people of Chinese descent]]
[[Category:English people of German descent]]
[[Category:English people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:English people of Indonesian descent]]
[[Category:Sportspeople of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Sportspeople of Indonesian descent]]
[[Category:English people of Taiwanese descent]]
[[Category:British Asian footballers]]
[[Category:English men's footballers]]
[[Category:England men's youth international footballers]]
[[Category:Men's association football midfielders]]
[[Category:Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players]]
[[Category:21st-century English sportsmen]]

Virudhachalam

2025-12-22T10:37:37Z

AnnieSneed66: started a article and citations

{{Lead too short|date=July 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Vriddhachalam
| official_name =
| other_name = Thirumudhukundram, Pazhamalai
| nicknames = Virudhai, Ceramic City
| settlement_type = Municipality
| image_skyline = Viruthakireeswarar temple vdm.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|11.50|N|79.33|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Cuddalore district|Cuddalore]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = First Grade Municipality
| governing_body =
| leader_title = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
| leader_name = M.R.R.Radhakrishnan
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 45
| population_total = 73585
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code = 606 001
| registration_plate = '''TN-91'''( TN-31 till Jun17,2015)
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Virudhachalam''', also called '''Vriddhachalam''', is a [[Municipality]] and taluk headquarters in [[Cuddalore district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]. The ancient name of this town is Thirumudhukundram.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virudhachalam Municipality |url=https://cuddalore.nic.in/virudhachalam-municipality/ |access-date=2024-03-07 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About Municipality |url=https://www.tnurbantree.tn.gov.in/virudhachalam/ |publisher=The Commissionerate of Municipal Administration |access-date=7 March 2024}}</ref> As per the 2011 census, the town had a population of 73,585 of which 37,066 are males while 36,519 are females. Population of children in the ages of 0-6 is 7735 which is 10.51% of the total population.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/pca/pcadata/Houselisting-housing-TM.html|access-date=2021-02-20|website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> The [[Virudhagiriswarar temple]] (or Pazhamalai Nadhar Temple) dedicated to [[Shiva|Lord Shiva]] is located in the heart of town.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cuddalore.nic.in/tourist-place/viruthagerreswarar-temple/|title = Viruthagerreswarar Temple, Vridhachalam | Cuddalore District, Government of Tamilnadu | Sugar bowl of Tamil Nadu | India}}</ref>

Virudhachalam Railway junction is one of the most important railway junctions which connects Chennai - Madurai line to Salem, Cuddalore, and Puducherry.

Vriddhachalam is famous for its ceramic industry. The industry with an industrial estate that only consists of ceramic and refractory manufactures is exclusive in Virudhachalam. The ceramic industrial estate is situated only at Virudhachalam in the whole of Tamil Nadu. A polytechnic college, especially for ceramic technology, is also only located in Virudhachalam for the entire Tamil Nadu. A unique research center for the research of cashew and byproducts is situated in Virudhachalam.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cuddalore.nic.in/virudhachalam-municipality | title=Virudhachalam Municipality | Cuddalore District, Government of Tamilnadu | Sugar bowl of Tamil Nadu | India }}</ref>

==Geography==
Virudhachalam is located at {{Coord|11.50|N|79.33|E|}}.<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/25/Vriddhachalam.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Vriddhachalam]</ref> It has an average elevation of {{convert|45|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=General information|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/virudhachalam/sal_generalinformation.htm|year=2011|publisher=Viruthachalam Municipality|access-date=2013-08-08}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{bar box|title=Religious census|titlebar=#ddd|left1=Religion|right1=Percent(%)|float=left|bars={{bar percent|[[Hinduism|Hindu]]|Orange|85.72}}{{bar percent|[[Islam|Muslim]]|Green|10.78}}{{bar percent|[[Christianity|Christian]]|purple|3.23}}{{bar percent|[[Jainism|Jain]]|Blue|0.07}}{{bar percent|[[Sikhism|Sikh]]|yellow|0.06}}{{bar percent|[[Buddhism|Buddhist]]|Gold|0.01}}{{bar percent|Other|grey|0.13}}{{bar percent|[[Irreligion|No religion]]|violet|0.01}}}}

According to the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]], Virudhachalam had a population of 73,585 with a sex ratio of 985 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929.<ref name="dashboard">{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/censusinfodashboard/index.html|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref> A total of 7,735 were under the age of six, constituting 4,041 males and 3,694 females. [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] accounted for 16.76% and .44% of the population, respectively. The average literacy of the town was 77.57%, compared to the national average of 72.99%.<ref name="dashboard"/> The town had a total of 18209 households. There were a total of 26,153 workers, comprising 609 cultivators, 2,257 primary agricultural labourers, 644 in household industries, 18,988 other workers, 3,655 marginal workers, 77 marginal cultivators, 409 marginal agricultural labourers, 245 marginal workers in household industries, and 2,924 other marginal workers.<ref name=2011census>{{cite web|title=Census Info 2011 Final population totals - Virudhachalam|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=692146|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|year=2013|access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Town population|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/virudhachalam/sal_population.htm|year=2011|publisher=Viruthachalam Municipality|access-date=2013-08-08}}</ref>
As per the religious census of 2011, Virudhachalam had 85.72% [[Hindus]], 10.78% [[Muslims]], 3.23% [[Christians]], 0.06% [[Sikhs]], 0.01% [[Buddhists]], 0.07% [[Jainism|Jains]], 0.13% following other religions, and 0.01% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.<ref name=religion2011>{{cite web|title=Population By Religious Community - Tamil Nadu|year=2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html|format=XLS|publisher=Office of The Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref>

There are several temples, Mosques and churches in this city.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Virudhachalam Municipality {{!}} Cuddalore District, Government of Tamilnadu {{!}} Sugar bowl of Tamil Nadu {{!}} India|url=https://cuddalore.nic.in/virudhachalam-municipality/|access-date=2021-02-20|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Politics==
MLA of Virudhachalam assembly constituency is M.R.R.Radhakrishnan. During the 2009 general elections, Virudhachalam was a part of [[Cuddalore (Lok Sabha constituency)]] with six assembly segments. [[Tittakudi (State Assembly Constituency)|Tittakudi (SC)]], [[Vridhachalam (State Assembly Constituency)|Vridhachalam]], [[Neyveli (State Assembly Constituency)|Neyveli]], [[Cuddalore (State Assembly Constituency)|Cuddalore]], [[Panruti (State Assembly Constituency)|Panruti]], and [[Kurinjipadi (State Assembly Constituency)|Kurinjipadi]].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf
| title = List of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies
|page=448
| access-date = 2008-10-09
| work = Tamil Nadu
| publisher = Election Commission of India }}</ref> Before 2009, the Cuddalore Lok Sabha constituency was composed of the following assembly segments: [[Ulundurpet (SC) (State Assembly Constituency)|Ulundurpet (SC)]], [[Nellikkuppam (State Assembly Constituency)|Nellikkuppam]], [[Cuddalore (State Assembly Constituency)|Cuddalore]], [[Panruti (State Assembly Constituency)|Panruti]], [[Rishivandinam (State Assembly Constituency)|Rishivandinam]], and [[Sankarapuram (State Assembly Constituency)|Sankarapuram]].<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://eci.nic.in/archive/se2001/background/S22/TN_ACPC.pdf| title = List of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies
| access-date = 2008-10-09
|page=3
| work = Tamil Nadu
| publisher = Election Commission of India }}</ref> The Lok Sabha seat has been held by the [[Indian National Congress]] for eight terms during 1951–56,<ref name="1952electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1951/VOL_11_51_LS.PDF|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1952 to the First Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|page=158|access-date=2011-12-13}}</ref> 1971–77,<ref name="1971electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1971/Vol_I_LS_71.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1971 to the Fifth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=71}}</ref> 1977–80.<ref name="1977electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1977/Vol_I_LS_77.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1977 to the Sixth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=80}}</ref> 1980–84, 1984–1989,<ref name="1984electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1984/Vol_I_LS_84.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1984 to the Eighth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=73}}</ref> 1989–91,<ref name="1989electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1989/Vol_I_LS_89.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1989 to the Ninth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=81}}</ref> 1991–96,<ref name="1991electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1991/VOL_I_LS_91.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1991 to the Tenth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=51}}</ref> and 2009–2014,<ref name="2009elections">{{cite book|title=Notification No. 308/2009/EPS|publisher=Election Commission of India|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/press/ECI_15th_Lok_Sabha.pdf|access-date=2011-12-13|page=36}}</ref> [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] for four times during 1962–1967,<ref name="1962electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1962/Vol_I_LS_62.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1962 to the Third Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=49}}</ref> 1967–71,<ref name="1967electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1967/Vol_I_LS_67.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1967 to the Fourth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=67}}</ref> 1999-04,<ref name="1999electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1999/Vol_I_LS_99.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1999 to the Thirteenth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=85}}</ref> and 2004–09,<ref name="2004electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_2004/Vol_I_LS_2004.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 2004 to the Fourteenth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=94}}</ref> [[Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] once during 1998–99,<ref name="1998electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1998/Vol_I_LS_98.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1998 to the Twelfth Lok Sabha|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13|page=85}}</ref> 2014-present,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2014/33%20-%20Constituency%20wise%20detailed%20result.pdf|title=2014 Loksabha Election Result}}</ref> [[Tamil Maanila Congress]] once during 1996-2001 and an independent during 1957–62,<ref name="1957electionresults">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/SR_KeyHighLights/LS_1957/Vol_I_57_LS.pdf|title=Key highlights of the general elections 1957 to the Second Lok Sabha|page=17|publisher=Election Commission of India|access-date=2011-12-13}}</ref> The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is [[T.R.V.S.Ramesh]] from [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]].<ref>[[T.R.V.S.Ramesh]]</ref> Virudhachalam Constituency is where [[Vijayakanth|Vijaykanth]], the leader of DMDK, became MLA for the first time. [[G. Bhuvaraghan]] of INC was MLC of Virudhachalam at the period of 1962 to 1971 who have developed town with the current advantages like bridges, government schools for boys and girls, government arts college, Government Printing Press Etc., Virudhachalam is a first-grade municipality with 34 municipal wards and 34 municipal councilors. The current chairman of the municipality is Dr.Sangavi Murugadoss who was elected in the by-election after Mr. Ranganathan, municipal chairman, and Ex MLA, Virudhachalam.

==See also==
*[[New Viruthakirikuppam]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Cuddalore district}}
{{Municipalities of Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Cuddalore district]]

Sadhguru

2025-12-12T07:43:20Z

AnnieSneed66: reworked formatting also and corrected details

{{Short description|Indian yogi and author (born 1957)}}
{{about|Sadhguru, an Indian spiritual teacher|the definition of the word|Satguru}}
{{pp-blp|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Sadhguru 
| image = Sadhguru-Jaggi-Vasudev.jpg
| caption =
| birth_name = Jagadish Vasudev
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1957|09|03|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Mysore]], [[Karnataka|Mysore State]],  [[India]]
| death_date =
| nationality =
| spouse = {{Marriage|Vijaya Kumari|1984|1997|reason=d}}<ref name="family">{{cite web|work=[[Isha Foundation]] |url=http://isha.sadhguru.org/man/family-matters/vijji/|title=Family Matters – Sadhguru Speaks About His Family|access-date=14 February 2018}}</ref>
| children = 1
| honors = [[Padma Vibhushan]] (2017) [[Indira Gandhi Paryavaran Puraskar]]
| organization = [[Isha Foundation]]
| notable_works = {{ubl|Inner Engineering|Dhyanalinga|Rally for Rivers|Linga Bhairavi|Adiyogi: The Source of Yoga|Mystic's Musings|Cauvery Calling}}
| alma mater = [[University of Mysore]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
| website = {{URL|isha.sadhguru.org}}
}}

'''Jagadish "Jaggi" Vasudev''' (born 3 September 1957), also known as '''Sadhguru''', is an Indian guru and founder of the [[Isha Foundation]], based in [[Coimbatore]], India. The foundation, established in 1992, operates an [[ashram]] and yoga centre that carries out educational and spiritual activities. Sadhguru has been teaching [[yoga]] since 1982. He is the author of the ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' bestsellers ''[[Inner Engineering: A Yogi's Guide to Joy]]'' and ''Karma: A Yogi's Guide to Crafting Your Destiny'', and a frequent speaker at international forums.

Sadhguru also advocates for protecting the environment against [[climate change]], leading many initiatives like Project GreenHands (PGH), Rally for Rivers, Cauvery Calling, and the Journey to Save Soil. In 2017, he received the [[Padma Vibhushan]], India's second-highest civilian award, for his contributions to spirituality and humanitarian services.

Sadhguru has been criticised for promoting a number of [[pseudoscientific]] claims.<ref name="altnews2018" /><ref name=":6"/>

==Biography==
[[File:Sadhguru Jaggi Vasudev (01).jpg|thumb|right|Vasudev in his youth]]

===Early life===
Vasudev was born into a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] family<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 August 2011 |title=Telugu...Tamil...Telugu! |url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/in/en/wisdom/sadhguru-spot/telugu-tamil-telugu |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=Official Website of Sadhguru, Isha Foundation |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> on 3 September 1957, in [[Mysore]], [[Mysore State]] (now in [[Karnataka]], India). He was the youngest of five children to Susheela Vasudev (mother) and B. V. Vasudev (father). His father was an ophthalmologist at the Mysuru Railway Hospital and his mother a homemaker.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=9 November 2019|title=Jaggi Vasudev's father passes away|url=https://starofmysore.com/jaggi-vasudevs-father-passes-away/|access-date=28 June 2021|website=Star of Mysore|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Chopra |first=Shaili |title=When I Was 25: The Leaders Look Back |publisher=Random House India |year=2014 |isbn=978-81-8400-677-3}}</ref>

===Education===
After completing his formal education, Vasudev was uninterested in post-secondary schooling. One year later, however, he enrolled at the [[University of Mysore]], where he studied English literature. While studying literature, Vasudev received second rank.<ref name=":7" /> Although his parents wanted him to continue his education with postgraduate studies, Vasudev disagreed and began a career in business.<ref name="mid">{{cite book |last=Simone |first=Cheryl |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5yjIrrK8E4C |title=Midnights with the Mystic |publisher=[[Jaico Publishing House]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-8495-166-0 |pages=}}</ref>

===Work===
After graduating from the University of Mysore, Vasudev went on to build his first business, a poultry farm, in Mysore.<ref name="indiatoday.in">{{Cite web |last1=An |first1=Shelly |date=December 27, 2020 |title=Suddenly, I did not know what was me and what was not me: Sadhguru |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/anniversary/story/20210104-suddenly-i-did-not-know-what-was-me-and-what-was-not-me-1753026-2020-12-27 |access-date=28 May 2021 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref> Vasudev explained that his motivation to start a poultry farm was driven by the serenity it yielded in the hours he was not working.<ref name=":7" /> The business required minimal attention throughout the day, so Vasudev was able to pursue other interests during his time off, like writing poetry.<ref name=":7" /> The business grew profitable, but his family repeatedly criticised and opposed his decision to work with poultry.<ref name=":7" /> This led Vasudev to enter the construction industry with a company named Buildaids.<ref name=":7" /> He started the company in partnership with a friend, who was a civil engineer. Though Vasudev had no formal engineering training, he used the experience gained from building his poultry farm in his new endeavour.<ref name=":7" />

At the age of 25, after a series of spiritual experiences, he shut down his businesses and began to travel and teach yoga.<ref name=":7" /><ref name="mid" />

[[File:Sadhguru Jaggi Vasudev with wife Vijayakumari (01).jpg|right|thumb|Vasudev with his wife, Vijaykumari]]

In 1983, he taught his first yoga class, in Mysore. He began travelling across [[Karnataka]] and [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] on his motorcycle, conducting his style of yoga classes, known as Sahaja Sthiti Yoga, subsisting on the income from his poultry farm rental and donating the funds received from his students.<ref name="mid" />

Also in 2017, Sadhguru consecrated the [[Adiyogi Shiva statue]], the world's largest bust, in Coimbatore, India.

===Spirituality===
[[File:Sadhguru Jaggi Vasudev with wife Vijayakumari (07).jpg|thumb|right|Vasudev travelling with pilgrims]]

Although Vasudev was not brought up in a spiritual household, he recollects one of his first spiritual experiences occurring after he turned 25.<ref name="mid" /> On 23 September 1982, he drove up [[Chamundi Hill]], and as he sat on a stone, Vasudev had his first spiritual experience.<ref name=":7" /><ref name="mid" /> He explained that, "All my life I had thought, this is me...But now the air I was breathing, the rock on which I was sitting, the atmosphere around me — everything had become me."<ref name=":7" /><ref name="mid" /> After about six days, Vasudev had another similar experience at home.<ref name=":7" /><ref name="mid" /> Six weeks later, he left his businesses and travelled extensively, in an effort to seek insight into his spiritual experiences.<ref name="mid" /> After about a year of meditation and travel, he decided to teach yoga to share his inner experience.<ref name="mid" />

===Personal life===

In his earlier years, Vasudev had a love for driving motorcycles.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9">{{cite news |last=Dobhal |first=Shailesh |date=18 March 2015 |title=Lunch with BS: Sadhguru Jaggi Vasudev |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/opinion/lunch-with-bs-sadhguru-jaggi-vasudev-114121201397_1.html |access-date=14 July 2021}}</ref> One of his favourite places to drive was the [[Chamundi Hills]] in Mysore, though he sometimes drove much further, including to Nepal.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9" /> Vasudev advocates [[vegetarianism]], but whilst traveling with no vegetarian food sources available, he eats [[seafood]].<ref name="Subramaniam">Subramaniam, Arundhathi. (2010). ''Sadhguru: More Than A Life''. Penguin Books India. pp. 216-217. {{ISBN|978-0670085125}}</ref> He practices the [[Sun Salutation]] for 40 minutes a day.<ref name="Subramaniam"/>

Vasudev married his wife, Vijaykumari, in 1984.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Vijji (Vijaykumari) : A Story of Love and Devotion |url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/us/en/sadhguru/man/vijji |access-date=23 October 2022 |website=isha.sadhguru.org}}</ref> In 1990, Vijaykumari and Jaggi had their only child, Radhe.<ref name=":8" /> Vijaykumari died on 23 January 1997.<ref name=":13">{{Cite news |date=10 October 1997 |title=Godman charged with wife's murder |work=[[New Indian Express]]}}</ref> A complaint from Vijaykumari's father alleged that Vasudev killed her,<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Congress IT cell chief rakes up old murder charge against Sadhguru; Isha Foundation dismisses it as 'baseless charge' |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2019/03/05/congress-it-cell-murder-charge-sadhguru.html |access-date=2024-10-21 |website=The Week |language=en}}</ref> but was later dismissed by police.<ref name=":12" /> Radhe trained in [[Bharatanatyam]] at the [[Kalakshetra Foundation]] in [[Chennai]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Naidu |first=Jaywant |date=26 November 2017 |title=When beauty comes to life |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/theatre/261117/when-beauty-comes-to-life.html |access-date=27 February 2020 |work=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> She married [[Indian classical music|Indian classical vocalist]] Sandeep Narayan in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sangeetha |first=P |date=24 October 2014 |title=Sadhguru's daughter gets married in Kovai |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/Sadhgurus-daughter-gets-married-in-Kovai/articleshow/44924821.cms |access-date=27 February 2020 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>

==Isha Foundation==
{{Main|Isha Foundation}}

In 1992, Sadhguru established the [[Isha Foundation]]<ref name="berghella-69">{{harvnb|Berghella|2018|p=69}}</ref> as a platform for his spiritual, environmental, and educational activities.<ref name="most-powerful-indians">{{cite web|date=9 March 2009|title=The most powerful Indians in 2009: 80–84|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/the-most-powerful-indians-in-2009-8084/432810/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128080021/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/the-most-powerful-indians-in-2009-8084/432810/|archive-date=28 January 2011|access-date=22 January 2020|work=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 June 2022 |title=After Gujarat, Rajasthan govt inks MoU with Sadhguru's Isha Outreach to 'save soil' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/sadhguru-save-soil-mou-rajasthan-isha-outreach-7952635/ |access-date=25 July 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=16 March 2022 |title=Isha hails government's announcement on rejuvenation of 13 rivers |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/isha-hails-governments-announcement-on-rejuvenation-of-13-rivers/article65230418.ece |access-date=25 July 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In 1993, he began searching for a location to establish an ashram to cater to the growing interest in his yoga classes.<ref name=":7" /> In 1994, he purchased land near the Velliangiri mountains in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, and inaugurated the Isha Yoga Center.<ref name=":7" /> Since establishing the Isha Foundation, he remains its head. The foundation's activities are run mostly by volunteers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=volunteer |url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/us/en/volunteer |access-date=8 November 2022 |website=isha.sadhguru.org}}</ref> The organisation offers yoga programmes, known as ''Isha Yoga''.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/12/stories/2007091250720200.htm |title='Special Consultative Status' for Isha Foundation |date=12 September 2007 |access-date=23 January 2011 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108180106/http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/12/stories/2007091250720200.htm |archive-date=8 November 2012 }}</ref> The foundation aims to improve the quality of education in rural India through an initiative called Isha Vidhya.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edtech firm BYJU's partners with NGO Isha Vidhya to educate children in rural areas |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/edugraph/news/edtech-firm-byjus-partners-with-ngo-isha-vidhya-to-educate-children-in-rural-areas/cid/1856909 |access-date=25 July 2022 |website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref>

===Environmental activism===
Through the Isha Foundation, Sadhguru has launched several projects and campaigns focused on environmental conservation and protection, including Project GreenHands (PGH), Rally for Rivers, Cauvery Calling, and Save Soil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 May 2011 |title=Award for Project Green Hands |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/08/stories/2010060850280200.htm |access-date=25 July 2022 |website=The Hindu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521084525/http://www.hindu.com/2010/06/08/stories/2010060850280200.htm |archive-date=21 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=15 September 2017 |title=Isha Yoga launches 'Rally for Rivers' campaign in city |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/isha-yoga-launches-rally-for-rivers-campaign-in-city/articleshow/59519542.cms |access-date=25 July 2022 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite news |date=29 January 2022 |title=Cauvery Calling Movement plants 2.1 crore trees |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/cauvery-calling-movement-plants-21-crore-trees/article38346718.ece |access-date=25 July 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=19 March 2022 |title=Indian mystic Sadhguru on 100-day motorbike mission to save soil |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/mar/19/indian-mystic-sadhgurus-19000-mile-trip-to-save-soil-aoe |access-date=25 July 2022 |website=the Guardian}}</ref> Sadhguru established PGH to address water and soil issues in [[Tamil Nadu]] through reforestation efforts.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title='Don't divide the world into East and West on ecology' – DW – 12/20/2017 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/sadhguru-we-shouldnt-divide-the-world-into-east-and-west-on-ecology/a-41879218 |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=dw.com |language=en}}</ref> Launched in July 2019, the "Cauvery Calling" campaign focused on planting trees along the [[Kaveri|Cauvery]] river's 0.65-mile wide area to replenish water levels in the river and the groundwater table.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cauvery Calling: A Possible Solution for a Dying River and Desperate Farmers |url=https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/cauvery-calling-a-possible-solution-for-a-dying-river-and-desperate-farmers/ |access-date=7 November 2022 |website=Association for Asian Studies}}</ref> In 2017, Sadhguru launched "Rally for Rivers", a campaign intended to build widespread support for river revitalisation efforts across India, similar to the "Cauvery Calling" campaign.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2018 |title=Yogi Sadhguru's Rally for Rivers Aims to Clean the Ganges, Other Indian Waters |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/rally-for-rivers-un-world-water-day-spd |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725222104/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/rally-for-rivers-un-world-water-day-spd |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 July 2021 |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=National Geographic}}</ref> In 2022, Sadhguru completed a 100-day motorcycle journey from London to India to bring attention to his "Journey to Save Soil" campaign, which focuses on raising awareness about [[soil degradation]] issues and the benefits of using organic matter in farming.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 April 2022 |title=The movement gaining momentum: Save Soil |url=https://www.iucn.org/news/water/202204/movement-gaining-momentum-save-soil |access-date=2 November 2022 |website=IUCN}}</ref>

In May 2022, he addressed the leaders of 195 countries at the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] to speak about "Journey to Save Soil".<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 May 2022 |title='Save Soil' campaign: Sadhguru to address leaders from 195 nations at UNCCD |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/sadhguru-speech-global-leaders-unccd-save-soil-7902821/ |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Save Soil campaign comes to Bonn |url=https://www.unccd.int/news-stories/multimedia/save-soil-campaign-comes-bonn |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=UNCCD}}</ref> Both [[Trevor Noah]], host of ''[[The Daily Show]]'', and podcast host [[Joe Rogan]], have invited Sadhguru to discuss this movement.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Paul |first=Sonia |date=18 July 2022 |title=Sadhguru, the spiritual leader with ties to Will Smith and Modi, explained |url=https://www.vox.com/23206916/sadhguru-explained-save-the-soil-modi |access-date=26 July 2022 |website=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |language=en}}</ref> On [[World Environment Day]] 2022, Indian prime minister, [[Narendra Modi]], attended an event with Sadhguru to discuss efforts to improve soil health.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 June 2022 |title=PM Modi calls for protection of soil health |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/pm-modi-jaggi-vasudev-discuss-soil-conservation/article65496798.ece |access-date=7 August 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

The [[UN FAO]] has stated that "90% of the Earth's precious topsoil is likely to be at risk by 2050".<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 July 2022 |title=FAO warns 90 percent of Earth's topsoil at risk by 2050 |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/07/1123462 |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=UN News}}</ref> However, views have been divided on whether the "Save Soil" campaign is addressing this issue.<ref name=":6">{{cite web |last1=Surita |first1=Shabnam |title=India: Doubts emerge over spiritual Yogi's environmental mission |url=https://www.dw.com/en/india-doubts-emerge-over-spiritual-yogis-environmental-mission/a-61290189 |website=dw.com |publisher=DW |access-date=4 July 2022}}</ref> [[Maria Helena Semedo]], deputy director-general of FAO, opined that "Organic [farming] may not be the only solution but it's the single best [option] I can think of."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Only 60 Years of Farming Left If Soil Degradation Continues |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/only-60-years-of-farming-left-if-soil-degradation-continues/ |access-date=10 November 2022 |website=Scientific American}}</ref> Meanwhile, one environmental watchdog has characterised Sadhguru's approach as "[[greenwashing]]".<ref name=":14" />

===Speeches and writings===

Sadhguru has authored over thirty books, including the ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' bestsellers ''[[Inner Engineering: A Yogi's Guide to Joy]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Interview: We asked bestselling yogi Sadhguru how to be happier |url=https://www.tampabay.com/news/health/interview-sadhguru-talks-about-yoga-inner-engineering-wellbeing/2320185/ |access-date=1 November 2022 |website=Tampa Bay Times}}</ref> ''Death'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Death by Sadhguru |url=https://soulomotivation.com/death-an-inside-story-a-review/ |website=Soulo Motivation |date=5 May 2023 |access-date=16 July 2025}}</ref> and ''Karma: A Yogi's Guide to Crafting Your Destiny''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/best-sellers/2016/10/09/health/|title=Health|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/best-sellers/2016/10/09/religion-spirituality-and-faith/|title=Religion, Spirituality and Faith|work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news| issn = 0362-4331| title = Books - Best Sellers: Advice, How-To & Miscellaneous| work = The New York Times| location = New York| access-date = 7 August 2021| date = 16 May 2021| url = https://www.nytimes.com/books/best-sellers/2021/05/16/advice-how-to-and-miscellaneous/}}</ref>

Sadhguru is a frequent public speaker who has been invited to address many prestigious forums and conferences across the globe, such as the [[United Nations]]' [[Millennium Peace Summit of Religious and Spiritual Leaders|Millennium World Peace Summit]], the British [[House of Lords]], the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], and the [[International Institute for Management Development]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hudson|Hudson|2017|p=2}}</ref> He has also spoken at the annual [[World Economic Forum]] in 2007,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chandrasekhar |first1=Anand |title=Indian gurus and their Swiss watches: a history |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/clockwork-orange_indian-gurus-and-their-swiss-watches--a-history/44868044 |access-date=3 February 2020 |work=SWI swissinfo.ch |language=en}}</ref> 2017 and 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/sadhguru-to-deliver-keynote-conduct-meditation-session-at-davos-summit-2465795.html|title=Sadhguru to Deliver Keynote, Conduct Meditation Session at Davos Summit|website=News18|date=20 January 2020|access-date=27 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/Golf-with-the-Guru/article15941259.ece|title=Golf with the Guru|date=15 March 2009|work=The Hindu|access-date=27 January 2020|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

===Honors===
[[File:The President, Shri Pranab Mukherjee presenting the Padma Vibhushan Award to Sadhguru Jagadish Vasudev, at the Civil Investiture Ceremony, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on April 13, 2017.jpg|thumb|[[Pranab Mukherjee]] presenting the [[Padma Vibhushan]] to Vasudev at the [[Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi|Rashtrapati Bhavan]] in New Delhi on 13 April 2017.]]

In 2017, Sadhguru was awarded the [[Padma Vibhushan]], the second-highest [[civilian award]] from the [[Government of India]], in recognition of his contribution to the field of spirituality and humanitarian services.<ref name="padma">{{Cite news|date=26 January 2017|title=Jaggi Vasudev, Mariyappan among Padma award winners|work=The Hindu|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-tamilnadu/Sadhguru-Jaggi-Vasudev-Mariyappan-among-Padma-award-winners/article17095664.ece|access-date=31 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=26 January 2017|title=Padma Vibhushan award for Sharad Pawar and Jaggi Vasudev|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/260117/sharad-pawar-sadhguru-jaggi-vasudev-awarded-with-padma-vibhushan.html|access-date=31 October 2018|website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Padma Vibhushan Award for Sadhguru Jaggi Vasudev |url=http://www.lokvani.com/lokvani/article.php?article_id=13452 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614190515/https://www.lokvani.com/lokvani/article.php?article_id=13452 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=14 June 2021 |access-date=1 November 2022 |website=Lokvani}}</ref> The same year, Sadhguru consecrated the [[Adiyogi Shiva statue]], built by the Isha Foundation, in Coimbatore, standing at 34 metres (112 feet) tall.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=2017-02-24|title=PM Modi unveils 112 feet Shiva statue, extols Yoga |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/pm-modi-unveils-112-feet-shiva-statue-extols-yoga/articleshow/57335463.cms |work=Times of India |location=India |access-date=2024-08-03}}</ref> This was declared as the world's largest bust by [[Guinness World Records]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2017 |title='Adiyogi Bust' Declared World's Largest by Guinness Book |url=https://www.thequint.com/news/india/adiyogi-bust-coimbatore-tamil-nadu-worlds-largest-by-guinness-book |access-date=11 November 2022 |website=TheQuint}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Adiyogi – The Source of Yoga at Isha Yoga Center |url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/us/en/center/consecrated-spaces/112-feet-adiyogi |access-date=11 November 2022 |website=isha.sadhguru.org}}</ref>

He stood 92nd in ''[[The Indian Express]]''{{'}} list of 100 most powerful Indians in 2012 and 40th in ''[[India Today]]''{{'}}s list of fifty most powerful Indians in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The most powerful Indians in 2012: No. 91-100 – Indian Express |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/the-most-powerful-indians-in-2012-no.-91100/916140/1 |access-date=27 January 2020 |website=archive.indianexpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author1=MG Arun |author2=Shwweta Punj |author3=Suhani Singh |author4=Kaushik Deka |author5=Prachi Bhuchar |author6=Chinki Sinha |author7=Anshuman Tiwari |author8=Sandeep Unnithan |author9=Amarnath K. Menon |date=26 July 2019 |title=Top 50 power people {{!}} The High & Mighty Part-4 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/cover-story/story/20190805-top-50-power-people-the-high-mighty-part-4-1573244-2019-07-26 |access-date=13 March 2020 |website=India Today |author11=Uday Mahurkar |author10=Anilesh S. Mahajan}}</ref>

==Political views==
When [[Ayushmann Khurrana]] asked him how to choose the "correct political stance", Sadhguru responded by saying that he does not subscribe to a political party, and others should not either.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Left, Right, Center? Which Political Stance is Best? |url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/us/en/wisdom/article/left-right-center-which-political-stance-is-best |access-date=18 November 2022 |website=isha.sadhguru.org}}</ref> He stated that, "party membership should be cancelled because this is becoming a tribe."<ref name=":3" /> Accordingly, he encourages individuals to vote for a given party after evaluating their performance in office to "see who makes more sense".<ref name=":3" /> Others have characterized his views as [[Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalist]], [[Hindutva]], and aligned with the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web| author=Sanjay Kumar |url=https://tribune.com.pk/article/93511/sadhguru-bjps-spiritual-henchman |title=Sadhguru – BJP's spiritual henchman |work=The Express Tribune |date=2022-01-31 |access-date=2022-11-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Angshuman Choudhury |url=https://thewire.in/politics/why-hindutva-nationalists-need-a-sadhguru |title=Why Hindutva Nationalists Need a Sadhguru |work=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]] |date=2019-03-09 | access-date=2022-11-20}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{cite web |author=Pallavi Pundir |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/xgy8bw/climate-yoga-celebrity-sadhguru-india-will-smith-trevor-noah |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623093339/https://www.vice.com/en/article/xgy8bw/climate-yoga-celebrity-sadhguru-india-will-smith-trevor-noah |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 June 2022 |title=This Climate Guru Is a Celebrity in the US. In India, He's Accused of Destroying a Forest |work=[[vice.com]] |date=2022-06-23 |access-date=2023-01-01}}</ref> In 2019 he referred to a Muslim student in London as a "[[Taliban]]," for which he apologised after heavy criticism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2019/04/05/sadhguru-apologises-muslim-student-london-taliban.html |title=Sadhguru apologises after calling Muslim student in London a 'Taliban' |work=theweek.in |date=2019-04-05 |access-date=2022-11-20}}</ref> After recognising the failure in the "government's communication" of the [[Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019|2019 Citizenship Amendment Act]] in India, Sadhguru spoke in support of the act.<ref>{{Citation |title=CAA Protests – Sadhguru on Citizenship Amendment Act & NRC | date=28 December 2019 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11RgVkZcPjY |language=en |access-date=18 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=31 December 2019|title=Jaggi Vasudev's CAA Video: 22 Minutes of Half-Truths & Gaslighting|url=https://www.thequint.com/voices/opinion/sadhguru-caa-video-misleading-on-nrc-protesters-gaslighting-attempt|access-date=3 January 2020|website=The Quint}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=An (Un)Enlightened Sadhguru in King Modi's Court|url=https://thewire.in/politics/an-unenlightened-sadhguru-in-king-modis-court|access-date=3 January 2020|website=The Wire}}</ref> In 2018, he accused liberals of being fanatics.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/sadhguru-today-people-who-claim-to-be-liberals-are-actually-fanatics/articleshow/65336834.cms|title=Sadhguru: Today, people who claim to be liberals are actually fanatics|publisher=[[Times of India]]|date=2018-08-09|access-date=2023-09-19}}</ref>

== Scientific reception ==
Sadhguru has made a number claims that are inconsistent with scientific consensus.<ref name=":6"/><ref name="breakthrough2018">{{Cite web |url=https://breakthroughindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Breakthrough-18jan.pdf | title=Responsibility of Scientists towards Building Scientific Temper in Society | author=Aniket Sule |work=Breakthrough, Vol.20, No. 1 |date=February 2018 |access-date=2023-01-01}}</ref><ref name="altnews2018">{{Cite web|last=Shaikh|first=Dr Sumaiya|date=26 February 2018|title=Scientific research ascertains mercury toxicity but Sadhguru continues to endorse it for Indian traditional medicines|url=https://www.altnews.in/scientific-research-ascertains-mercury-toxicity-sadhguru-continues-endorse-indian-traditional-medicines/|access-date=31 December 2019|website=Alt News}}</ref> Although India approved the ratification of the international [[Minamata Convention on Mercury]] to ban its usage, Sadhguru advocates for the use of mercury in the context of traditional Indian medicine such as [[Siddha medicine]].<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Sadhguru – I am still alive only because of mercury! |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7oC78A0YpQQ |work=YouTube | date=12 April 2019 |access-date=2022-11-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://isha.sadhguru.org/us/en/sadhguru/mystic/rasa-vaidya |title=Rasa Vaidya |date=2017-11-03 |website=isha.sadhguru.org |access-date=2023-01-01}}</ref><ref name="altnews2018" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.asianstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/KaibaraSpring2021EAAOnlineSupplement.pdf |author=Helen Kaibara |title=Cauvery Calling: A Possible Solution for a Dying River and Desperate Farmers |work=Asia’s Environments: National, Regional, and Global Perspectives, Education About Asia, Volume 26, Number 1| date=Spring 2021 |access-date=2023-01-01}}</ref> He has also repeatedly stated he can solidify mercury at room temperature; a claim refuted by Australian scientist [[Sumaiya Shaikh]].<ref name=":6" />

Sadhguru has been criticised for statements about the negative effects that a [[lunar eclipse]] can have on the body's energy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tharoor |first=Shashi |title=Science is not your enemy |url=https://englisharchives.mathrubhumi.com/features/politics/science-hinduism-1.2653600 |date=2018-03-07 |access-date=20 November 2022 |website=Mathrubhumi}}</ref><ref name="breakthrough2018" />

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{citation| isbn = 978-0-578-20085-9| last = Berghella| first = Vincenzo| title = Chennai and Coimbatore, India| date = 2018| publisher = Lulu.com}}
* {{Citation| publisher = SAGE| isbn = 978-1-5264-1437-3| last1 = Hudson| first1 = Simon| last2 = Hudson| first2 = Louise| title = Marketing for Tourism, Hospitality & Events: A Global & Digital Approach| location = London, etc.| date = 2017}}
* {{citation |last1=Simone |first1=Cheryl |last2=Vasudev |first2=Sadhguru Jaggi |title=Midnights with the Mystic: A Little Guide to Freedom and Bliss |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWvCxQvsZLgC |year=2008 |publisher=Hampton Roads Publishing |isbn=978-1-61283-113-8}}
* {{citation |first=Joanne Punzo |last=Waghorne |chapter=Engineering an Artful Practice: On Jaggi Vasudev's Isha Yoga and Sri Sri Ravi Shankar's Art of Living |editor1=Mark Singleton |editor2=Ellen Goldberg |title=Gurus of Modern Yoga |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cyOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA283 |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-993872-8 |pages=283–307}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=no|wikt=no|n=no|species=no|mw=no|m=no|v=no|s=no|b=no}}
* {{official website|isha.sadhguru.org}}
* [http://ishafoundation.org Isha Foundation's official website]

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Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu

2025-11-27T00:54:02Z

AnnieSneed66:

{{pp|small=yes}}
{{short description|Ethno-religious clan of South Asia}}
{{Redirect|CKP|the South Korean political party|Creative Korea Party|the engine sensor|Crankshaft position sensor|the railway station|Chakradharpur railway station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}

{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu (CKP)
|popplace = [[Maharashtra]], [[Gujarat]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Goa]]
|languages = [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi]]
|religions = [[Hinduism]]
|related_groups = [[Pathare Prabhu]], [[Gaud Saraswat Brahmin]]
}}{{Use Indian English|date=April 2015}}

'''Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu''' ('''CKP''') or historically and commonly known as '''Chandraseniya Prabhu''' or just '''Prabhu'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Commissioner |first=India Census |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyUUAAAAYAAJ&dq=chandraseniya+kayastha+prabhu+history&pg=PA87 |title=Census of India, 1901 |date=1903 |publisher=Printed at the Government central Press |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.217364 |title=Hindu Castes And Sects |date=1896}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu Social Club |first1=Poona |url=http://archive.org/details/ethnographicalno00chanrich |title=Ethnographical notes on Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu |last2=Gupte |first2=T. V. |date=1904 |publisher=Poona |others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> is a caste mainly found in [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]]. Historically, they made equally good [[warrior]]s, [[wikt:statesman|statesmen]] as well as writers. They held the posts such as Deshpande and Gadkari according to the historian, B.R. Sunthankar, produced prominent [[warrior]]s in Maharashtrian history.<ref name= sunthankar /><ref name="chib161">{{cite book | title = The Castes, Tribes and Culture of India | author = K.P.Bahadur, Sukhdev Singh Chib | page= 161| publisher=ESS Publications|year=1981| quote= pg 161: The Kayastha Prabhus...They performed three of the vedic duties or karmas, studying the Vedas adhyayan, sacrificing yajna and giving alms or dana...The creed mostly accepted by them is that of the advaita school of Adi Shankaracharya, though they also worship Vishnu, Ganapati and other gods. ...Most of the Pathare Prabhus are the followers of smart sect who adopt the teachings of Shankaracharya}}</ref>

Traditionally, in Maharashtra, the caste structure was headed by the [[Deshastha]]s, [[Chitpawan]]s, [[Karhade]], [[Saraswat]]s and the CKPs.<ref>{{cite book | title =Writing Caste/Writing Gender: Narrating Dalit Women's Testimonies | page=28|publisher= Zubaan Books|year= 2013 |author= Sharmila Rege|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p4-oDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT28|isbn=978-93-83074-67-9|quote= The traditional caste hierarchy was headed by the brahmin castes-the deshasthas, chitpawans, karhades saraswats and the chandraseniya kayastha prabhus.}}</ref> Other than the Brahmins, the Prabhus (CKPs and [[Pathare Prabhus]]) were the communities advanced in education.<ref>{{cite book |title=Agrarian structure, movements & peasant organisations in India, Volume 2 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UuJFAAAAYAAJ|page=29|author = Sulabha Brahme, Ashok Upadhyaya|publisher = V.V. Giri National Labour Institute|year=2004|isbn=978-81-7827-064-7|quote= Besides Brahmins, the other communities advanced in education are Kayastha Prabhu, Pathare Prabhu found mainly in the...}}</ref>

The CKPs have the ''[[upanayana]]'' ( ''[[Upanayana#Yajñopavītam|janeu]]'' or thread ceremony)<ref name="kssingh19982">{{cite book |author=KS Singh |title=India's communities |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |page=2083 |quote=..the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu observe the thread-wearing (janeu) ceremony for male children. They cremate the dead and observe death pollution for ten days.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Pran Nath Chopra | title=Religions and communities of India | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ggtuAAAAMAAJ | year=1982 | page = 98| publisher=Vision Books | isbn=9780391027480 |quote=Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu [irrelevant text unrelated to thread ceremony]They have the Upanayana ceremony and are Vedadhikaris ( having the right to read the Vedas )}}</ref> and have been granted the rights to study the [[Vedas]] and perform [[Vedic]] rituals along with the [[Brahmins]]. The CKP performed three Vedic karmas or duties which in Sanskrit are called: Adhyayan- studying of the Vedas, yajna- ritual done in front of a sacred fire, often with mantras and dāna – alms or charity.<ref name="chib161"/><ref name="MiltonWagle">{{cite book|title=Religion and Society in Maharashtra|editor=Milton Israel and N.K.Wagle|publisher=Center for South Asian Studies, University of Toronto, Canada|year= 1987|pages=147–170}}</ref>
Ritually ranked high (along with the Brahmins), the caste may be considered socially proximate to the Brahmin community.<ref>{{cite book |title=Society and Politics in India: Essays in a Comparative Perspective|author= André Béteille|year= 1992|isbn=0195630661|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote= Although the Chandraseniya Kayasth Prabhu are non-Brahmins, they rank very high and might be regarded as being socially proximate to the Koknasth Brahman.|page=48}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title= Book Contradictions and Conflict: A Dialectical Political Anthropology of a University in Western India (Studies in Human Society, Vol 9)|first=Donald|last=Kurtz|page=68|isbn=978-9004098282|publisher=Brill|date=1 August 1997|quote=... CKPs. They represent a small but literate and ritually high caste.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenzweig |first1=Mark |last2=Munshi |first2=Kaivan |date=September 2006|title=Traditional Institutions Meet the Modern World: Caste, Gender, and Schooling Choice in a Globalizing Economy |journal=American Economic Review |volume=96|number=4 |pages=1225–1252 |doi=10.1257/aer.96.4.1225|quote= (page 1228)High castes include all the Brahmin jatis, as well as a few other elite jatis (CKP and Pathare Prabhus).Low castes include formerly untouchable and backward castes (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Castes, as defined by the government of India). Medium castes are drawn mostly from the cultivator jatis, such as the Marathas and the Kunbis, as well as other traditional vocations that were not considered to be ritually impure.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Communal Identity in India: Its Construction and Articulation in the Twentieth Century | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtztAAAAIAAJ|author= Bidyut Chakrabarty |year= 2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=138|isbn=978-0-19-566330-3|quote= Of the six groups, four are Brahmins; one is high non-Brahmin caste, Chandraseniya Kayashth Prabhu (CKP), ranking next only to the Brahmins; and the other is a cultivating caste, Maratha (MK), belonging to the middle level of the hierarchy.}}</ref><ref name=aphale76>{{cite book | title=Growing Up in an Urban Complex | author= Champa Aphale | year =1976| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nBYFAAAAMAAJ| page= 5| publisher=National Publishing House|quote=advanced castes among the maharashtrians viz.Brahmins. In this groups were also included families belonging to the chandraseniya kayastha prabhu besides the three subscastes among the brahmins, viz. Kokanastha Brahmins, Deshastha Brahmins and Saraswat Brahmins. The reason for this was that, though non-Brahmins, these C.K.P. families were very much near the Brahmin families as regards their educational and occupational status.}}</ref> They have traditionally been an elite and literate but a numerically small community.<ref name = sunthankar>{{cite book | title = Nineteenth Century History of Maharashtra: 1818–1857|page=121|author = B. R. Sunthankar |year= 1988|quote=The Kayastha Prabhus, though small in number, were another caste of importance in Maharashtra. The Konkan districts were their homeland. They formed one of the elite castes of Maharashtra. They also held the position of Deshpandes and Gadkaris and produced some of the best warriors in the Maratha history}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title= Rajarshi Shahu: a model ruler | publisher=kirti prakashan|page=20|year=1994|author = V. B. Ghuge| quote= In the Hindu social hierarchy the privileged classes were Brahmins, CKP's and others. Similarly other elite classes were Parsis and Europeans.}}</ref> Rosenthal, while discussing the British era situation in Kolhapur says that they "claimed a status equal to Brahmans -a claim which the Brahmans always stridently rejected".<ref name="sssny1973">{{cite journal|journal= Special Studies Series, State University of New York|year=1973|page=7|title=From Reformist Princes to 'Co-operative Kings|publisher=Buffalo, N.Y. Council on International Studies, State University of New York at Buffalo|author=Donald B. Rosenthal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dz4tAQAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rosenthal|first=Donald|title=From Reformist Princes to 'Co-operative Kings': I: Political Change in Pre-Independence Kolhapur|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|volume=8|number=20 |date=19 May 1973|pages=903–910|jstor=4362649|quote=(page 905)Within the circle of "available" non-Brahman elite groups one might also count the tiny community of CKP's Chandrasenya Kayastha Prabhu...A community which claimed status equal to Brahmans-a claim which the Brahmans always stridently rejected – the CKP's were a source of men of talent who were to act as advisors to Shahu...}}</ref><ref name="MiltonWagle"/>

More formally, in Maharashtra, they are one of the [[Prabhu Communities]] and a sister caste of the Pathare Prabhu.<ref>{{cite book | title = Urban leadership in Western India: politics and communities in Bombay city, 1840–1885 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2eYhAAAAMAAJ&q=sister | author=Christine E. Dobbin| year=1972 |page= 225| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn = 9780198218418|quote=Not only were the Pathare prabhus aware for the need for self help. In 1876 the members of their sister community, the Chandraseniya Kyasth Prabhus, began to organize themselves.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title=Bombay: Social Change 1813–1857| author=Vijaya Gupchup|page=166|
quote=The other intellectual class[other than Brahmins], the Prabhus were once again subdivided in the Chnadraseniya Kayastha Prabhu and the Pathare Prabhus}}</ref> The CKP traditionally follow the [[Advaita Vedanta]], as propounded by [[Adi Shankara]].<ref name="chib161" />

== Etymology ==
The name ''Chandraseniya'' may be a corruption of the word ''Chandrashreniya'', which means from the valley of the [[Chenab River]] in [[Kashmir]]. This theory states that the word ''[[Kayastha]]'' originates from the term ''Kaya Desha'', an ancient name for the region around [[Ayodhya]].<ref name="chopra">{{cite book |author=Pran Nath Chopra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ggtuAAAAMAAJ |title=Religions and communities of India |publisher=Vision Books |year=1982 |isbn=9780391027480 |page=88 |access-date=31 March 2013}}</ref><ref>quote:The name Chandraseniya is a corrupt form of Chandrashreniya ( meaning from the valley of the Chenab in Kashmir ) . The term Kayastha originates from the region around Ayodhya , which was called Kaya Desh , where the Chandraseniya Prabhus settled. ' Prabhu ' denotes a high government official</ref> The word Prabhu means ''Lord'' or a ''Chief'' in [[Sanskrit]] language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of PRABHU |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/prabhu |access-date=2022-07-13 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref>

==History==

=== Origin ===
The CKP claim descent from Chandrasen, an ancient [[Kshatriya]] king of [[Ujjain]] and [[Ayodhya]] and of the [[Haihaya]] family of the lunar Kshatriya Dynasty.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Sharad Hebalkar |title=Ancient Indian ports: with special reference to Maharashtra |year=2001 |page=87}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book |author=Lucy Carol Stout |title=The Hindustani Kayasthas : The Kayastha Pathshala, and the Kayastha Conference |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |year=1976 |page=17}}</ref>

=== High medieval period ===
[[Epigraphical]] evidences i.e. engravings from the [[Shilahara]] times have been found in [[Deccan]] to prove that many CKPs held high posts and controlled the civilian and military administration. For example, a [[Shilahara]] inscription around A.D. 1088 mentions the names of a certain ''Velgi Prabhu''. ''Lakshmana Prabhu'' is mentioned as a ''MahaDandanayaka'' (head of military) and ''MahaPradhana'' (prime minister); ''Ananta-Prabhu'' is mentioned as a ''MahaPradhana'' (prime minister), ''Kosadhikari'' (Head of treasury) and ''Mahasandhivigrahika'' (charge of foreign department). According to Historian and researcher S.Muley, these [[epigraphy|epigraphs]] might be the first available evidences of the existence of the CKP in Maharashtra.<ref>{{cite book | author=S.Muley,M.A.,PhD | title=Studies in the Historical and cultural geography and ethnography of the Deccan|year=1972 | publisher=Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, University of Poona | pages = 301, 303, 304| quote = " pg 301: (section)Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu...From our epigraphical evidences, many Prabhus seem to have held high posts in the Silahara kingdom, and controlled the civil and military administration. The Chaul inscription of AD.1088 mentions Veliga Prabhu. Ananta Prabhu and Lakshamana Prabhu appear in a number of records. The former was a MahaPradhana, Kosadhikari, MahasandhiVigrahika and the latter was a MahaPradhana and Mahadandanayaka. Table on Pg 303,304: minister: pradhana, head of treasury: kosadhikari, foreign department charge: Mahasandhivigrahika, head of military: MahaDandanayaka}}</ref>

According to the American [[Indologist]] and scholar of Religious Studies and [[South Asian]] Studies who is the Professor of International Studies and Comparative Religion at the [[University of Washington]], [[Christian Lee Novetzke]]{{blockquote|In the thirteenth century they might have been considered as equal to brahmin or simply within the Brahminic ecumene, this despite the fact that modern day CKPs of Maharashtra understand themselves to have arisen from the Kshatriya varna. Thus they are an intermediate caste between brahmins and Kshatriyas.<ref name = "Novetzke">{{cite book| author = Christian Lee Noverzke|title = The Qutodian revolution : Vernacularization, Religion, and the Premodern Public Sphere in India, part 2| page = 159 | publisher = Columbia University Press | year =2016}}</ref>}}

===Deccan sultanate and Maratha Era===



The CKP community became more prominent during the [[Deccan sultanates]] and [[Maratha Empire|Maratha rule]] era. During Adilshahi and Nizamshahi, CKP, the Brahmins and high status Maratha were part of the elites. Given their training CKP served both as civilian and military officers.<ref name="Caste and Class in Maharashtra">{{cite journal|last1=Pandit|first1=Nalini|title=Caste and Class in Maharashtra|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=1979|volume=14|issue=7/8 (February 1979)|pages=425–436|jstor=4367360}}</ref> Several of the Maratha Chhatrapati [[Shivaji]]'s generals and ministers, such as [[Murarbaji Deshpande]] and [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande]], and [[Khando Ballal|Khando Ballal Chitnis]] were CKPs.<ref name="BGGokhale1988">{{cite book | author=[[Balkrishna Govind Gokhale]] | title=Poona in the eighteenth century: an urban history | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=THR5AAAAIAAJ | access-date=17 November 2012 | year=1988 | publisher=Oxford University Press |page=112| isbn=978-0-19-562137-2 }}</ref>

In 17th-century Maharashtra, during [[Shivaji]]'s time, the so-called higher classes i.e. the Marathi [[Brahmins]], CKPs and [[Saraswat]] Brahmins, due to social and religious restrictions were the only communities that had a system of education for males. Except these three castes, education for all other castes and communities was very limited and consisted of listening to stories from religious texts like the [[Puranas]] or to [[Kirtans]] and thus the common masses remained illiterate and backward. Hence Shivaji was compelled to use people from these three educated communities – Marathi Brahmins, CKPs and Saraswat Brahmins – for civilian posts as they required education and intellectual maturity. However, in this time period, these three as well as other communities, depending on caste, also contributed their share to Shivaji's "Swaraj"(self-rule) by being cavalry soldiers, commanders, mountaineers, seafarers etc.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kantak |first=M. R.|title=The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of the Shivaji Maharaj's Swarajya |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |date=1978 |volume=38 |issue=1 |page=44,47 |jstor=42931051| quote= (page 44) Next to the Brahmins came the Saraswats and the Kayastha Prabhus. Except the Brahmins, the saraswats and the kayasthas, all other castes and communities in Maharashtra received very little education, which was the sole privilege of the higher castes.(page 47)A charge may be leveled against Shivaji Maharaj that he recruited in his civil departments the people from the so called intellectual classes only. It is a fact that Shivaji Maharaj's civil services were dominated by the Brahmins, the Prabhus and the Saraswats. However, the blame on it does not fall on Shivaji Maharaj but on the social framework within which he was workings. As has been pointed out earlier in this article , in 17th century Maharashtra, due to social and religious restrictions, education was the privilege of the higher classes only. Consequently, the common masses remained illiterate and backward. For civil posts, intellectual maturity, some standard of education as well as knowledge of reading, writing and account keeping ,etc. were essential. Shivaji Maharaj found these requisites readily in the Brahmins, the Saraswats and the Kayasthas which were the only educated classes then. Shivaji Maharaj had no alternative but to recruit them in his services for maintaining a high standard of efficiency.}}</ref> During the Peshwa era, the CKP's main preceptor or Vedic [[Guru#In Hinduism|Guru]] was a Brahmin by the name of Abashastri Takle, who was referred to by the CKP community as "Gurubaba".<ref name="MiltonWagle" /> Sale of liquor was banned by the Brahmin administrators to the Brahmins, CKPs, [[Pathare Prabhus]] and Saraswat Brahmins but there was no objection to other castes drinking it or even to the castes such as Bhandaris from manufacturing it. As the Maratha empire/confederacy expanded in the 18th century, and given the nepotism of the Peshwa of Pune towards their own [[Chitpavan Brahmin]] caste, CKP and other literal castes migrated for administration jobs to the new Maratha ruling states such as the Bhosale of Nagpur, the [[Gaekwad]]s, the [[Scindia]], the [[House of Holkar|Holkar]]s etc.,<ref name="Caste and Class in Maharashtra" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bayly |first1=Susan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC&pg=PR6 |title=Caste, society and politics in India from the eighteenth century to the modern age |date=2000 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |edition=1. Indian |location=Cambridge [u.a.] |page=79}}</ref>
The Gaekwads of [[Baroda State|Baroda]] and the Bhosale of [[Nagpur kingdom|Nagpur]] gave preference to CKPs in their administration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PR9 |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University |isbn=9780521268837 |edition=1. publ. |location=New York |page=145}}</ref>

==== Varna dispute and Gramanya ====
The CKPs, described as a traditionally well-educated and intellectual group<ref name="mifflin1970">{{cite book |author=Harold Robert Isaacs |url=https://archive.org/details/educationreading0000lind |title=Education: readings in the processes of cultural transmission |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1970 |editor=Harry M. Lindquist |page=[https://archive.org/details/educationreading0000lind/page/88 88] |quote=..in this case the particular tradition of a Kshatriya caste called "CKP"(Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu). This group described as an intellectual community came into conflict with the Brahmins at least 300 years ago over their right to be teachers and scholars |url-access=registration}}</ref> claimed themselves as Kshatriyas, while the predominant regional Brahmin belief was that they were [[Shudra]]s (considering that there are no true Kshatriyas in the [[Kali Yuga]]).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Deshpande |first=Madhav |date=2010-01-01 |title=Ksatriyas in the Kali Age? Gāgābhatta & His Opponents |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/iij/53/2/article-p95_1.xml |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |language=en |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=95–120 |doi=10.1163/001972410X12686674794853 |issn=0019-7246|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The dispute first broke out few years before the coronation of Shivaji, and was related to the Upanayana rights of the CKP community.<ref name=":2" /> CKPs even demanded privileges of the Brahmin order – the rights to conduct the [[Vedic]] rituals (all by themselves) and ''satkarma'' (all six karmas of the Brahmin order) for which they were opposed especially by the [[Chitpawan]]s.<ref name="sssny1973" /><ref name="sandhyagokhale">{{Cite book |last=Gokhale |first=Sandhya |title=The Chitpwans |date=2008 |publisher=Shubhi Publications |pages=30 |quote=[the CKP] claimed privilege of the traditional Brahmin order, the right to perform Vedic Ritual...in this they were frequently opposed by the Brahmins, especially the Chitpawans}}</ref> At times, there were [[Gramanya]]s, i.e. "dispute involving the supposed violation of the Brahmanical ritual code of behavior" also known as "Vedokta disputes", initiated by certain individuals who tried to stop CKP rights to [[Upanayana]]. These individuals based their opinion on the belief that no true Kshatriyas existed in the [[Kali Yuga]]; however the upanayana for CKPs were supported by prominent Brahmin arbitrators like Gaga Bhatt and [[Ramshastri Prabhune]] who gave decisions in the favor of the community.<ref name="MiltonWagle" /> Just after the death of Shivaji this dispute raised again but this time the opinion shifted against the views of Gangabhatta.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deshpande |first=Madhav |date=2010-01-01 |title=Ksatriyas in the Kali Age? Gāgābhatta & His Opponents |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/iij/53/2/article-p95_1.xml |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |language=en |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=95–120 |doi=10.1163/001972410X12686674794853 |issn=0019-7246|url-access=subscription }}</ref> During the Peshwa era ''Gramanyas'' were very common and some Chitpawans, at times, initiated ''Gramanya'' against other communities – Prabhu communities (CKP, Pathare Prabhu), Saraswats and [[Deshastha Brahmin|Shukla Yajurvedis]]. however they did not come to fruition .<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gokhale |first=Sandhya |title=The Chitpwans |date=2008 |publisher=Shubhi publications |page=204 |quote=The jati disputes were not a rare occurrence in Maharashtra. There are recorded instances of disputes between jatis such as Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Pathare Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Saraswats and the Chitpawans and Shukla Yajurvedi and the Chitpawans. The intra-caste dispute involving the supposed violation of the Brahmanical ritual code of behavior was called Gramanya in Marathi.}}</ref> The ''Gramanya'' during the Peshwa eras finally culminated in the favor of the CKPs as the Vedokta had support from the [[Shastras]] and this was affirmed by two letters from Brahmins from Varanasi as well as one from Pune Brahmins ratified by Bajirao II himself. In the final Gramanya, started by Neelkanthashastri and his relative [[Balaji Pant Natu]], a rival of the CKP Vedic scholar V.S.Parasnis at the court of Satara, the Shankaracharya himself intervened as arbiter and he gave his verdict by fully endorsing the rights over Vedas for the CKP. The Shankaracharya's letter is addressed to all Brahmins and he refers to various [[Shastra]]s, earlier verdicts in the favour of the CKPS as well as letters about the lineage of the CKP to make his decision and void the dispute started by Natu.<ref name="MiltonWagle" />

===== Scholarly interpretation =====
Modern scholars quote statements that show that they were due to political malice – especially given that the Gramanya was started by a certain Yamaji Pant who had sent an assassin to murder a rival CKP. This was noted by Gangadharshastri Dikshit who gave his verdict in favor of the CKPs. Abashastri Takle had used the scriptures to establish their "Vedokta". Similarly, the famous jurist [[Ramshastri Prabhune]] also supported the CKPs Vedokta.<ref name="MiltonWagle" />

The analysis of ''gramanyas'' against the CKP was done in depth by historians from the [[University of Toronto]]. Modern scholars conclude that the fact that the CKPs held high ranking positions in administration and the military and as statesmen was a "double edged sword". Historians, while analyzing the ''gramanyas'' state "As statesmen, they were engulfed in the court intrigues and factions, and, as a result, were prone to persecution by opposing factions. On the other hand, their influence in the court meant that they could wield enough political clout to effect settlements in favor of their caste.". The late Indian professor of sociology, [[Govind Sadashiv Ghurye]] commented on the strictness of the caste system during the Peshwa rule in Maharashtra by noting that even advanced caste such as the Prabhus had to establish rights to carry on with the vedic rituals.<ref name="MiltonWagle" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Govind Sadashiv Ghurye |url=https://archive.org/details/casteraceinindia0000ghur |title=Caste and Race in India |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=1969 |isbn=9788171542055 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/casteraceinindia0000ghur/page/5 5], 14 |quote=(page 5) Thus the Brahmin government of Poona, while passing some legislation prohibiting the manufacture and sale of liquors, excluded the bhandaris kolis and similar other castes from the operation thereof but strictly forbade the sale of drinks to Brahmins, Shenvis, Prabhus and Government officers (page 14). Such an advanced caste as the Prabhus in the Maratha country had to establish its rights to carry on the rites according to the vedic formulae which were being questioned at the time of the later peshwas |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Derett">{{cite book |title=Indology and Law: Studies in the Honour or Professor J.Duncan M.Derett |publisher=Südasien-Institut – Universität Heidelberg |year=1982 |editor1=Gunther-Dietz Sontheimer |page=325 |quote=(page 321) Gangadhar Dikshit remarked "The proof in favor of the prabhus vedokta adduced by their preceptor is preponderant. There is no argument against it. Who can, therefore, dare say that the Shastra is false? Their preceptor Gurubaba (Abashastri Takle), indeed, quoting from the scriptures convincingly argued the Prabhus claims to Vedokta before the Pandit assembly by proving their Kshatriya genealogy (page 325). As the [Chandraseniya Kayastha] prabhus's Gurubaba stated in the Pandit assembly, that the gramanya initiated by Yamaji was due to political malice("rajyakarani dvesha"). It did not therefore, come to fruition. That there was an active enmity between Govindrao, a leading member of the prabhu caste and Yamaji, is clear from a document in which it is stated that Yamaji Pant actually sent an assassin to murder Govindrao. The Prabhus eminence as soldier-statesmen and high ranking administrative officers from Bajiravs time to end of Peshwai was both an asset and a liability. As statesmen, they were engulfed in the court intrigues and factions, and, as a result, were prone to persecution by opposing factions. On the other hand, their influence in the court meant that they could wield enough political clout to effect settlements in favor of their caste.(page 328)It is significant that the two Prabhu Sardars, Nilkanthrav Page and Ravji Apaji were the key members of the faction which helped Bajirav to acquire the Peshwaship. |editor2=Parameswara Aithal}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Vijaya Gupchup |title=Bombay: Social Change |page=166,167 |quote=(page 166)The other intellectual class, the Prabhus were once again subdivided in the Chnadraseniya Kayastha Prabhu and the Pathare Prabhus. (page 167) The Bhandaris were given a permit for the manufacture of liquor but were forbidden to sell their products to castes such as Brahmins and Shenvis and the Prabhus because these were required by their caste laws to abstain from drinking}}</ref>

[[University of Toronto]] historians and Professors Emeriti, Milton Israel and N.K Wagle opine about this as follows in their analysis:

{{blockquote|The CKP could undertake the six functions (satkarma) because they had the expertise to do so. Aba Parasnis the CKP[in the early 1800s] could easily hold his own and argue intricate points from the [[vedas]], [[puranas]] and the [[dharmasastra]]s in a debate which resulted in his composition of the siddhantavijaya in [[sanskrit]].He prepared the [[Samskara (Indian philosophy)|sanskara]] manual(karmakalpadruma), which was published by Pratapsimha. The CKP as an educated elite therefore, were a serious challenge to the Brahman monopoly of Vedokta.<ref name="MiltonWagle" />{{efn|name=MW168|quote on page 168:The CKP could undertake the six functions (satkarma) because they had the expertise to do so. Aba Parasnis the CKP[ in the early 1800s] could easily hold his own and argue intricate points from the vedas,puranas and the dharmasastras in a debate which resulted in his composition of the siddhantavijaya in sanskrit.He prepared the samskara manual(karmakalpadruma), which was published by Pratapsimha. The CKP as an educated elite therefore, were a serious challenge to the Brahman monopoly of Vedokta.}}}}

===British era and later===
During the British colonial era, the two literate communities of Maharashtra, namely the Brahmins and the CKP were the first to adopt western education with enthusiasm and prospered with opportunities in the colonial administration. A number of CKP families also served the semi-independent [[princely states]] in Maharashtra and other regions of India, such as Baroda.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Gulati|editor-first1=Leela|editor-last2=Bagchi|editor-first2=Jasodhara|last=Mehta|first=Vijaya|title=A space of her own : personal narratives of twelve women|date=2005|publisher=SAGE|location=London|isbn=9780761933151|page=181|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdzF06JsGyMC&pg=PA181}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=June 2017}}

The British era of the 1800s and 1900s saw the publications dedicated to finding sources of CKP history<ref name="divekar1978">Divekar, V.D., 1978. Survey of Material in Marathi on the Economic and Social History of India—3. The Indian Economic & Social History Review, 15(3), pp.375–407.</ref> The book ''Prabhu Kul Deepika'' gives the [[gotra]]s ([[rishi]] name) and [[pravaras]] etc. of the CKP caste. Another publication, ''Kayastha-mitra'' (Volume 1, No.9. Dec 1930) gives a list of north Indian princely families that belonged to the CKP caste.<ref name="divekar81">{{cite book | author = V.D Divekar| title = Survey of Material in Marathi on the Economic and Social History of India |publisher = Bharata Itihasa Samshodhaka Mandala|page =61|year = 1981|quote=On the historical information relating to Chandraseneeya Kayastha Prabhus (known popularly as &dquo;C.K.P.s&dquo;) we have a good book published from Baroda (no publication date) under the title Prabhu-kul-deepika. The book gives detailed information about the Gotras, Pravaras, allied caste names, surnames, etc., of the members of the C.K.P. caste. R.R. Pradhan, in an issue of Kayastha-mitra (Vol. 1, No. 9, December 1930, pp. 2-3) gives a list of north Indian princely families that belonged to the C.K.P. caste. We may mention here two such publications: Chandraseneeya Kayastha Prabhunchd itihas dni Sans-theche patrak (Baroda, 1891); and, Chdndraseneeya Kdyastha Prabhu samci-jachyd itihäsáche digdarshan, by R.N. Pradhan (Baroda, 1918). Seetanandan has compiled a detailed list of authors belonging to the C.K.P. caste}}</ref>

[[Rango Bapuji Gupte]], the CKP representative of the deposed Raja Pratapsinh Bhosale of Satara spent 13 years in London in the 1840s and 50s to plead for restoration of the ruler without success. At the time of the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]], Rango tried to raise a rebel force to fight the British but the plan was thwarted and most of the conspirators were executed. However, Rango Bapuji escaped from his captivity and was never found.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bates|editor-first1=Crispin|last=Naregal|first=Veena|title=Mutiny at the margins : new perspectives on the Indian uprising of 1857.|date=2013|publisher=SAGE|location=Los Angeles|isbn=9788132109709|pages=167–186}}</ref>

When the prominent Marathi historian [[Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade]] contested their claimed Kshatriya status in a 1916 essay, [[Prabodhankar Thackeray]] objected to Rajwade's assumptions and wrote a text outlining the identity of the caste, and its contributions to the Maratha empire. In this text, ''Gramanyachya Sadhyant Itihas'', he wrote that the CKPs "provided the cement" for [[Shivaji]]'s [[swaraj]] (self-rule) "with their blood".<ref name="Prachi2007">{{cite book | author=Prachi Deshpande | title=Creative Pasts: Historical Memory And Identity in Western India, 1700–1960 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5FdJnnDhSwC&pg=PA181 | access-date=1 September 2012 | year=2007 | publisher=Columbia University Press | isbn=978-0-231-12486-7 | page=181}}</ref><ref name="Sen 1969 p. ">{{cite book | last=Sen | first=S.P. | title=Studies in Modern Indian History: A Regional Survey | publisher=Institute of Historical Studies | year=1969 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTzRAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2024-01-25 | page=81}}</ref>

[[Gail Omvedt]] concludes that during the British era, the overall literacy of Brahmins and CKP was overwhelmingly high as opposed to the literacy of others such as the [[Kunbi]]s and [[Maratha]]s for whom it was strikingly low.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Omvedt |first=Gail|title=Development of the Maharashtrian Class Structure, 1818 to 1931|journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |volume=8 |issue=31/33 |pages=1418–1419 |date=August 1973|quote=page 1426:There is difficulty in using such Census data, particularly because the various categories tended to be defined in different ways in different years, and different criteria were used in different provinces for classifying the population. Nonetheless, the overall trend is clear...page 1419:Male literacy rates were much higher than the male and female together, but show the same pattern, as does the literacy in English. Not only were the Brahmans and CKPs overwhelmingly dominant, but maratha kunbi figures were amazingly low, especially for bombay province. Even allowing for the effects of sampling differences, the low rates for the marathas kunbis are striking, and it is noteworthy that many artisan castes were more literate. This also tended to be true in the central provinces-Berar.}}</ref>{{efn|Omvedt does add a proviso saying that :There is difficulty in using such Census data, particularly because the various categories tended to be defined in different ways in different years, and different criteria were used in different provinces for classifying the population. Nonetheless, the overall trend is clear}}

In 1902, all communities other than Marathi Brahmins, Saraswat Brahmins, Prabhus (Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus, [[Pathare Prabhus]]) and [[Parsi]] were considered backward and 50% reservation was provided for them in by the [[princely state]] of [[Kolhapur]]. In 1925, the only communities that were not considered backward by the British Government in the [[Bombay Presidency]] were Brahmins, CKP, Pathare Prabhus, Marwaris, Parsis, Banias and Christians.<ref>{{cite book|title=The construction of minorities: cases for comparison across time|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2vAR02K6ecC&pg=PA222|page=222|editor1=André Burguière|editor2=Raymond Grew|year=2001| publisher=University of Michigan Press |quote=Reservations for backward communities were instituted in Bombay after 1925, when a government resolution defined backward classes as all except for "Brahmins, Prabhus, Marwaris, Parsis, Banias, and Christians."|isbn=978-0472067374}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Myth of the Lokamanya: Tilak and Mass Politics in Maharashtra|publisher=University of California Press|author=Richard I. Cashman|url=https://archive.org/details/mythoflokamanya00rich|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/mythoflokamanya00rich/page/116 116]|quote=when he issued the resolution of july 26th,1902, reserving, 50% of future vacancies in the kolhapur state service for the members of the "backward classes"The backward castes were considered to be those groups other than the advanced communities, namely the brahmans ,Prabhus, Shenvis and parsis|isbn=9780520024076|date=1975-01-01}}</ref><ref name="gupchup">{{cite book| title=Bombay: Social Change 1813–1857| author=Vijaya Gupchup|page=166,167|quote=(page 167) The Bhandaris were given a permit for the manufacture of liquor but were forbidden to sell their products to castes such as Brahmins and Shenvis and the Prabhus because these were required by their caste laws to abstain from drinking.(page 166) The other intellectual class[besides Brahmins], the Prabhus were once again subdivided in the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu and the Pathare Prabhus.}}</ref>

In Pune, the descendents of [[Sakharam Hari Gupte]] donated premises for conducting thread ceremonies and marriages for the members of the CKP community and the facilities were available to other communities as well.<ref name=Oturkar>{{cite book|title=Poona: Look and Outlook|editor=Rajaram Vinayak Oturka|author=Rajaram Vinayak Oturka|publisher=Municipal Corporation(Pune)|page=133|quote=Sakharam Hari Gupte C. K. P. Karyalaya : The above Karya- laya is situated at 4 Narayan Peth, Poona, on a site secured from the Sardar Ambegavkar family of Baroda on a nominal rent, through the efforts of the C. K. P. Swayamsevak Sangh which also collected donations from members of the C. K. P. community for the construction of the building. The objects of the trust are to promote the educational, moral and cultural welfare of the C. K. P. community. The premises are let out particularly for marriage and thread ceremonies to members of the community and when possible to other communities as well.}}</ref>

According to the studies by D.L.Sheth, the former director of the [[Centre for the Study of Developing Societies|Center for the Study of Developing Societies in India (CSDS)]], educated upper castes and communities – Punjabi Khatris, Kashmiri Pandits, CKPs, the Chitpawans, [[Nagar Brahmins]], South Indian Brahmins, [[Bhadralok]] [[Bengalis]], etc., along with the Parsis and upper crusts of the Muslim and Christian society were among the Indian communities in 1947, at the time of [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]], that constituted the middle class and were traditionally "urban and professional" (following professions like doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, etc.). According to P. K. Varma, "education was a common thread that bound together this pan Indian elite" and almost all the members of these communities could read and write English and were educated "beyond school"<ref>{{cite book|title=The Great Indian Middle class|page=28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbgMy8KfD74C&pg=PA28|author=Pavan K. Varma|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=9780143103257|year=2007}}</ref>

==Culture==

The mother tongue of most of the community is now [[Marathi language|Marathi]], though in [[Gujarat]] they also communicate with their neighbours in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], and use the [[Gujarati script]], while those in Maharashtra speak English and [[Hindi]] with outsiders, and use the [[Devanagari script]].{{cn|date=December 2024}}

According to anthropologist [[Iravati Karve]], their "ways of living, dress, worship, cremation" are exactly like those of the Brahmins except that they are not necessarily vegetarian.<ref>{{cite book | last=Karve | first=I.K. | title=Maharashtra, Land and Its People | publisher=Directorate of Government Printing, Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State | series=Gazetteer of India | year=1968 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLkLAQAAIAAJ | access-date=2024-01-25|quote=During the Maratha fight against Aurangazeb they distinguished themselves as loyal and staurch supporters of Shivaji Sambhaji and Rajaram and made a name as warriors also. They are today mostly government employees, teachers, lawyers, doctors etc. They are an intellectually keen and are a progressive community ...Their way of living, dress, worship, cremation ceremonies are like those of the Brahmins except that they eat fish, fowl and mutton. They are mostly concentrated in the region north of Bombay and are found in great numbers in the cities of Bombay and Poona. Some families are found in the villages near the western Ghats where they hold inam lands.}}</ref>

The CKPs holds the [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] rank of [[Kshatriya]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kurtz |first1=Donald V. |year=2009 |title=The Last Institution Standing: Contradictions and the politics of Domination in an Indian University |journal=Journal of Anthropological Research |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=611–640 |doi=10.3998/jar.0521004.0065.404 |jstor=25608264 |s2cid=147219376 |quote=The CKP jati is resident largely in Maharashtra, holds the varna rank of Kshatria, which commonly, except by some Brahmans, is accorded a caste [social] status equal to that of the Chitpawan Brahmans.}}</ref><ref name="mifflin1970" /><ref name="Zeiler2019">{{cite book |author=Fritzi-Marie Titzmann |title=Digital Hinduism |date=24 October 2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-60732-2 |editor=Xenia Zeiler |pages=59 |quote=22.Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu. CKP is a Kshatriya subcaste whose members live predominantly in Maharashtra.}}</ref> They performed three "vedic karmas"(studying vedas, fire sacrifice, giving alms) as opposed to full("Shatkarmi") Brahmins who performed six vedic duties which also include accepting gifts, teaching Vedas to other and performing vedic rites for others.<ref name="chib161"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Bombay: Social Change, 1813–1857|author= Vijaya Gupchup|publisher=Popular Book Depot|quote=The Brahmana's six duties (Satakarmas) are studying the Vedas and teaching them, performing rites for himself and for others, giving and accepting gifts. Trikarmi means that one can study the Vedas, perform rites for himself and give gifts.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Goan Society in Transition: A Study in Social Change|page=61|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1975|author=Bento Graciano D'Souza|quote=The most important of the Konkani caste communities were: (1) The Saraswat Brahmins such as Shenvis, Sastikars, Bardesh- ... They are, therefore, called Trikarmi Brahmins as distinguished from Shatkarmi Brahmins who performed all the six duties}}</ref> They also followed rituals, like the [[Upanayana|sacred thread (Janeu) ceremony]],<ref name="kssingh19982"/> the observation of the period of mourning and seclusion by person of a deceased's lineage by the CKPs has traditionally been for 10 days although [[Kshatriya]]s generally observe it for 12 days.<ref name="kssingh19982" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Paul Gwynne |title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2017 |page=146 |quote=According to tradition the defilement period differs by class; 10 days for brahmin, 12 days for kshatriya , 15 days for vaishya and one month for shudra.}}</ref> Educationally and professionally, 20th century research showed that the Saraswat, CKP, Deshastha and Chitpawan were quite similar.<ref name="aphale76" /> Researcher and professor Dr.Neela Dabir sums it up as follows "In Maharashtra for instance, the family norms among the Saraswat Brahmins and CKPs were similar to those of the Marathi Brahmins". However, she also criticizes these communities by concluding that until the 20th century, the Marathi Brahmin, CKP and Saraswat Brahmin communities, due to their upper-caste ritualistic norms, traditionally discouraged widow remarriage. This resulted in distress in the lives of widows from these castes as opposed to widows from other Marathi Hindu castes.<ref>{{cite book|title=women in distress|author=Dr.Neela Dabir|pages=97, 99|publisher=Rawat Publishers|year=2000}}</ref>

They worship [[Ganesh]], [[Vishnu]] and other Hindu gods.<ref name="chib161"/> Some CKPs may also be devotees of the religious [[swami]]s from their own caste – Ram Maruti Maharaj(Deshpande) and "Gajanan Maharaj (Gupte)", who took [[samadhi]]s at [[Kalyan]] (in 1919) and [[Nasik]] (in 1946) respectively.<ref name="IWI">{{cite book |title=The illustrated weekly of India, volume 91, part 3 |year=1970 |pages=6–13}}</ref>{{efn|quote from page 14: Rubbing shoulders with the portraits of the Gods and Goddesses would be pictures of Ram Maruti Maharaj or Gajanan Maharaj(both CKP Swamis, whose samadhis are at Kalyan and Nasik respectively)....Almost every C K.P home will have either a coloured or a black-and-white portrait of Sai Baba of Shirdi...}}<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Mountain Path – Volume 12 – No.1| page=37|publisher=T. N. Venkataraman,Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai|author=N.S.Pathak|quote=[by N.S.Pathak] My guru, Sri Gajanan Maharaj Gupte of Nasik (who attained Mahasamadhi in September 1946) was, in 1943, invited by Sri Ramana Maharshi Mandal of Matunga, Bombay, to attend the 63rd birth anniversary celebrations...}}</ref> Many CKP clans have [[Ekvira]] temple at Karle as their family deity whereas others worship Vinzai, Kadapkarin, Janani as their family deity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zelliot|first1=Eleanor|last2=Berntsen|first2=Maxine|title=The Experience of Hinduism : essays on religion in Maharashtra|date=1988|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, N.Y.|isbn=9780887066627|page=[https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell/page/335 335]|url=https://archive.org/details/experienceofhind00zell|url-access=registration|quote=ckp.}}</ref>

CKPs have had a progressive attitude regarding female education compared to other communities. For example, Dr. Christine Dobbin's research concludes that the educationally advanced communities in the 1850s – the CKPS, [[Pathare Prabhu]]s, [[Saraswat]]s, [[Daivadnya]] and the [[Parsi]]s were the first communities in the [[Bombay Presidency]] that allowed female education.<ref>{{cite book|title=Urban leadership in western India|url=https://archive.org/details/urbanleadershipi0000dobb_6|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/urbanleadershipi0000dobb_6/page/57 57–58]|author=Christine Dobbin|publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1972|isbn=978-0-19-821841-8 }}</ref>

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{ notelist}}
'''Citations'''
{{reflist}}{{Social groups of Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Prabhu Communities of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Kayastha]]
[[Category:Social groups of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Marathi people]]

Martin Irengbam

2025-11-23T00:41:14Z

AnnieSneed66: put up

{{Short description|Indian model}}
{{Meitei name|[[Irengbam]]|[[Martin (name)|Martin]]}}
{{Contains special characters|Meitei}}

'''Martin Irengbam''' is an Indian model. He is native to [[Imphal]], [[Manipur]]. He represents [[India]] at multiple international fashion shows, held across different countries. He is the winner of Mega Mister North East 2024 from [[Manipur]] state. He is also the representative of India at the Mister Top Model of Universe Contest, to be organised in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Today|first=North East|date=2024-09-19|title=Manipur's Martin Irengbam To Represent India At Mr. Top Model Universe In Turkey|url=https://www.northeasttoday.in/2024/09/19/manipurs-martin-irengbam-to-represent-india-at-mr-top-model-universe-in-turkey/|access-date=2024-09-23|website=Northeast Today|language=en-US}}</ref> He is also the winner of the 13th edition of Set Wet Mega Mister North East.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2024-09-21|title=Manipur’s Martin Irengbam to represent India at ‘Mister Top Model of Universe Contest’ in Istanbul|url=https://nenews.in/entertainment/manipurs-martin-irengbam-to-represent-india-at-mister-top-model-of-universe-contest-in-istanbul/14168/|access-date=2024-09-23|website=Northeast News - Northeast India news 24×7|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2024-09-20|title=Manipur’s Martin Irengbam to Shine on Global Stage as He Represents India at Mister Top Model of Universe 2024 in Istanbul|url=https://northeastlivetv.com/topnews/manipurs-martin-irengbam-to-shine-on-global-stage-as-he-represents-india-at-mister-top-model-of-universe-2024-in-istanbul/|access-date=2024-09-23|website=Northeast Live|language=en-US}}</ref> He is also the winner of the ''"Butterfly Mister Fashion Icon"''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India at Top Model of Universe|url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2024/3/3/GUWAHATI-Mar-2In-front-of-an-audience-from-all-across-the-North-eastern-region-Gaurish-Singh-from-Assam-M.html|access-date=2024-09-23|website=www.thesangaiexpress.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India at Top Model of Universe competition in Turkey 20240303|url=https://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=leisure.Fashion_Section.Martin_Irengbam_to_represent_India_at_Top_Model_of_Universe_competition_in_Turkey_20240303|access-date=2024-09-23|website=e-pao.net}}</ref> He is placed among the Top Give of Man Hunt 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India : 20th sep24 ~ E-Pao! Headlines|url=https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=4..200924.sep24|access-date=2024-09-23|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Martin Irengbam ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯃꯥꯔꯇꯤꯟ ꯏꯔꯦꯡꯕꯝ}}|}}) is born to Hemchandra and Ronibala. He is native to [[Kakching Khunou]] Thongam Leikai.
Currently, he lives at Kwakeithel Konjeng Awang Leikai in [[Imphal]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India : 20th sep24 ~ E-Pao! Headlines|url=https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=4..200924.sep24|access-date=2024-09-23|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>
He is brought up in a family of an army father and a homemaker mother.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India at Top Model of Universe|url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2024/3/3/GUWAHATI-Mar-2In-front-of-an-audience-from-all-across-the-North-eastern-region-Gaurish-Singh-from-Assam-M.html|access-date=2024-09-23|website=www.thesangaiexpress.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=NEWS|first=NE NOW|date=2024-03-05|title=Manipur's rising star Martin Irengbam to compete at Top Model of Universe in Turkey|url=https://nenow.in/uncategorized/manipurs-rising-star-martin-irengbam-to-compete-at-top-model-of-universe-in-turkey.html|access-date=2024-09-23|website=NORTHEAST NOW|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India at Top Model of Universe competition in Turkey 20240303|url=https://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=leisure.Fashion_Section.Martin_Irengbam_to_represent_India_at_Top_Model_of_Universe_competition_in_Turkey_20240303|access-date=2024-09-23|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>

== Education ==
Martin ({{langx|mni|{{Script|Mtei|ꯃꯥꯔꯇꯤꯟ}}|}}) did his schooling from St. Joseph School, Sangaiprou in [[Imphal West district]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2024-09-20|title=Manipur’s Martin Irengbam to Shine on Global Stage as He Represents India at Mister Top Model of Universe 2024 in Istanbul|url=https://northeastlivetv.com/topnews/manipurs-martin-irengbam-to-shine-on-global-stage-as-he-represents-india-at-mister-top-model-of-universe-2024-in-istanbul/|access-date=2024-09-23|website=Northeast Live|language=en-US}}</ref> He was a [[Bachelor of Science]] in Physical Education at [[Manipur University]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2024-09-21|title=Manipur’s Martin Irengbam to represent India at ‘Mister Top Model of Universe Contest’ in Istanbul|url=https://nenews.in/entertainment/manipurs-martin-irengbam-to-represent-india-at-mister-top-model-of-universe-contest-in-istanbul/14168/|access-date=2024-09-23|website=Northeast News - Northeast India news 24×7|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2024-09-19|title=Manipur's Martin Irengbam To Represent India At Mister Top Model Of Universe Contest In Turkey {{!}} Ukhrul Times|url=https://ukhrultimes.com/manipurs-martin-irengbam-to-represent-india-at-mister-top-model-of-universe-contest-in-turkey/|access-date=2024-09-23|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Career ==
Martin started participating in pageantry from the Manfete Manhunt 2023. Afterwards, he participated in many pageants. He was also the winner of the 13th edition of Set Wet Mega Mister North East.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2024-09-21|title=Manipur’s Martin Irengbam to represent India at ‘Mister Top Model of Universe Contest’ in Istanbul|url=https://nenews.in/entertainment/manipurs-martin-irengbam-to-represent-india-at-mister-top-model-of-universe-contest-in-istanbul/14168/|access-date=2024-09-23|website=Northeast News - Northeast India news 24×7|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=2024-09-20|title=Manipur’s Martin Irengbam to Shine on Global Stage as He Represents India at Mister Top Model of Universe 2024 in Istanbul|url=https://northeastlivetv.com/topnews/manipurs-martin-irengbam-to-shine-on-global-stage-as-he-represents-india-at-mister-top-model-of-universe-2024-in-istanbul/|access-date=2024-09-23|website=Northeast Live|language=en-US}}</ref>

Upon becoming a representative of his country for the ''"Top Model of the Universe"'', he said:
{{Quote|It is truly an honour to be able to represent my country at the Top Model of Universe pageant. I am thankful to Abhijeet Singha sir, and Mega Entertainment for giving me the opportunity and thinking I'm capable. I will try my best to make the team, and my entire country proud.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India at Top Model of Universe|url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2024/3/3/GUWAHATI-Mar-2In-front-of-an-audience-from-all-across-the-North-eastern-region-Gaurish-Singh-from-Assam-M.html|access-date=2024-09-23|website=www.thesangaiexpress.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=NEWS|first=NE NOW|date=2024-03-05|title=Manipur's rising star Martin Irengbam to compete at Top Model of Universe in Turkey|url=https://nenow.in/uncategorized/manipurs-rising-star-martin-irengbam-to-compete-at-top-model-of-universe-in-turkey.html|access-date=2024-09-23|website=NORTHEAST NOW|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India at Top Model of Universe competition in Turkey 20240303|url=https://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=leisure.Fashion_Section.Martin_Irengbam_to_represent_India_at_Top_Model_of_Universe_competition_in_Turkey_20240303|access-date=2024-09-23|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>}}

In the same event, he also achieved the ''"Butterfly Mister Fashion Icon"''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India at Top Model of Universe|url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2024/3/3/GUWAHATI-Mar-2In-front-of-an-audience-from-all-across-the-North-eastern-region-Gaurish-Singh-from-Assam-M.html|access-date=2024-09-23|website=www.thesangaiexpress.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India at Top Model of Universe competition in Turkey 20240303|url=https://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=leisure.Fashion_Section.Martin_Irengbam_to_represent_India_at_Top_Model_of_Universe_competition_in_Turkey_20240303|access-date=2024-09-23|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>
In 2023, he was also placed among the Top Give of Man Hunt 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Martin Irengbam to represent India : 20th sep24 ~ E-Pao! Headlines|url=https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=4..200924.sep24|access-date=2024-09-23|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Irengbam, Martin}}
[[Category:Meitei people]]
[[Category:Indian male models]]
[[Category:People from Manipur]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Bonaigarh

2025-10-27T19:00:07Z

AnnieSneed66: Refined content and updated sections

{{More citations needed|date=January 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bonaigarh
| settlement_type = Town
| pushpin_map = India Odisha#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Odisha, India
| coordinates = {{coord|21.75|N|84.97|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Orissa Flag(INDIA).png}} [[Odisha]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Sundargarh district|Sundargarh]]
| established_title = 
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| leader_title1 = [[District Collector|Sub Collector]]
| leader_name1 =Sri Akshya Pillay, I.A.S
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 770038
| area_code = 06626
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = Nearest RTO OD-14 (Rourkela) OD-28 (Deogarh)
| blank1_name_sec2 = Official languages
| blank1_info_sec2 = [[Odia language|Odia]]
}}

'''Bonaigarh''', also locally known as '''Bonai''', is a subdivision of [[Sundergarh district]] of the [[India]]n state of [[Odisha]]. It is 162 km east of the district headquarters in Sundargarh. It is a sub-divisional headquarter. The town is surrounded by the River Brahmani and the Khandadhar and Singardei Hills. Notable places of interest include a temple to the Hinduism deity [[Shiva]] (Baneswar Temple) and a royal palace.

The Bonaigarh subdivision is further divided into four tehsils or blocks. These include Bonaigarh, Koida, Lahunipara, and Gurundia.

== Demographics ==
The primary language spoken is Odia. Dialects spoken in the region include Sundargadi.

==History and geography==
During the [[British Raj]], Bonaigarh was the capital of [[Bonai State]]. It was one of the minor [[princely state]]s of the [[Chota Nagpur States]] belonging to the [[Eastern States Agency]].<ref name="sketch1875">Malleson, G. B.: An historical sketch of the native states of India, London 1875, Reprint Delhi 1984</ref>

Bonaigarh is located at {{Coord|21.75|N|84.97|E|}}.

== Most searched ==
Bonai Police Station = 9438916623
[[Baba Baneswar Temple Bonai]] = 7978357210 [[prist]]

==Transport==

Bonaigarh is situated besides Bhubaneswar-Rourkela National Highway which goes via Talcher, Pallahara and Barkote. From Barkote it is only 55 km. Though there is no train link to Bonaigarh, frequent buses ply between Rourkela and Barkote. Once or twice a day, buses ply from Kuchinda, Keonjhar, Deogarh, [[Cuttack]], and [[Bhubaneswar]].

There is no railway station in Bonaigarh. However, Rourkela Railway Station is the major railway station at a distance of 65 kms.

Buses are well connected to Bonaigarh from various places. For example, [[Rourkela]] is connected by Sainath bus, Raahi Travels, Dildar Travels, Rakesh Travels, Tarini Travels and Sarala Travels. [[Debagarh|Deogarh]], [[Barkote]], [[Angul]], Jharsuguda, Sambalpur and [[Sundergarh]] are connected by Sainath bus and Rakesh Coach (Rakesh Travels). Three private night buses namely "Krishna Jee", "A-ONE" and “Babamani” run to capital city [[Bhubaneswar]] via [[Dhenkanal]] and [[Cuttack]].

[[File:Khandadhar Waterfall.jpg|thumb|Khandadhar Waterfall]]

==Festivals==
Bonaigarh is famous for an annual festival known as "Chaitra Mela", which starts during mid-April and continues up to mid-May every year. A goddess known as "Maa Basuli" is worshiped by the local folks for the relevant period along with many small temporary vending markets, circuses, rides, and Operas are found in the "Mela." [[Rath Yatra]], [[Vijayadashami|Dussehra]], Kantha Puja, [[Ramnavmi]], [[Janmastami]], [[Raja]], [[Holi]] are the major festivals celebrated every year. During this time, [[Dussehra]] a goddess known as "Kanta Devi," is especially worshiped on the 9th day of the festival. Bonaigarh also has Muslim population who celebrate festivals such as [[Eid al-Fitr]], [[Eid al-Adha]] & [[Muharram]] together with the people from other religion. A small Christian population is also found who normally visit Bonaigarh Catholic Church and celebrate festivals like [[Christmas]] and [[Good Friday]]. Apart from various religious practices, customs and traditions. [[Secularism]] is prevailed widely which keeps the people united in Bonai region.

==Education==
The town is steadily growing in the field of education. It has produced many accomplished professionals, including doctors, engineers, and lawyers, who hold reputed positions in various organizations across India and abroad. The town is home to several schools and a college affiliated with Sambalpur University. However, for higher education in fields such as Medicine, Engineering, Law, Commerce, and Business Administration, residents often have to move to other cities.

== Agriculture and economy ==
There are many crops like rice, corn etc., harvested during the year. Seasonal vegetables are also available throughout the year in a cheaper rate. One villages named Talita famous for producing cauliflowers and cabbages during the winter. There are two weekly markets held on every Monday and Thursday where many local things including fruits, vegetables, groceries, utensils, pottery and plastics are traded between sellers and consumers.

It is also a good business center for the people here. There are 5 nationalized banks present here.
* STATE BANK OF INDIA, Bonai Branch (IFSC code - SBIN0001343)
* PUNJAB NATIONAL BANK, Bonai Branch (IFSC code - PUNB0498600)
* PUNJAB NATIONAL BANK, Banki Branch (IFSC code - PUNB0244500)
*STATE BANK OF INDIA, Gurundia Branch (IFSC code - SBIN0005900)
* AXIS BANK, Near Church Chowk, Deogaon
* CANARA BANK, Main road, Near post office square
* ICICI BANK LTD., Main road, Near church square
* Sundargarh District Central Cooperative Bank Bonaigarh Branch (IFSC code - YESB0SNGB02)
* HDFC BANK LTD, Bonai branch(IFSC Code - HDFC0005678)

== Medical facilities ==
There is one government hospital named "Bonaigarh Sub-Divisional Hospital," situated in the jail road. People from all the nearby villages and blocks depend on this hospital. However, some private clinics and dispensaries also exist to treat the people.

==Schools and colleges==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! S.No !! Name !! Type !! Location !! Distance in KM from Bus Stand !! Medium || BOARD
|-
| 1 || Amalapara UP School || UP || Nearby Doordarshan Office || 0.5 || Oriya || Odisha
|-
| 2 || Town UP School || UP || Nearby BSNL Office || 0.2 || Oriya || Odisha
|-
| 3
4
| Gopinathpur UP School
Kendrikala UP School
| UP
UP
| Nearby Rath Chowk
Kendrikala
| 1
2
| Oriya
Oriya
| Odisha
Odisha
|-
| 4 || Jakeikala UP School
Jakeikala ME School
| UP
ME
|Jakeikala
Jakeikala
| 6
6
| Oriya
Oriya
| Odisha
Odisha
|-
| 5 || Gopinathpur M.E. School || ME || Nearby Bus Stand || 0.2 || Oriya || Odisha
|-
| 6 || R.D.D High School || High School || Nearby R.D.D. Multipurpose Ground(Football Field) || 1 || Oriya || HSC, Odisha
|-
| 7 || Govt. Girls High School || High School || In front of BSNL Office || 0.2 || Oriya || HSC, Odisha
|-
| 8 || Kiran Kishore High School || High School || Jakeikala || 6 || Oriya || HSC, Odisha
|-
| 9 || Gogua High School || High School || Badgogua || 10 || Oriya || HSC, Odisha
|-
| 10 || Sri Aurobindo Integral Education Research Centre || High School || Nearby Bonaigarh Children Park || 0.5 || Odia || HSC, Odisha
|-
| 11 || St. Joseph's Convent School || High School || Nearby Church Chowk, Bonaigarh || 0.5 km || English
|ICSE
|-
| 12 || Bonaigarh College, Bonaigarh || College( +2,+3 & vocational) || || 0.8 || English, Oriya || CHSE, Odisha
|-
| 13 || Deogaon Primary SChool || Primary School|| Bonaigarh || 5 || Oriya || Odisha
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Sundergarh district]]

Rath tribe

2025-09-30T16:33:50Z

AnnieSneed66: quick update information to improve readability and corrected details

{{short description|Ethnic group of the Indian Jat community}}
{{one source|date=November 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Rath
| total =
| popplace = {{hlist|India|Pakistan}}
| langs = {{hlist|[[Hindi language|Hindi]] | [[Marwari language|Marwari]]}} ([[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]])
| rels = {{hlist|[[File:Om.svg|14px]] [[Hinduism]]|[[File:Allah-green.svg|15px]] [[Islam]]}}
| related = {{hlist| Jats ([[Jat|Indian Jats]] | [[Sindhi-Sipahi]] [[Jats]] | [[Qaimkhani]] [[Jat]]s)}}
}}

The '''Rath''' are a [[Jats]] community in the state of [[Rajasthan]] in India and in [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]] provinces of Pakistan. There is another Jat clan similar{{explain|date=January 2025}} to it known as '''Rathi'''.<ref name="Pati">{{cite book |last=Pati |first=Sushmita |editor1-last=Mitra |editor1-first=Iman Kumar |editor2-last=Samaddar |editor2-first=Ranabir |editor3-last=Sen |editor3-first=Samita |editor3-link=Samita Sen |title=Accumulation in Post-Colonial Capitalism |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-1037-8 |isbn=978-9811010378 |page=95 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKrCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 |access-date=17 May 2020 |chapter=Accumulation by Possession: The Social Processes of Rent Seeking in Urban Delhi}}</ref>{{Cn|date=September 2025}}

== Background ==

===History ===

Historically, the Rath were a community of [[pastoral]] [[nomad]]s, breeding mainly cows and sheep, as well as cultivating dry crops, and migrating three to nine months of the year. Till about the 1950s, no recognized rights to the land existed. This was in marked contrast to the related [[Pachhada]] community, who were found in [[Hissar District|Hissar]] and [[Mahendragarh district|Mahendargarh]] districts of [[Haryana]], who was forced to settle down by the [[United Kingdom|British]] authorities in the late 19th century. With the construction of the [[Indira Gandhi Canal]], land was divided up, and a large number granted to settlers. This led to a drastic reduction in the grazing area, and process that has led to the abandoning of the nomadic lifestyle. The community are now only partially nomadic, with some members taking the cattle and sheep to their grazing areas, while the majority remaining in the village.<ref name=ra1>Resisting Change? Adaptations by Traditional Pastoralists to the Rajasthan Canal Project by Saurabh Sinha International Institute for Environment and Development, Dryland Development Project page 21</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Indian Muslim|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rath (Tribe)}}
[[Category:Social groups of Punjab, Pakistan]]
[[Category:Saraiki tribes]]
[[Category:Punjabi tribes]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of India]]
[[Category:Social groups of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of Rajasthan]]

Ganga (TV series)

2025-09-07T11:45:09Z

AnnieSneed66:

{{Short description|Indian television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Ganga (2017 TV series).jpg
| caption =
| genre = Soap opera [[Supernatural]]
| creator =
| based_on =
| writer = C. U. Muthuselvan Ashokan (Dialogues)
| director = Sadhasivam Perumaal (1–176) R. Ilavarasan (177–287) N.Sundhareshwaran (287–464)
| creative_director = Sujatha Vijaykumar
| starring = Pradeep Bennetto Ryan Mounica Vimal Venkatesan
| theme_music_composer = Srikanth Deva
| opentheme = "Ganga Maa" [[Ananthu (singer)|Ananthu]] (Vocals) [[Kiruthiya]] (Lyrics)
| country = India
| language = Tamil
| num_seasons = 2
| num_episodes = 464
| list_episodes =
| producer =
| cinematography = Vaseegaran P.Chithiraiselvan
| editor = Manikandan Ravi Akbar Baasha N.Vishwa
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = approx. 20–22 minutes per episode
| company = Home Movie Makers Pvt. Ltd
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2017|1|2}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=y|2018|7|7}}
| screenplay = sarath
| story = Indhra Soundharajan
| music =
| channel = [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]
}}

'''Ganga''' is a 2017 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language supernatural soap opera, starring [[Mounica]], Pradeep, Piyali, [[Anuradha (actress)|Anuradha]] and [[Yuvarani]] in the first season. The story is partially based on [[Indra Soundar Rajan]]'s novel and remake of the [[Telugu language]] television series ''Saptha Mathrika'' which aired on [[Gemini TV]] from 2016–2017. It replaced ''[[Pasamalar (TV series)|Pasamalar]]'' and aired on [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]] from Monday to Saturday from 2 January 2017 to 7 July 2018 for 464 episodes which was then replaced by Kanmani serial .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vikatan.com/cinema/tamil-cinema/television/78588-mystery-serials-who-will-win-the-race.html|title=சாபமாய்த் துரத்தும் கங்கா New serial on Sun TV|date=24 January 2017 |publisher=vikatan.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sunnetwork.in/program-details.aspx?IProgramID=k9/JYJ90ECA=&ShowType=What%27s%20New|title=Ganga Serial Page|publisher=sunnetwork.in}}</ref>

The second season of this serial starred Pradeep Bennetto Ryan, Mounica, Jayashri Chaki, Kalyani, Vimal Venkatesan, Geerthana, Aravind, GK, Premi Venkat, Ajay Kapoor and Vincent Roy. The show completed its 400th episode on 24 April 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/ganga-serial-crosses-400-episodes/articleshow/63912031.cms|title=Ganga serial crosses 400 episodes|website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com|date=25 April 2018 |accessdate=2018-04-26}}</ref>

==Synopsis==
;Season 01
The story takes place in the small village of Kannikapuram where a curse has been cast upon the unwed maidens of the village by Ganga, a powerful deity. Abhirami, the lead protagonist, falls in love with a man from the same village but is unable to confess her love to him due to the fear of the curse. As a result, she decides to find a way to break the curse and save the unwed maidens from the wrath of Ganga.

Abhirami's journey takes her through various challenges as she tries to uncover the reason behind the curse and find a way to lift it. She faces opposition from the village elders who are wary of challenging the power of the deity, but she persists in her efforts, determined to find a solution. Along the way, Abhirami discovers the truth about her own family and her connection to the curse. Will she be able to save the village from the curse and marry the man she loves?

;Season 02
After the events of Season 01, the story continues with the marriage of Shiva and Gowri. However, Gowri soon realizes that Shiva still harbors feelings for Abhirami and not her. Faced with this reality, she decides to help Shiva marry Abhirami instead.

As the wedding preparations are underway, a tragic accident occurs which results in Shiva losing his memory. He has no recollection of his past, including his marriage to Abhirami. Gowri and Abhirami are left to pick up the pieces and help Shiva regain his memories.

This journey is not without its challenges, as Gowri struggles to come to terms with her own feelings for Shiva and Abhirami grapples with the possibility that Shiva may never remember their love. The story follows the trio as they navigate the complexities of their relationships and ultimately find a way to move forward together.

Will Shiva regain his memories and accept Abhirami as his wife? How will Gowri come to terms with her feelings for Shiva? The answers to these questions form the crux of Season 02.

==Cast==
;Main cast
* Pradeep Benetto Ryan as Shiva (Gowri and Abirami's husband) (Episode: 1 – 464)
* [[Mounica]] as Gangamma (Episode: 1–186) / Gowri Shiva (Shiva's First Wife) (double role from Episode: 131 – 464)
* Kalyani as Abirami (Shiva's Second wife) (Episode: 220–464)
* Vimal Venkatesan as Jeyasimma (Krishna's brother and Malar's husband) (Episode: 131 – 464)
* Suju Vasan as Malar (Jeyasimma's wife) (Episode: 250 – 464)
* Ajay Kapoor as Ajay Jayaraman (AJ; Antagonist, Episode: 220–464)

;Additional cast
* Keerthana Podhuval as Sowmya (Abirami's sister & Krishna's wife)
* Fawaz Zayani as Krishna (Sowmya's husband)
* Premi Venkat as Dhamayandhi (Jeyasimma's mother)
* [[Iraa Agarwal]] as Mahima
* Prabhavathi
* Ravi Raj
* Vincent Roy as Ramanathan (Episode: 220–464)
* Murali Kumar as Narasimha, Bhupathi's son
* Jeevitha as ACP Swarna
* Sujatha

;Former Cast
* Piyali Munshi as Abirami (Episode: 1–186), a Goddess power and tale of Ganga, she loves Shiva, but some reason Shiva gets to married Gowri.
* L.Raja as Abirami & Sowmya's father (Episode: 1–186)
* [[Yuvarani]] as Kanaka, Shiva's mother (died in the serial) (Episode: 8-186), Shiva Mother and Gowri Aunt
* [[Kavitha (actress)|Kavitha]] as Rudhramma (Episode: 123–151)
* [[Manju Bhargavi]] as Alangaara Naachiyaar (Episode 1 to 43) and [[Anuradha (actress)|Anuradha]] as Alangaara Naachiyaar
* Navin Victor as Prabha (died in the serial, killed by) (Episode: 1–95), Shiva and Abirami colleague
* --- (Episode: 189 – 199) and [[Poornitha|Kalyani]] as Malar (Episode: 200 – 249)
* Aravind as Krishna (Sowmya's husband)
* Vijakrushna Raj as Zamindar Bhupathi
* Naveen Arakkal
* [[GK (art director)|GK]] as Narasimha, Bhupathi's son
* Ashok Kannan
* Subalakshmi Rangan as Karthika
* Nivisha

==Casting==
;Season 1
Season 1 Series is a Supernatural Fantasy Thriller story produced by Home Movie Makers under the banner [[Home Movie Makers Pvt.Ltd]] that airs on [[Sun TV (India)|Sun TV]]. Actress Piyali Munshi was selected to portray the lead role of Abirami, This is First serial in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language. Who is known for her Serial in [[Hindi Language]] likes [[Siya Ke Ram]], [[Sasural Simar Ka]], [[Santoshi Maa (TV series)|Santoshi Maa]] and [[Savdhaan India]]. [[Telugu Language|Telugu]] Actress '''Mounica''' Makes her debut in Tamil Serial in and as Ganga. '''Pradeep''' was selected to portray the lead role of Shiva. [[Yuvarani]] who was also cast in Home Movie Makers TV Series [[Pasamalar (TV series)|Pasamalar]] was selected to portray the Main role of Shiva's mother. [[Manju Bhargavi]] was cast to portray the negative role of Alangaara Naachiyaar. Later [[Anuradha (actress)|Anuradha]] was replaced role of Alangaara Naachiyaar in Episode: 44. Other supporting cast include GK, Premi Venkat, Aravind, Prabhavathi, Vijakrushna Raj.

;Season 2
Season 2 Series is a Family story, in this Season old actors are working with new actors. Actress [[Poornitha]] was selected to portray the new lead role of Malar. Who is known for her Serial like Annamalai, [[Pirivom Santhippom (serial)|Pirivom Santhippom: Season 1]], [[Thayumanavan (TV series)|Thayumanavan]] and [[Andal Azhagar]]. Later ''Sri Padma'' was replaced role of Malar in Episode: 250. Other first-season cast include Pradeep Benetto Ryan, Mounica, Vimal Venkatesan, Geerthana, Aravind and Premi Venkat.

==Seasons overview==
{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
!style="padding:0 9px;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"|Season
!style="padding:0 9px;" rowspan="2"|Episodes
!style="padding:0 90px;" colspan="2"|Originally aired
!style="padding:0 90px;" rowspan="2"|Time
!style="padding:0 90px;" rowspan="2"|Genre
|-
!First aired
!Last aired
|-
|scope="row" style="background:#FB607F; color:#120;"|
|'''1'''
|1–186
|{{start date|df=yes|2017|1|2}}
|{{end date|df=yes|2017|8|8}}
| rowspan="2" | Monday – Saturday 6:30PM ([[Indian Standard Time|IST]])
| [[Supernatural]] [[Fantasy]] [[Thriller (genre)|Thriller]] [[Romance film|Romance]] Family
|-
|scope="row" style="background:#8d85f2; color:#100;"|
|'''2'''
|187–464
| {{start date|df=yes|2017|8|9}}
| {{end date|df=yes|2018|7|7}}
| [[Romance film|Romance]] Family
|-
|}

==Original soundtrack==
===Title song===
It was written by lyricist [[Kiruthiya]], composed by the music director [[Srikanth Deva]]. It was sung by [[Ananthu (singer)|Ananthu]].

===Soundtrack===
{{tracklist
| headline = Track list
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Ganga Maa (கங்கம்மா)
| lyrics1 = [[Kiruthiya]]
| extra1 = [[Ananthu (singer)|Ananthu]]
| length1 = 4:00
| title2 = Chellatha Gangaiyamma (செல்லதா கங்கையம்மா)
| lyrics2 = [[Kiruthiya]]
| extra2
= [[Chinnaponnu (singer)|Chinnaponnu]]
| length2 = 2:00
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141007220928/http://www.suntvnetwork.in/tv-channel-details.aspx?Channelid=1&channelname=SUN%20TV&LanguageID=1&Type=q Official Website] {{in lang|en}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/suntv Sun TV on YouTube]
* [http://www.suntv.in/ Sun TV Network] {{in lang|en}}
* [http://www.sun.in Sun Group] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412165809/http://www.sun.in/ |date=12 April 2019 }} {{in lang|en}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCrBmeh3SbytxO2pCdP2lN4A/Home Movie Makers on YouTube]

{{Sun TV shows}}

[[Category:Sun TV original programming]]
[[Category:Tamil-language horror fiction television series]]
[[Category:Tamil-language mystery television series]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romance television series]]
[[Category:Tamil-language thriller television series]]
[[Category:2010s Tamil-language television series]]
[[Category:2017 Tamil-language television series debuts]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television shows]]
[[Category:2017 Tamil-language television seasons]]
[[Category:2018 Tamil-language television series endings]]
[[Category:Tamil-language television series based on Telugu-language television series]]

Haldeshwar Mahadev Temple

2025-07-27T16:45:01Z

AnnieSneed66: starting place

{{Short description|Hindu temple in Rajasthan, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2024}}{{Infobox Hindu temple
| name =Haldeshwar Mahadev Temple
| image =Haldeshwar Mahadev temple.jpg|
| caption = Haldeshwar Mahadev temple
| deity =[[Shiva]]
| location =[[Siwana]]
| country =India
| state =[[Rajasthan]]
| district =[[Balotra district]]
| map_type = India Rajasthan#India
| coordinates ={{coord|25|34|25|N|72|20|47|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| established =1705 AD
| architecture_style =Nilachal Architecture
}}

'''Haldeshwar Mahadev Temple''', popularly known as '''Mini Mount''', is situated at foothills of Chhappan hills near [[Siwana]] in [[Balotra district]] of Rajasthan amidst the [[Aravalli Range|Aravali mountain ranges]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-07-31 |title=सात दुर्गम पहाडिय़ों के पार है भोले का हल्देश्वर धाम {{!}} Faith of devotees in Savane in Haldeshwar Dham |url=https://www.patrika.com/barmer-news/faith-of-devotees-in-savane-in-haldeshwar-dham-3186446 |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=Patrika News |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-10 |title=बाड़मेर: शिवालयों में गूंजे हर-हर भोले के शंखनाद, सुबह से भक्तों की भारी भीड़, मंदिरों में हुई विशेष पूजा |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/rajasthan/barmer-shankhnaad-of-har-har-bhole-echoed-in-pagodas-of-barmer-huge-crowd-of-devotees-since-morning-special-worship-in-temples-on-first-monday-6827705.html |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Garg |first=Santosh Kumar |date=2024-07-27 |title=बजट घोषणा के तहत हल्देश्वर महादेव के किए दर्शन - Basti Times 24 |url=https://bastitimes24.in/2024/07/27/visited-haldeshwar-mahadev-under-budget-announcement/ |access-date=2024-08-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Warships==
The temple is unique in its status as a place of worship for [[Shaivism|Shivaites]].{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

== Temple history ==
===Local legend===
According to mythological beliefs, the Chhappan Hills were once terrorized by a demon named Haldia. To be freed from the demon's reign of terror, the villagers prayed to Lord Shiva. As a result, Lord Shiva appeared under a Peepal tree and killed the demon, relieving the villagers from their fear. Since then, this place has been known as Haldeshwar Mahadev.

There is also a hill at this location where Guru Gorakhnath's cave and Dhuni (sacred fire) are found. Guru Gorakhnath meditated here for many years. Additionally, during the Mahabharata period, the Pandavas spent their period of exile (Agyatvas) here. Nearby, on a high hill, there is a temple dedicated to Maa Bhawani, though reaching it is quite difficult.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sawan 2024: सात दुर्गम पहाडियों के बीच बना हल्देश्वर महादेव, जहां पीपल के पेड़ के नीचे प्रकट हुए थे भगवान शिव |url=https://rajasthan.ndtv.in/know-your-state/sawan-2024-balotra-haldeshwar-mahadev-built-between-seven-hills-where-lord-shiva-appeared-under-a-peepal-tree-6158920 |access-date=2025-04-12 |website=rajasthan.ndtv.in |language=hi}}</ref>

The Chhappan hills at the foot of Piploon village in Siwana are in their full glory in the month of Saavan. The rains bring laughter to their lives. The pilgrimage place Haldeshwar Mahadev is situated amidst these hills. This is the end of the Aravali mountain range.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-19 |title=मिनी माउंट है छप्पन की पहाड़ियों में बसा 'हल्देश्वर महादेव तीर्थ - Namaskaar Nation |url=https://namaskaarnation.com/haldeshwar-mahadev-shrine-situated-in-the-hills-of-mini-mount-hai-chappan/ |access-date=2024-05-27 |language=en-US |archive-date=27 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527195236/https://namaskaarnation.com/haldeshwar-mahadev-shrine-situated-in-the-hills-of-mini-mount-hai-chappan/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The faith of the devotees overflows in Haldeshwar Dham in the month of [[Shravana (month)|Saavan]]. It is not easy to reach here. Devotees and tourists have to cross '''seven hills''' to reach the Dham. The hilly path is difficult and confusing. Faith in Lord Bhole paves an easy path for the one who comes here. It is believed that the wishes of the devotees coming here are fulfilled. Devotees come for darshan from every corner of the country.<ref>{{Cite web |last=hindirakshakmanch |date=2020-01-09 |title=इतिहास नगरी गढ़ सिवाणा : संत-शूरमाओं की मातृभूमि |url=https://www.hindirakshak.com/history-city-citadel-sewana-motherland-of-saints/ |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=hindirakshak |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.bhaskar.com/amp/local/rajasthan/barmer/balotra/news/pleased-with-the-penance-of-krishnas-brother-haldhar-balarama-mahadev-himself-revealed-the-jyotirling-haldeshwar-129452994 Pleased with the penance of Lord Krishna's brother Haldhar and Balram, Mahadev himself revealed the Jyotirlinga Haldeshwar]{{dead link|date=May 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}

{{Shaivism}}
{{Shiva temples}}
{{Portal|Hinduism|India
}}
[[Category:Shiva temples in India]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Barmer district]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Barmer]]
[[Category:Folk deities of Rajasthan]]

{{India-hindu-temple-stub}}

Yenegur

2025-07-22T05:08:24Z

AnnieSneed66: started a details with sources.

{{short description|Village in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Yenegur
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| nickname =
| pushpin_map = India Maharashtra#India3
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maharashtra, India
| coordinates = {{coord|17|51|12.0|N|76|26|22.2|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type2 = Region
| subdivision_name2 = [[Marathwada]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of Maharashtra|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Osmanabad District|Osmanabad]]
| subdivision_type4 = Tehsil/Taluka
| subdivision_name4 = [[Umarga Taluka|Omerga]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type = State Government & Central Government
| governing_body = Village Panchayat
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| population_total = 6,747
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes =<ref name="census-handbook-2011">[https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3642e92efb79421734881b53e1e1b18b6/uploads/2018/03/2018031253.pdf District Census Handbook Osmanabad]</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics2_title1 =
| demographics2_info1 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 413604
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = (+91) 2475
| registration_plate = MH 25
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha Constituency]]
| blank_info_sec1 = [[Osmanabad (Lok Sabha constituency)|Osmanabad]]
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha|Vidhan Sabha Constituency]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Umarga (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Omerga]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Assembly Constituencies-Post delimitation: Maharashtra: Osmanabad District |publisher=National Informatics Centre, Government of India |url=http://gisserver1.nic.in/ecimaps/ECIPDF/Mah_Maps/Osmanabad.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505190604/http://gisserver1.nic.in/ecimaps/ECIPDF/Mah_Maps/Osmanabad.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-05-05 }}</ref>
| website = https://osmanabad.gov.in/
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-MH]]
| footnotes =
| demographics1_info1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
}}

'''Yenegur''' is a major village located in [[Umarga Taluka|Omerga]]<ref>[https://mrsac.gov.in/writereaddata/MRSAC/map/15669938535d666dbdd4454TH_OBD_Umarga.pdf Maharashtra Remote Sensing Application Centre (M.R.S.A.C.)- Villages in Omerga Taluka]</ref> tehsil of [[Osmanabad District|Osmanabad]] district,<ref>[http://www.pngrb.gov.in/pdf/cgd/bid5/Osmanabad_District.pdf Osmanabad District Map]</ref><ref>[https://www.surveyofindia.gov.in/files/OSMANABAD.compressed_1.pdf Survey Of India- Osmanabad District Map]</ref><ref name="censusindia">2001 Census Village code for Yenegur= 03657700, {{Cite web|title=2001 Census of India: List of Villages by Tehsil: Maharashtra|publisher=Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|page=708|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/PLCN/dir-27R.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113195156/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/PLCN/DIR-27r.pdf|archivedate=13 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> which is part of the [[Marathwada]] region of the state of [[Maharashtra]] in [[States and union territories of India|India]].

The geographical coordinates i.e. latitude and longitude of Yenegur is 17°51'12.0"N and 76°26'22.2"E respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://village.org.in/Yenegur |title=Latitude and Longitude of Yenegur |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=30 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190930020931/http://village.org.in/Yenegur |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[Benitura Dam|Benitura]] river is a tributary of the [[Bhima river]] rises on the slopes of Deobet hill and flows in a South westerly direction passing by villages Jevali, Yenegur and [[Murum, Osmanabad|Murum]].

There is a Math in the village known as ''Karibasaveshwar Math''.

Yenegur is famous for a market centre for a trade of livestock.<ref name="livestock-market">[https://ahd.maharashtra.gov.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=200&Itemid=138 Important livestock markets in the State- Department of Animal Husbandry, Government of Maharashtra (India)]</ref> Every monday falls a weekly bazaar for foodgrain, cloth, vegetable and livestock.<ref name="livestock-market"/>

== Demographics ==
According to the 2011 census, Yenegur had a population of 6,747.,<ref name="census-handbook-2011"/> out of which 3,409 are males and 3,338 are females. Total 4,656 literate people, out of which 2,552 are male and 2,104 are female.<ref name="census-handbook-2011"/>

[[Marathi language|Marathi]] is the native and most widely spoken language of the village. Urdu is also spoken by some people.

== Education ==
Village has one higher secondary school with junior college, one ZP (District Administrated) primary school. Also few private English nursery schools have been started.

== Health Services ==
Village has one [[Primary Health Centre (India)|Primary Health Center (PHC)]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://images.aarogya.com/aarogya/pdf/dwl-primary-health.pdf |title=District wise Location of PHCs |access-date=8 September 2019 |archive-date=20 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920173726/http://images.aarogya.com/aarogya/pdf/dwl-primary-health.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and few private clinics have also been there in operation.

== History ==
Yenegur was the part of the [[Hyderabad State]] as [[Osmanabad District]] was ruled by [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizam]] till 27 September 1948. Then [[Hyderabad State]] was merged with independent [[India]] and the [[Osmanabad District]] became a part of the [[Bombay State|Mumbai State]]. It became a part of [[Maharashtra|Maharashtra State]] when the State was formed on 1 May 1960.

===Earthquake===

Yenegur<ref name="earthquake">[https://www.seismosoc.org/Publications/BSSA_html/bssa_100-2/2008328-esupp/TableS2.html Earthquakes in India from 1636 to 2009]</ref> had [[intraplate earthquake]] on 30 September 1993, which is known as [[1993 Latur earthquake|Killari Earthquake]].<ref name="earthquake" /> The earthquake measured 6.3 on the Richter magnitude scale. There were 52 villages demolished and approximately 10,000 people died from [[Umarga Taluka|Omerga]] and [[Ausa Taluka|Ausa]] tehsils from [[Osmanabad District|Osmanabad]] and [[Latur district|Latur]] districts respectively.<ref name="earthquake" /> Resettlement has been done for the villages.

== Transportation ==
Yenegur is well connected by roads. All time [[Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation]] buses are available to reach the village.

[[Pune]]-[[Indapur]]-[[Solapur]]-[[Umarga|Omerga]]-[[Hyderabad]]-[[Vijayawada]]-[[Machilipatnam]]([[Andhra Pradesh]]) National Highway [[National Highway 65 (India)|NH-65]]<ref>[http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2011/E_574_2012_016.pdf New Numbering of National Highways notification - Government of India]</ref><ref name="NHDetails">[https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/Details-of-National-Highways-as-on-31.03.pdf Details of National Highways (NHs) as on 31.03.2019]</ref> passes through the Yenegur.

New National Highway [[National Highway 548B (India)|NH-548B]]<ref name="NHDetails" /><ref>[http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2017/173465.pdf New national highways notifications dated Jan, 2017]</ref><ref>[http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2017/174498.pdf National highways substitution notification]</ref> [[Mantha, Jalna|Mantha]]-[[Sailu|Selu]]-[[Pathri|Pathari]]-[[Sonpeth]]-[[Parli, Maharashtra|Parali]]-[[Ambajogai]]-[[Latur]]-[[Ausa (town)|Ausa]]-[[Umarga|Omerga]]-Yenegur-[[Murum, Osmanabad|Murum]]-[[Alur, Osmanabad|Alur]]-[[Akkalkot]]-Nagansur-[[Bijapur|Vijayapura]]-[[Athani, Belgavi|Athani]]-Chikhodi-[[Sankeshwar, Karnataka|Sankeshwar]]-Gotur([[Karnataka]]) passes nearby Yenegur.

Yenegur is not connected by railway. The nearest railway station is [[Solapur railway station|Solapur]].

===Nearby Cities===

[[Umarga|Omerga]]- 20 Km, [[Osmanabad]]- 74 Km, [[Tuljapur]]- 52 Km, [[Naldurg]]- 20 Km, [[Solapur]]- 65 Km, [[Akkalkot]]- 60 Km, [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]]- 312 Km, [[Pune]]- 315 Km, [[Hyderabad]]- 247 km.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Osmanabad district]]
[[Category:Osmanabad district]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Osmanabad district]]
[[Category:Aurangabad division]]

Kannur: Inside India's Bloodiest Revenge Politics

2025-07-18T14:36:41Z

AnnieSneed66: starting new stub

{{Short description|2018 book}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Kannur: Inside India's Bloodiest Revenge Politics
| image = File:Kannur,_Inside_India's_Bloodiest_Revenge_Politics.jpeg
| genre = [[Non-fiction]]
| subject = [[Politics]]
| publisher = [[Penguin Viking]] in India
| media_type = Print ([[hardcover]])
| country = India
| language = English
| release_date = 19 June 2018
| pages = 232 pp (First Edition)
| isbn = 978-0670090693
| author = [[Ullekh NP]]
}}

'''Kannur: Inside India's Bloodiest Revenge Politics''' is a non-fiction book by Indian writer and journalist [[Ullekh NP]]. Published by [[Penguin Viking]] in June 2018, the book explores the deep-rooted political violence in [[Kannur]], a coastal district in the south Indian state of [[Kerala]]. The book examines the ongoing conflicts between the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)) and the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS), delving into the history and socio-political dynamics of the region.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kannur: Inside India's Bloodiest Revenge Politics |author=Ullekh N.P. |date=19 June 2018 |url=https://www.penguin.co.in/book/kannur/ |publisher=Penguin Random House India |access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref>

==Synopsis==
The book provides a detailed account of Kannur's history of political violence, tracing its origins and evolution. Ullekh NP, a native of [[Kannur]], presents first-hand insights into the bloodshed that has shaped the district's political landscape. Through interviews with perpetrators, victims, and political figures, the book sheds light on the motivations behind the ongoing violence.

==Reception==
The book received positive reviews from various scholars, journalists, and political analysts. Indian politician and writer [[Shashi Tharoor]] praised the book, stating: "At once well-researched and deeply felt, supported by interviews with perpetrators and victims alike, and backed up by a wealth of factual detail, Kannur is a book that provides both information and insight in a simple and lucidly accessible style. It deserves to be read by anyone concerned about the spiral of political violence bedevilling this part of God’s Own Country."<ref>{{cite web |title=Cult of Killing Seems Entrenched in Kannur Which Deserves Sobriquet of 'India's Sicily' |author=Shashi Tharoor |last2=Thirumalai |first2=Nitya|date=23 June 2018 |url=https://www.news18.com/news/opinion/shashi-tharoor-cult-of-killing-seems-entrenched-in-kannur-which-deserves-the-sobriquet-of-indias-sicily-1787789.html |publisher=News18 |access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref>

[[The Hindu]] quoting the book asserted that Political violence in [[Kannur district]] of [[Kerala]] is the result of a turf war between two competing ideologies.<ref>{{cite news |title='Kannur: Inside India's Bloodiest Revenge Politics' Review – Vendetta Rules |author=Mohamed Nazeer |date=28 July 2018 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/kannur-inside-indias-bloodiest-revenge-politics-review-vendetta-rules/article24532857.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref> [[The Print]] said Ullekh's book has a possible antidote for political violence in Kannur.<ref>{{cite news |title=Journalist Ullekh's book has a possible antidote for political violence in Kannur |author=Rajgopal Singh |date=15 July 2018 |url=https://theprint.in/pageturner/book-bites/a-journalists-bid-to-set-the-record-straight-on-political-violence-in-kannur/82875/ |publisher=The Print |access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref>

In the foreword of the book, [[Sumantra Bose]], Professor of International and Comparative Politics at the [[London School of Economics and Political Science]], noted that Ullekh NP was uniquely positioned to write this account, given his background and deep personal connections. He commented: "Being an ‘insider’—and a politically connected insider, at that—can however pose disadvantages as well as advantages for the writer. His account is admirably unbiased and impartial. He also writes with an ideal mixture of empathy and detachment. He tells the story of unending horror with deadpan factuality, tinged with compassion."<ref>{{cite web |title=Kannur: Inside India's Bloodiest Revenge Politics |author=Ullekh N.P. |date=19 June 2018 |url=https://www.penguin.co.in/book/kannur/ |publisher=Penguin Random House India |access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref>

==Translations==
The book was also translated into Malayalam and published by Mathrubhumi.<ref>{{cite book |title=Kannur |author=Ullekh NP |publisher=Mathrubhumi Books |location=Kozhikode |url=https://www.mbibooks.com/writer/ullekh-n-p/ |access-date=15 February 2025}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]

*[[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:2018 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian books]]
[[Category:Books about politics of India]]

Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration

2025-06-21T01:54:42Z

AnnieSneed66: Starting The Biography First Draft

{{Short description|Indian LGBT Rights Case Law}}
{{Infobox court case
| name = Arun Kumar v. Inspector General of Registration
| judges = Justice [[G. R. Swaminathan]]
| opinions = *A [[trans woman]] is a "bride" within the meaning of the [[Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|Hindu Marriage Act of 1955]]
*[[Intersex medical interventions|Genital-normalizing surgery]] (referred to as sex reassignment surgery in the case) for [[intersex]] children except on life-threatening situations are prohibited.
| decision by = Justice [[G. R. Swaminathan]]
| number of judges = 1
| court = [[Madras High Court]]
| date decided = 22 April 2019
| full name = Arun kumar {{Abbr|&|and}} {{Abbr|Anr.|Another}} versus Inspector General of Registration {{Abbr|&|and}} {{Abbr|Ors.|Others}}
| caption =
| imagealt =
| imagelink =
| imagesize =
| image =
| citations = {{URL|1=https://www.livelaw.in/pdf_upload/pdf_upload-360185.pdf|2={{Abbr|W. P. (MD) No.|Writ Petition (Madurai) Number}} 4125 of 2019}}
| keywords = [[Transgender rights movement|Transgender Rights]], [[Intersex human rights|Intersex Rights]], [[Queer|Queer Relationships]], [[Queer|Queer Marriages]]
}}

'''Arun Kumar {{Abbr|&|and}} {{Abbr|Anr.|Another}} versus Inspector General of Registration''' '''{{Abbr|&|and}} {{Abbr|Ors.|Others}} (2019)''' is a [[List of landmark court decisions in India|landmark judgement]] of the [[Madras High Court]] which recognised [[trans woman]] as a "bride" within the meaning of the [[Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|Hindu Marriage Act 1955]] and prohibited [[Intersex medical interventions|genital-normalizing surgery]] (referred to as sex reassignment surgery in the case) for [[intersex]] infants and children except on life-threatening situations.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Tamil Nadu Government Order Banning Surgeries on Intersex Infants (2019) |url=https://translaw.clpr.org.in/legislation/tamil-nadu-government-order-banning-surgeries-on-intersex-infants-2019/ |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=South Asian Translaw Database |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

The [[Supreme Court of India]] highlighted the case in its publication titled "Sensitisation Module for the Judiciary on LGBTIQA+ Community" as one of the [[High courts of India|High Court]] judgments that effectively addressed the difficulties and obstacles experienced by queer individuals within the justice system due to their systemic marginalization.<ref name=":02">{{Citation |last=Supreme Court of India |title=Sensitisation Module for the Judiciary on LGBTIQA+ Community |url=https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s388ef51f0bf911e452e8dbb1d807a81ab/uploads/2023/05/2023050154.pdf |pages=25 |publication-date=26 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602010134/https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s388ef51f0bf911e452e8dbb1d807a81ab/uploads/2023/05/2023050154.pdf |publisher=Supreme Court of India |archive-date=2 June 2023 |author-link=Supreme Court of India}}</ref>

== Background ==
On 31 November 2018, Arun Kumar married his wife, Srija, a [[transgender woman]], in a traditional Hindu ceremony at the Arulmighu Sankara Rameswara temple in [[Tuticorin]]; the couple subsequently sought to register their marriage with the Joint Registrar at [[Tuticorin]] under the [[Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|Hindu Marriage Act 1955]]. The registrar refused to enter the marriage into the [[Tamil Nadu]] marriage registry on the basis that the marriage was prohibited, as under the Hindu Marriage Act, a marriage is conducted between a "bride" and a "groom"; the registrar indicated that Srija was not a "bride" within the meaning of the act. The couple thus filed suit in the Madras High Court seeking an order from the court compelling the Registrar to enroll their marriage.<ref name=":0">{{Cite court|litigants=Arun kumar {{Abbr|&|and}} {{Abbr|Anr.|Another}} versus Inspector General of Registration {{Abbr|&|and}} {{Abbr|Ors.|Others}}|court=[[Madras High Court|Madurai Bench of Madras High Court]]|opinion={{Abbr|W. P. (MD) No.|Writ Petition (Madurai) Number}} 4125 of 2019|date=22 April 2019|url=https://www.livelaw.in/pdf_upload/pdf_upload-360185.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Arunkumar & other vs. The Inspector General of Registration & others |url=https://translaw.clpr.org.in/case-law/arunkumar-vs-the-inspector-general-of-registration/ |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=South Asian Translaw Database |publisher=Centre for Law and Policy Research |language=en-US |publication-place=Bangalore, India}}</ref>

== Proceedings ==
The Madurai Bench of the Madras High Court was asked to consider whether the term ‘bride’ could include transgender women, within the meaning of Section 5 of the [[Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|Hindu Marriage Act 1955]]. The petitioners further asked the court to consider whether the refusal to register the marriage of a person based on sexual orientation or gender identity violates the right to equality before the law, freedom of speech and expression, protection of life and personal liberty and freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion guaranteed under the [[Constitution of India]].<ref name=":0" />

During the proceedings, the Bench was made aware that Srija was born with an [[intersex]] variation, but the school records identified her as male. Additionally, through Intersex activist [[Gopi Shankar Madurai|Gopi Shankar]], the Bench was made aware that the [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]] regulates medical procedures, including sex reassignment surgeries, for intersex children only after a thorough assessment of the patient and obtaining written consent from the parent or guardian.<ref name=":0" />

== Opinion of the Court ==

=== Right to Marry for Transgender Persons ===
The court observed that the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] provides for the right to marry and family life. The court noted the Supreme Court's verdict in [[Right to Privacy verdict|''Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017)'']]'','' which highlighted the contradiction in recognising the right to privacy in different aspects of family life but excluding it for the decision to enter into relationships— the foundational part of family life. The court relied on the Supreme Court's ruling in ''[[Hadiya case|Shafin Jahan v. Ashokan J.M.(2018)]]'', which recognized the right to choose a marital partner as a Constitutional right. Furthermore, the court relied on the Supreme Court's decision in [[National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India|''NLSA v. Union of India (2014)'']], which recognised the right to marry for a transgender person.<ref name=":0" />

The court relied on the [[National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India|''NLSA v. Union of India (2014)'']], which held that "self-determination of gender is an integral part of personal autonomy and self-expression and falls within the realm of personal liberty guaranteed under Article 21 of the [[Constitution of India]]." Therefore, the court held that under Section 5 of the [[Hindu Marriage Act, 1955|Hindu Marriage Act of 1955]], transgender women are recognized as "brides" based on their self-identification as women, meaning that those who perceive themselves as women are legally considered as such.<ref name=":0" />

The court held that while [[Parliament of India|Parliament]] may not have considered that trans women would fall under the Act, "The expression “bride”...cannot have a static or immutable meaning. As noted in Justice G.P. Singh's Principles of Statutory Interpretation, the court is free to apply the current meaning of a statute to present day conditions."<ref name=":0" />

Consequently, the court held that the marriage between Arun Kumar and Srija, being validly conducted, must be considered a lawful marriage insofar as failure to do so would violate Srija's constitutional rights. The court issued the writ sought by the couple, ordering the Registrar to enroll their marriage.<ref name=":0" />

=== Prohibition of Genital Surgery for Intersex Children ===
During the proceedings, the Court was made aware that the [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]] regulates medical procedures, including sex reassignment surgeries, for intersex children only after a thorough assessment of the patient and obtaining written consent from the parent or guardian.<ref name=":0" />

The court relied on the Supreme Court's verdict in [[National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India|''NLSA v. Union of India (2014)'']], which established that individuals cannot be compelled to undergo medical procedures, such as [[gender-affirming surgery]] (referred to as sex reassignment surgery in the case), sterilization, or hormonal therapy, in order to obtain legal recognition of their gender identity. The court noted that the [[World Health Organization]] issued a report titled "[[Intersex human rights reports#WHO report, "Sexual health, human rights and the law", 2015|Sexual Health, Human Rights and the Law]]," advocating for delaying [[Intersex medical interventions|genital-normalizing surgery]] until intersex children reach an age where they can independently make decisions. The court relied on the Madras High Court's ruling in ''S. Amutha v. C. Manivanna Bhupathy'' to hold that the consent of the parent cannot be considered as the consent of the child.<ref name=":0" />

Furthermore, the court highlighted Article 39(f) of the Constitution of India, which declares, "the State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing that children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment."<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 January 1950 |title=Article 39: Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State |url=https://www.constitutionofindia.net/articles/article-39-certain-principles-of-policy-to-be-followed-by-the-state/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230916001835/https://www.constitutionofindia.net/articles/article-39-certain-principles-of-policy-to-be-followed-by-the-state/ |archive-date=16 September 2023 |access-date= |website=Constitution of India |language=en-US}}</ref>

Therefore, the court directed the State Government of Tamil Nadu to prohibit [[Intersex medical interventions|genital-normalizing surgery]] (referred to as sex reassignment surgery in the case) for [[intersex]] infants and children except on life-threatening situations.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

== Compliance ==
On 13 August 2019, [[Department of Health and Family Welfare (Tamil Nadu)|Department of Health and Family Welfare]], a department of [[Government of Tamil Nadu|State Government of Tamil Nadu]], issued an order banning [[Intersex medical interventions|genital-normalizing surgery]] (referred to as sex reassignment surgery in the case) for [[intersex]] infants and children except on life-threatening situations. The order stipulates that exceptions in cases of life-threatening circumstances will be granted by the government, following the recommendation of a committee formed by the Director of Medical Education, which must include the following members:<ref name=":3">{{Cite act|type=Government Order (Manuscript)|index=355|date=13 August 2019|legislature=[[Department of Health and Family Welfare (Tamil Nadu)|Department of Health and Family Welfare]], [[Government of Tamil Nadu|State Government of Tamil Nadu]]|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201170645/https://translaw.clpr.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Tamil-Nadu-GO-Intersex-Surgery.pdf}}</ref>

* A Pediatric Surgeon or Urologist.
* An Endocrinologist.
* A Social Worker, Psychology Worker, or Intersex Activist.
* A Government Representative holding the rank of Under-Secretary to the Government or higher.

In addition to Madras High Court's direction in the current case, the [[Department of Health and Family Welfare (Tamil Nadu)|Department of Health and Family Welfare]] issued its order based on the Supreme Court's ruling in ''[[National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India|NLSA v. Union of India (2014)]]'', the [[World Health Organization]]'s report titled "Sexual Health, Human Rights and the Law," and expert opinions provided by the Head of the Department of Plastic, Reconstructive, and Facio-Maxillary Surgery at [[Rajiv Gandhi Government General Hospital]].<ref name=":3" />

== Impact ==
Tamil Nadu holds the distinction of being the first in Asia and the second worldwide, following Malta, to prohibit the practice of performing genital-normalizing surgeries on intersex infants and children.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-09-12 |title=Tamil Nadu is the first in Asia and second in the world after Malta to legally ban sex selective surgeries on intersex infants and children. While the order is historic, it doesn't clarify the medical conditions that can be exempted from surgery |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/tamil-nadu-is-the-first-in-asia-and-second-in-the-world-after-malta-to-legally-ban-sex-selective-surgeries-on-intersex-infants-and-children-while-the-order-is-historic-it-doesnt-clarify-the-medical-conditions-that-can-be-exempted-from-surgery/articleshow/71094093.cms |access-date=2023-09-16 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

The [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]] featured the case in its "Sensitisation Module for the Judiciary on LGBTIQA+ Community" as a significant High Court judgment addressing the legal challenges faced by LGBTQ+ citizens. The publication highlighted the court's focus [[gender self-identification]] as the relevant factor in determining the legal treatment of marriages. It also noted that by ordering that the marriage between a cisgender man and a transgender woman be recognized, the Court included transgender people in the legal conception of marriage, traditionally confined to unions including two cisgender persons.<ref name=":02" />

== See also ==

{{Portal|India|LGBTQ
}}

* [[LGBT rights in India|LGBT Rights in India]]
* [[Supriyo v. Union of India|Supriyo v. Union of India (2023)]]
* [[Chinmayee Jena v. State of Odisha|Chinmayee Jena v. State of Odisha (2020)]]
* [[National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India|National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India (2014)]]

== References ==
<references />{{LGBT Rights Case Law in India|state=expanded}}{{LGBT in India|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Marriage law in India]]
[[Category:Transgender case law]]
[[Category:Indian case law]]
[[Category:Indian LGBTQ rights case law]]
[[Category:2019 in LGBTQ history]]

Thiruttani division

2025-05-28T05:26:07Z

AnnieSneed66: correct formatting also and added references to improve readability

{{Multiple issues|
{{Orphan|date=September 2024}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2020}}
}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
'''Thiruttani division''' is a revenue division in the [[Tiruvallur district]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tiruttani Municipality |url=https://localbodydata.com/municipality-tiruttani-252269 |access-date=2025-05-21 |website=localbodydata.com}}</ref> It comprises the taluks of [[Thiruttani taluk|Thiruttani]] and [[Pallipattu taluk|Pallipattu]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite web|title=Map of Revenue divisions of Tiruvallur district|url=http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in/default.htm?rev_div.php?dcode=01}}

{{Tiruvallur district}}

{{coord missing|Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Tiruvallur district]]

{{Tiruvallur-geo-stub}}