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Sharathulu Varthisthai

2026-05-07T22:56:52Z

Ankithreddy: Creating First Details W/ Infobox...

{{short description|2024 film by Kumara Swamy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Sharathulu Varthisthai
| image = Sharathulu Varthisthai poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Kumara Swamy
| writer = Kumara Swamy
| producer = Srilatha Nagarjuna Samala Sharada Sreesh Kumar Gunda Vijaya Dr Krishnakanth Chittajallu
| starring = [[Chaitanya Rao Madadi]] [[Bhoomi Shetty]] Nanda Kishore Santosh Yadav Deva Raj Palamuru
| cinematography = Praveen Vanamali Shekar Pochampally
| editing = Ch.Vamshi Krishna Gajjala Rakshith Kumar
| music = Arun Chiluveru Suresh Bobili
| studio = Starlight Studios Pvt Ltd
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2024|03|15}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}'''''Sharathulu Varthisthai''''' ({{Translation|Conditions Apply}}) is a 2024 Indian Telugu-language family drama film, written and directed by Kumaraswamy (Akshara). It stars [[Chaitanya Rao Madadi]], Bhoomi Shetty, Nanda Kishore, Santosh Yadav, Devaraj Palamuru and Venky Monkey in the main roles. The music is composed by Arun Chiluveru and Suresh Bobili (Pannendu Gunjala). The film was released to negative reviews although the cast's performance was praised.

==Plot==
Chiranjeevi is a middle-class man working in a government office and lives in a small neighbourhood in Karimnagar along with his mom, brother, and sister. He is in a long-term relationship with village girl Vijayashanthi who has been his support system since childhood. After overcoming initial obstacles, both families agree to unite the couple. Their wedding celebration doesn’t last long as their lives take an unforeseen turn when Chiranjeevi’s friends introduce him to a [[multi-level marketing]] scheme. This fraud disturbs his life. How Chiranjeevi comes out of these circumstances of his life forms is the rest of the story.<ref name="‘Sharathulu Varthisthai’ (Telugu) movie review: Well-intended, albeit dull PSA">{{cite news |work=The Hindu |first1= |date=15 March 2024 |title='Sharathulu Varthisthai' (Telugu) movie review: Well-intended, albeit dull PSA |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/sharathulu-varthisthai-movie-review-well-intended-albeit-dull-psa/article67954223.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316045319/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/sharathulu-varthisthai-movie-review-well-intended-albeit-dull-psa/article67954223.ece |archive-date=16 March 2024 |access-date=16 March 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Chaitanya Rao Madadi]] as Chiranjeevi
* [[Bhoomi Shetty]] as Vijayashanthi
* Nanda Kishore as Hari Sir
* Santosh Yadav as Shankar Anna, Basti leader
* Devaraj Palamuru
* Padmavati as Lachchava, Chiranjeevi's mother
* Venky Monkey as Rajesh, Chiranjeevi's friend
* Shiva Kalyan as Sunny, Chiranjeevi's friend
* Sai Goud as Sudhakar, Chiranjeevi's friend
* Mallesh Blast
* Seetha Mahalakshmi
* Peddinti Ashok Kumar
* Sujatha Deekshith
* Shruti Pallepogu as Sreeja, Chiranjeevi's sister
* Nabeel Afridi as Charan, Chiranjeevi's brother
* Sowjanya
* Guntula Radhika
* RJ Avinash
* Shiva Goud
* Swarna Kilari
* Sambbatoori Suneetha
* Narsavva
}}

== Music ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Sharathulu Varthisthai
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Arun Chiluveru
| released = 2024
| recorded = 2023
| genre = Soundtrack
| length =
| label =
| producer = Arun Chiluveru
| prev_title = [[Sashi (film)|Sashi]]
| prev_year = 2021
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

The music was composed by Arun Chiluveru and Suresh Bobili (Pannendu Gunjala), lyrics by Goreti Venkanna, Peddinti Ashok Kumar and Mallegoda Gangaprasad.
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length =
| headline = Track list
| title1 = Pannendu Gunjala
| extra1 = Shankar Babu, Telu Vijaya, Vollala vani, Mogulla Shankaramma
| lyrics1 = Peddinti Ashok Kumar
| length1 = 5:29
| title2 = Kaalam Supula<ref name="Kalam Supula Galamra from Sharathulu Varthisthay out">{{cite news |work=[[Cinema Express]] |title=Kalam Supula Galamra from Sharathulu Varthisthay out |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2024/feb/19/kalam-supula-galamra-from-sharathulu-varthisthay-out-52188.html |access-date=3 March 2024 |date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303151306/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2024/feb/19/kalam-supula-galamra-from-sharathulu-varthisthay-out-52188.html |archive-date=3 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
| extra2 = [[Ram Miriyala]]
| lyrics2 = [[Goreti Venkanna]]
| length2 = 3:34
| title3 = Pala Pittale
| extra3 = [[Haricharan]], Bhargavi Pillai
| lyrics3 = Mallegoda Ganga Prasad
| length3 = 4:00
| title4 = Aakaasham Andaani<ref name="Minister Seethakka unveils a song from ‘Sharathulu Varthisthai’">{{cite news |work=The Hans India |first1= |title=Minister Seethakka unveils a song from 'Sharathulu Varthisthai' |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/minister-seethakka-unveils-a-song-from-sharathulu-varthisthai-863062 |access-date=6 March 2024 |date=6 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306144743/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/minister-seethakka-unveils-a-song-from-sharathulu-varthisthai-863062 |archive-date=6 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="'Akasham Andani' song from Sharathulu Varthisthai out">{{cite news |work=Cinema Express |first1= |title='Akasham Andani' song from Sharathulu Varthisthai out |url=https://cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2024/Mar/07/akasham-andani-song-from-sharathulu-varthisthai-out |access-date=7 March 2024 |date=7 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307115925/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2024/Mar/07/akasham-andani-song-from-sharathulu-varthisthai-out |archive-date=7 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
| extra4 = [[Naresh Iyer]], Nayana Nair
| lyrics4 = Chaitanya Pingali
| length4 =
| title5 =
| extra5 =
| lyrics5 =
| length5 =
}}

== Release and reception ==
The film was released theatrically on 15 March 2024.<ref name="‘Sharathulu Varthisthai’ trailer connects to every middle-class person">{{cite news |work=The Hans India |first1= |title='Sharathulu Varthisthai' trailer connects to every middle-class person |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/sharathulu-varthisthai-trailer-connects-to-every-middle-class-person-862297 |access-date=3 March 2024 |date=3 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240303154307/https://www.thehansindia.com/images/search.png |archive-date=3 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

A critic from ''[[The Hindu]]'' wrote that "It’s the writing that needed some zing, without which the film ends up as a well-intended but mundane public service announcement cautioning people to stay away from chit funds and gold schemes that promise big gains within a short time".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/sharathulu-varthisthai-movie-review-well-intended-albeit-dull-psa/article67954223.ece|title='Sharathulu Varthisthai' movie review: Well-intended, albeit dull PSA |last=Dundoo|first=Sangeetha Devi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315110857/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/sharathulu-varthisthai-movie-review-well-intended-albeit-dull-psa/article67954223.ece|archive-date=15 March 2024|url-access=subscription|date=15 March 2024|work=The Hindu}}</ref>

===Home media===
The film premiered on [[Aha (streaming service)|Aha]] from 18 May 2024.<ref name="Sharathulu Varthisthai gets an OTT release date">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Sharathulu Varthisthai gets an OTT release date |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/ott/sharathulu-varthisthai-gets-an-ott-release-date-894343 |access-date=18 May 2024 |work= |date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518190823/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/ott/sharathulu-varthisthai-gets-an-ott-release-date-894343 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt31188498}}

[[Category:2024 films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Telangana]]
[[Category:2024 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:2024 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2024 Indian films]]

Venadu kingdom

2026-05-07T05:56:44Z

Ankithreddy: Creating New Info Needs Work

{{about|the former state in southern India|other uses|Venad (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{short description|Medieval/early modern state in southern India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Venadu
| common_name = Quilon (Kollam)
| image_flag =
| religion = *[[Hinduism]]
| s1 =
| flag_s1 = Former Travancore flag-Martanda Varma.png
| year_start = 12th century CE<ref name=":13"/>
| date_event1 = {{circa}} 1312–1316 CE
| date_event2 = Early 16th century CE
| event3 = Tributes to the Madurai Nayaks
| date_event3 = 17th century CE
| year_end = 18th century CE
| event_start = Fall of the Chera state<ref name=":13"/>
| event1 = Raids of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara
| event2 = Vijayanagara supremacy
| event_end = Formation of [[Travancore]]
| image_map = {{Location map+|Kerala|width=200|float=center
|caption=
|places=
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.3471065|lon_deg=77.0810267|position=top|marksize=0|label_size=80|label=VENADU (KOLLAM)}}
}}
| capital = [[Kollam|Kollam (Quilon)]] (traditional capital)
| common_languages = *[[Malayalam]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| government_type =
| title_leader =
}}
{{Keralahistory}}
'''Venadu,''' also romanised as '''Venad,''' was a medieval state located between the [[Western Ghats|Western Ghat Mountains]] and the [[Arabian Sea]], at the south-western tip of India, with its traditional capital at the port city of [[Kollam|Kollam (Quilon)]].<ref name=":222">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://india.oup.com/product/a-concise-history-of-south-india-9780198099772? |title=A Concise History of South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-809977-2 |editor-last=Karashima |editor-first=Noburu |location=New Delhi |pages=146–47 |chapter=States in the Deccan and Kerala}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWluAAAAMAAJ |title=State and Society in Premodern South India |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2002 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages= |chapter=The State in the Era of the Ceraman Perumals of Kerala |editor-last2=Veluthat |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Venugopalan |editor-first3=T. R.}}</ref> It was one of the major principalities of present-day [[Kerala]], along with the states of [[Kolathunadu|Kannur (Kolathunadu)]], [[Zamorin|Kozhikode (ruled by the Samoothiris)]], and [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kochi (Perumpadappu)]], during the medieval and early modern periods.<ref name=":222" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FltwAAAAMAAJ&q=venadu |title=A Handbook of Kerala |date=2000 |publisher=Dravidian Linguistics Association |isbn=978-81-85692-27-2 |editor-last=Menon |editor-first=T. Madhava |location=Trivandrum |pages=109 and 143-47 |language=en}}</ref>

Venadu, originally a chiefly territory within the[[Chera Perumals of Makotai| medieval Chera state]] of Kerala, emerged as an independent principality — often referred to as the Chera kingdom — ruled by the Kulasekhara dynasty in the early 12th century CE.<ref name=":222" /> In the following period, Venadu came under the suzerainty of the expanding [[Pandya Empire]] and functioned as its tributary state.<ref name=":1" /> In the early 14th century CE, as the Pandya polity collapsed, [[Ravi Varma Kulasekhara]], the most ambitious ruler of Venadu, notably led a successful military expedition into [[Tamil language|the Tamil country]].<ref>Menon 2007, p. 118.</ref><ref name=":18222" />

Records state that the 16th-century rulers of Venadu acknowledged the supremacy of the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara rulers]].<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC |title=Kerala History and its Makers |date=2011 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=9788126437825 |location=Kottayam (Kerala) |pages=74–75 |orig-year=1987}}</ref> In the 17th century, the rulers of Venadu paid an annual tribute to the [[Nayaks of Madurai]].<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Anjana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFy4pWUlnfwC&pg=PA22 |title=Fort Cochin in Kerala, 1750-1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu |publisher=Brill |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-19025-2 |location=Leiden |page=22}}</ref> By this time, the old state of Venadu had fragmented into several collateral branches.<ref name=":182222">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=10-11 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> The [[English East India Company]] established a factory at [[Vizhinjam]] in 1664, and a fort was built at [[Anchuthengu|Anjengo]] in 1695.<ref name=":0" /> Venadu later evolved into the modern state of [[Travancore]] in the 18th century CE, as feudal relations and medieval political authority were dismantled under [[Marthanda Varma]] (1729–1758), who is often credited as "the Maker of Travancore".<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |date=1990 |title=The Process of State Formation in Travancore |journal=Studies in History |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=15–33 |doi=10.1177/025764309000600102 |issn=0257-6430 |s2cid=}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
According to [[Paulinus of St. Bartholomew|Da San Bartolomeo]], a famous [[Austrians|Austrian]] historian who resided in Kerala during the 17th century, the name 'Venadu' was derived from Venattu or Venadu, the [[Malayalam]] word for 'white,' which he associated with the white sand found in the regions near Venadu or Travancore, referring to a land with white sand.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |url=https://archive.org/details/2348448920908238/page/n21/mode/1up |title=The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore history and state formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758 |publisher=Mark de Lannoy |year= |page=21 |quote=According to Da San Bartolomeo, the name Travancore was derived from Tiruvancodu, a place where the Venad princes had their residence. The same author added that Venad was derived from venattu or venad, the Malayalam word for "white", which he connected with the white sand surrounding Tiruvancodu.}}</ref>

Some early Tamil literature ([[Sangam literature|the Sangam Literature]]) mentioned, the term "Venad" is a compound word consisting of "Vel" and "Nadu".<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=11–12 |hdl=10603/563332}}
</ref> The origin of the term can be traced back to "Velnad", where it referred to the settlement of the Vel people or kinship group, who were related to the [[Ay dynasty|Ay]] chieftains.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |date=2009 |title=Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/037698360903600102 |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=3–21 |doi=10.1177/037698360903600102 |issn=0376-9836 |s2cid=145359607 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":4" />

== Administration ==
In general, the territorial extent of the state of Venadu may be understood as stretching from [[Kollam]] in the north to [[Tirunelveli]] in the south, notwithstanding the fluid and shifting nature of medieval political boundaries.<ref name=":9" />

The rulers of Venadu traced their ancestry to the Vel chieftains, who were related to the Ays of early historic south India.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |date=2009 |title=Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/037698360903600102 |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=3–21 |doi=10.1177/037698360903600102 |issn=0376-9836 |s2cid=145359607 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Aiya |first=V. Nagam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVd1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PT222 |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Kerala Gazetteers Department, Government of Kerala |year=1999 |isbn=978-81-85499-32-1 |volume=1 |language=en |orig-year=1906}}</ref> It is recorded that as early as the 10th century CE, during the period of medieval Chera rule, the chiefs of Venadu used the surname suffix "Varma", denoting the [[Kshatriya]] status of their ruling line.<ref name=":12" /><ref name="auto32" /><ref name=":11" /> The Venadu rulers, who also claimed descent from the medieval Chera rulers of Kerala, were known in the post-Chera period (after the early 12th century) as the Cheras or the Kulasekharas.'''<ref name=":33">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages=191–193 and 435–437 |orig-date=1972}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |url=https://www.furkatingcollege.edu.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/History-of-Early-India-From-the-Origins-to-AD-1300_Thapar.pdf |title=The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2003 |isbn= |location= |pages=368–69 |chapter=The Politics of the Peninsula |orig-year=2002}}</ref>''' The royal family or some of its branches also claimed to be [[Kshatriya|Kshatriyas]] of the [[Yadava|Yadu or Yadava]] lineage belonging to the [[Lunar dynasty|Lunar Race]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=35-36 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> Medieval Kerala traditions such as the "Kerala Mahatmya" also explain that the king anointed by [[Parashurama]] at Srivardhanapuri (Trivandrum) was a [[Chandra|Soma]] [[Kshatriya]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vielle |first=Christophe |year=2011 |title=Ravivarman Kulaśekhara the Yādava and Sagara the Son of Yādavī: Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala |url=https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/fr/object/boreal%3A129594/datastream/PDF_01/view |journal=Religions of South Asia |volume=5 |issue=1/15.2 |pages=377 |doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365 |issn=1751-2689 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Residences ===
Internal migrations or the establishment of new residences by the royal family or its branches are evident throughout the history of Venadu.<ref name=":7" /> Before the dissolution of the medieval Chera state of Kerala in the early 12th century CE, the rulers of Venadu were associated with the port of [[Kollam]], with "Panankavil Palace" serving as their royal residence. Evidence from the 12th century indicates that the rulers of Venadu belonged to or lived in Kizhperur, Kilimanoor, while tradition also links them to Vadasery, [[Nagarcoil]]. The ruling family had another residence at Trippappoor in Trivandrum, and at least during the 14th century, they lived at Tiruvitamcode in [[Kalkulam]].<ref name=":7" />

From the 13th century, there is reference to a royal residence at [[Attingal]] (the Mother's House, "Kupaka" in Sanskrit<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/16385 |title=Agrarian Relations and Political Authority in Medieval Travancore (AD 1300-1750) |work= |publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru University |year=1987 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=New Delhi |pages=57 |hdl=10603/16385}}</ref>), which was under a woman ruler, and in the early 14th century CE, the Venadu rulers moved to [[Kallada]], Kollam, forming a separate family branch that ruled the region of Jayasimhanadu or Desinganadu.<ref name=":7" /> From this time onwards, the rulers of Venadu usually prefixed to their names those of the two residences, "Kizhperur Trippappoor" and "Kizhperur Desinganadu".<ref name=":7" />

Another important branch, the Chiravay House, originally based at Mayamkulum, Kollam, later migrated to southern Venadu; it did not control a separate region but claimed a share of the territory's income, and the senior princes of Venadu often assumed the title "Chiravay Muppu". The Kunninmel Elayedam branch established itself at [[Kottarakkara]], controlling the territory up to the Western Ghats (the first reference to the title Kunninmel appears in the early 14th century, and references to Elayedam Branch appear regularly from the early 16th century), while the Perakattavazhi ruled the region of [[Nedumangad|Nedumangadu]] near the Western Ghats, first mentioned in a record of the 16th century CE.<ref name=":7" />

=== Kur-vazhcha ===
Political power in Venadu was organized through a hierarchy of rights within a [[Matrilineality|matrilineal kinship structure (the marumakkathayam)]]. The ruling family of Venadu itself was a network of several lineages.<ref name=":7" /> The system of succession in Venadu was based on the concept of "kuru", meaning the gradation of rights within a family. References to "Ilankuru" or junior right holder appear as early as the 9th century CE, when Venadu was under Chera authority.<ref name=":7" /> This graded system, known as "kurvazhcha", determined the order of succession within the royal family.<ref name=":7" />

Several Venadu inscriptions indicate that the state was supported by a body of warriors known as "arisippadijanam".<ref name=":9" />

=== Swarupams ===
Political power in Venadu was exercised through extended royal joint families or lineages, known as "swarupams", which claimed descent from, or were related to, the original ruling family. These included Trippappoor, Desinganadu, Chiravay, and later Elayadam.<ref name=":7" />''<ref name="auto32">{{Cite journal |date=1961 |title=Section A |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2O07AQAAIAAJ |journal=Journal: Humanities |location=Madras |publisher=University of Madras |volume=33-36 |issue=Section A}}</ref>'' Each swarupam was headed by a family elder, known as the "mutta tiruvadi", followed by other male members ranked according to seniority ("mura").<ref name=":7" /> These swarupams followed a [[Matrilineality|matrilineal system]], in which succession passed from uncle to nephew — not to one's own son, but to the eldest son of one's sister.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":222" />

The swarupams were further divided into matrilineal descent groups or segments called "tay-vazhis" (or "tavazhis"), and the ranking system of each swarupam included all these tavazhis. One such descent group, Perakattavazhi, later evolved into a swarupam known as Nedumangadu.<ref name=":7" />''<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=V. K. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJVuAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Medieval Kerala |publisher=Pragati Publications |year=2006 |isbn=978-81-7307-091-4 |editor-last=Ramachandran |editor-first=R. |location=Delhi |page=81 |editor-last2=Narayanan |editor-first2=G. |editor-last3=Ramachandran |editor-first3=A.}}</ref>''

The muppans (eldest male members) of Trippappoor, Desinganadu, and Chiravay could each claim rulership over Venadu, with the Chiravay elder was regarded as the senior-most, followed by the Trippappoor elder. However, this hierarchy was not always maintained, and overlapping claims were common. Trippappoor and Desinganadu were closely connected to the Mother's House at Attingal and traced descent from the Kizhperur House, while Elayadam and Perakattavazhi emerged as claimants to Venadu only from the 17th century onward.<ref name=":7" />
=== Marriage alliances and adoptions ===
The sisters of the rulers of Venadu were traditionally tali-married to [[Solar dynasty|Surya Vamsha]] [[Kshatriya]] princes of higher status from central or northern Kerala. These princes were initially known as "Koyil Adhikarikal" and later came to be styled "Koyil Thampurans".<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |author=Vielle |first=Christophe |year=2011 |title=Ravivarman Kulaśekhara the Yādava and Sagara the Son of Yādavī: Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala |url=https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/fr/object/boreal%3A129594/datastream/PDF_01/view |journal=Religions of South Asia |volume=5 |issue=1/15.2 |pages=374 |doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365 |issn=1751-2689 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> According to tradition, this system of marital alliances was inaugurated in [[Kollam Era]] 300 (1125 CE).<ref name=":8" />

Another tradition, first recorded by Mateer (1871), dates the earliest adoption into the Venadu royal family from the Kolathunadu royal house of northern Kerala to Kollam Era 480 (1304/05 CE), in the form of two princesses.<ref name=":82">{{cite journal |author=Vielle |first=Christophe |year=2011 |title=Ravivarman Kulaśekhara the Yādava and Sagara the Son of Yādavī: Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala |url=https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/fr/object/boreal%3A129594/datastream/PDF_01/view |journal=Religions of South Asia |volume=5 |issue=1/15.2 |pages=372 |doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365 |issn=1751-2689 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The initial settlement of the Koyil Thampurans from northern Kerala at [[Kilimanoor]] was established in order to preserve their customary marital alliances with the Kolathunadu princesses who had been installed at [[Attingal]]. This development occurred around the same period as the first adoption of the Kolathunadu princesses into the Venadu royal family.<ref name=":8" />

== Political history ==

=== Antecedents ===
[[File:Mampalli_copper_plate_(10th_century_AD).jpg|thumb|308x308px|[[Mampalli copper plate]] (10th century AD)]]
During the early historic period in south India (c. 1st–2nd century CE), "Velnadu" — corresponding to medieval Venadu — was part of the Ay country, ruled by Ay chiefs under [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] control.<ref name=":222" />'''<ref name=":33" />'''

In the early medieval period, Pandya incursions into southern Kerala led to conflicts with the [[Chera Perumals of Makotai|medieval Chera rulers of Kerala]], resulting by the 9th century in the division of the ancient Ay country: Venadu (based at [[Kollam|Kollam or Quilon]]) came under Chera influence, while the remaining Ay territory fell under Pandya control.'''<ref name=":33" />'''<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/16385 |title=Agrarian Relations and Political Authority in Medieval Travancore (AD 1300-1750) |publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru University |year=1987 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=New Delhi |pages=22–25}}</ref> The [[Kollam Era]], instituted in 824-825 CE, likely marked the founding of the Kollam port and the rise of Chera authority in southern Kerala.<ref name=":g2">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://india.oup.com/product/a-concise-history-of-south-india-9780198099772? |title=A Concise History of South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-809977-2 |editor-last=Karashima |editor-first=Noburu |location=New Delhi |page=89 |pages= |chapter=States in the Deccan and Kerala}}</ref> Records such as the [[Quilon Syrian copper plates|Quilon Syrian plates]] (c. 849 CE) mention the Venadu chief (the Venattadikal) Ayyan Adikal and his overlord, the medieval Chera ruler of Kerala, Sthanu Ravi, and highlight Kollam's growing prominence in the Indian Ocean [[spice trade]] with the Middle East and East Asia.<ref name="google.co.in">{{Cite book |last=Mailaparambil |first=Binu John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YUkyAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA225 |title=Lords of the Sea: The Ali Rajas of Cannanore and the Political Economy of Malabar (1663-1723) |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-47-44471-8 |location=Leiden |page=225}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |title=India Charitram |publisher=DC Books |year=2016 |isbn=9788126419395 |location=Kottayam (Kerala) |pages=219 |language=ml}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web |year=1998 |title=Travancore |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Travancore |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref> The Malabar Coast, including Venadu, came under [[Chola Empire|imperial Chola]] control by the late 10th and early 11th centuries CE.<ref name=":17" />'''<ref name=":33" /><ref name=":6" />'''

=== As Pandya tributaries ===
It is speculated that the threat of attacks from the [[Chola Empire|imperial Cholas]] compelled the last medieval Chera ruler of Kerala, Rama Kulasekhara (early 12th century CE), to reside for an extended period at the port of [[Kollam|Kollam (Quilon)]].'''<ref name=":3322">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |page=154 |orig-date=1972}}</ref>''' According to local traditions, as recorded by writers such as Samuel Mateer, Vira Kerala, the first ruler of Venadu, was his son.<ref name=":83">{{cite journal |author=Vielle |first=Christophe |year=2011 |title=Ravivarman Kulaśekhara the Yādava and Sagara the Son of Yādavī: Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala |url=https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/fr/object/boreal%3A129594/datastream/PDF_01/view |journal=Religions of South Asia |volume=5 |issue=1/15.2 |pages=372-74 |doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365 |issn=1751-2689 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>'''<ref name=":3323">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |page=171 |orig-date=1972}}</ref>''' After the dissolution of the medieval Chera state of Kerala around the 12th century, Venadu emerged as a powerful principality in southern Malabar.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" /> Venadu then came to be known as the kingdom of the Cheras (thus, the Malai-nadu/mandalam or the Malayalam<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/16385 |title=Agrarian Relations and Political Authority in Medieval Travancore (AD 1300-1750) |work= |publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru University |year=1987 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=New Delhi |pages=26 |hdl=10603/16385}}</ref>) or the Kulasekharas.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&q=chera+dynasty |title=A Survey of Kerala History |publisher=DC Books |year=2007 |location=Kottayam (Kerala) |isbn=978-81-264-1578-6 |orig-year=1967}}</ref><ref name=":14" />

Following the decline of Chola power after the reign of [[Kulothunga I]] (early 12th century), the rulers of Venadu extended their control over the Nanjinadu region ([[Thovalai taluk|Thovalai]] and [[Agastheeswaram taluk|Agastheeswaram taluks]], [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]]), thereby bringing under their authority the territory between Kollam in the north and Suchindram or [[Nagercoil]] in the south.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=35-36 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> It is notably recorded that a Kupaka ruler defeated the Pandya ruler Raja Simha in Kollam Era 296 (1121 CE).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=56-57 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> However, inscriptions of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]] ruler Maravarman Sri Vallabha (1139–1169 CE), who was the overlord of the then Venadu ruler and was married to a Venadu princess, have been found at Puravari and [[Suchindram]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=75-76 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> When the Pandya ruler Vira Pandya was defeated by the Chola ruler Kulothunga in 1182 CE, he found asylum in Venadu. It is possible that the Venadu ruler, having supported the Pandya, was also defeated by Kulothunga.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=56-57 and 85 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref>

In the latter half of the 13th century, Venadu came under the control of the [[Pandyas of Madurai|Pandyas]], when rulers such as [[Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I|Jatavarman Sundara Pandya]] and [[Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I|Maravarman Kulasekhara]] asserted their dominance over the region.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=35-36 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> Sundara Pandya appears to have marched against the ruler of Venadu, defeated the Venadu forces in battle, and compelled Venadu to pay tribute (and possibly killed the Venadu ruler in the conflict).<ref name=":1" /> Maravarman Kulasekhara is notably described as "the one who destroyed the Chera ruler and captured Kollam" (c. 1275 CE).<ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=35-36 and 57 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> Records of Venadu rulers are virtually nonexistent in the second half of the 13th century, suggesting that Venadu became one of the mandalams of the Pandya state. During this period, the rulers of Venadu appear to have adopted imperial Pandya titles.<ref name=":1" />

=== Raids of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara ===
In the early 14th century, the Venadu ruler [[Ravivarman Kulaśēkhara|Ravi Varma Kulasekhara]] (c. 1266 - 1317<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |author=Vielle |first=Christophe |year=2011 |title=Ravivarman Kulaśekhara the Yādava and Sagara the Son of Yādavī: Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala |url=https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/fr/object/boreal%3A129594/datastream/PDF_01/view |journal=Religions of South Asia |volume=5 |issue=1/15.2 |pages=366 |doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365 |issn=1751-2689 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>), taking advantage of the confusion caused by the Pandya civil wars and the [[Khalji dynasty|Khalji]] invasions, led military raids to the northern frontiers of south India (1312–1316).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Si5uAAAAMAAJ |title=Kerala District Gazetteers: Trivandrum |date=1962 |publisher=Gazetteer Department, Government of Kerala |editor-last=Menon |editor-first=A. Sreedhara |location=Trivandrum (Kerala) |page=146}}</ref><ref name=":12" /> Starting as a Pandya tributory, Kulasekhara went on to celeberate his victories at [[Madurai]].<ref name=":18222">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=38-40 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> His inscriptions have been found in [[Srirangam]] and as far north as [[Kanchipuram|Kanchi]] (1314) and [[Poonamallee]], a suburb of Chennai.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":18222" /> Kulasekhara's marriage to a Pandya princess, which preceded his campaigns, greatly facilitated his later conquests in the Tamil country.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/16385 |title=Agrarian Relations and Political Authority in Medieval Travancore (AD 1300-1750) |work= |publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru University |year=1987 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=New Delhi |pages=84-85 |hdl=10603/16385}}
</ref> However, it is recorded that Vira Udaya Marttanda Varma, also known as Vira Pandya Deva, the successor of Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, was a tributary of the Pandyas.<ref name=":1822">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=39-40 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref>

=== Struggles with the Madurai sultans and the Vijayanagara ===
Muslim raiders from the Tamil country (across the Western Ghats) ravaged the southern parts of Venadu during the early part of Vira Ravi Varma's reign. This compelled him to shift his royal residence to [[Thovalai]].<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=41-42 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> The [[Madurai Sultanate|Madurai sultans]], until their withdrawal from Madurai in 1365, also conducted raids in Nanjinadu. In response, the Venadu rulers established a palace at Kottar in addition to the one at Thovalai and permanently stationed a large number of warriors there.<ref name=":18" /> The Venadu prince Aditya Varma (1376–1383) is believed to have successfully resisted the raids by Madurai forces along the Venadu borders.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":18" /> The [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] ruler Devarya II, who ascended the throne in 1426, is said to have subjugated the ruler of Kollam and received tribute from him.<ref name=":182">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=43-44 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref> During this period, Venadu's influence is recorded to have extended into the interior regions of [[Tirunelveli]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":182" />

=== In Colonial period ===
[[File:Quilon 1670 verbessert.jpg|thumb|308x308px|Kollam, the capital of the Venadu rulers, in the 17th century CE]]
In 1498, during the Age of Discovery, the Portuguese expedition to India reached [[Kozhikode|Kozhikode (Calicut)]], the capital of the Zamorin's kingdom, thereby opening a direct sea route between Europe and Asia.<ref name=":3" /> In 1504, they became the first Europeans to establish a trading centre at [[Kollam|Kollam (Quilon)]], which served as the hub of their spice trade, especially in black pepper, marking the beginning of Portuguese influence in southern Malabar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thangassery, Kollam (Dutch Quilon) |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/destination/thangasseri-kollam/296/ |access-date= |website=Kerala Tourism |publisher=Department of Tourism, Government of Kerala |language=}}</ref><ref name=":1823">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=44-45 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref>

Vira Udaya Marthanda Varma (1516–1535), a tolerant ruler who granted lands to the [[Jainism|Jains]] and exempted the Christian [[Paravar|Paravas]] from certain oppressive taxes, acknowledged the supremacy of the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]] rulers (after minor clashes with their forces on the banks of the river [[Thamirabarani River|Thamirabarani]]).<ref name=":0" /> The conflict with Vijayanagara continued, as commanders such as Rama Raya Vithala defeated the Venadu forces during the reign of king Vira Kerala Varma (1544–1545).<ref name=":0" />

* Well into the modern period, Venadu remained one of the principal states of Malabar, along with the kingdoms of Kannur (Cannanore; Kolathunadu), Kozhikode (Calicut; ruled by the Zamorins), and Kochi (Cochin; Perumpadappu).<ref name=":222" /><ref name=":11" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Balasubramanian |first=V. |date=7 April 2017 |title=On an Epic Journey |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/on-an-epic-journey/article17858939.ece#google_vignette |work=The Hindu}}</ref>
* The [[Padmanabhaswamy Temple]] in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), managed by the Venadu rulers, was an important centre of worship in southern Kerala.<ref name=":172">{{Cite book |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/16385 |title=Agrarian Relations and Political Authority in Medieval Travancore (AD 1300-1750) |work= |publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru University |year=1987 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=New Delhi |pages=21–25 and 291 |hdl=10603/16385}}</ref> <ref name=":5" />
* In the 17th century, the rulers of Venadu paid an annual tribute to the [[Nayaks of Madurai]].<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":15" /> By this time, the old state of Venadu had fragmented into several collateral branches, including Trippappoor, Elayadam ([[Kottarakara]]), Desinganadu ([[Quilon|Kollam]]), and Perakattavazhi ([[Nedumangad|Nedumangadu]]).<ref name="auto32" /> Although divided into branches, the whole region was still known collectively as Venadu.<ref name=":1822222">{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |date=1979 |work= |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |pages=13-14 |hdl=10603/563332}}</ref>
{{center|{{ahnentafel
|'''VENADU (16TH-17TH CENTURIES CE)'''
|Venadu
|Elayidam
|Kollam
|Tiruvitancode
|Kottarakkara
|Nedumangadu (Perakam)
|width=75%
|hsep=500
}}}}
* During the regency of Umayamma (1677–1684), southern Venadu (Nanjinadu) was famously overrun by a Muslim adventurer.<ref name=":0" />
* The [[East India Company|English East India Company]] established a factory at Vizhinjam in 1664, followed by the construction of a fort at [[Anchuthengu|Anchuthengu (Ajengo)]] in 1695.<ref name=":0" /> In 1721, around 150 Company men from the Anjengo Factory, on their way to an audience with the queen-mother, were killed by a local mob in what came to be known as [[Attingal Outbreak|the Attingal Outbreak]].<ref name=":0" />
* Ravi Varma, who ruled from 1721 to 1729, later entered into formal treaty agreements with both the Company and the [[Nayaks of Madurai]].<ref name=":0" /> The main purpose of these arrangements was to strengthen the ruler's position against the regional nobles (such as the Ettuvittil Pillamar) and other "hostile elements" within Venadu.<ref name=":0" />

== Legacy ==
[[File:Padmnabh_Temple-Tiruvanantpuram-Kerala-HAN001.jpg|thumb|308x308px|Padmanabhaswamy Temple ]]
[[Marthanda Varma]] (r. 1729–1758) of the Trippappoor lineage is widely regarded by historians as "the Maker of Travancore".<ref name=":0" /> By the close of his reign, Travancore (from "Tiruvitamkur" or "Tiruvitamcode"; near Kalkulam) had emerged as one of the earliest modernised states in southern India.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":172" />

Marthanda Varma is widely credited with several major achievements.<ref name=":7" /> He successfully developed the centralised state of Travancore, primarily by dismantling the existing feudal relations.<ref name=":7" /> He subdued the powerful [[Nair|Nair nobles]] and other "hostile elements" in Travancore, organized a standing army, and defeated most of the chiefdoms in central and southern Kerala.<ref name=":7" /> He also entered into strategic alliances with European powers and promoted Kerala merchants — particularly the [[Syrian Christians in India|Syrian Christians]] — in place of European traders.<ref name=":7" />

== Economy ==
The rulers of Venadu, whose traditional capital was the port city of [[Kollam|Kollam (formerly Quilon)]], derived their primary economic base from the Indian Ocean [[spice trade]] and from the exchange of other commodities with merchants from the Middle East and East Asia, including China.<ref name=":16" /><ref name="google.co.in" /> The Venetian traveler [[Marco Polo]] (1254 –1324) is said to have visited Kollam, which at the time was a major center of commerce and trade with both East Asia and the Middle East.<ref name="google.co.in" /><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":4" /> The affluence of the port of Kollam is well attested in the accounts of travellers such as Benjamin, al-Qazvini, and others.<ref name=":9" /> European navigators began arriving on the southern Malabar Coast in the early 16th century CE, primarily drawn by the lucrative trade in Indian spices such as black pepper.<ref name="google.co.in" /><ref name=":15" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Alexander |first=P. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obe1AAAAIAAJ |title=The Dutch in Malabar |publisher=Annamalai University |year=1946 |series=Annamalai University Historical Series |location=Annamalainagar}}</ref>

Ma Huan's mention (15th century CE) of the Venadu ruler's coinage indicates the possession of minting privileges, a key indicator of sovereign political power.<ref name=":9" /> Venadu exercised control over a certain extent of hinterland agrarian territory, which also constituted an important component of the state's resource base. Revenues were derived from land dues collected from landlords, known as "komuraipadu", as well as from taxes on traded commodities, tolls levied along commercial routes, and other customary dues.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Gurukkal |first=Rajan |url=https://www.orientblackswan.com/details?obsin=1487&eb=1 |title=History of Kerala: Prehistoric to the Present |last2=Varier |first2=Raghava |publisher=Orient BlackSwan |year=2020 |pages=162-165 |chapter=Emergence of Principalities |orig-year=2018}}</ref>

== Rulers of Venadu (till 16th century)==
[[File:Jewish_copper_plates_of_Cochin_-_(plate_I,_side_I)_(early_11th_century_AD).jpg|thumb|308x308px|Jewish copper plates of Cochin (early 11th century CE)]]
Members from the "Vel" [[kinship group]], who were related to the Ay chieftains of southern Kerala, are mentioned in the early historic Tamil compositions ([[Sangam literature|the Sangam literature]]). These include, among others, Veliyan Venmal Nallini, the queen of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] ruler Uthiyan Cheralathan, and Veliyan Venman Ay Eyinan, who famously helped the Chera ruler Perum Cheral Irumporai to defeat the ruler of [[Ezhimala]] (both dated to the 2nd century CE).<ref name=":3324">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |page=106 |orig-date=1972}}</ref>

The earliest medieval Vel ruler mentioned in the epigraphical sources is the Vel Mannan ("the Vel chieftain"), the ruler of [[Vizhinjam]], who was defeated by [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]] king "Maran" Chadayan (r. 765–815 CE).<ref name=":172" /> Another ruler of the Vel country, Venattadikal the [[Nayanars|Nayanar]] – the author of "Venattadikal Thiruvichaippa" – is dated the early 9th century AD.<ref name=":3326">{{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |page=383 |orig-date=1972}}</ref> The first known Venadu ruler under the medieval Chera overlorship is Ayyan Adikal Tiruvadikal, the donor of [[Kollam Syrian plates|Quilon Syrian copper plates]] (mid-9th century CE).<ref name=":33" /> Along with him is mentioned Rama Tiruvadikal, the junior ruler of Venadu.<ref name=":33" /> Subsequently, Kandiyur Vel Kula Sundara, a member of the Vel ruling family, appears as a warrior in the [[Chola Empire|imperial Chola]] army under Kerala commander [[Vellan Kumaran]] (mid-10th century CE).<ref name=":33" /> The Venadu ruler Sri Vallava Goda Varma, the donor of Mamapalli copper plates, and his successor Govardhana Marthanda, mentioned in the [[Jewish copper plates|Jewish copper plates of Cochin]], can be dated to the late 10th century CE.<ref name=":33" /> The Venad royal Kumara Udaya Varma is mentioned in an inscription of the last medieval Chera ruler of Kerala, [[Rama Kulasekhara]] (c. 1102 CE).<ref name=":33" /> Vira Kerala, probably the son of Rama Kulasekhara, is recorded in a Cholapuram inscription (c. 1126 CE, [[Kanyakumari]]).<ref name=":33" />

=== From 12th century onwards ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Source: {{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |work= |date=1979 |publisher=Deccan College, Pune |hdl=|pages=91-94|chapter=Political Outline of Venadu Down to AD 1729}}
!Source: {{Cite book |last=Gurukkal |first=Rajan |url=https://www.orientblackswan.com/details?obsin=1487&eb=1 |title=History of Kerala: Prehistoric to the Present |last2=Varier |first2=Raghava |publisher=Orient BlackSwan |year=2020 |pages=162-165 |chapter=Emergence of Principalities |orig-year=2018}}
|-
|
* Vira Kerala Varma (1117–1145)
* Goda Kerala Varma (1145–1161)
* Vira Ravi Varma (1161–1167)
* Vira Aditya Varma (1167–1179; regent?)
* Vira Udaya Martanda Varma (1167–1196)
* Manikantha Rama Varma ''or''
* Vira Rama Varma ''or''
* Sri Aditya Rama Varma (1196–1209)
* Devadara Kerala Varma Kizhperur ''or''
* Vira Rama Kerala Varma (1209–1236)
* Vira Ravi Kerala Varma Kizhperur (1236–1251)
* Vira Padmanabha Martanda Varma ''or''
* Vira Ravi Udaya Martanda Varma (1251–1263)
* Udaya Martanda Varma ''or''
* Vira Pandya Deva (1312/13–1336)
* Vira Ravi Varma, the Sangramadhira (1296–1313/14)
* Vira Rama Udaya Martanda (1336–1349)
* Ravi Ravi Varma (1349–1373)
* Aditya Varma Sarvanganatha or
* Sakala Kala Martanda Aditya (1373–1383; uncertain)
* Chera Udaya Martanda Varma ''or''
* Vira Kerala Martanda Varma (1383–1436)
* Vira Rama Martanda Varma, the Kulasekhara (1458–1469)
* Vira Goda Aditya Varma ''or''
* Chempaka Aditya Varma (1468/69–1479)
* Vira Kerala Rama Varma ''or''
* Jayasimha (1479–1506)
* Sankhara Vira Rama Martanda Varma ''or''
* Vira Udaya Martanda Varma (1506–1537)
|
* Vira Kerala Varma (c. 1125–c. 1155)
* Vira Ravi Varma (c. 1151–c. 1164)
* Aditya Varma (c. 1165–c. 1175)
* Udaya Martanda Varma (1175–1195)
* Vira Rama Varma (c. 1195–c. 1205)
* Vira Rama Kerala Varma (c. 1205– c. 1215)
* Ravi Kerala Varma (c. 1215–c. 1240)
* Padmanabha Martanda Varma (c. 1240–c. 1253)
* Goda Martanda Varma (1251–1299)
* Ravi Varma, the Kulasekhara (c. 1299–c. 1314)
* Sree Vira Udaya Martanda (1313–1345)
* Vira Kerala Varma
* Ravi Ravi Varma
* Ravi Aditya Varma
* Vira Kerala Martanda Varma (fl. 1402)
* Chera Udaya Martanda (1383–1444)
* Sree Vira Udaya Martanda (1516–1535)
|}
==See also==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Kolathunadu|Kolathunadu (Cannanore)]]
* [[Travancore Royal Family]]
*[[Kingdom of Calicut|Kingdom of Calicut (the Zamorin)]]
*[[Kingdom of Cochin]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{Cite book |last=Menon |first=P. Shungoonny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YdCAAAAIAAJ&q=perumal+travancore+royal+family |title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times |date=1878 |publisher=Higginbotham and Co. |volume=1 |location=Madras |pages= |language=en}}
*{{Cite book |last=Aiya |first=V. Nagam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVd1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PT222 |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Kerala Gazetteers Department, Government of Kerala |year=1999 |isbn=978-81-85499-32-1 |volume=1 |language=en |orig-year=1906}}
*{{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |work= |date=1979 |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |hdl=10603/563332 }}
*{{Cite journal |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |date=1990 |title=The Process of State Formation in Travancore |journal=Studies in History |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=15–33 |doi=10.1177/025764309000600102 |issn=0257-6430 |s2cid=}}
==Further reading==

=== Travancore government publications ===
* {{Cite book |last=Menon |first=P. Shungoonny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YdCAAAAIAAJ&q=perumal+travancore+royal+family |title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times |date=1878 |publisher=Higginbotham and Co. |volume= |location=Madras |pages= |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aiya |first=V. Nagam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVd1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PT222 |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Kerala Gazetteers Department, Government of Kerala |year=1999 |isbn=978-81-85499-32-1 |volume= |language=en |orig-year=1906}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pillai |first=T. K. Velu |url=https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.46796 |title=The Travancore State Manual |publisher=Government of Travancore |year=1940 |isbn= |volume= |language=en |orig-year=|location=Trivandrum}}
* {{Cite journal |year=1910–38 |title=Travancore Archaeological Series |url=https://tamildigitallibrary.in/book-search-new/Travancore%20Archaeological%20Series |journal=Travancore Archaeological Series |location=Trivandrum (Travancore/Kerala) |publisher=Government Press (Travancore), Government of Travancore |volume=I – IX}}
=== Modern publications ===
* {{Cite book |last=Alexander |first=P. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obe1AAAAIAAJ |title=The Dutch in Malabar |publisher=Annamalai University |year=1946 |series=Annamalai University Historical Series |location=Annamalainagar}}
* {{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWluAAAAMAAJ |title=State and Society in Premodern South India |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2002 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages= |chapter= |editor-last2=Veluthat |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Venugopalan |editor-first3=T. R.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kunju |first=A. P. Ibrahim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tUEKAQAAIAAJ&q=Rise%20of%20Travancore%20kunju |title=Rise of Travancore: A Study of the Life and Times of Martanda Varma |date=1976 |publisher=Kerala Historical Society |location=Trivandrum}}
* {{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://india.oup.com/product/a-concise-history-of-south-india-9780198099772? |title=A Concise History of South India |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-809977-2 |editor-last=Karashima |editor-first=Noburu |location=New Delhi |pages= |chapter=States in the Deccan and Kerala}}
* {{Cite book |last=Narayanan |first=M. G. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=perumals+of+kerala |title=Perumals of Kerala |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2013 |isbn=9788188765072 |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages= |orig-date=1972}}
* {{Cite book |last=Menon |first=A. Sreedhara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&q=chera+dynasty |title=A Survey of Kerala History |publisher=DC Books |year=2007 |location=Kottayam (Kerala) |isbn=978-81-264-1578-6 |orig-year=1967}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Ashin Das |url=https://archive.org/details/malabar-in-asian-trade-1740-1800 |title=Malabar and the Asian Trade: 1740 - 1800 |date=1967 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Cambridge South Asian Studies |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWluAAAAMAAJ |title=State and Society in Premodern South India |publisher=CosmoBooks |year=2002 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=Thrissur (Kerala) |pages= |chapter= |editor-last2=Veluthat |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Venugopalan |editor-first3=T. R.}}
* {{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://kchr.ac.in/catalogue/146/Perspectives-on-Kerala-History-The-Second-Millennium-First-Reprint-2024.html |title=Perspectives on Kerala History – The Second Millennium |date=1999 |publisher=Kerala Gazetteers Department |editor-last=Cherian |editor-first=P. J. |location=Trivandrum (Kerala)}}
*{{Cite book |last=De Lannoy |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/2348448920908238/page/n21/mode/1up |title=The Kulasekhara Perumals of Travancore: History and State Formation in Travancore from 1671 to 1758 |publisher=CNWS Publications, Leiden University |year=1997 |isbn=90-73782-92-9 |location=Leiden |page= |quote=}}
*{{Cite book |last=Veluthat |first=Kesavan |url=https://www.orientblackswan.com/details?obsin=3643 |title=The Political Structure of Early Medieval South India |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=2012 |edition=2nd revised |location=New Delhi |orig-year=1993}}
=== Articles/research theses ===
* {{Cite book |last=Chackochan |first=P. L. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/563332 |title=Historical and Cultural Geography of Venadu (Travancore) c. AD 1124-1729 |work= |date=1979 |publisher=Deccan College Post Graduate And Research Institute |hdl=10603/563332}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |date=1990 |title=The Process of State Formation in Travancore |journal=Studies in History |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=15–33 |doi=10.1177/025764309000600102 |issn=0257-6430 |s2cid=}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |date=2009 |title=Historical Geography of Natu in South India with Special Reference to Kerala |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/037698360903600102 |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=3–21 |doi=10.1177/037698360903600102 |issn=0376-9836 |s2cid=145359607|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Ganesh |first=K. N. |url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/16385 |title=Agrarian Relations and Political Authority in Medieval Travancore (AD 1300-1750) |work= |publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru University |year=1987 |editor-last=Champakalakshmi |editor-first=R. |location=New Delhi |pages= |hdl=10603/16385}}
* {{cite journal |author=Vielle |first=Christophe |year=2011 |title=Ravivarman Kulaśekhara the Yādava and Sagara the Son of Yādavī: Real and Ideal Kings in Matrilineal Kerala |url=https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/fr/object/boreal%3A129594/datastream/PDF_01/view |journal=Religions of South Asia |volume=5 |issue=1/15.2 |doi=10.1558/rosa.v5i1/2.365 |issn=1751-2689 |url-access=subscription}}
{{Kerala |state=collapsed}}
{{Feudal states of Kerala}}
{{Kollam |state=collapsed}}
{{coord missing|Kerala}}
[[Category:Kingdoms of Kerala]]
[[Category:Medieval Indian monarchies]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]

Mohammad Yousuf Bhat

2026-05-02T15:04:56Z

Ankithreddy: creating initial stub added tags

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1948)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
'''Mohammad Yousuf Bhat''' (born 1948) is an Indian politician from [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]. He is a former MLA from [[Shopian Assembly constituency]] in [[Shopian district]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-01-20 |title=Shopian rues ex-MLA's failure |url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/famous-for-declicious-apples-shopian-rues-mlas-failure/ |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=Daily Excelsior |language=en-US}}</ref> He won the [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election]] representing the [[Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-12-23 |title=List of candidates declared winner by ECI : J&K Assembly Elections 2014 Result |url=https://statetimes.in/list-candidates-declared-winner-eci-jk-assembly-elections-2014-result/ |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=Statetimes |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Bhat is from [[Shopian]], Shopian district, Jammu and Kashmir. He is the son of late Mohammad Ahsan Bhat. He is an advocate and his wife is a government teacher. After completing his B.Sc., he did his L.L.B. in 1972 at Aligarh Muslim University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mohammad Yousuf Bhat(JKPDP):Constituency- SHOPIAN(SHOPIAN) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/jk2014/candidate.php?candidate_id=686 |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>
== Electoral performance ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Election !! Constituency !! colspan="2"|Party !! Result !! Votes % !! Opposition Candidate !! colspan="2"|Opposition Party !! Opposition vote %|| Ref
|-
|[[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2014]]||[[Shopian Assembly constituency|Shopian]]||{{party name with color|Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party}}||{{Won}}||34.20%||[[Shabir Ahmad Kullay]]||{{party name with color|Independent politician}}||28.52%||<ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Jammu & Kashmir 2014 - Jammu & Kashmir - Election Commission of India |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3797-jammu-kashmir-2014/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613150235/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3797-jammu-kashmir-2014/ |archive-date=2019-06-13 |access-date= |website=eci.gov.in}}</ref>
|}

== Career ==
Bhat won from Shopian Assembly constituency representing the [[Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party]] in the 2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election. He polled 14,262 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Shabir Ahmad Kullay, an independent candidate, by a margin of 2,366 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-12-23 |title=Jammu and Kashmir Assembly election winners list |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2015/jammu-and-kashmir/story/jammu-kashmir-election-winners-list-assembly-polls-results-bjp-congress-pdp-nc-232557-2014-12-23 |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhat, Mohammad Yousuf}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party politicians]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 2014–2018]]
[[Category:People from Shopian district]]

{{JammuKashmir-politician-stub}}

Sheeshram Singh Ravi

2026-04-23T08:57:33Z

Ankithreddy: Creating Initial Biography With Sources

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sheeshram Singh Ravi
| office = Member of [[13th Lok Sabha]]
| constituency = [[Bijnor Lok Sabha constituency]]
| predecessor = [[Omvati Devi]]
| successor = [[Munshiram Singh]]
| term_end = 2004
| term_start = 1999
| birth_date = 19 January 1953
| birth_place = [[Bijnor district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| parents = Bhikha Singh (father)<ref>{{Cite web|title=SHEESH RAM SINGH RAVI|url=https://myneta.info/loksabha2004/candidate.php?candidate_id=4121|website=myneta.info|access-date=9 January 2023}}</ref> and Durgiya Devi (mother)
| spouse = Krishna Ravi
| image =
}}
'''Sheeshram Singh Ravi''' is an Indian politician who served as Member of [[13th Lok Sabha]] from [[Bijnor Lok Sabha constituency]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Members of 13th Lok Sabha |url=https://loksabha.nic.in/Members/statedetailar.aspx?state_name=Uttar+Pradesh&lsno=13 |access-date=2022-12-17 |website=Lok Sabha}}</ref> from 1999 to 2004.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bijnor Lok Sabha Election Result |url=https://resultuniversity.com/election/bijnor-lok-sabha |access-date=2022-12-17 |website=Result University}}</ref> He is from [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-04-13 |title=Nagina constituency all set for a tough triangular contest |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/nagina-constituency-all-set-for-a-tough-triangular-contest/article5909160.ece |access-date=2022-12-17 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
He was born on 19 January 1953 to Bhikka Singh and Durgiya Devi in [[Bijnor district]]. He married Krishna Ravi on 4 May 1971.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Member's Bioprofile |url=https://loksabhaph.nic.in/members/memberbioprofile.aspx?mpsno=366&lastls=13 |access-date=2022-12-17 |website=Lok Sabha}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ravi, Sheeshram Singh}}
[[Category:1953 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{UttarPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

2021 Lakhimpur Kheri violence

2026-04-22T05:08:06Z

Ankithreddy: starting new post.

{{Short description|2021 killing in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Old news|date=March 2024}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox civil conflict
| title = Lakhimpur Kheri incident
| subtitle =
| partof = [[2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest]]
| image =
| caption =
| date = {{start date|2021|10|3|df=y}}
| place = [[Banbirpur]] near [[Tikunia]], [[Lakhimpur Kheri district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| coordinates = {{coord|28.395|80.976|display=inline,title}}
| causes =
| goals =
| methods = [[Vehicle-ramming attack]], [[drive-by shooting]],<ref name="Shooting" /> [[lynching]]
| status =
| result =
| side1 = [[Samyukt Kisan Morcha]]
| side2 = [[File:BJP flag.svg|25px]] [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| side3 = Others
| side4 =
| leadfigures1 = Tajinder Singh Virk
| leadfigures2 = [[File:BJP flag.svg|20px]] Ashish Mishra Teni
| leadfigures3 = –
| leadfigures4 =
| howmany1 =
| howmany2 =
| howmany3 =
| howmany4 =
| casualties1 = '''Deaths''': 4 '''Injuries''': 10 '''Arrests''': 2
| casualties2 = '''Deaths''': 2 '''Arrests''': 13
| casualties3 = '''Deaths''': 2 (car driver, journalist)
| casualties4 =
| fatalities = 8
| injuries = 10
| arrests = 13
| damage =
| buildings =
| detentions =
| charged =
| fined =
| effect =
| effect_label =
| casualties_label = Deaths
| notes =
| sidebox =
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 6
}}
The '''Lakhimpur Kheri incident'''{{refn|name=Massacre|Sources calling the incident a massacre<ref name="Debayan" /><ref name="Massacre site" /><ref name="Punjab BJP" /><ref name="Loksatta">{{cite news |title=प्रियंका यांच्या प्रतिमानिर्मितीचा खटाटोप! |url=https://www.loksatta.com/desh-videsh/massacre-in-lakhimpur-kheri-political-developments-priyanka-gandhi-akp-94-2623032/ |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=Loksatta |quote=Massacre in lakhimpur kheri political developments priyanka gandhi |language=mr-IN}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri: The Chronology Behind the Massacre |url=https://thenewster.com/lakhimpur-kheri-the-chronology-behind-the-massacre/2021/ |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=The Newster |date=5 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='Inhuman massacre', Rahul, Priyanka slam Lakhimpur Kheri violence |url=https://www.news9live.com/buzz/farmers-protest-live-updates-lakhimpur-kheri-violence-news-deputy-cm-home-minister-up-police-92455 |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=NEWS9LIVE |date=3 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029172450/https://www.news9live.com/buzz/farmers-protest-live-updates-lakhimpur-kheri-violence-news-deputy-cm-home-minister-up-police-92455 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri Massacre{{!}} ಲಖೀಂಪುರ್ ರೈತ ಹತ್ಯಾಕಾಂಡ; ಹುತಾತ್ಮರಿಗೆ ದೇಶದ ಎಲ್ಲಾ ರೈತ ಸಮೂಹದಿಂದ ಅಂತಿಮ ನಮನ! |url=https://kannada.news18.com/news/national-international/lakhimpur-kheri-massacre-farmers-are-holding-the-last-prayers-for-the-farmers-killed-in-the-october-3-violence-mak-643497.html |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=News18 Kannada |date=12 October 2021 |language=kn}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri Massacre: Farmers To Intensify Stir{{!}} Countercurrents |url=https://countercurrents.org/2021/10/lakhimpur-kheri-massacre-farmers-to-intensify-stir/ |date=9 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Siddiqi |first1=Tania |title=Lakhimpur Kheri Massacre: India escalates terror targeting farmers |url=https://www.workers.org/2021/10/59527/ |work=Workers World |date=13 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri massacre: In the status report before SC, UP police inserts the word "honourable" four times to address the Minister while translating the FIR |url=https://theprobe.in/lakhimpur-kheri-massacre-in-the-status-report-before-sc/ |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=The Probe |date=9 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri: Sidhu breaks his hunger strike after Union minister's son to joins investigation |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/cities/chandigarh/lakhimpur-kheri-sidhu-breaks-hunger-strike-union-ministers-son-joins-investigation-1503016396.html |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=The Statesman |quote=Sidhu began his hunger strike on Friday evening demanding the son of Union minister Ajay Mishra be made part of the investigation in the Lakhimpur massacre |date=9 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="massacre SabrangIndia">{{cite news |title=SKM condemns "bhakta media" for Lakhimpur Kheri massacre |url=https://sabrangindia.in/article/skm-condemns-bhakta-media-lakhimpur-kheri-massacre |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=SabrangIndia |date=6 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Lakhimpur Kheri Massacre A Turning Point">{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri Massacre: A Turning Point |url=https://www.mlupdate.cpiml.net/2021/10/6/lakhimpur-kheri-massacre-a-turning-point |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=ML Update |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Have sought audience with President Kovind on Lakhimpur Kheri violence, tweets Congress. Then hits delete |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/lakhimpur-kheri-violence-case-congress-seeks-appointment-with-president-kovind-101633848225889.html |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=Hindustan Times |quote="The shocking incident of broad daylight massacre of farmers in Lakhimpur Kheri has shaken the conscience of the entire nation." |date=10 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri massacre |url=https://newswwc.com/tag/lakhimpur-kheri-massacre/ |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=News WWC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri Massacre: ಉಪ್ರ. ಚುನಾವಣೆಯ ಮೇಲೆ ಪರಿಣಾಮ ಬೀರಲಿದೆಯೇ ಲಖೀಂಪುರ್ ರೈತ ಹತ್ಯಾಕಾಂಡ; ಬಿಜೆಪಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ತಳಮಳ |url=https://kannada.news18.com/news/national-international/will-lakhimpur-kheri-farmers-deaths-hit-chances-in-uttar-padesh-polls-bjp-holds-key-meet-mak-643083.html |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=News18 Kannada |date=12 October 2021 |language=kn}}</ref>}} was a sequence of violent incidents comprising a [[vehicle-ramming attack]], [[drive-by shooting]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.madhyamam.com/india/lakhimpur-shooting-evidence-against-union-ministers-son-871490|title=ല ഖിം പു ർ: വെടി പൊട്ടിയത് മന്ത്രിപുത്ര െൻറ തോക്കിൽനിന്ന് | Madhyamam|first=എ എസ്|last=സുരേഷ് കുമാർ|date=10 November 2021|website=www.madhyamam.com|accessdate=21 August 2024}}</ref> and a [[mob lynching]] all on 3 October 2021 at [[Banbirpur]] village near [[Tikunia]] in [[Lakhimpur Kheri district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. They occurred during [[2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest|farmers’ protests]] against [[2020 Indian agriculture acts|three agricultural laws]] passed in 2020 by the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) led [[Union Government of India|Union Government]]. The violence led to the deaths of eight people and injuries to ten others. Four protesting farmers and a journalist were run over by a car.<ref name="Local journalist" /> Two BJP members and MP [[Ajay Mishra Teni]]'s driver were lynched by protestors in the aftermath.<ref name="SIT arrests driver" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri violence case: SIT recovers 'stick used to lynch two BJP leaders, driver' |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/lakhimpur-kheri-violence-case-sit-recovers-stick-used-to-lynch-two-bjp-leaders-driver-7598286/ |access-date=6 February 2022 |work=The Indian Express |date=30 October 2021}}</ref>

==Background==
The 2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest were a series of protest against three farm acts which were passed by the Union Government of India in the BJP controlled [[Parliament of India]] in September 2020.

In September 2021, [[Ajay Mishra Teni]], a BJP leader and [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)#List of Ministers of State|Minister of State for Home Affairs]] was attending an event in Palia town of Lakhimpur Kheri district. During the event, the farmer union members had shown black flags as a sign of protest. Teni warned the protesting farmer union members in his speech saying, "''Sudhar jao, nahi toh hum sudhaar denge, do minute me''" ({{Translation|You better reform, or we will reform you in two minutes.}})<ref>{{Cite news|last=Schmall, Emily, Hari Kumar, and Mujib Mashal.The New York Times|date=22 October 2021|title=Violence Strikes, and India's Farmers Want You to See It|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/22/world/asia/india-farmers-protests-modi.html|access-date=11 February 2022}}</ref> [[Tajinder Singh]] Virk, a farmer leader who is also linked to the [[Samajwadi Party]], later organised a protest against Teni's upcoming visit, in response to this warning.<ref name="Virk Caravan 6 Dec">{{cite news |last1=Tur |first1=Jatinder Kaur |title=I was definitely targeted in the Lakhimpur violence: Farmer leader Tajinder Singh Virk |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/crime/i-was-definitely-targeted-in-the-lakhimpur-violence-farmer-leader-tajinder-singh-virk |access-date=6 December 2021 |work=The Caravan |language=en}}</ref> On 3 October, Minister Teni and [[Keshav Prasad Maurya]] had planned to attend an event in the area. Maurya is the [[List of deputy chief ministers of Uttar Pradesh|Deputy Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="Virk Caravan 6 Dec" />

==Incident==
[[File:Mahindra Thar in dark red.jpg|thumb|Representative picture of a [[Mahindra Thar]] SUV, the same model involved in the [[vehicle-ramming attack]].]]
[[File:2018 Toyota Fortuner 2.4 VRZ 4x2 wagon (GUN165R; 02-18-2019), South Tangerang.jpg|thumb|Representative picture of a second car, a [[Toyota Fortuner]] that was part of the convoy behind the Thar.]]
[[File:Mahindra Scorpio GLX 2.5 CRDe 4WD 2009 (13827489254).jpg|thumb|Representative picture of a [[Mahindra Scorpio]], the third car in the convoy.]]
On 3 October 2021, hundreds of farmers in the Tikonia area of Lakhimpur Kheri district were returning after staging protests as part of the [[2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest]]s against the [[2020 Indian agriculture acts]]. The protestors were blocking state deputy chief minister Maurya's visit to Banbirpur village.<ref name="Eight killed">{{Cite web|date=2021-10-03|title=Eight killed in violence during protest against ministers in UP's Lakhimpur Kheri: Police|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/eight-dead-in-up-s-lakhimpur-kheri-after-jeep-runs-over-protesting-farmers-101633273679900.html|access-date=2021-10-11|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Forensic report" /> Protestors walking on the road were hit and ran over from behind by a speeding [[Mahindra Thar]], a [[sport utility vehicle]] (SUV). Two other vehicles in the convoy quickly followed the first car and ran over the injured people on the ground.<ref name="Trauma">{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri: 15-Year-Old Still In Trauma After Seeing Father Being Crushed Under The Wheel |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/india-news-lakhimpur-kheri-violence-15-year-old-still-in-trauma-after-seeing-father-being-crushed-under-the-wheel/397489 |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=outlookindia.com/ |language=en|quote=The father and son were walking together along with hundreds of other farmers to their houses when the jeep came from behind and ran over many of them. In quick succession, two other vehicles, a Scorpion and Fortuner, followed it crushing all those who were already seriously injured and lying on the ground.}}</ref> According to witnesses, [[gunshots]] were also fired.{{refn|name=Shooting|Sources covering the firearms shooting.<ref name="Lakhimpur Shooting">{{cite news |last1=ലേഖകൻ |first1=മാധ്യമം |title=Lakhimpur shooting: Evidence against Union Minister's son ലഖിംപുർ: വെടി പൊട്ടിയത് മന്ത്രിപുത്ര െൻറ തോക്കിൽനിന്ന് |url=https://www.madhyamam.com/india/lakhimpur-shooting-evidence-against-union-ministers-son-871490 |access-date=5 December 2021 |work=madhyamam.com |date=10 November 2021 |language=ml}}</ref><ref name="casings found Firstpost">{{cite news |title=.315 bore casings found at Lakhimpur Kheri site: All you need to know about this cartridge |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/315-bore-casings-found-at-lakhimpur-kheri-site-all-you-need-to-know-about-this-cartridge-10041541.html |access-date=5 December 2021 |work=Firstpost |quote=Two cartridge casings of .315 bore have reportedly been found by a forensics team from the scene of the 3 October violence in Lakhimpur Kheri. |date=10 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Bullet injury">{{cite news |last1=Rashid |first1=Omar |title=Bullet injury ignored; family of dead Kheri farmer wants second autopsy |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/bullet-injury-ignored-family-of-dead-kheri-farmer-wants-second-autopsy/article36846574.ece |access-date=5 December 2021 |work=The Hindu |quote=Seen fleeing, shooting. Persons claiming to be eyewitnesses in Tikonia said they saw Ashish Mishra sitting in the SUV that moved down the farmers on Sunday and alleged that after his car lost balance, he abandoned the vehicle and fled on foot. While doing so, he fired at Gurvinder who tried to catch him. |date=5 October 2021 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="Express 7 Oct" /><ref>{{cite news |title=UP: 8 Dead, Tensions High in Lakhimpur Kheri, FIR Against Minister's Son; Priyanka, Akhilesh Detained |url=https://thewire.in/agriculture/up-two-die-convoy-ministers-son |access-date=5 December 2021 |work=The Wire}}</ref><ref name="thecitizen">{{cite news | title=Farmers Pay Tribute to Those Killed in Lakhimpur Kheri |url=https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/newsdetail/index/9/20997/farmers-pay-tribute-to-those-killed-in-lakhimpur-kheri |access-date=5 December 2021 |work=www.thecitizen.in}}</ref><ref name="2nd Autopsy">{{cite news |last1=Rashid |first1=Omar |title=Lakhimpur Kheri violence {{!}} Second autopsy silent on bullet injury, says family of slain farmer Gurvinder Singh |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/lakhimpur-kheri-violence-second-autopsy-silent-on-bullet-injury-says-family-of-slain-farmer-gurvinder-singh/article36851817.ece |access-date=5 December 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=6 October 2021 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="NewsClick">{{cite news |title=4 Farmers Killed by BJP Union Minister's Son and His Goons in Lakhimpur Kheri: Samyukta Kisan Morcha |url=https://www.newsclick.in/2-protesting-farmers-run-over-1-shot-dead-amid-bjp-ministers-visit |access-date=5 December 2021 |work=NewsClick |quote=Corroborating Singh’s account, Guramneet Mangat, who was present at the spot when the alleged shooting and killings occurred, said, “After the minister was gone, and the farmers were about to disperse, Ashish Mishra, his brother, and a few goons arrived at around 3 – 3.15 pm in three cars. They drove haphazardly and ran over farmers who were there on the side of the road. They started firing at the farmers as well. One farmer was shot at from a very close distance. He has died. |date=3 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Eyewitnesses Newslaundry" />}} Protesters torched the Thar and [[Toyota Fortuner]] cars and killed three of their occupants, while the driver of the third car in the convoy, a [[Mahindra Scorpio]], fled the site with his car.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri: 13 in jail for farmer deaths; minister son's bail plea to be heard Nov 15 |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/newsindia/lakhimpur-kheri-13-in-jail-for-farmer-deaths-minister-sons-bail-plea-to-be-heard-nov-15/ar-AAQt3fJ |access-date=7 December 2021}}</ref>

Eight people died in the violence.<ref name="Eight killed" /> Two farmers died on the spot while two more died later in the hospital.<ref name="Ashish Mishra BBC" /><ref name="Eight killed" /> Ten farmers were injured.<ref name="SKM Statement">{{cite news|date=3 October 2021|title=Farmers run over by Union Minister's convoy in Lakhimpur Khiri: 3 dead|language=en|work=Gauri Lankesh News|url=https://gaurilankeshnews.com/farmers-run-over-by-union-ministers-convoy-in-lakhimpur-khiri-three-dead-18-injured/|access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Crushed">{{cite news|date=3 October 2021|title=Protesting Farmers 'Crushed to Death' by Union Minister's Convoy in UP|work=groundxero|url=https://www.groundxero.in/2021/10/03/protesting-farmers-crushed-to-death-by-union-ministers-convoy-in-up/|access-date=13 October 2021}}</ref> Raman Kashyap, a 28-year-old journalist working with the private TV news channel was among those killed.<ref name="Local journalist">{{cite news |title=Local journalist among 8 killed in Lakhimpur Kheri violence |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/local-journalist-among-8-killed-in-lakhimpur-kheri-violence-320501 |access-date=9 October 2021 |work=Tribune India |agency=Tribune News Service |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ashish Mishra BBC" /> According to his father and brother, Kashyap was hit by the car and grievously injured.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rashid |first1=Omar |title=Lakhimpur Kheri incident: Reporter's father says he died after being run over |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/lakhimpur-kheri-incident-reporters-father-says-he-died-after-being-run-over/article36847958.ece |access-date=8 December 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=5 October 2021 |language=en-IN}}</ref> Three persons in the minister's convoy (the driver of [[Ajay Mishra Teni]] and two BJP workers) were [[lynched]] by the farmers, two of the three died.<ref name="Ashish Mishra BBC">{{cite news |title=Ashish Mishra: India minister's son arrested over Lakhimpur violence |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-58839296 |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=BBC News |date=11 October 2021}}</ref>

Two of the cars involved were owned by Union Minister Teni. According to eyewitnesses, the minister's son, Ashish Teni, was in one of the cars.<ref name="Newslaundry video">{{cite news |last1=Team |first1=N. L. |title=Lakhimpur Kheri violence: What happened on October 3 and what do we know so far? |url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/10/11/lakhimpur-kheri-violence-what-happened-on-october-3-and-what-do-we-know-so-far |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=Newslaundry}}</ref>

==Investigation==
Two [[first information report]]s (FIR) on the incidents were filed at the [[Tikunia]] police station.<ref name="Eyewitnesses Newslaundry">{{cite news |last1=Saxena |first1=Nidhi Suresh,Shivangi |title=Lakhimpur Kheri violence: Eyewitnesses recall what they saw on October 3 |url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2021/10/05/lakhimpur-kheri-violence-eyewitnesses-recall-what-they-saw-on-october-3 |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=Newslaundry}}</ref> The complainant alleged that the event was 'premeditated' and that a "conspiracy was hatched by the minister" (Ajay Teni) and his son. Ashish Teni, along with around 20 unnamed men, were charged. The charges listed in the FIR were [[Indian Penal Code]] sections 147, 148, 149 (all three related to rioting), 279 (rash driving), 338 (causes grievous hurt to any person by doing any act so rashly or negligently as to endanger human life), 304A (causing death by negligence), 302 (murder), and 120B (party to a [[criminal conspiracy]])<ref name="Forensic report" /> Ashish Teni was allegedly driving the car involved in the incidents. He denied the charge and evaded police questioning for six days.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri: India minister's son evades police questioning |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-58839296 |access-date=9 October 2021 |work=BBC News |date=8 October 2021}}</ref><ref name="Punjab BJP">{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=IP |title=Punjab BJP maintains silence on Lakhimpur Kheri {{!}} Chandigarh News – Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/punjab-bjp-maintains-silence-on-lakhimpur-kheri/articleshow/86822732.cms |access-date=9 October 2021 |work=The Times of India |publisher=TNN |date=7 October 2021 |language=en |quote="When all other parties in Punjab are very active on Lakhimpur Kheri massacre, Punjab BJP has been maintaining a complete silence on it."}}</ref>

The [[Supreme Court of India]] heard the case after two lawyers from Uttar Pradesh wrote to [[Chief Justice of India|Chief Justice]] [[N. V. Ramana]], seeking a federal investigation into the incidents. The Supreme Court criticised the Uttar Pradesh government and expressed dissatisfaction over the initial steps taken. The court also asked the police why the minister's son had not been arrested when he was accused of a serious crime of murder. Chief Justice Ramana, speaking for the court, disapproved of the staffing of the [[Special Investigation Team (India)|Special Investigation Team]] (SIT) set up by the [[Government of Uttar Pradesh]] stating "the people in the commission, they're all local officers".<ref name="Ashish Mishra BBC" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/lakhimpur-kheri-incident-sc-slams-up-government-over-delay-in-arrest-of-ashish-mishra-101633701867459-amp.html|title=Lakhimpur Kheri incident: Supreme Court slams UP government over delay in arrest of Ashish Misra|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref name="Debayan">{{cite news |last1=Roy |first1=Debayan |title=Lakhimpur Kheri Uttar Pradesh massacre: "Action of UP govt only in words:" Supreme Court unhappy with probe |url=https://www.barandbench.com/news/litigation/lakhimpur-kheri-uttar-pradesh-massacre-action-of-up-govt-only-in-words-supreme-court-unhappy-with-probe |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=Bar and Bench – Indian Legal news |language=en}}</ref>

Ashish Mishra Teni appeared for questioning before the SIT six days after the incidents. He was arrested and taken into custody on 9 October 2021.<ref name="Ashish Mishra BBC" /> Three more people were also arrested.<ref name="SIT arrests driver">{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri deaths: SIT arrests driver of SUV in convoy |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/lakhimpur-kheri-deaths-sit-arrests-driver-of-suv-in-convoy-7569038 |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=The Indian Express |quote="While four protesters and allegedly a journalist were run over, three others were killed in the subsequent violence." |date=13 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Massacre site" /> On 12 October, he was taken to the violence site for reconstruction of the events.<ref name="Massacre site">{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri: Ashis Mishra to be taken to massacre site |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/lakhimpur-kheri-ashis-mishra-to-be-taken-to-massacre-site/cid/1834428 |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=www.telegraphindia.com |date=13 October 2021}}</ref>

The forensic team of the investigators recovered two empty [[8 mm caliber|.315]] [[Cartridge (firearms)|firearm cartridges]] from Ashish Teni's vehicle at the incident site.<ref name="casings found Firstpost" /> A forensic examination of the cartridges was sought. The presence of empty cartridges in his vehicle could not be explained by Teni. He was accused of shooting at the farmers.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Kanwardeep |last1= Singh |title=Ashish Mishra: Lakhimpur violence; After 12 hours of questioning, minister's son in judicial custody |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/lakhimpur-violence-after-12-hours-of-questioning-ministers-son-in-judicial-custody/articleshow/86923700.cms |access-date=4 December 2021 |work=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

On 15 October, four firearms, including a rifle belonging to Ashish Mishra Teni were recovered by the [[Uttar Pradesh Police]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}} Among the weapons were a pistol owned by a nephew of a former Union minister and a repeater gun, held by the bodyguard of the nephew. A revolver was also recovered. Forensic tests conducted at the [[Forensic science|Forensic Science]] Laboratory (FSL) on the firearms confirmed that they had been fired, but the report did not confirm if they were fired on the day of the incidents. Of the 20 people accused in the police report, police have arrested 13.<ref name="Forensic report">{{cite news |title=Forensic report confirms that weapons seized from MoS Ajay Mishra's son were fired |url=https://theprint.in/india/forensic-report-confirms-that-weapons-seized-from-mos-ajay-mishras-son-were-fired/763937/ |access-date=4 December 2021 |work=ThePrint |date=10 November 2021}}</ref>

Journalist Raman Kashyap was in Tikunia to cover the rally but was shot and killed. His brother Pawan Kashyap stated that the SIT investigation had found that his brother was crushed to death by a car and not lynched by farmers. Pawan filed a complaint with the police but no FIR was registered by the police. Pawan moved the court for instructions to the police to press charges over Kashyap's death against 14 people, including Minister Teni and his son.<ref name="Forensic report" /> The complaint stated "As per eyewitnesses, the journalist was shot at while he was covering the car. Gunshots can be heard in the footage as well".<ref name="Express 7 Oct">{{cite news |title=No doubt how he died… he was crushed by minister son's cars: Journalist family |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/lucknow/lakhimpur-kheri-violence-journalist-raman-kashyap-death-7556765/ |access-date=4 December 2021 |work=The Indian Express |date=7 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

On 15 November 2021, the Supreme Court directed Uttar Pradesh government to "upgrade" the SIT with more senior police officers and include a retired judge "to ensure proper investigation".<ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri violence: UP govt agrees to appointment of retired judge to monitor probe |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/lakhimpur-kheri-violence-uttar-pradesh-sit-probe-judge-supreme-court-7623595/ |access-date=15 November 2021 |work=The Indian Express |date=15 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

On 25 November 2021 the new SIT, consisting of S B Shiradkar [[Additional Director General of Police]] (ADGP) of Uttar Pradesh, Police intelligence; Padmaja Chauhan, [[Inspector-general of police|Inspector General of Police]] (IG), recruitment board; and Preetinder Singh, posted as [[Deputy Inspector General of Police]] (DIG), all visited the crime scene in Tikunia and met, amongst others, with Upendra Agarwal (DIG) the former head of the SIT.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Deccan Herald|date=26 November 2021|title=New SIT Team Reaches Lakhimpur Kheri, Begins Probe|url=https://www.deccanherald.com|access-date=11 February 2022|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref> The three IPS officers, were accompanied by Rakesh Kumar Jain, retired judge of [[Punjab and Haryana High Court]], who had been appointed by Chief Justice [[N. V. Ramana|NV Ramana]] to "ensure impartiality and independence of the investigation."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Prakash|first=Satya|date=17 November 2021|title=Supreme Court appoints Punjab and Haryana High Court ex-judge RK Jain to monitor probe in Lakhimpur violence|work=Tribune News Service|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/supreme-court-appoints-punjab-and-haryana-high-court-ex-judge-rk-jain-to-monitor-probe-in-lakhimpur-violence-339282|access-date=11 February 2022}}</ref>

On 15 December, Senior Prosecution Officer (SPO) S P Yadav told the media that the Chief Investigator of the SIT Vidyaram Diwakar (Inspector Crime Branch, Kheri), had moved an application in the court of [[Chief Judicial Magistrate Court|Chief Judicial Magistrate]] Chinta Ram. In the application the investigator has stated that causing death by ramming a vehicle into the farmers was "not an act of negligence or carelessness." but "a pre-planned conspiracy". In the application he recommended that the earlier IPC sections in the FIR; sections 279 (Rash driving or riding on a public way), 338 (Whoever causes grievous hurt to any person by doing any act so rashly or negligently) and 304A (Causing death by negligence) be replaced with IPC sections 307 (Attempt to murder), 326 (Voluntarily causing grievous hurt by dangerous weapons), 34 (Acts done by several persons in furtherance of common intention), and sections 3/25/30 of the [[Arms Act, 1959|Arms Act]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Times of India|date=14 December 2021|title=SIT report on Lakhimpur Kheri provides fresh ammunition to opposition as Priyanka questions govt|work=Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/sit-report-on-lakhimpur-kheri-provides-fresh-ammunition-to-opposition-as-priyanka-questions-govt/articleshow/88275968.cms|access-date=11 February 2022}}</ref>

On 3 January 2022 The SIT filed a 5,000 page charge-sheet against 14 people, including Union Minister Teni’s son Ashish, who has been named the main accused. The charge-sheet was submitted in the court of Chief Judicial Magistrate Chinta Ram. In addition to Ashish Teni the charge-sheet named Ankit Das, Nandan Singh Bisht, Satyam Tripathi, alias Satyam, Latif, alias Kale, Shekhar Bharti, Sumit Jaiswal, Ashish Pandey, Lavkush Rana, Shishu Pal, Ullas Kumar, alias Mohit Trivedi, Rinku Rana and [[Dharmendra]] Banjara. In addition to these names Virendra Shukla’s name has been added in the charge sheet under IPC Section 201 (causing disappearance of evidence). The court accepted the charge sheet and fixed 10 January as the next date of hearing.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pandey|first=Sanjay|date=3 January 2022|title=SIT files 5,000-page charge sheet in Lakhimpur Kheri case; Ashish Mishra prime accused|work=Deccan Herald|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/north-and-central/sit-files-5000-page-charge-sheet-in-lakhimpur-kheri-case-ashish-mishra-prime-accused-1067446.html|access-date=11 February 2022}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
An alleged video of the incident shared by BJP parliamentarian [[Varun Gandhi]] showed a vehicle ramming unarmed protesters from behind.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/crystal-clear-bjp-s-varun-gandhi-tweets-new-lakhimpur-video-demands-justice-101633590882060.html|title="Crystal clear": BJP's Varun Gandhi tweets new Lakhimpur video, demands jutice|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>

On 9 October, the farmer unions termed the violence an "[[Terrorism|act of terror]]" that was part of a larger conspiracy to break the ten-month-old farmers' protest. The union stated, this "massacre" during the farmer's movement was analogous to the [[Jallianwala Bagh massacre]] in 1919 during the [[Indian independence movement]]. The unions and the [[Samyukt Kisan Morcha]] (SKM) farmer union coalition planned several protests calling for the immediate dismissal and arrest of Union Minister Ajay Mishra Teni and his son Ashish.<ref name="terror act">{{cite news |title=Farmer unions term Lakhimpur Kheri carnage 'a terror act' |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/farmer-unions-term-lakhimpur-kheri-carnage-a-terror-act/cid/1834063 |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=telegraphindia.com |date=10 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur Kheri incident 'terror attack', part of 'pre-planned conspiracy', SKM alleges |url=https://theprint.in/india/lakhimpur-kheri-incident-terror-attack-part-of-pre-planned-conspiracy-skm-alleges/748397/ |date=9 October 2021}}</ref> [[Rashtriya Lok Dal]] party president [[Jayant Chaudhary]], called the incident "not less than a terror attack".<ref>{{cite news |title=Lakhimpur incident a 'terror attack', slap UAPA on accused: Jayant Chaudhary {{!}} english.lokmat.com |url=https://english.lokmat.com/politics/lakhimpur-incident-a-terror-attack-slap-uapa-on-accused-jayant-chaudhary/ |access-date=14 October 2021 |work=Lokmat English |date=8 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Jaiswal">{{cite news |last1=Jaiswal |first1=Anuja |title=Lakhimpur Kheri incident no less than a terror attack, says Jayant Chaudhary, seeks UAPA against minister, son {{!}} Agra News – Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/agra/lakhimpur-kheri-incident-no-less-than-a-terror-attack-says-jayant-chaudhary-seeks-uapa-against-minister-son/articleshow/86846660.cms |access-date=13 October 2021 |work=The Times of India |agency=TNN |date=7 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Opposition parties held protest meetings against the violence at Lakhimpur Kheri. [[Member of Parliament (Canada)|Canadian MP]] [[Sukh Dhaliwal]], shaken by the video, called it a terror attack no different to the [[London, Ontario truck attack]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Service |first1=Tribune News |title=Sidhu skips party's Amritsar protest over Lakhimpur killings |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/sidhu-skips-partys-amritsar-protest-over-lakhimpur-killings-323217 |access-date=14 October 2021 |work=Tribuneindia News Service |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Gurpreet Singh: Liberal MP Sukh Dhaliwal describes Lakhimpur Kheri episode as a "terrorist attack" |url=https://www.straight.com/news/gurpreet-singh-liberal-mp-sukh-dhaliwal-describes-lakhimpur-kheri-episode-as-a-terrorist-attack |access-date=14 October 2021 |work=The Georgia Straight |date=10 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Editors Guild of India]] (EGI) demanded a probe by a court-led special investigative team on the death of the journalist and asked the media to report facts. The EGI stated, "In what is clearly a terror attack meant to spread fear amongst the farmers, the killing of Kashyap raises many questions. The Editors Guild demands that the death of Kashyap be separately probed by a Court-led special investigation team to ascertain the circumstances of his death and also attempt to recover and use the footage of his camera to build the sequence of events leading to his death. EGI is concerned about the varying versions of the incident in different sections of the media. It is imperative for the media to report the facts and not versions."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Team |first1=BS Web |title=Lakhimpur Kheri case: Editors Guild demands SIT probe on journalist's death |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/lakhimpur-kheri-case-editors-guild-demands-sit-probe-on-journalist-s-death-121100501345_1.html |access-date=14 October 2021 |work=Business Standard India |date=5 October 2021}}</ref>

===Calls for removal of Teni from Home ministry post===
On 26 November 2021 the [[Delhi Legislative Assembly]] passed a resolution demanding the sacking of Ajay Mishra Teni from his post of Minister of State.<ref name="Delhi Assembly Misra 8 Dec">{{cite news |last1=Mehra |first1=Sushant |title=Delhi Assembly passes resolution demanding removal of MoS Ajay Misra over Lakhimpur Kheri case |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/delhi-assembly-passes-resolution-demanding-removal-mos-ajay-misra-lakhimpur-kheri-case-1881144-2021-11-26 |access-date=8 December 2021 |work=India Today |date=26 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Assembly passes resolution condemning farm laws |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/assembly-passes-resolution-condemning-farm-laws/article37713760.ece |access-date=8 December 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=27 November 2021 |language=en-IN}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lakhimpur Kheri violence, 2021}}
[[Category:Lakhimpur Kheri district|2021 violence]]
[[Category:2021 road incidents in Asia]]
[[Category:Attacks in India in 2021]]
[[Category:2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest]]
[[Category:October 2021 in India]]
[[Category:2020s in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:October 2021 crimes in Asia]]
[[Category:2020s vehicle-ramming attacks]]
[[Category:Vehicle-ramming attacks in India]]
[[Category:Drive-by shootings]]
[[Category:Lynching deaths in India]]
[[Category:Protest-related deaths]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Arson in 2021]]
[[Category:Arson attacks on vehicles in India]]
[[Category:2021 fires in Asia]]
[[Category:2021 in Indian politics]]
[[Category:2021 murders in India]]
[[Category:2021 mass murders]]
[[Category:21st-century mass murders in India]]
[[Category:Murder in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Gun violence in India]]

Tawi Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:35:37Z

Ankithreddy: Creating A Info W/ Infobox...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Mizoram legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Tawi
| type= SLA
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Mizoram (Tawi highlighted).png
| state = [[Mizoram]]
| constituency_no = 9
| district = [[Aizawl district|Aizawl]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Mizoram Lok Sabha constituency|Mizoram]]
| established = 2008
| reservation = ST
| mla = [[Prof. Lalnilawma]]
| party = [[Zoram People's Movement]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| electors = {{formatnum:20216}}
}}
'''Tawi''' is one of the 40 [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Mizoram]] state in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Assembly Elections December 2013 Results |work=ECI |publisher=Election Commission of India |url=http://eciresults.ap.nic.in |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215221429/http://eciresults.ap.nic.in/ |archivedate=2013-12-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=elections.in>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/mizoram/assembly-constituencies|title=Mizoram Assembly Constituency List|publisher=www.elections.in}}</ref>

It is part of [[Aizawl district]] and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[2008 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2008]]
| rowspan=3|[[R. Lalzirliana]]
| {{Party name with colour|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2013 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
|-
|[[2018 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
| {{Party name with colour|Mizo National Front}}
|-
|-
|[[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| rowspan=|[[Prof. Lalnilawma]]
| {{Party name with colour|Zoram People's Movement}}
|-
|}

==Election results==
===2023===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election]]: Tawi}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Lairinenga Sailo
|party = Mizo National Front
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Prof. Lalnilawma]]
|party = Zoram People's Movement
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Lalringliana Khiangte
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box hold with party link
|winner =
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2018===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2018 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election]]: Tawi<ref>{{cite web|title=Mizoram Legislative Election 2018- Statistical Report|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9687-mizoram-legislative-election-2018-statistical-report/|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[R. Lalzirliana]]
|party = Mizo National Front
|votes = 4940
|percentage = 37.35
|change = {{decrease}}0.60
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = R. Lalthatluanga
|party = Zoram People's Movement
|votes = 4756
|percentage = 35.96
|change = {{increase}}20.00
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Lalhmachhuana
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 2630
|percentage = 19.89
|change = {{decrease}}25.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = J. V. Hluna
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|votes = 714
|percentage = 5.40
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|candidate = H. Lalremsiama
|party = PRISM
|votes = 97
|percentage = 0.73
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Lalzenghaki
|party = Independent politician
|votes = 49
|percentage = 0.37
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 39
|percentage = 0.29
|change = {{decrease}}0.28
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 184
|percentage = 1.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 13225
|percentage = 84.47
|change = {{increase}}0.89
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Mizo National Front
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2013===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2013 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election]]: Tawi<ref name=Miz2013>{{cite web |url= http://eciresults.nic.in/PartyWiseResult.htm |title= Assembly Elections December 2013 Results |publisher= Election Commission of India |access-date= 8 October 2021 |archive-date= 15 December 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131215065208/http://eciresults.nic.in/PartyWiseResult.htm |url-status= dead }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[R. Lalzirliana]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 5757
|percentage = 45.42
|change = {{increase}}4.13
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Lalmalsawmi
|party = Mizo National Front
|votes = 4810
|percentage = 37.95
|change = {{increase}}7.28
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = R. Lalthatluanga
|party = Zoram Nationalist Party
|votes = 2023
|percentage = 15.96
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = 84
|percentage = 0.66
|change = ''New''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 947
|percentage = 7.52
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 12674
|percentage = 87.01
|change = {{increase}}0.51
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2008===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2008 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election]]: Tawi<ref name="eci">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3666-mizoram-2008/ |title=Mizoram 2008 - Mizoram - Election Commission of India |date= |author= |accessdate= 8 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[R. Lalzirliana]]
|party = Indian National Congress
|votes = 4710
|percentage = 41.29
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Lalchhandama Ralte
|party = Mizo National Front
|votes = 3499
|percentage = 30.67
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Kenneth Chawngliana
|party = Mizoram People's Conference
|votes = 3127
|percentage = 27.41
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = Biakngheta
|party = Lok Janshakti Party
|votes = 71
|percentage = 0.62
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1211
|percentage = 10.62
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 11407
|percentage = 86.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box new seat win|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Mizoram}}

{{coord|23.970|92.575|display=title}}

[[Category:Aizawl district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Mizoram]]
[[Category:Politics of Mizoram]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Mizoram]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Sidi Muhammad Haider Khan

2026-04-19T05:25:29Z

Ankithreddy: Creating Basic Entry And Citations...

{{short description|Nawab of Sachin (1930 - 1970)}}
{{infobox royalty
| name = Muhammad Haider Khan
| title = Mubariz-ud-Daula Muzaffar-ul-Mulk Nusrat Jang
| succession = [[Nawab]] of [[Sachin State|Sachin]]
| reign = 19 November 1930 – 13 May 1970
| predecessor = [[Sidi Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III|Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III]]
| successor = Muhammad Suroor Yakut Khan
| birth_date = {{birth date|1909|09|11|df=yes}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1970|05|31|1909|09|11|df=yes}}
| spouse 2 = {{marriage|Yakut Zamani Begum|23 July 1937}}
| spouse 1 = {{marriage|Nusrat Zamani Begum|7 July 1930}}
| spouse 3 = {{marriage|Massarat Zamani Begum|10 May 1938}}
| dynasty = [[Siddi]]
| full name = Sidi Muhammad Haider Khan
| house = [[Sachin State|Sachin]]
| father = [[Sidi Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III|Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III]]
| mother = Fatima Sultan Jahan
}}
[[Siddi|Sidi]] '''Muhammad Haider Khan''' also known as was the [[Nawab]] of [[Sachin State|Sachin]] from 1930 until his death in 1970. He belonged the lineal descendants of the Sidi Habshi or Abbyssinian rulers of Janjira descended from Nawab Bahadur Sidi Abdul Karim Muhammad Yakut Khan I

== Biography ==
He was born on 11 September 1909 as the eldest son of [[Sidi Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III|Ibrahim Muhammad Yakut Khan III]] and his wife Fatima Sultan Jahan.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.04376/ |title=Memoranda on the Indian states, 1934 : (Corrected up to the 1st January 1934) |date=1934 |publisher=Manager of Publication, Delhi |pages=115–116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vadivelu |first=A. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Ruling_Chiefs_Nobles_and_Zamindars_o/LfoxAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ruling Chiefs, Nobles and Zamindars of India |date=1915 |publisher=G.C. Loganadham |pages=365–366 |language=en}}</ref> He was initially homeschooled and later completed his formal education at the [[Rajkumar College, Rajkot|Rajkumar College]], [[Rajkot]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=The Manager Of Publication. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.53946/ |title=Memoranda On The Indian States (1937) |date=1937 |pages=115–116}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Not Available |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35376/ |title=Memoranda On The Indian States 1940 |date=1940 |pages=38}}</ref>

Upon the death of his father on 19 November 1930, he succeeded him as the [[Nawab]] of [[Sachin State|Sachin]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bombay (India :State) |first= |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Bombay_a_Review_of_the_Administration_of/pmXiAAAAMAAJ |title=Bombay, a Review of the Administration of the Presidency |date=1929 |publisher=Printed at the Government Central Press |pages=5 |language=en}}</ref> He was invested with ruling powers on 5 February 1931 by the Political Agent on two conditions: firstly, that for a period of two years, his Diwan would be appointed with the approval of the Government; and secondly, that in all important matters of State policy, he would abide by the advice of the Political Agent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Das |first=durga |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.110526/ |title=Sardar Patels Correspondence Vol 7 |date=1966 |pages=486–487,498–500}}</ref> He acceded [[Sachin State|Sachin]] to the [[Dominion of India]] in August 1947.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopaedia_Indica_Princely_States_in/I_cvAQAAIAAJ? |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: Princely States in colonial India |date=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 |pages=49 |language=en}}</ref>

His summer capital was located in the seaside town of Dumas, on the Western Coast of Gujarat just 10 miles from Surat. It was the only such town on the Western Coast reportedly having well road connectivity with the Grand Trunk Road and also equipped with telephone lines and other communications.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who S Who Among Indian Princes Rajas And Chiefs Nobles 1941 - 42 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.107205 |url-status=live |website=Internet Archive Org}}</ref>

He married three times.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Francis Low |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.109605 |title=The Indian Year Book Of 1939 To 40 |date=1939 |pages=1186}}</ref> His first marriage was to Arjumand Bano Sarkar-i-Aliya Nawab Nusrat Zamani Begum, the eldest sister of the [[Nawab]] of [[Loharu State|Loharu]], on 7 July 1930.<ref name=":0" /> His second marriage took place on 23 July 1937 to Alimamma Sultan Nur Mahal Nawab Yakut Zamani Begum.<ref name=":0" /> His third marriage was on 10 May 1938 to Manzar Sultan Mumtaz Mahal Nawab Massarat Zamani Begum.<ref name=":0" />

He died on 31 May 1970.

== Titles and styles ==
His titles were:<ref name=":1" />

* 11 September 1909 – 19 November 1930: [[Nawabzada]] [[Siddi|Sidi]] Muhammad Haider Khan Bahadur, [[Wali-ahad Sahib|Wali Ahad Sahib]] of [[Sachin State|Sachin]].
* 19 November 1930 – 31 May 1970: [[Highness|His Highness]] Mubariz-ud-Daula Muzaffar-ul-Mulk [[Nawab]] [[Siddi|Sidi]] Muhammad Haider Khan Bahadur, Nusrat Jang, [[Nawab]] [[Sahib]] of [[Sachin State|Sachin]].

== References ==
<references />
[[Category: 1909 births]]
[[Category: 1970 deaths]]
[[Category:Nawabs of India]]
[[Category:People from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]

N. C. Samantsinhar

2026-04-11T09:59:31Z

Ankithreddy: creating new post initial version

{{Short description|Indian politician (1912–1982)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = N. C. Samantsinhar
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Lok Sabha]]
| constituency = [[Bhubaneswar Lok Sabha constituency|Bhubaneswar]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1912|3|2|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Puri district]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]] (in present-day [[Odisha, India]])
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1982|10|18|1912|3|2|df=yes}}
| death_place = Odisha, India
| children = 2
| occupation = Politician
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
}}

'''N. C. Samantsinhar''' (2 March 1912 – 18 October 1982) was an Indian politician who served as a member of the [[2nd Lok Sabha]] from [[Bhubaneswar Lok Sabha constituency]] representing the [[Indian National Congress]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=LIST OF MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT |url=https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissaannualreference/ORA-2004/pdf/list_members_of_parliament.pdf |website=E-Magazines {{!}} Government Of Odisha}}</ref> and a runner-up for the [[1962 Indian vice presidential election]] securing only 14 votes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agrawal |first=S. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zYkUcVMKtDYC&dq=N.+C.+Samantsinhar+vice+president&pg=PA523 |title=Information India 1992-93 : Global View |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1994 |isbn=978-81-7022-538-6 |pages=523 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kaul |first1=Maheshwar Nath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9srAQAAIAAJ&q=N.+C.+Samantsinhar+vice+president |title=Practice & Procedure of Parliament: With Particular Reference to Lok Sabha |last2=Shakdher |first2=S. L. |publisher=Metropolitan Book Company |year=1968 |pages=41 |language=en}}</ref>{{ISBN missing|date=January 2023}}<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXYwAAAAYAAJ&q=N.+C.+Samantsinhar+vice+president |title=Report on the General Elections in India |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |year=1962 |pages=108 |language=en}}</ref>{{ISBN missing|date=January 2023}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 July 2017 |title=Venkaiah Naidu vs Gopalkrishna Gandhi: 6 vice-presidents who went on to become presidents |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/venkaiah-naidu-gopalkrishna-gandhi-vice-presidential-election-1024892-2017-07-18 |access-date=8 January 2023 |website=[[India Today]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Samantsinhar was born on 2 March 1912 in [[Puri district]] (then in [[Bengal Presidency]] in [[British India]])<ref>Ilbert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine (1922). ''The Government of India'', Third Edition, revised and updated. Clarendon Press. pp. 117–118.</ref> to Maheshwar Samantsinhar. He was married to Manorama and had two sons.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Member's Bioprofile |url=https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/1346.htm |access-date=2023-01-07 |website=Lok Sabha}}</ref> He resided in South Avenue, [[New Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z24vEooGc_0C&q=N.+C.+Samantsinhar+vice+president |title=Report on the Third General Elections, 1962: To the Assam Legislative Assembly and the House of the People |publisher=Assam Elections Department |year=1964 |pages=18 |language=en}}</ref>

Samantsinhar died in Odisha on 18 October 1982, at the age of 70.<ref>{{cite book |title=Lok Sabha Debates |date=1982 |publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat |pages=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TlJPAQAAMAAJ&q=%22N.+C.+Samantsinhar%22+obituary+references |access-date=26 February 2023}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Samantsinhar, N. C.}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:1982 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Odisha]]
[[Category:India MPs 1957–1962]]
[[Category:People from Puri district]]
[[Category:Indian vice-presidential candidates]]

{{Odisha-INC-politician-stub}}

Poona City South West Assembly constituency

2026-04-09T18:26:40Z

Ankithreddy: Adding new place

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Poona City South West
| type= SLA
| state = Maharashtra
| established = 1951 <ref name="delimitation1951">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3968-dpaco-1951/ |title=DPACO (1951) - Archive Delimitation Orders - Election Commission of India |access-date= 9 December 2020 |pages=344-357}}</ref>
| abolished = 1955 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - Final Order DC (1953-1955) |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| electors = 59,155
| mla = Ghorpade Ramchandra Balwant
| party = {{Party index link|Indian National Congress}}
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation = None
}}
Poona City South West Assembly constituency was an assembly constituency in the [[India]] [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Maharashtra]].
==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Ghorpade Ramchandra Balwant || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Poona City South West <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Ghorpade Ramchandra Balwant |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 17,875 |percentage = 52.71% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Date Shankar Ramchandra |party = Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha |votes = 11,556 |percentage = 34.08% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bedekar Malati Vishram |party = Socialist Party (India, 1948) |votes = 4,479 |percentage = 13.21% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 6,319 |percentage = 18.63% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 33,910 |percentage = 57.32% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 33,910}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 59,155 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]][[Constituencies established in 1951]]
{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}
{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

Sreemukhi

2026-04-08T15:18:41Z

Ankithreddy:

{{short description|Indian actress and television presenter}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sreemukhi
| image = Sreemuhki Godfather interview.png
| caption = Sreemukhi in 2022
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1993|05|10|df=yes}}<ref name="dob">{{Cite web|title=TV host Sreemukhi to celebrate birthday with friends; here's what the actress has to say - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/tv-host-sreemukhi-to-celebrate-birthday-with-friends-heres-what-the-actress-has-to-say/articleshow/69252010.cms|access-date=2020-09-25|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Nizamabad, Telangana [[Telangana]]|Nizamabad]], India<ref name="nie">{{Cite web|title=Every show I do deserves my best, says popular TV anchor Sreemukhi|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2018/mar/29/every-show-i-do-deserves-my-best-says-popular-tv-anchor-sreemukhi-1793955.html|access-date=2020-09-25|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
| birth_name = 
| parents =
| education =
| occupation = {{hlist|Actress|television presenter}}
| website =
| years active = 2012 – present
}}

'''Sreemukhi''' (born 10 May 1993) is an Indian television presenter and actress who works in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] [[Telugu cinema|films]] and television. She was a contestant in Telugu [[Bigg Boss (Telugu TV series) season 3|Bigg Boss 3]] and emerged as [[First runner up|First Runner-up]] of the show. She started her career as a television host and made her film debut with a supporting role in ''[[Julai]]'' (2012). She later played the lead role in ''[[Prema Ishq Kaadhal]]'' (2013).<ref>{{cite news|last=Dundoo|first=Sangeetha Devi|title=Prema Ishq Kadhal: Love, sex and dhoka|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/cinema-reviews/prema-ishq-kadhal-love-sex-and-dhoka/article5429904.ece|work=The Hindu|date=7 December 2013|access-date=11 November 2016}}</ref> Sreemukhi is one of the highest-paid personalities in Telugu television.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-17|title=From Jr NTR to Sreemukhi: Highest paid celebs on Telugu television|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/from-jr-ntr-to-sreemukhi-highest-paid-celebs-on-telugu-television/photostory/84498427.cms|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Early life and career ==
Sreemukhi was born on 10 May 1993 in [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]] of present-day [[Telangana]], India. She studied [[dentistry]] in her graduation.<ref name="dob" /><ref name="nie" /> Before making her debut into films, Sreemukhi started her career with hosting a TV show ''Adhurs''<ref name=":2">{{cite web|last=Kumar|first=Hemanth|title=Telly shows are more fun than films: Sree Mukhi|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/Telly-shows-are-more-fun-than-films-Sree-Mukhi/articleshow/42686093.cms|work=The Times of India|date=17 September 2014|access-date=11 November 2016}}</ref> and also hosted the singing program ''Super Singer 9''.<ref name="A">{{cite web|title=Sree Mukhi talks about her debut on TV|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/Sree-Mukhi-talks-about-her-debut-on-TV/articleshow/45618226.cms|work=The Times of India|date=23 December 2014|access-date=12 December 2015}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite web|title=Sreemukhi trendy outfits at Super Singer 9|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/Sreemukhi-trendy-outfits-at-Super-Singer-9/articleshow/49353475.cms|work=The Times of India|date=14 October 2015}}</ref> Sreemukhi made her film debut as Raaji in ''[[Julai]]'' as [[Allu Arjun]]'s sister under the direction of [[Trivikram Srinivas]] and ''[[Prema Ishq Kaadhal]]'' as lead actress in the direction of Pavan Sadineni. She also acted in ''[[Nenu Sailaja]]'' as the sister of [[Ram Pothineni|Ram]] in movie as ''Swecha''. The following year she did a small cameo in [[Sekhar Kammula]]'s ''[[Life Is Beautiful (2012 film)|Life is Beautiful]]'' and was the lead actress in ''Dhanalakshmi Talupu Tadithey'' and [[Nara Rohit]]'s ''[[Savitri (2016 film)|Savitri]]''. Along with these she also made her first feature film in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], ''[[Ettuthikkum Madhayaanai]]'' paired opposite Sathya.<ref name="Times of India4">{{cite web|date=13 March 2014|title=Sree Mukhi turns classical dancer|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/Sree-Mukhi-turns-classical-dancer/articleshow/31950911.cms|work=The Times of India}}</ref> Her 2015 [[Kannada]]{{En dash}}Telugu bilingual film ''Chandrika,'' marked her debut in [[Kannada cinema]].<ref name=":0">{{Citation|title=Chandrika Movie Review {2/5}: Critic Review of Chandrika by Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/chandrika/movie-review/49125295.cms|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref>
[[File:Sreemukhi at etv Event.png|thumb|upright|200px|Sreemukhi in 2018 on the set of a TV show]]
In 2015, Sreemukhi co-hosted the [[South Indian International Movie Awards]] (SIIMA) in [[Dubai]].<ref name=":4">{{cite web|title=Sreemukhi It was amazing to host SIIMA|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/Sreemukhi-It-was-amazing-to-host-SIIMA/articleshow/48410500.cms|work=The Times of India|date=9 August 2015}}</ref> She also hosted stand up comedy show ''Pataas'' for ETV Plus, ''Bhale Chance Le'' for [[Star Maa]], and appeared in the film ''[[Gentleman (2016 film)|Gentleman]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Actress Sreemukhi excited about Nani's Gentleman|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/Actress-Sreemukhi-excited-about-Nanis-Gentleman/articleshow/52417521.cms|work=The Times of India|date=24 May 2016}}</ref> In 2019, she entered [[Bigg Boss (Telugu season 3)|season 3 of ''Bigg Boss Telugu'']] as a contestant where she finished as a runner up.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Kavirayani|first=Suresh|date=2019-11-06|title=Sree Mukhi was highest paid celeb in Bigg Boss Season 3|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/051119/sree-mukhi-was-highest-paid-celeb-in-bigg-boss-season-3.html|website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>

In 2021, Sreemukhi returned to cinema playing the lead in the film ''Crazy Uncles.'' A reviewer from ''[[The Times of India]]'' wrote, "Sreemukhi deserves better than a film that uses a ‘good message’ as an excuse to minimise her to nothing but a glam doll. She looks gorgeous as ever but the film offers her no scope to perform."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=19 August 2021|title=Crazy Uncles Movie Review : Nothing crazy to watch here – just a load of creepy|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/crazy-uncles/movie-review/85455603.cms|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
===Films===
*''All films are in Telugu, unless otherwise noted.''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
!class="unsortable" |{{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
|2012
| ''[[Julayi]]''|| Rajani aka Raji || ||

|-
|2012
| ''[[Life Is Beautiful (2012 film)|Life Is Beautiful]]''|| Sonia ||
|
|-
|rowspan="1"| 2013 || ''[[Prema Ishq Kaadhal]]'' || Shanthi || Debut film as lead actress
|
|-
|rowspan="4"| 2015 || ''[[Ettuthikkum Madhayaanai]]'' || Sarah || [[Tamil language|Tamil]] film
|
|-
| ''Chandrika'' ||Shilpa ||Bilingual film ([[Kannada]] and Telugu)
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
| ''Dhanalakshmi Talupu Tadithey '' || Chitra ||
|<ref>{{Citation|title=Dhana Lakshmi Thalupu Thadithey Movie Review {3/5}: Critic Review of Dhana Lakshmi Thalupu Thadithey by Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/dhana-lakshmi-thalupu-thadithey/movie-review/48304660.cms|access-date=2020-12-21}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Andhra Pori]]'' || Swapna ||
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-06-06|title=Andhra Pori Telugu Movie Review|url=https://www.123telugu.com/reviews/andhra-pori-telugu-movie-review.html|access-date=2020-12-21|website=123telugu.com|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="4"| 2016 || ''[[Nenu Sailaja]]'' || Swecha ||
|
|-
| ''[[Savitri (2016 film)|Savitri]]'' || Baby||
|
|-
| ''[[Gentleman (2016 film)|Gentleman]]'' || Nithya ||
|
|-
| ''[[Manalo Okkadu]]'' || ||
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-10-25|title=RP Patnaik's Manalo Okkadu to hit the screens on November 4|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/rp-patnaiks-manalo-okkadu-to-hit-the-screens-on-november-4-3101915/|access-date=2020-12-21|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="1" | 2017 || ''[[Babu Baga Busy]]'' || Shobha N. T. ||
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-27|title=ఓటీటీలో శ్రీముఖి 'ఇట్స్ టైమ్ టూ పార్టీ' మూవీ|url=https://tv9telugu.com/anchor-sreemukhi-its-time-to-party-movie-release-on-ott-302708.html|access-date=2020-12-21|website=TV9 Telugu|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |2021
||''[[30 Rojullo Preminchadam Ela]]''||Herself ||Cameo in "Wah Wah Mere Bawa" song||
|-
|''[[Crazy Uncles]]'' || Sweety|| ||<ref name=":1" />
|-
|[[Maestro (2021 film)|''Maestro'']]
|Lakshmi/Lucky
|
|
|-
| rowspan="1" |2023
|''[[Bhola Shankar]]''
|Mahalaxmi's friend
|
|
|}

=== Television ===
{{BLP sources section|date=December 2020}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
!{{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |2013||''Adhurs''|| rowspan="13" |Host||
|<ref name=":2" />
|-
|''Adhurs 2''||
|
|-
|2014||''Money Money''||
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2015 || [[4th South Indian International Movie Awards]]||
|<ref name=":4" />
|-
|''Super Mom''||
|
|-
|''Pataas''||
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=After Sreemukhi, host Ravi to quit Pataas? - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/after-sreemukhi-host-ravi-to-quit-pataas/articleshow/72180175.cms|access-date=2021-08-23|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2016||''Super Serial Championship''||
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2017||''Super Singer 9''||
|<ref name=":3" />
|-
|''Zee Saregamapa''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="6" |2018||''Joolakataka''||
|
|-
|''Joolakataka Double dose''||
|
|-
|''Bhale Chance le''||
|
|-
|''Comedy Nights''||
|
|-
|''Zee Saregamapa Little champs''
|
|
|
|-
|''Gold Rush''
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2019||''[[Bigg Boss Telugu 3|Bigg Boss 3]]''||Contestant||Runner-up
|<ref name=":5" />
|-
| ''Drama Juniors Championship''
| rowspan="3" |Host||
|-
|2019–present||''Start Music Reloaded''||
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Start Music Reloaded: Host Sreemukhi croons for the title song of the upcoming show|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/start-music-reloaded-host-sreemukhi-croons-for-the-title-song-of-the-upcoming-show/articleshow/72220042.cms|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020–present||''Celebrity Kabbadi League''||
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sreemukhi's Celebrity Kabaddi League to premiere on March 5|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/sreemukhis-celebrity-kabaddi-league-to-premiere-on-march-5/articleshow/74459757.cms|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
|''Bomma Adhirindi ''||
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sreemukhi-hosted 'Bomma Adirindi' to premiere on October 4 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/sreemukhi-hosted-bomma-adirindi-to-premiere-on-october-4/articleshow/78425449.cms |website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
|2020||''[[Bigg Boss Telugu 4|Bigg Boss 4]]''||Guest||
|
|-
| rowspan="7" |2021||''Comedy stars''|| rowspan="8" |Host||
|
|-
|''Zee Mahotsavam''||
|
|-
|''Sravanamaasam Vachindamma''||
|
|-
|''Comedy Stars''||
|
|-
|''Ala Brundavanamlo''||
|
|-
|''Swamy Vaari Aambaralu''||
|
|-
|''Chef Mantra''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2022
|''[[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa The Singing Superstar]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Dance Ikon]]''
|Co-producer, mentor
|
|<ref>https://telanganatoday.com/ahas-dance-ikon-launch-episode-to-feature-vijay-devarakonda-and-ananya-pandey</ref><ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/telugu/dance-ikon-host-ohmkar-attempts-pawan-kalyans-iconic-gesture-for-the-first-time-on-screen-watch/articleshow/94321847.cms</ref>
|-
|2022– present
|''Aadivaram with Star Maa Parivaaram''
| rowspan="5" |Host
|
|
|-
|2023
|''Super Singer''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2024
| ''Neethone Dance 2.0''
|
|
|-
| ''[[Kiraack Boys Khiladi Girls]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa The Next Singing Youth Icon]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2025
| ''[[Kiraack Boys Khiladi Girls]] Season 2''
|Host
|
|
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|nm6442092}}
*{{Instagram|sreemukhi}}

{{Bigg Boss Telugu}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Commons category}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:People from Nizamabad, Telangana]]
[[Category:Actresses from Telangana]]
[[Category:Telugu television anchors]]
[[Category:Indian television presenters]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu television]]
[[Category:Indian game show hosts]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]

Kadambini (TV series)

2026-04-07T19:25:26Z

Ankithreddy: added new article

{{short description|Indian Bengali television period drama series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox television
| image = kadambini zee bangla2020.png
| alt_name =
| native_name =
| genre = [[historical drama|Drama]] [[Biographical film]]
| caption =
| creator = [[Zee Bangla]]
| based_on =
| developer = Shibashis Bandopadhyay
| writer = Anjan Chakrabarty
| screenplay = Saswati Ghosh
| story = Saswati ghosh
| director = Rajendra Prasad Das
| creative_director = Joy Chandra Chandra
| starring = [[Ushashi Roy]] Manoj Ojha
| theme_music_composer = Upali Chattopadhyay
| opentheme = ''"Samarohe eso he poromotor"''
| endtheme = ''"Kadambini ..... Kadambini"''
| composer = Upali Chattopadhyay
| country = India
| language = Bengali
| num_seasons =
| num_episodes = 85
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer = Krishanu Ganguly Urvi Mukherjee
| producer = [[Zee Bangla]]
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| cinematography = Santu Dutta Goutam Naskar
| editor = Jishu Nath Biplab Mandal Shaibal Das
| camera = Multi-camera
| runtime = 22 minutes
| network = [[Zee Bangla]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2020|07|06}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=yes|2020|10|03}}
| company = [[Zee Bangla]]
| related =
}}

'''''Kadambini''''' is a daily Bengali soap opera, which was premiered on [[Zee Bangla]] and the digital platform [[ZEE5]]. The show starred [[Ushasi Ray]] and Manoj Ojha in lead roles. It was launched on 6 July 2020<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ushasi Ray starrer ‘Kadambini’ to launch next month – The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/ushasi-ray-starrer-kadambini-to-launch-next-month/articleshow/76682559.cms|access-date=10 May 2021|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Kadambini VS Prothoma Kadambini: Ushasi Ray and Solanki Roy to play the same titular roles - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/kadambini-vs-prothoma-kadambini-ushasi-ray-and-solanki-roy-to-play-the-same-titular-roles/articleshow/74277524.cms|access-date=2021-06-28|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-05|title=‘Ami Sirajer Begum’ to ‘Kadambini’: Much anticipated TV shows which couldn't live up to the expectations|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/ami-sirajer-begum-to-kadambini-much-anticipated-tv-shows-which-couldnt-live-up-to-the-expectations/photostory/79584918.cms|access-date=2021-06-28|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> and went off-air within three months, on 3 October 2020, owing to its inaccurate historical screenplay<ref>{{Cite web|title=কুটকচালি নেই, নেই টিআরপিও, বন্ধ হচ্ছে কাদম্বিনী|url=https://www.anandabazar.com/entertainment/ushasi-ray-starrer-zee-bangla-s-kadambini-going-off-air-due-to-low-trp-dgtl-1.1207102|access-date=2021-06-21|website=www.anandabazar.com|language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Halder|first=Rakesh|date=2020-09-24|title=বন্ধ হয়ে যাবে জি বাংলা ধারাবাহিক কাদম্বিনী! » Hazar Sangbad|url=https://hazarsangbad.com/zee-bangla-kadambini-serial-will-be-stop/|access-date=2021-06-28|website=Hazar Sangbad|language=bn}}</ref> and low ratings.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kadambini to go off air soon – The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/kadambini-to-go-off-air-soon/articleshow/78298124.cms|access-date=28 April 2021|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ushasi Ray starrer Kadambini to go off-air? – The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/ushasi-ray-starrer-kadambini-to-go-off-air/articleshow/78276463.cms|access-date=10 May 2021|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=বন্ধ হয়ে যাচ্ছে ধারাবাহিক ‘কাদম্বিনী’, টিআরপি কম বলেই কি এই সিদ্ধান্ত?|url=https://www.sangbadpratidin.in/entertainment/television/bengali-serial-news-in-bangla-ushasi-ray-starrer-kadambini-to-go-off-air/|access-date=2021-06-21|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Plot ==
The story is set in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when many people were trying to reform the society. Women were often subjected to violence during this time. The story shows the struggle of a lady, [[Kadambini Ganguly]] née Bose, who stood up against violence and became the first [[India|Indian]] female doctor to practice modern Western medicine professionally.

== Cast ==
=== Main ===
*[[Ushashi Roy]] as [[Kadambini Ganguly]] née Bose<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ushasi Ray starrer ‘Kadambini’ to launch next month – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/ushasi-ray-starrer-kadambini-to-launch-next-month/articleshow/76682559.cms|access-date=28 April 2021|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref> aka Bini.
*[[Manoj Ojha]] as [[Dwarkanath Ganguly]] aka Dwaraka<ref>{{Cite web|title=Actor Manoj Ojha to play Dwarakanath Ganguly in ‘Kadambini’ – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/actor-manoj-ojha-to-play-dwarakanath-ganguly-in-kadambini/articleshow/74824545.cms|access-date=10 May 2021|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref>

=== Recurring ===
*Debdut Ghosh as Brajokishore Bose: Kadambini's father.
*Lopamudra Sinha as Pramodbala Devi: Kadambini's mother
*Debopriya Basu as Saudamini Bose: Kadambini's sister.
*Kanyakumari Mukherjee ad Bhobsundari Devi - Dwaraka's first wife.
*Oindrila Saha as Bidhumukhi Devi: Dwaraka's daughter aka Bidhu.
*Ankit Mazumder as Satish Ganguly: Dwaraka's son aka Satish.
*Ananya Sengupta as Tarasundori Devi aka Tara: Dwaraka's sister.
*Nandini Chatterjee as Udaytara Devi: Dwaraka's mother.
*Sumanta Mukherjee as Krishnapran Gangopadhyay: Dwarka's father.
*Sahana Sen / [[Anindita Raychaudhury]] as Surobala: Manmotho's mother.<ref>{{Cite web|title=I feel lucky to be a part of a biopic like Kadambini: Anindita Raychaudhury – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/i-feel-lucky-to-be-a-part-of-a-biopic-like-kadambini-anindita-raychaudhury/articleshow/77698434.cms|access-date=28 April 2021|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref>
*[[Sayak Chakraborty]] as Manmotho.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kadambini actor Sayak ready to be back on sets post Covid – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/kadambini-actor-sayak-ready-to-be-back-on-sets-post-covid/articleshow/78151383.cms|access-date=28 April 2021|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref>
*Soumi Chakrobarty as [[Sarala Roy]](Das): Dwaraka's student
*Ashmee Ghosh as [[Abala Bose]](Das): Dwaraka's student
*Poonam Basak as Bula:Kadambini"s Friend
*Sandip Chakraborty as [[Durga Mohan Das]]: Sarala and Abala's father
*Rupsha Chakraborty as Brahmamoyee Devi: Sarala and Abala's mother<ref>{{Cite web|title=Actress Rupsha Chakraborty bags a meaty role in ‘Kadambini’ – Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/actress-rupsha-chakraborty-bags-a-meaty-role-in-kadambini/articleshow/76835476.cms|access-date=10 May 2021|website=[[The Times of India]]|language=en}}</ref>
* Chandraneev Mukherjee as Manmohan Ghosh
*Twarita Chatterjee as Swarnalata Ghose: Monmohon's wife.
*Sreemoyee Chattoraj as Swarnaprobha Bose: Dwaraka's student.
*Shirsha Guhathakurta as Protima.
*[[Subhrajit Dutta]] as Babu Prankrishna Dutta.
*Nilanjan Dutta as Sashadhar - Prankrishna's henchman.
*Prarona Bhattacharya as Sundari Bai - A Baiji
*Dhrubajyoti Sarkar as Niranjan Mitra: Kadambini's former fiancé
*Sanjuktaa Roy Chowdhury as Priyadarshini mitra: Niranjan's mother.
*Gautam Mukherjee as Bhavesh Mitra: Niranjan's father.
*Shobhana Bhunia as Kaveri Mitra: Niranjan's sister-in-law.
*Indrajit Mazumder as Dr. Rajendrachanda Chandra.
*[[Debshankar Haldar]] as Dr. [[Mahendralal Sarkar]]
*Anindya Sarkar as [[Keshab Chandra Sen]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Zee Bangla}}

[[Category:Bengali-language television programming in India]]
[[Category:2020 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Zee Bangla original programming]]
[[Category:2020 Indian television series endings]]

Kingfish

2026-04-03T20:01:27Z

Ankithreddy: new

{{Wiktionary}}
'''Kingfish''' may refer to:
{{TOC right}}
==Fish==
* ''[[Argyrosomus japonicus]]'' or Japanese meagre (Australia)
* [[Opah]] or ''Lampris guttatus'' (United Kingdom)
* [[Kanadi kingfish]] or ''Scomberomorus plurilineatus''
* [[Kingcroaker]] or ''Menticirrhus'' spp.
* [[King mackerel]] or ''Scomberomorus cavalla''
* [[Yellowtail amberjack]] or ''Seriola lalandi'' (Australia, New Zealand)
* [[Butterfly kingfish]] or ''Gasterochisma melampus'' (Australia, New Zealand)

==Military==
*[[AS-6 Kingfish]] or Raduga KSR-5, an air-launched Soviet anti-ship and strike missile
*[[Convair Kingfish]], a reconnaissance aircraft designed for Project GUSTO
*[[USS Kingfish|USS ''Kingfish'']], a ''Gato''-class submarine of the United States Navy
*Kingfish, a nuclear test of the United States' [[Operation Fishbowl]]

==Music==
* [[Christone "Kingfish" Ingram]], American blues musician
** [[Kingfish (Christone Ingram album)|''Kingfish'' (Christone Ingram album)]], his first album
* [[Ed Manion]], nicknamed "Kingfish", American saxophonist, touring member of the E Street Band
* [[Kingfish (band)]], a San Francisco Bay Area rock band
** [[Kingfish (1976 album)|''Kingfish'' (1976 album)]], their first album
** [[Kingfish (1985 album)|''Kingfish'' (1985 album)]], their fourth album
* "Kingfish", a 1974 song from [[Good Old Boys (Randy Newman album)|''Good Old Boys'' (Randy Newman album)]]
* "Kingfish", a 2010 song by [[Patrice Bart-Williams]] from his album ''One''

==Sports==
*[[Kenosha Kingfish]], a baseball team in Kenosha, Wisconsin
*[[Baton Rouge Kingfish]], a defunct minor league ice hockey team in Baton Rouge, Louisiana

==Television and radio==
* ''[[Kingfish: A Story of Huey P. Long]]'', a 1995 TV movie
* Kingfish, a character in ''[[Amos 'n' Andy]]''

==Other uses==
*[[KingFish phone tracker]], a product line of human-portable cellular telephone identification and tracking devices
*''Mafia Kingfish: Carlos Marcello and the Assassination of John F. Kennedy'', 1989 non-fiction book by [[John H. Davis (author)|John H. Davis]]

==People with the nickname==
* [[Christone "Kingfish" Ingram]] (born 1999), American blues guitarist
* [[King Levinsky]] (1910–1991), American heavyweight boxer
* [[Huey Long]] (1893–1935), Louisiana governor and senator
* [[Kenny Washington (American football)]] (1918–1971)

==See also==
* [[Black kingfish]]
* [[Giant kingfish]]
*[[Kingfisher (disambiguation)]]

{{Disambiguation|fish}}
[[Category:Nicknames]]

Kapil Muni Temple

2026-03-28T05:19:46Z

Ankithreddy: added a location

{{Short description|Hindu temple in West Bengal, India}}
{{Infobox religious building
| religious_affiliation = [[Hinduism]]
| name = Kapil Muni Temple
| image = Kapil Muni Temple.jpg
| alt = Kapil Muni Temple
| coordinates = {{coord|21.6365357|N|88.0733355|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = India West Bengal
| map_relief = yes
| state = [[West Bengal]]
| country = [[India]]
| district = [[South 24 Parganas]]
| locale = [[Gangasagar]]
| deity = Ganga, [[Kapil|Kapil Muni]], King of the Sea
| architecture = [[Hindu temple architecture]]
| architecture_style =
| creator = (Many reconstructions)
| year_completed = 1974 (present structure)
| festivals = [[Gangasagar Mela]]
| governing_body =
| website =
}}

'''Kapil Muni Temple''' or '''Kapil Muni Mandir''' ({{langx|bn|কপিল মুনি মন্দির}}) is a [[Hindu temple]] located on the [[Gangasagar]] in the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kapil Muni Ashram - Mythological Significance |url=https://www.gangasagar.in/en/about/mythologicalsignificance |website=www.gangasagar.in |access-date=30 March 2023}}</ref> It is one of the holiest pilgrimage sites for Hindus and it is believed that [[Kapil|Kapil Muni]] did [[Tapas (Indian religions)|''Tapas'']] here.

== History ==
=== Ancient temples ===
A [[Gupta era]] temple existed on this spot.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Halder |first1=Mohan |last2=Baksi |first2=Shanto |title=Gangasagar Mela Pilgrimage and Development at the Sagar Island |url=https://www.academia.edu/7626104/Gangasagar_Mela_Pilgrimage_and_Development_at_the_Sagar_Island |publisher=Society for Socio-Economic and Ecological Development |access-date=15 January 2024 |date=January 2014}}</ref> This temple was lost due to [[coastal erosion]]. Around the early 19th century, when [[Warren Hastings]] had the island cleared of vegetation and the site came under the zamindari of a local [[Bengali Hindus|Bengali Hindu]] [[zamindar]] from [[Purba Medinipur district|Purba Medinipur]] called Yaduram who recovered the shrine of Kapilmuni. Then the site came under control of [[Ramanandi Sampradaya|Ramanandi]] sadhus from [[Ayodhya]].<ref name="anandabazar1" /> The old temple was made of bamboo which was destroyed in the late 50s or early 60s due to [[1950s North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons|cyclones]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=চক্রবর্তী |first=গৌতম |title=‘সব তীর্থ বারবার গঙ্গাসাগর এক বার’ |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/rabibashoriyo/some-unknown-information-about-gangasagar-mela-1.739669 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241205080817/https://www.anandabazar.com/rabibashoriyo/some-unknown-information-about-gangasagar-mela-1.739669 |archive-date=2024-12-05 |access-date=2025-02-05 |language=bn |url-status=live }}</ref> The first brick-built temple was built in 1961 for Rs 20,000, and the roof of the temple was made of [[Asbestos cement|asbestos]]. The former [[List of chief ministers of West Bengal|Chief Minister]] [[Bidhan Chandra Roy]] contributed Rs 11,000 to the construction of the temple. The construction of the temple was done by "S Chakraborty & Co." The temple was smaller in size than the present temple.<ref name="anandabazar1">{{cite web |author1=Gautam Chakraborty |title=‘সব তীর্থ বারবার গঙ্গাসাগর এক বার’ |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/rabibashoriyo/some-unknown-information-about-gangasagar-mela-1.739669 |website=Anandabazar |access-date=30 March 2023 |language=bn |date=14 January 2018}}</ref>

=== New temple: 1974–present ===
The new temple was built in 1974.<ref name="anandabazar1"/> As the temple and temple premises are on the banks of the [[Ganges|Ganges River]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]], sea and river water enters the temple and temple premises occasionally during [[Tide|High tide]] or [[Cyclone|cyclonic storms]]. A strong tropical cyclone named [[Cyclone Yaas|Yaas]] formed in the [[Bay of Bengal]] in late May 2021. Due to the impact of this storm, tidal water entered Kapil Muni's Ashram and temple.<ref>{{cite web |title=সাগরের কপিলমুণির আশ্রম চত্বরে একবুক জল, নিরাপদ আশ্রয়ের খোঁজে বাসিন্দারা |url=https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/bengal/districts/the-yard-of-kapil-muni-ashram-is-flooded-with-the-water-of-sagar-31622010490807.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623234921/https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/bengal/districts/the-yard-of-kapil-muni-ashram-is-flooded-with-the-water-of-sagar-31622010490807.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 23, 2021 |website=bangla.hindustantimes.com |access-date=30 March 2023 |language=bn}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Hindu temples in West Bengal}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in South 24 Parganas district]]
[[Category:Sagar Island]]

Architecture

2026-03-27T14:08:00Z

Ankithreddy:

{{Short description|Art and technique of designing buildings}}
{{other uses}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{CS1 config|mode=cs1}}
{{refimprove|date=July 2025}}
[[File:View of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=View of Florence showing the dome, which dominates everything around it. It is octagonal in plan and ovoid in section. It has wide ribs rising to the apex with red tiles in between and a marble lantern on top.|In adding the dome to the [[Florence Cathedral]] ([[Italy]]) in the early 15th century, the architect [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] not only transformed the building and the city, but also the role and status of the [[architect]].<ref>{{cite web | publisher=Museo Galileo, Museum and Institute of History and Science | url=http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/itineraries/place/TheDomeOfSantaMariaFiore.html | title=The Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401072804/http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/itineraries/place/TheDomeOfSantaMariaFiore.html | access-date=30 January 2013 | archive-date=2013-04-01 | date=1 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first=Giovanni | last=Fanelli | title=Brunelleschi | publisher=Becocci | location=Florence | year=1980 | chapter=The Dome | pages=10–41 }}</ref>]]
[[File:6265 Dessau.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Bauhaus]] building ([[Germany]]). The [[Bauhaus]] style co-started [[Modern architecture|modernist architecture]].<ref name="archdic">{{cite book |editor-last=Pevsner | editor-first=Nikolaus |others=Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh |title=A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture |year=1999 |type=Paperback |edition=5th |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-051323-3 |pages=880}}</ref>]]

'''Architecture''' is the study and practice of [[Graphic design|designing]] structures, especially habitable ones. It utilizes [[civil engineering]] techniques, but is considered a [[visual art]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=architecture – Expression of technique |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture/Expression-of-technique |access-date=2022-09-21 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pierre |first1=Leclercq |first2=Stéphane |last2=Safin |first3=Vincent |last3=Delfosse |doi=10.1007/978-1-84882-733-2_21 |journal=Mixed-Reality Prototypes to Support Early Creative Design |date= October 2010 |title=Phases of an architectural project |hdl=2268/32048 |via=ResearchGate |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phases-of-an-architectural-project_fig2_225940863 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418153621/https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phases-of-an-architectural-project_fig2_225940863 |archive-date= Apr 18, 2023 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[planning]], [[design]]ing, and [[construction|constructing]] [[building]]s or other [[Structure#Load-bearing|structure]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture|title=architecture|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2017-10-27|archive-date=16 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116140643/https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture|url-status=live}}</ref> The term comes {{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|architectura}}|}}; {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἀρχιτέκτων}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἀρχιτέκτων}})|architect}}; {{etymology||''{{wikt-lang|grc|ἀρχι-}}'' ({{grc-transl|ἀρχι-}})|chief||''{{wikt-lang|grc|τέκτων}}'' ({{grc-transl|τέκτων}})|creator}}. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as [[work of art|works of art]]. Historical [[civilization]]s are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Daniel Cilia|date=2004|first=Anthony|last=Pace|chapter=Tarxien|title=Malta before History – The World's Oldest Free Standing Stone Architecture|publisher=Miranda Publishers|isbn=978-9990985085}}</ref>

The practice of architecture itself, which began in the [[Prehistory|prehistoric era]], has been used as a way of expressing [[culture]] by civilizations on all seven [[continent]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=7 Things I Learned About "Home" from Talking to Architects on Every Continent|url=https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/cultural-architecture-homes-36642082|access-date=2020-12-05|website=Apartment Therapy|language=en|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108002048/https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/cultural-architecture-homes-36642082|url-status=live}}</ref> For this reason, architecture is considered to be a form of [[art]]. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. The earliest surviving text on [[architectural theory|architectural theories]] is the 1st century BC treatise {{lang|la|[[De architectura]]}} by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]], according to whom a good building embodies {{lang|la|firmitas, utilitas}}, and {{lang|la|venustas}} (durability, utility, and beauty). Centuries later, [[Leon Battista Alberti]] developed his ideas further, seeing beauty as an objective quality of buildings to be found in their proportions. In the 19th century, [[Louis Sullivan]] declared that "[[form follows function]]". "Function" began to replace the classical "utility" and was understood to include not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological, and cultural dimensions. The idea of [[sustainable architecture]] was introduced in the late 20th century.

Architecture began as rural, oral [[vernacular architecture]] that developed from trial and error to successful replication. Ancient urban architecture was preoccupied with building religious structures and buildings symbolizing the political power of rulers until Greek and Roman architecture shifted focus to civic virtues. [[Indian architecture|Indian]] and [[Chinese architecture]] influenced [[Form (architecture)|forms]] all over Asia and [[Buddhist architecture]] in particular took diverse local flavors. During the [[Middle Ages]], [[Pan-European identity|pan-European]] styles of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] and [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance]] favored Classical forms implemented by [[architects]] known by name. Later, the roles of architects and [[engineers]] became separated.

[[Modern architecture]] began after [[World War I]] as an [[avant-garde]] movement that sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures. Many architects became disillusioned with modernism which they perceived as ahistorical and anti-aesthetic, and [[postmodern architecture|postmodern]] and [[contemporary architecture]] developed. Over the years, the field of architectural construction has branched out to include everything from ship design to interior decorating.

== Definitions ==

Architecture can mean:
* A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures.<ref name="OED">''Shorter Oxford English Dictionary'' (1993), Oxford, {{ISBN|0198605757}}.</ref>
* The art and science of [[design]]ing [[building]]s and (some) [[nonbuilding structure]]s;<ref name=OED/> sometimes called "architectonics."<ref>{{wiktionary-inline|architectonics}}</ref>
* The style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures.<ref name=OED/>
* A unifying or coherent form or structure.<ref>Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, {{ISBN|978-0-87779-132-4}}.</ref>
* The knowledge of art, science, technology, and humanity.<ref name=OED/>
* The design activity of the architect,<ref name=OED/> from the macro-level ([[urban design]], [[landscape architecture]]) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture).
* The practice of the architect where architecture means offering or rendering professional services in connection with the design and construction of buildings or built environments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/bills/60th_1st/3rd_read/b115.htm |title=Gov.ns.ca |publisher=Gov.ns.ca |access-date=2 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721200353/http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/bills/60th_1st/3rd_read/b115.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref>

==Theory==
{{Main|Architectural theory|Philosophy of architecture}}
[[Image:Yingzao Fashi 1 desmear.JPG|thumb|Illustration of [[Bracket (architecture)|bracket]] arm clusters containing [[cantilever]]s from ''[[Yingzao Fashi]]'', a text on architecture by [[Li Jie (Song dynasty)|Li Jue]] (1065–1110)]]
[[File:Plan d'exécution du second étage de l'hôtel de Brionne (dessin) De Cotte 2503c – Gallica 2011 (adjusted).jpg|thumb|alt=Plan d'exécution du second étage de l'hôtel de Brionne (dessin) De Cotte 2503c – Gallica 2011 (adjusted)| [[Floor plan|Plan]] of the second floor (attic storey) of the Hôtel de Brionne in Paris – 1734.]]
The philosophy of architecture is a branch of the [[philosophy of art]], dealing with aesthetic value of architecture, its [[semantics]] and its relation to the development of [[culture]]. Many philosophers and theoreticians from [[Plato]]<ref>{{cite book | title=The Missed Encounter of Radical Philosophy with Architecture | series=Bloomsbury Studies in Philosophy | editor-first=Nadir | editor-last=Lahiji | publisher=A&C Black | year=2014 | isbn=9781472506870 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wv8PAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 }}</ref> to [[Michel Foucault]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=Foucault and Architecture | first=Paul | last=Hirst | journal=AA Files | volume=26 | date=Autumn 1993 | pages=52–60 | publisher=Architectural Association School of Architecture | jstor=29543867 }}</ref> [[Gilles Deleuze]],<ref>{{cite book | last=Deleuze | first=Gilles | title=Pourparlers | location=Paris | publisher=Minuit | date=1990 | page=219 | quote=It is not the line that is between two points, but the point that is at the intersection of several lines.}}</ref> [[Robert Venturi]]<ref>{{cite journal | title=Robert Venturi: 1925–2018 | first=Denise R. | last=Costanzo | journal=Architectural Research Quarterly | volume=22 | number=4 | pages=284–289 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2019 | doi=10.1017/S1359135518000738 }}</ref> and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] have concerned themselves with the nature of architecture and whether or not architecture is distinguished from building.

===Historic treatises===
The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is {{Lang|la|[[De architectura]]}} by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]] in the early 1st century BC.<ref name="Vitruvius">{{cite book | first=Vitruvius | last=Pollio | title=Ten Books on Architecture | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | year=1999 | isbn=0-521-00292-3 }}</ref> According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of {{lang|la|firmitas, utilitas, venustas}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3|title=Vitruvius Ten Books on Architecture, with regard to landscape and garden design|work=gardenvisit.com|access-date=14 November 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012035458/http://gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3|archive-date=12 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="elements">{{cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html |title=Vitruvius |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=2 July 2011 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065630/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html |url-status=live }}</ref> commonly known by the original translation – ''[[firmness, commodity and delight]]''. An equivalent in modern English would be:
* Durability – a building should stand up robustly and remain in good condition
* Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used
* Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. [[Leon Battista Alberti]], who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, ''[[De re aedificatoria]]'', saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealized human figure, the [[Golden ratio|golden mean]]. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognizable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of [[Giorgio Vasari]].<ref>[[Françoise Choay]], ''Alberti and Vitruvius'', editor, Joseph Rykwert, Profile 21, Architectural Design, Vol. 49, No. 5–6.</ref> By the 18th century, his ''[[Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects]]'' had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish, and English.

In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist [[Sebastiano Serlio]] wrote ''Tutte L'Opere D'Architettura et Prospetiva'' (''Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective''). This treatise exerted immense influence throughout Europe, being the first handbook that emphasized the practical rather than the theoretical aspects of architecture, and it was the first to catalog the five orders.<ref>[https://dlc.library.columbia.edu/serlio Sebastiano Serlio – On domestic architecture]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416091747/https://dlc.library.columbia.edu/serlio|date=16 April 2021}}, Columbia University Libraries, accessed February 5, 2021.</ref>

In the early 19th century, [[Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin]] wrote ''Contrasts'' (1836) that, as the title suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. [[Gothic architecture]], Pugin believed, was the only "true Christian form of architecture."<ref>{{cite journal|last=D'Anjou|first=Philippe|title=An Ethics of Freedom for Architectural Design Practice|jstor=41318789|volume=64|date=2011|journal=Journal of Architectural Education|pages=141–147|number=2|doi=10.1111/j.1531-314X.2010.01137.x|s2cid=110313708}}</ref> The 19th-century English art critic, [[John Ruskin]], in his ''[[Seven Lamps of Architecture]]'', published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".<ref name="Ruskin">John Ruskin, ''[[iarchive:sevenlampsofarch0000rusk v7h2|The Seven Lamps of Architecture]]'', G. Allen (1880), reprinted Dover, (1989), {{ISBN|0-486-26145-X}}.</ref> For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string [[Course (architecture)|courses]] or [[Rustication (architecture)|rustication]], at the very least.<ref name=Ruskin/>

On the difference between the ideals of ''architecture'' and mere ''[[construction]]'', the 20th-century architect [[Le Corbusier]] wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".<ref>Le Corbusier, ''Towards a New Architecture'', Dover Publications(1985). {{ISBN|0-486-25023-7}}.</ref> Le Corbusier's contemporary [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] is said to have stated in a 1959 interview that "architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. There it begins."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/best-brick-buildings-architecture/index.html|title=9 innovative contemporary buildings that test the limits of humble brick |last=Verney |first=Harriet |date=25 July 2017 |work=CNN|access-date=May 29, 2023 |url-status=live|archive-date=May 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529231129/https://www.cnn.com/style/article/best-brick-buildings-architecture/index.html}}</ref>

===Modern concepts===
[[File:Congresso do Brasil.jpg|thumb|alt= The view shows a 20th-century building with two identical towers very close to each other rising from a low building which has a dome at one end, and an inverted dome, like a saucer, at the other.|The [[National Congress Palace|National Congress of Brazil]], designed by [[Oscar Niemeyer]]]]

The notable 19th-century architect of [[skyscraper]]s, [[Louis Sullivan]], promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "[[Form follows function]]".<ref>{{cite book | title=Universal Principles of Design | first1=William | last1=Lidwell | first2=Kritina | last2=Holden | first3=Jill | last3=Butler | publisher=Rockport Publishers | year=2023 | isbn=9780760375174 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PhiqEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA69 }}</ref> While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it introduced the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.

Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing [[Architectural design values|values]], architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.... To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality".<ref>{{cite journal | last=Rondanini | first=Nunzia | title=Architecture and Social Change | journal=Heresies II | volume=3 | issue=3 | pages=3–5 | location=New York | publisher=Neresies Collective Incorporated | year=1981 | url=https://archive.org/details/heresies_11/page/n3/mode/2up | access-date=2026-03-10 }}</ref>

The aesthetics of architecture remain a contested topic, with critics highlighting the disconnect between professionals and the public. Studies generally find that there is a strong public preference for traditional and classical architectural styles over modernist designs.<ref>{{cite book | chapter=Who Do We Design For? | title=Lost in Limbo | pages=11–13 | date=December 2018 | first=Jan | last=Pruszynski | chapter-url=https://www.bnieuws.nl/read/who-do-we-design-for-2 | access-date=29 December 2024 | publisher=Delft University of Technology | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525183748/https://www.bnieuws.nl/read/who-do-we-design-for-2 | archive-date=2022-05-25 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first=Andrea | last=Klettner | date=16 October 2009 |title=Public Favours Traditional Architecture |url=https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/archive/public-favours-traditional-architecture |access-date=29 December 2024 |website=Architects' Journal }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Alexander |first1=Abby |title=Classical Buildings Beat Modern Ones in U.S. Poll |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-14/classical-buildings-beat-modern-ones-in-u-s-poll |access-date=29 December 2024 |work=Bloomberg |date=14 October 2020}}</ref> [[James Stevens Curl]] argues that modernist architects often favour designs that are alienating and environmentally damaging.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Curl |first1=James Stevens |title=Making Dystopia: The Strange Rise and Survival of Architectural Barbarism |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=xxv - xxxi }}</ref> [[Léon Krier]] frames the dominance of traditional styles in private architecture as an "overwhelming democratic reality," contrasting with the prevalence of modernist designs in public commissions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krier |first1=Léon |author-link=Léon Krier |title=[[The Architecture of Community]] |date=2009 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=9781597265782 |pages=7–9}}</ref>

Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are [[Rationalism]], [[Empiricism]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=Empiricist and Rationalist Approaches to the Design of Concrete Structures | first1=Thomas E. | last1=Boothby | first2=Sharyn | last2=Clough | journal=APT Bulletin: The Journal of Preservation Technology | volume=48 | issue=1, special issue on concrete | year=2017 | pages=6–14 | publisher=Association for Preservation Technology International (APT) | jstor=26291030 }}</ref> [[Structuralism]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=The influence of structuralism in the field of architecture | first=Yuan | last=Qin | journal=Academic Journal of Architecture and Geotechnical Engineering | volume=5 | issue=5 | pages=23–27 | doi=10.25236/AJAGE.2023.050504 }}</ref> [[Poststructuralism]], [[deconstructivism|Deconstruction]]<ref>{{cite journal | title=Deconstructivism: Translation From Philosophy to Architecture | first=Aida | last=Hoteit | journal=Canadian Social Science | volume=11 | issue=7 | year=2015 | pages=1–13 | doi=10.3968/7240 }}</ref> and [[Phenomenology (architecture)|Phenomenology]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=Phenomenology and Space in Architecture | first1=Saeid | last1=Soltani | first2=Nazan | last2=Kirci | journal=International Journal of Architectural Engineering Technology | volume=6 | year=2019 | publisher=Avanti Publishing | doi=10.15377/2409-9821.2019.06.1 }}</ref>

In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of [[sustainability]], hence [[sustainable architecture]].<ref>{{cite book | chapter=Sustainable architecture, A short history | first=Vandana | last=Baweja | title=Routledge Handbook of the History of Sustainability | edition=1st | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-315-54301-7 | doi=10.1002/sd.1530 }}</ref> To satisfy the contemporary ethos, a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon the natural environment for [[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|heating, ventilation and cooling]], [[Water efficiency|water use]], [[Waste management|waste products]] and [[Architectural lighting design|lighting]].<ref>{{cite journal | title=Sustainable Architecture, Design and Housing | first=Martina | last=Keitsch | journal=Sustainable development | volume=20 | issue=3, Sustainable architecture, design and housing | date=May–June 2012 | pages=141–145 | doi=10.1002/sd.1530 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Green Architecture: A Concept of Sustainability | first1=Amany | last1=Ragheb | first2=Hisham | last2=El-Shimy | first3=Ghada | last3=Ragheb | journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences | volume=216 | date=6 January 2016 | pages=778–787 | publisher=Elsevier | doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.12.075 }}</ref>
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==History==
{{Main|History of architecture}}
===Origins and vernacular architecture===
{{multiple image
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| footer = Clockwise from upper left: wooden house in [[Norway]]; rondavel stones in [[Lesotho]]; peasant houses in a [[Romania]]n museum; Yola hut in [[Ireland]]
| image1 = Stærnes Søndre Loft, Rollag.jpg
| image2 = Lesotho Slide Show (294).JPG
| image3 = Yola hut -Tagoat Co. Wexford.JPG
| image4 = Muzeul Satului Bucuresti 02.jpg
}}
{{main|Vernacular architecture}}

Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (e.g. shelter, security, and worship) and means (available [[building material]]s and attendant skills).<ref>{{cite journal | title=Primitive Architecture and Climate | first1=James Marston | last1=Fitch | first2=Daniel P. | last2=Branch | journal=Scientific American | volume=203 | issue=6 | date=December 1960 | pages=134–145 | jstor=24940726 | url=https://wwq.tboake.com/2018/Fitch%20James%20primitive%20architecture%20Scientific%20American%201960.pdf | access-date=2026-03-12 }}</ref> As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building became a [[craft]], and ''architecture'' became the term used to describe the highly formalized and respected aspects of the craft. It is widely assumed{{cn|date=March 2026}} that architectural success was achieved through trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as results became satisfactory over time. However, [[vernacular architecture]], in essence a rudimentary, non-academic form of building construction based on cultural traditions, continues to be produced in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Ancient vernacular architecture: characteristics categorization and energy performance evaluation | first1=Zhiqiang (John) | last1=Zhai | first2=Jonathan M. | last2=Previtali | journal=Energy and Buildings | volume=42 | issue=3 | date=March 2010 | pages=357–365 | publisher=Elsevier | doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.10.002 }}</ref>
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===Prehistoric architecture===
{{multiple image
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| total_width = 300
| footer = Clockwise from upper left: [[Göbekli Tepe]] from [[Turkey]], occupied 10th to 8th millennium BC; [[goseck circle]], [[Germany]] 4900 BC; excavated dwellings at [[Skara Brae]] ([[Orkney]], Scotland); miniature of a regular Cucuteni-Trypillian house
| image1 = Göbekli Tepe, Urfa.jpg
| image2 = Goseck Circle 1.jpg
| image3 = Cucuteni MNIR IMG 7622.JPG
| image4 = Orkney Skara Brae.jpg
}}

Early human settlements were mostly [[rural]]. Expanding economies resulted in the creation of [[Proto-city|proto-cities]] or [[urban area]]s, which in some cases grew and evolved very rapidly, such as [[Çatalhöyük]] in modern-day [[Turkey]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]] in modern-day [[Pakistan]].

Neolithic archaeological sites include [[Göbekli Tepe]]<ref>{{cite journal | title=Geometry and Architectural Planning at Göbekli Tepe, Turkey | journal=Cambridge Archaeological Journal | volume=30 | issue=2 | date=May 2020 | pages=343–357 | doi=10.1017/S0959774319000660 }}</ref> and [[Çatalhöyük]] in Turkey,<ref>{{cite book | chapter=The Architecture of Neolithic Çatalhöyük as a Process | first1=Marek Z. | last1=Barański | first2=Aroa | last2=García-Suárez | first3=Arkadiusz | last3=Klimowicz | first4=Serena | last4=Love | first5=Kamilla | last5=Pawłowska | title=Assembling Çatalhöyük | edition=1st | publisher=Routledge | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-351-19099-2 | doi=10.4324/9781351190992 }}</ref> [[Jericho]] in the Levant,<ref>{{cite journal | title=Excavations at Jericho | first=Kathleen M. | last=Kenyon | journal=The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland | volume=84 | issue=1/2 | date=January–December 1954 | pages=103–110 | publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland | doi=10.2307/2844004 | jstor=2844004 }}</ref> [[Mehrgarh]] in Pakistan,<ref>{{cite conference | title=The Early Architectural Traditions of Greater Indus as Seen from Mehrgarh, Baluchistan | first=Jean–François | last=Jarrige | series=Studies in the History of Art | volume=31 | conference=Symposium Papers XV: Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times | year=1993 | pages=25–33 | publisher=National Gallery of Art | jstor=42620470 }}</ref> [[Skara Brae]] in [[Orkney]], and [[Cucuteni–Trypillia culture|Cucuteni-Trypillian culture]] settlements in [[Romania]], [[Moldova]] and [[Ukraine]].

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===Classical era===
{{multiple image
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| total_width = 300
| footer = Clockwise from upper left: [[Reconstruction (architecture)|reconstruction]] of the Mesopotamian [[Ishtar Gate]], {{Circa| 575 BC}}; Egyptian [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], {{Circa|2589–2566 BC}}; Roman [[Maison Carrée]] from [[Nîmes]] (France), {{Circa| 2 AD}}; [[Ed-Deir, Petra|Ed-Deir]] "The Monastery" at [[Petra]], [[Jordan]], {{Circa|mid-first century AD}}; ancient Greek [[Parthenon]] on the [[Acropolis of Athens]], {{Circa|460–406 BC}}
| image1 = Ishtar gate in Pergamon museum in Berlin..jpg
| image2 = Kheops-Pyramid.jpg
| image3 = Parthenon (30276156187).jpg
| image4 = France-002364 - Square House (15867600545).jpg
| image5 = The Monastery, Petra, Jordan8.jpg
}}

In many ancient civilizations, such as those of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]], architecture and [[urbanism]] reflected the constant engagement with the [[divine]] and the [[supernatural]], and many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in their architecture to symbolically represent the political power of the ruler or the state itself. In Eygpt, the education of state architects was closely linked to the priestly class, and trade secrets were passed from father to son. Plans were drawn and then implemented using the ruler, square, and triangle.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Architect: Chapters in the History of the Profession | chapter=The Practice of Architecture in the Ancient World: Eygpt and Greece | pages=3–26 | editor-first=Spiro | editor-last=Kostof | first=William L. | last=MacDonald | publisher=University of California Press | year=2000 | isbn=9780520226043 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NaYwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 }}</ref>

The architecture and urbanism of [[Classical antiquity|classical civilizations]] such as the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] civilizations evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones. New building types emerged and architectural style developed in the form of the [[classical order]]s. [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman architecture]] was influenced by [[Ancient Greek architecture|Greek architecture]] as they incorporated many Greek elements into their building practices.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/greek-art/beginners-guide-greece/a/introduction-to-greek-architecture | title=Introduction to Greek architecture | website=Khan Academy | language=en | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141014123040/http://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/greek-art/beginners-guide-greece/a/introduction-to-greek-architecture | archive-date=2014-10-14 | url-status=dead | access-date=2017-06-23}}</ref>

Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times—these texts provided both general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of [[Vitruvius]] in the 1st century BC.<ref>{{cite book | chapter=Vitruvius's Image of the Universe: Architecture and Mechanics | first=Giovanni | last=Di Pasquale | title=Vitruvianism: Origins and Transformations | editor-first=Paolo | editor-last=Sanvito | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kw8_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 | publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG | year=2015 | pages=49–64 | isbn=978-3-11-042228-3 }}</ref> Some of the most important early examples of canonic architecture are religious.
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===Asian architecture===
{{multiple image
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| total_width = 300
| footer = Clockwise from upper left: [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]], India, {{Circa|1030}}; Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, [[Temple of Heaven]], China, 1703–1790; [[Bakong]], [[Cambodia]], completed in 881; [[Himeji Castle]], [[Japan]], 1609;
| image1 = Beauty of khajuraho temple.jpg
| image2 = Temple of Heaven 20160323 01.jpg
| image3 = Himeji Castle The Keep Towers.jpg
| image4 = Roulos Group - 005 Bakong (8587796725).jpg
| image5 =
| image6 =
}}
Asian architecture developed differently from European architecture, and the [[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist]], [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]] and [[Sikh architecture|Sikh]] architectural styles have different characteristics. Unlike [[Architecture of India|Indian]] and [[Chinese architecture]], which had great influence on the surrounding regions, [[Japanese architecture]] did not. Some Asian architecture showed great regional diversity, in particular [[Buddhist architecture]]. Moreover, another architectural achievement in Asia is the [[Hindu temple architecture]], which developed from around the 5th century CE. It is, in theory, governed by concepts laid down in the [[Shastra]]s, and is concerned with expressing both the macrocosm and the microcosm.

In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the [[natural landscape]]. Also, the grandest houses were relatively lightweight structures mainly using wood until recent times, and there are few survivals of great age. Buddhism was associated with a move to stone and brick religious structures, probably beginning as [[rock-cut architecture]], which has often survived very well.

Early Asian writings on architecture include the ''Kao Gong Ji'' of China from the 7th–5th centuries BC, the [[Shilpa Shastras]] of ancient India, [[Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra]] of [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Araniko]] of [[Nepal]].

{{clear|right}}

=== African Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Africa}}
[[File:Alyssa K. Barry Koutammakou,Togo.jpg|thumb|Alyssa K. Barry Koutammakou,Tojo]]
The Architecture of Africa is very diverse, reflecting the continent’s many climates, cultures, and histories. Traditional African architecture mixes building traditions, using a wide arrange of materials like mud, stone, and wood. Fractal scaling is commonly used in designs, making smaller parts of a structure mirror the overall design. This concept can be seen in village layouts and decorative elements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fractals in African Design – The Center for Generative Justice |url=https://generativejustice.org/africanfractals/ |access-date=2026-03-16 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Historical stone structures like the great Zimbabwe walls show the long lasting and durable construction. Wattle and Daub is a technique used in many areas that take wooden frames covered in mud to create rounded structures that help to regulate the temperature inside. Architecture in West Africa is dominated by the Sudano-Sahelian style. Thick earthen walls, wooden support beams and intricate thatch work. These buildings are suited for dry, hot climates. Along the Swahili Coast of East Africa many homes are made out of coral stone with mangrove pole roofs. The architecture is a mix of local, Arabic and Islamic styles due to trade across the Indian Ocean. Ethiopia also has stunning architectural traditions like the rock-hewn churches like the 13th century churches of Lalibela which were carved directly into the ground. Together, these styles highlight the creativity, adaptability, and cultural depth of African architectural traditions. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Mukalay |first=Joel |date=2025-12-29 |title=Tracing the History of African Architecture |url=https://www.terrafriq.org/post/tracing-the-history-of-african-architecture |access-date=2026-03-16 |website=Terrafriq |language=en}}</ref>

===Islamic architecture===
{{Main|Islamic architecture}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 3
| total_width = 450
| footer = Left to right, row one: grand arches of the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba]], [[Spain]]; minaret of the [[Great Mosque of Samarra]], [[Iraq]]; [[Jameh Mosque of Isfahan|Jameh Mosque]] in [[Isfahan]], [[Iran]]. Row two: [[Taj Mahal]], [[India]]; interior side view of the main dome of the [[Selimiye Mosque (Edirne)|Selimiye Mosque]], [[Turkey]]; [[Old City of Sanaa|old city of Sanaa]], [[Yemen]]. Row three: [[Demak Great Mosque]],[[Indonesia]]; [[Nasseef House]], [[Saudi Arabia]]; [[Great Mosque of Djenné]], [[Mali]].
| image1 = Córdoba (5157827355).jpg
| image2 = 001124-MalwiyaMosque-Samerra-IMG 7824-2.jpg
| image3 = 20180301124354 IMG 4179And6more Interior 3.jpg
| image4 = Taj Mahal, Agra, India edit2.jpg
| image5 = Selimiye Mosque, Dome.jpg
| image6 = Bab ul Yemen, Sana'a (2286039117).jpg
| image7 = Sisi Utara Masjid Agung Demak Kab.Demak Jateng Indonesia.jpg
| image8 = Bayt Nasif, 1872, old Jeddah, Saudi Arabia (5) (50703484406).jpg
| image9 = Old Towns of Djenné-107952.jpg
}}

Islamic architecture began in the 7th century, incorporating architectural forms from the ancient [[Middle East]] and [[Byzantium]], but also developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa, Iberian Peninsula, the Mediterranean islands, the Indian Sub-continent and later in Eastern parts of Europe, such as the Balkan States, as the result of the expansion of the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="metmuseum.org-ottoman-europe">{{cite web |author1=Sardar |first=Marika |date=October 2004 |title=Essay: The Later Ottomans and the Impact of Europe |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/otto3/hd_otto3.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213145924/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/otto3/hd_otto3.htm |archive-date=13 February 2019 |access-date=12 February 2019 |website=www.metmuseum.org |publisher=The Met |language=en}}</ref><ref name="brill.com-book-Lory">{{cite book |last1=Lory |first1=Bernard |title=Entangled Histories of the Balkans – Volume Three |chapter=The Ottoman Legacy in the Balkans |chapter-url=https://brill.com/configurable/contentpage/book$002fedcoll$002f9789004290365$002fB9789004290365_006.xml |access-date=12 February 2019 |pages=355–405 |language=en |chapter-format=html / pdf |doi=10.1163/9789004290365_006 |date=2015 |isbn=978-9004290365 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213064155/https://brill.com/configurable/contentpage/book$002fedcoll$002f9789004290365$002fB9789004290365_006.xml |url-status=live }}</ref>
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===European medieval architecture===
{{main|Medieval architecture}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| footer = Clockwise from upper left: Interior of [[Etchmiadzin Cathedral]], founded 303 year AD; [[apse]] of [[Santa Maria Maggiore]], [[Rome]], 5th century; interior of [[Durham Cathedral]], UK, 1093–1133; stained glass windows, [[Sainte-Chapelle]], Paris, completed in 1248; interior of [[Aachen Cathedral]], Germany, 796–805
| image1 = +Mayr Ator Vagharshapat 01.jpg
| image2 = Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore abside a Roma.jpg
| image3 = Aix dom int vue cote.jpg
| image4 = Durham Cathedral Nave.jpg
| image5 = Sainte Chapelle Interior Stained Glass.jpg
| image6 =
}}

In [[Europe]] during the [[Medieval]] period, [[guild]]s were formed by craftsmen to organize their trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or ''Magister lathomorum'' as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.

The major architectural undertakings were the building of abbeys and [[cathedral]]s. From about 900 onward, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

A significant part of the Middle Ages architectural heritage is numerous [[fortifications]] across the continent. From the Balkans to Spain, and from Malta to Estonia, these buildings represent an important part of European heritage.
{{clear|right}}

===Renaissance architecture===
{{Main|Renaissance architecture}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| footer = Clockwise from upper left: [[San Pietro in Montorio#The Tempietto|The Tempietto]], Rome, 1444–1514; Hall of Perspective, Rome, 1505–1510; [[Château de Chenonceau]], France, 1576; [[Villa Capra "La Rotonda"|Villa La Rotonda]], Italy, 1567 – {{c.|1592}}.
| image1 = Tempietto del Bramante Vorderseite.jpg
| image2 = Le salon des Perspectives (Villa Farnesina, Rome) (34242676046).jpg
| image3 = 07-Villa-Rotonda-Palladio.jpg
| image4 = Schloss Chenonceau.JPG
}}

In [[Renaissance]] Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning accompanied by the development of [[Renaissance humanism]], which placed greater emphasis on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, [[Leone Battista Alberti|Alberti]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Palladio]] – and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line between [[artist]], architect, [[engineer]], or any of the related vocations, and the appellation was often one of regional preference.

A revival of the [[Classical architecture|Classical style]] in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science and engineering, which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
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===Early modern and the industrial age===
{{multiple image
| perrow = 3
| total_width = 450
| footer = Left to right, ''top row'': [[Château de Maisons]], France, 1630–1651; pièce de la vaisselle d'or, [[Palace of Versailles]], France; west facade, [[Petit Trianon]], Versailles, 1764; ''second row'': Interior, [[All Saints, Margaret Street|All Saints]], London, 1850–1859; Museum of Ages, [[Bucharest]], Romania, late 19th century; [[Zollern II/IV Colliery]], Dortmund; ''third row'': [[Éden-Théâtre]], Paris, early 1880s – demolished in 1895; C.N. Câmpeanu House, Bucharest, {{c.|1923}};<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woinaroski|first1=Cristina|title=Istorie urbană, Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București în context european|date=2013|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-30-8|page=|url=|language=ro}}</ref> [[CEC Palace]], Bucharest, 8 June 1897 – 1900<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marinache|first1=Oana|title=Paul Gottereau – Un Regal în Arhitectură|date=2017|publisher=Editura Istoria Artei|isbn=978-606-8839-09-7|page=184|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
''bottom'': Ernst Ludwig House, [[Darmstadt]], [[Jugendstil|Germany]], 1900
| image1 = Château de Maisons-Laffitte 001.jpg
| image2 = Petit appartement du roi - Pièce de la vaisselle d'or (3).jpg
| image3 = West facade of Petit Trianon 002.JPG
| image4 = All Saints Margaret Street Interior 2, London, UK - Diliff.jpg
| image5 = The Museum of Ages.jpg
| image6 = Zeche-zollern-2004.jpg
| image7 = Éden-Théâtre 1876 Paris - Chauveau 1999 after p96.jpg
| image8 = 56, Bulevardul Dacia, Bucharest (Romania).jpg
| image9 = Palacio CEC, Bucarest, Rumanía, 2016-05-29, DD 91-93 HDR.jpg
| image10 = La colonie dartistes jugendstil (Mathildenhöhe, Darmstadt) (7882268852).jpg
}}

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and [[engineering]] began to separate, and the architect began to concentrate on [[aesthetics]] and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Neo Gothic]] or [[Scottish baronial]] styles.
Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example, at [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility.

Meanwhile, the [[Industrial Revolution]] laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production.

Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. Housebuilders could use current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals.
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===Modernism===
{{Main|Modern architecture}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| footer = Clockwise from upper left: [[Fagus Factory]], [[Alfeld]], Germany, 1911; [[Einstein Tower]], [[Potsdam]] Germany, 1919–22; [[Derzhprom]], [[Kharkiv]], Ukraine, 1925–28; [[Théâtre des Champs-Élysées]], Paris, 1910–13; [[Glaspaleis]], [[Heerlen]], the Netherlands, 1934–35
| image1 = Alfeld Fagus 08JUL15.JPG
| image2 = Einsteinturm 7443a.jpg
| image3 = Overzicht voorgevel - Heerlen - 20349660 - RCE.jpg
| image4 = Derzhprom building.jpg
| image5 = Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, 21 April 2013.jpg
}}

Around the beginning of the 20th century, general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist architecture]] and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to Modern architecture. Notable among these is the [[Deutscher Werkbund]], formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the [[Bauhaus]] school, founded in [[Weimar]], Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate synthesis{{snd}}the apex{{snd}}of art, craft, and technology.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Winton |first1=Alexandra Griffith |title=The Bauhaus, 1919–1933 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/the-bauhaus-1919-1933 |website=metmuseum.org |date=August 2007 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>

When [[modern architecture]] was first practiced, it was an [[avant-garde]] movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after [[World War I]], pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind decorative forms. Architects such as [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] developed [[organic architecture]], in which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being [[Robie House]] and [[Fallingwater]].<ref name="Netto 2011">{{cite news |last=Netto |first=David |date=7 May 2011 |title=What's So Great About Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater? |work=The Wall Street Journal |page=D7 |issn=0099-9660 |id={{ProQuest|2729856894}}}}</ref><ref name="Decker a056">{{cite web |last=Decker |first=Cindy |date=4 May 2017 |title=Falling for Frank Lloyd Wright in Pennsylvania's Laurel Highlands |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/2017/05/04/falling-for-frank-lloyd-wright-in-pennsylvanias-laurel-highlands/ |access-date=December 9, 2024 |website=Chicago Tribune |issn=1085-6706}}</ref>

Architects such as [[Mies van der Rohe]], [[Philip Johnson]], and [[Marcel Breuer]] worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the [[Industrial Revolution]], including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. [[Fazlur Rahman Khan]]'s development of the [[Tube (structure)|tube structure]] was a technological breakthrough in building ever higher. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the [[International style (architecture)|International Style]], an aesthetic epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] designed by [[Minoru Yamasaki]].<ref name="nymag">{{cite magazine |url=http://nymag.com/news/9-11/10th-anniversary/minoru-yamasaki/ |title=The Encyclopedia of 9/11: Yamasaki, Minoru: An architect whose legacy didn't work out as he'd planned |date=27 August 2011 |magazine=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] |first=Justin |last=Davidson}}</ref>

===Postmodernism===
{{main|Postmodern architecture}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| footer = Clockwise from upper left: [[Piazza d'Italia (New Orleans)|Piazza d'Italia]], [[New Orleans]], US, 1978; [[Team Disney]] Building, [[Los Angeles]], US, 1990; interior, [[Cambridge Judge Business School]], [[Cambridge]], UK, 1995; [[Dancing House]], [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]], 1996
| image1 = PiazzaDItalia1990.jpg
| image2 = The Walt Disney Company office.jpg
| image3 = Case danzanti.jpg
| image4 = Cambridge University Judge Business School interior.jpg
}}

Many architects resisted [[modernism]], finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical styles. As the first generation of modernists began to die after [[World War II]], the second generation of architects including [[Paul Rudolph (architect)|Paul Rudolph]], [[Marcel Breuer]], and [[Eero Saarinen]] tried to expand the aesthetics of modernism with [[Brutalism]], buildings with expressive sculpture façades made of unfinished concrete. But an even younger postwar generation critiqued modernism and Brutalism for being too austere, standardized, monotone, and not taking into account the richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across time and in different places and cultures.

One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school of [[metaphoric architecture]], which includes such things as [[biomorphism|bio morphism]] and [[zoomorphic architecture]], both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design. While it is considered by some to be merely an aspect of [[postmodernism]], others consider it to be a school in its own right and a later development of [[expressionist architecture]].<ref name=metaphor>
{{Cite book
| last = Fez-Barringten
| first = Barie
| title = Architecture: The Making of Metaphors
| publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing
| year = 2012
| location = Newcastle upon Tyne
| isbn = 978-1-4438-3517-6}}</ref>

Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, [[architectural phenomenology]] emerged as an important movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects like [[Charles Moore (architect)|Charles Moore]] in the United States, [[Christian Norberg-Schulz]] in Norway, and [[Ernesto Nathan Rogers]], [[Vittorio Gregotti]], [[Michele Valori]], and [[Bruno Zevi]] in Italy, who collectively popularized an interest in a new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using historical buildings as models and precedents.<ref>{{cite book |last=Otero-Pailos |first=Jorge |title=Architecture's Historical Turn: Phenomenology and the Rise of the Postmodern |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=2010 |location=Minneapolis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WDOQgAACAAJ&q=architecture's%20historical%20turn |isbn=978-0816666041 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319184501/https://books.google.com/books?id=3WDOQgAACAAJ&q=architecture%27s%20historical%20turn |url-status=live }}</ref> Postmodernism produced a style that combined contemporary building technology and cheap materials with the aesthetics of older pre-modern and non-modern styles, from high classical architecture to popular or vernacular regional building styles. [[Robert Venturi]] famously defined postmodern architecture as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) and upheld it against modernist and brutalist "ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive [[Tectonics (architecture)|tectonic]] forms).<ref>{{cite book |last=Venturi |first=Robert |title=Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture |publisher=Museum of Modern Art |year=1966 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/complexitycontra00vent |url-access=registration |quote=complexity and contradiction in architecture. }}</ref>

===Architecture today===
{{Main|Contemporary architecture}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 300
| footer = Clockwise from upper left: [[Meadows Museum]] [[Dallas]], US; [[Beijing National Stadium]], China, 2003–2007; [[Isbjerget]] housing project, Denmark, 2013; Library and Learning Center, [[University of Vienna]], Austria, 2008
| image1 = Dallas Meadows Museum 1.jpg
| image2 = Beijing national stadium.jpg
| image3 = Campus WU LC D1 TC DSC 1440w.jpg
| image4 = Isbjerget.jpg
}}

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. Moreover, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect<ref group="Notes">A design architect is one who is responsible for the design.</ref> from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required standards and deals with matters of liability.<ref group="Notes">A project architect is one who is responsible for ensuring the design is built correctly and who administers building contracts – in non-specialist architectural practices the project architect is also the design architect and the term refers to the differing roles the architect plays at differing stages of the process.</ref> The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Imaginaries on Matter: Tools, Materials, Origins |url=https://aadr.info/product/imaginaries-on-matter-tools-materials-origins/ |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=aadr.info |language=en-US}}</ref> and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of many.
[[Modern architecture|Modernism]] and [[Postmodern architecture|Postmodernism]] have been criticized by some members of the architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal, philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to create livable environments, with the design process being informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.

Environmental [[sustainability]] has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings, have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design, rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be found in [[passive solar building design]], [[Green roof|greener roof designs]], [[Biodegradation|biodegradable]] materials, and more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings that seek to meet [[green building]] [[sustainable design]] principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary techniques.<ref>{{cite web |author=OneWorld.net |url=http://el.doccentre.info/eldoc/0411/dwvernacular_architecture.html |title=Vernacular Architecture in India |publisher=El.doccentre.info |date=31 March 2004 |access-date=2 July 2011 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303000426/https://el.doccentre.info/eldoc/0411/dwvernacular_architecture.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The U.S. Green Building Council's [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been influential in this.<ref>Other [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] and green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS ([[Collaborative for High Performance Schools]]).</ref>

Concurrently, the recent movements of [[New Urbanism]], [[Metaphoric architecture]], contemporary [[Traditional architecture]] and [[New Classical architecture]] promote a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates and develops [[smart growth]], architectural tradition, and [[Classical architecture|classical design]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnu.org/charter|title=The Charter of the New Urbanism|work=cnu.org|date=20 April 2015 |access-date=23 March 2014|archive-date=29 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629164755/http://www.cnu.org/charter|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future|url=http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|publisher=Traditional Architecture Group|access-date=23 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305215635/http://www.traditionalarchitecture.co.uk/aims.html|archive-date=5 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> This in contrast to modernist and [[International Style (architecture)|globally uniform]] architecture, as well as leaning against solitary [[housing estate]]s and [[Urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]].<ref>[http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119170943/https://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf |date=19 November 2018 }}. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 23 March 2014.</ref> Glass curtain walls, which were the hallmark of the ultra modern urban life in many countries, surfaced even in developing countries like Nigeria where international styles had been represented since the mid-20th Century, mostly because of the leanings of foreign-trained architects.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://litcaf.com/architecture/|title=Architecture|date=10 February 2016 |work=Litcaf|access-date=2017-06-04|language=en-US|archive-date=19 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119170946/https://litcaf.com/architecture/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Types==
[[File:Stourhead Pantheon.jpg|thumb|[[Stourhead]] in [[Wiltshire]], England, designed by [[Henry Hoare]] (1705–1785)]]

===Residential architecture===
Residential architecture is the design which functionally fits the user's lifestyle while adhering to the [[building code]]s and [[zoning]] laws.

===Commercial architecture===
Commercial architecture is the design of commercial buildings that serves the needs of businesses, the government, and religious institutions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zurn |first1=Scott |title=Commercial Architecture: Types and Benefits |url=https://levelengineering.com/b/architecture/commercial-architecture/ |website=levelengineering.com |publisher=Level |access-date=6 October 2025}}</ref>

===Industrial architecture===
{{main|Industrial architecture}}

Industrial architecture is the design of specialized industrial buildings, whose primary focus is designing buildings that can fulfil their function while ensuring the safe movement of labor and goods in the facility.

===Landscape architecture===
{{main|Landscape architecture}}

Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes.<ref>[[Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe]], [[Susan Jellicoe]], ''The Landscape of Man: Shaping the Environment from Prehistory to the Present Day.'' {{ISBN|978-0500274316}}.</ref> It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in the landscape and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope of the profession includes [[landscape design]], [[site planning]], [[Stormwater#Stormwater management|stormwater management]], [[natural environment|environmental]] [[ecological restoration|restoration]], [[park]]s and recreation planning, visual resource management, [[green infrastructure]] planning and provision, and private [[estate (land)|estate]] and [[house|residence]] landscape master planning and design all at varying scales of design, planning, and management. A practitioner in the profession of landscape architecture is called a [[landscape architect]].

===Interior architecture===
{{main|Interior architecture}}

[[File:Charles Rennie Mackintosh - Music Room 1901.jpg|thumb|Charles Rennie Mackintosh – Music Room 1901]]
Interior architecture is the design of a space which has been created by structural boundaries and the human interaction within these boundaries. It can also be the initial design and plan for use, then later redesigned to accommodate a changed purpose or a significantly revised design for [[adaptive reuse]] of the building shell.<ref name="intar.risd">{{cite web|url=http://intar.risd.edu/|title=Interior Architecture|work=RISD Interior Architecture Graduate Department|access-date=28 February 2017|archive-date=30 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730065634/https://interiorarchitecture.risd.edu/|url-status=live}}</ref> The latter is often part of sustainable architecture practices, conserving resources through "recycling" a structure by adaptive redesign. Generally referred to as the spatial art of environmental design, form and practice, interior architecture is the process through which the interiors of buildings are designed, concerned with all aspects of the human uses of structural spaces.

===Urban design===
{{main|Urban design}}

Urban design is the process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities, towns, and villages. In contrast to architecture, which focuses on the design of individual buildings, urban design deals with the larger scale of groups of buildings, streets and public spaces, whole neighborhoods and districts, and entire cities, with the goal of making urban areas functional, attractive, and sustainable.<ref name="berkeley">{{cite journal|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/49f234rd|author=Boeing|title=LEED-ND and Livability Revisited|journal=Berkeley Planning Journal|date=2014|volume=27|pages=31–55|doi=10.5070/BP327120808|access-date=2015-04-15|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free|archive-date=4 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704184041/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/49f234rd|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Urban design is an interdisciplinary field that uses elements of many built environment professions, including [[landscape architecture]], [[urban planning]], architecture, [[civil engineering]] and [[municipal engineering]].<ref>Van Assche, K., Beunen, R., Duineveld, M., & de Jong, H. (2013). [http://plt.sagepub.com/content/12/2/177.short "Co-evolutions of planning and design: Risks and benefits of design perspectives in planning systems"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628061608/http://plt.sagepub.com/content/12/2/177.short |date=28 June 2013 }}. ''Planning Theory'', 12(2), 177–198.</ref> It is common for professionals in all these disciplines to practice urban design. In more recent times different sub-subfields of urban design have emerged such as strategic urban design, [[landscape urbanism]], [[water-sensitive urban design]], and [[sustainable urbanism]].

=== Green Design ===
{{Category main article|Green design
}}
[[File:Awesome Green Roof.jpg|thumb|Awesome Green Roof]]
Green Building is about the structure and application process of minimizing the environmental impact of buildings. Interest in sustainable design grew after the 1973 oil embargo which highlighted the need for policies like the Clean Water Act and the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency. This motivated a small group of architects that were passionate and environmentally conscious to start designing more sustainably. Green Design uses renewable energy strategies like, green roofs, passive heating/cooling, and reduced materials help to create sustainable and high-performance structures that blend with the nature around them. Sustainable materials like reclaimed wood, bamboo, and recycled materials are used to limit resource waste. Water conservation is another key strategy, utilizing systems that make sure to harvest rainwater and recycle greywater. Architects also orientate buildings to take advantage of the climate utilizing the sun for natural lighting and the wind for ventilation. Together, these strategies create high performance buildings that work with nature rather than against.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Four decades of green design {{!}} The American Institute of Architects |url=https://www.aia.org/aia-architect/article/four-decades-green-design |access-date=2026-03-16 |website=www.aia.org |language=en}}</ref>

===Other types of architecture===
====Naval architecture====
{{main|Naval architecture}}

[[File:Lines plan en.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|Body plan of a ship showing the hull form]]
Naval architecture, also known as naval engineering, is an [[engineering]] discipline dealing with the [[engineering design process]], [[shipbuilding]], maintenance, and operation of [[watercraft|marine vessels]] and structures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rina.org.uk/careers_in_naval_architecture.html|title=Careers in Naval Architecture|last=RINA|website=www.rina.org.uk|access-date=26 February 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020170147/https://www.rina.org.uk/careers_in_naval_architecture.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Biran, Adrian; (2003). ''Ship hydrostatics and stability'', [[Butterworth-Heinemann]]. {{ISBN|0-7506-4988-7}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Edward V. |title=Principles of Naval Architecture |publisher=[[The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers]] |year=1938 |isbn=((0939773007)) |edition=3rd |location=Virginia}}</ref> Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation, and calculations during all stages of the life of a marine vehicle. Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, [[Shipbuilding|construction]], [[Sea trial|trials]], operation and maintenance, launching, and [[dry-docking]] are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are also required for ships being [[Ship#Repair and conversion|modified]] (by means of conversion, rebuilding, modernization, or repair). Naval architecture also involves the formulation of safety regulations and damage control rules and the approval and certification of ship designs to meet [[statutory]] and non-statutory requirements.

====Metaphorical "architectures"====
"Architecture" is used as a metaphor for many modern techniques or fields for structuring abstractions. These include:
* [[Computer architecture]], a set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of [[computer systems]] with [[software architecture]], [[hardware architecture]] and [[network architecture]] covering more specific aspects.
* [[Business architecture]], defined as "a blueprint of the enterprise that provides a common understanding of the organization and is used to align strategic objectives and tactical demands.”<ref name="OMG BAWG, Definition">[[OMG Business Architecture Special Interest Group]] "[http://www.omg.org/bawg/ What Is Business Architecture?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713063349/http://www.omg.org/bawg/ |date=13 July 2017 }}" at ''bawg.omg.org,'' 2008 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20080429224109/http://bawg.omg.org/ archive.org]). Accessed 2015-04-03; Cited in: [[William M. Ulrich]], [[Philip Newcomb]] ''Information Systems Transformation: Architecture-Driven Modernization Case Studies.'' (2010), p. 4.</ref> [[Enterprise architecture]] is another term.
* [[Cognitive architecture]] theories about the structure of the [[human mind]].
* [[System architecture]], a [[conceptual model]] that defines the [[structure]], [[behavior]], and more [[view model|views]] of any type of [[system]].<ref>Hannu Jaakkola and Bernhard Thalheim. (2011) "Architecture-driven modelling methodologies." In: ''Proceedings of the 2011 conference on Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXII''. Anneli Heimbürger et al. (eds). IOS Press. p. 98.</ref>

====Seismic architecture====
{{main|Earthquake engineering}}

The term '[[seismic architecture]]' or 'earthquake architecture' was first introduced in 1985 by Robert Reitherman.<ref>{{citation|last=Reitherman|first=Robert|title=Earthquake Engineering and Earthquake Architecture. Part of the AIA Workshop for Architects and Related Building Professionals on Designing for Earthquakes in the Western Mountain States|year=1985}}</ref> The phrase "earthquake architecture" is used to describe a degree of architectural expression of earthquake resistance or implication of architectural configuration, form, or style in earthquake resistance. It is also used to describe buildings in which seismic design considerations impacted its architecture. It may be considered a new aesthetic approach in designing structures in seismic prone areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Llunji|first=Mentor|title=Seismic Architecture – The architecture of earthquake resistant structures|year=2016|publisher=Msproject|isbn=978-9940979409}}</ref> The wide breadth of expressive possibilities ranges from metaphorical uses of seismic issues to the more straightforward exposure of seismic technology. While outcomes of an earthquake architecture can be very diverse in their physical manifestations, architectural expression of seismic principles can also take many forms and levels of sophistication.<ref>{{cite conference|last=Charleson|first=Andrew|title=Towards An Earthquake Architecture |conference= 12th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering|year=2000}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Architecture}}
* [[Architectural design competition]]
* [[Architectural engineering]]
* [[Architectural technology]]
* [[Ephemeral architecture]]
* [[Index of architecture articles]]
* [[List of BIM software]]
* [[Outline of architecture]]
* [[Reverse architecture]]
* [[Timeline of architecture]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=Notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
{{Wikivoyage|Architecture}}
* [https://worldarchitecture.org World Architecture Community]
* [http://www.architecture.com Architecture.com], published by [[Royal Institute of British Architects]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091009095018/http://www.uia-architectes.org/texte/england/Menu-7/1-musees.html Architectural centers and museums in the world], list of links from the [[International Union of Architects|UIA]]
* [https://www.aia.org/ American Institute of Architects]
* [https://architecturaltrust.org/outreach/education/glossary-of-architectural-terms/ Glossary of Architectural Terms] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828183015/https://architecturaltrust.org/outreach/education/glossary-of-architectural-terms/ |date=28 August 2021 }}
* [http://content.lib.washington.edu/buildingsweb/index.html Cities and Buildings Database] – Collection of digitized images of buildings and cities drawn from across time and throughout the world from the University of Washington Library
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548k0 "Architecture and Power"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Adrian Tinniswood, Gillian Darley and Gavin Stamp (''In Our Time'', Oct. 31, 2002)

{{Design}}
{{Aesthetics}}
{{Branches of the visual arts}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Architecture| ]]
[[Category:Architectural design]]

Hinduism by country

2026-03-20T15:05:25Z

Ankithreddy: Enhanced and reorganized content

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}

[[File:Countries_by_percentage_of_adherents_to_Hinduism.svg|thumb|300px|Percentage of Hindus by country in 2010, according to the [[Pew Research Center]]]]

{{Hinduism by country}}

[[Hinduism]] has approximately 1.17 billion adherents worldwide (14.9% of the world's population).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Fahmy |first=Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi and Dalia |date=2025-06-09 |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Hinduism]] is the [[Major religious groups|third largest religion in the world]], behind [[Christianity]] (32.8%) and [[Islam]] (23.3%).<ref name=prcpercent>[http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf Table: Religious Composition (%) by Country] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805151827/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/12/globalReligion-tables.pdf |date=5 August 2013 }} Global Religious Composition, Pew Research Center (2012)</ref> Pew Research Center data shows the global Hindu population grew steadily from 2010 to 2020 and is expected to keep rising. This increase is driven largely by higher fertility rates in India and Nepal and by growing Hindu populations in regions receiving more migrants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hackett |first=Conrad |date=2025-06-09 |title=Hindu Population Change |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/hindu-population-change/ |access-date=2025-11-22 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref>

The two Hindu-majority countries are [[Hinduism in India|India]] and [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]] and together account for more than 95% of the Hindu population worldwide.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Fahmy |first=Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi and Dalia |date=2025-06-09 |title=Hindu population change |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/hindu-population-change/ |access-date=2025-12-19 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> The past two centuries have seen large-scale migration of Hindus from Southeast Asia, to around the world.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Rambachan |first=Anantanand |title=Global Hinduism: Contemporary Hinduism |date=July 21, 2004 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |pages=381}}</ref> Countries with more than 500,000 Hindu residents and citizens are (in decreasing order) [[Hinduism in India|India]], [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]], [[Hinduism in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]], [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Hinduism in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]], the [[Hinduism in the United States|United States]], [[Hinduism in Malaysia|Malaysia]], [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Hinduism in Myanmar|Myanmar]], [[Hinduism in Australia|Australia]], [[Hinduism in Mauritius|Mauritius]], [[Hinduism in South Africa|South Africa]], [[Hinduism in Canada|Canada]], and [[Hinduism in the United Arab Emirates|the United Arab Emirates]]. Global data shows Hinduism is still concentrated in the Indian Subcontinent, but significant communities also exist in Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and Oceania. WorldData.info reports that India holds most of the world’s Hindus, with notable populations in Nepal, Bangladesh, and Indonesia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hinduism - Worldwide distribution |url=https://www.worlddata.info/religions/hinduism.php |access-date=2025-11-25 |website=Worlddata.info |language=en}}</ref>

There are significant numbers of Hindu enclaves around the world, with many in [[Hinduism in South Africa|South Africa]], [[Hinduism in Canada|Canada]], [[Hinduism in Australia|Australia]] and [[Hinduism in New Zealand|New Zealand]]. [[Hinduism]] is also practiced by the non-[[Indian subcontinent|Indic]] people including the [[Balinese people|Balinese]] of [[Bali]] island ([[Indonesia]]), [[Tenggerese people|Tengger]] of [[Java]] (Indonesia), the Balamon [[Hinduism in Vietnam|Chams]] of [[Vietnam]], and [[Butuanon people]] in [[Philippines]]. Outside South Asia, Hindu communities often adapt traditional practices to multicultural environments. The Hindu American Foundation notes that diaspora groups modify rituals, language use, and temple organization to meet the needs of diverse generations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014 |title=Hinduism Around the World |url=https://www.hinduamerican.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/GlobalHinduism2.0_0.pdf |access-date=2025-11-22 |publisher=Hindu American Foundation}}</ref>

==Background==
Hinduism is a heterogeneous religion and consists of many schools of thought. Hinduism includes a diversity of ideas on [[Spirituality#Hinduism|spirituality]] and traditions, but has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can be polytheistic, monotheistic, pantheistic, monistic, agnostic, humanist, or atheistic.<ref>[[Julius J. Lipner]], Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-45677-7}}, page 8; Quote: “(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu".; MK Gandhi, [http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf The Essence of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724045756/http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf |date=24 July 2015 }}, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref>

== Early migration ==
One of the first major waves of Hindus leaving South Asia was a result of colonialism in India during 19th and early 20th century. Under indenture contracts, many Hindus migrated far across the world to Guyana, Surinam, Trinidad, Mauritius, South Africa, Eastern Africa, Fiji, Burma and Malaysia. These were some of the first countries with Hinduism established outside of the Indian sub-continent, many of which still have a thriving Hindu community today.<ref name=":0" /> Migration has played a major role in spreading Hindu communities worldwide. Kramer and Tong report that many Hindu migrants have settled in North America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and East Africa, creating expanding diaspora networks <ref>{{Cite web |last=Kramer |first=Stephanie |date=2024-08-19 |title=Hindu Migrants Around the World |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2024/08/19/hindu-migrants-around-the-world/ |access-date=2025-11-22 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref>

==Demographic estimates==
Demographic estimates of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] populations by country have been published by the [[Pew Research Center]] in 2012,<ref name=prctotals>[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/ Hindu population totals in 2010 by Country] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209223553/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/ |date=9 December 2016 }} Pew Research, Washington DC (2012)</ref> as well as US State Department's ''[[International Religious Freedom Report]] 2006.<ref name=usstate>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf |title=International Religious Freedom |publisher=State.gov |date=2009-01-20 |access-date=2012-03-05 |archive-date=5 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705074825/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf |url-status=live }}</ref>''

By total number, India has the most Hindus. As a percentage, [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]] has the largest percentage of Hindus in the world, followed by [[Hinduism in India|India]] and [[Hinduism in Mauritius|Mauritius]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/religion101/2012/11/hindu-demographics-denominations-part-one.html|title=Hindu Demographics & Denominations (Part One)|work=Religion 101|access-date=14 February 2015|date=2012-11-28|archive-date=5 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705064408/http://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/religion101/2012/11/hindu-demographics-denominations-part-one.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Hindu population around the world as of 2020 is about 1.17 billion, making it the world's third-largest religion after [[Christianity and Islam]], of which nearly 1.1 billion Hindus live in India.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="5 facts about religion in India">{{Cite web|title=5 facts about religion in India|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/06/29/5-facts-about-religion-in-india/|access-date=2021-06-09|website=Pew Research Center|date=29 June 2018 |language=en-US|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521160211/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/06/29/5-facts-about-religion-in-india/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Global Religious Landscape |url=https://www.bc.edu/content/dam/files/centers/jesinst/pdf/Grim-globalReligion-full.pdf |access-date=22 October 2023 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525150456/https://www.bc.edu/content/dam/files/centers/jesinst/pdf/Grim-globalReligion-full.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> India contains 94% of the global Hindu population.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ | title=Hindus | date=18 December 2012 | access-date=30 September 2023 | archive-date=30 May 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530023529/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=By 2050, India to have world's largest populations of Hindus and Muslims|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/21/by-2050-india-to-have-worlds-largest-populations-of-hindus-and-muslims/|access-date=2020-11-17|website=Pew Research Center|date=21 April 2015 |language=en-US|archive-date=22 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422192233/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/21/by-2050-india-to-have-worlds-largest-populations-of-hindus-and-muslims/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a statistical study, an estimated 100 million Hindus live outside of India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Hindu Religion Information Data and Statistics {{!}} PEW-GRF|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/religions/hindus|access-date=2021-06-09|website=globalreligiousfutures.org|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424184032/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/religions/hindus|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, only two countries in the world had a majority of their population as Hindus – Nepal and India.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} In [[Mauritius]], 47.9 percent of the population were Hindu, according to the 2022 census.<ref name="2022 Census Religion">{{cite web |date=May 2024 |title=2022 HOUSING AND POPULATION CENSUS |url=https://statsmauritius.govmu.org/Documents/Census_and_Surveys/Census2022/HPC_TR_Vol2_Demography_Yr22.pdf |access-date=5 June 2024 |publisher=Republic of Mauritius}}</ref>

==By country==
Sources used for the table below include the US State Department,<ref name=usstate/> the [[CIA World Factbook]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2012-03-05 |archive-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510200259/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> adherents.com, thearda.com,<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/internationaldata/countries/Country_178_2.asp|title=Philippines, Religion And Social Profile|website=thearda.com|access-date=2021-01-11|archive-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623144724/https://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_178_2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_298.html#1868 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031009001839/http://adherents.com/Na/Na_298.html#1868 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=9 October 2003 |title=Adherents.com |publisher=Adherents.com |access-date=2012-03-05}}</ref> and [[Pew Research Center]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|title=Hindus|date=18 December 2012|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-date=9 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="PEW2">{{cite web|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers (2010)|date=18 December 2012|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201224548/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-date=1 February 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> and as identified.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Hinduism by country
|-
! Region
! Country
! data-sort-type="number" |Hindu total
! data-sort-type="number" |Percentage
! data-sort-type="number"|Total population
! data-sort-type="number"|Census year
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South Asia]]/[[Central Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Afghanistan}} [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]
| 10,511
| 0.03%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=1c#S_2|title=Afghanistan, Religion And Social Profile|website=thearda.com|access-date=29 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=1 |access-date=4 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193549/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=1 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Afghanistan/rbodies.html |title=Religious Freedom Page |publisher=Religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu |access-date=2012-03-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125003320/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Afghanistan/rbodies.html |archive-date=25 January 2012 }}</ref>
| 35,036,667
| -NA-
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Andorra}} [[Hinduism in Andorra|Andorra]]
| 382
| 0.5%<ref>{{Cite web |last= |year=2020 |title=National / Regional Profiles: Adorra, Southern Europe, World |url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=6c |access-date=23 November 2023 |website=[[Association of Religion Data Archives]]}}</ref><ref name="virginia1">{{cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Andorra/rbodies.html |title=Religious Freedom Page |publisher=Religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu |access-date=2012-03-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125002729/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Andorra/rbodies.html |archive-date=25 January 2012 }}</ref>
| 82,887
| 2020
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Anguilla}} [[Hinduism in Anguilla|Anguilla]]
| 58
| 0.4%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anguillanews.com/enews/index.php/permalink/4936.html|title=SMG-AxANEWS – ANGUILLA's PRELIMINARY CENSUS FINDINGS #5: "Who are we? – Ethnic Composition and Religious Affiliation"|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-date=21 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521021835/http://www.anguillanews.com/enews/index.php/permalink/4936.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| 13,452
| 2011
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Antigua and Barbuda}} [[Hinduism in Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]]
| 379
| 0.4%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ab.gov.ag/pdf/2011_population_and_housing_census.pdf |title=2011 Population and Housing Census |publisher=N/A |access-date=2015-06-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514074915/http://ab.gov.ag/pdf/2011_population_and_housing_census.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2014 }}</ref>
| 81,799
| -NA-
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South America]]
|{{flagdeco|Argentina}} [[Hinduism in Argentina|Argentina]]
| 4,000+
| 0.01%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jseo.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194123/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=101|url-status=dead|title=The UK's Leading SEO Company For SME & Enterprise|archive-date=27 September 2007|website=J SEO}}</ref>
| 40,301,927
| -NA-
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Oceania]]
|{{flagdeco|Australia}} [[Hinduism in Australia|Australia]]
| 684,000
| 2.7%<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/AUS/download/GCP_AUS.xlsx|format=XLSX|title=Australian Bureau of Statistics : 2021 Census of Population and Housing : General Community Profile|website=Abs.gov.au|access-date=2 July 2022|archive-date=28 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628191720/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/AUS/download/GCP_AUS.xlsx|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 23,401,400
| 2021
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Austria}} [[Hinduism in Austria|Austria]]
| 11,000
| 0.1%<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/304874/umfrage/mitglieder-in-religionsgemeinschaften-in-oesterreich/ | title=Österreich - Religionszugehörigkeit 2018 &#124; Statistik | access-date=2 December 2018 | archive-date=19 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119085510/https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/304874/umfrage/mitglieder-in-religionsgemeinschaften-in-oesterreich/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
| 8,900,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Bahrain}} [[Hinduism in Bahrain|Bahrain]]
| 7,000 – 144,286{{refn|group=note|name=hbahrain|The estimates vary depending on whether temporary workers are included or not. The official census of the Bahrain government states that 99% of its citizens are Muslims, and the remaining 1% includes Jews, Christians, Hindus, and Bahais.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bahrain|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168261.htm|website=US State Department|access-date=16 August 2017|archive-date=18 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018074241/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168261.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a 2017 publication by Abdullahi An-Na'im, the Muslims in Bahrain constitute 99.3% of the total population.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Abdullahi An-Na'im|author2=edited by Mashood A. Baderin|title=Islam and Human Rights: Selected Essays of Abdullahi An-Na'im|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zgskDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT257|year=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-92611-9|pages=257 note 84|access-date=16 August 2017|archive-date=5 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705074823/https://books.google.com/books?id=zgskDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT257|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| <1%–9.8%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/bahrain#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2014|title=Religions in Bahrain – PEW-GRF|website=globalreligiousfutures.org|access-date=21 June 2017|archive-date=16 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816193048/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/bahrain#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2014|url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name=hbahrain}}
| 708,573
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Bangladesh}} [[Hinduism in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]]
| 13,100,000
| 7.9%<ref name="auto3">{{Cite news |date=27 July 2022 |title=Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/07/27/bangladeshs-population-size-now-1651-million |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727073234/https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2022/07/27/bangladeshs-population-size-now-1651-million |archive-date=27 July 2022 |access-date=28 July 2022 |work=Dhaka Tribune}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fahmy |first=Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi and Dalia |date=2025-06-09 |title=Hindu population change |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/hindu-population-change/ |access-date=2025-12-19 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref>
| 165,000,000
| 2022
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Barbados}} [[Hinduism in Barbados|Barbados]]
| 1,055
| 0.46%<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.barstats.gov.bb/files/documents/PHC_2010_Census_Volume_1.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=9 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118220332/http://www.barstats.gov.bb/files/documents/PHC_2010_Census_Volume_1.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 226,193
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Belgium}} [[Hinduism in Belgium|Belgium]]
| 6,235
| 0.06%<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71371.htm |title=Belgium |publisher=State.gov |date=2005-10-02 |access-date=2012-03-05 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518015931/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71371.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 10,392,226
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central America]] and [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Belize}} [[Hinduism in Belize|Belize]]
| 612
| 0.2%<ref>{{Cite web|date=27 January 2016|title=Belize, 2010 Census|url=http://www.sib.org.bz/Portals/0/docs/publications/census/2010_Census_Report.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127084833/http://www.sib.org.bz/Portals/0/docs/publications/census/2010_Census_Report.pdf|archive-date=27 January 2016}}</ref>
| 294,385
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Bhutan}} [[Hinduism in Bhutan|Bhutan]]
| 185,700
| 22.6%–25%<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bhutan/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2012-03-05 |archive-date=30 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530134529/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bhutan/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35839.htm |title=Bhutan |publisher=State.gov |date=2010-02-02 |access-date=2012-03-05 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112050953/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35839.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 742,737
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Botswana}} [[Hinduism in Botswana|Botswana]]
| 3,353
| 0.3%<ref>{{Cite web|title=Population Census|url=http://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Population%20%26%20Housing%20Census%20Dissemination%20analytical%20report%20.pdf|access-date=9 June 2021|website=Statsbots|archive-date=23 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623215550/https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Population%20%26%20Housing%20Census%20Dissemination%20analytical%20report%20.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 1,372,675
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South America]]
|{{flagdeco|Brazil}} [[Hinduism in Brazil|Brazil]]
| 5,675–9,500
| 0.0029%<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/all-about-religions-in-brazil |title=All About Religions in Brazil |date=8 January 2013 |publisher=IBGE |access-date=2015-06-06 |archive-date=26 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626123038/http://thebrazilbusiness.com/article/all-about-religions-in-brazil |url-status=live }}</ref>–0.01%
| 192,755,799
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Brunei}} [[Hinduism in Brunei|Brunei]]
| 131
| 0.035%<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71334.htm |title=Brunei |publisher=State.gov |date=2006-09-15 |access-date=2012-03-05 |archive-date=28 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128102040/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71334.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 374,577
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[West Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Burkina Faso}} [[Hinduism in Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]]
| 150
| 0.001%{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
| 14,326,203
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Burundi}} [[Hinduism in Burundi|Burundi]]
| 8,391
| 0.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Burundi/rbodies.html |title=Religious Freedom Page |publisher=Religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu |access-date=2013-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530210501/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Burundi/rbodies.html |archive-date=30 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=118 |access-date=4 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194313/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=118 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref>
| 8,390,505
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Cambodia}} [[Hinduism in Cambodia|Cambodia]]
| 41,988
| 0.3%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Cambodia/rbodies.html |title=Religious Freedom Page |publisher=Religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu |access-date=2013-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819112511/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Cambodia/rbodies.html |archive-date=19 August 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jseo.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930153550/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=86|url-status=dead|title=The UK's Leading SEO Company For SME & Enterprise|archive-date=30 September 2007|website=J SEO}}</ref>
| 13,995,904
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[North America]]
|{{flagdeco|Canada}} [[Hinduism in Canada|Canada]]
| 828,200
| 2.3%<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.todocanada.ca/population-of-christians-hindus-muslims-and-non-religious-in-canada-according-to-census-2021/ | title=Population of Christians, Hindus, Muslims and Non-Religious in Canada According to 2021 Census | date=26 October 2022 | access-date=27 October 2022 | archive-date=27 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027074548/https://www.todocanada.ca/population-of-christians-hindus-muslims-and-non-religious-in-canada-according-to-census-2021/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
| 36,990,141
| 2021
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Czech Republic}} [[Hinduism in Czech Republic|Czech Republic]]
| 2,404
| 0.023%<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.czso.cz/documents/10180/45948568/130055170118.xlsx/e5f9d290-2be8-487c-9f1e-7ccf24df2437?version=1.0 |title=Archived copy |access-date=9 December 2018 |archive-date=12 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112050942/https://www.czso.cz/documents/10180/45948568/130055170118.xlsx/e5f9d290-2be8-487c-9f1e-7ccf24df2437?version=1.0 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 10,436,560
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|China}} [[Hinduism in China|China]]
|20,000<ref>{{Cite web |last=Center |first=Pew Research |date=2012-12-18 |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/ |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=13 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713034032/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|<0.1%<ref name="Center">{{Cite web |last=Center |first=Pew Research |date=2012-12-18 |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-percentages/ |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928054122/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-percentages/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|1,412,600,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South America]]
|{{flagdeco|Colombia}} [[Hinduism in Colombia|Colombia]]
| 8,876
| 0.02%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=78 |access-date=4 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194326/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=78 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref>
| 44,379,598
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Comoros}} [[Comoros]]
| 711
| 0.1%(approx) {{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
| 711,417
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Congo (Kinshasa)}} [[Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo#Hinduism & Sikhism|Congo (Kinshasa)]]
| 30,000<ref name="PEW2"/>
| 0.18%<ref name="PEW2"/>
| 65,751,512
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Balkans]]
|{{flagdeco|Croatia}} [[Hinduism in Croatia|Croatia]]
| 449
| 0.01% (approx)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71374.htm |title=Croatia |publisher=State.gov |date=2006-09-15 |access-date=2013-10-02 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518053359/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71374.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 4,493,312
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[North America]]
|{{flagdeco|Cuba}} [[Hinduism in Cuba|Cuba]]
| 23,927
| 0.21%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=76 |access-date=4 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194233/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=76 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref>
| 11,394,043
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[West Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Côte d'Ivoire}} [[Hinduism in Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire]]
| 18,013
| 0.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=126 |access-date=4 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194240/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=126 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71297.htm |title=Cote d'Ivoire |publisher=State.gov |access-date=2013-10-02 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518050237/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71297.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 18,013,409
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Cyprus}} [[Religion in Cyprus#Hinduism|Cyprus]]
| 4,640
| 0.4%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/internationaldata/countries/Country_64_2.asp|title=Cyprus, Religion And Social Profile|website=thearda.com|access-date=17 October 2021|archive-date=18 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618224321/https://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_64_2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 1,160,987
| 2015
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Denmark}} [[Hinduism in Denmark|Denmark]]
| 5,468
| 0.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Denmark/rbodies.html |title=Religious Freedom Page |publisher=Religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu |access-date=2013-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530202419/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Denmark/rbodies.html |archive-date=30 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71377.htm |title=Denmark |publisher=State.gov |date=2006-09-15 |access-date=2013-10-02 |archive-date=17 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517225310/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71377.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 5,468,120
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Djibouti}} [[Hinduism in Djibouti|Djibouti]]
| 99
| 0.02%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=127 |access-date=4 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194207/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=127 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref>
| 496,374
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Dominica}} [[Hinduism in Dominica|Dominica]]
| 145
| 0.2%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=75 |access-date=4 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194307/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=75 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref>
| 72,386
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[North Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Egypt}} [[Hinduism in Egypt|Egypt]]
| 2,700
| 0.003%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.shvoong.com/social-sciences/communication-media-studies/2003140-india-egypt/|title=India and Egypt|website=shvoong.com|access-date=30 June 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307132350/http://www.shvoong.com/social-sciences/communication-media-studies/2003140-india-egypt/|archive-date=7 March 2012}}</ref>
| 82,761,244
| 2010
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Eritrea}} [[Hinduism in Eritrea|Eritrea]]
| 4,907
| 0.1% (approx)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71300.htm |title=Eritrea |publisher=State.gov |access-date=2013-10-02 |archive-date=17 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517235558/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71300.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 4,906,585
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Eastern Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Estonia}} [[Hinduism in Estonia|Estonia]]
| 295
| 0.027%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0451&lang=1|title=AT LEAST 15-YEAR-OLD PERSONS BY RELIGION, SEX AND PLACE OF RESIDENCE, 31 December 2011|website=pub.stat.ee|access-date=25 June 2015|archive-date=26 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626140018/http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC0451&lang=1|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 1,094,564
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Oceania]]
|{{flagdeco|Fiji}} [[Hinduism in Fiji|Fiji]]
| 261,136
| 27.9%<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1834.htm |title=Fiji |publisher=State.gov |date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2020-07-02 |archive-date=22 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194413/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1834.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ |title=The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2020-07-02 |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827055140/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 935,974
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Finland}} [[Hinduism in Finland|Finland]]
| 5,000
| 0.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=172 |access-date=5 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194049/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=172 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref>
| 5,238,460
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|France}} [[Hinduism in France|France]]
| 121,000
| 0.2%<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/european-countries-with-the-highest-number-of-hindus-2010-to-2050.html | title=European Countries with the Highest Number of Hindus: 2010 to 2050 | date=19 August 2020 | access-date=27 October 2022 | archive-date=19 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019042133/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/european-countries-with-the-highest-number-of-hindus-2010-to-2050.html | url-status=live }}</ref>
| 63,718,187
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Eastern Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Georgia}} [[Hinduism in Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
| 465
| 0.01% (approx)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71381.htm |title=Georgia |publisher=State.gov |access-date=2013-10-02 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518015428/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71381.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 4,646,003
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Germany}} [[Hinduism in Germany|Germany]]
| 130,000
| 0.15% (approx)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mitgliederzahlen: Hinduismus – REMID – Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und Informationsdienst e.V. |url=https://www.remid.de/info_zahlen/hinduismus/ |access-date=2023-12-02 |language=de-DE |archive-date=13 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013144444/https://www.remid.de/info_zahlen/hinduismus/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 82,660,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[West Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Ghana}} [[Hinduism in Ghana|Ghana]]
| 12,500
| 0.05% (approx)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71304.htm |title=Ghana |publisher=State.gov |date=2006-09-15 |access-date=2013-10-02 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518084409/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71304.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 22,931,299
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|''{{flagdeco|Gibraltar}} [[Hinduism in Gibraltar|Gibraltar]]''
|''628''
|''2.0%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census of Gibraltar 2012 |url=https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/new/sites/default/files/HMGoG_Documents/Full%20Census%20Report%202012%20FINAL.pdf |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=[[HM Government of Gibraltar]] |archive-date=17 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017200847/https://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/new/sites/default/files/HMGoG_Documents/Full%20Census%20Report%202012%20FINAL.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>''
|''32,194''
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Grenada}} [[Hinduism in Grenada|Grenada]]
| 630
| 0.7%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=66 |access-date=5 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927193641/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=66 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |title=The UK's Leading SEO Company for SME & Enterprise }}</ref>
| 89,971
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|''{{flagdeco|Guadeloupe}} [[Hinduism in Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]''
|''2,300''
|''0.5%<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.religion-facts.com/en/191 | title=Religions in Guadeloupe | access-date=7 December 2018 | archive-date=23 October 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181023120051/https://www.religion-facts.com/en/191 | url-status=live }}</ref>''
|''460,000''
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South America]] and [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Guyana}} [[Hinduism in Guyana|Guyana]]
| 190,966
| 24.9%<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/download.php?file=93 |title=Religious Composition (Census of Guyana – 2012) |publisher=Bureau of Statistics – Guyana |date=July 2016 |access-date=2017-12-16 |archive-date=9 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709011240/http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/download.php?file=93 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 769,095
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Hungary}} [[Hinduism in Hungary|Hungary]]
| 3,307<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nepszamlalas.hu/eng/volumes/26/tables/load4_1_1.html |title=Központi Statisztikai Hivatal |publisher=Nepszamlalas.hu |access-date=2013-10-02 |archive-date=7 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107065121/http://www.ksh.hu/nepszamlalas/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A népesség vallás, felekezet és nemek szerint: népszámlálások 1930, 1949, 2001, 2011, 2022|type=report with only the major subdivisions of religious denominations|trans-title=Population by religion, denomination and gender: censuses 1930, 1949, 2001, 2011, 2022|url=https://nepszamlalas2022.ksh.hu/eredmenyek/vegleges-adatok/tablazatok/nsz2022-1.1.7.xlsx}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Population by religion and gender according to the 2001, 2011 and 2022 censuses|type=report with the detailed subdivisions of religious denominations|website=Census Database|url=https://nepszamlalas2022.ksh.hu/adatbazis/#/table/WBS008/N4IgFgpghgJiBcBtEAVAkgWQKIH0AKWASmgPIAiIAugDQgDOAljBAsgGoCCAMlxwMo42AJiq06EAMYAXBgHsAdq1QdCfAFJYeARlEgAZgwA2UiACc6CUAGsG8uPBAYoABxC0I8qaYYQLSdty8AsJu1rb2IHwQUm4gAG5QhgCuvkqEuADCsek4hFm0OQDi-SA5JIXZuCSEAKqVOCR89dUkzQBCzXUFVa3dOBkc9Vxdpbg1AHL1bYN92PUcFH0E85N9agDq9QBiJTkZvaM4avUYU_UAEs0ZZCJ94yQo9eODlAC-NMjo2PhEpIthdgQkWisQSyVSSBAQgADEJblDoVodLQYYiqO9qJ8VOpNFxkQCIlEYrQwSk_MhxlhvnwsAANWKnWhbdGUN6vIA===}}</ref>
| 0.03%
| 9,603,634
| 2022
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|India}} [[Hinduism in India|India]]
| 1,053,000,000
| 79.8%<ref>{{cite web| url= http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/indias-population-121-09-crores-hindus-79-8-pc-muslims-14-2-pc-census/ |url-access=subscription | title= Census 2011: Hindus dip to below 80 per cent of population; Muslim share up, slows down |first1=Sagnik |last1=Chowdhury |first2=Abantika |last2=Ghosh |first3=Ruhi |last3=Tewari | date= 24 January 2015| work= The Indian Express| access-date= 2015-01-27| archive-date= 28 July 2019| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190728165748/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/indias-population-121-09-crores-hindus-79-8-pc-muslims-14-2-pc-census/| url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/census-2011-data-on-population-by-religious-communities/article7579161.ece|title=Muslim population growth slows |url-access=subscription |newspaper=The Hindu|date=2015-08-25|last1=S |first1=Rukmini|last2=Singh|first2=Vijaita|access-date=25 August 2015|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110201326/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/census-2011-data-on-population-by-religious-communities/article7579161.ece|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/c-01.html |title= C-1 Population By Religious Community |publisher=Census of India |access-date=2015-08-25 |archive-date=13 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913045700/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 1,320,000,000
| ([[2011 Census of India|2011 Census]])
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Indonesia}} [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]]
| 4,679,053<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=Sebanyak 86,93% Penduduk Indonesia Beragama Islam pada 31 Desember 2021 |url=https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2022/02/12/sebanyak-8693-penduduk-indonesia-beragama-islam-pada-31-desember-2021 |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Databoks |date=2022 |first1=Viva Budy |last1=Kusnandar |language=id |archive-date=3 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503053334/https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2022/02/12/sebanyak-8693-penduduk-indonesia-beragama-islam-pada-31-desember-2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 1.71%<ref name="auto1"/>
| 273,873,000
|2021
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Iran}} [[Hinduism in Iran|Iran]]
| 20,000<ref name="PEW2" />
| <0.1<ref name="PEW2" />
| 65,397,521
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Ireland}} [[Hinduism in the Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| 14,300
| 0.30%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census 2016 Summary Results - Part 1 |url=https://www.rte.ie/documents/news/census-2016-summary-results-part-1-full.pdf |date=April 2017 |publisher=Central Statistics Office, Ireland |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=[[RTÉ]] |archive-date=30 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030214217/https://www.rte.ie/documents/news/census-2016-summary-results-part-1-full.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 4,761,865
| 2016
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Israel}} [[Hinduism in Israel|Israel]]
| {{circa}}500–1,400
| 0.01%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=113c#RELADH|title=National Profiles|website=the ARDA}}</ref>
| 9,412,850
| 2020
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Italy}} [[Hinduism in Italy|Italy]]
| 108,950
| 0.2% (approx)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71387.htm |work=International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |date=September 15, 2006 |publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, United States Department of State |title=Italy|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517203907/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71387.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 60,418,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Jamaica}} [[Hinduism in Jamaica|Jamaica]]
| 1,836
| 0.07%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20121104/focus/focus4.html |first1=Clinton |last1=Chisholm |title=Religion and the 2011 census|website=Jamaica Gleaner |date=2012-11-04|access-date=25 June 2015|archive-date=2 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602084221/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20121104/focus/focus4.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 2,780,132
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Japan}} [[Hinduism in Japan|Japan]]
| 30,000<ref name="PEW2" />
| <0.1<ref name="PEW2" />
| 127,433,494
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Jordan}} [[Hinduism in Jordan|Jordan]]
| 10,185
| 0.1<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/|title=Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project |website= Pew Research Center|access-date=13 May 2023|archive-date=5 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205195540/https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/religion/religious-demographics/pew-templeton-global-religious-futures-project/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 10,185,500
| 2020
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Kazakhstan}} [[Hinduism in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]]
| 1,878
| 0.01%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=120c#RELADH|title=National Profiles|website=thearda.com}}</ref>
| 18,632,000
| 2020
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Kenya}} [[Hinduism in Kenya|Kenya]]
| 60,000<ref name="PEW2" />
| 0.1%<ref name="PEW2" />
| 37,000,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Korea, South}} [[Hinduism in Korea, South|Korea, South]]
| 12,452
| 0.015% (approx)
| 49,044,790
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Kuwait}} [[Hinduism in Kuwait|Kuwait]]
| 300,667{{refn|group=note|The estimates vary depending on whether temporary workers – with no residency nor right to openly practice their religion – are included or not. The official Kuwaiti government census data does not count Hindus as residents or citizens of Kuwait.<ref>{{cite web|title=PACI Statistics|url=http://www.paci.gov.kw/stat|website=Kuwait Public Authority for Civil Information|access-date=31 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627064610/https://www.paci.gov.kw/stat/|archive-date=27 June 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
| 12%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71425.htm |work=International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |date=September 15, 2006 |publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, United States Department of State |title=Kuwait|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=5 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905110555/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71425.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 2,505,559
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Eastern Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Latvia}} [[Religion in Latvia|Latvia]]
| 179
| 0.012%<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tm.gov.lv/files/l1_MjAxNC9CdWR6ZXRzL1DEgXJza2F0cyBSTyAyMDE3IC5kb2N4/2014/Budzets/P%C4%81rskats%20RO%202017%20.docx |title=Archived copy |access-date=7 February 2022 |archive-date=17 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517190940/https://www.tm.gov.lv/files/l1_MjAxNC9CdWR6ZXRzL1DEgXJza2F0cyBSTyAyMDE3IC5kb2N4/2014/Budzets/P%C4%81rskats%20RO%202017%20.docx |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 1,481,823
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Lebanon}} [[Hinduism in Lebanon|Lebanon]]
| 4,926
| 0.1% (approx)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71426.htm|title=Lebanon|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516004119/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71426.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 4,925,502
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Eastern Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Lithuania}} [[Hinduism in Lithuania|Lithuania]]
|344
| 0.01%<ref>{{Cite web |title=GYVENTOJAI PAGAL TAUTYBĘ, GIMTĄJĄ KALBĄ IR TIKYBĄ |trans-title=POPULATION BY NATIONALITY, NATIVE LANGUAGE AND RELIGION |url=https://osp.stat.gov.lt/documents/10180/217110/Gyv_kalba_tikyba.pdf |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=osp.stat.gov.lt |language=lt |archive-date=15 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815181021/https://osp.stat.gov.lt/documents/10180/217110/Gyv_kalba_tikyba.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
|2,561,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Lesotho}} [[Hinduism in Lesotho|Lesotho]]
| 2,125
| 0.1% (approx)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Lesotho/rbodies.html|title=Religious Freedom Page|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105144355/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Lesotho/rbodies.html|archive-date=5 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71308.htm|title=Lesotho|date=19 September 2006|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=5 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405173119/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71308.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 2,125,262
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[West Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Liberia}} [[Hinduism in Liberia|Liberia]]
| 3,196
| 0.1% (approx)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71309.htm|title=Liberia|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517191919/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71309.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 3,195,931
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[North Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Libya}} [[Hinduism in Libya|Libya]]
| 6,037
| 0.1%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Libya/rbodies.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106034702/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Libya/rbodies.html|url-status=dead|title=Religious Freedom Page|archive-date=6 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71427.htm|title=Libya|date=19 September 2006|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=18 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518180125/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71427.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 6,036,914
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Luxembourg}} [[Hinduism in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]]
| 336
| 0.07% (approx)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indembassy.be/Bilateral_Lux.asp|title=Sorry for the inconvenience.|website=indembassy.be|access-date=7 September 2007|archive-date=19 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219040848/http://www.indembassy.be/Bilateral_Lux.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| 480,222
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Madagascar}} [[Hinduism in Madagascar|Madagascar]]
| 19,449
| 0.1%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Madagascar/rbodies.html|title=Religious Freedom Page|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106021820/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Madagascar/rbodies.html|archive-date=6 November 2007}}</ref><ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71310.htm Madagascar] [http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120123150701/http%3A//www%2Estate%2Egov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71310%2Ehtm Archived copy] at the [[Library of Congress]] (23 January 2012).</ref>
| 19,448,815
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Malawi}} [[Hinduism in Malawi|Malawi]]
| 2,721 – 2,726
| 0.02%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=142|title=Country Profile: Malawi (Republic of Malawi)|publisher=Religious Intelligence|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070930153713/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=142|archive-date=30 September 2007}}</ref> – 0.2%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Malawi/rbodies.html|title=Religious Freedom Page|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105230202/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Malawi/rbodies.html|archive-date=5 November 2007}}</ref>
| 13,603,181
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Malaysia}} [[Hinduism in Malaysia|Malaysia]]
| 1,949,850
| 6.3%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malaysia/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|date=25 October 2021|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=15 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015225421/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malaysia/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2777.htm|title=Malaysia|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024160547/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2777.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 30,949,962
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|''{{flagdeco|Martinique}} [[Hinduism in Martinique|Martinique]]''
|''1,317''
|''0.3%<ref>{{Cite web |title=MIDDLE AMERICA & CARIBBEAN MARTINIQUE |url=http://www.worldmap.org/uploads/9/3/4/4/9344303/martinique_profile.pdf |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=www.worldmap.org |archive-date=24 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024073705/http://www.worldmap.org/uploads/9/3/4/4/9344303/martinique_profile.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>''
|''439,202''
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Maldives}} [[Hinduism in Maldives|Maldives]]
| 37
| 0.01%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=46|title=Country Profile: Maldives (Republic of Maldives)|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070616092301/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=46|archive-date=16 June 2007}}</ref>
| 369,031
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Mauritius}} [[Hinduism in Mauritius|Mauritius]]
| 474,000
| 39%<ref name="2022 Census Religion" />
| 1,261,000
| 2022
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Eastern Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Moldova}} [[Hinduism in Moldova|Moldova]]
| 433
| 0.01% (approx)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71396.htm|title=Moldova|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517191922/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71396.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 3,200,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[North Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Morocco}} [[Hinduism in Morocco|Morocco]]
| 200
| 0.0006<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mea.gov.in/mystart.php?id=50044502 |title=India–Morocco Relations |publisher=[[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs of India]] |access-date=1 May 2012 |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114180107/http://mea.gov.in/mystart.php?id=50044502 |archive-date=14 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 32,781,860
| 2011
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Mozambique}} [[Hinduism in Mozambique|Mozambique]]
| 10,453 – 41,811
| 0.05%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=147|title=Country Profile: Mozambique (Republic of Mozambique)|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070927194247/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=147|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> – 0.2%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Mozambique/rbodies.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105081424/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Mozambique/rbodies.html|url-status=dead|title=Religious Freedom Page|archive-date=5 November 2007}}</ref>
| 20,905,585
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Myanmar}} [[Hinduism in Myanmar|Myanmar]]
| 252,763<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-07-21 |title=The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census - The Union Report: Religion - Census Report Volume 2-C [EN/MY] - Myanmar {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/2014-myanmar-population-and-housing-census-union-report-religion-census-report-volume |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en |archive-date=13 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313105014/https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/2014-myanmar-population-and-housing-census-union-report-religion-census-report-volume |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 0.5%<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-07-21 |title=The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census - The Union Report: Religion - Census Report Volume 2-C [EN/MY] - Myanmar {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/2014-myanmar-population-and-housing-census-union-report-religion-census-report-volume |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en |archive-date=13 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313105014/https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/2014-myanmar-population-and-housing-census-union-report-religion-census-report-volume |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 50,279,900<ref name="BurmaCen2014">{{cite web |title=The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census |url=https://myanmar.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNION_2-C_religion_EN_0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329011235/http://myanmar.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNION_2-C_religion_EN_0.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2018 |access-date=2 October 2018 |publisher=Department of Population, Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population, MYANMAR}}</ref>
|2014
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Nepal}} [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]]
| 23,677,744
| 81.19%<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021 National Report |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/National%20Report_English.pdf |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=censusnepal.cbs.gov.np |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816210743/https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/files/result-folder/National%20Report_English.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 29,164,578<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nepal makes public final data of 12th national census |url=http://kathmandupost.com/national/2023/03/24/nepal-makes-public-final-data-of-12th-national-census |access-date=2023-07-24 |website=kathmandupost.com |language=English |archive-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603230434/https://kathmandupost.com/national/2023/03/24/nepal-makes-public-final-data-of-12th-national-census |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 2021
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Netherlands}} [[Hinduism in the Netherlands|Netherlands]]
| 96,110 – 200,000
| 0.58%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71398.htm|title=Netherlands|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517195826/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71398.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> – 1.20%<ref>van de Donk et al. (2006), p. 91</ref>
| 16,570,613
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Oceania]]
|{{flagdeco|New Zealand}} [[Hinduism in New Zealand|New Zealand]]
| 144,753
| 2.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=2023 Census population, dwelling, and housing highlights {{!}} Stats NZ |url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/information-releases/2023-census-population-dwelling-and-housing-highlights/ |access-date=2024-10-16 |website=www.stats.govt.nz}}</ref>
| 4,115,771
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Norway}} [[Hinduism in Norway|Norway]]
| 23,140
| 0.5%
| 4,627,926
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Oman}} [[Hinduism in Oman|Oman]]
| 96,147 – 182,679
| 3%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=36 |title=Country Profile: Oman (Sultanate of Oman) |access-date=14 February 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070930152448/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=36 |archive-date=30 September 2007 }}</ref> – 5.7%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Oman/rbodies.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106021825/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Oman/rbodies.html|url-status=dead|title=Religious Freedom Page|archive-date=6 November 2007}}</ref>
| 3,204,897
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Pakistan}} [[Hinduism in Pakistan|Pakistan]]
| 5,217,216
| 2.17%<ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Religious Demographics of Pakistan |url=https://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/population/2023/tables/national/table_9.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406004222/https://tribune.com.pk/story/1719994/headcount-finalised-sans-third-party-audit?amp=1 |archive-date=2023-04-06 |access-date=}}</ref>
| 240,458,089
| 2023
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central America]]
|{{flagdeco|Panama}} [[Hinduism in Panama|Panama]]
| 9,726
| 0.3%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=33|title=Country Profile: Panama (Republic of Panama)|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20080228041644/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=33|archive-date=28 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71469.htm|title=Panama|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517222815/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71469.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 3,242,173
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Philippines}} [[Hinduism in the Philippines|Philippines]]
|32,711<ref name="auto2"/>
| <0.1%<ref name="auto2"/>
| 102,000,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=178c#RELADH|title=Philippines, Religion And Social Profile|website=thearda.com|access-date=June 25, 2024}}</ref><ref name="census1">{{Citation | url = http://www.popcom.gov.ph/ | publisher = Commission on Population | title = Projected Population as of May 6, 2013 | date = 6 May 2013 | place = PH | access-date = 12 September 2013 | archive-date = 3 April 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190403061418/http://www.popcom.gov.ph/ | url-status = live }}</ref>
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Portugal}} [[Hinduism in Portugal|Portugal]]
| 7,396
| 0.07%
| 10,642,836
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Poland}} [[Hinduism in Poland|Poland]]
| 2,421
| 0.008%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Główny Urząd Statystyczny / Obszary tematyczne / Roczniki statystyczne / Roczniki Statystyczne / Rocznik Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 2022 |trans-title=Central Statistical Office / Thematic areas / Statistical yearbooks / Statistical yearbooks / Statistical yearbook of the Republic of Poland 2022 |url=https://stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/roczniki-statystyczne/roczniki-statystyczne/maly-rocznik-statystyczny-polski-2018,1,19.html |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=stat.gov.pl |language=pl |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922104538/https://stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/roczniki-statystyczne/roczniki-statystyczne/maly-rocznik-statystyczny-polski-2018,1,19.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 30,575,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|''{{flagdeco|Puerto Rico}} [[Hinduism in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]''
|''3,550''
|''0.09%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=29 |title=Country Profile: Puerto Rico (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico) |access-date=14 February 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070927194154/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=29 |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref>''
|''3,944,259''
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Qatar}} [[Hinduism in Qatar|Qatar]]
| 422,118
| 15.1%<ref>{{cite web|title=Population By Religion, Gender And Municipality March 2020|url=http://www.qsa.gov.qa/QatarCensus/sensus_2020/pubulation-eng/Tabels/Pubulation/T06.htm|publisher=Qatar Statistics Authority}}</ref>
| 2,795,484<ref name=qsa-Aug13>{{cite web|title=Population structure|url=http://www.mdps.gov.qa/en/statistics1/StatisticsSite/Pages/Population.aspx|publisher=Ministry of Development Planning and Statistics|date=31 January 2020|access-date=17 June 2021|archive-date=26 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626135815/https://www.mdps.gov.qa/en/statistics1/StatisticsSite/Pages/Population.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| 2020
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Africa]]
|''{{flagdeco|Réunion}} [[Hinduism in Réunion|Réunion]]''
|''55,409''
|''6.7%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=151 |title=Country Profile: Reunion (Department of Reunion) |access-date=14 February 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20071013201658/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=151 |archive-date=13 October 2007 }}</ref>''
|''927,000''
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Eastern Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Russia}} [[Hinduism in Russia|Russia]]
| 143,000
| 0.1%<ref name="Are naAtlas">[http://sreda.org/en/arena Arena – Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206100344/http://sreda.org/en/arena |date=6 December 2017 }}. Sreda.org</ref>
| 141,377,752
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Oceania]]
|{{flagdeco|Samoa}} [[Hinduism in Samoa|Samoa]]
| 38
| 0.02% (approx)
| 187,429
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
|{{flagdeco|Saint Kitts and Nevis}} [[Hinduism in the West Indies|Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
| 860
|1.82%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stats.gov.kn/topics/demographic-social-statistics/population/population-by-religious-belief-2011/|access-date=18 June 2021|title=Population by Religious Belief, 2011|archive-date=10 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710132420/https://www.stats.gov.kn/topics/demographic-social-statistics/population/population-by-religious-belief-2011/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 47,195
| 2011
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Saudi Arabia}} [[Hinduism in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]
| 303,611{{refn|group=note|The estimates vary depending on whether temporary workers – with no residency nor right to openly practice their religion – are included or not. The Saudi Arabian government mandates that all Saudi citizens must be Muslims, and it prohibits public practice of Hinduism and other non-Muslim religions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Arabia|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2004/35507.htm|website=US State Department|access-date=31 March 2017|archive-date=1 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101123218/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2004/35507.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| 0.6%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=27|title=Country Profile: Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia)|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20070927193648/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=27|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> – 1.1%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Saudi_Arabia/rbodies.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105081429/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Saudi_Arabia/rbodies.html|url-status=dead|title=Religious Freedom Page|archive-date=5 November 2007}}</ref>
| 27,601,038
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Seychelles}} [[Hinduism in Seychelles|Seychelles]]
| 5,508
| 5.4%<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-21 |title=Seychelles Population and Housing Census 2022 |url=https://www.nbs.gov.sc/downloads/1555-seychelles-population-and-housing-census-2022 |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=National Bureau of Statistics Seychelles |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 May 2014 |title=Population and Housing Census 2010 Report |url=http://www.nsb.gov.sc/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Population_and_Housing_Census_2010_Report.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514112130/http://www.nsb.gov.sc/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Population_and_Housing_Census_2010_Report.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2014}}</ref>
| 102,812
| 2022
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[West Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Sierra Leone}} [[Hinduism in Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]]
| 2,458 – 6,145
| 0.04%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=156|title=Country Profile: Sierra Leone (Republic of Sierra Leone)|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20071014015550/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=156|archive-date=14 October 2007}}</ref> – 0.1%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Sierra_Leone/rbodies.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106034707/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Sierra_Leone/rbodies.html|url-status=dead|title=Religious Freedom Page|archive-date=6 November 2007}}</ref>
| 6,144,562
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Singapore}} [[Hinduism in Singapore|Singapore]]
| 280,000
| 5.0%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/singapore/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|date=25 October 2021|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=20 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320131051/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/singapore|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71357.htm|title=Singapore|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=10 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210155037/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71357.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 5,600,000
| 2011
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Slovakia}} [[Hinduism in Slovakia|Slovakia]]
| 5,448
| 0.1% (approx) {{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
| 5,447,502
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Slovenia}} [[Hinduism in Slovenia|Slovenia]]
| 500
| 0.025% (approx) {{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
| 2,009,245
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Eastern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Somalia}} [[Hinduism in Somalia|Somalia]]
| 8,278
| 0.06%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_205_2.asp|title=Somalia, Religion And Social Profile|website=thearda.com|access-date=11 February 2022|archive-date=16 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616184155/https://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_205_2.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 13,797,204
| 2015
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|South Africa}} [[Hinduism in South Africa|South Africa]]
| 505,000
|0.9%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businesstech.co.za/news/lifestyle/126445/the-most-popular-religions-in-south-africa/|title=The most popular religions in South Africa|author=|access-date=14 December 2018|archive-date=28 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028151916/https://businesstech.co.za/news/lifestyle/126445/the-most-popular-religions-in-south-africa/|url-status=live}}</ref>-1.1%<ref name="PEW2" />
| 49,991,300
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Spain}} [[Hinduism in Spain|Spain]]
| 75,000
| 0.11%<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.laverdaddeceuta.com/religion/noticias/sociedad/religion/ramchandani-asiste-en-pamplona-al-congreso-internacional-sobre-minorias-religiosas-en-espana | title= Ramchandani asiste en Pamplona al congreso internacional sobre minorías religiosas en España & La verdad de ceuta;| date= 10 March 2024}}</ref>
| 48,692,804
| 2024
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Sri Lanka}} [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]
| 2,671,000
| 12.6%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3|title=Census of Population and Housing 2011|website=statistics.gov.lk|access-date=21 April 2015|archive-date=7 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107065148/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/index.php?fileName=pop43&gp=Activities&tpl=3|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| 21,200,000
| 2011
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[South America]] and [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Suriname}} [[Hinduism in Suriname|Suriname]]
| 120,623 – 128,995
| 22.3%<ref name="CENSUS2012">[http://www.statistics-suriname.org/images/Presentatie.pdf 2012 Suriname Census Definitive Results] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924105905/http://www.statistics-suriname.org/images/Presentatie.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}. Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek – Suriname.</ref> – 27.4%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/suriname/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|date=19 October 2021|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=7 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107182748/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/suriname/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| 470,784
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Swaziland}} [[Hinduism in Swaziland|Eswatini]]
| 1,700 – 2,266
| 0.15%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=161|title=Country Profile: Swaziland (Kingdom of Swaziland)|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20080626110027/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=161|archive-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> – 0.2%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Swaziland/rbodies.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106034712/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Swaziland/rbodies.html|url-status=dead|title=Religious Freedom Page|archive-date=6 November 2007}}</ref>
| 1,133,066
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Sweden}} [[Hinduism in Sweden|Sweden]]
| 7,044 – 10,837
| 0.078% – 0.12%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71410.htm|title=Sweden|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=18 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518040727/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71410.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 9,031,088
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Switzerland}} [[Hinduism in Switzerland|Switzerland]]
| 28,708-50,000<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindus.ch/hinduisminswitzerland.html|title=Hinduism in Switzerland|website=SCHWEIZERISCHER DACHVERBAND FÜR HINDUISMUS|access-date=8 February 2019|archive-date=9 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209134202/http://www.hindus.ch/hinduisminswitzerland.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hinduismtoday.com/magazine/january-february-march-2014/2014-01-special-feature-the-hindu-diaspora-within-continental-europe/ |title=Feature: The Hindu Diaspora within Continental Europe – Hinduism Today }}</ref>
| 0.38%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Es ist ein Fehler aufgetreten... {{!}} Bundesamt für Statistik |trans-title=An error has occurred... {{!}} Federal Office for statistics |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/dienstlei.stungen/publikationen_statistik/publikationskatalog.Document.50514.pdf |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=www.bfs.admin.ch |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/swissinfo.html?siteSect=108&sid=6186723&cKey=1140784868000|title=Swiss Tamils look to preserve their culture|access-date=13 September 2007|archive-date=24 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124135122/http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/swissinfo.html?siteSect=108&sid=6186723&cKey=1140784868000|url-status=dead}}</ref>-0.6%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/religionen.html|title=Religions|first=Office fédéral de la|last=statistique|website=bfs.admin.ch|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=15 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115185637/https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/fr/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/religionen.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 7,554,661
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Tanzania}} [[Hinduism in Tanzania|Tanzania]]
| 50,000<ref name="pewforum.org">[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/ Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209223553/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/ |date=9 December 2016 }} Pew Research Center (2012)</ref>
| 0.11%<ref name="pewforum.org"/>
| 39,384,223
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|{{flagdeco|Trinidad and Tobago}} [[Hinduism in Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]
| 240,100
| 18.2%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/trinidad-and-tobago/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|date=19 October 2021|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109063840/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/trinidad-and-tobago|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35638.htm|title=Trinidad and Tobago|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=4 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604192949/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35638.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71476.htm|title=Trinidad and Tobago|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517213749/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71476.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 1,056,608
| 2011
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Thailand}} [[Hinduism in Thailand|Thailand]]
| 65,000
| 0.1%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71359.htm|title=Thailand|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=16 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216234054/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71359.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 65,068,149
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Oceania]]
|{{flagdeco|Tonga}} [[Hinduism in Tonga|Tonga]]
| 100
| 0.1%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tongastats.gov.to/|title=Tonga Statistics Department &#124; The official statistics provider for Tonga|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925121044/https://tongastats.gov.to/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 103,043
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[North Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Tunisia}} [[India-Tunisia relations|Tunisia]]
| 120
| 0.001%<ref name="MEATunis">{{cite web|title=India – Tunisia Bilateral Relations|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India_Tunisia_December_2016.pdf|website=Ministry of External Affairs|publisher=Embassy of India, Tunis|access-date=17 December 2016|date=December 2016|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308175007/https://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/India_Tunisia_December_2016.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 11,303,942
| 2016
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Turkey}} [[Hinduism in Turkey|Turkey]]
| 843
| 0.001%<ref name="thearda.com">[https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/np-sort?var=ADH_471 The ARDA website, retrieved 2024-04-29]</ref>
| 83,614,362
| 2020
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Eastern Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|Ukraine}} [[Hinduism in Ukraine|Ukraine]]
|42,386
| 0.1%<ref>{{Cite web |title=ОСОБЛИВОСТІ РЕЛІГІЙНОГО І ЦЕРКОВНО-РЕЛІГІЙНОГО САМОВИЗНАЧЕННЯ УКРАЇНСЬКИХ ГРОМАДЯН: ТЕНДЕНЦІЇ 2010-2018рр. |trans-title=FEATURES OF RELIGIOUS AND CHURCH-RELIGIOUS SELF-DETERMINATION OF UKRAINIAN CITIZENS: TRENDS 2010-2018 |url=http://razumkov.org.ua/uploads/article/2018_Religiya.pdf |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=[[Razumkov Center]] |language=uk |archive-date=26 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426194313/http://razumkov.org.ua/uploads/article/2018_Religiya.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
|42,386,400
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[East Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Uganda}} [[Hinduism in Uganda|Uganda]]
| 100,000<ref name="Center"/>
| 0.3%<ref name="Center"/>
| 38,225,447
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|United Arab Emirates}} [[Hinduism in the United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]]
| 490,000{{refn|group=note|The estimates vary depending on whether temporary workers – with no residency nor right to openly practice their religion – are included or not. 80% of the UAE population consists of non-citizen temporary workers, and an estimated 25% of these workers may be Hindu. Only Sunni Muslims can be naturalized new citizens in the UAE. According to the US State Department, the federal constitution of the UAE designates Islam as the official religion, and Islam is also the official religion of all seven of the individual emirates in the federal union. The Government does not recognize all non-Muslim religions and only a limited number of Christian groups are granted legal recognition in UAE. Non-Muslim and non-Christian religions such as Hinduism are not recognized legally in any of the emirates.<ref>{{cite web|title=United Arab Emirates|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2001/5713.htm|website=US State Department, Religious Freedoms Report|access-date=31 March 2017|archive-date=17 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200517203912/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2001/5713.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| 5 - 20%<ref>{{Cite web |title=United Arab Emirates {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/united-arab-emirates?view=chart |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518162533/https://data.worldbank.org/country/united-arab-emirates?view=chart |url-status=live }}</ref>
| 9,682,000
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Western Europe]]
|{{flagdeco|United Kingdom}} [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
| 1,020,000
| 1.7%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|date=2 March 2022|access-date=24 January 2021|archive-date=9 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109221834/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71416.htm|title=United Kingdom|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=18 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518193857/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71416.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 60,776,238
| 2017
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[North America]]
|{{flagdeco|United States}} [[Hinduism in the United States|United States]]
| 3,338,210
| 1.0%<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/us-states-by-population-of-hindus.html | title=US States by Population of Hindus | date=16 August 2017 | access-date=27 October 2022 | archive-date=27 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027092808/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/us-states-by-population-of-hindus.html | url-status=live }}</ref>
| 332,000,000
| 2020
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Caribbean]]
|''{{flagdeco|United States Virgin Islands}} [[Hinduism in the United States#Hinduism in United States Territories|United States Virgin Islands]]''
|''528''
|''1.9%<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virgin Islands 2010 Population and Housing Census Report |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/wphc/BVI/VGB-2016-09-08.pdf |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=[[United Nations Statistics Division]] |archive-date=15 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161115023253/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/wphc/BVI/VGB-2016-09-08.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>''
|''28,054''
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Central Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Uzbekistan}} [[Uzbekistan]]
| 895<ref name="thearda.com"/>
| 0.0025%
| 34,558,900
| 2020
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southeast Asia]]
|{{flagdeco|Vietnam}} [[Hinduism in Vietnam|Vietnam]]
| 70,000
| 0.07%
| 85,262,356
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Middle East]]
|{{flagdeco|Yemen}} [[Hinduism in Yemen|Yemen]]
| 155,614
| 0.7%<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Yemen/rbodies.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105081444/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Yemen/rbodies.html|url-status=dead|title=Religious Freedom Page|archive-date=5 November 2007}}</ref>
| 22,230,531
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
| {{flagdeco|Zambia}} [[Hinduism in Zambia|Zambia]]
| 16,068
| 0.14%<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=166|title=Country Profile: Zambia (Republic of Zambia)|access-date=14 February 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20071014020549/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=166|archive-date=14 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Zambia/rbodies.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105104206/http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Zambia/rbodies.html|url-status=dead|title=Religious Freedom Page|archive-date=5 November 2007}}</ref>
| 11,477,447
|
|-
| ALIGN=center | [[Southern Africa]]
|{{flagdeco|Zimbabwe}} [[Hinduism in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]]
| 3,000
| 0.02%
| 12,311,143
|
|- style="background:#9ff;"
! colspan=2 | Total
! 1,120,000,000
! 14.9%<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fahmy |first=Conrad Hackett, Marcin Stonawski, Yunping Tong, Stephanie Kramer, Anne Shi and Dalia |date=2025-06-09 |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref>
! 7,500,000,000
!
|}

==By region==
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2025}}
These percentages were calculated by using the above numbers. The first percentage, in the 4th column, is the percentage of the population that is Hindu in a specific region (Hindus in the region * 100/total population of the region). The last column shows the Hindu percentage compared to the total Hindu population of the world (Hindus in the region * 100/total Hindu population of the world). The historical development of Hinduism in India and Nepal continues to influence how the religion is viewed and practiced globally. Williams and Moktan note that political and cultural traditions in these countries shape modern Hindu identity beyond South Asia <ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Hinduism: India, Nepal, and Beyond |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics |url=https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-764 |access-date=2025-11-22 |last=Williams |first=R. |date=2019-07-29 |last2=Moktan |first2=S.}}</ref>

''(Note: Egypt, Sudan, and other [[Arab Maghreb Union|Arab Maghreb]] countries are counted as part of [[North Africa]], not the [[Middle East]]).''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ [[Hinduism in Africa]]
|-
! Region
! Total Population
! Hindus
! % of Hindus
! % of Hindu total
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Central Africa]]
| 193,121,055
| N/A
| N/A
| N/A
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[East Africa]]
| 193,741,900
| 667,694
| 0.345%
| 0.071%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[North Africa]]
| 202,151,323
| 5,765
| 0.003%
| 0.001%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Southern Africa]]
| 137,092,019
| 1,269,844
| 0.926%
| 0.135%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[West Africa]]
| 268,997,245
| 70,402
| 0.026%
| 0.007%
|- style="background:#9ff;"
! Total
! 885,103,542
! 2,013,705
! 0.225%
! 0.213%
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+[[Hinduism in Asia]]
|-
! Region
! Total Population
! Hindus
! % of Hindus
! % of Hindu total
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Central Asia]]
| 92,019,166
| 149,644
| 0.163%
| 0.016%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[East Asia]]
| 1,527,960,261
| 130,631
| 0.009%
| 0.014%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[West Asia]]
| 274,775,527
| 3,187,673
| 1.5%
| 0.084%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Hinduism in South Asia|South Asia]]
| 1,437,326,682
| 1,068,728,901
| 70.05%
| 98.475%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia]]
| 571,337,070
| 6,386,614
| 1.118%
| 0.677%
|- style="background:#9ff;"
! Total
! 3,903,418,706
! 1,074,728,901
! 26.01%
! 99.266%
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+[[Hinduism in Europe]]
|-
! Region
! Total Population
! Hindus
! % of Hindus
! % of Hindu total
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Balkans]]
| 65,407,609
| 449
| 0.001%
| 0.001%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Central Europe]]
| 74,510,241
| 163
| 0%
| 0%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Eastern Europe]]
| 212,821,296
| 717,101
| 0.337%
| 0.076%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Western Europe]]
| 375,832,557
| 1,313,640
| 0.348%
| 0.138%
|- style="background:#9ff;"
! Total
! 728,571,703
! 2,030,904
! 0.278%
! 0.214%
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+[[Hinduism in the West|Hinduism in the Americas]]
|-
! Region
! Total Population
! Hindus
! % of Hindus
! % of Hindu total
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Caribbean]]
| 24,898,266
| 279,515
| 1.123%
| 0.030%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Central America]]
| 41,135,205
| 5,833
| 0.014%
| 0.006%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[North America]]
| 446,088,748
| 2,131,127
| 0.478%
| 0.191%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[South America]]
| 371,075,531
| 389,869
| 0.105%
| 0.041%
|- style="background:#9ff;"
! Total
! 883,197,750
! 2,806,344
! 0.281%
! 0.263%
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+[[Hinduism in Oceania]]
|-
! Region
! Total Population
! Hindus
! % of Hindus
! % of Hindu total
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Oceania]]
| 38,552,683
| 791,615
| 2.053%
| 0.071%
|- style="background:#9ff;"
! Total
! 38,552,683
! 791,615
! 2.053%
! 0.071%
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Hinduism|Religion
}}{{Div col|colwidth=40em}}
* [[List of Hindu empires and dynasties]]
* [[List of religious populations]]
* [[Christianity by country]]
* [[Islam by country]]
* [[Ahmadiyya by country]]
* [[Jewish population by country]]
* [[Baháʼí Faith by country]]
* [[Buddhism by country]]
* [[Sikhism by country]]
* [[List of countries by irreligion]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

=== Web-sources ===
{{Reflist|group=web|30em}}

{{Hindudharma}}
{{Asia topic|Hinduism in}}
{{Europe topic|Hinduism in}}
{{Africa topic|Hinduism in}}
{{North America topic|Hinduism in}}
{{South America topic|Hinduism in}}
{{Oceania topic|Hinduism in}}
{{Religions by country}}
{{Religion country lists}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hinduism By Country}}
[[Category:Hinduism by country| ]]

Hinduism by country

2026-03-20T15:05:25Z

Ankithreddy: Enhanced and reorganized content

Matrigitikanjalih

2026-03-20T14:06:28Z

Ankithreddy: creating some bio w/ sources

{{Multiple issues|
{{Orphan|date=December 2024}}
{{No footnotes|date=November 2019}}
}}

In modern [[Sanskrit literature]], '''"Mātrigītikāñjalih"''' is a [[kavya]] written by [[Harekrishna Meher]], comprising 25 Sanskrit songs on different topics and tastes experienced in human life. The titles of the songs indicate their themes. The compositions in the kavya feature alliteration, Upama, Rupaka and other figures of speech.

==List of songs==
# The first song "Vani-Gitika" ''(Kavi-Janani Tvam)'' depicts a prayer to [[Sarasvati]], the Goddess of speech, learning and music, to dispel ignorance and spread wisdom.
# "Matri-Gitika" ''(Jayatu Janani)'' is a patriotic song describing the civilization, natural beauty, cultural harmony, philanthropic attitude and other positive aspects of [[India]]. The title of the kavya is taken from the name of this song.
# "Visva-Gitika" ''(Bhagavan Visva-Pavana He)'' portrays the greatness and divine excellence of Supreme Being.
# "Jivana-Gitika" ''(Jivanam Sundaram)'' elucidates the brighter aspects of human life.
# In "Purushottama-Gitika" ''(Pranamami Tam)'', Lord Jagannath of Puri is prayed to with reverence and devotion.
# "Prabodha-Gitika" ''(Manava Re)'' is addressed to the human being for self-awareness and self-realisation.
# "Nari-Gitika" ''(Sa Nari Nirupama)'' presents various facets of the dignity and divine power of women.
# "Pranayini-Gitika" ''(Lila Aham)'', Song of the Beloved Maiden, is the first of two love-lyrics.
# The second of the two love-lyrics is "Pranayi-Gitika" (''Lila Tvam)'', Song of the Lover.
# "Vibhu-Gitika" ''(Divyati Bhavato)'' is dedicated to the omnipresence of Almighty God.
# In "Sisu-Gitika" ''(Pasya Bhasvaram)'', the comeliness of God's creation is observed in the limbs of the delicate baby.
# "Nataraja-Gitika" ''(Tryambakam Yajamahe)'' forms a prayer to Lord [[Shiva]], the Supreme Dancer.
# "Sakti-Gitika" ''(Jaya Jaya Durge)'' forms a devotional prayer with invocation to Goddess of Power.
# The greatness of time, the all-devouring factor of the universe, is presented in "Samaya-Gitika" ''(Samaya Namaste)''.
# "Kalakara-Gitika" ''(Kalakara He)'' is addressed to the Moon, as the source of all sweet and subtle arts.
# In "Abhijnana-Gitika" ''(Kathayati Ko Va)'', the philosophical notions of [[Advaita Vedanta]] are deliberated upon in view of self-consciousness.
# "Siva-Sankalpa-Gitika" ''(Mano Bhavatu)'' investigates the thinking power of the subtle and atomic mind from a philosophical perspective.
# A synthesis of the spiritual and scientific conceptions of Gayatri, the Power of God [[Savitr]] is depicted in "Gayatri-Gitika".
# The Sanskrit language, literature and tradition are elucidated in "Bharata-Bharati-Gitika".
# Features of subtle thinking and the transcendental vision of the poet are portrayed in "Kavi-Gitika" ''(Amara-Kavis Tvam)''.
# The glory of the Divine Song [[Srimad-Bhagavad-Gita]] is maintained in "Gita-Gitika".
# "Sangita-Gitika" ''(Vidhatuh Pranganam Vitatam Sangitamayam)'' reveals that all the creation of the Creator is replete with music. Every aspect of nature and animals all have musical rhythm from birth till death.
# In "Dasarupa-Gitika", ten incarnations of God are praised with divine excellence.
# "Nava-Varsha-Gitika" ''(Subham Bhavatu Navavarsham)'' depicts hearty compliments, noble thinking with good deeds, blessings of nature, a pollution-free environment, prosperity, peace and happiness in the world.
# The last song "Desha-Gitika" describes natural wealth, cultural heritage, national unity and the universal fraternity of India.

==See also==
* [[Philosophical Reflections in the Naisadhacarita]]

==References==
* ‘Mātrigītikāñjalih’
*Original Sanskrit Gitikavya with English Translation by Dr. Harekrishna Meher ( मातृगीतिकाञ्जलिः / हरेकृष्ण-मेहेरः ) Published by : Kalahandi Lekhak Kala Parishad, Bhawanipatna, Orissa, India in the year 1997.
* Review on Sanskrit Kavya “Matrigitikanjalih”. Reviewer : Dr. Naba Kishore Mishra, published in : ''“Bartika”,'' April–June 1999, Page 501–508. By : Saraswat Sahitya Sanskrutika Parishad, Dasharathpur, Jajpur, Orissa.
* Sanskrit Review on “Matrigitikanjalih” Kavya. Reviewer : Dr. Suil Kumar Pradhan, published in :'' “Aranyakam”,'' September 1999, Page 29–30. By :Sanskrit Prasar Parishad, Maruti Mandir, Prakashpuri, Arrah, Bihar.
* Review on “Matrigitikanjalih”, Reviewer : Dr. Harsh Dev Madhav, published in :''“Drik”,''Vol. 5, Jan-June 2001, Page 112–113. By : Drig-Bharati, Yojana–3, Jhusi, Allahabad.
* Sanskrit Article “Matrigitikanjalih – Adhunika-Gitikavyam” By : Dr. Harsh Dev Madhav, in pp. 56–57 of his Sanskrit Book ''“Nakha-Darpanah”'' (Modern Criticism of Contemporary Sanskrit Literature), Published by : Vani Akademi, Chandkheda, Gujarat, 2008.
* Comments of litterateurs and critics on Sanskrit Giti-kavya 'Matrigitikanjalih' of Harekrishna Meher, under the heading : 'Mitam cha Saaram cha', published in :'Drik', Vol.17, Jan.-June 2007, pp. 129–131. Drig-Bharati, Jhusi, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh.
* Musical Notation (Swara-Lipi) of Sanskrit Lyric “Nava-Varsha Gitika” (Subham Bhavatu Nava Varsham) from Matrigitikanjalih-Kavya. Music composed by : Pandit H.Harendra Joshi, Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh. Published in :'Sangeet', December 1999, Page 13–20. By :Sangeet Karyalaya, Hathras, Uttar Pradesh.
* Original Sanskrit Poems of “Matrigitikanjalih” (Desha-Gitika, Jeevana-Gitika, Sangeeta-Gitika, Vani-Gitika and Navavarsha-Gitika) with life-sketch of poet Harekrishna Meher included in the book '''“Vimsha-Shatabdi-Sanskrita-Kavyamritam”''' (National Level Biggest Anthology of Sanskrit Poetry Representing Twentieth Century) Vol.-1, 2000, pp. 821–829.
Compiled & Edited by: Prof. Dr. Abhiraj Rajendra Mishra,
Published by : Delhi Sanskrit Akademi, Jhandewalan, Karolbag, New Delhi- 110005.
* ‘Matrigitikanjalih’ Kavya with its author has been referred to and discussed in the article ''“Arvacheena-Sanskrita-Sahitya-Sarvekshanam (1997-98)"'' By : Dr. Ramakanta Shukla in ‘Arvacheena Sanskritam’, Vol-24/4, Oct. 2002, Page 27 & 42, Published by : Devavani Parishad, Delhi, 6/Vani Vihar, New Delhi- 110059.
*‘Jeevana-Gitika’ of 'Matrigitikanjalih' Kavya with its author has been referred to and discussed in the article : ''“Adhunik Sanskrit Kavyon Ki Drishti Mein Jeevan”'' By : Dr. Sweta Prajapati in “Drik”, Vol-9, Jan-June 2003, page- 80. Published by : Drig Bharati, 1/32, MIG Avas Vikas Colony, Yojana-3, Jhusi, Allahabad - 211019, Uttar Pradesh.

Research works where "Matrigitikanjalih" Giti-Kavya and its author
Harekrishna Meher have been referred and discussed :

* ''“Adhunik Sanskrit Gitikavya Ka Vikas”'' (1960 se 1989 tak) By : Dr. Sanat Kumar Dubey (Research Guide : Dr. Bal Shastri) Ph.D. Thesis of Sanskrit Deptt in the Year 1992, Sagar University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India.
* ''“Sanskrit Lyrics of Orissa in 20th Century”'' By : Dr. Sudarshan Panda (Research Guide : Dr. Raghunath Panda) Ph.D. Thesis of Sanskrit Deptt in 1997, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India.

==Sources ==
* https://marketime.blogspot.com/2008/07/among-modern-sanskrit-lyricists.html (Modern Sanskrit Lyricist).
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A_JjAAAAMAAJ&q=harekrishna+meher | title=Mātr̥gītikāñjaliḥ | last1=Mehera | first1=Harekr̥Shṇa | year=1997 }} (University of Michigan)
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0vZ3AAAAIAAJ&q=editions:0hM4hvuyBIuyK4 | title=Mātr̥gītikāñjaliḥ | last1=Mehera | first1=Harekr̥Shṇa | year=1997 }} (University of California)
* https://web.archive.org/web/20101226213435/http://www.museindia.com/focuscontent.asp?issid=34&id=2292 (Tapasvini of Gangadhara Meher)

[[Category:20th-century Sanskrit literature]]

Heart Lamp: Selected Stories

2026-03-14T10:56:33Z

Ankithreddy:

{{Short description|2025 International Booker Prize winning collection of short stories}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Heart Lamp: Selected Stories
| image = HeartLamp.jpeg
| caption =
| author = [[Banu Mushtaq]]
| translator = [[Deepa Bhasthi]]
| country = India
| language = [[Kannada language|Kannada]]
| genre = Short stories
| publisher = {{ubl|[[And Other Stories]] (UK)|[[Penguin Random House India]] (India)|And Other Stories Publishing (US)}}
| published = 10 September 2024 (UK) 18 February 2025 (India) 8 April 2025 (US)
| media_type = Print
| pages = 192
| isbn = 9781916751163
| isbn_note =
| oclc =
| dewey =
| congress =
}}
'''''Heart Lamp: Selected Stories''''' ({{Langx|kn|ಎದೆಯ ಹಣತೆ|edeya haṇate}}) is a collection of short stories by Indian writer [[Banu Mushtaq]], originally written in [[Kannada language|Kannada]] between 1990 and 2023 and translated into English by [[Deepa Bhasthi]]. Published by [[And Other Stories]] in the UK on 10 September 2024, the collection comprises 12 stories exploring the lives of Muslim women in southern India, focusing on themes of patriarchy, gender inequality, and resilience.<ref name="Hindu2024">{{Cite news |last=Carvalho |first=Stanley |date=9 October 2024 |title=Heart Lamp: Banu Mushtaq's stories of Muslim life |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/book-review-heart-lamp-banu-mushtaq-translator-deepa-bhasthi-international-booker-prize-shortlist/article69496801.ece |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="AndOtherStories2024">{{Cite web |date=10 September 2024 |title=Heart Lamp: Selected Stories |url=https://www.andotherstories.org/heart-lamp/ |access-date=22 May 2025 |website=[[And Other Stories]]}}</ref> The book won the [[International Booker Prize]] in 2025: the first Kannada-language work and the first collection of short stories to receive this award.<ref name="WaPo2025">{{Cite news |date=20 May 2025 |title='Heart Lamp' by Banu Mushtaq wins International Booker Prize |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/books/2025/05/20/heart-lamp-by-banu-mushtaq-wins-international-booker-prize/ |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="NYT2025">{{Cite news |date=20 May 2025 |title=International Booker Prize Winner |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/20/books/review/international-booker-prize-winner.html |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref>

== Contents ==
''Heart Lamp: Selected Stories'' consists of 12 short stories written by [[Banu Mushtaq]] over three decades, translated into English by Deepa Bhasthi.<ref name="Hindu2024" /> The stories focus on the experiences of Muslim women in southern India, addressing themes of gender inequality, faith, and societal pressures, often with dry humour and emotional depth.<ref name="Mint2025">{{Cite news |last=Swami |first=Poorna |date=17 April 2025 |title=Book review: Heart Lamp by Banu Mushtaq |work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |url=https://www.livemint.com/mint-lounge/art-and-culture/book-review-heart-lamp-banu-mushtaq-fiction-short-stories-11744960580692.html |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="Scroll2025">{{Cite news |last=Debnath |first=Sayari |date=12 January 2025 |title=Heart Lamp: Banu Mushtaq's International Booker Prize-longlisted book is charged by women's anger |work=[[Scroll.in]] |url=https://scroll.in/article/1079492/heart-lamp-banu-mushtaqs-international-booker-prize-longlisted-book-is-charged-by-womens-anger |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref>

Key stories include "Stone Slabs for Shaista Mahal" and "A Decision of the Heart", which explore gender roles and societal expectations.<ref name="IndianExpress2025">{{Cite news |last=PJ |first=Akhil |date=18 May 2025 |title=Banu Mushtaq's Heart Lamp: Stories of Muslim life, contradictions and textures |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/banu-mushtaq-heart-lamp-stories-of-muslim-life-contradictions-and-textures-9953428/ |access-date=22 May 2025 |archive-date=20 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250420023757/https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/banu-mushtaq-heart-lamp-stories-of-muslim-life-contradictions-and-textures-9953428/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The title story reflects an incident in Mushtaq's own life when, struggling with marriage, motherhood, and domesticity, she doused herself in kerosene. In the story, the protagonist's children intervene, reminding her that she is loved and understood.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Kanika |date=2025-03-01 |title=Banu Mushtaq wrote ''Heart Lamp'' for 33 years. Now, it's nominated for the International Booker Prize |url=https://www.vogue.in/content/banu-mushtaq-wrote-heart-lamp-for-33-years-nominated-for-international-booker-prize |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=Vogue India |language=en-IN |archive-date=2025-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250301091816/https://www.vogue.in/content/banu-mushtaq-wrote-heart-lamp-for-33-years-nominated-for-international-booker-prize |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Reading guide: Heart Lamp by Banu Mushtaq, translated by Deepa Bhasthi |url=https://thebookerprizes.com/the-booker-library/features/reading-guide-heart-lamp-by-banu-mushtaq-translated-by-deepa-bhasthi |website=The Booker Prizes |access-date=21 May 2025 |date=8 April 2025}}</ref>

The collection is part of the [[Bandaya movement|Bandaya Sahitya movement]], a Kannada literary tradition critiquing caste, class, and religious oppression.<ref name="Scroll2025" /><ref name="Wire2025">{{Cite news |last=Staf |first=The Wire |date=15 January 2025 |title=Banu Mushtaq's Heart Lamp: International Booker Prize longlist |work=[[The Wire (India)|The Wire]] |url=https://m.thewire.in/article/books/banu-mushtaq-heart-lamp-international-booker-prize-longlist |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref> The translation retains Kannada, Urdu, and Arabic words to preserve cultural authenticity.<ref name="Hindu2024" /><ref name="FT2025">{{Cite news |last=Mansfield |first=Katie |date=21 April 2025 |title=Heart Lamp by Banu Mushtaq |work=[[Financial Times]] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/c2451ba3-4edc-43cd-b2f2-fb3274ae4ba8 |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref>

The compilation comprises the following stories:<ref>{{cite web |title=''Heart Lamp'': extract |url=https://www.andotherstories.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Heart-Lamp-extract-for-website.pdf |publisher=And Other Stories |access-date=24 May 2025}}</ref>
*"Stone Slabs for Shaista Mahal"
*"Fire Rain"
*"Black Cobras"
*"A Decision of the Heart"
*"Red Lungi"
*"Heart Lamp"
*"High-Heeled Shoe"
*"Soft Whispers"
*"A Taste of Heaven"
*"The Shroud"
*"The Arabic Teacher and Gobi Manchuri"
*"Be a Woman Once, Oh Lord"

==Plot Summary==
==="Stone Slabs for Shaista Mahal"===
The story is narrated by Zeenat, a young, educated Muslim woman who moves with her husband, Mujahid, from a crowded city to government quarters near the [[Krishna Raja Sagara]] (KRS) dam after his job transfer. Zeenat enjoys the peaceful surroundings and the garden at their new home, although she often feels lonely because Mujahid is busy with his work. Their life changes when Mujahid's colleague, Iftikhar Ahmed, invites them to his house in [[Belagola]]. At Iftikhar's home, Zeenat meets his wife, Shaista, and their six children, including their eldest daughter, Asifa.

Shaista appears cheerful and affectionate, while Iftikhar frequently declares his deep love for her. He proudly shows Zeenat and Mujahid the garden he created for Shaista and claims that, if he were an emperor, he would build a palace called 'Shaista Mahal' for her, greater than the [[Taj Mahal]]. However, Zeenat also observes tensions within the family, particularly about Asifa's future. Shaista wishes her daughter to continue her education, but Iftikhar believes that girls do not need much education and plans to marry her off early.

Zeenat gradually becomes close to Shaista and often visits her house, spending time with the children. Shaista expresses concern about her repeated pregnancies and discusses the possibility of undergoing a sterilisation operation after the birth of her next child. Shortly afterwards, Shaista gives birth to a baby boy. Although she is weak after delivery, she soon resumes normal activities. Soon after these events, Zeenat receives news that her own mother is seriously ill. She and Mujahid travel to their village, where her mother dies after a heart attack. They remain there for a period of mourning before returning to their home near KRS.

When Zeenat later visits Shaista's house with gifts for the newborn child, she finds the household strangely quiet and neglected. Inside the house, she encounters a very young woman dressed like a newlywed bride. Iftikhar then reveals that Shaista has died unexpectedly, soon after childbirth. He has already married the young woman, explaining that he needed someone to look after the children. Zeenat is shocked by how quickly Iftikhar has replaced Shaista, especially after his earlier declarations of eternal love for her. As she leaves the house, she sees Asifa caring for her younger siblings and holding the infant. The story ends with the suggestion that, despite her youth, Asifa has taken on the responsibilities of a mother, echoing Shaista's earlier remark that her daughter was 'like her mother.'

==="Fire Rain"===
The story centres on Usman Saheb, the influential ''mutawalli'' (caretaker and leader) of a mosque committee in a small town. One morning, after the call to prayer, he wakes up irritated and restless. His anger arises from a dispute the previous night with his youngest sister, Jameela, who had demanded her rightful share of their late father's property according to Islamic law. Usman refuses to consider the request seriously, resenting the idea of dividing the family wealth. Although his wife, Arifa, quietly supports Jameela's claim and reminds him that daughters have legal inheritance rights, he dismisses her advice.

The following morning, several people gathered at Usman's house seeking help. Among them is his widowed sister Sakeena, who beseeches him to help her son obtain a minor job. Others approach him with personal problems, such as medical expenses or wedding costs. Despite presenting himself as a community leader who assists the poor, Usman internally calculates his responses and often acts out of pride and self-interest.

During this time, his associate Dawood brings disturbing news: the body of Nisar, a Muslim man who had been missing, was mistakenly buried in a Hindu cemetery by the police. The incident quickly becomes a matter of religious outrage within the local Muslim community. Usman sees an opportunity to increase his prestige and influence. He mobilises the community, meets government officials, and leads a campaign demanding that the body be exhumed and given proper Islamic burial rites.

After many efforts, permission was granted. Nisar's decomposed body is exhumed and reburied with ceremony in the Muslim cemetery, with Usman at the head of the funeral procession. However, during the procession, a drunken man appears in the street, and several people recognise him as Nisar himself. This shocking moment reveals that the corpse being buried may not actually be Nisar's body. Despite realising the mistake, no one in the procession speaks out, and the burial continues in silence.

When Usman returns home after the funeral, exhausted and shaken, he learns that his young son, Ansar, has been seriously ill for many days with [[meningitis]] and has been taken to the hospital by Arifa. The news overwhelms him. As he sits in distress, the voices of those who had sought justice or help from him echo in his mind—his sister demanding her rightful share, the widow asking for assistance, and the warnings about the suffering caused when the rights of others are denied. Usman is confronting the consequences of his arrogance and moral blindness.

==="Black Cobras"===
A poor Muslim woman, Aashraf, whose husband, Yakub, abandons her and their three daughters because she has not given birth to a son, faces injustice. Yakub later marries another woman and refuses to support Aashraf or their children. Aashraf struggles to survive, working as a domestic labourer for Zulekha Begum, and trying desperately to obtain money for the treatment of her sick infant daughter, Munni. Zulekha Begum, an educated woman, encourages Aashraf to submit petitions to the local mosque committee asking them to intervene and force Yakub to provide financial support. [[Polygyny in Islam| According to Islamic law]], a man who marries more than one wife must treat all wives equally and fulfil his responsibilities toward them. However, the mosque’s ''mutawalli'', Abdul Khader Saheb, ignores her petitions and repeatedly delays taking action. He misuses religious authority to justify Yakub's behaviour instead of ensuring justice.

One night, Aashraf waits in the mosque compound with her three children in the cold rain, hoping that the mosque authorities will finally hear her complaint. While she waits, her sick child Munni becomes weaker. Meanwhile, the ''mutawalli'' spends the evening eating and enjoying himself with Yakub instead of addressing the issue. When they eventually arrive at the mosque, Yakub insults Aashraf and violently kicks her during the confrontation. As she falls, Munni slips from her arms and later dies shortly.

The tragedy shocks the community, particularly the women who witness the incident. Munni's death exposes the cruelty, negligence, and hypocrisy of the male authorities who failed to protect Aashraf's rights. The women of the neighbourhood openly condemn the ''mutawalli'' and Yakub through sarcasm, curses, and symbolic insults. Their reactions represent a form of moral judgement against the injustice that led to the child’s death. The mutawalli feels deep guilt and humiliation as the community's women express their anger. At the same time, his own wife Amina decides to leave home to undergo a sterilisation operation, rejecting the control he has exercised over her body and life.

==="A Decision of the Heart"===
Yusuf, a diligent fruit vendor who must choose between two emotional allegiances: his widowed mother, Mehaboob Bi and his wife, Akhila. His house is physically divided so that his wife and mother live separately. Although Yusuf has a deep love for both women, Akhila is always envious of the care he provides for his mother. Frequent arguments, taunts, and public outbursts result from this jealousy.

Mehaboob Bi is frequently accused by Akhila of acting like a rival wife and of stealing her husband's affection. Yusuf gets upset when Akhila insults his mother, whom he respects and feels obligated to for raising him with such sacrifice following the death of his father. Over time, their disputes worsen. Akhila challenges Yusuf during a furious argument, making fun of him when he promises to honour his mother and even arrange for her to be remarried again. Yusuf accepts the challenge out of rage and chooses to set Mehaboob Bi up for marriage.

Initially, Yusuf's choice is partially motivated by retaliation against his wife and an effort to ease the ongoing conflict between the two women. He starts looking diligently for his mother's ideal husband. He rejects a number of proposals because he wants a respectable person who will take good care of her. He eventually locates Abdul Ghaffar, a respectable widower, and meticulously arranges the wedding, including making jewellery and other details.

Akhila feels scared and ashamed when she realises that the marriage is actually going to take place. She gathers neighbours and community members to step in after realising that her actions are to blame. She acknowledges her errors in front of them and pledges to treat Mehaboob Bi with decency and consideration going forward.

This abrupt change has deeply wounded and perplexed Yusuf. Because of his wife's pressure, he is concerned that his mother might believe he set up the marriage. Mehaboob Bi, however, unexpectedly accepts the circumstance with dignity. She invites everyone to the wedding and states that there is nothing wrong with her second marriage. Her decision is driven by her desire to calm her son's troubled life rather than by personal desire. Yusuf continues the wedding arrangements while Akhila realises the seriousness of her actions and breaks down in regret.

==="Red Lungi"===
When many relatives' kids congregate at Razia's house over the summer break, she feels overburdened. She gets a lot of headaches and irritation from the eighteen kids' constant fighting, games, and noise. Razia, unable to put up with the mayhem, chooses to limit the kids' activities by getting the family's eligible boys circumcised (''[[khatna]]''), which will force them to recuperate.

Razia chooses six boys for the procedure after determining the children's ages. The preparations start right away. The household gets busy making plans as red cloth is bought and sewn into [[lungi]]s for the boys. Razia also chooses to include the town's impoverished families in the event's planning. Announcements are made in local mosques inviting people to bring their sons for a mass circumcision ceremony organised by her husband, Latif Ahmad.

On the appointed Friday, many poor families arrive with their children. The circumcisions are performed in a [[madrasa]] by Ibrahim, an experienced traditional barber. The procedure is conducted in a crowded and tense atmosphere, with boys being held down and encouraged to shout religious words while the operation is performed without modern medical methods. Among the boys is Arif, Amina's son, the cook, who undergoes the painful procedure but later receives a small bag of food from Latif Ahmad as a reward.

During the event, several scenes reveal the poverty of the people who attend. One woman attempts to bring her son for the operation in hopes of receiving the distributed food, but it is discovered that the boy has already been circumcised, and she is mocked and sent away. Another extremely poor mother brings her infant hoping for help; Latif Ahmad quietly gives her some money, but he later feels uneasy about the harsh treatment of the earlier woman.

Meanwhile, the boys from Latif Ahmad’s own family are circumcised separately by a surgeon in a hospital under anaesthesia. They receive careful treatment, medicines, and nutritious food during recovery. Despite these comforts, one of the boys, Samad, Razia’s son, suffers complications and must be hospitalised. In contrast, Arif, who underwent the traditional procedure without medical care, recovers quickly. Within a few days, he is already active and climbing trees in Razia’s yard.

Razia is surprised to see that his wound has healed without infection, even though he had received only ash on the wound and no medicines. During a later celebration held for the circumcised boys, Razia sees Arif again. Although he appears healthy, his clothes are torn and worn out. Observing the contrast between the wealth of her family and the poverty of the boy, Razia feels sympathy. She gives him one of her son’s new clothes. Arif accepts it with quiet gratitude and leaves, while Razia reflects on the differences between the lives of the rich and the poor.

==="Heart Lamp"===
Mehrun, a married woman, returns to her parental home with her infant daughter in distress after discovering that her husband, Inayat, has been involved with another woman. Her family members react with shock and discomfort rather than warmth. Her parents and brothers question her decision to come without informing them and express concern about family honour. Mehrun explains that her husband has abandoned her and is living with a nurse.

She reminds her family that she had earlier resisted the marriage and wished to continue her education, but her pleas had been ignored. Now, burdened with several children and facing humiliation from her husband, she refuses to return to him. However, her family refuses to support her. They advise her to tolerate the situation and warn that her actions could damage the family's reputation and affect the marriage prospects of her sisters and daughters.

Despite Mehrun's desperation, her brothers insist on sending her back to her husband's house. They take her by taxi to [[Chikmagalur]], where she lives with her children. Upon arriving, Mehrun’s eldest daughter, Salma, welcomes her with relief, hoping that her uncles will confront her father. Instead, the men behave politely with Inayat and avoid discussing the problem openly.

After a meal, Mehrun's brothers advise her privately to manage the situation wisely and maintain the household, then leave. Inayat later returns home and dismisses Mehrun's complaints, threatening to divorce her if she continues to involve her family. He treats the situation casually, while Mehrun remains silent and emotionally shattered. After her brothers depart and her husband leaves again, the household falls into a quiet gloom. Salma senses her mother's suffering and keeps a watchful eye on her.

That night, overwhelmed by humiliation, loneliness, and the sense that she has no support from either her husband or her family, Mehrun decides to end her life by pouring kerosene over herself outside the house and prepares to light a match. At that moment, Salma wakes up, realises what her mother intends to do, and rushes outside with the crying baby. She embraces her mother and pleads with her not to abandon her children. Moved by her daughter's desperate appeal and physical embrace, Mehrun regains control of herself. The matchbox falls from her hand, and she holds her children close. She breaks down in tears, realising that although she has lost her husband's love and the support of her family, her children still need her. Mehrun abandons her plan and asks her daughter for forgiveness, and resolves to continue living for her children.

==="High-Heeled Shoe"===
Nayaz Khan, a poor government office peon who becomes strangely obsessed with a pair of elegant high-heeled shoes worn by his wealthy sister-in-law, Naseema, who returns from [[Saudi Arabia]] during a vacation. To Nayaz, the objects she brings from abroad symbolise wealth, luxury, and social status. Among them, the high-heeled shoes captivate him the most. He wishes his own wife, Arifa, could wear such shoes and appear graceful and sophisticated like Naseema.

Nayaz's fascination with the shoes gradually turns into an unhealthy obsession. When Naseema leaves for Saudi Arabia, she carefully packs the shoes so that Nayaz cannot take them. For years, the image of those shoes continues to haunt him. Meanwhile, Nayaz struggles with financial problems and attempts to improve his family's status. He renovates his ancestral house, cuts down an old mango tree, and builds shops using borrowed money, hoping his elder brother Mehaboob Khan, who works abroad, will appreciate the improvements and help him financially.

However, tensions develop between the brothers. Mehaboob is deeply hurt that Nayaz destroyed the mango tree without consulting him, because it represented their childhood memories and family history. Naseema further worsens the misunderstanding by manipulating the situation and increasing the emotional distance between the brothers. During this period, Arifa, Nayaz’s wife, suffers silently. She is pregnant, physically weak, and burdened with household work and family conflict.

Eventually, Mehaboob notices her poor health and insists on taking her to a doctor. After the medical visit, the family goes shopping. There, Nayaz unexpectedly sees a pair of high-heeled shoes identical to the ones that once fascinated him. Overwhelmed by excitement, he buys them immediately and forces Arifa to wear them, even though they do not fit her feet.

Arifa struggles painfully to walk in the shoes. Her feet are too wide, the heels are uncomfortable, and she fears falling and harming the baby in her womb. While walking alone outside, she experiences intense physical strain and emotional distress. In a moment of near collapse, she becomes deeply aware of the unborn child within her. Imagining the child’s voice pleading for space and relief, she realises that the pressure caused by the shoes is endangering her baby.

This realisation awakens a powerful maternal instinct. Gathering all her strength, Arifa forces her weight against the shoes until the thin high heels finally break apart. Freed from them, she stands firmly on the ground again, symbolising her rejection of the destructive pressure of material desires and social imitation.

==="Soft Whispers"===
Narrated by a woman who receives a late-night phone call from her mother, who informs her that Abid, a man from her ancestral village Malenahalli, has arrived to invite her to attend the [[Urs festival]] at the [[dargah]]. According to family tradition, someone from their family must participate in the sandalwood ritual.

The call brings back vivid memories of the narrator’s childhood visits to the village. She recalls her affectionate grandmother, Ajji, who was deeply respected in the village for her wisdom and spiritual outlook. During one such visit for the Urs festival, the narrator celebrates her eighth birthday. Her mother anxiously worries that the child does not have new clothes, while her grandmother calmly promises to arrange a dress. Ajji takes the narrator to a tailor named Jaffar Baba and asks him to stitch a frock. Their conversation reflects spiritual ideas about purity of heart and the nature of human life.

The narrator also remembers playful moments with the village children. One afternoon, a group of boys led by the teenage Abid set traps to catch sparrows. After capturing one, Abid cuts open the bird to show the children the eggs inside it. The narrator receives the eggs but accidentally crushes them during a struggle with the other children, leaving her distressed. Later, while playing near the village pond, Abid suddenly lifts her and kisses her on the cheek in front of the other children. The incident embarrasses and frightens her, and she cries until her grandmother comforts and protects her. Ajji then distracts her by digging groundnuts from the soil, turning the painful day into a memorable experience. The narrator soon falls ill with fever, and her family leaves the village shortly afterwards. Many years pass, but the memory of that birthday remains vivid.

In the present, Abid arrives at the narrator’s house as a grown man. He is now the caretaker of the Shahmir Ali Dargah and respectfully invites her to attend the upcoming Urs festival. Addressing her formally and avoiding eye contact, he behaves with great restraint and reverence. Observing him, the narrator wonders whether the mischievous boy she once knew still exists within this devout man, but his quiet manner leaves the question unanswered.

==="A Taste of Heaven"===
In Saadat's household, an Urdu teacher, he struggles to understand the sudden changes in his wife, Shameem Banu's behaviour. She often gets angry over minor issues and quarrels with the children. Saadat convinces himself that her behaviour is due to menopause and silently tolerates her outbursts. The couple live with their three children: Azeem, Aseema, and Sana, and with an elderly relative known as Bi Dadi, Saadat's widowed aunt. She has spent her entire life serving the family after losing her husband soon after marriage. She quietly performs household chores and remains devoted to prayer. Over the years, she becomes deeply attached to an old [[prayer rug]] (''ja-namaz'') that holds memories of her brief married life.

One day, Azeem unknowingly uses Bi Dadi's prayer mat to wipe grease from his motorcycle. When Bi Dadi discovers this, she becomes extremely distressed. The incident reminds her of her past and causes intense grief. Although Shameem Banu tries to replace the mat with a new one, Bi Dadi refuses it and begins to cry constantly. She gradually stops eating regularly, stops praying, and withdraws from the family. The situation creates tension in the household. Saadat blames Shameem for hurting Bi Dadi's feelings, while Shameem becomes increasingly irritated with the old woman's constant crying. In a moment of anger, she sends Bi Dadi away to live with Saadat's younger brother, Arif. However, the children continue to visit her, and after some time, Azeem brings her back home.

Bi Dadi's behaviour becomes increasingly confused and childlike. One day, the children gather secretly in a room and give her a glass of a fizzy soft drink. Sana jokingly tells Bi Dadi that the drink is ''aab-e-kausar'', [[Pond of Abundance| the sacred water]] believed to exist in heaven. She also pretends to be a heavenly attendant and throws jasmine flowers near Bi Dadi, making her believe that she has reached heaven and that her long-dead husband is nearby. Bi Dadi accepts the illusion completely. Believing she is living in heaven, she becomes calm and content.

She spends her days happily imagining the presence of her husband and occasionally asking for the heavenly drink. To keep her peaceful, Azeem secretly continues to provide the drink, sometimes borrowing money to buy it. Eventually, his uncle Arif helps him supply it regularly. The family gradually adjusts to the strange situation. Bi Dadi lives in her imagined heavenly world, free from sorrow and anger. Although the adults believe that she has lost her sanity, her presence no longer causes conflict in the house. The story ends with Bi Dadi continuing to live peacefully in her imagined heaven, while the rest of the family quietly maintains the illusion that keeps her happy.

==="The Shroud"===
One morning, Shaziya, a wealthy woman, wakes up late and hears that Yaseen Bua, her former elderly, poor servant, has died. Bua's son Altaf comes to Shaziya's house to ask for the ''kaffan'' ([[shroud]]) that Shaziya had promised to bring from Mecca during her [[Hajj| Hajj pilgrimage]]. Hearing this news, Shaziya becomes shocked and distressed because she remembers that she never fulfilled that promise.

The story then recalls the earlier incident when Shaziya and her husband, Subhan, were preparing to leave for Hajj. During a farewell gathering at their house, Yaseen Bua came uninvited but helped with household work throughout the day. Late at night, she met Shaziya and gave her the money she had saved with great difficulty, requesting that Shaziya bring her a ''kaffan'' from [[Mecca]] soaked in [[Zamzam Well| Zamzam water]]. Bua believed that being buried in such a shroud would help her attain spiritual merit in the afterlife. Shaziya casually agreed to the request.

However, during the pilgrimage, Shaziya became busy with religious activities and shopping. Although she briefly remembered the promise, she eventually forgot about it. After returning home, she distributed many gifts and items brought from Mecca, but did not bring the ''kaffan'' for Bua.

When Bua later visited Shaziya and asked for the shroud, Shaziya became irritated and insulted her. She refused to fulfil the promise and angrily tried to return the money. Hurt and humiliated, Bua left the house and never returned. Now, after Bua’s death, Shaziya realises the seriousness of her mistake. She becomes overwhelmed with guilt and desperately tries to find a Zamzam-soaked ''kaffan'' from her relatives and friends, but no one has one. She fears that Bua's last wish has remained unfulfilled because of her carelessness.

Eventually, Shaziya’s son, Farman, arranges an ordinary ''kaffan'' and completes the burial rituals. Later, he takes Shaziya to Bua's house to see her for the last time. Observing Shaziya's intense grief, the people present assume she is mourning the death of a devoted servant. In reality, Shaziya is grieving because she knows she has failed a poor woman's final wish and feels morally responsible for it.

==="The Arabic Teacher and Gobi Manchuri"===
The story is narrated by a lawyer who recalls an unusual incident from her past involving the Arabic teacher who once taught her daughters. As a working mother, she carries the main responsibility of raising her children and ensuring that they receive proper religious education. With the help of her younger brother, Imaad, she appoints a young Arabic teacher from [[Uttar Pradesh]] to teach her daughters [[Qira'at]] and [[Arabic language]] at home every evening.

The teacher, a [[Hafiz (Quran)| hafiz]] who has memorised the [[Qur'an]], appears shy and strictly observes religious modesty. He avoids direct conversation with women and mostly speaks to the narrator's husband and brother. Over time, the daughters make noticeable progress in their lessons, which makes the narrator satisfied with the teacher's work.

However, one afternoon, the narrator unexpectedly returns home early and finds a strange scene in the kitchen. Her daughters and the Arabic teacher are secretly attempting to cook [[Manchurian (dish)| gobi manchuri]]. Startled and frightened, the teacher immediately runs away. The daughters later explain that the teacher was extremely fond of gobi manchuri but could not afford to buy it often. Believing that it could easily be prepared in their house, he had persuaded the girls to help him cook it. Relieved that nothing improper had occurred, the narrator decides not to pursue the matter further, and the teacher stops coming to the house afterwards.

Some time later, the narrator begins hearing news about him again. The teacher faces difficulties finding a bride because of his unusual behaviour. In one marriage proposal, he even stops the prospective bride on the road to ask whether she knows how to cook gobi manchuri, which causes confusion and suspicion among her relatives. Eventually, the teacher gets married. However, six months later, a young woman and her brother come to the narrator's office seeking legal help. The woman's husband, who turns out to be the same Arabic teacher, has been beating her frequently. According to her brother, the quarrels often begin when the teacher demands gobi manchuri, but becomes angry when the food prepared by his wife does not satisfy him.

The narrator feels troubled by the situation and reflects on how the teacher's strange obsession has caused suffering in his marriage. Instead of immediately filing a criminal case, she considers another approach. She searches for a proper recipe for gobi manchuri and contacts her brother, hoping that solving the simple misunderstanding about the dish might help prevent further conflict and protect the young woman's life and marriage.

==="Be a Woman Once, Oh Lord!"===
The story is written as a long, prayer-like monologue in which an unnamed woman addresses God and narrates the suffering she has experienced throughout her life. She recalls her childhood, when she lived a sheltered and obedient life under the strict expectations placed on girls. She rarely stepped outside the house and was taught by her mother to be modest, silent, and submissive to her future husband. Eventually, she is married and sent away from her parental home. Although she feels deep pain at leaving her mother, she is expected to accept her new life without complaint.

After marriage, the narrator's identity is reduced to that of 'his wife.' Her husband treats her as his possession and expects complete obedience. Soon after the wedding, he demands that she bring a large amount of money from her parents as dowry. When she cannot bring the full amount, he insults and humiliates her. She briefly returns to her mother's home, but eventually goes back to her husband because she feels bound by social expectations.

Her husband later forbade her from maintaining contact with her parents. Her mother attempts to visit and even tries to bring money to satisfy the husband's demands, but dies in an accident before reaching the house. The narrator is not allowed to see her mother's body or attend the funeral, which deepens her sense of isolation and grief.

Despite the emotional abuse, the narrator continues living with her husband and gives birth to two children, first a daughter and later a son. She silently endures repeated pregnancies, physical exhaustion, and her husband’s indifference to her suffering. Society advises her to remain obedient and accept her husband's authority, leaving her with little support.

Later, the narrator becomes seriously ill and requires surgery for a [[tumour]]. During her recovery, her husband demands that she give him the gold chain her mother had made for her wedding. He reveals that he intends to marry another woman and wants to give the chain to his new bride. The narrator refuses, but she has no power to stop him.

After leaving the hospital, she returns home with her children only to find the house locked. She waits outside helplessly until night. Eventually, her husband arrives with his new bride and enters the house with a group of people celebrating the marriage, ignoring the narrator and her children. The story ends with the narrator's despair turning into a direct appeal to God. Reflecting on the injustice and suffering women endure, she asks God to experience life as a woman at least once, so that he may understand the pain, helplessness, and inequality faced by women in society.

== Development and publication ==
The stories in ''Heart Lamp: Selected Stories'' were selected by translator Deepa Bhasthi from Banu Mushtaq's six Kannada short story collections, written between 1990 and 2023.<ref name=":0" /> Bhasthi translated the collection to introduce Mushtaq's work to an international audience.<ref name="Hindu2024" /> The project was built on the success of Mushtaq's earlier translated collection, ''Haseena and Other Stories'', which won the English PEN Translates Award in 2024.<ref name="Wire2025" /> ''Heart Lamp'' was published by [[And Other Stories]] in the UK on 10 September 2024.<ref name="AndOtherStories2024" />

== Critical reception ==
''Heart Lamp: Selected Stories'' was widely praised. ''[[The Hindu]]'' called it a "serious read with a sprinkle of humour", highlighting its focus on Muslim women's lives and the translation's retention of regional linguistic elements.<ref name="Hindu2024" /> ''[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]'' described it as a "textured exploration" of gender dynamics.<ref name="Mint2025" /> ''[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]]'' noted its blend of humor and serious themes, deeming it a "worthy Booker contender".<ref name="Week2025">{{Cite news |last=Shah |first=Shubhangi |date=8 May 2025 |title=Heart Lamp book review: A sprinkle of humour in a serious read on the Booker shortlist |work=[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]] |url=https://www.theweek.in/review/books/2025/05/08/heart-lamp-book-review-a-sprinkle-of-humour-in-a-serious-read-on-the-booker-shortlist.html |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref> ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' commended its "emotional depth and cultural specificity".<ref name="TLS2025">{{Cite news |last=McLoughlin |first=Kate |date=2025 |title=Heart Lamp by Banu Mushtaq |work=[[The Times Literary Supplement]] |url=https://www.the-tls.co.uk/literature/fiction/heart-lamp-banu-mushtaq-book-review-kate-mcloughlin |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref> [[Scroll.in]] praised its "anger-driven narratives" and critique of patriarchy.<ref name="Scroll2025" /> ''[[The Indian Express]]'' lauded its depiction of the "contradictions and textures" of Muslim life.<ref name="IndianExpress2025" /> ''[[The Guardian]]'' highlighted the translation's "radical" approach in retaining regional words.<ref name="Guardian2025">{{Cite news |date=21 May 2025 |title='Radical translation' of Heart Lamp by Banu Mushtaq wins International Booker prize |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2025/may/20/radical-translation-of-heart-lamp-by-banu-mushtaq-wins-international-booker-prize |access-date=22 May 2025 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Some reviewers noted that untranslated words could challenge non-regional readers but enriched authenticity.<ref name="Hindu2024" /><ref name="FT2025" />

The book was awarded the [[International Booker Prize]] in 2025, at London's [[Tate Modern]].<ref name="Guardian2025" />

== Awards ==
*[[International Booker Prize]] (2025) – A prize of £50,000 shared between author and translator<ref name="WaPo2025" /><ref name="NYT2025" /><ref name="Guardian2025" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{Google Books|id=V6FUEQAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite web |title=''Heart Lamp'' – 2025 Winner |url=https://thebookerprizes.com/media-centre/press-releases/heart-lamp-wins-the-international-booker-prize-2025 |publisher=The Booker Prizes}}
*{{cite web |title=''Heart Lamp: Selected Stories'', by Banu Mushtaq |url=https://www.andotherstories.org/heart-lamp-selected-stories/ |publisher=And Other Stories}}
*{{cite web |title=''Heart Lamp'': excerpt |url=https://www.andotherstories.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Heart-Lamp-extract-for-website.pdf |publisher=And Other Stories}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:2024 short story collections]]
[[Category:Kannada literature]]
[[Category:International Booker Prize–winning works]]
[[Category:Indian short story collections]]

List of awards and nominations received by Vidya Balan

2026-03-12T17:46:19Z

Ankithreddy: creating the pg from scratch

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox awards list
|name=[[Vidya Balan]]
|image=Vidya Balan at the 63rd Filmfare Awards.jpg
|caption= Vidya at the [[63rd Filmfare Awards]], 2018
|wins=48
|nominations=96
|award1='''[[BIG Star Entertainment Awards]]'''
|award1W='''2'''
|award1N='''7'''
|award2='''[[Filmfare Awards]]'''
|award2W='''7'''
|award2N='''17'''
|award3='''[[Screen Awards]]'''
|award3W='''6'''
|award3N='''10'''
|award4='''[[Zee Cine Awards]]'''
|award4W='''5'''
|award4N='''11'''
|award5='''[[Stardust Awards]]'''
|award5W='''5'''
|award5N='''13'''
|award6='''[[Star Guild Awards]]'''
|award6W='''1'''
|award6N='''3'''
|award7='''[[IIFA Awards]]'''
|award7W='''4'''
|award7N='''13'''
|award8='''FICCI Frames Excellence Honours'''
|award8W='''3'''
|award8N='''3'''
|award9='''[[Indian Film Festival of Melbourne]]'''
|award9W='''1'''
|award9N='''4'''
|award10='''[[Producers Guild Film Awards]]'''
|award10W='''5'''
|award10N='''6'''
|award11='''[[Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards India]]'''
|award11W='''0'''
|award11N='''1'''
|award12='''[[National Film Awards]]'''
|award12W='''1'''
|award12N='''1'''
|award13='''Global Film Awards'''
|award13W='''3'''
|award13N='''3'''
|award14='''[[Lokmat Stylish Awards]]'''
|award14W='''1'''
|award14N='''1'''
|award15='''Bollywood Film Journalist Awards'''
|award15W='''3'''
|award15N='''3'''
|award16='''[[Padma Shri]]'''
|award16W='''1'''
|award16N='''0'''
}}

[[Vidya Balan]] is an Indian actress who appears primarily in [[Hindi]] films. She has received several awards, including a [[National Film Awards|National Film Award]], seven [[Filmfare Awards]], six [[Screen Awards]], four [[International Indian Film Academy Awards]], and five awards each from the [[Producers Guild Film Awards|Producers Guild]] and [[Zee Cine Awards|Zee Cine]] award ceremonies.

Vidya made her debut in 2003 with a leading role in the [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengal]]i film ''[[Bhalo Theko]]'', for which she won the [[Anandalok Award]] for Best Actress. In 2005, she had her first Bollywood release with the musical drama ''[[Parineeta (2005 film)|Parineeta]]'', which garnered her a [[Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut|Best Female Debut]] award and a [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] nomination at the Filmfare Awards ceremony. For the role of a radio jockey in the 2006 horror comedy film ''[[Lage Raho Munna Bhai]]'',<ref>{{cite web|first=Taran |last=Adarsh |title=Lage Raho Munnabhai (2006) |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/509054 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=28 December 2014 |date=31 August 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026221039/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/criticreview/id/509054 |archive-date=26 October 2014 }}</ref> she was nominated for the [[IIFA Award for Best Actress]]. In 2007, Vidya featured in five films. She portrayed a woman suffering from [[multiple sclerosis]] in the semi-biographical drama ''[[Guru (2007 film)|Guru]]'' and a [[dissociative identity disorder]] patient in the [[psychological thriller]] ''[[Bhool Bhulaiyaa]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vidya Balan's best roles: From Parineeta to Bobby |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/Vidya-Balans-best-roles-From-Parineeta-to-Bobby/photostory/37456686.cms |access-date=2 January 2015 |work=[[The Times of India]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521142241/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/Vidya-Balans-best-roles-From-Parineeta-to-Bobby/photostory/37456686.cms |archive-date=21 May 2015 }}</ref> For the latter, she was nominated for a Filmfare Award for Best Actress.

From 2009 to 2012, Vidya played leading roles in films that earned her several accolades.<ref name="openmag">{{cite news|last=Masand |first=Rajeev |title=The Never-ending RGV Saga |url=http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/voices/the-never-ending-rgv-saga?mdr=false |access-date=20 December 2014 |work=[[Open (Indian magazine)|Open]] |date=2 February 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225231128/http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/voices/the-never-ending-rgv-saga?mdr=false |archive-date=25 December 2014 }}</ref> For the role of a single mother in the 2009 comedy-drama ''[[Paa (film)|Paa]]'',<ref name="roles">{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110410/spectrum/main9.htm|title=The uniqueness of being Vidya|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|access-date=28 December 2014|date=10 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121110907/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110410/spectrum/main9.htm|archive-date=21 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Rachel|last=Saltz|title=Amitabh Bachchan as His Son's Son in a Tale of India|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/04/movies/04paa.html|access-date=28 December 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=3 December 2009}}</ref> Vidya won her first Best Actress award at [[Screen Award for Best Actress|Screen]] and Filmfare, among other honours. For her portrayal of a seductress in the 2010 black comedy ''[[Ishqiya]]'',<ref name="roles" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Masand Review: Ishqiya |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/masand-review-ishqiya/109408-8.html |access-date=28 December 2014 |publisher=[[CNN-IBN]] |first=Rajeev |last=Masand |date=1 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107194350/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/masand-review-ishqiya/109408-8.html |archive-date= 7 January 2014 }}</ref> she was awarded the [[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress|Filmfare Award for Best Actress (Critics)]] and garnered a Best Actress nomination at the same ceremony. She also won Best Actress awards at other ceremonies, including Screen, [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female|Zee Cine]], and [[Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role|Producers Guild]]. Vidya portrayed film actress [[Silk Smitha|Silk]] in the 2011 [[biographical film]] ''[[The Dirty Picture]]'',<ref name="roles" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-15979380 |title=Silk Smitha: South India's ill-starred film siren |work=BBC News |date=2 December 2011 |access-date=28 December 2014 |last=Tilak |first=Sudha G. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150710235750/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-15979380 |archive-date=10 July 2015 }}</ref> for which she won a [[National Film Award for Best Actress]], along with a second Best Actress award at Filmfare, IIFA, Producers Guild, and Zee Cine, and a third consecutive award in the same category at Screen. Also that year, she received Best Actress nominations at Filmfare and Screen for the 2011 crime thriller ''[[No One Killed Jessica]]''. For portraying a pregnant woman in search of her missing husband in the 2012 thriller ''[[Kahaani]]'',<ref name="roles" /><ref>{{cite web|first=Sonia |last=Chopra |title=Kahaani review: This mystery is worth unraveling |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/kahaani-review-this-mystery-is-worth-unraveling-review-bollywood-14993812.html |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=28 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506075326/http://www.sify.com/movies/kahaani-review-this-mystery-is-worth-unraveling-review-bollywood-14993812.html |archive-date= 6 May 2014 }}</ref> Vidya won a fourth consecutive Best Actress Award at Screen, and a third Best Actress Award at Filmfare and IIFA. For playing a radio jockey in the 2017 comedy-drama ''[[Tumhari Sulu]]'', Vidya won a fifth Screen Award and fourth Filmfare Award in the Best Actress category.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}

In addition to acting awards, Vidya received the [[Prabha Khaitan]] Puraskar in 2012 for her work towards the empowerment of women.<ref name="Prabha">{{cite news |date=1 June 2012 |title=Vidya Balan receives Prabha Khaitan Puraskar |work=The Times of India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/bengali/news-interviews/Vidya-Balan-receives-Prabha-Khaitan-Puraskar/articleshow/13698887.cms?referral=PM |url-status=live |access-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002150142/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/bengali/news-interviews/Vidya-Balan-receives-Prabha-Khaitan-Puraskar/articleshow/13698887.cms?referral=PM |archive-date=2 October 2015}}</ref> In 2014, the [[Government of India]] honoured her with the [[Padma Shri]], the fourth highest [[Indian honours system|civilian award]], for her contribution to the arts.<ref name="Padma Shri"/> In 2015, she received [[Raj Kapoor Special Contribution Award]] for outstanding contribution in [[Cinema of India|Indian Cinema]] by the [[Government of Maharashtra]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-04-27 |title=Maharashtra government announces annual film awards |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/maharashtra-government-announces-annual-film-awards/article7147328.ece |access-date= |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

==Anandalok Awards==

The [[Anandalok Awards]] are awarded annually by the [[ABP Group]] in [[Kolkata]] to professionals of the [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali]] and [[Bollywood|Hindi]] film industries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anandalok |url=http://www.abp.in/index.php?show=11002 |publisher=[[ABP Group]] |access-date=31 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150201135549/http://abp.in/index.php?show=11002 |archive-date= 1 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='Bhooter Bhabishyat' sweeps Anandalok Purashkar |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/bhooter-bhabishyat-sweeps-anandalok-purashkar/308063-8-73.html |access-date=31 December 2014 |publisher=CNN-IBN |date=29 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122052645/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/bhooter-bhabishyat-sweeps-anandalok-purashkar/308063-8-73.html |archive-date=22 January 2013 }}</ref> Vidya has won the award twice.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year{{efn|name=years|In each table, refers to the year in which the ceremony was held.}}
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"|[[Anandalok Awards#2004|2004]]
| ''[[Bhalo Theko]]''
| Best Actress - Bengali
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Anandalok">{{cite web |title=SRK, Vidya get Anandalok Puraskar |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14580021&cid=2359 |date=24 December 2007 |access-date=24 August 2014 |website=[[Sify]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214223150/http://www.sify.com/movies/boxoffice.php?id=14580021&cid=2359 |archive-date=14 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|[[Anandalok Awards#2007|2007]]
| ''[[Bhool Bhulaiyaa]]''
| Best Actress – Hindi
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Anandalok"/>
|}

==Asian Film Awards==
The [[Asian Film Awards]] are presented annually by the [[Hong Kong International Film Festival|Hong Kong International Film Festival Society]] to members of [[Asian cinema]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chu |first1=Karen |last2=Brzeski |first2=Patrick |title=Asian Film Awards Announces Ambitious Relaunch With Support From Top Festivals |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/asian-film-awards-announces-ambitious-679233 |access-date=19 December 2014 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=11 February 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206221000/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/asian-film-awards-announces-ambitious-679233 |archive-date= 6 February 2015 }}</ref> Vidya has received one nomination.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"| [[6th Asian Film Awards|2012]]
|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
|[[Asian Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=Vidya, A.R. Rahman, RA.One nominated in 6th Asian Film Awards|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/vidya-a.r.-rahman-ra.one-nominated-in-6th-asian-film-awards/926987/|access-date=22 September 2014|work=[[The Indian Express]]|author=Sahgal, Geety|date=23 March 2012}}</ref>
|}

==Asia-Pacific Film Festival==
The [[Asia-Pacific Film Festival]] is organised by the Federation of Motion Picture Producers in Asia-Pacific.<ref>{{cite news|last=Frater |first=Patrick |title=Asia Pacific Film Festival Postponed Till 2015 |url=https://variety.com/2014/film/news/asia-pacific-film-festival-postponed-till-2015-1201373699/ |access-date=19 December 2014 |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=8 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209035326/http://variety.com/2014/film/news/asia-pacific-film-festival-postponed-till-2015-1201373699/ |archive-date= 9 December 2014 }}</ref> Vidya has received one nomination at the festival.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"| 2012
|''[[Kahaani]]''
|Best Actress
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=Gangs of Wasseypur wins four nominations at Asia-Pacific festival |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/gangs-of-wasseypur-wins-four-nominations-at-asiapacific-festival/article4158948.ece |access-date=14 December 2014 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=3 December 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831175305/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-newdelhi/gangs-of-wasseypur-wins-four-nominations-at-asiapacific-festival/article4158948.ece |archive-date=31 August 2014 }}</ref>
|}

==Asia Pacific Screen Awards==
The [[Asia Pacific Screen Awards]] is an annual ceremony held by the Brisbane City Council, Australia in association with the [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] and the [[FIAPF|Fédération Internationale des Associations de Producteurs de Films]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Shyam Benegal to head Seventh Asia Pacific Screen Awards jury |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/shyam-benegal-to-head-seventh-asia-pacific-screen-awards-jury-614229 |access-date=19 December 2014 |publisher=[[NDTV]] |date=4 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219122608/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/shyam-benegal-to-head-seventh-asia-pacific-screen-awards-jury-614229 |archive-date=19 December 2014 }}</ref> Vidya has received one nomination.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"| 2012
|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
|[[Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Performance by an Actress|Best Actress]]
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Vidya Balan to compete with Pakistan's Humaima at the Asia Pacific Screen Awards |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/vidya-balan-to-compete-with-pakistans-humaima-at-the-asia-pacific-screen-awards/300061-8-66.html |access-date=14 December 2014 |publisher=CNN-IBN |date=12 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928185612/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/vidya-balan-to-compete-with-pakistans-humaima-at-the-asia-pacific-screen-awards/300061-8-66.html |archive-date=28 September 2013 }}</ref>
|}

==BIG Star Entertainment Awards==
The [[BIG Star Entertainment Awards]] is an annual event organised by the [[Reliance Broadcast Network]].<ref>{{cite news|title=It's lights, camera, entertainment at the BIG Star Entertainment Awards tonight|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Its-lights-camera-entertainment-at-the-BIG-Star-Entertainment-Awards-tonight/articleshow/45549511.cms|date=18 December 2014|access-date=19 December 2014|work=The Times of India}}</ref> Vidya has won two awards from seven nominations.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"|2010
| {{mdash}}
| New Talent of the Decade – Female
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations of BIG Star Entertainment Awards|date=16 December 2010|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/6934/|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|access-date=26 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140504225809/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/6934/|archive-date=4 May 2014}}</ref> <ref>{{cite episode|title=Big Star Entertainment Awards 2010 |series=Big Star Entertainment Awards|network=[[STAR India]]|date=31 December 2010}}</ref>
|-
|''[[Ishqiya]]''
| rowspan="3" | Most Entertaining Film Actor – Female
| {{won}}
|-
! scope="row"|2011
|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite episode|title=Big Star Entertainment Awards 2011 |series=Big Star Entertainment Awards|network=STAR India|date=31 December 2011}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" | 2012
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Kahaani]]''
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite episode|title=Big Star Entertainment Awards 2012 |series=Big Star Entertainment Awards|network=STAR India|date=31 December 2012}}</ref>
|-
| Most Entertaining Actor in a Thriller Film – Female
| {{nom}}
|-
! scope="row"|2013
|''[[Ghanchakkar]]''
| rowspan="2" | Most Entertaining Actor in a Comedy Film – Female
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for 4th Big Star Entertainment Awards |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/5890/ |date=12 December 2013 |access-date=12 December 2014 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026182245/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/5890 |archive-date=26 October 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|2014
|''[[Bobby Jasoos]]''
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Big Star Entertainment Awards Nominations List 2014 |url=http://www.927bigfm.com/bsea2014/nomination_list.php |access-date=24 December 2014 |publisher=[[Reliance Broadcast Network]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151216084934/http://www.927bigfm.com/bsea2014/nomination_list.php |archive-date=16 December 2015 }}</ref>
|}

==FICCI Frames Excellence Honours==
The [[FICCI Frames]] Excellence Honours is an annual award ceremony organised by the [[FICCI|Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry]].<ref>{{cite news|title='Three Idiots', 'Paa' dominate FICCI-Frames awards|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-03-19/news/27611466_1_award-r-balki-s-paa-actress-vidya-balan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221091819/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2010-03-19/news/27611466_1_award-r-balki-s-paa-actress-vidya-balan|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 December 2014|access-date=19 December 2014|work=[[The Economic Times]]|date=19 March 2010}}</ref> Vidya has won three awards.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"| 2010
| ''[[Paa (film)|Paa]]''
| rowspan="3" | Best Actress in a Leading Role
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=SRK gets global entertainment award |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news-feed/entertainment/srk-gets-global-entertainment-award/article1-520802.aspx |access-date=1 January 2013 |work=Hindustan Times |date=19 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016203455/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/Entertainment/SRK-gets-global-entertainment-award/Article1-520802.aspx |archive-date=16 October 2012 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| 2011
| ''[[Ishqiya]]''
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Winners of FICCI FRAMES Excellence Honours awards |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/1973/Winners+of+FICCI+FRAMES+Excellence+Honours+awards |date=26 March 2011 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104220333/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/1973/Winners%2Bof%2BFICCI%2BFRAMES%2BExcellence%2BHonours%2Bawards |archive-date= 4 November 2013 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| 2012
| ''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=Ranbir Kapoor's 'Rockstar' sweeps FICCI FRAMES awards |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-ranbir-kapoors-rockstar-sweeps-ficci-frames-awards-1663657 |date=17 March 2012 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |access-date=12 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215080332/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-ranbir-kapoors-rockstar-sweeps-ficci-frames-awards-1663657 |archive-date=15 December 2014 }}</ref>
|}

==Filmfare Awards==
Established in 1954, the [[Filmfare Awards]] are presented annually by [[The Times Group]] to members of the Hindi film industry.<ref name="timesgroup">{{cite news|title=Times Group takes on IIFA with new film awards |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/times-group-takes-on-iifa-with-new-film-awards-113013000097_1.html |date=30 January 2013 |work=[[Business Standard]]|access-date=12 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219120616/http://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/times-group-takes-on-iifa-with-new-film-awards-113013000097_1.html |archive-date=19 December 2014 }}</ref> Vidya has won seven awards.

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="2" scope="row" |[[51st Filmfare Awards|2006]]
| rowspan="2"|''[[Parineeta (2005 film)|Parineeta]]''
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut|Best Female Debut]]
| {{won}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards">{{cite web|url=http://oldbh.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/awards/13469/index.html|title=Vidya Balan: Awards & nominations|access-date=23 July 2010|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409130237/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/awards/13469/index.html|archive-date=9 April 2010 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
| {{nom}}
|-
| scope="row" |[[53rd Filmfare Awards|2008]]
|''[[Bhool Bhulaiyaa]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/>
|-
| scope="row" |[[55th Filmfare Awards|2010]]
|''[[Paa (film)|Paa]]''
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/>
|-
| rowspan="2" scope="row" |[[56th Filmfare Awards|2011]]
| rowspan="2"|''[[Ishqiya]]''
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title='My Name is Khan', 'Dabangg' shine at Filmfare Awards |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report_my-name-is-khan-dabangg-shine-at-filmfare-awards_1500857 |access-date=5 January 2013 |work=Daily News and Analysis |date=30 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128120039/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report_my-name-is-khan-dabangg-shine-at-filmfare-awards_1500857 |archive-date=28 January 2013 }}</ref>
|-
|[[Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress|Best Actress (Critics)]]
|{{won}}
|-
| rowspan="2" scope="row" |[[57th Filmfare Awards|2012]]
|''[[No One Killed Jessica]]''
| rowspan="5" | Best Actress
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for 57th Idea Filmfare Awards 2011 |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/features/type/view/id/2974/2974 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=11 January 2011 |date=11 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113194825/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/features/type/view/id/2974/2974 |archive-date=13 January 2012 }}</ref> <ref name="awards">{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebritymicro/awards/id/8098 |title=Vidya Balan — Awards |access-date=25 August 2010 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129143424/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebritymicro/awards/id/8098 |archive-date=29 January 2012 }}</ref>
|-
|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
|{{won}}
|-
| scope="row" |[[58th Filmfare Awards|2013]]
|''[[Kahaani]]''
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Filmfare Awards: All the action from the awards night |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/filmfare-awards-live-all-the-action-from-the-awards-night/316815-8-66.html |date=21 January 2013 |publisher=CNN-IBN |access-date=21 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121023308/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/filmfare-awards-live-all-the-action-from-the-awards-night/316815-8-66.html |archive-date=21 January 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" |[[62nd Filmfare Awards|2017]]
|''[[Kahaani 2: Durga Rani Singh]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=62nd Jio Filmfare Awards 2017 Nominations |url=http://www.filmfare.com/news/nominations-for-the-62nd-jio-filmfare-awards-17987.html |work=Filmfare |date=9 January 2017 |access-date=13 January 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113122217/http://www.filmfare.com/news/nominations-for-the-62nd-jio-filmfare-awards-17987.html |archive-date=13 January 2017 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" scope="row" |[[63rd Filmfare Awards|2018]]
| rowspan="2" |''[[Tumhari Sulu]]''
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|<ref name="ff18">{{cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/filmfare-awards-2018-announce-critics-choice-nominees-rajkummar-rao-leads-with-two-nominations-see-complete-list-4311419.html|title=Filmfare Critics Choice Awards nominations|date=21 January 2018|work=The Times of India|access-date=21 January 2018}}</ref>
|-
|Critics Award for Best Actress |Best Actress (Critics)
|{{nom}}
|-
| scope="row" |[[65th Filmfare Awards|2020]]
|''[[Mission Mangal]]''
| rowspan="2" | Best Actress
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/nominations-for-the-65th-filmfare-awards-are-out/articleshow/73881320.cms |title=Nominations for the 65th Filmfare Awards 2020 are out! |author=Dubey, Rachana |date=3 February 2020 |access-date=27 July 2020 |newspaper=The Times of India }}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="2" scope="row" |[[66th Filmfare Awards|2021]]
| rowspan="2" |''[[Shakuntala Devi (film)|Shakuntala Devi]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|<ref name="ff21">{{cite web|title= 66th Vimal Elaichi Filmfare Awards 2021: Check out the complete list of nominees|work=The Times of India |date=25 March 2021 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/66th-vimal-elaichi-filmfare-awards-2021-check-out-the-complete-list-of-nominees/articleshow/81691822.cms|publisher= timesofindia.indiatimes.com|access-date=29 March 2021}}</ref>
|-
| Best Actress (Critics)
|{{nom}}
|-
|rowspan="2" scope="row" |[[67th Filmfare Awards|2022]]
| rowspan="2" |''[[Sherni (2021 film)|Sherni]]''
| Best Actress
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|<ref name="ff22">{{Cite news |title=67th Filmfare Awards 2022: Ranveer Singh and Kriti Sanon bag Best Actor for '83 and 'Mimi' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/67th-wolf777news-filmfare-awards-2022-complete-winners-list/articleshow/93886545.cms |access-date=31 August 2022 |newspaper=The Times of India |date=31 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | Best Actress (Critics)
|{{Won}}
|-
|[[70th Filmfare Awards|2025]]
|''[[Do Aur Do Pyaar]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nominations for The 70th Hyundai Filmfare Awards 2025 With Gujarat Tourism: Full List Out {{!}} Filmfare.com |url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/bollywood/nominations-for-the-70th-hyundai-filmfare-awards-2025-with-gujarat-tourism-full-list-out-78037.html |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=www.filmfare.com |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==International Indian Film Academy Awards==
The [[International Indian Film Academy Awards]] (shortened as IIFA) is annual international event organised by the Wizcraft International Entertainment Pvt. Ltd. to honour Bollywood artists.<ref name="Dudrah2012">{{cite book|last=Dudrah|first=Rajinder Kumar|title=Bollywood Travels: Culture, Diaspora and Border Crossings in Popular Hindi Cinema|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWD1N-J9JSoC&pg=PA85|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-44740-9|page=85}}</ref> Vidya has won four awards from eleven nominations.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"|[[7th IIFA Awards|2006]]
| rowspan="2"|''[[Parineeta (2005 film)|Parineeta]]''
|[[IIFA Award for Star Debut of the Year – Female|Star Debut of the Year – Female]]
|{{won}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/> <ref>{{cite news|title=''Black'' rules at IIFA awards |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/NM12/Black-rules-at-IIFA-awards/Article1-110378.aspx |access-date=3 January 2013 |work=Hindustan Times |date=17 June 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104170718/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/NM12/Black-rules-at-IIFA-awards/Article1-110378.aspx |archive-date= 4 November 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
| {{nom}}
|-
! scope="row"|[[8th IIFA Awards|2007]]
|''[[Lage Raho Munna Bhai]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/>
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3"|[[9th IIFA Awards|2008]]
| rowspan="2"|''[[Bhool Bhulaiyaa]]''
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/>
|-
|[[IIFA Award for Best Performance in a Negative Role|Best Performance in a Negative Role]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|''[[Guru (2007 film)|Guru]]''
|[[IIFA Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|{{nom}}
|-
! scope="row"|[[11th IIFA Awards|2010]]
|''[[Paa (film)|Paa]]''
| rowspan="7"|Best Actress
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="share1">{{cite news |title=3 Idiots win big at IIFA awards |url=http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/jun/07/slide-show-1-winners-at-iifa-awards.htm |access-date=7 January 2013 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |date=7 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419211750/http://movies.rediff.com/slide-show/2010/jun/07/slide-show-1-winners-at-iifa-awards.htm |archive-date=19 April 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|[[12th IIFA Awards|2011]]
|''[[Ishqiya]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|last=Vlessing |first=Etan |title='Once Upon a Time in Mumbai' Tops IIFA Award Nominations |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/once-a-time-mumbai-tops-174126 |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=The Hollywood Reporter |date=2 April 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205150432/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/once-a-time-mumbai-tops-174126 |archive-date= 5 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|[[13th IIFA Awards|2012]]
|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=IIFA 2012: Big Winners and Hot Fashion Statements |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-iifa-2012-big-winners-and-hot-fashion-statements/20120611.htm |access-date=3 January 2013 |work=Rediff.com |date=11 June 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009070605/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-iifa-2012-big-winners-and-hot-fashion-statements/20120611.htm |archive-date= 9 October 2012 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|[[14th IIFA Awards|2013]]
|''[[Kahaani]]''
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=Ranbir, Vidya bag best actor awards at IIFA |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/ranbir-vidya-bag-best-actor-awards-at-iifa/article4889543.ece |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=The Hindu |date=7 July 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140526052121/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/ranbir-vidya-bag-best-actor-awards-at-iifa/article4889543.ece |archive-date=26 May 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|[[19th IIFA Awards|2018]]
|''[[Tumhari Sulu]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
|-
! scope="row"|[[21st IIFA Awards|2021]]
|''[[Mission Mangal]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
! scope="row"|[[22nd IIFA Awards|2022]]
|''[[Sherni (2021 film)|Sherni]]''
|{{nom}}
|style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/iifa-2022-nominations-shershaah-takes-lead-12-nominations-ludo-83-emerge-strong-contenders-check-complete-list/|title=IIFA 2022 Nominations: Shershaah takes the lead with 12 Nominations, Ludo and 83 emerge as strong contenders; check out the complete list|date=1 April 2022}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"|[[25th IIFA Awards|2025]]
|''[[Bhool Bhulaiyaa 3]]''
|Best Supporting Actress
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align: center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=2025-02-03 |title=IIFA 2025 Nominations: Kiran Rao’s Laapataa Ladies leads with 9 nominations, Bhool Bhulaiyaa 3 follows with 7; check out the complete list : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/iifa-2025-nominations-kiran-raos-laapataa-ladies-leads-9-nominations-bhool-bhulaiyaa-3-follows-7-check-complete-list/ |access-date=2026-03-12 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

==National Film Awards==
The [[National Film Awards]] are awarded by the [[Government of India]]'s [[Directorate of Film Festivals]] division for achievements in the [[Indian film industry]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Sengupta |first=Ratnottama |title=Is it time to redesign National Film Awards' two-tier jury? |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Is-it-time-to-redesign-National-Film-Awards-two-tier-jury/articleshow/33041432.cms |access-date=19 December 2014 |work=The Times of India |date=1 April 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407204531/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Is-it-time-to-redesign-National-Film-Awards-two-tier-jury/articleshow/33041432.cms |archive-date= 7 April 2014 }}</ref> Vidya has received one award.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"|[[59th National Film Awards|2011]]
|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
|[[National Film Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="National">{{cite news|last=Jebaraj |first=Priscilla |title=Byari, a winning debut; Vidya Balan best actress |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/article2969914.ece |access-date=25 October 2013 |work=The Hindu |date=7 March 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031020847/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/article2969914.ece |archive-date=31 October 2013 }}</ref>
|}

==People's Choice Awards India==
The Indian version of the American [[People's Choice Awards]], the [[People's Choice Awards India]], is awarded to recognize talents in Indian film, television, music and sports.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bhushan |first=Nyay |title=People's Choice Awards to Launch in India |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/peoples-choice-awards-launching-india-381417 |access-date=16 December 2014 |work=The Hollywood Reporters |date=20 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206064342/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/peoples-choice-awards-launching-india-381417 |archive-date= 6 February 2015 }}</ref> Vidya has received one nomination.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"| 2012
| ''[[Kahaani]]''
| Favourite Actress
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite video|title=Katrina Kaif wins Favorite Movie Actress at the People's Choice Awards 2012 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9TukfyUPaUY |date=12 December 2012 |access-date=1 January 2015 |publisher=[[Viacom 18]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308030025/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9TukfyUPaUY |archive-date= 8 March 2016 }}</ref>
|}

==Producers Guild Film Awards==
The [[Producers Guild Film Awards]] (previously knows as Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards) is an annual event originated by the Film Producers Guild of India.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for Apsara awards on May 6 |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/1173415/Nominations-for-Apsara-awards-on-May-6th |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=11 August 2014 |date=5 March 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216203239/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/1173415/Nominations-for-Apsara-awards-on-May-6th |archive-date=16 December 2014 }}</ref> Vidya has received five awards.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"|2006
| rowspan="2"|''[[Parineeta (2005 film)|Parineeta]]''
|[[Producers Guild Film Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role|Best Actress]]
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/>
|-
|[[Producers Guild Film Award for Best Female Debut|Best Female Debut]]
| {{won}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"|2011
|''[[Paa (film)|Paa]]''
| Best Actress – Special Honour{{efn|Some of the special honours were awarded to the films released in 2009, as there was no ceremony in 2010.<ref name="sph"/>}}
| {{won}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="sph">{{cite news|title=Dabangg sweeps Apsara awards |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/dabangg-sweeps-apsara-awards/article1088694.ece |access-date=26 October 2013 |work=The Hindu |date=13 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029213937/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/dabangg-sweeps-apsara-awards/article1088694.ece |archive-date=29 October 2013 }}</ref>
|-
|''[[Ishqiya]]''
| rowspan="3" |Best Actress
| {{won}}
|-
! scope="row"|2012
|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Enchanting moments from the Apsara Awards |url=http://www.ndtv.com/photos/entertainment/enchanting-moments-from-the-apsara-awards-12204/slide/3 |access-date=29 October 2013 |publisher=NDTV |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030025114/http://www.ndtv.com/photos/entertainment/enchanting-moments-from-the-apsara-awards-12204/slide/3 |archive-date=30 October 2013 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| 2013
| ''[[Kahaani]]''
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Winners Of Renault Star Guild Awards 2013 |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/4564/ |date=18 February 2013 |access-date=14 August 2014 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220045056/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/4564/ |archive-date=20 December 2014 }}</ref>
|}

==Screen Awards==
The [[Screen Awards]] ceremony is organised by the [[Indian Express Limited]] to members of Hindi and Marathi cinema.<ref>{{cite news|title=Screen Awards to commemorate 'heroes' |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/screen-awards-to-commemorate-heroes/1212422/ |access-date=19 December 2014 |work=The Indian Express |date=9 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407043645/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/screen-awards-to-commemorate-heroes/1212422/ |archive-date= 7 April 2014 }}</ref> Vidya has received six awards from ten nominations, including four consecutive [[Screen Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] wins.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vidya Balan, Paan Singh Tomar and Barfi! receive top awards |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/vidya-balan-paan-singh-tomar-and-barfi-receive-top-awards-1.592438/ |access-date=30 December 2014 |work=The National |date=14 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230034445/http://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/film/vidya-balan-paan-singh-tomar-and-barfi-receive-top-awards |archive-date=30 December 2014 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"|2006
|''[[Parineeta (2005 film)|Parineeta]]''
|[[Screen Award for Best Female Debut|Best Female Debut]]
| {{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Black sweeps Screen Awards |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/jan/12screen.htm |work=Rediff.com |access-date=24 August 2014 |date=12 January 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115425/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/jan/12screen.htm |archive-date=26 August 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"|2010
| rowspan="2"|''[[Paa (film)|Paa]]''
|[[Screen Award for Best Actress (Popular Choice)|Best Actress – Popular Choice]]
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/>
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Screen Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
| {{won}}
|-
! scope="row"|2011
|''[[Ishqiya]]''
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=17th Screen Awards: Complete list of winners|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/17th-screen-awards-complete-list-of-winners/734605|access-date=3 January 2013|work=The Indian Express|date=7 January 2011}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3"|2012
|''[[No One Killed Jessica]]''
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="awards"/> <ref>{{cite news|title=Playing Favourites|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/playing-favourites/896285/|date=6 January 2012|access-date=6 January 2012|work=The Indian Express}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2"|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
|{{won}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |Best Actress – Popular Choice
| {{nom}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"|2013
| rowspan="2"|''[[Kahaani]]''
| {{nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title=Screen Awards 2013: Hall of Fame|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/screen-awards-2013-hall-of-fame/1060726/|access-date=5 December 2013|date=18 January 2013|work=The Indian Express}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | Best Actress
| {{won}}
|-
! scope="row"|2017
|''[[Tumhari Sulu]]''
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
|}

==Stardust Awards==
The [[Stardust Awards]] are an annual event organised by Magna Publishing Company Limited.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kadam |first=Anup |title=Press release: Sansui Colors Stardust Awards |url=http://colors.in.com/in/news/press-release-sansui-colors-stardust-awards-2277.html |publisher=[[Viacom 18]] |date=10 December 2014 |access-date=14 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150107021146/http://colors.in.com/in/news/press-release-sansui-colors-stardust-awards-2277.html |archive-date= 7 January 2015 }}</ref> Vidya has won five awards from thirteen nominations.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row"| 2006
|''[[Parineeta (2005 film)|Parineeta]]''
|rowspan="2"|[[Stardust Award for Superstar of Tomorrow – Female|Female Superstar of Tomorrow]]
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|title='Black' sweeps Stardust awards: Amitabh, Rani adjudged best |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/news/article/Black-sweeps-Stardust-awards-Amitabh--Rani-adjudged-best/348756 |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |date=15 January 2006 |access-date=14 December 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220102821/http://www.outlookindia.com/news/article/Black-sweeps-Stardust-awards-Amitabh--Rani-adjudged-best/348756 |archive-date=20 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| 2007
|''[[Lage Raho Munna Bhai]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web |title=Max Stardust Awards Nominations |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/max-stardust-awards-nominations-news-bollywood-kkfvfAdhhdjsi.html |website=[[Sify]] |date=24 January 2007 |access-date=14 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218132217/http://www.sify.com/movies/max-stardust-awards-nominations-news-bollywood-kkfvfAdhhdjsi.html |archive-date=18 February 2015 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| 2008
| ''[[Guru (2007 film)|Guru]]''
| [[Stardust Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/>
|-
! scope="row"| 2010
|''[[Paa (film)|Paa]]''
|[[Stardust Award for Star of the Year – Female|Female Star of the Year]]
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for Max Stardust Awards 2010 |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/644/ |access-date=14 December 2014 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=16 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207205823/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/644/ |archive-date= 7 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"|2011
| rowspan="2"|''[[Ishqiya]]''
|[[Stardust Award for Best Actress in a Thriller or Action|Best Actress in a Thriller or Action]]
| {{won}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations of Stardust Awards 2011 |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/1786/ |date=22 January 2011 |access-date=4 January 2013 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213022753/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/1786/ |archive-date=13 December 2014 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite video|title=Max Stardust Awards 2011 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jikNM6RkASo |access-date=3 January 2013 |date=19 February 2011 |publisher=[[SET India Pvt. Ltd.]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307124321/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jikNM6RkASo |archive-date= 7 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |Female Star of the Year
|{{nom}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="4"|2012
| rowspan="2"|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
| {{won}}
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite video|title=MAX Stardust Awards - Best Actress Drama Award - Vidya Balan |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jT9upcexKF4 |access-date=3 January 2013 |date=25 February 2012 |publisher=SET India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630042553/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jT9upcexKF4 |archive-date=30 June 2016 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=The Dirty Picture (2011) — Awards |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/awards/id/537915 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230005411/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/awards/id/537915 |archive-date=30 December 2014 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite video|title=MAX Stardust Awards - Star of the Year Female - Vidya Balan |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2gFmHcsqNqA |access-date=3 January 2013 |date=25 February 2012 |publisher=SET India |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308041656/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2gFmHcsqNqA |archive-date= 8 March 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Stardust Award for Best Drama Actress|Best Actress in a Drama]]
| {{won}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|''[[No One Killed Jessica]]''
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |Female Star of the Year
| {{nom}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"|2013
| rowspan="2"|''[[Kahaani]]''
|{{nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web |title=Stardust Awards 2013: list of winners |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/stardust-awards-2013-list-of-winners-610426 |access-date=17 September 2014 |publisher=NDTV |date=27 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917224935/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/stardust-awards-2013-list-of-winners-610426 |archive-date=17 September 2014 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for Stardust Awards 2013 |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/features/type/view/id/4437 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=22 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123203049/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/features/type/view/id/4437 |archive-date=23 January 2013 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Kahaani (2012) — Awards |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/awards/id/542221 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=29 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101210119/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/moviemicro/awards/id/542221 |archive-date= 1 November 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |Best Actress in a Thriller or Action
|{{won}}
|-
! scope="row"|2014
| ''[[Bobby Jasoos]]''
|{{nom}}
|style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for Stardust Awards 2014 |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/7612 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=8 December 2014 |access-date=8 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210064653/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/7612 |archive-date=10 December 2014 }}</ref>
|}

==Zee Cine Awards==
The [[Zee Cine Awards]] are an annual award ceremony organised by the [[Zee Entertainment Enterprises]].<ref name="Kavoori">{{cite book|last1=Punathambekar |first1=Aswin |last2=Kavoori |first2=Anandam P. |title=Global Bollywood |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CqERCzWn5gC&pg=PA102 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-2944-1 |page=102 |date=2008-08-01 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117112517/https://books.google.com/books?id=2CqERCzWn5gC |archive-date=17 January 2017 }}</ref> Vidya has received five awards.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:35%;"|Nominated work
! scope="col" style="width:50%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="2" scope="row" |2006
| rowspan="2"|''[[Parineeta (2005 film)|Parineeta]]''
|[[Zee Cine Award for Best Female Debut|Best Female Debut]]
|{{won}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="oldawards"/>
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female|Best Actress]]
|{{nom}}
|-
| scope="row" |2008
|''[[Bhool Bhulaiyaa]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite video|date=26 April 2008 |title=Best Actor Female |url=http://www.zeecineawards.com/2008/videos/best-actor-female-1.html |publisher=[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises]] |access-date=14 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214110354/http://www.zeecineawards.com/2008/videos/best-actor-female-1.html |archive-date=14 December 2014 }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" |2011
|''[[Ishqiya]]''
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web |title=SRK, Dabangg big winners at Zee Cine Awards |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/srk-dabangg-big-winners-at-zee-cine-awards-598312 |publisher=NDTV |access-date=5 December 2013 |date=15 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915110650/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/srk-dabangg-big-winners-at-zee-cine-awards-598312 |archive-date=15 September 2015 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" scope="row" |2012
| rowspan="2"|''[[The Dirty Picture]]''
|{{won}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/3007/ |title=Winners of Zee Cine Awards 2012 |access-date=1 February 2012 |date=23 January 2012 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131082055/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/3007 |archive-date=31 January 2012 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Zee Cine Critics Award for Best Actor – Female|Best Actress (Critics)]]
|{{won}}
|-
| rowspan="2" scope="row" | 2013
| rowspan="2" | ''[[Kahaani]]''
|{{won}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/4376/ |title=Winners of Zee Cine Awards 2013 |access-date=14 December 2014 |date=7 January 2013 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924142031/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/4376/ |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/4349 |title=Nominations for Zee Cine Awards 2013 |access-date=14 December 2014 |date=29 December 2012 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130102135744/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/4349 |archive-date= 2 January 2013 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |Best Actress
|{{nom}}
|-
| scope="row" |2017
|''[[Kahaani 2: Durga Rani Singh]]''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Nominations for Zee Cine Awards 2017 |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/nominations-zee-cine-awards-2017/ |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=8 December 2016 |date=8 December 2017 }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |2018
| rowspan="2" |''[[Tumhari Sulu]]''
|Best Actor – Female (Viewer's Choice)
|{{Nom}}
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zeecineawards.com/timeline/2018/winners/|title=2018 Archives - Zee Cine Awards|website=Zee Cine Awards|language=en-US|access-date=2017-12-31}}</ref>
|-
|Best Actor – Female (Jury's Choice)
|{{Nom}}
|}

==Other awards and honours==

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="width:80%;"
|-
! scope="col" style="width:4%;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:25%;"| Nominated work
! scope="col" style="wodth:30%;"| Award
! scope="col" style="width:30%;"| Category
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| Result
! scope="col" style="width:6%;"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| scope="row" |2014
|{{mdash}}
|[[Padma Shri]]
|{{mdash}}
|{{won|Honoured}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref name="Padma Shri">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Leander-Paes-Yuvraj-Singh-Kamal-Haasan-Vidya-Balan-get-Padma-awards/articleshow/29366022.cms |title=Leander Paes, Yuvraj Singh, Kamal Haasan, Vidya Balan get Padma awards |work=The Times of India |date=25 January 2014 |access-date=25 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140126094842/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Leander-Paes-Yuvraj-Singh-Kamal-Haasan-Vidya-Balan-get-Padma-awards/articleshow/29366022.cms |archive-date=26 January 2014 }}</ref>
|-
|2015
|Outstanding Contribution in Indian Cinema
|[[Raj Kapoor Special Contribution Award]]
|{{Dash}}
|{{Won|Honoured}}
|
|-
| scope="row" |2016
|{{mdash}}
|[[Indian Film Festival of Melbourne]]
|Female Empowerment Award
|{{won}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|last=Awaasthi |first=Kavita |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/vidya-balan-bags-yet-another-award-this-time-in-australia/story-3p53cUOoWKorZsRY03R1cK.html |title=Vidya Balan bags yet another award, this time in Australia |work=Hindustan Times |date=19 August 2016 |access-date=20 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819194225/http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/vidya-balan-bags-yet-another-award-this-time-in-australia/story-3p53cUOoWKorZsRY03R1cK.html |archive-date=19 August 2016 }}</ref>
|-
| scope="row" |2018
|''[[Tumhari Sulu]]''
|[[Indian Film Festival of Melbourne]]
|Best Actress
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/iffm-indian-film-festival-of-melbourne-awards-2018-sanju-padmaavat-5256831/ |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=12 July 2018 |agency=Indo-Asian News Service |title=Sanju and Padmaavat get most nominations at Indian Film Festival of Melbourne Awards 2018 |location=Mumbai, India |access-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713201707/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/iffm-indian-film-festival-of-melbourne-awards-2018-sanju-padmaavat-5256831/ |archive-date=13 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|}

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|1799038|section=awards|Vidya Balan}}

{{Portal bar|Film|Bollywood}}

{{featured list}}

[[Category:Lists of awards received by Indian actor|Balan, Vidya]]

Angika

2026-03-09T15:22:38Z

Ankithreddy:

{{short description|Indo-Aryan language}}
{{distinguish|Angal language|Angami language|Angor language}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{split|date=August 2024|discuss=Talk:Angika#Splitting_proposal|part=y}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Angika
| altname = 
| nativename = {{hlist|
| {{nowrap|{{lang|anp|अंगिका}}}}
| {{nowrap|{{lang|anp|अङ्गिका}}}}
| {{nowrap|{{lang|anp|অঙ্গিকা}}}}
| {{nowrap|{{lang|anp|𑂃𑂑𑂹𑂏𑂱𑂍𑂰}}}}
}} {{Tlit|anp|Aṁgikā, Aṅgikā}}
| acceptance = 
| image = {{Photomontage|position=center
| photo1a = Angika language.svg
| size = 250
| spacing = 2
| color =
| Bold = 100
| border = 3
| foot_montage = }}
| imagescale =
| imagealt = The word "Angika" in Devanagari (अंगिका)
| imagecaption = The word "Angika" written in Devanagari script
| pronunciation = {{IPA|anp|ɐ̃ŋgiˈka||Anp-angika.ogg}}
| states = [[India]] and [[Nepal]]<ref name="Glottolog">{{Cite web |title=Glottolog 5.2 - Angika |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/angi1238 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250602222847/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/angi1238 |archive-date=2025-06-02 |access-date=2025-09-10 |website=glottolog.org |language=en}}</ref>
| region = [[Anga (region)|Anga]] (eastern [[Bihar]] and northeastern [[Jharkhand]], as well as [[Morang District|Morang]] and [[Sunsari District|Sunsari]] districts, Nepal)<ref name="Ethnologue">{{Cite web |title=Angika - Ethnologue: Languages of the World |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/anp/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180321130607/https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/anp/ |archive-date=2018-03-21 |access-date=2025-09-11 |website=ethnologue.com |language=en}}</ref>
| creator = 
| created = 
| setting = 
| ethnicity = [[Angika people]]<ref name="Alam">{{Cite journal |last1=Alam |first1=Badshah |last2=Dubey |first2=Prabhat Kumar |last3=Shukla |first3=Ashutosh Kumar |last4=Kumari |first4=Junny |date=2023 |title=Understanding The Role Of Folk Ballad Songs As Medium Of Mass Communication In Rural India |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380611437 |journal=Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=3912 |access-date=2025-09-12}}</ref><ref name="Regmi">{{cite report |last=Regmi |first=Ambika |date=April 2017 |location=Kathmandu, Nepal |title=A Sociolinguistic Survey of Angika |url=https://portal.tu.edu.np/downloads/Angika_2023_09_30_11_15_16.pdf |department=Central Department of Linguistics |work=Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN) |language=en |publisher=[[Tribhuvan University]] |url-status=live |access-date=2025-09-12}}</ref>
| extinct = 
| era = 
| speakers = {{Unbulleted list
| [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|743,600|2}} (1997/2011){{efn|Ethnologue’s figure combines the 1997 Indian census with the 2011 Nepal census.}}
| [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|1,730|2}} (2011, Nepal)
| Total census: {{sigfig|745,330|2}}<ref name="Ethnologue"/>{{efn|The figures significantly undercount Angika because census practices register speakers under “Hindi”, and societal and official pressures lead many to report it as their mother tongue.<ref name="Kidwai">{{Cite journal |last=Kidwai |first=Ayesha |date=April–June 2008 |title=Managing Multilingual India |url=https://cpim.org/wp-content/uploads/old/marxist/200802_marxist_multilingual%20india-ayesha%20kidwai.pdf |journal=The Marxist |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=1–7 |access-date=2025-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Acl">{{Cite conference |last1=Proisl |first1=Thomas |last2=Uhrig |first2=Peter |last3=Blombach |first3=Andreas |last4=Dykes |first4=Natalie |last5=Heinrich |first5=Philipp |last6=Kabashi |first6=Besim |last7=Mammarella |first7=Sefora |date=2019 |title=The_Illiterati: Part-of-Speech Tagging for Magahi and Bhojpuri without Even Knowing the Alphabet |book-title=Proceedings of The First International Workshop on NLP Solutions for Under Resourced Languages (NSURL 2019) co-located with ICNLSP 2019-Short Papers |publisher=European Language Resources Association (ELRA) |location=Trento, Italy |pages=73–79 |url=https://aclanthology.org/2019.nsurl-1.11.pdf |access-date=2025-09-11}}</ref><ref name="Outlook">{{Cite web |last=Bhattacharya |first=Snigdhendu |date=2022-05-09 |title=How Grouping Of Languages Inflated Number Of Hindi Speakers |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/how-grouping-of-languages-inflated-number-of-hindi-speakers-news-195648 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915124746/https://www.outlookindia.com/national/how-grouping-of-languages-inflated-number-of-hindi-speakers-news-195648 |archive-date=2023-09-15 |access-date=2025-09-11 |website=Outlook India |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Shuddhashar">{{cite magazine |last=Shubham |first=Shreeti |date=2022-10-31 |location=Skien, Norway |title="Languages" to "dialects of Hindi": A relegation of the languages of Bihar in the agenda of Hindi nationalism |url=https://shuddhashar.com/languages-to-dialects-of-hindi-a-relegation-of-the-languages-of-bihar-in-the-agenda-of-hindi-nationalism |magazine=Shuddhashar |language=en |issue=31 ("Cultural Genocide") |issn=2535-7476 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921123503/https://shuddhashar.com/languages-to-dialects-of-hindi-a-relegation-of-the-languages-of-bihar-in-the-agenda-of-hindi-nationalism |archive-date=2023-09-21 |access-date=2025-09-12}}</ref>}}
| Total estimate: 30–50 million (2001)<ref name="Regmi"/>}}
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| ancestor = [[Magadhi Prakrit]] 
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* [[Devanagari]]
* [[Kaithi]] (formerly)
* [[Anga Lipi]] (historical)
{{endplainlist}}
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* [[Jharkhand]] (second state language)<ref name="Mishra">{{Cite news |last=Mishra |first=Sudhir Kumar |date=2018-03-22 |title=Bhojpuri, 3 more to get official tag |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/bhojpuri-3-more-to-get-official-tag/cid/1365478 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322204611/https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/jharkhand/bhojpuri-3-more-to-get-official-tag-217369 |archive-date=2018-03-22 |access-date=2025-09-14 |work=[[The Telegraph (India)]] |language=en |publication-place=Ranchi |quote=The cabinet on Wednesday resolved to promulgate an ordinance to grant second official language status to Maithili, Angika, Bhojpuri and Magahi, in addition to 12 existing ones.}}</ref>
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| map = Map of Angika-speaking region.svg
| mapscale = 
| mapalt = Angika-speaking region
| mapcaption = Map of eastern India and Nepal showing the region where Angika is spoken.
| map2 = [[File:Lang Status 80-VU.svg|frameless|288px]]
| mapalt2 = Classified as a vulnerable language by UNESCO.
| mapcaption2 = Classified as "Vulnerable" (VU) by UNESCO's ''Atlas of the world's languages in danger''.<ref name="UNESCO">{{Cite book |author-link=[[UNESCO]] |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026 |title=Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |publisher=[[UNESCO Publishing]] |others=Cartography by Alexandre Nicolas |year=2010 |isbn=978-92-3-104096-2 |editor-last=Moseley |editor-first=Christopher |edition=3rd |series=Memory of peoples |location=Paris |pages=140, 202, 204 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250815023017/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000187026 |archive-date=2025-08-15 |access-date=2025-09-14 |url-status=live}}</ref>
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{{InterWiki|code=anp}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}
'''Angika''' (also known as ''Anga'', ''Angikar'' or ''Chhika-Chhiki'')<ref name="Ethnologue"/> is an [[Eastern Indo-Aryan language]] spoken in some parts of the Indian states of [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]], as well as in parts of Nepal.<ref name="Ethnologue"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Experts |first=Arihant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIJjEAAAQBAJ&dq=anga+(region)+jharkhand&pg=RA3-PA60 |title=Jharkhand Sahivalye JGGLCCE Main Exam Paper 3 (General Knowledge) 2022 |date=1 February 2022 |publisher=Arihant Publications India limited |isbn=978-93-257-9990-5 |language=en}}</ref>

Angika is closely related to neighbouring Indic languages such as [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Magahi language|Magahi]]. Historically it was written in a separate script known as '[[Anga Lipi]]'.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Kumari |first1=Khusbu |last2=Upadhyay |first2=Ramanjaney Kumar |date=17 June 2020 |url=https://archives.palarch.nl/index.php/jae/article/download/1956/1934 |title=Socio-Cultural Aspects of Angika |journal=Palarch's Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology |volume=17 |issue=6 |page=6798}}</ref> Later writers shifted to [[Kaithi script|Kaithi Script]] and eventually to [[Devanagari script|Devanagari Script]].<ref name=":2"/> Angika has been declared as an additional official language of Jharkhand.

== Controversy around relationship with Maithili ==
There is an ongoing debate over whether Angika is a dialect of Maithili or a distinct language. British linguist [[George Abraham Grierson]] classified Angika as a dialect of Maithili in his [[Linguistic Survey of India]] (early 20th century), a view that held historically.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grierson |first=George Abraham |title=An introduction to the Maithili dialect of the Bihari language as spoken in North Bihar |url=http://archive.org/details/introductiontoma00grierich |journal=Asiatic Society (Calcutta, India) Journal and proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal}}</ref> [[Rahul Sankrityayan]] classified Angika as a distinct dialect, separate from the Maithili spoken in [[Darbhanga district|Darbhanga]] and [[Madhubani district|Madhubani]]. His works from the 1950s popularized the term "Angika" for what George Grierson had earlier classified as the "Chhika-Chhiki" southern dialect of Maithili in the Linguistic Survey of India (1903).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shanu |first=Swati |last2=Shekhar |first2=Shashank |date=2025 |title=Sociolinguistic study: Linguistic variation of Bhagalpur (2024) |url=https://www.englishjournal.net/archives/2025.v7.i1.E.337/sociolinguistic-study-linguistic-variation-of-bhagalpur-2024 |journal=International Journal of Research in English |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=279–283 |doi=10.33545/26648717.2025.v7.i1e.337 |issn=2664-8725}}</ref> Based on this, the Angika proponents since the 1970s have asserted a separate linguistic identity from Maithili.

During the 1960-70 Maithili movement, which sought inclusion of Maithili in the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Eighth Schedule]] of the [[Constitution of India|Indian Constitution]] and its use in primary education, Angika intellectuals supported Hindi-medium instruction instead. They began demanding recognition for Angika as a separate language.

Maithils view this as a tactic by the pro-Hindi Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad to undermine the Maithili movement. They argue that the Parishad promoted Maithili dialects like Angika and [[Bajjika]] as independent languages to sow divisions within Maithili speakers and society.

== Official status ==
Angika is not listed in the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|8th schedule of the constitution of India]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://pib.nic.in/release/rel_print_page.asp?relid=5928 | title = Languages in the Eighth Schedule | publisher = Ministry of Home Affairs | date = 22 December 2004 | access-date = 5 May 2011 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130430162547/http://pib.nic.in/release/rel_print_page.asp?relid=5928 | archive-date = 30 April 2013 }}</ref>

Angika has the status of "Second State language" in the Indian state of [[Jharkhand]] since 2018. It shares this status with 15 other languages, including Maithili.<ref name="Mishra"/><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.uniindia.com/~/jharkhand-gives-2nd-language-status-to-magahi-angika-bhojpuri-and-maithali/States/news/1175423.html |title=Jharkhand gives 2nd language status to Magahi, Angika, Bhojpuri and Maithali |publisher=[[United News of India]] |date=21 March 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324102352/http://www.uniindia.com/~/jharkhand-gives-2nd-language-status-to-magahi-angika-bhojpuri-and-maithali/States/news/1175423.html |archive-date=24 March 2018 }}</ref>

==Literature==
[[Naresh Pandey Chakor]] had written the first ever novel in Angika titled ''Kisan Ke Jagab''.{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

==Vocabulary==
===Sample Vocabulary===
; Everyday nouns
* '''dokān''': 'shop'

; Animals
* '''kuttā''': 'dog'
* '''ṭikṭikiyā''': 'lizard'
* '''leru / leruyā''': 'calf (young)'

; Plants & crops
* '''nemu''': 'lemon'
* '''cāur''': 'paddy; unhusked rice' (also in Magahi and Maithili)
* '''ketārī / ketāṛī''': 'sugarcane'
* '''bāṅgā''': 'cotton'

; Food items
* '''manda / maṇra''': 'maize bread'

; Pronouns & address
* '''apne''': formal/honorific 2nd-person 'you'

; Postpositions / case markers (illustrative)
* '''-ra''', '''-ker''': genitive 'of'
* '''-san''': ablative 'from' (e.g., '''hamrāsan''' 'from me')

; Semantic notes
* '''ḍābl''' (< Eng. ''double''): 'very big' (intensifier) in colloquial use.

===Sample sentences===
* हम जायचे। (''Ham jāyce''): 'I am going.'
* हम गैली। (''Ham gailī''): 'I went.'
* हम जाइबो। (''Ham jāibo''): 'I will go.'

==Anga region==
Angika is mainly spoken in south-eastern [[Bihar]], including most of [[Munger division|Munger]], the whole of [[Bhagalpur division]] and some south eastern parts of [[Purnia division]] along with the [[Santhal Pargana division]] of [[Jharkhand]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Experts |first=Arihant |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIJjEAAAQBAJ&dq=anga+(region)+jharkhand&pg=RA3-PA60 |title=Jharkhand Sahivalye JGGLCCE Main Exam Paper 3 (General Knowledge) 2022 |date=1 February 2022 |publisher=Arihant Publications India limited |isbn=978-93-257-9990-5 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Masica|1993|p=12}}<ref name=":2"/>{{sfn|Masica|1993|p=12}} Its speakers number around 15 million people.<ref name="Sevanti Ninan 2007 61">{{cite book |author=Sevanti Ninan |title=Headlines From the Heartland: Reinventing the Hindi Public Sphere |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QHRNs4Pt2YAC&pg=PA61 |year=2007 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-7619-3580-3 |page=61 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511100606/https://books.google.com/books?id=QHRNs4Pt2YAC&pg=PA61 |archive-date=11 May 2018}}</ref> The region where Angika is spoken is popularly known as '''Anga''', '''Ang Pradesh''' and '''Angika-Belt'''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pandey |first=Mithila Sharan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F80BAAAAMAAJ |title=The Historical Geography and Topography of Bihar |date=1963 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2657-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kapur |first1=Veena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3v1oDwAAQBAJ |title=Dynamic Learning Spaces in Education |last2=Ghose |first2=Sudipta |date=14 August 2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-10-8521-5 |language=en}}</ref>
Apart from Bihar and Jharkhand states of India, it is also spoken in the [[Morang district]] of Nepalese Terai as a minority language. 1.9% people of Morang returned Angika as their mother tongue during the [[2011 Nepal census]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |title=2011 Nepal Census, Social Characteristics Tables |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314170005/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2018/12/Volume05Part02.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Angika culture==
=== Festival ===
[[File:Mansa Puja in Bhagalpur.jpg|right|thumb|Mansa Puja (Vishari Puja), the folk festival of Anga Region, celebration in Deepnagar Chowk, [[Bhagalpur]].]]
Festivals are the core part cultural part of the community. Anga celebrates the festivals of all daith with great enthusiasm and zeal. However, [[Manasa]] Puja<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2020 |title=Behula Bisahari |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/bihar/bhagalpur/bala-bihula-vishahari-worship-is-the-folklore-of-the-organ-learn-what-is-recognition}}</ref> (Based on Behula Vishahari folklore) and [[Kali Puja]] are two examples of intangible cultural heritage of the region. Apart from these, Durga Puja, Saraswati Puja, Chhath Puja, Biswakarma Puja, Kali Puja, Basanti Puja, Holi and Karma-Dharma puja too hold a great significance for the region.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

* '''Manasa Puja (Bihula-Vishari Puja)'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bihula Vishhari: जानिए बिहुला-विषहरी की पूरी कहानी, क्या है बारी कलश की मान्यता |url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/bihar-jharkhand/patna/know-the-full-story-of-bihula-vishhari-what-is-the-importance-of-bari-kalash/1307472 |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Zee News |language=hi}}</ref>

Manasa Puja is the folk festival In Bihar's Ang region. It is the biggest festival of Anga. '''[[Champapuri]]''' the capital of Ang Pradesh is the main temple of Maa Vishari.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 August 2020 |title=अंग की लोकगाथा है बाला-बिहुला-विषहरी पूजा, ...जानें क्या है मान्यता? |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/bihar/bhagalpur/bala-bihula-vishahari-worship-is-the-folklore-of-the-organ-learn-what-is-recognition |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref> '''Maa Manasa''' is regarded as Goddess of Serpants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Story of Goddess Manasa |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/story-of-goddess-manasa/ewXxxyq4sezQew |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Google Arts & Culture |language=en}}</ref> Even today, the tradition of Manasa (Bihula-Vishhari) Puja, which has been going on since mythological times, continues. Mata Mansa is worshiped in Bihula-Vishhari. Maa Mansa is said to be the daughter of Shiva and the sister of Vasuki sitting as a garland around Mahadev's neck. Mythological beliefs of Bihula Vishhari story of Champanagar of Ang Pradesh are spread everywhere. Its facts are also found in the remains of Vikramshila even two historical [[murti]]s of Maa Manasa have been found from the ruins.<ref>{{Cite web |title=मां विषहरी पूजा: बिहुला विषहरी की गाथा का साक्षी है अंग का इतिहास |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/bhagalpur/story-history-of-angh-mother-vishahari-worship-and-bihula-is-a-witness-of-vishahari-worship-2693163.html |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Hindustan |date=17 August 2019 |language=hi}}</ref>

* '''Kali Puja'''

Anga is famous for the way of its Kali Puja Celebration which is one of the most celebrated festivals of the whole region. Together with Manasa Puja, it is ''intangible cultural heritage festival of Anga''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 October 2022 |title=PHOTOS: बिहार के भागलपुर में 32 फीट की काली प्रतिमा, देखें जिले में स्थापित देवी की और भी तस्वीरें |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/bihar/bhagalpur-kali-puja-2022-pics-see-latest-photo-of-kali-murti-in-bhagalpur-bihar-skt |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref>
* '''Chhath Puja'''

As per Legends, [[Chhath|Chhath Puja]] stems from the early [[Vedic period]], where sages would fast for days and perform the puja with mantras from [[Rigveda]]. It is believed that Chhath Puja was also performed by [[Karna]], the son of [[Surya|Lord Surya]] and the King of [[Anga]]. It is therefore celebrated in every region of [[Bihar]] with full enthusiasm and is termed as '''Mahaparv''' for [[Biharis]].It is very popular festival in the Anga region<ref>{{Cite web |title=जानिए छठ पर्व का महत्व, कर्ण ने सबसे पहले की थी सूर्य देव की पूजा |url=https://www.amarujala.com/photo-gallery/uttar-pradesh/kanpur/knpw-about-chhath-pooja-and-karna |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Amar Ujala |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2019 |title=Chhath Puja 2019: History, significance, and why it is celebrated |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/more-lifestyle/chhath-puja-2019-history-significance-and-why-it-is-celebrated/story-SmMIr4U3oNcHhFCejiokSN.html |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=नगरपारा दह में छठ पर्व का दिखा उत्साह |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/bhagalpur/story-the-enthusiasm-of-chhath-festival-was-shown-in-nagarpara-dah-7290635.html |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Hindustan |date=November 2022 |language=hi}}</ref>
[[File:Narayanpur Ganga Ghat, Chhath Puja,Bhagalpur district.jpg|center|thumb|Chhath Celebration in Narayanpur, Bhagalpur]]

* '''Karma-Dharma puja'''
[[File:Karma-Dharma.jpg|center|thumb|Glimpse of Karma-Dharma puja]]
Karma-dharma (Karma) Puja is an important Indian festival, primarily celebrated in the states of [[Jharkhand]], [[Bihar]], [[Assam]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[West Bengal]], and some other regions. This festival is grandly observed every year on the [[Ekadashi]] of the [[Shukla Paksha]] in the month of Bhadra. Karma Puja holds special significance in strengthening the bond of love and affection between brothers and sisters. On this day, people perform special prayers and rituals to strengthen family relationships. Karma and Dharma are the principal deities of this festival, and on this day, people express their devotion and faith towards them.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Rinki |date=14 September 2024 |title=Karma Puja 2024: करमा पूजा के बारे में जानें - इस महत्वपूर्ण त्योहार के महत्व, तिथि और शुभकामनाओं की जानकारी प्राप्त करें. जानिए कैसे यह पर्व भाई-बहन के रिश्ते को प्रगाढ़ बनाता है और क्या हैं इसके पूजा विधि के प्रमुख पहलू. |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/life-and-style/karma-puja-2024-wishes-quotes-in-hindi-date-importance-karma-puja-ki-hardik-subhkamnaye |work=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi |access-date=3 March 2025}}</ref>

===Angika cuisine===
[[Angika cuisine]] is predominantly consumed in the Anga region, and is characterised by the use of mustard oil, fish, and bamboo shoots. The famous Bihari Fish Curry, Sarse Baingan (a mustard preparation of eggplant), are beloved Angika delicacies. Other Angika cuisines are [[Ghugni|Ghugni-Mudi]], [[Thekua]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Bihari Cuisines- 4 regions,4 cuisines |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-and-museums/each-dish-is-a-story-in-itself-news-290954 |journal=Arts and Museum |date=31 May 2023 |pages=1}}</ref>
[[File:Bihari Ghoogni.webp|alt=Ghoogni|center|thumb|Bihari Style Ghughni which is served with Mudi]]
[[File:Sarsebaigan.jpg|center|thumb|Sarsebaigan (a unique delicious spicy Angika Cuisine of Mustard and Eggplant)]]

=== Manjusha Art ===
{{Main|Manjusha Art}}
Manjusha Art is an Indian art form. They are temple-shaped boxes comprising eight pillars. They are made of bamboo, jute, and paper. They also contain paintings of [[Hindu]] gods and goddesses and other characters. These boxes are used in Bishahari puja, a festival dedicated to Goddess Bishari that is celebrated in [[Bhagalpur]], [[Munger]] and entire Anga Region of Bihar, India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sinha |first=MR Ashok Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fgv2DwAAQBAJ&dq=Ang+Pradesh+Bihar&pg=PA105 |title=Bihar K Kaljai Shilpkar |date=1 August 2018 |publisher=Upendra Maharathi Shilp Anusandhan Sansthan |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/12335/rec/74 |title=''Indian court painting, 16th-19th century.'' |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1997 |isbn=0870997831 |location=[[New York City|New York]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sinha |first1=Rajiv Kumar |title=Manjusha Art: Reflections in Folk-Lore, Trade, and Regional History |last2=Pandey |first2=O.P |publisher=Shivalik Prakashan |oclc=811492081}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Manjusha Art of Eastern Bihar |url=https://www.sahapedia.org/manjusha-art-eastern-bihar |access-date=4 August 2023 |website=Sahapedia |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Manjusha Painting of Map of Bihar.png|center|thumb|Manjusha Painting (Map of Bihar in the Manjusha Painting portraying a great message)]]

=== Music and drama ===
[[File:युवा कलाकारों द्वारा अंगिका लोक गीत की प्रस्तुति अंग की धरती भागलपुर में ।.webm|thumb|Angika Folk Song performance during Ang Mahotsav in Anga Region]]
Music and drama plays a crucial role in Ang Culture,<ref>{{Cite web |title=पीजी संगीत व नाट्य विभाग में अंगिका सह मिथिला लोकपर्व का आयोजन |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/darbhanga/story-angika-cum-mithila-folk-festival-organized-in-pg-music-and-drama-department-5325065.html |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=Hindustan |date=14 December 2021 |language=hi}}</ref> although it is not so famous but is a daily part of lifestyle in Anga Region. There is also a Music Industry and film industry Angika Music Industry and Angika Film Industry which provides regional music and films based on good story-lines.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Samdhi Kahiya Jaibho Angika Comedy 2023 |url=https://filmfreeway.com/SamdhiKahiyaJaibhoAngikaComedy2023 |access-date=4 August 2023 |website=FilmFreeway |language=en}}</ref> [[Sharda Sinha]], a famous folk singer of Bihar has covered more than 1500 songs in all Bihari languages including Angika.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 January 2022 |title=Sharda Sinha has more than 1500 folk songs in Angika, Bajjika, Maithili, Magahi and Bhojpuri languages. |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/patna/cant-lobby-for-a-rajya-sabha-or-vidhan-parishad-berth-sharda-sinha-7707292/ |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> During The 2023 Shravani Mela visit in [[Sultanganj]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=अंगिका कलाकारों के लिए संघर्ष करेंगे: छैला बिहारी |url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/bhagalpur/story-angika-will-fight-for-artists-chaila-bihari-8440139.html |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=Hindustan |date=15 July 2023 |language=hi}}</ref> '''Ang Mahotsav'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2023 |title=मुंगेर में बिहार दिवस सह अंग महोत्सव का हो रहा आयोजन, जानें 4 दिवसीय कार्यक्रम का शेड्यूल |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/bihar/munger-bihar-divas-2023-ang-mahotsav-is-being-organized-in-munger-from-21st-till-24th-march-5607533.html |access-date=7 August 2023 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bihar Diwas-cum-Anga Mahotsav 2023 {{!}} Munger District, Government of Bihar {{!}} India |url=https://munger.nic.in/event/bihar-diwas-cum-anga-mahotsav-2023/ |access-date=7 August 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref>''',''' a cultural festival of Music and Drama is held every year in The Anga Region and is a good platform to promote Angika.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 March 2018 |title=VIDEO: अंग महोत्सव में सुनील छैला बिहारी के गीतों पर जमकर झूमे लोग |url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/bihar/munger-people-enjoy-sunil-chhaila-bihari-songs-during-ang-mahotsav-in-munger-1311038.html |access-date=5 August 2023 |website=News18 हिंदी |language=hi}}</ref>

===Angika literature===
[[:mai:अनिलचन्द्र ठाकुर|Anil Chandra Thakur]], a renowned Angika poet from the [[Kosi River|Kosi]] region of [[Bihar]], gained prominence in the 1990s, celebrated for his acclaimed work, ''[https://www.google.com/books/edition/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%9A/4EpT_lxtqvgC?hl=en&gbpv=0 Kach]''.

'''Kinship Terms'''

Angika has a rich set of kinship terms. Here are some common ones:
{| class="wikitable"
!'''S. No.'''
!'''Kinship Term (Angika)'''
!'''Pronunciation (IPA)'''
!'''Meaning (English)'''
|-
|1
|'''बाप / बाबा'''
|/baːp/ /baːbu/
|Father
|-
|2
|'''माई / मों'''
|/maːi/ /mõ/
|Mother
|-
|3
|'''दादा'''
|/daːdaː/
|Elder Brother
|-
|4
|'''भैया / भाय'''
|/bʱɛːjaː/ /ʧʰoʈkaː/
|Younger Brother
|-
|5
|'''दीदी'''
|/diːdiː/
|Elder Sister
|-
|6
|'''बहीन/ बहनी'''
|/bɛɦiniyaː/
|Younger Sister
|-
|7
|'''बाबा/ददा'''
|/baːbaː/
|Paternal Grandfather
|-
|8
|'''दादी'''
|/daːdiː/
|Paternal Grandmother
|-
|9
|'''नाना'''
|/naːnaː/
|Maternal Grandfather
|-
|10
|'''नानी'''
|/naːniː/
|Maternal Grandmother
|-
|11
|'''चाचा'''
|/ʧaːʧaː/
|Uncle (Father’s younger brother)
|-
|12
|'''काका'''
|/kaːkaː/
|Uncle (Father’s elder brother)
|-
|13
|'''काकी'''
|/ʧaːʧiː/
|Aunt (Father’s brother’s wife)
|-
|14
|'''मामा'''
|/maːmaː/
|Uncle (Mother’s brother)
|-
|15
|'''मौसी'''
|/maʊsiː/
|Aunt (Mother’s sister)
|-
|16
|'''मौसा'''
|/maʊsaː/
|Uncle (Mother’s sister’s husband)
|-
|17
|'''ससुर'''
|/sʌsʊr/
|Father-in-law
|-
|18
|'''सास'''
|/saːs/
|Mother-in-law
|-
|19
|'''बेटा'''
|/beːʈaː/
|Son
|-
|20
|'''बेटी'''
|/beːʈiː/
|Daughter
|-
|21
|'''देओर'''
|/deːʋʌr/
|Brother-in-law (Husband’s brother)
|-
|22
|'''साला/सारौ'''
|/saːlaː/
|Brother-in-law (Wife’s brother)
|-
|23
|'''ननद'''
|/nʌnʌd/
|Sister-in-law (Husband’s sister)
|-
|24
|'''साली'''
|/saːliː/
|Sister-in-law (Wife’s sister)
|}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin P. |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&pg=PA12 |year=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2 }}
* {{cite LSI|5|2}} pp. [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=5-2&pages=466#page/27/mode/1up 13], [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=5-2&pages=466#page/110/mode/1up 95].
* {{cite book |editor=Kathleen Kuiper |title=The Culture of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8PJFLeURhsC&pg=PA57 |year=2010 |publisher=Rosen |isbn=978-1-61530-149-2 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Manish Kumar Thakur |title=The politics of minority languages: Some reflections on the Maithili language movement |journal=Journal of Social and Economic Development |volume=4 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=199–212 |url=http://irgu.unigoa.ac.in/drs/bitstream/handle/unigoa/1461/J_Social_Econ_Develop_4_199.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y }}
* {{cite book |author=Mithilesh Kumar Jha |title=Language Politics and Public Sphere in North India: Making of the Maithili Movement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-pIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT158 |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press India |isbn=978-0-19-909172-0 }}
* {{Cite web|title=An Crúbadán - Angika ( anp )|url=http://crubadan.org/languages/anp|access-date=1 September 2021|website=crubadan.org|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725033707/http://crubadan.org/languages/anp|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite web|date=8 May 2020|title=Angika Dictionary|url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/84670|access-date=1 September 2021|website=SIL International|language=en}}
{{refend}}{{Bihari languages}}
{{Languages of India}}
{{Languages of Nepal}}

{{authority control}}

{{coord missing|India}}

[[Category:Regions of Bihar]]
[[Category:Historical regions in India]]
[[Category:Cultural regions]]
[[Category:Anga]]
[[Category:Linguistic history]]
[[Category:Regions of India]]
[[Category:Regions of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Languages written in Devanagari]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Nepal]]
[[Category:Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Bihari languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Bihar]]
[[Category:Languages of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Maithili dialects]]

Kodandarama Temple, Gollala Mamidada

2026-03-09T13:10:47Z

Ankithreddy: added a location

{{short description|Hindu temple in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox temple
| name = Kodandarama Temple
| image = Gollalamamidada temple gopuram Eastgodavari.JPG
| caption = One of the gopurams of the temple
| alt =
| coordinates = {{coord|16|56|17.6|N|82|4|25.6|E|type:landmark_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = India Andhra Pradesh
| map_caption = Location in Andhra Pradesh
| deity = Kodandarama Swamy
| location = Gollala Mamidada
| district = [[Kakinada district|Kakinada]]
| state = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| country = [[India]]
| festivals = [[Sri Rama Navami]] [[Vaikuntha Ekadashi|Vaikunta Ekadasi]] [[Vijayadashami|Vijayadasami]]
| architecture =
| creator =
| year_completed =1956–58
| inscriptions =
| monument_quantity =
| temple_quantity =
| website =
|established=1889}}
'''Kodandarama Temple''' is a [[Hindus|Hindu]] temple located in Gollala Mamidada in [[Kakinada district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]. The temple is dedicated to [[Rama]], the seventh incarnation of [[Vishnu]]. It was built on the banks of Tulyabhaga (Antharvahini), a tributary of [[Godavari River|Godavari]].

The temple is notable for its unique architecture and two huge [[gopuram]]s which stand at 160–170 feet (49–52 m) and 200–210 feet (61–64 m).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=India|first=The Hans|date=2015-02-03|title=Gollala Mamidada to be AP's Bhadradri|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Andhra-Pradesh/2015-02-03/Gollala-Mamidada-to-be-APs-Bhadradri/129325|access-date=2020-10-30|website=www.thehansindia.com|language=en}}</ref> The temple gopurams are adorned with intricately carved statues depicting scenes from ''[[Ramayana]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', and [[Bhagavata Purana|''Bhagavata'']]. The construction of the temple began in 1889 when brothers Dwarampudi Subbi Reddy and Rami Reddy donated land and built a small temple with wooden idols of Rama and [[Sita]]. A larger temple was built in 1939. The two gopurams were constructed in 1948–50 and 1956–58.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2019-02-17|title=కోరికలు తీర్చే కోదండరామయ్య..!|url=https://www.eenadu.net/sundaymagazine/inner_page/9857|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217185437/https://www.eenadu.net/sundaymagazine/inner_page/9857|archive-date=17 February 2019|access-date=2020-10-30|website=[[Eenadu]]}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Iyer|first=Lalita|date=2018-07-29|title=Konaseema Ayodhya Rama beckons|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/290718/konaseema-ayodhya-rama-beckons.html|access-date=2020-10-30|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>

The temple is also known as 'Chinna Bhadradi' or the 'Little [[Sita Ramachandraswamy temple, Bhadrachalam|Bhadrachalam]]'. It is one of the two most popular Rama temples in Andhra Pradesh along with [[Kodandarama Temple, Vontimitta|Kodandarama temple]] in [[Vontimitta]]. [[Rama Navami|Sri Rama Navami]] is the most prominent festival celebrated at the temple and features an annual wedding ceremony of Rama and Sita.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-04-16|title=Tribal people throng Sriramagiri temple|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/tribal-people-throng-sriramagiri-temple/article8481673.ece|access-date=2020-10-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Other important festivals celebrated at the temple are [[Vaikuntha Ekadashi|Vaikunta Ekadasi]] and [[Vijayadashami|Vijayadasami]].

== History ==
The Kodandarama Temple was founded in 1889 by brothers Dwarampudi Subbi Reddy and Rami Reddy, local zamindars who donated land on the banks of the Tulyabhaga river. The original structure was a modest shrine housing wooden idols of [[Rama]] and [[Sita]].

In 1939, a larger stone temple was constructed to accommodate the growing number of devotees visiting from across the [[Konaseema]] region. The temple underwent significant expansion in the mid-20th century:

* '''1948–1950''': Construction of the east-facing [[gopuram]] (160–170 feet, nine storeys)
* '''1956–1958''': Construction of the west-facing gopuram (200–210 feet, eleven storeys)
* '''1975''': Addition of the mirror hall (''addala mandapam'' in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]) above the [[sanctum sanctorum]]

The temple earned the epithet "Chinna Bhadradri" (Little [[Sita Ramachandraswamy temple, Bhadrachalam|Bhadrachalam]]) due to its growing prominence as a major [[Rama]] pilgrimage site in coastal Andhra Pradesh.
[[File:Construction_infos.jpg|left|thumb|Inscription plaque detailing the construction history of Kodandarama Temple, documenting the contributions of the Dwarampudi family who founded the temple in 1889 and subsequent expansions through 1975.]]
[[File:View_of_160_feet_gopuram_from_200_feet_gorumpam_top_floor.jpg|border|thumb|<nowiki>View of 160 feet gopuram from 200 feet gorumpam top floor.jpeg|thumb|300px|Alternate angle of the east gopuram captured from the uppermost floor of the 200-feet west gopuram, showcasing the </nowiki>[[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]]-style tiered structure and the surrounding village of Gollala Mamidada in [[Kakinada district]].]]
[[File:From_6th_floor_of_200_feet_gorupam_middle_main_gopuram_and_160_feet_gopuram.jpg|thumb|<nowiki>From 6th floor of 200 feet gorupam middle main gopuram and 160 feet gopuram.jpeg|thumb|300px|Panoramic view from the sixth floor of the west gopuram showing the central </nowiki>''mandapam'' (middle structure) and the east-facing 160-feet gopuram in the background. The temple complex sits on the banks of the Tulyabhaga river, a tributary of the [[Godavari River|Godavari]]. Devotees can access the upper floors via a 300-step climb.]]
[[File:Kodandarama_Temple_160_feet_gopuram.jpg|border|left|thumb|<nowiki>Kodandarama Temple 160 feet gopuram.jpeg|thumb|300px|Full elevation view of the nine-storey east gopuram of Kodandarama Temple. Each floor features carved statues depicting episodes from Hindu epics. The </nowiki>''[[shikhara]]'' (tower crown) is adorned with ''Bala Ramayana'' scenes depicting the childhood of [[Rama]].]]
[[File:160_feet_gopruam_back_entrance.jpg|center|thumb|333x333px|160 feet gopruam entrance: The east-facing gopuram (160–170 feet) viewed from the rear entrance. This nine-storey tower was constructed between 1948–1950 and features five ''[[Kalasam|kalasams]]'' (golden finials) at its peak. The gopuram serves as the traditional entry point for devotees arriving from Kakinada.]]
[[File:200_feet_gopruam_from_3rd_floor_of_the_temple_form_middle_gopuram.jpg|center|thumb|<nowiki>200 feet gopuram from 3rd floor of the temple form middle gopuram.jpeg|thumb|300px|The west-facing gopuram (200–210 feet) as seen from the third floor of the central </nowiki>''mandapam''. This eleven-storey structure, completed between 1956–1958, is one of the tallest temple towers in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The intricate stucco work depicts scenes from the ''[[Ramayana]]'', ''[[Mahabharata]]'', and ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''.]]

== The Temple ==
The construction of the temple began in 1889 by brothers Dwarampudi Subbi Reddy and Rami Reddy who donated land and built a small temple with wooden idols of Rama and Sita. A larger temple was built in 1939. The east and west gopurams were built in 1948–50 and 1956–58 respectively. The east-facing gopuram is 160–170 feet high and has nine storeys and five [[kalasam]]s. The west-facing gopuram is 200–210 feet high and has 11 storeys and five kalasams.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />
[[File:Third_floor_Middle_Gopuram,_Main_temple_Rama,_Lakshman,_sita_idol_were_there.jpg|border|thumb|Third floor Middle Gopuram, Main temple.]]
A mirror hall (''addala mandapam'' in [[Telugu language|Telugu]]) was built between the two mandapams, above the [[Sanctum Sanctorum|sanctum sanctorum]] in 1975.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Akella|first1=Spandana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iu9dBAAAQBAJ&q=Kodandarama+Temple%2C+Gollala+Mamidada&pg=PT40|title=Konaseema: Hidden Land of the Godavari|last2=Pannala|first2=Vimal|date=2014-07-31|publisher=Partridge Publishing India|isbn=978-1-4828-3568-7|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The mirror hall has a [[stucco]] relief of ''Sri Rama Pattabhishekam'' (coronation of Rama) on one side and of Rama blessing Hanuman on the other side. The garbhalayam contains the idols of Rama, [[Lakshmana]], and Sita along with [[Hanuman]].<ref name=":1" />

There are intricately carved statues depicting scenes from [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]], and [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavatam]] on the four sides of the gopurams in each floor. The ''[[Shikhara|Sikhara]]'' of the temple is carved with statues depicting ''Bala Ramayana'' (childhood of Rama).<ref name=":2" /> Devotees can reach the top storey of the gopurams through a 300-step climb.

Around 200 metres from the temple is a ''Pushkarini'', a small pond of water sourced from the Tulyabhaga river. Water from the Pushkarini is used in various religious ceremonies at the temple.<ref name=":2" />

== Location ==
Kodandarama Temple is situated in Gollala Mamidada village in [[Pedapudi mandal|Pedapudi Mandal]] of [[Kakinada district]] in Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gollala Madidada {{!}} East Godavari District Web Portal {{!}} India|url=https://eastgodavari.ap.gov.in/gallery/gollala-madidada/|access-date=2020-10-30|language=en-US}}</ref> The temple is located at a distance of 25 km from [[Kakinada]], 45 km from [[Rajahmundry]], 85 km from [[Tuni]] and 180 km from [[Visakhapatnam]]. Also located in the same village is the [[Suryanarayana Temple, Gollala Mamidada|Suryanarayana Temple]], a [[Surya|Sun]] temple.

== Festivals ==
[[Rama Navami|Sri Rama Navami]] is the most prominent festival celebrated at the temple. It features an annual wedding ceremony of Rama and Sita. The [[District magistrate|District Collector]] along with the local [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] and their spouses offer silk clothes to the presiding deities on the occasion. After the wedding ceremony, the [[murti]]s are taken in a procession across the streets. A grand offering of food (''Annadanam'') is made to the devotees on the occasion.<ref name=":2" /> Other important festivals celebrated at the temple are [[Vaikuntha Ekadashi|Vaikunta Ekadasi]] and [[Vijayadashami|Vijayadasami]].

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Sri Rama Temple in Gollala Mamidada, East Godavari.JPG
File:Sri Rama temple,Gollumamidada A.P - panoramio (5).jpg
File:Sri Rama temple,Gollumamidada A.P - panoramio (2).jpg
File:Sri Rama temple,Gollumamidada A.P - panoramio (6).jpg
File:Sri Rama temple,Gollumamidada A.P - panoramio (3).jpg
File:Sri Rama temple,Gollumamidada A.P - panoramio.jpg
File:Kodanda Ramalayam , G. Mamidada.jpg
File:Aerial view of Gollala Mamidada Town.jpg
</gallery>

== References ==
<references />
{{Hindu Temples in Andhra Pradesh}}
{{Vishnu temples}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Kakinada district]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rama temples]]

Maharashtra Council of Ministers

2026-03-07T16:25:02Z

Ankithreddy:

{{refimprove|date=September 2024}}
{{Short description|Executive authority of Maharashtra, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox government agency
| agency_name = Maharashtra Council of Ministers
| nativename_a =
| nativename_r =
| seal = [[File:Seal of Maharashtra.svg|200px]]
| seal_width =
| seal_caption = Emblem of Maharashtra
| formed = {{start date and age|df=yes|1960|05|01}}
| preceding1 =
| preceding2 =
| dissolved =
| superseding =
| agency_type = Highest executive body of the [[Government of Maharashtra]]
| jurisdiction = [[Republic of India]]
| headquarters = [[Mantralaya, Mumbai]]
| employees =
| budget =
| chief1_name = [[Devendra Fadnavis]]
| chief1_position = Chair
| chief2_name = [[Eknath Shinde]]
| chief3_name = [[Sunetra Pawar]]
| chief2_position = Deputy Chair
| chief3_position = Deputy Chair
| child1_agency = Cabinet
| child2_agency = Ministries of the Government of Maharashtra
| image =
| image_caption =
| website = {{URL|www.maharashtra.gov.in}}
}}
The '''Maharashtra Council of Ministers''',<ref name="Constitution:85">Article 58 of the ''[[Constitution of India]]''</ref> also called State Cabinet is the [[Cabinet (government)|principal executive organ]] of the [[Government of Maharashtra]], which functions as the senior decision-making body of the executive branch. It is chaired by the Chief Minister and consists of the heads of each of the executive government ministries. The council is subject to the [[Maharashtra Legislature]].

A smaller executive body called the '''State Cabinet''' is the supreme decision-making body in Maharashtra; it is a subset of the Maharashtra Council of Ministers who hold important portfolios and [[Ministry (government department)|ministries]] of the government.<ref name="const1">[[Wikisource: Constitution of India/Part XVIII]]</ref>

==Ranking==
There are five categories of the council of ministers as given below, in descending order of [[Indian order of precedence|rank]]:
* [[ List of chief ministers of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]: Leader of the State Council of Ministers.
* [[List of deputy chief ministers of Maharashtra|Deputy Chief Minister]] (if any): Presides as chief minister in his absence or as the senior most cabinet minister.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/of-deputy-chief-ministers-and-the-constitution/article3632410.ece|title=Of Deputy Chief Ministers and the Constitution|last=Rajendran|first=S.|date=13 July 2012|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=7 March 2018|location=[[Bangalore]]|issn=0971-751X|oclc=13119119|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201092604/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/of-deputy-chief-ministers-and-the-constitution/article3632410.ece|archive-date=1 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Cabinet Minister: A member of the State cabinet; leads a [[Ministry (government department)|ministry]].
* Minister of State (Independent charge): Junior minister not reporting to a Cabinet Minister.
* [[Minister of State]] (MoS): Deputy Minister reporting to a Cabinet Minister, usually tasked with a specific responsibility in that ministry.

==Appointment==
Pursuant to [[s: Constitution of India/Part V|Article 75]], a minister who works at the pleasure of the [[Governor of Maharashtra|Governor]], is appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. Since at least the turn of the millennia, evidence indicates that an [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly|MLA]]'s electoral performance enhances the likelihood of being granted a ministerial portfolio.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ladwig III |first1=Walter C. |date=23 December 2019 |title=Executive Particularism and Ministerial Selection in India |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/lsq.12261 |url-status=live |journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly |publisher= |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=469–493 |doi=10.1111/lsq.12261 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216233135/https://osf.io/j46fv/ |archive-date=16 February 2020 |access-date=21 January 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Removal==
* Upon death
* Upon self resignation, or resignation or death of the Chief Minister
* Upon dismissal by the Governor for minister's unconstitutional acts per [[s:Constitution of India/Part V|Article 75(2)]]
* Upon direction from the Judiciary for committing violation of law
* Upon ceasing eligibility to be a member of Legislature
* Under the provision of "Collective Responsibility" under Article 75, the Chief Minister and the entire Council of Ministers resign if a [[Motion of no confidence|Vote of No Confidence]] is passed in the Lower House (Maharashtra Legislative Assembly) of the Maharashtra Legislature

==Council of Ministers in state governments==
Every state in India is governed by its council of ministers with rules and procedures similar to the union council of ministers per [[s: Constitution of India/Part VI|Articles 163, 164 and 167(c)]].

In March 2020, the Supreme Court of India used its powers for the first time to do "complete justice" under [[s: Constitution of India/Part V|Article 142]] of the Indian Constitution to remove a minister functioning in the state of Manipur.
== Council of Ministers ==
{{main|Third Fadnavis ministry}}

The cabinet expansion took place at Raj Bhavan in Nagpur on 15 December 2024. Maharashtra can have a maximum of 43 ministers. 33 were inducted as Cabinet ministers, 6 were sworn in as ministers of state. 19 ministers from the BJP, 11 from the Shiv Sena and 9 from the NCP taken oath as cabinet ministers.<ref name="Maharashtra cabinet expanded; here is the full list of ministers">{{cite news |last1=The Indian Express |title=Maharashtra cabinet expanded; here is the full list of ministers |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/maharashtra-cabinet-ministers-full-list-bjp-shiv-sena-ncp-9726178/ |access-date=15 December 2024 |date=15 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241215131545/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/maharashtra-cabinet-ministers-full-list-bjp-shiv-sena-ncp-9726178/ |archive-date=15 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra Cabinet Takes Shape After Massive Mandate In Assembly Polls {{!}} Check List Of Ministers">{{cite news |last1=News18 |title=Maharashtra Cabinet Takes Shape After Massive Mandate In Assembly Polls {{!}} Check List Of Ministers |url=https://www.news18.com/politics/maharashtra-cabinet-ministers-full-list-2024-cabinet-expansion-ministers-take-oath-fadnavis-bjp-shiv-sena-ncp-ajit-pawar-latest-news-9157034.html |access-date=15 December 2024 |date=15 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241215132438/https://www.news18.com/politics/maharashtra-cabinet-expansion-devendra-fadnavis-shinde-pawar-new-faces-names-latest-updates-9156674.html |archive-date=15 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

Cabinet ministers portfolios where allocated on 21 December 2024.<ref name="Maharashtra portfolio allocation: CM Fadnavis keeps home ministry, Ajit Pawar gets finance, Shinde gets urban development">{{cite news |title=Maharashtra portfolio allocation: CM Fadnavis keeps home ministry, Ajit Pawar gets finance, Shinde gets urban development |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/maharashtra-portfolio-allocation-cm-fadnavis-keeps-home-ajit-pawar-gets-finance-shinde-gets-urban-development/articleshow/116542747.cms |accessdate=22 December 2024 |publisher=The Times of India |date=21 December 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222043727/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/maharashtra-portfolio-allocation-cm-fadnavis-keeps-home-ajit-pawar-gets-finance-shinde-gets-urban-development/articleshow/116542747.cms |archivedate=22 December 2024}}</ref><ref name="Fadnavis retains Home, Ajit Finance, Shinde gets Urban, Works, and Housing">{{cite news |title=Fadnavis retains Home, Ajit Finance, Shinde gets Urban, Works, and Housing |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/fadnavis-retains-home-ajit-finance-shinde-gets-urban-works-and-housing-9738240/ |accessdate=22 December 2024 |publisher=The Indian Express |date=22 December 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222043827/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/fadnavis-retains-home-ajit-finance-shinde-gets-urban-works-and-housing-9738240/ |archivedate=22 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Maharashtra portfolios: Fadnavis keeps Home, Shinde Urban Development; Ajit gets Finance">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |title=Maharashtra portfolios: Fadnavis keeps Home, Shinde Urban Development; Ajit gets Finance |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/maharashtra/maharashtra-portfolios-fadnavis-keeps-home-shinde-urban-development-ajit-gets-finance/article69013705.ece |access-date=22 December 2024 |publisher=The Hindu |date=21 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222043146/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/maharashtra/maharashtra-portfolios-fadnavis-keeps-home-shinde-urban-development-ajit-gets-finance/article69013705.ece |archive-date=22 December 2024
|language=en-IN}}</ref> 
Council portfolios are as follows

Update = 31 January 2026
===Cabinet Ministers===
{{Cabinet table start|hiderefcol=y}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = [[List of chief ministers of Maharashtra|'''Chief Minister''']]
*[[Ministry of General Administration (Maharashtra)|Minister of General Administration]]
*[[Ministry of Home Affairs (Maharashtra)|Minister of Home Affairs]]
*[[Ministry of Law and Judiciary (Maharashtra)|Minister of Law & Judiciary]]
*[[Ministry of Information and Public Relations (Maharashtra)|Minister of Information & Public Relations]]
*[[Ministry of Energy, New and Renewable Energy Maharashtra|Minister of Energy]] (excluding Non-Conventional Energy)
'''Other departments not allocated to any Minister'''.
*[[Ministry of Command Area Development (Maharashtra)|Minister of Command Area Development]]
*[[Ministry of Earthquake Rehabilitation (Maharashtra)|Earthquake Rehabilitation]]
* [[Ministry of Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (Maharashtra)|Minister of Socially and Educationally Backward Classes]]
* [[Ministry of Vimukta Jati (Maharashtra)|Minister of Vimukta Jati]]
* [[Ministry of Nomadic Tribes (Maharashtra)|Minister of Nomadic Tribes]]
* [[Ministry of Special Backward Classes Welfare (Maharashtra)|Minister of Special Backward Classes Welfare]]
* [[Ministry of Majority Welfare Development (Maharashtra)|Minister of Majority Welfare Development]]
| minister1 = [[Devendra Fadnavis]]
| minister1_termstart = 05 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = [[List of deputy chief ministers of Maharashtra|'''Deputy Chief Minister''']]
*[[Ministry of Urban Development (Maharashtra)|Minister of Urban Development]]
*[[Ministry of Housing (Maharashtra)|Minister of Housing]]
*[[Ministry of Public Works (Including Public Undertakings)|Minister of Public Works (Including Public Undertakings)]]
| minister1 = [[Eknath Shinde]]
| minister1_termstart = 05 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = [[List of deputy chief ministers of Maharashtra|'''Deputy Chief Minister''']]
| minister1 = [[Ajit Pawar]]
| minister1_termstart = 05 December 2024
| minister1_termend = 28 January 2026
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister2 = [[Sunetra Pawar]]
| minister2_termstart = 31 January 2026
| minister2_termend =
| minister2_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Finance (Maharashtra)|Minister of Finance]]
*[[Ministry of Planning (Maharashtra)|Minister of Planning]]
| minister1 = [[Ajit Anantrao Pawar]] ([[List of deputy chief ministers of Maharashtra|Dy Chief Minister]])
| minister1_termstart = 05 December 2024
| minister1_termend = 28 January 2026
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister2 = [[Devendra Fadnavis]] ([[List of chief ministers of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]) Additional Charge
| minister2_termstart = 28 January 2026
| minister2_termend = 31 January 2026
| minister2_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| minister3 = [[Devendra Fadnavis]] ([[List of chief ministers of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]])
| minister3_termstart = 31 January 2026
| minister3_termend =
| minister3_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of State Excise (Maharashtra)|Minister for State Excise]]
| minister1 = [[Ajit Anantrao Pawar]] ([[List of deputy chief ministers of Maharashtra|Dy Chief Minister]])
| minister1_termstart = 05 December 2024
| minister1_termend = 28 January 2026
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister2 = [[Devendra Fadnavis]] ([[List of chief ministers of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]) Additional Charge
| minister2_termstart = 28 January 2026
| minister2_termend = 31 January 2026
| minister2_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| minister3 = [[Sunetra Pawar]] ([[List of deputy chief ministers of Maharashtra|Dy Chief Minister]])
| minister3_termstart = 31 January 2026
| minister3_termend =
| minister3_party = Nationalist Congress Party }}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Sports and Youth Welfare (Maharashtra)|Minister of Sports & Youth Welfare]]
*[[Ministry of Minority Development and Aukaf (Maharashtra)|Minister of Minority Development & Aukaf]]
| minister1 = [[Dattatray Vithoba Bharne|Dattatray Bharne]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend = 31 July 2025
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister2 = [[Manikrao Kokate]]
| minister2_termstart = 31 July 2025
| minister2_termend = 17 December 2025
| minister2_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister3 = [[Ajit Pawar]] (Dy Chief Minister)
| minister3_termstart = 17 December 2025
| minister3_termend = 28 January 2026
| minister3_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister4 = [[Devendra Fadnavis]] ([[List of chief ministers of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]) Additional Charge
| minister4_termstart = 28 January 2026
| minister4_termend = 31 January 2026
| minister4_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| minister5 = [[Sunetra Pawar]] (Dy Chief Minister)
| minister5_termstart = 31 January 2026
| minister5_termend =
| minister5_party = Nationalist Congress Party }}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Water Resources (Maharashtra)|Minister of Water Resources]] (Godavari & Krishna Valley)
| minister1 = [[Radhakrishna Vikhe Patil]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Revenue (Maharashtra)|Minister of Revenue]]
| minister1 = [[Chandrashekhar Bawankule]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Medical Education (Maharashtra)|Minister of Medical Education]]
| minister1 = [[Hasan Mushrif]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Higher and Technical Education (Maharashtra)|Minister of Higher & Technical Education]]
*[[Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs Government of Maharashtra|Minister of Parliamentary Affairs]]
| minister1 = [[Chandrakant Patil]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Water Resources (Maharashtra)|Minister of Water Resources]] (Vidharbha, Tapi, Konkan)
*[[Ministry of Disaster Management (Maharashtra)|Minister of Disaster Management]]
| minister1 = [[Girish Mahajan]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Water Supply (Maharashtra)|Minister of Water Supply]]
*[[Ministry of Sanitation (Maharashtra)|Sanitation]]
| minister1 = [[Gulab Raghunath Patil]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Forest (Maharashtra)|Minister of Forest]]
| minister1 = [[Ganesh Naik]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of School Education (Maharashtra)|Minister of School Education]]
| minister1 = [[Dadaji Bhuse]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Soil and Water Conservation (Maharashtra)|Minister of Soil & Water Conservation]]
| minister1 = [[Sanjay Rathod]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Food, Civil Supplies and Consumer Protection (Maharashtra)|Minister of Food and Civil Supplies]]
*[[Ministry of Food, Civil Supplies and Consumer Protection (Maharashtra)|Minister of Consumer Affairs]]
| minister1 = [[Dhananjay Munde]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend = 4 March 2025
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister2 = [[Ajit Pawar]]
| minister2_termstart = 4 March 2025
| minister2_termend = 20 May 2025
| minister2_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister3 = [[Chhagan Bhujbal]]
| minister3_termstart = 20 May 2025
| minister3_termend =
| minister3_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (Maharashtra)|Minister of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship]]
| minister1 = [[Mangal Prabhat Lodha]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Industries (Maharashtra)|Minister of Industries]]
*[[Ministry of Marathi Language|Minister of Marathi Language]]
| minister1 = [[Uday Samant]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Marketing (Maharashtra)|Minister of Marketing]]
*[[Ministry of Protocol (Maharashtra)|Minister of Protocol]]
| minister1 = [[Jayakumar Jitendrasinh Rawal|Jayakumar Rawal]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (Maharashtra)|Minister of Environment & Climate Change]]
*[[Ministry of Animal Husbandry (Maharashtra)|Minister of Animal Husbandry]]
| minister1 = [[Pankaja Munde]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Other Backward Classes (Maharashtra)|Minister for Other Backward Classes]]
* [[Ministry of Other Backward Bahujan Welfare (Maharashtra)|Minister for Other Backward Bahujan Welfare]]
*[[Ministry of Dairy Development (Maharashtra)|Minister of Dairy Development]]
*Minister of New and Renewable Energy
| minister1 = [[Atul Save]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Tribal Development (Maharashtra)|Minister of Tribal Development]]
| minister1 = [[Ashok Uike]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Tourism (Maharashtra)|Minister of Tourism]]
*[[Ministry of Mining (Maharashtra)|Minister of Mining]]
*[[Ministry of Ex. Servicemen Welfare (Maharashtra)|Minister of Ex. Servicemen Welfare]]
| minister1 = [[Shambhuraj Desai]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Information Technology (Maharashtra)|Minister of Information Technology]]
*[[Ministry of Cultural Affairs (Maharashtra)|Minister of Cultural Affairs]]
| minister1 = [[Ashish Shelar]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Woman and Child Development Government of Maharashtra|Minister of Woman & Child Development]]
| minister1 = [[Aditi Tatkare]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Public Works (Excluding Public Undertakings) (Maharashtra)|Minister of Public Works (Excluding Public Undertakings)]]
| minister1 = [[Shivendra Raje Bhosale]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Agriculture (Maharashtra)|Minister of Agriculture]]
| minister1 = [[Manikrao Kokate]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend = 31 July 2025
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
| minister2 = [[Dattatray Vithoba Bharne|Dattatray Bharne]]
| minister2_termstart = 31 July 2025
| minister2_termend =
| minister2_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Rural Development Government of Maharashtra|Minister of Rural Development]]
*[[Ministry of Rural Development Government of Maharashtra|Minister of Panchayat Raj]]
| minister1 = [[Jaykumar Gore]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Food and Drug Administration (Maharashtra)|Minister of Food & Drug Administration]]
*[[Ministry of Special Assistance (Maharashtra)|Minister of Special Assistance]]
| minister1 = [[Narhari Zirwal]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Textiles (Maharashtra)|Minister of Textiles]]
| minister1 = [[Sanjay Savkare]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Social Justice (Maharashtra)|Minister of Social Justice]]
| minister1 = [[Sanjay Shirsat]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Transport (Maharashtra)|Minister of Transport]]
| minister1 = [[Pratap Sarnaik]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Horticulture (Maharashtra)|Minister of Horticulture]]
*[[Ministry of Employment Guarantee (Maharashtra)|Minister of Employment Guarantee]]
*[[Ministry of Khar Land Development (Maharashtra)|Minister of Khar Land Development]]
| minister1 = [[Bharatshet Gogawale]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Relief and Rehabilitation (Maharashtra)|Minister of Relief & Rehabilitation]]
| minister1 = [[Makrand Jadhav - Patil]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Fisheries (Maharashtra)|Minister of Fisheries]]
*[[Ministry of Ports Development (Maharashtra)|Minister of Ports Development]]
| minister1 = [[Nitesh Rane]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Labour (Maharashtra)|Minister of Labour]]
| minister1 = [[Akash Pandurang Fundkar|Akash Fundkar]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Co-operation (Maharashtra)|Minister of Co-operation]]
| minister1 = [[Babasaheb Mohanrao Patil|Babasaheb Patil]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Public Health (Maharashtra)|Minister of Public Health and Family Welfare]]
| minister1 = [[Prakashrao Abitkar]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
*[[Ministry of Disability Welfare (Maharashtra)|Minister of Disability Welfare]]
| minister1 = [[Devendra Fadnavis]] {{small|[[Chief Minister of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]}} Additional Charge
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend = 15 December 2024
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| minister2 =[[Atul Save]]
| minister2_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister2_termend =
| minister2_party =Bharatiya Janata Party}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Cabinet Minister
[[Ministry of State Border Defence (Maharashtra)|Minister for State Border Defence]]
| minister1 = [[Devendra Fadnavis]] {{small|[[Chief Minister of Maharashtra|Chief Minister]]}} Additional Charge
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend = 13 February 2025
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| minister2 = [[Chandrakant Patil]] (First)
| minister2_termstart = 13 February 2025
| minister2_termend =
| minister2_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
| minister3 = [[Shambhuraj Desai]] (Second)
| minister3_termstart = 13 February 2025
| minister3_termend =
| minister3_party=Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|}

===Ministers of State===
{{Cabinet table start|hiderefcol=y}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Minister of State
*[[Ministry of Urban Development Government of Maharashtra|Urban Development]]
*[[Ministry of Transport (Maharashtra)|Transport]]
*[[Ministry of Social Justice (Maharashtra)|Social Justice]]
*[[Ministry of Medical Education (Maharashtra)|Medical Education]]
*[[Minority Development and Aukaf (Maharashtra)|Minority Development and Aukaf]]
| minister1 = [[Madhuri Misal]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Minister of State
*[[Ministry of Finance (Maharashtra)|Finance]]
*[[Ministry of Planning (Maharashtra)|Planning]]
*[[Ministry of Agriculture (Maharashtra)|Agriculture]]
*[[Ministry of Relief & Rehabilitation (Maharashtra)|Relief and Rehabilitation]]
*[[Ministry of Law and Judiciary Government of Maharashtra|Law and Judiciary]]
*[[Ministry of Labour (Maharashtra)|Labour]]
| minister1 = [[Ashish Jaiswal]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Minister of State
*[[Ministry of Home Affairs Government of Maharashtra|Home Affairs]] (Rural)
*[[Ministry of Housing (Maharashtra)|Housing]]
*[[Ministry of School Education (Maharashtra)|School Education]]
*[[Ministry of Co-operation (Maharashtra)|Co-operation]]
*[[Ministry of Mining Department (Maharashtra)|Mining]]
| minister1 = [[Pankaj Rajesh Bhoyar|Pankaj Bhoyar]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title = Minister of State
*[[Ministry of Water Supply (Maharashtra)|Water Supply]]
*[[Ministry of Sanitation (Maharashtra)|Sanitation]]
*[[Ministry of Public Health (Maharashtra)|Public Health and Family Welfare]]
*[[Ministry of Energy, New and Renewable Energy Maharashtra|Energy]]
*[[Ministry of Energy, New and Renewable Energy Maharashtra|New and Renewable Energy]]
*[[Ministry of Woman and Child Development Government of Maharashtra|Woman and Child Development]]
*[[Ministry of Public Works (Including Public Undertakings) (Maharashtra)|Public Works (Including Public Undertakings)]]
| minister1 = [[Meghana Bordikar]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Bharatiya Janata Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Minister of State
*[[Ministry of Industries (Maharashtra)|Industries]]
*[[Ministry of Public Works (Excluding Public Undertakings) (Maharashtra)|Public Works (excluding Public Undertakings)]]
*[[Ministry of higher and Technical Education (Maharashtra)|Higher Education and Technical Education]]
*[[Ministry of Tribal Development (Maharashtra)|Tribal Development]]
*[[Ministry of Tourism (Maharashtra)|Tourism]]
*[[Ministry of Soil and Water Conservation (Maharashtra)|Soil and Water Conservation]]
| minister1 = [[Indranil Naik]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Nationalist Congress Party
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Minister of State
*[[Ministry of Home Affairs Government of Maharashtra|Home Affairs]] (Urban)
*[[Ministry of Revenue (Maharashtra)|Revenue]]
*[[Ministry of Rural Development Government of Maharashtra|Rural Development]]
*[[Ministry of Rural Development Government of Maharashtra|Panchayat Raj]]
*[[Ministry of Food, Civil Supplies and Consumer Protection (Maharashtra)|Food and Civil Supplies]]
*[[Ministry of Food, Civil Supplies and Consumer Protection (Maharashtra)|Consumer Affairs]]
*[[Ministry of Food and Drug Administration (Maharashtra)|Food and Drug Administration]]
| minister1 = [[Yogesh Kadam]]
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Shiv Sena (2022–present)
}}
{{Cabinet table minister
| title =
Minister of State
*[[Ministry of General Administration (Maharashtra)|General Administration]]
*[[Ministry of Information Technology (Maharashtra)|Information Technology]]
*[[Ministry of Information and Public Relations (Maharashtra)|Information and Public Relations]]
*[[Ministry of Environment and Climate Change (Maharashtra)|Environment and climate change]]
*[[Ministry of Ex. Servicemen Welfare (Maharashtra)|Ex. Servicemen Welfare]]
*[[Ministry of Majority Welfare Development (Maharashtra)|Majority Welfare Development]]
*[[Ministry of Earthquake Rehabilitation (Maharashtra)|Earthquake Rehabilitation]]
*[[Ministry of Khar Land Development (Maharashtra)|Khar land Development]]
*[[Ministry of Disability Welfare (Maharashtra)|Disability Welfare]]
*[[Ministry of Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (Maharashtra)|Socially and Educationally Backward Classes]]
*[[Ministry of Vimukta Jati (Maharashtra)|Vimukta Jati]]
*[[Ministry of Nomadic Tribes (Maharashtra)|Nomadic Tribes]]
*[[Ministry of Special Backward Classes Welfare (Maharashtra)|Special Backward Classes Welfare]]
*[[Ministry of Water Resources (Maharashtra)|Water Resources]]
*[[Ministry of Command Area Development (Maharashtra)|Command Area Development]]
*[[Ministry of Protocol (Maharashtra)|Protocol]]
*[[Department of Animal Husbandry (Maharashtra)|Animal Husbandry]]
*[[Ministry of Dairy Development (Maharashtra)|Dairy Development]]
*[[Ministry of Forests Department of Maharashtra|Forests Department]]
*[[Ministry of Cultural Affairs (Maharashtra)|Cultural Affairs]]
*[[Ministry of Fisheries Department (Maharashtra)|Fisheries Department]]
*[[Ministry of Textiles (Maharashtra)|Textiles]]
*[[Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs Government of Maharashtra|Parliamentary Affairs]]
*[[Ministry of Employment Guarantee (Maharashtra)|Employment Guarantee]]
*[[Ministry of Horticulture (Maharashtra)|Horticulture]]
*[[Ministry of Marketing (Maharashtra)|Marketing]]
*[[Ministry of Marathi Language|Marathi Language]]
*[[Ministry of Other Backward Classes (Maharashtra)|Other Backward Classes]]
*[[Ministry of Other Backward Classes (Maharashtra)|Other Backward Bahujan Welfare]]
*[[Ministry of State Excise (Maharashtra)|State Excise]]
*State Border Defence
*[[Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (Maharashtra)|Skill Development And Entrepreneurship]]
*[[Ministry of Special Assistance (Maharashtra)|Special Assistance]]
*[[Ministry of Sports and Youth Welfare (Maharashtra)|Sports and Youth Welfare]]
*[[Ministry of Ports Development (Maharashtra)|Ports Development]]
*[[Ministry of Disaster Management (Maharashtra)|Disaster Management]]
| minister1 = Departments have not been assigned to the Any Minister of State
| minister1_termstart = 15 December 2024
| minister1_termend =
| minister1_party = Independence politician
}}
|}

== Oath as the state chief minister/minister ==

{{Blockquote|text= I, <Name of Chief Minister/Minister>, do swear in the name of God/solemnly affirm that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will faithfully and conscientiously discharge my duties as a Minister for the State of () and that I will do right to all manner of people in accordance with the Constitution and the law without fear or favour, affection or ill-will.|sign=|source=}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Maharashtra state government ministries}}
{{Councils of ministers of India}}
{{Current Indian ministries}}

{{Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Government of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:State council of ministers of India]]
[[Category:1960 establishments in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Cabinets established in 1960]]

Thennilavu

2026-03-04T05:15:48Z

Ankithreddy: Creating First Post W/ Infobox...

{{Short description|1961 film by C. V. Sridhar}}
{{For|the TV series|Thennilavu (TV series)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Thennilavu
| image = Thennilavu poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[C. V. Sridhar|Sridhar]]
| writer = Sridhar
| producer = Sridhar
| starring = {{ubl|[[Gemini Ganesan|Gemini Ganesh]]|[[Vyjayanthimala]]}}
| cinematography = [[A. Vincent]]
| editing = T. R. Srinivasulu
| music = [[A. M. Rajah]]
| studio = [[Chithralaya]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1961|09|30}}
| runtime = 160 minutes<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thennilavu |url=http://www.citwf.com/film348345.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322161318/http://www.citwf.com/film348345.htm |archive-date=22 March 2018 |access-date=22 March 2018 |website=[[Complete Index to World Film]]}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Thennilavu''''' ({{IPA|ta|teːn nilaʋu|pron}} {{Translation|Honeymoon}}){{sfn |Ganesh |2011 |p=63}} is a 1961 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romantic comedy]] film written, produced and directed by [[C. V. Sridhar|Sridhar]]. It stars [[Gemini Ganesan]] (credited as Ganesh) and [[Vyjayanthimala]], with [[K. A. Thangavelu]], [[M. N. Nambiar]], [[M. Saroja]] and [[Vasanthi (actress)|Vasanthi]] in supporting roles. The film's plot is about a man who, due to mistaken identity, is appointed as a manager by a young woman for her father's honeymoon in [[Kashmir]]. The man and the woman fall in love but things go awry when the real manager arrives in Kashmir.

''Thennilavu'' is the first film Sridhar produced through his production company [[Chithralaya]]; it is also the first South Indian film to be made in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]]; additional filming took place in Madras (now [[Chennai]]) and [[Kodaikanal]]. Principal photography took about two months to complete. [[A. M. Rajah]] composed the soundtrack and [[Kannadasan]] wrote the lyrics. Cinematography was handled by [[A. Vincent]], art direction by Ganga and editing by T. R. Srinivasulu. The film was released on 30 September 1961 and became a commercial success.

== Plot ==
A man named Raj meets a woman named Shanti in [[Chennai|Madras]] and falls in love with her. Shanti does not reciprocate his love and leaves for her home in [[Bangalore]]. Shanti's father Sokkalingam and his new wife Thangam decide to honeymoon in [[Kashmir]]; Shanti also wants to come. A friend of Sokkalingam suggests an alliance between Shanti and his nephew Raj, who is now in Madras. Raj-2 abandons his wife Lalitha, whom he had secretly married, when he learns of this proposed alliance; he leaves for Bangalore but misses the train. Raj-1 arrives in Bangalore, where Sokkalingam mistakes him for his friend's nephew. Sokkalingam and Thangam leave for Kashmir with Raj-1 and Shanti, who still dislikes Raj-1 but eventually returns his love.

Raj-2 reaches Kashmir in search of Sokkalingam. Lalitha, fearing the safety of her husband, also reaches Kashmir in search of him. Lalitha meets Raj-1 and stays in his house; she also meets Sokkalingam and tells him she is married to "Raj". Sokkalingam misinterprets this as Raj-1 and fires him as Shanti's manager. Meanwhile, Raj-2 meets Sokkalingam, explains everything and replaces Raj-1 as Shanti's manager, despite Shanti's dislike for him. Shanti later learns Lalitha is Raj-2's wife and reconciles with Raj-1 while Sokkalingam and Thangam are still unaware.

Raj-2 learns Shanti loves Raj-1 and becomes jealous. At the same time, he meets Lalitha, who he orders to return, otherwise she will be killed. Lalitha flees but secretly writes Raj-2 a love letter. Raj-2, touched by the letter, decides to take Lalitha on a boat ride but plans to kill her and frame Raj-1. When Lalitha joins Raj-2 on the boat ride, he forcefully rides the boat, causing her to fall into the lake. Subsequently, he frames Raj-1. Sokkalingam reports Lalitha's murder to the Kashmir Police, who chase Raj-1, who elopes with Shanti—his only source of an alibi.

Raj-1 and Shanti run into a forest for shelter, where they discover Lalitha is still alive and has been captured by a group of terrorists. Raj-1 and Shanti are put into the same prison as Lalitha, who reveals she washed ashore and was discovered by one of the terrorists. He started torturing Lalitha and she pushed him over a cliff to his death, and was imprisoned for murder. A gypsy dancer from the terrorist group helps them escape the prison but nearby guards see them and start shooting at them. The three escapees climb onto a boat, which develops a crack and starts sinking, leading to Raj-1's separation from Lalitha and Shanti. Raj-1 swims ashore and the police capture him.

During Raj-1's trial in the high court, Shanti and Lalitha arrive, leading to his acquittal. The letter Lalitha wrote to her husband is discovered and after reading the last line, in which Lalitha advised her husband to kill her if wanted, the court suspects Raj-2 of her attempted murder. Lalitha claims she accidentally fell into the lake and does not identify Raj-2 as her husband. The case is dismissed, and Sokkalingam and Thangam continue their honeymoon.

== Cast ==
{{Col-begin|width=60%}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}
;Male cast<ref name="songbook">{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/download/sok.ThaenNilavu_Sridhar_1961/68.%20ThaenNilavu_Sridhar_1961.pdf |title=தேன் நிலவு |publisher=[[Chithralaya]] |year=1961 |language=ta |type=[[song book]] |access-date=14 December 2021 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>
* [[Gemini Ganesan|Gemini Ganesh]] as Raj-1
* [[K. A. Thangavelu]] as Sokkalingam
* [[M. N. Nambiar]] as Raj-2
{{col-break|width=50%}}
;Female cast<ref name="songbook" />
* [[Vyjayanthimala]] as Shanthi
* [[M. Saroja]] as Thangam
* [[Vasanthi (actress)|Vasanthi]] as Lalitha
{{col-end}}
Other supporting roles were played by K. Natarajan, V. Mahalingam, [[Padmini Priyadarshini]], Veeraragavan and Balakrishnan.<ref name="songbook" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=29 September 1961 |title=Travelogue-cum-romantic Social Due Tomorrow |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19610929&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=12 March 2018 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

== Production ==
=== Development ===
In the early 1960s, [[C. V. Sridhar|Sridhar]] founded the production company [[Chithralaya]] after making films for Venus Studios.{{Efn|While [[S. Theodore Baskaran]] says in his 1996 book ''The Eye of the Serpent'' Chithralaya was founded in 1961,{{sfn |Baskaran |1996 |p=198}} [[Sanjit Narwekar]] says in the 1994 book ''Directory of Indian film-makers and films'' it was founded in 1960.{{sfn |Narwekar |1994 |p=317}}}}<ref name="kalki">{{Cite magazine |last=ஸ்ரீதர் |first=டைரக்டர் |author-link=C. V. Sridhar |date=15 December 1991 |title=கடலலையில் எங்கள் சிறிய தோணி; கலையுலகில் எங்கள் புதிய பாணி |trans-title=We know art is an ocean, we row for novel creation |url=https://archive.org/download/kalki1991-12-15/kalki1991-12-15.pdf |access-date=6 July 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=63–64 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> When discussing with his associates what should be the company's first film, Sridhar devised the story of ''[[Nenjil Or Aalayam]]'' but later decided the company's first film should not be a tragedy and devised the lighter ''Thennilavu''.<ref name="டி.சி(ரி)த்ராலயா">{{Cite news |last=நரசிம்மன் |first=டி.ஏ. |date=27 April 2018 |title=சி(ரி)த்ராலயா 15: காஷ்மீரில் கட்டிப்போட்ட சலுகை! |url=https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/127496-15.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920131307/https://www.hindutamil.in/news/supplements/hindu-talkies/127496-15.html |archive-date=20 September 2020 |access-date=13 December 2021 |work=[[Hindu Tamil Thisai]] |language=Tamil}}</ref> [[A. Vincent]] was the cinematographer,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kolappan |first=B. |date=26 February 2015 |title=Cinematographer Vincent dead |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/cinematographer-vincent-dead/article6934894.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227085927/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/cinematographer-vincent-dead/article6934894.ece |archive-date=27 February 2018 |access-date=27 February 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Ganga was the art director and T. R. Srinivasulu was the editor.<ref>{{Cite news |date=30 September 1961 |title=Thennilavu |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19610930&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=22 March 2018 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=3 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Film News Anandan]] was Chithralaya's [[public relations officer]] for the film.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Naig |first=Udhav |date=21 March 2016 |title='Film News' Anandan, cinema historian, passes away |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/film-news-anandan-cinema-historian-passes-away/article8381522.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322010720/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/film-news-anandan-cinema-historian-passes-away/article8381522.ece |archive-date=22 March 2016 |access-date=22 March 2016 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Sridhar cast most of the actors who appeared in his directorial debut ''[[Kalyana Parisu]]'' (1959); [[Gemini Ganesan]] (credited as Ganesh), [[K. A. Thangavelu]], [[M. N. Nambiar]] and [[M. Saroja]].{{sfn |Balabharathi |2012 |p=241}} Despite being replete with [[Hindi]] film offers, [[Vyjayanthimala]] accepted to star as the female lead.<ref name="kalki" /> This was the Tamil film debut of [[Vasanthi (actress)|Vasanthi]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 May 2019 |title=Veteran Actress Vasanthi Passed Away! |url=https://nettv4u.com/latest-tamil-celebrity-news/veteran-actress-vasanthi-passed-away |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214085448/https://nettv4u.com/latest-tamil-celebrity-news/veteran-actress-vasanthi-passed-away |archive-date=14 December 2021 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=Nettv4u}}</ref>

=== Filming ===
''Thennilavu'' is the South Indian film to be shot in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2008 |title=Tamil film director Sridhar passes away |url=http://www.screenindia.com/news/tamil-film-director-sridhar-passes-away/375649/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081022054622/http://www.screenindia.com/news/tamil-film-director-sridhar-passes-away/375649/ |archive-date=22 October 2008 |access-date=21 October 2016 |website=[[Screen (magazine)|Screen]]}}</ref> unlike most Tamil films of that period, which were mostly filmed in studios.<ref name="kalki" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=21 July 2016 |title=The director's fine cut |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/art/The-director%E2%80%99s-fine-cut/article14501577.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322161318/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/art/The-director%E2%80%99s-fine-cut/article14501577.ece |archive-date=22 March 2018 |access-date=22 March 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref name="sudhangan">{{Cite web |date=30 July 2017 |title=பார்த்தது படித்தது ரசித்தது – சுதாங்கன் |url=http://www.dinamalarnellai.com/web/news/31915/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E2%80%93-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E2%80%93-30%E2%80%9307%E2%80%9317 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322161318/http://www.dinamalarnellai.com/web/news/31915/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E2%80%93-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E2%80%93-30%E2%80%9307%E2%80%9317 |archive-date=22 March 2018 |access-date=22 March 2018 |website=[[Dinamalar]] |language=ta |location=Nellai}}</ref> The first scene was filmed during an [[India–Pakistan cricket rivalry|India-Pakistan cricket]] match at [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]], Madras (now [[Chennai]]).<ref>{{Cite news |date=4 December 2013 |title=Did You Know? |url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2013/12/04&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar02702 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180428171607/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2013/12/04&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar02702 |archive-date=28 April 2018 |access-date=28 April 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Mahendra |first=Y.Gee. |author-link=Y. G. Mahendran |date=9 March 2010 |title=Where arts and academics met |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Where-arts-and-academics-met/article16550210.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227084224/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Where-arts-and-academics-met/article16550210.ece |archive-date=27 February 2018 |access-date=27 February 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> This scene was also used as the background for the film's opening credits.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=C. N. R. |date=10 February 1963 |title=The Growing Burden Of Taxation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3Y6AQAAIAAJ&q=Then+Nilavu |access-date=3 November 2022 |magazine=[[The Illustrated Weekly of India]] |page=124 |volume=84, Part 1}}{{cbignore}}</ref> One scene that was filmed in Madras depicts several buildings near [[Marina Beach]] that were under construction.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Raman |first=Mohan |author-link=Mohan Raman |date=24 August 2020 |title=#MadrasThroughTheMovies: A stroll by the Marina Beach & its landmarks |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/madrasthroughthemovies-a-stroll-by-the-marina-beach-its-landmarks/articleshow/77708724.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019213952/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/madrasthroughthemovies-a-stroll-by-the-marina-beach-its-landmarks/articleshow/77708724.cms |archive-date=19 October 2020 |access-date=16 December 2021 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> While filming at [[Dal Lake]], where the song "Nilavum Malarum" was filmed,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gopalakrishnan |first=P. V. |date=4 April 2017 |title=Filmy Ripples: Moonlit Movies (Part 2) |url=https://tcrcindia.com/2017/04/04/filmy-ripples-moonlit-movies-part-2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323033024/https://tcrcindia.com/2017/04/04/filmy-ripples-moonlit-movies-part-2/ |archive-date=23 March 2018 |access-date=23 March 2018 |website=The Cinema Resource Centre}}</ref> Vyjayanthimala almost drowned but was rescued by the cameraman.{{sfn |Bali |2007 |pp=93–96}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 March 2017 |title='வாழ்க்கை' தந்த வாழ்க்கை இது! – வைஜெயந்திமாலா |trans-title="This is the life given by ''Vaazhkai''" – Vyjayanthimala |url=https://www.vikatan.com/oddities/functions/128793-interview-with-vyjayanthimala |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125234451/https://www.vikatan.com/oddities/functions/128793-interview-with-vyjayanthimala |archive-date=25 November 2020 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref> The song "Oho Endhan Baby" was picturised on Ganesan and Vyjayanthimala [[water skiing]]; Vyjayanthimala refused to use a [[Double (occupation)|body double]].<ref name="டி.சி(ரி)த்ராலயா" /><ref name="censor">{{Cite magazine |last=ஸ்ரீதர் |first=டைரக்டர் |author-link=C. V. Sridhar |date=29 December 1991 |title=சென்சார் சாஸ்திரி போட்ட முட்டுக்கட்டை! |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1991-12-29/page/n61/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230331135313/https://archive.org/details/kalki1991-12-29/page/n61/mode/2up |archive-date=31 March 2023 |access-date=13 December 2022 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=56–57 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> Other shooting locations included [[Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar|Shalimar Bagh]], [[Pahalgam]] and [[Gulmarg]].{{sfn |Ganesh |2011 |p=69}}<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=ஸ்ரீதர் |first=டைரக்டர் |author-link=C. V. Sridhar |date=22 December 1991 |title=வைஜயந்தி மாலாவுக்கு ஆபத்து! |trans-title=Danger for Vyjayanthimala! |url=https://archive.org/download/kalki1991-12-22/kalki1991-12-22.pdf |access-date=6 July 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=59–60 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>

[[Principal photography]] lasted about two months.<ref name="டி.சி(ரி)த்ராலயா" /><ref name="sudhangan" /> In retrospect, Sridhar noted he was determined to ensure all scenes in Kashmir were filmed well because returning to re-film them would be impossible. Because Kashmir did not have facilities, film rolls had to be sent to Vijaya Laboratory in Madras for processing.<ref name="kalki" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=30 October 2012 |title=தேனிலவ க்கு பட்ட கஷ்டம்; குறித்து ஸ்ரீதர் விளக்கம் |trans-title=The troubles faced during ''Thennilavu'': Sridhar describes |url=http://archives.thinakaran.lk/2012/10/30/?fn=f1210304 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322105710/http://archives.thinakaran.lk/2012/10/30/?fn=f1210304 |archive-date=22 March 2018 |access-date=22 March 2018 |work=[[Thinakaran]] |language=ta}}</ref> Before the film's release, the [[Central Board of Film Certification|censor board]] objected to the climax where the lead character clashes with the [[Gurjar]] community, feeling it would lead to severing ties between India and Kashmir; this forced Sridhar to shoot a different climax at parts of [[Kodaikanal]] resembling Kashmir.<ref name="censor" />{{sfn |Balabharathi |2012 |p=242}} Patch work for certain scenes was done on a set built at Vijaya Studios.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=நாகேஷ் |author-link=Nagesh |date=4 January 2004 |title=மோடி மஸ்தான் காமெடி பண்ணு! |trans-title=Do comedy like ''Modi Mastaan''! |url=https://archive.org/download/kalki2004-01-04/kalki2004-01-04.pdf |access-date=6 July 2024 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |pages=33–35 |language=Ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> The final cut of the film measured {{convert|15125|feet|metres|abbr=out}}.<ref name="lakshmansruthi">{{Cite web |title=1961 – தேன் நிலவு – சித்ராலயா |url=http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1961-cinedetails14.asp |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501165807/http://www.lakshmansruthi.com/cineprofiles/1961-cinedetails14.asp |archive-date=1 May 2017 |access-date=1 May 2017 |website=[[Lakshman Sruthi]] |language=ta}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
[[A. M. Rajah]] composed ''Thennilavu''{{'s}} music and [[Kannadasan]] wrote the lyrics.<ref name="songbook" /><ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q6J-NAA0Dyg |title=Then Nilavu (1961) All Songs Jukebox |date=8 August 2015 |last=Saregama Tamil |author-link=Saregama |language=ta |access-date=23 March 2018 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/Q6J-NAA0Dyg |archive-date=14 December 2021 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[A. Maruthakasi]] was originally signed on as the film's lyricist and wrote three songs but differences arose between Rajah and Maruthakasi during the making of another Sridhar film ''[[Vidivelli]]'' (1960) and Maruthakasi swore not to work with Rajah again, and forced him to abandon the songs already written for ''Thennilavu''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 February 2018 |title=மருதகாசி சொந்தமாக தயாரித்த 'அல்லி பெற்ற பிள்ளை' |url=https://cinema.maalaimalar.com/Cinema/CineHistory/2018/02/17232035/1146417/cinima-history-maruthakasi.vpf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214071732/https://cinema.maalaimalar.com/Cinema/CineHistory/2018/02/17232035/1146417/cinima-history-maruthakasi.vpf |archive-date=14 December 2021 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=[[Maalai Malar]] |language=Tamil}}</ref> Vyjayanthimala was affectionately called "Pappa", which Kannadasan translated into English as "Baby" and wrote the song "Oho Endhan Baby".<ref name="Oho Endhan Baby">{{Cite web |date=25 March 2016 |title=வைஜெயந்தி மாலா: 3. ஓஹோ... எந்தன் பேபி...! |url=https://www.dinamani.com/junction/kanavukkannigal/2016/mar/26/3.-ஓஹோ...-எந்தன்-பேபி...-1302089.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329144310/http://www.dinamani.com/junction/kanavukkannigal/2016/mar/26/3.-%E0%AE%93%E0%AE%B9%E0%AF%8B...-%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF...-1302089.html |archive-date=29 March 2018 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=[[Dinamani]] |language=ta}}</ref> Writing for ''[[Scroll.in]]'', Sruthisagar Yamunan noted many Tamil film songs in the 1960s have repetitive interludes, "the same notes and orchestration repeating before every [[charanam]]", citing "Paattu Padava" as an example.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yamunan |first=Sruthisagar |date=10 March 2019 |title=Ilaiyaraaja: His preludes and interludes changed the way we listened to Tamil film music |url=https://scroll.in/reel/914398/ilaiyaraaja-at-75-his-preludes-and-interludes-changed-the-way-we-listened-to-tamil-film-music |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122155842/https://scroll.in/reel/914398/ilaiyaraaja-at-75-his-preludes-and-interludes-changed-the-way-we-listened-to-tamil-film-music |archive-date=22 November 2021 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=[[Scroll.in]]}}</ref>

Both "Oho Endhan Baby" and "Paattu Padava" are set in the [[Carnatic raga]] known as [[Keeravani]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mani |first=Charulatha |author-link=Charulatha Mani |date=26 April 2013 |title=Harmonious symmetry |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/harmonious-symmetry/article4657111.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219171338/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/harmonious-symmetry/article4657111.ece |archive-date=19 December 2014 |access-date=6 June 2017 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>{{sfn |Sundararaman |2007 |p=152}} while "Nilavum Malarum Paaduthu" is set in [[Mohanam]].{{sfn |Sundararaman |2007 |p=149}}<ref>{{Cite news |last=Saravanan |first=T. |date=20 September 2013 |title=Ragas hit a high |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/ragas-hit-a-high/article5149905.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213163350/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/ragas-hit-a-high/article5149905.ece |archive-date=13 December 2014 |access-date=6 June 2017 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> N. Krishnaswamy, writing for ''[[The Indian Express]]'' in 1988, said "Kaalaiyum Neeye" is set in [[Hamsanandi]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Krishnaswamy |first=N. |date=22 January 1988 |title=Killing spree |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19880122&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=23 April 2018 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=5 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> a view that is shared by [[Shoba Narayan (writer)|Shoba Narayan]], who was writing for ''[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]'' in 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Narayan |first=Shoba |date=23 January 2009 |title=Music is the mood, the muse and the meaning |url=http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/gx0hxRyIwbZzqKKSikeMZI/Music-is-the-mood-the-muse-and-the-meaning.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606125156/http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/gx0hxRyIwbZzqKKSikeMZI/Music-is-the-mood-the-muse-and-the-meaning.html |archive-date=6 June 2017 |access-date=6 June 2017 |work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]}}</ref> Singer [[Charulatha Mani]] said it only has "Hamsanandi-like phrases" and is not strictly based on the raga itself.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mani |first=Charulatha |author-link=Charulatha Mani |date=23 December 2011 |title=A Raga's Journey – Heart-rending Hamsanandi |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/a-ragas-journey-heartrending-hamsanandi/article2741678.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140206214504/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/a-ragas-journey-heartrending-hamsanandi/article2741678.ece |archive-date=6 February 2014 |access-date=6 June 2017 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Carnatic musicologist Sundararaman identifies it as being set in the [[Hindustani raga|Hindustani]] raga [[Basant (raga)|Basant]],{{sfn |Sundararaman |2007 |p=135}} while K. Easwaralingam, writing for ''[[Thinakaran]]'', said it is set in [[Hamsadhvani]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Easwaralingam |first=K. |date=12 June 2012 |title=ஏ.எம்.ராஜhவை நீங்கா புகழ்பெறச் செய்தவை துயரத்தையும் தாபத்தையும் தேக்கிய பாடல்களே |url=http://archives.thinakaran.lk/2012/06/12/?fn=f1206124&p=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402091854/http://archives.thinakaran.lk/2012/06/12/?fn=f1206124&p=1 |archive-date=2 April 2018 |access-date=2 April 2018 |work=[[Thinakaran]] |language=ta}}</ref> "Oorengum Thaedinaen" is set in [[Charukesi]].{{sfn |Sundararaman |2007 |p=150}} "Paattu Padava" was later adapted into a different song titled "All Your Beauty", which appears in the film ''[[Goli Soda]]'' (2014).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |author-link=Baradwaj Rangan |date=25 January 2014 |title="Goli Soda"... Little men |url=https://baradwajrangan.wordpress.com/2014/01/25/goli-soda-1243164-8957-096/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010235115/https://baradwajrangan.wordpress.com/2014/01/25/goli-soda-1243164-8957-096/ |archive-date=10 October 2016 |access-date=22 March 2016 |website=Baradwaj Rangan}}</ref> It was also recreated as the theme song for the 2022 TV series ''[[Iniya (TV series)|Iniya]]''.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eL3nxSPPqkk |title=Iniya – Song Making {{!}} Paattu Paadava {{!}} Alya Manasa {{!}} Saregama TV Shows Tamil |date=6 December 2022 |last=Saregama TV Shows Tamil |author-link=Saregama |access-date=7 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206155218/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eL3nxSPPqkk |archive-date=6 December 2022 |url-status=live |via=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Chinna Chinna Kannile
| extra1 = [[A. M. Rajah]], [[P. Susheela]]
| length1 = 3:44
| title2 = Kaalaiyum Neeye
| extra2 = A. M. Rajah, [[S. Janaki]]
| length2 = 3:28
| title3 = Malare Malare Theriyatha
| extra3 = P. Susheela
| length3 = 3:43
| title4 = Nilavum Malarum
| extra4 = A. M. Rajah, P. Susheela
| length4 = 3:42
| title5 = Oho Endhan Baby
| extra5 = A. M. Rajah, S. Janaki
| length5 = 3:13
| title6 = Oorengum Thaedinaen
| extra6 = [[Jikki]]
| length6 = 3:02
| title7 = Paattu Padava
| extra7 = A. M. Rajah
| length7 = 3:42
| total_length = 24:34
}}

== Release and reception ==
''Thennilavu'' was released on 30 September 1961.<ref name="lakshmansruthi" /> Kanthan of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' praised the performances of the cast and the photography in Kashmir but criticised the story.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=காந்தன் |date=15 October 1961 |title=தேன்நிலவு |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1961-10-15/page/43/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230331135925/https://archive.org/details/kalki1961-10-15/page/43/mode/2up |archive-date=31 March 2023 |access-date=31 March 2023 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=43 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> ''[[Kumudam]]'' gave a more negative review, playing on the film's title by saying "''Thennilavu'' Veen Selavu" (''Thennilavu'' is a waste of money).<ref name="Oho Endhan Baby" /> It was a success at the box office,<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2008 |title=C.V Sridhar, veteran director passes away! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/c-v-sridhar-veteran-director-passes-away-news-tamil-kkfsJNdjcaa.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122094100/http://www.sify.com/movies/c-v-sridhar-veteran-director-passes-away-news-tamil-kkfsJNdjcaa.html |archive-date=22 January 2014 |access-date=21 October 2011 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> running in theatres for over 100 days.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Narayanan |first=Arjun |date=22 August 2012 |title=Serenading the Silver Screen |url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2012/08/22&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar03600 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180510125721/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2012/08/22&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar03600 |archive-date=10 May 2018 |access-date=10 May 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
''Thennilavu'' inspired the filming of more Indian films in Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramesh |first=Neeraja |date=23 August 2019 |title=New Kashmir beckons Kodambakkam arc lights |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/new-kashmir-beckons-kodambakkam-arc-lights/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125142851/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/tracking-indian-communities/new-kashmir-beckons-kodambakkam-arc-lights/ |archive-date=25 November 2020 |access-date=6 March 2022 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> [[Baradwaj Rangan]] said; "People from an older era may claim that the definitive Gemini romance was ''[[Missiamma]]'', which reportedly was our grandmothers' ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'' [...] I, however, go with [''Thennilavu''], if only for the too-cool image of him in swimming trunks, water-skiing alongside the charmingly young Vyjayanthimala."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rangan |first=Baradwaj |author-link=Baradwaj Rangan |date=27 March 2005 |title=Tribute: Gemini Ganesan |url=http://baradwajrangan.wordpress.com/2005/03/27/tribute-gemini-ganesan/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819160458/http://baradwajrangan.wordpress.com/2005/03/27/tribute-gemini-ganesan/ |archive-date=19 August 2013 |access-date=8 August 2013 |website=Baradwaj Rangan}}</ref> [[Mohan Raman]] named ''Thennilavu'' one of "the best examples" where Thangavelu played a "father" role.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Raman |first=Mohan V. |author-link=Mohan Raman |date=24 September 2016 |title=King of comedy |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/King-of-comedy/article14997642.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180425051747/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/King-of-comedy/article14997642.ece |archive-date=25 April 2018 |access-date=25 April 2018 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Thangavelu's dialogue "''Kashmirikku ponakka cash meeruma?!''" ("Will we have cash left if we go to Kashmir?") attained popularity.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Krishnan |first=Raghu |date=22 April 2007 |title=Once upon a stand-alone theatre |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/as-you-like-it/once-upon-a-stand-alone-theatre/articleshow/1936384.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180329142348/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/as-you-like-it/once-upon-a-stand-alone-theatre/articleshow/1936384.cms |archive-date=29 March 2018 |access-date=29 March 2018 |work=[[The Economic Times]]}}</ref> A [[sari]] brand named after the film was launched by [[Nalli Kuppuswami Chetti]] in 1961.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sundar |first=Mrinalini |date=14 April 2016 |title=Of T Nagar, textiles and tinsel town memories |url=http://epaperbeta.timesofindia.com/Article.aspx?eid=31807&articlexml=Of-T-Nagar-textiles-and-tinsel-town-memories-14042016101011# |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180402144006/http://epaperbeta.timesofindia.com/Article.aspx?eid=31807&articlexml=Of-T-Nagar-textiles-and-tinsel-town-memories-14042016101011%23 |archive-date=2 April 2018 |access-date=14 December 2021 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Narayana |first=V. G. |date=28 June 2014 |title=Interview with Dr. Nalli Kuppuswami Chetti |url=https://www.hbs.edu/businesshistory/Documents/emerging-markets-transcripts/ChettiTranscriptWithCoverFinal.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513012230/https://www.hbs.edu/businesshistory/Documents/emerging-markets-transcripts/ChettiTranscriptWithCoverFinal.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2021 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=[[Harvard Business School]] |location=Chennai}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Swaminathan |first=Chitra |date=23 October 2014 |title=Checks go out of the box |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/fashion/checks-go-out-of-the-box/article6527978.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129021013/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/fashion/checks-go-out-of-the-box/article6527978.ece |archive-date=29 November 2014 |access-date=14 December 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Umashanker |first=Sudha |date=4 November 2004 |title=Tradition's modern spin |url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2004/11/04/stories/2004110400480600.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402083456/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2004/11/04/stories/2004110400480600.htm |archive-date=2 April 2018 |access-date=14 December 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The song "Paattu Padava" was included in the opening scene of the 2020 Canadian film ''[[Funny Boy (film)|Funny Boy]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shedde |first=Meenakshi |date=12 December 2020 |title=Border-slashing Funny Boy |url=https://www.mid-day.com/news/opinion/article/Border-slashing-Funny-Boy-23138253 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306120501/https://www.mid-day.com/news/opinion/article/Border-slashing-Funny-Boy-23138253 |archive-date=6 March 2022 |access-date=6 March 2022 |website=[[Mid-Day]]}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |last=Balabharathi |title=தமிழ் சினிமா 80 பாகம்-1 |publisher=Nakkheeran Publications |year=2012 |isbn=978-93-81828-40-3 |location=Chennai |language=ta |trans-title=Tamil Cinema 80 Part-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bali |first=Vyjayanthimala |author-link=Vyjayanthimala |title=Bonding... A Memoir |publisher=Stellar Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-8190455916 |location=New Delhi}}
* {{Cite book |last=Baskaran |first=S. Theodore |author-link=S. Theodore Baskaran |title=The Eye of the Serpent: An Introduction to Tamil Cinema |publisher=East West Books |year=1996 |location=Chennai |oclc=243920437}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ganesh |first=Narayani |title=Eternal Romantic: My Father, Gemini Ganesan |publisher=Roli Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-81-7436-578-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Narwekar |first=Sanjit |author-link=Sanjit Narwekar |title=Directory of Indian film-makers and films |publisher=Flicks Books |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-948911-40-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sundararaman |title=Raga Chintamani: A Guide to Carnatic Ragas Through Tamil Film Music |publisher=Pichhamal Chintamani |year=2007 |edition=2nd |location=Chennai |oclc=295034757 |orig-date=2005}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

{{C. V. Sridhar}}

[[Category:1961 Indian films]]
[[Category:1961 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1961 films]]
[[Category:1961 romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Censored films]]
[[Category:Film censorship in India]]
[[Category:Films about honeymoons]]
[[Category:Films directed by C. V. Sridhar]]
[[Category:Films scored by A. M. Rajah]]
[[Category:Films set in Bengaluru]]
[[Category:Films set in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films set in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Films shot in Kodaikanal]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by C. V. Sridhar]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Race-related controversies in film]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Works subject to expurgation]]

Flavoring

2026-03-04T00:17:18Z

Ankithreddy: slightly adjusted references to improve readability and fixed typos

{{Short description|Food additive used to change its aroma or taste}}
{{About|flavorings in food|flavor as the perception of an aroma or odor|Taste}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
[[File:Rumaroma.jpg|thumb|A flavoring]]
A '''flavoring''' (or '''flavouring'''),{{efn|See spelling differences: [[American and British English spelling differences]]}} also known as '''flavor''' (or '''flavour''') or '''flavorant''', is a [[food additive]] that is used to improve the [[taste]] or [[Sense of smell|smell]] of food. It changes the [[perceptual]] impression of [[food]] as determined primarily by the [[chemoreceptor]]s of the [[Taste|gustatory]] and [[olfactory system|olfactory systems]].<ref>Small DM, Green BG. "[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92876/ A Proposed Model of a Flavor Modality] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210919215614/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92876/ |date=19 September 2021 }}". In: Murray MM, Wallace MT, editors. The Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2012. Chapter 36.</ref><ref name="wol">{{cite book |last1=Wolfe |first1=Jeremy |url=https://archive.org/details/sensationpercept0000unse_o8u3 |title=Sensation & perception |last2=Kluender |first2=Keith |last3=Levi |first3=Dennis |publisher=Sinauer Associates |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-87893-572-7 |edition=3rd |page=7 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Along with additives, other components, like sugars, determine the taste of food.

A flavoring is defined as a substance that gives another substance taste, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become [[sweet]], [[sour]], [[pungent|tangy]], etc. Although the term, in common language, denotes the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same term is used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell.

Owing to the high cost, or unavailability, of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorings are "nature-identical", which means that they are the [[chemical compound|chemical]] equivalent of natural flavors, but chemically synthesized rather than having been extracted from source materials. Identification of components of natural foods, for example a [[raspberry]], may be done using technology such as [[headspace technology|headspace techniques]], so the flavorist can imitate the flavor by using a few of the same chemicals present. In the EU legislation, the term "natural-identical flavoring" does not exist. The legislation is specified on what is a "flavoring" and a "natural flavoring".

== Definition ==
A flavoring is a [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] additive that improves the taste or smell of food. They work primarily via the [[olfactory system|sense of smell]]. In legislation, substances that exclusively have a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings. These usually include [[flavor enhancer]]s, [[sweetener]]s, [[acidulant]]s and [[salt substitute]]s.

There are different ways to divide flavorings. First by the way they are produced. A vanilla flavoring can for example be obtained naturally by extraction from [[vanilla]] seeds, or one can start with cheap chemicals and try to make a similar substance artificially (in this example [[vanillin]]). A nature-identical flavoring is chemically an exact copy of the original substance and can be either natural or artificial.<ref name="au-nz_guide-2002"/> Vanillin is neither obtained from the vanilla plant nor an exact copy of vanilla, but a synthesized nature-identical component of the vanilla aroma. Vanillin is not vanilla, but gives a food a vanilla aroma.

The second division is by the effect they have on smell (aroma) or taste of the food. The effect can be the aroma of a specific [[fruit]], [[Benzaldehyde|almond]], [[Artificial butter flavoring|butter]], [[Liquid smoke|smoke from wood]], or some fantasy flavor. The aroma of the flavoring may resemble that of the source, or imitate a particular unrelated food. It may for example be the extract from vanilla seeds and smell like vanilla, or it may be the extract of a potato and smell like a banana. Irrespective of the effect, the flavoring may be natural or artificial. It may for example be the natural tissue of an animal with the aroma of a citrus, or just a chemical that smells like a citrus.

==Division by production method==
Flavorings can be divided into three principal types: "natural flavorings", "nature-identical flavorings", and "artificial flavorings".<ref name="au-nz_guide-2002">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080720091222if_/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/flavourings_user_guide_0802.pdf ''Flavourings and Flavour Enhancers — User Guide''], August 2002. The Australia and New Zealand Food Standards Code (archived)</ref> In the United States, they are traditionally divided into natural and artificial flavorings, where the latter includes nature-identical flavorings.<ref name="fda-title21-2022"/> In contrast, European legislation does not distinguish natural and nature-identical flavorings, while only the term "natural" is subject to some regulation.

=== Natural flavorings ===
Natural flavorings are edible [[aroma compound]]s that are found in [[Natural environment|nature]], not [[Artificiality|made by man]].
In nature, they always occur with other natural substances that also may be flavorings. Natural flavorings can be isolated on industrial scale, to be used as an additive.

Techniques to obtain natural flavorings include the use of [[enzyme]]s and/or [[microorganism]]s. European legislators have accepted flavorings produced by manmade [[genetically modified organism]]s (GMOs) – not found in nature – as natural flavorings.

=== Nature-identical flavorings ===
Nature-identical flavorings are human-made aroma compounds that are chemically identical to some substance that can be found in nature. They are synthesized from [[chemical]]s or isolated by means of chemical processes.

Because nature-identical flavorings can be produced at low costs, the food industry will argue that nature-identical and natural flavorings are exactly the same. They have the advantage to be chemically pure, without [[allergen]]s that may be coupled with natural flavorings. On the other hand, they are missing the [[synergy]] of other substances present in their natural origin, so they may lack subtlety.

=== Artificial flavorings ===
[[Artificial]] flavorings are synthesized from chemical substances by humans and are not found in nature. Their sensory characteristics mostly resemble that of natural or nature-identical flavorings.

== Perception of flavorings ==
Aromas are the [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] components of the food. The aroma is determined by the [[aroma compound]]s it contains and the personal ability to detect them. While an aroma primarily acts through the [[olfactory system]], it also affects the [[taste]] at the same time.

Along with additives, other components, like sugars, determine the taste of food. The [[trigeminal nerve]]s, which detect chemical [[irritation|irritants]] in the [[mouth]] and [[throat]], as well as temperature and texture, are also important to the overall perception of food.{{cn|date=April 2023}}

== Mechanism ==
Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product, while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2014/dec/08/fake-flavours-artificial-aromas-real-food-smells-aromafork|title=Fake flavours: why artificial aromas can't compete with real food smells|author=Amy Fleming|department=Food & Drink|access-date=3 June 2015|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=8 December 2014|archive-date=3 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603123223/http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2014/dec/08/fake-flavours-artificial-aromas-real-food-smells-aromafork|url-status=live}}</ref>

Unlike smelling, which occurs upon [[inhalation]], the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in the [[exhalation]] phase of [[breathing]] and is perceived differently by an individual. In other words, the smell of food is different depending on whether one is smelling it before or after it has entered one's mouth.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.02.024 | title = Expiration: The moment we experience retronasal olfaction in flavor | year = 2010 | last1 = Masaoka | first1 = Yuri | last2 = Satoh | first2 = Hironori | last3 = Akai | first3 = Lena | last4 = Homma | first4 = Ikuo | journal = Neuroscience Letters | volume = 473 | issue = 2 | pages = 92–6 | pmid = 20171264| s2cid = 2671577 }}</ref>

==Taste==
The taste of a food product is determined not only by the aromas present in the original material and added flavorings, but also by accompanying substances, like flavor enhancers, [[sweetener]]s, [[acidulant]]s and [[salt substitute]]s. [[Polyol]]s, like [[sorbitol]] and [[maltitol]], are carriers in flavorings, but they themselves also have a sweet taste.

Even the color of food can affect one's experience of the taste significantly.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.concog.2009.08.008 | title = Grape expectations: The role of cognitive influences in color–flavor interactions | year = 2010 | last1 = Shankar | first1 = Maya U. | last2 = Levitan | first2 = Carmel A. | last3 = Spence | first3 = Charles | journal = Consciousness and Cognition | volume = 19 | pages = 380–90 | pmid = 19828330 | issue = 1| s2cid = 32230245 }}</ref>
In one study, adding more [[food color|red color]] to a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb12706.x | title = Perceived Sweetness and Redness in Colored Sucrose Solutions | year = 1982 | last1 = Johnson | first1 = J. | last2 = Clydesdale | first2 = F. M. | journal = Journal of Food Science | volume = 47 | issue = 3 | page = 747}}</ref> Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; for example, different colors of the U.S. product [[Froot Loops]] cereal and most brands of [[Gummy Bear]]s often use the same flavorings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/01/08/575406711/are-gummy-bear-flavors-just-fooling-our-brains|title=Are Gummy Bear Flavors Just Fooling Our Brains?|first=Ashlie|last=Stevens|work=NPR|date=8 January 2018|access-date=16 January 2018|archive-date=17 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117010102/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2018/01/08/575406711/are-gummy-bear-flavors-just-fooling-our-brains|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/1477/breaking-breakfast-news-froot-loops-are-all-the-same-flavor/|title=Breaking Breakfast News: Fruit Loops Are All the Same Flavor, after the Mandela effect now known as Froot Loops |author=Locker, Melissa|magazine=Time|date=21 January 2014}}</ref>

=== Flavor enhancers ===

Flavor enhancers or taste enhancers, which are [[umami]] or "savory" compounds, are themselves not flavorings, but they intensify the taste of the food. They are largely based on [[amino acid]]s and [[nucleotide]]s. These are typically used as [[sodium]] or [[calcium]] [[salt (chemistry)|salts]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glutamate.org/history/100_years_of_taste.html|title=Monosodium Glutamate & Umami|website=International Glutamate Information Service|access-date=3 June 2015|archive-date=25 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625045829/http://www.glutamate.org/history/100_years_of_taste.html}}</ref> Umami flavorings recognized and approved by the European Union include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodadditivesworld.com/flavorings.html|title=Flavorings|website=Food Additives|access-date=3 June 2015|archive-date=6 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506054952/http://www.foodadditivesworld.com/flavorings.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Acid salts
!Description
|-
|[[Glutamic acid]] salts
|This amino acid's sodium salt, [[monosodium glutamate]] (MSG), is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono- and diglutamate salts are also commonly used.
|-
|[[Glycine]] salts
|Simple amino acid salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
|-
|[[Guanylic acid]] (GMP) salts
|Nucleotide salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
|-
|[[Inosinic acid]] (IMP) salts
|Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP. Due to high costs of production, typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
|-
|5'-[[ribonucleotide]] salts
|A blend of GMP and IMP salts ("I+G"), generally in the [[disodium ribonucleotides]] form; typically combined with amino acids flavor enhancers
|}

==Regulations==
=== In Europe ===
Under the EU legislation, substances which have exclusively a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings (Article 2, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008.<ref name="regulation_1334/2008">[https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02008R1334-20211124 ''Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on flavourings and certain food ingredients with flavouring properties for use in and on foods and amending Council Regulation (EEC) No 1601/91, Regulations (EC) No 2232/96 and (EC) No 110/2008 and Directive 2000/13/EC''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209133818/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02008R1334-20211124 |date=9 February 2022 }} (consolidated version of 24 November 2021). The preamble is [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1334 reproduced here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209133830/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1334 |date=9 February 2022 }}</ref>

Also flavor enhancers are not considered flavorings under the EU legislation but additives (Point 14 of Annex I of Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008).<ref name="regulation_1333/2008">[https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02008R1333-20210808 ''Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209133830/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02008R1333-20210808 |date=9 February 2022 }} (consolidated version of 8 August 2021). The preamble is [https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1333 reproduced here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209133820/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1333 |date=9 February 2022 }}</ref>

EU legislation defines several types of flavorings:<ref>European Commission website, Directorate General for Health and Food Safety. Retrieved on 6 May 2020 https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings_en {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712212322/https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings_en |date=12 July 2020 }}</ref>
*flavoring substances (including "natural flavoring substances"):
*flavoring preparations (by definition always natural):
*thermal process flavorings
*smoke flavorings
*flavor precursors
*other flavorings

In the EU, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 on flavorings and certain food ingredients with flavoring properties for use in/on foods, i.e. the EU Flavouring Regulation, was adopted on 16 December 2008 and entered into force on 20 January 2009. It applies from 20 January 2011.
Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 lays down general requirements for safe use of flavorings and provides definitions for different types of flavorings. The Regulation sets out substances for which an evaluation and approval is required. The Union list of flavoring substances, approved for use in and on foods, was adopted on 1 October 2012 and was introduced in Annex I of this Regulation<ref>European Commission website, Directorate General for Health and Food Safety. Retrieved on 6 May 2020: https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings/eu_rules_en {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716151212/https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings/eu_rules_en |date=16 July 2020 }}</ref>

==== In the UK ====
The UK followed the above EU legislation which remained in force until 31 December 2020. The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 provided that from 1 January 2021, this directly applicable EU legislation was converted into UK law with minor corrections to enable it to operate effectively as UK law. These corrections were made by Statutory Instrument 2019 No. 860.

The UK Food industry, in collaboration with the flavoring industry, has developed guidance on what to consider when declaring a pictorial representation of a food ingredient on the label of a pre-packed product.

=== In the United States ===
In the United States, flavorings are regulated in ''Title 21'' of the [[Code of Federal Regulations]]. They are divided into artificial and natural flavorings.<ref name="fda-title21-2022">U.S. Food and Drug Administration, [https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.22 ''Food Labeling''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209115842/https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.22 |date=9 February 2022 }} In: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 — Food and drugs, Chapter I. (version of 6 Jan 2022)</ref>

=== In Australia and New Zealand ===
In Australia and New Zealand regulation of flavorings is covered by the [[Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code]] of November 2000, entered into force in December 2002.<ref name="au-nz_guide-2002"/>

Natural flavorings are obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological, or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances.

Nature-identical flavorings are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically and [[organoleptic]]ally identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances.

Artificial flavorings are "flavouring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed."

===Regulations on natural flavoring===
[[File:Mystic Ice Cream flavor selection sign.jpg|thumb|American ice cream shop using natural flavors]]
In the EU, in order to be labeled as natural flavoring substance, many conditions have to be fulfilled: "Natural flavouring substance" shall mean a flavoring substance obtained by appropriate physical, enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable, animal or microbiological origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by one or more of the traditional food preparation processes listed in Annex II. Natural flavoring substances correspond to substances that are naturally present and have been identified in nature (Article 3).<ref name="regulation_1334/2008"/>

More detailed information on the Production of Natural Flavouring Substances and (Natural) Flavouring Preparations can be found on the European Flavour Association (EFFA) Guidance Document.<ref>EFFA Guidance Document for the Production of Natural Flavouring Substances and (Natural) Flavouring Preparations: https://effa.eu/docs/default-source/guidance-documents/effa-guidance-document-for-the-production-of-natural-flavouring-substances-and-(natural)-flavouring-preparations-in-the-eu6c53ae21f98c63ce9dbbff000087830d.pdf{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[UK]] Food Law defines a natural flavor as:

{{Blockquote|A flavouring substance (or flavouring substances) which is (or are) obtained, by physical, enzymatic, or microbiological processes, from material of vegetable or animal origin which material is either raw or has been subjected to a process normally used in preparing food for human consumption and to no process other than one normally so used<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1994/uksi_19941486_en_1.htm|title=The Flavourings in Food (Amendment) Regulations 1994|website=www.opsi.gov.uk|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=28 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528083814/http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1994/Uksi_19941486_en_1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavoring" as:
{{quote|The [[essential oil]], oleoresin, essence, or extractive, protein hydrolysate, [[distillate]], or any product of roasting, heating, or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit, or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf, or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional.<ref name="fda-title21-2022"/>}}

==Dietary restrictions==
Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant to inform consumers about the source and identity of flavor ingredients and whether they have been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal byproducts.{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}} Some flavor ingredients, such as [[gelatin]], are produced from animal products. Some, such as [[glycerin]], can be derived from either animal or vegetable sources. And some extracts, such as vanilla, may contain alcohol. Many groups, such as [[Jews]], [[Jainism|Jains]], [[Hindus]], and [[Muslims]], as well as [[vegans]], follow dietary restrictions which disallow the use of animal byproducts and/or alcohol in certain contexts. In many Western countries, some consumers rely on a Jewish [[kosher]] [[pareve]] certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy (although they can still contain fish). [[The Vegan Society]]'s Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies worldwide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings).{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}}

Similarly, persons with known [[Food sensitivity|sensitivities]] or [[Food allergy|allergies]] to food products are advised to avoid foods that contain generic "natural flavors" or to first determine the source of the flavoring before consuming the food.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2015/12/attention-allergy-sufferers-beware-of-natural-flavors|title=Attention, Allergy Sufferers: Beware of Natural Flavors|date=2 December 2015|website=Food Safety News|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203181604/http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2015/12/attention-allergy-sufferers-beware-of-natural-flavors/|url-status=live}}</ref> Such flavors may be derived from a variety of source products that are themselves common [[allergen]]s, such as [[Dairy allergy|dairy]], [[Soy allergy|soy]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.allergyadvisor.com/hidden.htm |website=Allergy Advisor |title=Hidden Allergens in Foods |access-date=27 December 2011 |archive-date=27 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227173750/http://allergyadvisor.com/hidden.htm}}</ref> [[sesame#Allergy|sesame]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kidswithfoodallergies.org/resourcespre.php?id=107 |website=Kids with Food Allergies Foundation |title=Sesame Allergy: A growing food allergy |access-date=27 December 2011 |archive-date=21 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421021345/http://www.kidswithfoodallergies.org/resourcespre.php?id=107}}</ref> [[Egg allergy|eggs]], and [[Nut allergy|nuts]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cspinet.org/nah/04_01/ |website=Center for Science in the Public Interest |title=Food Allergies |access-date=27 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826044631/http://www.cspinet.org/nah/04_01/ |archive-date=26 August 2011 }}</ref>
In the EU, nevertheless, this information is available in the labeling. Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, states in article 9 that any ingredient or processing aid listed in Annex II (of the aforementioned Regulation) or derived from a substance or product listed in Annex II causing allergies or intolerances used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and still present in the finished product, even if in an altered form, must be included in the labeling.<ref>Regulation (EU) no 1169/2011 of the European parliament and of the council of 25 October 2011</ref>

==Flavor creation==
{{also|food science|food technology}}
Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorists to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and flavor chemists ([[flavorist]]s) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorings consist of [[ester]]s, which are often described as being sweet or fruity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/question391.htm|title=How do artificial flavors work?|website=How Stuff Works|access-date=3 June 2015|date=31 May 2000|archive-date=30 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030122421/http://science.howstuffworks.com/question391.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally. It has been suggested that artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law.<ref name="Smitha">{{cite journal | title = A procedure for the safety evaluation of natural flavor complexes used as ingredients in food: essential oils |author=R.L. Smitha |author2=S.M. Cohenb |author3=J. Doullc |author4=V.J. Ferond |author5=J.I. Goodmane |author6=L.J. Marnettf |author7=P.S. Portogheseg |author8=W.J. Waddellh |author9=B.M.Wagneri |author10=R.L. Hallj |author11=N.A. Higleyk |author12=C. Lucas-Gavinl |author13=T.B. Adamsm | journal = [[Food and Chemical Toxicology]] | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | year = 2005| pages =345–363 | doi = 10.1016/j.fct.2004.11.007 | pmid = 15680674}}</ref> Natural flavors, in contrast, may contain impurities from their sources, while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.<ref name="Smitha"/>

[[food industry|Food]] and [[beverage industry|beverage]] companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products), or changes in formula or processing for existing products. In 2011, about US$10.6 billion were generated with the sale of flavors; the majority of the flavors used are consumed in [[ultra-processed food]] and [[convenience food]].<ref>Ceresana, market study Flavors, December 2012, http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/flavors/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729111954/http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/flavors/ |date=29 July 2013 }}</ref>

The number of food smells is unbounded; a food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. This is exemplified in artificially flavored [[gelatin dessert|jellies]], [[soft drink]]s and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances.

Most flavors represent a mixture of [[aroma compound]]s, the raw material that is produced by flavor companies. In rare cases, a single synthetic compound is used in pure form. Artificial [[vanilla flavor]]s [[vanillin]] and [[ethylvanillin]] are a notable exception, as well as the artificial [[strawberry]] flavor ([[ethyl methylphenylglycidate]]). The ubiquitous "green apple" aroma is based on [[hexyl acetate]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1003201.html|title=hexyl acetate, 142-92-7|first=William|last=Luebke|date=31 December 2017|website=www.thegoodscentscompany.com|access-date=3 February 2018|archive-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203064606/http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1003201.html|url-status=live}}</ref>


{| class=wikitable
|+{{vanchor|Table of some fruity flavorings}}
|-
!Chemical
!Odor
|-
|[[Manzanate]]
|[[Apple]]
|-
|[[Diacetyl]], [[acetylpropionyl]], [[acetoin]]
|[[Butter]]y
|-
|[[Isoamyl acetate]]
|[[Banana]]
|-
|[[Benzaldehyde]]
|[[Bitter almond]], [[cherry]]
|-
|[[Cinnamaldehyde]]
|[[Cinnamon]]
|-
|[[Ethyl propionate]]
|[[Fruit]]y
|-
|[[Methyl anthranilate]]
|[[Grape]]
|-
|[[Limonene]]
|[[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
|-
|[[γ-Decalactone]]
|[[Peach]]
|-
|[[Ethyl decadienoate]]
|[[Pear]]
|-
|[[Allyl hexanoate]]
|[[Pineapple]]
|-
|[[Ethyl methylphenylglycidate]]
|[[Strawberry]]
|-
|[[Ethyl maltol]]
|Caramelized [[sugar]], [[cotton candy]]
|-
|[[2,4-Dithiapentane]]
|[[Truffle]]
|-
|[[Ethylvanillin]]
|[[Vanilla]]
|-
|[[Methyl salicylate]]
|[[Wintergreen]]
|}

Some flavors are relatively multifaceted. For example, the basic aroma of cooked meat is formed by a combination of [[Maillard reaction]], [[lipid peroxidation]], and degradation of sulfur-containing compounds, such as [[thiamine]] and cysteine.<ref name=Li>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xuejie |last2=Li |first2=Jian |title=The Flavor of Plant-Based Meat Analogues |journal=Cereal Foods World |date=2020 |volume=65 |issue=4 |doi=10.1094/CFW-65-4-0040|s2cid=231203281 }}</ref> With this understanding, an artificial chicken flavor can be made from ingredients as simple as glucose, salt, cysteine, and [[arachidonic acid]]: when heated in a water solution they undergo these three reactions to produce the desired flavor. (Such a flavor produced during the preparation process from precursor compounds is called a "process flavor"). Small tweaks to the mixture can instead produce a beef flavor. This kind of basic meat flavoring has been known since the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Perret |first1=Marcel Andre |title=Chicken flavor and process for preparing the same |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3689289A/en |date=5 September 1972}}</ref> Of course, these four chemicals only mimic a small number of possible reactions out of the many reactions possible among the complex flavor precursor chemicals found in meat. For a more realistically complex aroma, natural feedstocks such as [[yeast extract]], [[hydrolyzed vegetable protein]], and spices can be used to expand the number of possible reactions. They also contribute peptides, free amino acids, and nucleic acid metabolites that all play a role in the natural taste of meat.<ref name=Li/><ref name=vegmeat>{{cite journal |last1=Kale |first1=Prajyoti |last2=Mishra |first2=Anusha |last3=Annapure |first3=Uday S. |title=Development of vegan meat flavour: A review on sources and techniques |journal=Future Foods |date=June 2022 |volume=5 |article-number=100149 |doi=10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100149|s2cid=248838839 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Determination==
Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors.<ref>e.g. ISO 13301:2002 Sensory analysis – Methodology – General guidance for measuring odor, flavor and taste detection thresholds by a three-alternative forced-choice (3-AFC) procedure, or ISO 6564:1985 Sensory analysis – Methodology – Flavor profile methods.</ref> In [[Analytical chemistry|chemical analysis]] of flavors, [[solid phase extraction]], [[solid phase microextraction]], and headspace [[gas chromatography]] are applied to extract and separate the flavor compounds in the sample. The determination is typically done by various [[mass spectrometry|mass spectrometric]] techniques.<ref>Use of Ozone Depleting Substances in Laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. [http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf norden.org] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227052412/http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf |date=27 February 2008 }}</ref> A [[flavor lexicon]] can aid the development of objective language for food.

==See also==
{{Portal|Food}}
{{div col}}
* [[Aroma compound]]
* [[Artificial butter flavoring]]
* [[Ester]] (for list of some artificial flavor chemical compounds)
* ''[[Flavour and Fragrance Journal]]''
* [[Food additive]]
* [[Fragrance oil]]
* [[Katsuobushi]]
* [[Off-flavor]]
* [[Palatability]]
* [[Seasoning]]
* [[Taste bud]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*J. Demyttenaere, "Natural or Synthetic? The Legal Framework in the EU for the Production of Natural Flavouring Ingredients". In: ''Biotechnology of Natural Products'' (Schwab, W., Lange, B.M. and Wüst, M., Eds.), Springer, 2018.
*J.C.R. Demyttenaere, "The new European Union Flavouring Regulation and its impact on essential oils: production of natural flavouring ingredients and maximum levels of restricted substances", ''Flavour and Fragrance Journal'', 27, 3–12 (2012).
*J.C.R. Demyttenaere. "The EU Regulation on Flavourings – an Update after 10 Years into Force: Focus on B2B Labelling of Natural Flavourings and Dealing with Restricted Substances", ''Foods & Food Ingredients Journal of Japan'', 224(2), 178, 2019.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|flavor|flavour}}
{{Commonscat|Food flavorings}}
* [https://science.howstuffworks.com/question391.htm "How do artificial flavors work?"]. [[HowStuffWorks]]
* [https://monell.org/ Monell Chemical Senses Center]
* [https://effa.eu/ EFFA website]
* [https://effa.eu/library/guidance-documents EFFA Guidance Documents]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhM2JRhMOwI&t= EFFA Video "What is a Flavouring?"]
* H. W. Schultz (editor): ''Symposium On Foods: The Chemistry and Physiology of Flavors. The Fourth in a Series of Symposia On Foods Held in Oregon State University'', AVI Pub, Co., Westpoint Conn. 1967, LCCN 66024813.[https://lccn.loc.gov/66024813 LCCN-permanent link]

{{Food chemistry}}
{{Consumer Food Safety}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Flavors| ]]
[[Category:Food science]]

Chhoti Bahu

2026-03-03T23:40:21Z

Ankithreddy: correct section to improve readability for clarity

{{About|the 1971 film|the 1994 film|Chhoti Bahoo (1994 film)|the Hindi television serial|Chotti Bahu}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Chotti Bahu
| image = Choti_Bahu.jpg

| caption = DVD cover
| director = [[K. B. Tilak]]
| producer =
| writer = [[Raj Baldev Raj]]
| story = Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay
| narrator =
| based_on = [[Muddu Bidda]] (1956) Bindur Chhele by [[Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay]]
| starring = [[Sharmila Tagore]] [[Rajesh Khanna]] [[Nirupa Roy]]
| music = [[Kalyanji Anandji]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1971}}
| runtime =
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| budget =
}}

'''''Chhoti Bahu''''' is a 1971 [[Hindi]] [[drama film]] produced by Seeru Daryani and Darius Gotla, the film is directed by [[K. B. Tilak]] and written by [[Raj Baldev Raj]].

The film stars [[Sharmila Tagore]], [[Rajesh Khanna]], [[Nirupa Roy]] and [[I. S. Johar]]. The music is by [[Kalyanji Anandji]]. The film was successful at the box office and particularly noted for [[Sharmila Tagore]]'s performance as a layered female protagonist.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theprint.in/features/sharmila-tagores-chhoti-bahu-gave-us-a-bollywood-rarity-a-layered-female-protagonist/290558|title = Sharmila Tagore's Chhoti Bahu gave us a Bollywood rarity — a layered female protagonist|date = 15 September 2019}}</ref>

The Movie <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cinegoer.com/prabhusinterviews/kbtilak9.htm |title=Interview with KB Tilak |work=Cinegoer |access-date=28 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921134052/http://www.cinegoer.com/prabhusinterviews/kbtilak9.htm |archive-date=21 September 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> was based on the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] novel ''Bindur Chhele'' written by the famous Bengali author [[Saratchandra Chatterjee]]. This film is counted among the 17 consecutive hit films of Rajesh Khanna between 1969 and 1971, by adding the two-hero films ''Marayada'' and ''Andaz'' to the 15 consecutive solo hits he from 1969 to 1971.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/chandigarh/eight-lesser-known-facts-about-rajesh-khanna-on-his-death-anniversary/story-eMKmVMlFkKlbSLqAFAf7qI.html|title=Eight lesser known facts about Rajesh Khanna on his death anniversary|date=18 July 2015|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeenews.india.com/hindi/news/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B2/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%82%E0%A5%A4-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6-%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%82%E0%A5%A4/142072|title=आनंद मरा नहीं...। आनंद मरते नहीं...।|date=19 July 2012|publisher=}}</ref>

Initially, [[Saira Banu]] was to star as the female lead, but she withdrew a few days into filming due to illness.

== Plot ==
Radha ([[Sharmila Tagore]]) was the only daughter of a rich merchant. She has [[epilepsy]], triggered especially by the removal of a little doll she always carries with her. Madhu ([[Rajesh Khanna]]) was a young doctor, practicing in a village. He lives along with his older brother Shriram ([[Tarun Bose]]) and sister-in-law Sita ([[Nirupa Roy]]). A local unqualified medical practitioner, whose business got a big hit by the practice of Madhu, begrudgingly arranges a match between Madhu and Radha, hiding her illness. Madhu marries her without knowing the problem she has.

Immediately after the wedding, Madhu and his family members come to know of Radha's illness and they accept her as wedding has already taken place. After seeing that Radha's attack subsided with the touch of Gopi (son of Shriram and Sita), Sita lets her have him herself. Radha feels so happy and starts taking care of Gopi as her own son.

Years pass and Gopi, now seven years old, grows up thinking of Radha as his mother. Things go well till Madhu and Shriram's sister Paro comes along with her husband and son to stay with them. Her son Niku (Mehmood Jr.), with his playful attitude, spoils Gopi too, much to the worry of Radha. Later, Paro starts misunderstandings between Radha and Sita, that go to a bigger level because of Radha's innocence and Sita's indolence. Moreover, Paro frightens little Gopi that if he sees his mother, she would die. Frightened Gopi stays away from Radha, much to the agony of Radha. Gradually, she falls ill and her condition becomes critical. While everyone is puzzled by Gopi's behavior, Niku carefully extracts the reason for his behavior. He tells that to everyone. Everyone scolds Paro and convinces Gopi that his mother wouldn't die if he talks to her. Gopi comes to Radha and her illness goes away. Even bitterness between Radha and Sita goes away and they start living together happily as before.

==Cast==
*[[Sharmila Tagore]] as Radha
*[[Rajesh Khanna]] as Madhu
*[[Shashikala]] as Paro
*[[Nirupa Roy]] as Sita
*[[I. S. Johar]] as Premnath (Niku's dad)
*[[Sarika]] as Gopi
*[[Mehmood Junior]] as Niku
*Master Suraj
*[[Tarun Bose]] as Shriram
*Shivraj as Radha's Father
*[[P. Jairaj]] as Rajaram Ramprasad Bahadur
*[[Satyendra Kapoor]] as Vedji Avtar
*Radhika Rani
*[[Irshad Panjatan]] as Servant
*Chandrima Bhaduri as Ganga
*Master Ratan

==Soundtrack==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! # !! Title !! Singer(s)
|-
| 1
| "He Re Kanhaiya"
| [[Kishore Kumar]]
|-
| 2
| "Are Ghar Ko Mat Godam Bana"
| [[Hemlata (singer)|Hemlata]]
|-
| 3
| "Dulhaniya Bata De Ri"
| [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Usha Khanna]]
|-
| 4
| "Munne Raja"
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
|-
| 5
| "O Maa Meri Maa"
| [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
|-
| 6
| "Ye Raat Hai Pyasi Pyasi"
| [[Mohammed Rafi]]
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0377636|Chotti Bahu}}

[[Category:1971 films]]
[[Category:1971 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1971 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films based on works by Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay]]
[[Category:Films based on Indian novels]]
[[Category:Films scored by Kalyanji Anandji]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:Films directed by K. B. Tilak]]

Ore Mukham

2026-03-03T20:37:07Z

Ankithreddy: Adding article.

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| native_name =
| name = Ore Mukham
| image = Ore Mukham film poster.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Sajith Jagadnandan]]<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rasheed|first1=Rafi|title=Ore Mukham Malayalam movie News, posters, previews|url=http://www.filmfever.co.in/entertainment-news/ore-mukham-malayalam-movie-news-posters/|access-date=18 November 2016|agency=Film Fever Media|date=18 November 2016|archive-date=18 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118014620/http://www.filmfever.co.in/entertainment-news/ore-mukham-malayalam-movie-news-posters/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| producer = Jayalal Menon Anil Biswas
| screenplay = Deepu Sandeep Sadanandan
| starring =[[Dhyan Sreenivasan]] [[Chemban Vinod Jose]] 
[[Aju Varghese]] [[Gayathri Suresh]] [[Prayaga Martin]] [[Jewel Mary]]
| music = [[Bijibal]]
| cinematography = [[Satheesh Kurup]]
| editing = [[Ranjan Abraham]]
| studio = Backwater Studios
| distributor = Magic Frames Release
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2016|11|18|ref1=<ref name="TOI release date" />}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Ore Mukham''''' ({{Translation|''Same Face''}}) is a 2016 [[India]]n [[Malayalam]]-language [[coming of age]] [[Comedy film|comedy]] [[Crime film|crime]] [[mystery film]] directed by Sajith Jagadnandan and written by Deepu and Sandeep Sadanandan. It stars [[Dhyan Sreenivasan]] in the lead role.<ref name="CC1">{{cite web|title=Dhyan to romance Gaythri in 'Ore Mugham'|url=http://english.manoramaonline.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/dyan-srinivasan-aju-varghese-back-with-ore-mukham.html|work=Manorama Online|date=23 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Moviebuzz|first1=Sify|title=Dhyan and Aju to team up again in 'Ore Mugham'|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/dhyan-and-aju-to-team-up-again-in-ore-mugham-news-malayalam-qe3lDVdhjebgi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502141915/http://www.sify.com/movies/dhyan-and-aju-to-team-up-again-in-ore-mugham-news-malayalam-qe3lDVdhjebgi.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 May 2016|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=29 September 2016|date=29 April 2016}}</ref> The film told in a non-linear style, is set in two periods. The period set in the 1980s tells the college life of the main protagonists. The other, set in the present day, describes the investigation into a series of murders involving them.<ref>{{cite web|last1=J|first1=S|title='Ore Mugham' is a thriller|url=http://www.nowrunning.com/ore-mugham-is-a-thriller/123334/story.htm|publisher=Now Running|access-date=29 September 2016|date=29 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=മാത്യു|first1=അനീഷ് കെ|title=ഒരേ മുഖം ഫസ്റ്റ്ലുക്ക് പോസ്റ്ററിന് ഒരു പ്രത്യേകതയുണ്ട്......|url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/ore-mugham-movie-malayalam-news-1.1231807|publisher=[[Mathrubhumi]]|access-date=29 September 2016|date=26 July 2016}}</ref> ''Ore Mukham'' was released on 2 December 2016.<ref name="TOI release date">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/Ore-Mukham-to-release-on-Dec-2/articleshow/55724682.cms|title=Ore Mukham to release on Dec 2 - Times of India|newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=1 December 2016}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Zachariah Pothen, a wealthy orphan and campus bully, spends his days chasing girls with his close-knit group of friends: Ayyappadas "Das", Devan, Prakashan, and Aravindan. However, shifting power dynamics within the group create tension and betrayal, eventually leading to tragic deaths. Years later, the group is plagued by a string of mysterious serial killings, prompting a police investigation. Suspicion falls on Pothen, who was the main suspect in the murders of Devan and Gayathri on their wedding day years ago and has been missing ever since. The story unfolds to reveal that Prakashan killed Devan and [[Rape|raped and murdered]] Gayathri as part of a treacherous scheme orchestrated by Aravindan. Aravindan's goons also killed Pothen, concealing his body to frame him for the crimes. Decades later, Das, who secretly witnessed the entire series of events, begins a revenge-driven killing spree to bring justice.

== Cast ==
{{colbegin}}
* [[Dhyan Sreenivasan]] as Zachariah Pothen
* [[Chemban Vinod Jose]] as ACP Ashoka Chandran
* [[Jewel Mary]] as Amala
* Yazir Saleem as Devan
* [[Gayathri Suresh]] as Gayathri
* [[Sneha (actress)|Sneha]] (Older) and [[Prayaga Martin]] (Younger) as Bhama
* [[Maniyanpilla Raju]] (Older) and [[Aju Varghese]] (Younger) as Ayyappadas a.k.a Das
* [[Devan (actor)|Devan]] (Older) and [[Arjun Nandhakumar]] (Younger) as Aravindan
* [[Renji Panicker]] (Older) and [[Deepak Parambol]] (Younger) as Prakashan
* [[Hareesh Peradi]] as Madhavan
* [[Abhirami (actress, born 1983)|Abirami]] as Prof. Latha
* [[Sreejith Ravi]] (Older) and Unni Karthikeyan (Younger) as Varghese, Physical Education Teacher
* [[M. A. Nishad]] (Older) and Juby Ninan (Younger) as Jacob Stephen
* [[Devi Ajith]] (Older) and Kavya Suresh (Younger) as Mary
* [[Neena Kurup]] (Older) and Orma Bose (Younger) as Rema
* Roshni as Annakutty
* [[Pradeep Kottayam]] as Librarian
* Roy as Jeevan
* Remya Panicker as Shalini
* [[Noby Marcose]] as Sasi
* [[Sneha Sreekumar]] as Thankam Sasi
{{colend}}

==Production==
Ore Mukham is Sajith Jagadnandan's second movie and the first screenplay of Deepu S Nair and Sandeep Sadanandan. The photography took place in [[Sree Kerala Varma College]], Thrissur in April 2016. The film was released on 2 December 2016.

=== Casting ===
[[Dhyan Sreenivasan]] signed on to play the male lead along with [[Aju Varghese]], Deepak Parambol, and [[Arjun Nandhakumar|Arjun Nandakumar]] in the supporting roles. [[Prayaga Martin]] who played the lead lady in ''Oru Murai Vanth Parthya'' and [[Gayathri Suresh]] who made her debut in [[Jamna Pyari]] signed on to play the female leads. [[Renji Panicker]] and [[Chemban Vinod Jose]] are also part of the cast. [[Amala Paul]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Amala Paul to act with Dhyan Sreenivasan and Aju|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/mollywood/210416/amala-paul-to-act-with-dhyan-sreenivasan-and-aju.html|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|access-date=29 September 2016|date=21 April 2016}}</ref> signed on to play a significant role in the movie. However, she was replaced by anchor-turned-actress [[Jewel Mary]]<ref>{{cite web|title=ഒരേ മുഖത്തിൽ ജ്യൂവെൽ മേരിയും|url=http://www.nanaonline.in/malayalam-movie-news/1049/|publisher=Nana Film Weekly|access-date=26 September 2016}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> in the movie after the former opted out due to date issues as the shoot of [[Shajahanum Pareekuttiyum]] was extended due to unexpected rains.
In May 2016, actress Abhirami signed on to play the role of a lecturer who inspires Zachariah.

==Soundtrack==
Music: [[Bijibal]]

Lyrics: [[Rafeeq Ahamed]], Lalji Kattiparamban

{{Track listing
|headline=Track list
|extra_column=Singer(s)
|total_length=8:48
|title1=Sadirumai
|extra1=[[Vineeth Sreenivasan]]
|length1=3:53
|title2=Aarum ariyathoru
|extra2=[[Madhu Balakrishnan]]
|length2=3:08
|title3=Ore mukham
|extra3=[[Yazin Nizar]]
|length3=1:51
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|5684262|Ore Mukham}}

[[Category:2016 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:2016 films]]
[[Category:Indian mystery films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Thrissur]]

Raghupathi Surya Prakash

2026-03-03T17:09:05Z

Ankithreddy: Adding new article.

{{Short description|Indian film pioneer (1901–1956)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}} {{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = R. S. Prakash
| birth_name = Raghupathi Surya Prakash Rao Naidu
| birth_date = 1901
| birth_place = [[Madras]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British Raj|British India]] (now [[Chennai]], India)
| death_date = 28 May 1956 (aged 55)
| death_place = Madras, India (now Chennai)
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Film director]]|[[Film producer]]|[[Cinematographer]]}}
| father = [[Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu]]
| relatives = [[Raghupathi Venkataratnam Naidu]] (uncle)
}}

{{family name hatnote|Raghupathi|lang=Telugu}}'''Raghupathi Surya Prakash Rao Naidu''' (1901–1956), popularly known as '''R. S. Prakash''', was an Indian film director, producer, and cinematographer.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Vinnels |first1=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TexkAAAAMAAJ&q=raghupathi+surya+prakash |title=Bollywood Showplaces: Cinema Theatres in India |last2=Skelly |first2=Brent |date=2002 |publisher=E & E Plumridge |isbn=978-0-9516563-5-8 |pages=146 |language=en}}</ref> He was one of the pioneers of [[Indian cinema]]. He was the first director of [[Telugu cinema]]. He shot, developed and edited all his early films.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&dq=Surya+Prakash+was+educated+by+Christian+missionaries+in+Vepery.&pg=RA1-PA1994-IA20 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |date=1994 |publisher=[[British Film Institute]] |isbn=978-0-85170-455-5 |pages=1994–1995 |language=en |author-link=Ashish Rajadhyaksha |author-link2=Paul Willemen}}</ref>

Along with his father, [[Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu]], he produced [[Bhishma Pratigna (1921 film)|''Bhishma Pratigya'']] in 1921 {{Em dash}} generally considered to be the first Telugu [[feature film]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name="shodhganga2" /> Prakash directed the film and also played the [[Title character|title role]] of [[Bhishma]].<ref name="shodhganga2" /> Later, he directed several silent and sound films till the 1950s.

== Early life ==
Raghupathi Surya Prakash Rao Naidu was born in 1901 in [[Chennai|Madras]] in a [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-speaking [[telaga | telaga]] family.<ref name=":5">M. L. Kantha Rao (July 1999), [https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/25437/ ''A Study of the Socio-Political Mobility of the Kapu Caste in Modern Andhra'']. [[University of Hyderabad]]. Chapter 6. p. 275–280. hdl:10603/25437</ref> His father was [[Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu]], a film pioneer regarded as the "father of [[Telugu cinema]]".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HTluAAAAMAAJ&q=Raghupathi+Venkataratnam+Naidu+Venkaiah |title=History and Culture of the Andhras |date=1995 |publisher=Komarraju Venkata Lakshmana Rau Vijnana Sarvaswa Sakha, Telugu University |isbn=978-81-86073-07-0 |pages=389 |language=en}}</ref>

Surya Prakash's ancestors are telaga balija naidu's who served as [[Subedar|Subedars]] in [[Madras Army]] and [[East India Company|East Indian Company]] Army since its inception i.e. late 17th century.

Venkaiah Naidu started [[Film Exhibition|film exhibition]] in [[South India]] around 1910 and built the first movie theatre in Madras in 1914.<ref name=":1" /> Surya Prakash was educated by Christian missionaries in [[Vepery]].<ref name=":1" />

== Career ==
Venkaiah sent Surya Prakash overseas to learn [[filmmaking]]. Prakash went to [[London]] and joined [[Barker Motion Photography]] in [[Ealing]] in 1918, then went to [[Paris]] ([[Pathé]]), [[Germany]] (where he saw [[F. W. Murnau]] at work) and to [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thoraval |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-OpkAAAAMAAJ&q=Surya+Prakash |title=The Cinemas of India |date=2000 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan India]] |isbn=978-0-333-93410-4 |pages=16 |language=en |quote=Raghupathi Surya Prakash (or Prakasa) was sent to study the cinema industries of London, Paris (Pathe), Germany, and Hollywood. He started the 'Star of the East Film Company' and went on to direct films in Telugu and Tamil.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jayasiṃha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VkbA_5plHN8C&q=raghupathi+surya+prakash |title=Indian Cinema Through the Century |date=2015 |publisher=[[Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India)|Ministry of Information and Broadcasting]], [[Government of India]] |isbn=978-81-230-1991-8 |pages=104 |language=en |quote=Raghupathi Venkaiah had sent his son Raghupathi Surya Prakash Rao to learn about filmmaking in England. He was attached to Barker Studio in London. He made many silent movies on return from there.}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> He travelled to various European countries, bringing a 35mm camera home to Madras in 1920. The faulty camera ruined his first feature film, ''Meenakshi Kalyanam''.<ref name=":1" />

In 1921, Venkaiah and Surya Prakash set up the Star of the East Studio, also known as the Glass Studio, in [[Purasawalkam]], Madras.<ref name=":1" /> They produced [[Bhishma Pratigna (1921 film)|''Bhishma Pratigya'']] (1921), generally considered to be the first Telugu [[feature film]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Thoraval |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-OpkAAAAMAAJ&q=Bhishma+Pratigna+(1921+film) |title=The Cinemas of India |date=2000 |publisher=Macmillan India |isbn=978-0-333-93410-4 |pages=346 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9c1kAAAAMAAJ&q=Bhishma+Pratigna+(1921+film) |title=Hindi Cinema Year Book |date=2002 |publisher=Screen World Publication |pages=21 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0wY6AQAAIAAJ&q=Bhishma+1921 |title=Asian Film Directory and Who's who |date=1952 |pages=33 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="shodhganga2">{{cite web |last=Rao |first=Akkina Mareswara |date=1997 |title=Celluloid and its past: Cultural and ideological mediation of Telugu cinema in colonial Andhra's Past |url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/25594/7/07_chapter%202.pdf |access-date=19 August 2016 |website=[[University of Hyderabad]] |page=93}}</ref> Prakash directed the film and also played the [[Title character|title role]] of [[Bhishma]]. An [[English people|Englishwoman]] named Peggy Castello played the role of [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Garga |first=Bhagwan Das |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wXRZAAAAMAAJ&q=Bhishma+Pratigna+(1921+film) |title=So Many Cinemas: The Motion Picture in India |date=1996 |publisher=Eminence Designs |isbn=978-81-900602-1-9 |page=51 |language=en}}</ref> The film was released all over India, [[Myanmar|Burma]] and [[Sri Lanka]] and was a big success.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chabria |first1=Suresh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CORkAAAAMAAJ&q=Bhishma+Pratigna+(1921+film) |title=Light of Asia: Indian Silent Cinema, 1912-1934 |last2=Usai |first2=Paolo Cherchi |date=1994 |publisher=Wiley Eastern |isbn=978-81-224-0680-1 |page=15 |language=en}}</ref> The film was made on a budget of {{INR}}12,000 (worth {{INR}}2.2 [[crore]] in 2021 prices) and made ₹60,000 in returns.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baskaran |first=Sundararaj Theodore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tOEDAAAAMAAJ&q=Bhishma+1921 |title=The Message Bearers: The Nationalist Politics and the Entertainment Media in South India, 1880-1945 |date=1981 |publisher=Cre-A |language=en}}</ref>

[[C. Pullayya]], A. Narayanan (also credited as A. Narayan) and other pioneers of [[Cinema of South India|South Indian cinema]] worked with him there. The films were distributed throughout the subcontinent with [[intertitle]]s in various languages. Surya Prakash reportedly directed the Catholic propaganda film, ''The Catechist of Kil-Arni'' (1923), produced and written by the Irish priest [[Thomas Gavan-Duffy]] together with Bruce Gordon as a fund-raiser for the Paris Foreign Mission Society in Pondicherry.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barbash |first1=Ilisa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVUoAQAAMAAJ&q=Raghupathi+Surya+Prakash |title=The Cinema of Robert Gardner |last2=Taylor |first2=Lucien |date=2007 |publisher=[[Berg Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-84520-774-8 |pages=64 |language=en |author-link2=Lucien Castaing-Taylor}}</ref>

Surya Prakash also became a distributor and founded Guarantee Pics (1926) with backing from the merchant Moti Narayana Rao, but it went bankrupt.<ref name=":1" /> He helped Narayanan to set up the General Pictures Corporation (General Pics) in 1929 and later, Srinivasa Cinetone Studio.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rajadhyaksha |first1=Ashish |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rF8ABAAAQBAJ&dq=rs+Prakash+film&pg=PA1994-IA120 |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema |last2=Willemen |first2=Paul |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-135-94325-7 |pages=1994 |language=en |author-link=Ashish Rajadhyaksha |author-link2=Paul Willemen}}</ref> He later separated from Narayanan in the mid-30s and joined Sundaram Sound Studio. He also worked with Govardhan Film Distributors, owning three movie theatres in Madras.<ref name=":1" /> He directed ''Leila the Star of Mingrelia'' (1931) in 20 [[reel]]s for General Pics, declaring that people were not fed up of silent films.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gulazar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8y8vN9A14nkC&q=rs+Prakash&pg=PA38 |title=Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema |last2=Nihalani |first2=Govind |last3=Chatterjee |first3=Saibal |date=2003 |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |isbn=978-81-7991-066-5 |pages=40 |language=en |author-link=Gulzar |author-link2=Govind Nihalani |author-link3=Saibal Chatterjee}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Leila alias The Star of Mingrelia (1931) |url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/film/leila-1931 |website=Cinemaazi}}</ref> It was reportedly the most expensive film made in India at the time.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Basdeo |first1=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T62ZEAAAQBAJ&dq=rs+Prakash+film&pg=PA131 |title=Victorian England's Bestselling Author: The Revolutionary Life of G. W. M. Reynolds |last2=Driver |first2=Mya |date=2022-11-17 |publisher=[[Pen and Sword Books]] |isbn=978-1-3990-1575-2 |pages=131 |language=en}}</ref>

Surya Prakash was known as a brilliant technician. In ''[[Draupadi Vastrapaharanam (1934 film)|Draupadi Vastrapaharanam]]'' (1934) he managed to make one actor appear in five places within one image, apparently without resorting to optical effects.<ref name=":1" /> He was a freelance director from mid-30s. Surya Prakash influenced [[Y. V. Rao]] who acted in his ''Gajendra Moksham'' (1930). Most of his [[Hindu mythological film|mythological films]] were shot at the [[Gingee Fort]] near Madras. He also directed the Tamil reformist social film, ''[[Anaadhai Penn]]'' (1938).<ref name=":1" />

There is contradictory evidence about some of Prakash's early Tamil [[sound film]]s like ''Draupadi Vastrapaharanam'', ''Krishna Arjuna'', ''Indrasabha'' and ''Rajasekharan'', which some sources ascribe to Prakash and others to his collaborator Narayanan. ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Cinema'' credited them to both filmmakers.<ref name=":1" />

== Filmography ==

* [[Bhishma Pratigna (1921 film)|''Bhishma Pratigna'']] (1921)
* ''The Catechist of Kil-Arni'' (1923) (uncredited)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last1=Foley |first1=Tadhg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQduAAAAMAAJ&q=Raghupathi+Surya+Prakash |title=Ireland and India: Colonies, Culture and Empire |last2=O'Connor |first2=Maureen |date=2006 |publisher=[[Irish Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-7165-2838-8 |page=123 |language=en |quote=In making ''The Catechist of Kil-Arni'', Gavan Duffy was assisted by his friend Bruce Gordon, as well as some film professionals from Madras, including, it was rumored, the distinguished director Raghupati Surya Prakash.}}</ref>
* ''Gajendra Moksham'' (1923)
* ''Bhakta Nandan'' (1923)
* ''Samudra Madanam'' (1923)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Samudra Madanam (Samundra Manthan) (1923) |url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/film/samudra-madanam-samundra-manthan |website=Cinemaazi}}</ref>
* ''Usha Swapna'' (1924)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Usha Swapna (1924) |url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/film/usha-swapna |website=Cinemaazi}}</ref>
* ''Mahatma Kabirdas'' (1925)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahatma Kabirdas (1925) |url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/film/mahathma-kabirdas |website=Cinemaazi}}</ref>
* ''Mohini Avatar'' (1926)
* ''Dashavtar'' (1929)
* ''Stage Girl'' (1929)
* ''Gajendra Moksham'' (1930)
* ''Sree Kanyaka Parmeswari'' (1930)''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sree Kanyaka Parmeswari (1930) |url=https://www.cinemaazi.com/film/shree-kanika-parmeshwari-shree-kanyaka-parmeswari |website=Cinemaazi}}</ref>''
* ''Lanka Dabana'' (1930)
* ''Gandhariyin Pulambal'' (1930)
* ''Pavalakkodi'' (1931)
* ''Leila the Star of Mingrelia'' (1931)<ref name=":4" />
* ''Rose of Rajasthan'' (1931)
* ''Vishnu Leela'' (1932)
* [[Draupadi Vastrapaharanam (1934 film)|''Draupadi Vastrapaharanam'']] (1934)
* ''Lanka Dahanam'' (1935)
* ''Thooku Thooki'' (1935)
* ''Krishna Arjuna'' (1935)
* ''Krishna Naradi'' (1936)
* ''Nalayini'' (1936)
* ''Indrasabba'' (1936)
* ''Andal Thirukalyanam'' (1937)
* ''Soldier's Wife'' (1937)
* ''Rajasekharan'' (1937)
* ''[[Anaadhai Penn]]'' (1938)
* ''Porveeran Manaivi'' (1938)
* ''Sirikathe'' (1939)
* ''Chandika'' (1940)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chandika (1940) |url=https://indiancine.ma/DAI |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
* ''Tara Sasank'' (1941)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Thara Sasank (1941) |url=https://indiancine.ma/DLB |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=Indiancine.ma}}</ref>
* ''Babruvahana'' (1942)
* ''Mayapilla'' (1951)
* ''Moondru Penngal'' (1956)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|id=0695173}}

[[Category:Cinema pioneers]]
[[Category:Telugu film directors]]
[[Category:Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:1956 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Telugu film producers]]
[[Category:Indian silent film directors]]
[[Category:People from British India]]
[[Category:1901 births]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Prakash, Raghupathi Surya}}

Zamorin

2026-03-03T06:54:10Z

Ankithreddy: revised

{{short description|Hereditary king of kingdom of Calicut (1124–1806)}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox former monarchy
| royal_title = Zamorin
| realm = Calicut
| formation = 1124
| abolition = 1806
| first_monarch = Mana Vikrama
| last_monarch = Krishna Varma
| image = Zamorin of Calicut.jpg
| caption = The Zamorin of Calicut (1495–1500) on his throne as painted by [[Veloso Salgado]] in 1898
}}

The '''Samoothiri''' (Anglicised as '''Zamorin'''; [[Malayalam]]: {{transliteration|ml|ISO|sāmūtiri, sāmūri}}, {{IPA|ml|saːmuː(d̪i)ɾi, |}}, [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''sāmuri'',<ref name="Samuri">{{cite book
| author = S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar | year=1942
| title= Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language | publisher=University of Madras
| url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage
}}</ref> [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Samorim'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Samorijn'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: ''Shamitihsi''<ref name=MaHuan>Ma Huan's Ying-yai Sheng-lan: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' [1433]. Translated and Edited by J. V. G. Mills. Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society (1970).</ref>) was the title of the erstwhile ruler and monarch of the [[Calicut kingdom]] in the [[South Malabar]] region of India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krishna Iyer|first=K. V.|url=https://archive.org/details/TheZamorinsOfCalicut|title=The Zamorins Of Calicut|date=1938|publisher=Norman Printing Bureau, Calicut}}</ref> Originating from the former feudal kingdom of [[Nediyiruppu]] Swaroopam, the Samoothiris and their vassal kings from [[Nilambur Kingdom|Nilambur Kovilakam]] established Calicut as one of the most important trading ports on the southwest coast of India. At the peak of their reign, they ruled over a region extending from Kozhikode Kollam to the forested borders of Panthalayini Kollam ([[Koyilandy]]).<ref name="Varier">Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997</ref><ref name="KrishnaIyer2">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> The Samoothiris belonged to the [[Eradi]] subcaste of the [[Samantan]] community of [[History of Kerala|colonial Kerala]], and were originally the ruling chiefs of [[Eranad]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aoJAQAAIAAJ | title=Culture and Society: A Festschrift to Dr. A. Aiyappan | last1=Balakrishna | first1=N. Nair | publisher=Thomson Press (India), Publication Division | year=1975 | page=220}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6CNHAAACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala | title=Perumals of Kerala: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumals of Makotai (c. 800 A.D.–1124 A.D.) | last1=Narayanan | first1=M.G.S | publisher=Xavier Press | year=1996}}</ref> The final Zamorin of Calicut committed suicide by setting fire to his palace and burning himself alive inside it, upon learning that [[Hyder Ali]] had captured the neighboring country of [[Chirakkal, Kannur|Chirakkal]] in [[Kannur]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/controversy/story/20130805-govt-monthly-pension-zamorin-royal-dynasty-once-ruled-calicut-764985-1999-11-29 | title=The inheritance of loss: Government decision to grant monthly pension to the Zamorin family, which once ruled Calicut, stirs fierce debate | date=30 November 1999 }}</ref>

==Etymology==
{{Location map+|Kerala|width=300|float=right
|alt=
|relief = yes
|caption=Major locations associated with the history of the Kingdom of Calicut
|places=
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=9.9606008|lon_deg=76.2360067|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label='''[[Kochi|Cochin]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.88|lon_deg=76.6|position=top|marksize=4|label_size=55|label='''[[Kollam|Quilon (Kurakkeni Kollam)]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.8689|lon_deg=75.3555|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label='''[[Kannur|Cannanore]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.23|lon_deg=76.19|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Kodungallur|Cranganore]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.25|lon_deg=75.77|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label='''[[Kozhikode|Calicut]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=12.58|lon_deg=77.34|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Bangalore]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.01|lon_deg=76.97|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Coimbatore]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=12.26|lon_deg=76.6|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Mysore]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=12.83|lon_deg=74.78|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Mangalore]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.147|lon_deg=75.964|position=right|marksize=6|label_size=55|label='''[[Nediyiruppu]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.07|lon_deg=76.07|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Malappuram]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.77|lon_deg=75.9|position=left|marksize=6|label_size=55|label='''[[Ponnani]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.52|lon_deg=76.21|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Trichur]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.4484219|lon_deg=75.6911295|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label='''([[Quilandy]])Panthalayani Kollam'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.750622|lon_deg=75.487022|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Tellicherry]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.701111|lon_deg=75.536667|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Mahé, Puducherry|Mahé]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.276944|lon_deg=76.225833|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Nilambur]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.97|lon_deg=75.87|position=top|marksize=6|label_size=55|label=[[Tanur, Malappuram|'''Tanur''']]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.5207157|lon_deg=76.0404044|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Chetuva|Chetwai]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=12.0111|lon_deg=75.2189|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=''[[Ezhimala|Mount D'eli]]''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.4875|lon_deg=76.9525|position=top|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Trivandrum]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.084|lon_deg=77.546|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Kanyakumari|Cape Comorin]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=9.49|lon_deg=76.33|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Alleppey]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.77|lon_deg=76.65|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Palakkad|Palghat]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.8637217|lon_deg=75.981718|position=top|marksize=6|label_size=55|label='''[[Tirunavaya]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.9148724|lon_deg=76.418916|position=bottom|marksize=6|label_size=55|label='''Karimpuzha'''}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=9.172|lon_deg=76.501|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Kayamkulam]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=9.35|lon_deg=76.35|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Purakkad|Porca]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.0274289|lon_deg=76.2957058|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Edapally]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.884359|lon_deg=76.563631|position=bottom|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Tangasseri]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.6932866|lon_deg=76.7983387|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Attingal]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.67|lon_deg=76.28|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Sultan Bathery|Sultan's Battery]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.35|lon_deg=77.95|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Dindigul]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.721555|lon_deg=77.6721372|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Tirunelveli|Tinnevelly]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.701917|lon_deg=75.98614|position=left|marksize=6|label_size=55|label=[[Perumpadappu, Malappuram|'''Perumpadappu''']]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=12.4137765|lon_deg=76.6761841|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Srirangapatna|Seringapatam]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.29588|lon_deg=76.15809|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Pappinivattom]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.1769287|lon_deg=77.2451524|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Colachel]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=8.4833|lon_deg=76.9167|position=bottom|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Anchuthengu|Anjengo]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=12.4699372|lon_deg=75.0010563|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=Chandragiri}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=12.3101214|lon_deg=75.0834387|position=left|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Hosdurg]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.4190511|lon_deg=75.9334827|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=[[Thamarassery|Tamarassery]]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.9727069|lon_deg=76.2046144|position=right|marksize=6|label_size=55|label=[[Angadipuram|'''Angadippuram''']]}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=10.17|lon_deg=76.18|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=Pallipuram}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=12.3667|lon_deg=75.05|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=Bekal}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=9.913889|lon_deg=76.363333|position=right|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=Diamper}}
{{Location map~|Kerala|lat_deg=11.5711822|lon_deg=75.591462|position=top|marksize=4|label_size=55|label=Puthupattanam/Kottakkal}}
}}
[[File:Thali Temple, Malabar District.jpg|260x260px|thumb|[[Tali Shiva Temple|Thali Temple]] (1901), Calicut]]
[[File:Tali 2 choosetocount.JPG|260x260px|thumb|Thali Temple, present day, Kozhikode]]

The title zamorin first appears in the writings of [[Ibn Battuta]] in 1342.<ref name=Ayyar>[[K. V. Krishna Iyer]], "The Importance of the Zamorins of Calicut", ''Proceedings of the Indian History Congress'', '''37''' (1976), pp. 252–259.</ref> In the Portuguese ''[[Duarte Barbosa|Book of Duarte Barbosa]]'' ({{circa|1516}}), the title of the ruler of Calicut is given as ''çamidre'' or ''zomodri'', derived from the local Malayalam ''sāmūtiri''. In ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] in the 16th century CE, the word is pronounced as ''Sāmuri''.<ref name="Samuri" /> This was once thought to be derived from [[Sanskrit]] ''samudra'' ("sea") and have the meaning "lord of the sea". In fact, the term derives from Sanskrit ''[[Swami|svami]]'' and ''[[sri]]'' (which in combined form becomes ''tiri''),<ref>J. A. Thorne, [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201185/page/n297 "Appendix II (c). Royal Titles in Malabar"], in Mansel Longworth Dames (ed.), ''The Book of Duarte Barbosa'', Volume 2 (Asian Educational Services, 1989), pp. 260–262.</ref> which [[K. V. Krishna Ayyar|Krishna Iyer]] glosses as "emperor". He gives the complete title as ''Svami Tiri Tirumulapad'' ("august emperor").<ref name=Ayyar />

The Zamorins used the title ''Punturakkon'' or ''Punthurakon'' (Victor/Lord of Punthura?) in inscriptions from c. 1100, in palace records known as the Granthavaris, and in official treaties with the English and the Dutch. No records indicate the actual personal name of the ruler.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> Punthura may be the place of their origin, or a battle-field, or a port of great fame. The title "Kunnalakkon" ("Lord of Hills and Waves") and its Sanskrit form "Shailabdhishvara" are mostly found in later literary works (such as Manipravalam and Sanskrit poems).<ref name=":0">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6CNHAAACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala|title=Perumals of Kerala: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumals of Makotai (c. 800 A.D. – 1124 A.D.)|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1996|publisher=Xavier Press|language=en}}</ref>

== Seats of power ==
Thrikkavil Kovilakam in [[Ponnani]] served as a second home for the Zamorins of Calicut.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name="Kunhali">Kunhali. V. "Calicut in History" Publication Division, University of Calicut (Kerala), 2004</ref> Other secondary seats of the Zamorin of Calicut, all established at a much later time, were [[Trichur]] (Thrissur) and [[Cranganore]] (Kodungallur).<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The 147th Samoothiri Raja, [[P. K. S. Raja|Sree Manavedan Raja]], who was married to Bharathy Thamburatty from Nilambur Kovilakam, became the last Zamorin in the dynasty's 682 year history to hold power over the [[Guruvayur Temple]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRfjAAAAMAAJ | title= Mediaeval Kerala | last1=Raja | first1=P.K.S | year=1953 | publisher= Annamalai University}}</ref>

The chief Kerala ports under control of the Zamorins in the late 15th century were Panthalayini Kollam, and [[Calicut]]. The Zamorin of Calicut derived a greater part of his revenues by taxing the spice trade through his ports. Smaller ports in the kingdom were Puthuppattanam (Kottakkal), [[Parappanangadi]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur (Tanore)]], [[Ponnani|Ponnani (Ponani)]], [[Chetuva|Chetuva (Chetwai)]] and [[Cranganore|Kodungallur (Cranganore)]]. The port of [[Beypore]] served as a ship building center.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name="Kunhali" />

=== Calicut ===

* The port at Calicut held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.<ref name="Malekandathil"/> Travellers have called the city by different names – variations of the Malayalam name. The travellers from Middle-East called it "Kalikooth", [[Tamil people|Tamils]] called the city "Kallikkottai", for the [[Chinese people|Chinese]] it was "Kalifo" or "Quli".<ref name="Subrairath">Subairath C.T. "Calicut: A Centri-petal Force in the Chinese and Arab Trade (1200–1500)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 72, Part-II (2011), pp. 1082–1089</ref>
*In the Middle Ages, Calicut was dubbed the "City of Spices" for its role as the major trading point of [[spice trade|Asian spices]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/lecture26/lec26.html|title=Lectures 26–27|publisher=Purdue University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201091717/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/history/lecture26/lec26.html|archive-date=1 February 2013|access-date=23 September 2009}}</ref> The Chinese and Middle-Eastern interests in Malabar, the political ambition of the newly emergent rulers, i.e., the Zamorins, and the decline of port Kodungallur (c. 1341<ref name="Malekandathil" />), etc. boosted the prosperity of the port.<ref name="VVHaridas" /> The rise of Calicut, both the port and the state, seems to have taken place only after the 13th century.<ref name="Subrairath" />
*Calicut, despite being located at a geographically inconvenient spot, owed much of its prosperity to the economic policies of the Zamorins of Calicut.<ref name="Subrairath" /><ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ''The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650''. Cambridge University Press, 2002</ref>
*Trade at port Calicut was managed by the Muslim port commissioner known as the Shah Bandar Koya. The port commissioner supervised the customs on the behalf of the king, fixed the prices of the commodities and collected the share to the Calicut treasury.<ref name="Kunhali" />
*The name of the famous fine variety of cotton cloth called [[Calico (textile)|calico]] is also thought to have derived from Calicut.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

=== Panthalayini Kollam ===

* Also known as "Fandarina" ([[Ibn Battuta|Ibn Batutah]]), and "Shaojunan" (Daoyi Zgilue).<ref name="AoyagiOgawa">Aoyagi, Y., and Ogawa, H., 2004. "Chinese Trade Ceramics of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries in the Malabar Coast", in N. Karashima (Ed.), ''Search of Ceramic Sherds in Southern India and Sri Lanka'', Taisho University Press, Tokyo: pp. 47–54.</ref>
* Located north of Calicut, close to a bay. The geographical location is ideal for the wintering of ships during the annual monsoon rains.<ref name="Varier2">Raghava Varier, M. R., 2003. "Pantalayani Kollam: A Medieval Port Town on the Malabar Coast", in Kesavan Veluthat and P. P. Sudhakaran (Eds.), ''Advances in History, Essays in Memory of Professor M. P. Sridharan'', Professor M. P. Sridharan Memorial Trust, Calicut: 154–179.</ref>
* Presence of ''Chetti'', Arab and Jewish merchants among others.<ref>''Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy'', Ins. 98 of 1909</ref>

==Caste and line of succession==
According to K. V. Krishna Iyer, the court historian in Calicut, the members of the royal house of Zamorin belonged to the [[Eradi]] subcaste of the [[Samanthan]] section of [[Nair]] aristocracy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fuller|first=C. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQM4AAAAIAAJ&q=zamorin|title=The Nayars Today|year=1976|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-29091-3|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Krishna Iyer 1938">{{cite book|last=Krishna Iyer|first=K. V.|url=https://archive.org/details/TheZamorinsOfCalicut|title=The Zamorins of Calicut|date=1938}}</ref> The Samantas claimed a status higher than the rest of the Nairs.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The Hindu theological formula that the rulers must be of [[Kshatriya]] [[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]] may have been a complication for the Samantas of the Kodungallur Chera monarch. So the Samantas – already crystallized as a distinctive social group, something of a "sub-caste" – began to style themselves as "[[Samantha Kshatriya]]s".<ref name=VVHaridas /> The Samantas have birth, marriage and death customs identical to other Nair communities.''<ref name=":0" />''

The Zamorin follows a matriarchal system where the present king's sister's son becomes the next king. The direct sisters of the Zamorin are always married to [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]] men. Consequently, the Zamorin's King’s lineage was always half Zamorin and half [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/TheZamorinsOfCalicut/page/n18/mode/1up?view=theater | title=The Zamorins of Calicut | date=30 January 2024 }}</ref>

In the royal family, ''thalis'' of the princesses were usually tied by Kshatriyas from Kodungallur chief's family, which the Zamorin recognised as more ancient and therefore higher rank. The women's ''sambandham'' partners were [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]]s or Kshatriyas.<ref>"After the Tirantukalyanam rite, the Zamorin selects a suitable husband for them. According to the principle of hypergamy, this must be a Nambutiri or Kshatriya. Formerly they were generally chosen, for political and strategic reasons, from the Kshatriya svarupams of Bettam, Kurumbranad, Beypore and Cranganore, though now and then, Nambutiris also came in for the distinction." p. 8, K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938 December.</ref><ref>C. J. Fuller. "Changing Cultures: The Nayars Today". Cambridge University Press, 1976. pp. 116.</ref> Royal men married Samantan or other Nair women. Zamorin's consort was dignified by the title "Naittiyar".<ref>pp. 262, K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938 December.</ref>

The family of chieftains that ruled the polities in premodern Kerala was known as the ''swaroopam''. The rulers of Calicut belonged to "Nediyirippu swaroopam" and followed matriliny system of inheritance. The eldest male member of Nediyirippu swaroopam became the Zamorin of Calicut. There was a set pattern of succession, indicated by ''sthanams'' in the royal line. Five sthanams were defined in Calicut. These positions were based on the chronological seniority of the incumbent in the different ''thavazhis'' of the swaroopam and constituted what is called in the records as "kuruvazhcha". Unlike in the case of Cochin (Kochi), there was no rotation of position among the thavazhis. Thus no particular thavazhi enjoyed any privilege or precedence in the matter of succession, as the only criterion for succession was seniority of age.<ref name=VVHaridas />

Five sthanams existed in Calicut, each with its own separate property enjoyed in succession by the senior members of the three kovilakams of the family:<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

* 1st sthanam: the Zamorin of Calicut
* 2nd sthanam: Eranadu Ilamkur Nambiyathiri Thirumulpadu (the Eralppadu). Second in line successor to the throne. Eralppadu's seat was in Karimpuzha (in the northeastern region of the present-day [[Palakkad district]]). This area of Malabar was annexed from Valluvanadu in the leadership of the then Eralppadu.
* 3rd sthanam: Eranadu Moonnamkur Nambiyathiri Thirumulpad (the Munalpadu)
*4th sthanam: Edattaranadu Nambiyathiri Thirumulpadu (the Etatralpadu) – mentioned in the Manjeri Pulapatta inscription as the overlord of the "Three Hundred" Nairs.<ref name=":0" /> The Etatralpadu used to reside in a palace at Edattara near Manjeri.<ref name=":0" />
*5th sthanam: Nediyiruppu Mootta Eradi Thirumulpadu (the Naduralpadu). Naduralpadu was the former head of the house (Eranadu chief under the Cheras of Kodungallur'''<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />''').

The three thavazhis were:

# Kizhakke Kovilakam (Eastern Branch)
# Padinhare Kovilakam (Western Branch)
# Puthiya Kovilakam (New Branch)

The senior female member of the whole Zamorin family, the Valiya Thamburatti, also enjoyed a sthanam with separate property known as the Ambadi Kovilakam.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> Women were not allowed to be the ruler of Calicut. And so the oldest male member traced became the next Zamorin.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

{{wide image|Calicut 1572 (cropped).jpg|1200px| A panorama of port Calicut, shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior ([[Georg Braun]] and Franz Hogenbergs atlas ''Civitates orbis terrarum'', 1572).}}

== Historical overview ==
[[File:Chera King's Sword given to the Zamorin of Calicut.png|left|thumbnail|Portrait of the sword of [[Zamorin of Calicut|Zamorins of Kozhikode]], which is related to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]].]]
[[File:Sarovaram biopark pic3.jpg|thumb|300px|The Chera king granted the Eradi warrior, as a mark of favour, a small tract of land ("Kozhikode and Chullikkadu").]]
[[File:Map of Kampili kingdom.png|thumb|300px|India in early 1320. Note that most of the parts of present-day state of Kerala was under the sovereignty of the Zamorin of [[Kozhikode]].]]Brahmanic legends such as the ''[[Keralolpathi]]'' (compiled in its final form c. 17th – 18 century) and the Calicut Granthavari recount the events leading to the establishment of the state of Calicut.''<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />''

''There were two brothers belonging to the Eradi ruling family at [[Nediyiruppu]]. The brothers Manichan and Vikraman were the most trusted warriors in the militia of the Kodungallur [[Chera Kingdom|Cheras]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/history%26culture/intrusion.htm |title=officialwebsite of |publisher=Kerala.gov.in |access-date=30 March 2010 |archive-date=4 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204110522/http://www.kerala.gov.in/history%26culture/intrusion.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Kerala Sanchaaram |last=Divakaran |first=Kattakada |year=2005 |publisher=Z Library |location=Thiruvananthapuram}}</ref> They distinguished themselves in the battles against the foreigners. However, during the partition of Chera kingdom, the Chera monarch failed to allocate any land to Nediyiruppu. Filled with guilt, the king later gave an unwanted piece of marshy tract of land called Kozhikode to the younger brother Vikraman (the elder brother died in the battle). The king also gifted his personal sword and his favourite prayer [[Shankha|conch]] – both broken – to him and told him to occupy as much as land as he could with all his might. So the Eradis conquered neighbouring kingdoms and created a large state for themselves. As a token of their respect to the Chera king, they adopted the logo of two crossed swords, with a broken [[Shankha|conch]] in the middle and a lighted lamp above it.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name=":0" />''

The port at [[Kozhikode]] held the superior economic and political position along the medieval Kerala coastline, while [[Kannur]], [[Kollam]], and [[Kochi]], were commercially important secondary ports, where traders from various parts of the world would gather.<ref name="Malekandathil">''The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800''. Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew (2001). Edited by: Pius Malekandathil and T. Jamal Mohammed. Fundacoa Oriente. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR (Kerala)</ref> The Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] visited [[Quilandy]] (Koyilandy) in 1498, opening the sailing route directly from Europe to [[South Asia]].<ref name="CampbellFernandez">Eila M.J. Campbell, Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, "Vasco da Gama." Encyclopædia Britannica Online [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vasco-da-Gama] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331103648/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vasco-da-Gama|date=31 March 2023}}</ref> The port at Kozhikode acted as the gateway to medieval [[South India]]n coast for the [[Arab]]s, the [[Chinese people|Chinese]], the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]], and finally the [[East India Company|British]].<ref name="askh" /> The Portuguese efforts to lay the foundations to [[Estado da Índia]], and to take complete control over the commerce was repeatedly hampered by the forces of the Zamorin of Calicut. The [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s, the famous Muslim warriors, were the [[admiral of the fleet]] of Calicut. By the end of the 16th century the Portuguese – now commanding the spice traffic on the Malabar Coast – had succeeded in replacing the Muslim merchants in the Arabian Sea. The Dutch supplanted the Portuguese in the 17th century, who in turn were supplanted by the British.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kerala|title=Kerala | History, Map, Capital, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=21 June 2023|archive-date=16 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516134554/https://www.britannica.com/place/Kerala|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Travancore]] became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Calicut in a battle located in [[Purakkad]] in 1755.<ref name="AHoT 162">{{cite book|last1=Shungoony Menon|first1=P.|title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times|date=1878|publisher=Higgin Botham & Co.|location=Madras|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog/page/n212 162]–164|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog|access-date=5 May 2016|language=en}}</ref> In 1766, [[Hyder Ali|Haider Ali]] of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] defeated the Zamorin of Calicut and absorbed Calicut to his state.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref>World States Men: Indian Princes [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_princes_K-W.html Princely states of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113065437/http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_princes_K-W.html |date=13 January 2013 }}</ref> After the [[Third Mysore War|Third Anglo-Mysore War]] (1790–1792), [[Malabar District]] including Zamorin's former territories were placed under the control of the [[East India Company]]. Eventually, the status of the Zamorin was reduced to that of a pensioner of the company by 1806.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name="VVHaridas">V. V., Haridas. ''"King court and culture in medieval Kerala – The Zamorins of Calicut (AD 1200 to AD 1767)"''. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/131929] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913065714/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/131929|date=13 September 2021}} Unpublished PhD Thesis. Mangalore University</ref>

== Origins and early history ==

=== Rulers of Eranadu ===
Historical records regarding the origin of the Zamorin of Calicut are obscure. However, it is generally agreed among historians the Eradis were originally the autonomous rulers of the [[Eranad]]u region of the Kodungallur Chera kingdom.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name=Narayanan>M. G. S. Narayanan, ''Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy{{snd}}Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cera Perumals of Makotai (c. AD 800–AD 1124)''. Kerala. Calicut University Press, 1996, pp. 512.</ref><ref name=":0" /> The Kodungallur Chera kingdom was a congeries of chiefdoms, which were ruled by local chiefs. The office of the chief/senior prince of Eranad (Eralanadu Utaya) is assumed to be hereditary.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name="Narayanan" /> The earliest reference to the chief and chiefdom of Eranad is the Cochin Jewish copper plate (c. 1000). [[Old Malayalam]] inscriptions name two titles for the rulers of Eranad – Manvepala Manaviyata (c. 11 century) and Manavikrama (c. 12th century). In the later period, Manavikrama, Manaveda and Viraraya were the only names given to male members in the royal family, the Zamorin always being known as Manavikrama. Historians assume that Manaveda might be a corruption of the old Malayalam title "Manaviyata".<ref name=":0" /> Scholars tentatively identify Manaviyata and Manavikrama with the titles of the elder and younger brothers of the famous origin legend.<ref name=":0" />

The strength of the "Hundred Organisation" of the senior prince of Eranadu was "Six Hundred". Several organisations with same capacity are also found in Ramavalanadu, Valluvanadu, Kizhmalanadu and Venadu. Scholars come across only one nadu with a stronger force, namely Kurumpuranadu, with a force of Seven Hundred although many lesser ones with Five Hundred of Purakizhanadu, Three Hundred of Nantuzhanadu and others.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name="Narayanan" />

The following table shows available inscriptions mentioning the rulers of Eranad:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%"
! style="width:140px; text-align:center;" |Inscription<ref>The table is compiled from V. V., Haridas. "King court and culture in medieval Kerala – The Zamorins of Calicut (AD 1200 to AD 1767)". Unpublished PhD Thesis. Mangalore University.</ref>
!Year
! style="text-align:center;" |Notes
|- style="vertical-align:top"
|'''Cochin Jewish copper plate''' of Kodungallur Chera king Bhaskara Ravi (c. 962–1021)
|c. 1000
|An old Malayalam royal charter in Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts. Among others, the chief of Eralanadu, Eralanadu Utaya "Manavepala Mana Viyatan", is a signatory in the charter.<ref name=":0" />

As per the charter, while residing at Chera capital Kodungallur, king Bhaskara Ravi granted Jewish merchant Joseph Rabban a plate giving him the proprietorship of the merchant guild Anchuvannam and other 72 special trade privileges. Rabban was also exempted from all payments made by other settlers in the town to the king, and in-turn, all the rights of other settlers in the town were extended to him. The document was attested by the chief feudatories of the Chera king – Govardhana Marthanda (Venadu), Kotha Chirikanthan (Venpalinadu), Manavepala Mana Viyatan (Eralanadu), Rayiran Chathan (Valluvanadu), Kotha Ravi (Netumpurayur-nadu) – and Murkan Chathan the commander of the eastern forces.<ref name=":0" />

Anchuvannam was a merchant guild in Kerala organised by Jewish, Christian and Muslim merchants from the Middle East.<ref name=":0" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
|'''Kollam Rameshwaram temple inscription''' of Kodungallur Chera king Ramavarma Kulasekhara (c. 1089 – 1122)
|1102
|An old Malayalam royal order in Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts.<ref name=":0" />

The Chera king Rama Kulasekhara, residing at Kollam, sitting in royal council with Arya Brahmins of the temple, the Four Brahmin Ministers, the Leader of the Thousand Nairs, the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venadu, Punthurakkon Manavikrama – the chief of Eranadu, and other feudatories, made amends for (some) offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating paddy for daily feeding the Brahmins and leasing out a Cherikkal for that purpose to Venadu chief Kumara Udaya Varma.<ref name=":0" />
|-
|'''Anandapuram temple inscription''', Thrissur
|Immediate post-Chera Period
|A temple inscription recording a resolution of the village council (Urutayavai) of Karimukku. The council prescribed a punishment for those who obstructed the Anandapuram temple functionaries or pilfered away temple properties and prevented the temple rituals. In addition to paying a fine, the offenders would forfeit their place in the assembly and their right to protection from the Eranadu Nizhal (warriors).<ref>Rajan Gurukkal, 'A New Epigraph Referring to Eranadu', ''Proceedings of Indian History Congress,'' pp. 526–531.</ref>
|-
|'''Trichambaram temple inscription'''
|Undated
(c. 11th century)
|An old Malayalam inscription in Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts.<ref name=":0" />

The chief of Eranadu Manavepala Mana Viyatan creates an endowment for Tiruvilakku at Trichambaram temple.<ref name=":0" />
|-
|'''Pulpatta temple inscription''', Manjeri
|Undated (c. 11th century)
|An old Malayalam temple inscription in Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts.<ref name=":0" />
The Six Hundred of Eralanadu and the Three Hundred of Etattirai Nadu, among others, make provision for "uttu" by assigning land to the Pulpatta temple. Fine is prescribed for the violation of the rules. The Uralar are authorised to take over from Pattavalan (officer in charge of collection) in case of obstruction.<ref name=":0" />
|-
|'''Syrian Christian copper plates''' of Viraraghava
|1225
|The plates records the grant of certain privileges, concessions and monopolies to Iravi Korthan, the chief of merchant guild Manigramam in Kodungallur. It closes with the statement that it was "issued with the knowledge of Venadu, Odanadu, Eranadu and Valluvanadu"<ref name=":0" /><ref name="VVHaridas" />

Manigramam was a famous merchant guild (active in southern India and south-east Asia) organised by native Indians.<ref name=":0" />
|-
|'''Muchundi mosque inscription''' of Punthurakkon
|13th century
|An old Malayalam – Arabic stone inscription in Vattezhuthu and Arabic.<ref name=":0" /> Punthurakkon (ruler of Eranad) creates an endowment for the Muchundi Mosque.<ref name="Narayanan, M. G. S 1972">Narayanan, M. G. S, 'The Zamorin's Gift to the Muccunti Mosque' in ''Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala'', Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Historical Society, 1972.</ref> As per the Arabic portion certain Shihab-ud-Din Raihan – a freed slave (atiq) of late Mas'ud – purchased land and constructed the mosque.<ref>Desai, Z. A, ''A Topographical List of Arabic, Persian and Urdu Inscriptions of South India.'' New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research, 1989.</ref>
|}
[[File:Pepper091.jpg|thumb|left|Pepper]]
[[File:Ginger in China 01 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|Ginger]]
[[File:Cardamom pods - Green BNC.jpg|thumb|left|Cardamom]]Although there is no solid basis for the famous partition legend (the Cheraman Perumal tradition) surrounding the end of Kodungallur Cheras, it is a possibility that following the mysterious disappearance of the ruler, the land was "partitioned" and that the governors of different nadus asserted independence, proclaiming it as their gift from the last overlord.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name="Narayanan" />

There is some ambiguity regarding the exact course of events that led to the establishment of Eradi's rule over Calicut, their later seat. Some historians are of the view that the Eradi was in fact a favourite of the last Kodungallur Chera king as he was at the forefront of the battles with the [[Chola]]–[[Pandya]] forces in south Kerala. The Eradi seems to have led the Chera army to victory. The king therefore granted him, as a mark of favour, a small tract of land on the sea-coast [[Calicut]] in addition to his hereditary possessions (Eralanadu province). The Eradis subsequently moved their seat to the coastal "marshy lands" and established the city of Calicut.<ref name=":0" />

To corroborate his assertion that the Eradi prince was a member of the inner circle of the last [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] king [[Rama Kulasekhara]] (c. 1089 – 1122), scholars cite an old Malayalam inscription (1102) found on a granite pillar set up in the courtyard of the Ramashwaram temple, [[Kollam]]. According to the inscription, the king, residing at Panainkavu Palace at Kurakkeni Kollam, sitting in council with Arya Brahmins, the Four Brahmin Ministers, the Leader of the Thousand Nairs, the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venadu, Punthurakkon Manavikrama – the chief of Eranadu, and other feudatories, made [[Prayaschitta|''prayaschittam'']] (penance) for an offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating cereals for the daily feeding of Brahmins and leasing out a Cherikkal for that purpose to the Venadu chief Kumaran Udaya Varma.<ref>Narayanan. M. G. S. "Calicut: The City of Truth Revisited". University of Calicut, 2006 – Calicut (India)</ref><ref>"Manavikrama alias Punturakkon of Eranad – A New Name in the Twilight of the Cera Kingdom in Kerala", M. G. S. Narayanan. Paper presented at the 18th Annual Congress of Epigraphical Society of India, Pune, 1992.</ref><ref name=":0" />

=== Cheraman sword ===
[[Duarte Barbosa]], in the early 16th century, mentions the "Cheraman sword" among the three swords and other royal emblems of the Zamorin usually taken out in ceremonial processions. The sword was worshipped by the Zamorins in their private temple everyday and especially at the time of the coronation. The Cheraman sword was burnt in a surprise attack by the Dutch at [[Kodungallur]] (1670) while the Zamorin was residing with Velutha Nambiyar. A new sword was made in 1672 out of the fragments of the old. The broken parts of the 1672 sword, kept in a fully sealed copper sheath, are still worshipped daily in the Bhagavathi temple attached to the palace of the Zamorins at Thiruvachira.<ref name=":0" />

=== Expansions to central Kerala ===

The 17th century work, ''[[Keralolpathi]]'' describes the events following the gift of Calicut to the Eradi prince.''<ref name=":7" />''

''Kozhikode and its suburbs formed part of Polanadu ruled by Polarthiri. The Eradi marched with his Nairs towards [[Panniyankara]] and besieged the Polarthiri at his base, resulting in a 48-year-long standoff. The Eradi was unsuccessful, and then he propitiated the [[Bhagavati]], bribed the followers of Polarthiri and even the consort of the ruler of Polanadu and won them to his side. Learning of this treachery Polarthiri fled from Kozhikode. The Eradi emerged victorious and shifted his seat from [[Nediyiruppu]] to Kozhikode – then also called "Thrivikramapuram". The Eradis built a fort (Koyil Kotta) at a place called "Velapuram" (port) to safeguard their new interests.<ref name=":7">Menon. A Sreedhara, "A Survey of Kerala History", DC Books, 2007 – Kerala (India)</ref><ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />''

The power balance in Kerala changed as Eralnadu rulers developed the port at Calicut. The Zamorin became one of the most powerful chiefs in Kerala.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> In some of his military campaigns – such as that into Valluvanadu – the ruler received unambiguous assistance from the Muslim Middle Eastern sailors.<ref name="VVHaridas" /> It seems that the Muslim judge of Calicut offered all help in "money and material" to the Zamorin to strike at Thirunavaya.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

Smaller chiefdoms south of Calicut – Beypore, Chaliyam, Parappanadu and Tanur (Vettam) – soon had to submit and became their feudatories one by one. The rulers of Payyormala, [[Kurumbranad]]u, and other Nair chiefs on the suburbs of Calicut also acknowledged the supremacy of Calicut. There were battles between Calicut and Kurumbranadu for a coastal region called Payyanadu. Payyanadu was a part of Kurumbranadu in early times, and was eventually given as a "royal gift" to Calicut. Calicut easily overran the Kurumbranadu warriors in the battle and Kurumbranadu had to sue for peace by surrendering Valisseri.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
[[File:Treasure Boat Shipyard - stele pavilion - Calicut stele - P1080100.JPG|thumb|Modern replica of the stele installed at Calicut by [[Zheng He]]. Seen along with other steles in the Stele Pavilion of the Treasure Boat Shipyard in [[Nanjing]].]]
[[File:Muccunti Mosque Iscription (cropped).JPG|thumb|Muccunti Mosque Inscription. Inscription specifically mentions the word "Punturakkon"]]

The ruler of Calicut next turned his attention to the valley of [[Bharathappuzha|Perar]]. Large parts of the valley was then ruled by Valluvakkonathiri, the ancient hereditary chief of Valluvanadu. The principal objective of Calicut was the capture the sacred settlement of [[Tirunavaya|Thirunavaya]]. Soon the Zamorins found themselves intervened in the so-called ''kurmatsaram'' between Nambudiris of Panniyurkur and Chovvarakur. In the most recent event, the Nambudiris from Thirumanasseri Nadu had assaulted and burned the nearby rival village. The rulers of Valluvanadu and [[Perumpadappu (Malappuram district)|Perumpadappu]] came to help the Chovvaram and raided Panniyur simultaneously. Thirumanasseri Nadu was overran by its neighbours on south and east. The Thirumanasseri Nambudiri appealed to the ruler of Calicut for help, and promised to cede the port of [[Ponnani]] to Calicut as the price for his protection. Calicut, looking for such an opportunity, gladly accepted the offer.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

Assisted by the warriors of their subordinate chiefs (Chaliyam, [[Beypore]], [[Kingdom of Tanur|Tanur]] and [[Cranganore|Kodungallur]]) and the Muslim naval fleet under the Koya of Calicut, the Zamorin's fighters advanced by both land and sea.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The main force under the command of Zamorin himself attacked, encamping at Thripangodu, an allied force of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu from the north. Meanwhile, another force under the Eralppadu commanded a fleet across the sea and landed at Ponnani and later moved to Thirumanasseri, with intention to descend on Thirunavaya from the south with help of the warriors of the Thirumanasseri Brahmins. Eralppadu also prevented the warriors of Perumpadappu joining Valluvanadu forces. The Muslim merchants and commanders at Ponnani supported the Calicut force with food, transport and provisions. The warriors of the Eralppadu moved north and crossed the River Perar and took up position on the northern side of the river.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The Koya marched at the head of a large column, and stormed Thirunavaya. In spite of the fact that the warriors of Valluvanadu did not get the timely help of Perumpadappu, they fought vigorously and the battle dragged on. In the meantime, the Calicut minister Mangattachan was also successful in turning Kadannamanna Elavakayil Vellodi (junior branch of Kadannamanna) to their side. Finally, two Valluvanadu princes were killed in the battles, the Nairs abandoned the settlement and Calicut infested Thirunavaya.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

The capture of Thirunavaya was not the end of Calicut's expansion into Valluvanadu. The Zamorin continued surges over on Valluvanadu. [[Malappuram]], [[Nilambur]], Vallappanattukara and [[Manjeri]] were easily occupied. He encountered stiff resistance in some places and the fights went on in a protracted and sporadic fashion for a long time. Further assaults in the east against Valluvanadu were neither prolonged nor difficult for Calicut.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

The battles along the western borders of Valluvanadu were bitter, for they were marked by treachery and crime. Panthalur and Ten Kalams came under Calicut only after a protracted struggle. The assassination of a minister of Calicut by the chief minister of Valluvanadu while visiting Venkatakkotta in Valluvanadu sparked the battle, which dragged on for almost a decade. At last the Valluvanadu minister was captured by Zamorin's warriors and executed at Padapparambu, and his province (Ten Kalams, including [[Kottakkal]] and Panthalur) were occupied by the Zamorin. The Kizhakke Kovilakam Munalappadu, who took a leading part in this campaign, received half of the newly captured province from Zamorin as a gift. The loss of this fiercely loyal chief minister was the greatest blow to Valluvanadu after the loss of [[Tirunavaya]] and [[Ponnani]].<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

=== Expansions to Kochi ===

Calicut faced defeat in their next assault on Perumpadappu swaroopam. The combined forces of Perumpadappu and Valluvanadu resisted Calicut warriors and a vicious battle ensued for three days, at the end of which Calicut forces was on the retreat.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

After a period of uneasy calm in Kerala, Calicut occupied Nedunganadu, a small polity between Valluvanadu and [[Palakkad]] (Palghat). Nedunganadu was overran without striking even a single blow. The chief of Nedunganadu surrendered to the Calicut forces at a place called Kodikkuni. Then the Calicut warriors captured a number of smaller villages around Thirunavaya – such as Thiruvegappuram – from Valluvanadu. The Valluvanadu governor tried to overcome the Calicut prince's advance at Kolakkadu. Near Karimpuzha in Valluvanadu, the untouchables – the Cherumas and Panans of Kotta – resisted the advancing Calicut forces. The Calicut won their affection by gifts and presents. Calicut prince was met by an ancestor of Kavalappara Nair, a vassal of Valluvanadu, at Karakkadu. The chiefs under Palakkad surrendered to Calicut at Vengotri, Nellayi and Kakkathodu. Zamorin of Calicut appointed the Eralppadu as the ruler of southern Malabar region during this time. The provincial seat was at Karimpuzha. Talappilli (present day taluk of the same name and coastal regions from Ponnani to Chetwai) and Chengazhinadu submitted to Calicut without any resistance.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
[[File:Portuguese fort at Calicut (cropped).jpg|thumb|472x472px|left|Portuguese fort at Calicut]]

[[Calicut]] then completed the subjugation Ponnani taluk from Valluvanadu and captured Vannerinadu from Perumpadappu. The Perumpadappu ruler was forced to shift their base further south to Thiruvanchikkulam.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> When Thrikkanamathilakam near Thiruvanchikkulam came under the Calicut control and Perumpadappu ruler again shifted their base further south to Kochi ([[Kochi|Cochin]], in 1405).<ref name=Malekandathil /><ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

Calicut subjugated large parts of the state of Kochi in the subsequent years. The family feud between the elder and younger branches of the ruling family of Kochi was exploited by the Zamorin of Calicut. The intervention was initiated as Calicut's help was sought against the ruling younger branch. The rulers of Kodungallur, Idappalli, Airur, Sarkkara, Patinjattedam [Thrissur] and Chittur supported or joined Calicut forces in this occupation of Kochi. Some of these were the vassals of Kochi. The Kochi chief was defeated in a battle at Thrissur and his palace was occupied. But, the defeated chief escaped to further south. Pursuing the chief to south, the Calicut forces under Zamorin penetrated and occupied the town of Kochi. Unable to withstand the attacks, Kochi finally accepted Calicut's rule. The prince from the elder branch was installed on the throne of Kochi as vassal.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

The battles against Kochi were followed by a battle against Palakkad and the expansion to Naduvattom by a Calicut prince. Kollengode of Venganadu Nambitis was also put under the sway of Calicut during the time. The severe and frequent battles with Valluvanadu by Calicut continued. But even after the loss of his superior ally Kochi, Valluvanadu did not submit to Calicut. The ruler of Calicut followed a custom of settling Muslim families and the families of other Hindu generals who had allegiance to him, in the captured areas of Valluvanadu. Calicut occupied Valluvanadu (now shrunk to Attappadi valley, parts of Mannarkkad, Ottappalam and Perinthalmanna) but could not make much progress into its hinterland.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

Calicut was also successful in bringing the polity of Kolathunadu (Cannanore) under their control. During his expansions, the Zamorin occupied Pantalayini Kollam as a preliminary advance to Kolathunadu. Kolathiri immediately sent ambassadors to submit to whatever terms Calicut might dictate. Kolathunadu transferred the regions already occupied to Calicut and certain Hindu temple rights. The stories about the origin of the [[Kadathanadu|Kadathanadu ruling family (Vatakara)]] are associated with battle of the Eradis with Polanadu. When the Zamorin swarmed over Polanadu, he exiled a Polarthiri royal princess and she was welcomed in [[Kolathunad|Kolathunadu (Cannanore)]] – one of the Zamorin's rivals polities. After the marriage of a Kolathu prince with this princess the Kadathanadu ruling family was born. The name Kadathanadu refers to as the passing way between Kolathunadu and Calicut.<ref name="ReferenceA">Panikkassery, Velayudhan. MM Publications (2007), Kottayam India</ref> Some land and Hindu temple rights were transferred to Calicut during a visit to Kollam by a ruler of the Calicut.<ref>K. V. Krishna Iyer, Court Historian of the Zamorins, describes the event: "The nominal reason for the military expedition was to protect the rights of the Brahmins in Quilon. Quilon had earlier opposed the expansion Calicut supremacy south of Kochi (former Perumpadappu). However, the Calicut forces advanced by Chetwai and Kanhur River, Zamorin Maharaja crossed the backwater at Vypin, marching through Chiranganad Karappuram, Payattukad, Alleppey, Trikunnappuzha and Kartikappally, and entered Odanad. Soon, the ruler of Quilon propitiated Calicut by paying the expenses of the battles, ceding the lands known as Munjiramukkattam (Munjiramukkattam was later transferred by the Calicut to the temple of Padmanabha or to Mathappuram shrine). Quilon also agreed to send annual tribute along with the flag of fealty to Tirunavaya for the Mamankam festival."</ref>

==Vijayanagara conquests==
[[File:Uru.jpg|thumb|400px|Large boats built in Calicut]]
[[Deva Raya II]] (1424–1446), king of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], conquered the whole of present-day Kerala state in the 15th century. He defeated (1443) rulers of Venadu (Kollam, Quilon), as well as Calicut. [[Fernão Nunes]] says that the Zamorin and even the kings of Burma ruling at [[Pegu]] and [[Tenasserim Division|Tenasserim]] paid tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Calicut and Venadu seems to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, Zamorin of Calicut again rose to prominence in Kerala. Zamorin built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

An embassy from the Zamorin of Calicut, in which the chief envoy was a Persian-speaking Muslim, came to the Timurid court of [[Shah Rukh|Mirza Shahrukh]] at [[Herat]] in the 15th century. Some Herat officials had, some years earlier, on their return journey from the Sultanate of Bengal, been stranded at port Calicut, and on this occasion had been received by the Zamorin of Calicut. Impressed by the description of the Timurid influence, the Zamorin decided to send his own embassy to Herat.<ref name=":4" />

Abdur Razzaq, an employ of Shahrukh, was soon engaged on a mission to Calicut (November 1442 – April 1443). He carried a series of presents from Herat, including a horse, a [[pelisse]], headgear and ceremonial robes. "As for duties [at Calicut], at one-fortieth, and that too, only on sales, they are even lower than at Hormuz [in the Persian Gulf]", says Abdur Razzaq.<ref name=":4" />

While in Calicut, Razzaq was invited by the Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II to his court. The envoy arrived from the Vijayanagara king had "asked" the Zamorin to send the Herat envoy on to his court. He also says the king of Vijayanagara does not possess "jurisdiction" over the kingdom of Calicut, but the Zamorin was apparently "still in great awe of the Vijayanagar king".<ref name=":4">Muzaffar Alam, Sanjay Subrahmanyam. "Indo-Persian Travels in the Age of Discoveries, 1400–1800". Cambridge University Press, 2007</ref>

== Relations with Yuan and Ming China ==
{{Quote box |quote= "In the fifth year of the Yongle emperor [1407], the court ordered the principal envoy ... Zheng He ... to deliver an imperial mandate [a statement of formal investiture] to the king of [Calicut] and to bestow him a patent conferring a title of honour ... Zheng He went these in command of a large fleet of treasure-ships, and he erected a tablet with a pavilion over it and set up a stone which said: ''"Though the journey from this country [Kingdom of Calicut] to the Middle Kingdom is more than a hundred thousand ''li'', yet people are very similar, happy, and prosperous, with identical customs."''|source= '''Account of the members of Zheng He's entourage'''<ref name=Keevak /> |align=left |salign=left |width=39%}}

It is known that the Tang Chinese ships frequently visited the then major Kerala ports such as Kollam for spices (in the 9th–10th centuries). According historians, the "Nanpiraj" mentioned in the Ling daida can be identified with Calicut.<ref name=Subrairath />

From the 13th century, Calicut developed into the major trading centre where the Middle-Eastern and Chinese sailors met to exchange their products. [[Marco Polo]] who visited Calicut in 1293–
1294 records that the trade in Kerala was dominated by the Chinese. [[Ibn Batutah]] refers to the brisk Chinese trade at Calicut. [[Wang Dayuan|Wang Ta-yuan]] – during the Yuan period – describes the pepper trade in Calicut in his work "Tao-i-Chih".<ref name="Subrairath" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">Dreyer, Edward L. (2007). "Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405–1433". New York: Pearson Longman.</ref>

[[Zheng He]] (Cheng Ho), the renowned Ming Chinese admiral, [[Ming treasure voyages|visited Calicut several times]] in the early 15th century.<ref name="Subrairath" /> Zheng most probably died at Calicut in 1433 during his seventh voyage to the West.<ref name=":5">Jung-pang Lo. "[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zheng-He Zheng He] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423200125/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zheng-He |date=23 April 2022 }}". Encyclopædia Britannica Online</ref><ref name=":6" />

A major objective of the first Ming expedition (1405–1407) was the kingdom of Calicut. Historians presume that the fleet stayed from December 1406 to April 1407 at Calicut. Ambassadors from Calicut, among envoys from other states, accompanied the returning (first expedition) fleet bringing articles of "tribute" to [[Nanking]] in 1407. On the second expedition, in 1408–09, Zheng He again visited Calicut – stopping as well in "Chochin" (Kochi). The envoys in the second expedition (1408–1409) carried out the formal "investiture" of the Zamorin of Calicut "Mana Piehchialaman". A memorial inscription was erected in Calicut to commemorate the investiture. The Chinese titles and gifts (brocades and gauzes) were given to the Zamorin and his retinue by the Chinese envoys. Presumably a stay of about four months was made at Calicut, possibly from December 1408 to April 1409. The third expedition (1409–1411) – the first one to sail to beyond India – also visited Calicut. The fleet sailed on from Calicut to Sri Lanka in 1411. The fourth (1413–1415), fifth (1417–1419), sixth (1421–22) and seventh (1431–33) fleets also visited Calicut.<ref name="Cambridge">John King Fairbank, Denis Crispin Twitchett, Frederick W. Mote. ''The Cambridge History of China'', Volume 7, Part 1. Cambridge University Press, 1978. pp. 233–236.</ref><ref name="MaHuan" /> A number of tribute delegations – in 1421, 1423, and 1433, among others – were dispatched by the Calicut rulers to [[Nanking]] and [[Peking]]. Presents from Calicut included horses and black pepper.<ref name="Subrairath" /> Brocades of several types were presented to some of the Calicut envoys.<ref name="Sen">Tansen Sen. ''India, China, and the World: A Connected History''. Rowman & Littlefield (2017)</ref> [[Ma Huan]] visited Calicut several times, and describes the trade in the region. [[Fei Xin|Fei-Hsin]] also notices the brisk trade at Calicut.<ref name="Subrairath" /><ref name="Keevak">Michael Keevak. ''Embassies to China: Diplomacy and Cultural Encounters Before the Opium Wars''. Springer (2017)</ref><ref>Chan, Hok-lam (1998). "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns, 1399–1435". ''The Cambridge History of China'', Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Duyvendak | first=J.J.L. | title=The True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fifteenth Century | journal=T'oung Pao | year=1938 | volume=34 | issue=5 | pages=341–413 | author-link=J.J.L. Duyvendak | jstor=4527170 | doi=10.1163/156853238X00171}}</ref><ref>Levathes, Louise (1996). ''When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433''. New York: Oxford University Press.
</ref>

The few remnants of the Chinese trade can be seen in and around the present city of Calicut. This include a Silk Street, Chinese Fort ("Chinakotta"), Chinese Settlement ("Chinachery" in Kappad), and Chinese Mosque ("Chinapalli" in Panthalayini Kollam).<ref name="Subrairath" /><ref name="Keevak" /><ref>Das Gupta, A., 1967. ''Malabar in Asian Trade: 1740–1800''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.</ref>

== Relations with the Portuguese ==
[[File:Vasco Da Gama welcomed by the Zamorin.jpg|thumb|left|Vasco Da Gama welcomed by the Zamorin]]
{{Quote box |quote= "No one has tried to clear that misconception [that Vasco da Gama landed at Kappad]. The government has even installed a memorial stone at the Kappad beach. Actually [Vasco da] Gama landed at Panthalayini ([[Koyilandy]]) in the [Kozhikode] district because there was a port there and Kozhikode did not have one. It does not have a port even now."<ref>"Vasco da Gama never landed at Kappad: M G S" [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/Vasco-da-Gama-never-landed-at-Kappad-MGS/article17198107.ece] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205212749/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/Vasco-da-Gama-never-landed-at-Kappad-MGS/article17198107.ece |date=5 December 2022 }} ''The Hindu'' 6 February 2017</ref> |source='''M. G. S. Narayanan''' |align=right |salign=right |width=39%}}
{{Quote box |quote="He was taken to a place [in Kozhikkode] where there were two Moors [Muslims] from [[Tunis]], who knew how to speak [[Castilian language|Castilian]] and [[Genoese dialect|Genoese]].

''"What the Devil! What brought you here?"'' 
''"We came in search of Christians and of spices!"''
|source='''Velho 1987: 54–55'''<ref name=ThePortugueseEmpireinAsia>Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ''The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500–1700: A Political and Economic History''. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.</ref> |align=right |salign=right |width=39%}}

{{See also|Portuguese India Armadas}}
[[File:VASCO DA GAMA LANDING AT KALICUT.gif|thumb|right|Vasco da Gama landing in Calicut – a modern depiction (1911) by Allan Stewart]]
[[File:Portuguese Coin released in commemorate Vasco da Gama's Landing in Calicut (cropped).jpeg|thumb|Portuguese coin issued to commemorate Vasco da Gama's landing in Calicut]]
[[File:Vasco Da Gama, 1525-50 ca. 02.jpg|thumb|295x295px|Vasco Da Gama]]
[[File:EPJA4qZWoAAKVRJ.jpg|thumb|Nairs of Malabar in '''Les Voyages du sieur Albert de Mandelslo''<nowiki/>' by Pierre van der Aa in Leiden (1720)]]
[[File:An alliance of arabs and malabar locals attack the Portuguese in Calicut. c1600.png|thumb|Arabs and Malabar locals attacking the Portuguese in Calicut]]
[[File:Duarte Pacheco's victory at Battle of Cochin (1504) (cropped).jpg|217x217px|thumb|Duarte Pacheco's victory at the Battle of Cochin (1504)]]
[[File:Kunhali-Sword.JPG|thumb|right|The sword used by Kunjali Marakkar, preserved at Kottakkal Mosque, Vadakara]]

The landing of [[Vasco da Gama]] in Calicut in 1498 has often been considered as the beginning of a new phase in Asian history during which the control of the Indian Ocean spice trade passed into the hands of the Europeans from Middle Eastern Muslims. The strong colony of foreign merchants settled in Calicut was hostile, but Zamorin welcomed the Portuguese and allowed them to take spices on board. In Portugal, the goods brought by da Gama from India were computed at "sixty times the cost of the entire Asia expedition".<ref name="PercivalSpear">T. G. Percival Spear. "European activity in India, 1498 – c. 1760" Encyclopædia Britannica Online [https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century#toc47001] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306022832/https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century#toc47001|date=6 March 2023}}</ref>

The Portuguese initially entered into hostile conflicts with the Zamorin of Calicut and the Middle Eastern (Paradesi) merchants in Calicut. Within the next few decades, the Estado da Índia also found themselves fighting with several leading Mappila trading families of Kerala (esp. the Kannur Mappilas, led by Mammali and the Marakkars of the Pearl Fishery Coast). Kingdom of Calicut, whose shipping was increasingly looted by the Portuguese, evolved into a centre of resistance.<ref name=":32">Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast''. Cambridge University Press, 2018.</ref> The Portuguese maintained patrolling squadrons off the Kerala ports and continued their raids on departing native fleets.<ref name="Subrahmanyam25">Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002)</ref> Mappila and Marakkar traders actively worked in the kingdoms of Malabar Coast and Ceylon to oppose the Portuguese.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2">Sanjay Subrahmanyam. "The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650". Cambridge University Press, 2002</ref> Naval battles broke out across Konkan, Malabar Coast, southern Tamil Nadu, and western Sri Lanka. Marakkars transformed as the admirals of Calicut and organised an effective collection of vessels to fight the Portuguese.<ref name="Livemore">Harold V. Livermore. "Afonso de Albuquerque". [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Afonso-de-Albuquerque] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317083625/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13157/Afonso-de-Albuquerque|date=17 March 2020}} Encyclopædia Britannica Online</ref>

The [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.<ref>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Arun Kumar |title=Give Indian Navy its due |url=https://www.asianage.com/opinion/columnists/110217/give-indian-navy-its-due.html |access-date=23 January 2021 |work=[[The Asian Age]] |date=11 February 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925000822/https://www.asianage.com/opinion/columnists/110217/give-indian-navy-its-due.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen]]'' written by [[Zainuddin Makhdoom II]] (born around 1532) of [[Ponnani]] in 16th-century is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala to be authored by a Keralite.<ref name="A. Sreedhara Menon 2011">A. Sreedhara Menon. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D C Books (2011)</ref><ref name="frontline.in">{{Cite web |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |title=A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala. Books |access-date=21 June 2023 |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510060620/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2704/stories/20100226270407900.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">Roland E. Miller. ''Mappila Muslim Culture'' SUNY Press, 2015</ref> It is written in [[Arabic]] and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of [[Kunjali Marakkar]] alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize [[Malabar coast]]. It was first printed and published in [[Lisbon]]. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of [[Al-Azhar University]], [[Cairo]].

[[Francisco de Almeida]] (1505–1509) and [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1509–1515), who followed da Gama to India, were instrumental in establishing the Império Colonial Português in Asia.<ref name="PercivalSpear" /> By the mid-16th century, the Portuguese managed to curtail the vital trade between Calicut and the Middle East. In the end of the century, Kochi was the dominant seaport in Kerala, having surpassed both [[Cannanore|Kannur]] and Calicut.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /> The Portuguese set about breaking the monopoly which Venetians and the Egyptians had so long enjoyed in the trade with Asia. The Egyptians and the Ottoman Turks realised the danger, but internal complications between them gave the Portuguese an opportunity.<ref name="Kurup3">K. K. N. Kurup, ed., ''India's Naval Traditions''. Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997</ref> Ponnani Muhammed Kunjali Marakkar was eventually executed by the combined effects of the Kingdom of Calicut and the Portuguese state in 1600.<ref name=":2" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%"
|-
! style="width:140px; text-align:center;"| Date
! style="text-align:center;"| Event
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| May 1498 || [[Vasco da Gama]] lands in Calicut, and is warmly welcomed by the Zamorin of Calicut. Much to the delight of the discontented Middle Eastern merchants, da Gama's "ordinary" trade goods were hardly suitable for trade in Calicut. The merchandise he carried – no gold and silver – only came handy in the trade on the West African coast.<ref name=PercivalSpear /> However, the Zamorin of Calicut gave his sanction for opening trade, and assigned a small warehouse with Nairs to guard it and brokers sell their goods.<ref name="Logan">Logan, William. ''Malabar''. District Manual. Asian Educational Services, 1887.</ref>

Sale and purchases fails to meet the expectations. Da Gama demands Kerala spices in return for his unsalable wares. The Zamorin replied that he should buy what he needed for gold and silver instead of dumping his stock in exchange, and he must pay the usual Calicut customs duties. After some confusion – the warehouse was robbed once – the fleet leaves Calicut in August. They also took with them some on-board [[Kerala Mukkuvar|Mukkuvar]].<ref name="Logan" />

It is also known that da Gama erected a ''padrão'' in the kingdom of Calicut.<ref name=CampbellFernandez />

The fleet makes interactions – and trade – with Zamorin's rival chief, the Kolathiri (Cannanore) on their return journey.<ref name="Logan" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| September 1500|| [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] reaches Calicut, rich presents were exchanged, and a treaty of friendship, "as long as the sun and moon should endure", was entered upon. The Zamorin was pleased with return of the Mukkuvas whom da Gama had taken to Portugal.<ref name=Logan /><ref name="Calmon" /> Cabral manages to obtain the permission to construct a trading post in Calicut.<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Calmon" /> The Zamorin nominates a Mappila named Koya Pakki as the Portuguese broker in Calicut.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> At the request of the Zamorin, Cabral captures a Kochi vessel passing the port Calicut. The vessel is subsequently restored to the chief of Kochi.<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Calmon">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pedro-Alvares-Cabral|title=Pedro Álvares Cabral | Accomplishments, Route, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=21 June 2023|archive-date=13 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413172723/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pedro-Alvares-Cabral|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| December 1500 || The merchants of Calicut appear to have effectually prevented the Portuguese from obtaining any large supply of spices. Cabral accused the Muslim merchants of deliberately outbidding them, and sending away all the spices that came to the market. The Zamorin permitted Cabral to search the Middle Eastern ships and "take whatever he found them after paying to the owners what they had themselves had paid and the customs duties to Calicut officers".<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> Cabral seized a Middle Eastern ship at midnight and transfers all its spices to his depot. A general riot is broken out in Calicut. Around 50 Portuguese sailors at the depot are massacred, a few taken captive, by the Muslims. The depot is razed.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

The Portuguese seize ten of the Zamorin's Muslim ships, at Calicut, execute their crews, and set fire to them and leave port Calicut by bombarding it. Around 600 Malabarians are killed.<ref name="Logan" /><ref name="Calmon" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 24 December 1500 || The Portuguese, led by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], reach the port of Kochi.<ref name=Logan /> Kochi Raja, a chieftain at the time, was subordinate to the Zamorin of Calicut.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| January 1501 || The Portuguese conclude a treaty with the chief of Kochi Tirumalpadu; an alliance of friendship was signed, allowing them to open a [[factory (trading post)]]. Cabral is permitted to trade for spices, with which he loads his six remaining ships.<ref name=Calmon />

A Calicut fleet, carrying around 1500 men, appears off the harbour of Kochi. The Calicut fleet holds off. Cabral chases them, but is overtaken by a violent storm which carries him to the sea. He later sails to Kannur, and from there proceeds to Europe.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| March 1501 || [[João da Nova]] is despatched from Portugal to India. He anchors at [[Anjediva]] in November and from there sails to Kannur. While travelling from Kannur to Kochi the fleet attacks and captures a Muslim vessel opposite to the Calicut.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| December 1501 || About 180 Calicut vessels filled with Muslims arrive at Kochi from Calicut, for the purpose of attacking the Portuguese. John de Nueva fires cannon at them, sinking a large number of vessels.<ref name=Logan />

The Muslims persuade native merchants all of over Kerala to refuse to trade their spices and textiles with the Portuguese.<ref name=Logan />

Owing to the generosity of the chief of Kochi alone, his ships are soon loaded with spices and textiles, and the fleet departs for Europe.<ref name=Logan />

The [[First Battle of Cannanore]] between the [[3rd Portuguese India Armada (Nova, 1501)|Third Portuguese Armada]] and [[Kingdom of Cochin]] under [[João da Nova]] and Zamorin of [[Kozhikode]]'s navy marks the beginning of Portuguese conflicts in the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| August 1502 || Vasco da Gama returns to India to try to control Calicut. He burns a ship full of Muslim pilgrims – around 700 – from Mecca off the coast of Madayi. The ship also carried a chief merchant from Calicut. This individual – fairly rich – was the brother of Khoja Kasim, the Factor of the Sea to the Zamorin of Calicut.<ref>Schwartz, Stuart. ''Implicit Understandings'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 665 pp, 1994, 302. {{ISBN|0-521-45880-3}}</ref> However, the burning and sinking of the ship is not related by any contemporary and reliable sources. Some assume that the description may be "legendary or at least exaggerated".<ref name=CampbellFernandez />

Da Gama is warmly welcomed by Kolathiri at Kannur, and arranges a treaty of commerce. Kolathiri agrees to supply spices at the Kochi prices and obtain "passes" ''(cartazes)'' for the ships his subjects. He next divides his fleet; one portion of it is to wage war on all native vessels except those of Kannur (Kolathunadu), Kochi (Permpatappu) and Quilon (Kollam ), which are to be protected by "passes" obtained from the factors at Kannur and Kochi respectively.<ref name=Logan />

Vincent de Sodre mistreats Khoja Muhammed Marakkar – a wealthy Muslim from [[Cairo]] – who had insulted the Kolathiri.<ref name=Logan />

Sailing southwards, da Gama is informed by a Brahmin messenger that the Zamorin have arrested the Muslims who were guilty of the outrage on the trading depot. Da Gama was offered a large sum to pay for the factory goods. He sent back word to say that he did not want money, and also mistreated the Brahmin messenger. Some historians assume that this was an attempt to lure da Gama to Calicut, and then to apprehend him. Da Gama – who certainly thought so – fires cannon at the port Calicut, and kills around 40 natives. The Zamorin tries to counterattack in vain. To starve the city of Calicut the Portuguese plunders rice shipments from Mangalore.<ref name=Logan /><ref name=CampbellFernandez />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| November 1502 || Da Gama reaches Kochi and signs a treaty of commerce with the rulers of Kochi and Kollam. A factory is set up at Kochi by da Gama; its first factor is Diogo Fernandes Correia.<ref name=ThePortugueseEmpireinAsia /> The fleet then sails to Kannur, defeating two squadrons of a Calicut Arab<ref name=CampbellFernandez /> Muslim fleet on the way, and then for Europe on 28 December.<ref name=Logan />

While at Kochi (1502), da Gama was visited by a deputation of Christians from Kodungallur.

Zamorin of Calicut, after the departure of the Armada, demands to the ruler of Kochi the Portuguese factors left at Kochi should be given to him. The demand is refused by the ruler of Kochi.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1503 || The Portuguese crown the new ruler of Kochi, effectively making him a vassal of the King of Portugal.
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| March–April 1503 || Calicut forces of more than 50,000 Nairs attack Kochi. The forces enter the Kochi territory, and occupy Edappalli in March.<ref name=Logan /> In a series of engagements, the Calicut forces defeat around 5,500 Kochi Nairs led by Narayanan, the heir apparent of Kochi, near [[Cranganore|Kodungallur]]. Narayanan, and his two nephews, are slain in the battle and the Calicut forces cross the backwater to Kochi. The wounded Kochi chief escapes to the island of Vypin with the Portuguese. The Calicut forces burn Kochi. As the monsoon has begun, the Calicut forces, leaving a strong detachment at Kochi, retreat to Kodungallur.<ref name="Logan" />

Two Italians desert to the side of the Calicut during these battles (these men later construct five big guns for the Calicut).<ref name="Logan" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| September 1503 || Francisco de Albuquerque, sailing from Kannur, reaches Kochi. The Calicut's blockading forces are easily defeated at Vypin island, and are driven back to Kodungallur. The Portuguese take Edappalli (Repelim).<ref name=Logan />

Albuquerque obtains permission to build a fort – [[Fort Emmanuel|Fort Manuel]], the first Portuguese fort in Asia – at Kochi. Soon, Afonso de Albuquerque, his brother, arrives at Kochi with three more ships.<ref name=Logan />

The Portuguese are starved of spices and textiles at Kochi by the Zamorin of Calicut and the Muslims merchants. Their fleet moves south to Quilon, and with aid of local Christian merchants easily procure the spices, and obtain permission to open a factory.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| January 1504 || Albuquerque leaves Malabar, his ships laden with spices. Before doing so he concludes a short-lived treaty with the Zamorin of Calicut. The peace is broken by the murder of six Malabarians by the Portuguese.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| March–July 1504 || Pacheco and a small garrison of 150 men guard Fort Manuel. Around 57,000 Nairs from all over the kingdom of Calicut, assisted by 5 cannon guns and 160 paraos, attack Pacheco at the Edappally ferry. He manages to drive back the enemy several times. The Kochi Nairs provide little help in opposing the Calicut forces. As the monsoon sets in, cholera breaks out among the Calicut forces. The Zamorin of Calicut at last gives up the attempt in despair.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| July 1504 || Pacheco quells a partial outbreak at Kollam.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| August 1504 || Pacheco defeats the Calicut troops at Chetwye.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| September 1504 || Suarez de Menezes arrives in Kannur. He unsuccessfully tries to rescue some of the prisoners taken at Calicut in Cabral's time. He cannons the city of Calicut and sails to Kochi.<ref name=Logan />

The fleet raids and burns the city of [[Kodungallur]], held by Patinjattedam chief under the Calicut. The Portuguese spare the Christian houses, shops and churches, but they loot those of the Jews and Muslims.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| March 1505 || A large Muslim fleet at Pantalayini Kollam in the kingdom of Calicut is destroyed. It had assembled there to take back a large number of Muslims to Arabia and Egypt, who were leaving the kingdom of Calicut disappointed at the trade losses caused to them recently. De Menezes captures 17 vessels and kills 2,000 men.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/resources/english/etext-project/history/vijayanagar/book1.chapter10.html | title=A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar | author=Robert Swell | access-date=27 May 2007 | archive-date=29 September 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929092408/http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/resources/english/etext-project/history/vijayanagar/book1.chapter10.html | url-status=live }}, Book 1, Chapter 10.</ref><ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| September 1505 || Francisco de Almeyda commences building of [[Fort Anjediva|Anjediva Fort]].<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| October 1505 || Building of [[St. Angelo Fort]], Kannur commences. De Almeyda is visited by a [[Vijayanagara]] delegation. Francisco de Almeyda arrives at Kochi.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| November 1505 || Murder of the Portuguese factor António de Sá and his 12 men by a mob in [[Kollam]]. Lorenzo de Almeyda, finding 27 Calicut vessels at Kollam, engages and sinks them all. Francisco de Almeyda is crowned the new chief in Kochi.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| February 1506 || The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt sends a fleet, commanded by Amir Hussain al-Kurdi al-Askar, into the Indian Ocean. The Ottomans help in the construction of the fleet. The fleet leaves Jiddah only in August/September 1507 and sets sail to [[Diu, India|Diu]] (ruled by Malik Ayaz).<ref name=AlamSubrahmanyam>Muzaffar Alam, Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ''Writing the Mughal World: Studies on Culture and Politics''. Columbia University Press, 2012.</ref>
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| March 1506 || [[Lourenço de Almeida|Lorenz de Almeyda]] intercepts an armada of 210 large vessels of Turks (Ottoman) and Muslims whom the Zamorin had launched against Kannur. Around 3,000 Muslims are killed in the assault and the Portuguese loss is very trifling.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| April 1507 || Joined forces of Kannur and Calicut attack St. Angelo Fort. The old Kolathiri – the original friend of Vasco da Gama – has died and the new ruler is already displeased with the Portuguese for harming prominent Muslims merchants at Kannur. Combined forces, including around 60,000 Nairs, lay siege to the St. Angelo Fort. Brito, the Cannanore Commandant, resists the Malabaris for four months.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| August 1507 || The Portuguese, assisted by eleven ship under da Cunha freshly arrived from Europe, break the blockade. The ruler of Kannur is forced to accede to the sailors.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| November 1507 || The Portuguese under Almeyda attack Ponnani, destroying the town and shipping. 18 Portuguese are killed in the assault on the place. A number of Muslims take an oath to die as "matrys" on this occasion.<ref name=Logan />

As per some historians, as result of the assault, the family of Marakkars relocated from Ponnani to Puthupattanam (in North Malabar). The Zamorin of Calicut later appointed Marakkar I as his admiral. Kutti Ali served under Marakkar I.<ref name="MenonII2">Menon. A. Sreedhara. ''Kerala History and its Makers''. D. C. Books (Kerala). pp. 101–107.</ref> Some scholars identify the first Marakkar Kutti Ahmed Ali with Muhammed of Kochi.<ref name="Kurup3" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| March 1508 || Albuquerque is imprisoned by Almeyda. The Egyptian navy, under the command of Admiral Amir Hussain and supported by the forces of Mahmud Begarha (Sultan of Gujarat), defeat the Portuguese at the [[Battle of Chaul]], killing [[Lourenço de Almeida|Lorenzo de Almeyda]] in the process. The Egyptian force of 1500 Mamluks also includes Calicut's ambassador to Cairo, Mayimama Marakkar. Mayimama Marakkar is also killed in the action.<ref name=Logan /><ref name=Livemore /> The alliance between Amir Hussain and Malik Ayaz begins to fall apart. Ayaz enters into secret negotiations with de Amleyda.<ref name=AlamSubrahmanyam />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| November 1508 || De Almeyda – with a fleet carrying 1300 Europeans, among others – sails to Kannur.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| February 1509 || The defeat of joint fleet of the [[Mahmud Begada|Sultan of Gujarat]], the [[Burji dynasty|Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt]], and the Zamorin of Calicut with support of the [[Republic of Venice]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[Battle of Diu (1509)|Battle of Diu]] marks the beginning of [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] dominance of the [[Spice trade]] and the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=Logan />

De Almeyda counter-attacks and defeats the Egyptian navy, which is assisted by Calicut forces, at the [[Battle of Diu (1509)|Battle of Diu]].<ref name=Logan /> The defeat off Diu is a major blow to the Muslims.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Portugal/Control-of-the-sea-trade#toc23769|title=Portugal – History, People, & Points of Interest – Control of the sea trade|website=britannica.com|access-date=13 March 2018|archive-date=27 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227002053/https://www.britannica.com/place/Portugal/Control-of-the-sea-trade#toc23769|url-status=live}}</ref> Amir Hussain, though wounded, flees to the Gujarat capital. He eventually reaches Cairo in December 1512.<ref name=AlamSubrahmanyam />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| November 1509 || A new fleet arrives from Europe. Albuquerque takes charge as Capitão-Mor.<ref name=Livemore />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1510 || Fernando Coutinho arrives at Kannur. He brings instruction from Lisbon that Calicut should be destroyed. Such had been, it is said, the counsel sent to Europe by the Kolathiri and by the chief of Kochi.<ref name=Logan />

Governor Albuquerque and Fernando Coutinho lands in the city of Calicut. Fernando Coutinho and his men are slain in this misguided adventure, Albuquerque is shot, and the Mananchira palace is sacked and set on fire.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| September 1510 || The Chief of Kochi decides to relinquish the throne. Albuquerque eventually succeeds in preventing the abdication.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| November 1510 || Governor Albuquerque takes [[Goa]] – Adil Khan is absent from the place – and it finally supplants Kochi as the chief Portuguese settlement in India. Among others he is assisted by the 300 hand-picked Nairs from Kannur.<ref name=PercivalSpear /><ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| July 1511 || Albuquerque takes [[Malacca]] in the East Indies.<ref name=PercivalSpear />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| February 1511 || Albuquerque establishes schools for the benefit of 400 natives who have converted to Christianity in Kochi.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1513 || Albuquerque lands at Calicut and has an interview with the Zamorin. Calicut and the Portuguese sign a treaty giving the Portuguese the right trade as "they pleased", and to erect a fort in the kingdom of Calicut.<ref name=Logan /><ref name=Livemore />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1514–15 || Fort Calicut is built on the right bank of the Kallayi river near the city of Calicut.<ref name=Logan /> Albuquerque grants the Zamorin a certain number of cartazes for the merchants based at Calicut, enabling them to resume trade with [[Aden]], [[Jiddah]] and [[Gujarat]].<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /><ref name="Kurup3" /> The Zamorin sends envoys to the King of Portugal with a letter expressing his readiness to supply goods.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1515 || Albuquerque takes [[Hormuz Island|Hormuz]] ([[Ormus]]) in the Persian Gulf.<ref name=PercivalSpear />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1515–17 || Lopo Saores demands that the Zamorin should repair to Fort Calicut and wait upon him. Hostilities are averted only by the good sense of the captains posted in the fort.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1517 || Assassination attempt on the Zamorin. The Portuguese invite the Zamorin to a house within their fort under the pretext of presenting the king with some gifts. The Zamorin, with the help of a Portuguese officer, escapes from the fort. The officer is later banished with all kin to Kannur.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1519 || One of Kochi chief's nobles invades some lands belonging to one of the Zamorin's barons. This leads to a general battle, and the Kochi chief suffers a defeat.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
|- style="align:top"
| 1521 || Kochi Nairs, assisted by some men sent by Governor Sequeiro, invade Chetwai. But the Kochi chief is soon outnumbered, and is pursued right up to his capital.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1523 || The Muslims, under the leadership of Kutti Ali, capture ten Portuguese vessels, and raid Kochi and Kodungallur harbours. The Muslims later insult the Governor Duarte de Menezes. In 1524 he bombards Fort Calicut.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1524 || Duarte de Menezes comes to Fort Calicut. The Zamorin is dead and his successor (1522–1531) does not favour the Portuguese alliance. Kutti Ali anchors his fleet of 200 vessels at Calicut, to load eight ships with spices, and to dispatch them with a convoy of 40 vessels to the Red Sea before the very eyes of the Portuguese.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1524 || The King of Portugal sends Vasco Da Gama again to India. His mission is to reform the abuses which had crept into the administration in India. The ruler of Kannur (Kolathiri) surrenders a "pirate" chief called Bala Hassan to da Gama, who is thereupon thrown into a dungeon in Cannanore Fort. This man is related to the family of the Arakkal chief. Martu Alfonso de Souza under his orders relieves Calicut, engages the famous Kutti Ali's fleet and drives it to Kannur. Kutti Ali finally abandons his ships.<ref name=Logan /><ref name="Kurup3" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| December 1524 || The Muslims, with Calicut's approval, make an onslaught on the Kodungallur Jews and Christians. They kill many Jews and drive out the rest to a village to the east. When the fleet attacks Christians, the Nairs of the place retaliate, and drive all Muslims out of Kodungallur.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1525 || Henry de Menezes reaches Kannur and executes Bala Hassan. The Kolathiri asks the Viceroy to punish those Muslims who have taken refuge at Dharmapattanam Island. An expedition is organised, and the towns, bazaars and shipping at [[Dharmadom|Dharmapattanam]] and at Mahe are destroyed.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| February–March 1525 || A Portuguese navy led by new Viceroy Henry Menezes raids Ponnani and Pantalayini Kollam, and burns the towns. Pantalayini Kollam is defended by 20,000 Nairs and Muslims. On reaching Calicut, he earlier found that the place had been attacked by the Calicut forces.<ref name=Logan /> Kutti Ali in retaliation storms the port of Kochi, sets fire to the Portuguese ships, and manages to get away unhindered.<ref name="Kurup3" /><ref name=Logan />

The Nairs of the chief of Kurumbranad and Calicut forces invest Fort Calicut ([[Siege of Calicut (1526)|Siege of Calicut]]). They are helped by a band of Muslims under the command of a European engineer. Kutti Ali's ships blockade the port. Captain Lima, with 300 men, defends the fort.<ref name=Logan /><ref name="Kurup3" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| June 1525 || The Zamorin himself marches in with an additional force.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| October 1525 || The Viceroy arrives with 20 ships and relieves the garrison; the besiegers are driven back. Around 2,000 Calicut men are killed in this effort. The fort is [[Siege of Calicut (1526)|later abandoned]] and partially destroyed by the Portuguese.
<ref name="Logan" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| October 1528 || Viceroy Sampayo attacks Purakkad, a Calicut ally, and obtains a very rich booty.<ref name=Logan />

Kutti Ali is taken prisoner after a battle off Barkur. The Zamorin's fleet suffers severe reverses. Pachachi Marakkar and Ali Ibrahim Marakkar leads the Zamorin's fleet. The first foray of the fleet is against the Portuguese settlement in [[Ceylon]].<ref name="Kurup3" />

<ref name=ThePortugueseEmpireinAsia />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1531 || Thirty Portuguese ships blockade the Calicut coast.<ref name="Kurup3" /> A peace treaty is signed between Nunho de Acunha and the Zamorin of Calicut. Fort Chaliyam, south of Calicut, is constructed. The fort is "like a pistol held at the Zamorin's throat" as it is a strategic site, only 10 km south of Calicut.<ref name=Logan />

Kutti Ahmed Ali Marakkar (Marakkar I) is killed. His place is taken up by Marakkar II.<ref name="Kurup3" /> Kutti Pokker Ali, son of Kutti Ali, can be identified as the second Marakkar.<ref name="MenonII2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1532 || Mass conversion of the Paravas of the Pearl Fishery Coast.<ref name=ThePortugueseEmpireinAsia />
|- valign="top"
| 1533 || The Marakkar raids the [[Nagipattinam]] settlement of the Portuguese.<ref name="MenonII2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1535 || The Portuguese fleet withdraw their forces to face Turkish admiral Suleiman Pasha.<ref name="Kurup3" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1537 || The Portuguese kill Kutti Ibrahim Marakkar. [[Cranganore Fort|Fort Cranganore]] is erected.<ref name=Logan />
|-
|1538
|Mappila leaders Ibrahim and Pattu Marakkar are defeated by the Portuguese at Vedalai.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-DZciX6WxgUC&q=sanjay+subrahmanyam+%22mappila%22|title=The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500–1700: A Political and Economic History|last=Subrahmanyam|first=Sanjay|year= 2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470672914|language=en}}</ref>
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1539 || Calicut enters into an agreement with the Portuguese. The Malabarians again agree to accept the Portuguese "passes". The wedge between the Zamorin and the native Muslims widens.<ref name="Logan" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1540 || Pattu Kunjali Marakkar (died c. 1575.<ref name="Kurup3" />) leads the Calicut navy. He is assisted by Ponnani Kutti Pokkar.<ref name="MenonII2" /> Chinna Kutti Ali sues for peace with the Portuguese (Goa). The defeat of Ibrahim and Pattu Marakkar and the killing in Ceylon of a third notable was one factor that forced Chinna Kutti Ali to this move.<ref name="ThePortugueseEmpireinAsia" />
|-
|1542
|Afonso de Sousa launches expeditions against Bhatkal, apparently as "anti-Mappila" measure.<ref name=":2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1545 || The Portuguese assassinate Abu Bakr Ali, the qazi of Kannur.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1550 || Battles by Calicut near Kochi. The Portuguese make descents on the coastal towns, particularly on Pantalayini Kollam, destroying mosques and houses, and killing one-third of the inhabitants.<ref name=Logan />

The Portuguese manage to reach an accommodation with some Middle Eastern merchants, such as Khoja Shams ud-Din Gilani of Kannur.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1552 || The Zamorin receive assistance in heavy guns landed at Ponnani, brought there by Yoosuf, a Turk who sailed against the monsoon.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1555 || Peace between the Zamorin and the Portuguese on the condition that "passes" should be taken by traders.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1557–1559 || Muslims of North Malabar begin hostilities, and then make the usual submission and agree to take out the "passes". The Muslim sailors come under enormous pressure under these stringent measures. The Muslims organise in small fleets of boats to engage with the Portuguese shipping. The Portuguese continue hostilities against the Zamorin and the Malabarians.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1560 || The [[Goa Inquisition|Inquisition]] is established at Goa.<ref name=PercivalSpear />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1564 || The Portuguese are besieged in their fort at Kannur, but the attack is repulsed.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1564 || The Zamorin and his Muslim allies attack the Kochi chief at or near Kodungallur. Two Kochi princes are killed in the engagement. The Portuguese enlarge and strengthen the Fort Cranganore. Jews finally desert Anchuvannam and migrate to Kochi. They reside within the fort limits.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1566 || Kutti Poker of Ponnani captures a Portuguese ship.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1567 || Jew's Town is built, and the Jews in a body moved into the town from the Kochi fort limits.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1569 || Kutti Poker of Ponnani captures a second Portuguese ship. Around 1000 Portuguese sailors from these ships are killed.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1569 || Kutti Poker makes a successful raid on Mangalore Fort. His fleet falls in with a Portuguese fleet as he is returning south off Cannnanore, and he and all his sailors are killed.<ref name=Logan />

Zamorin of Calicut forms alliances with rulers of Ahmadnagar and Bijapur.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1571 || [[Siege of Chale|Siege of Fort Chaliyam]].<ref name=Logan /> The Zamorin is assisted by the naval forces of Marakkar III (Pattu Kunjali Marakkar).<ref name="MenonII2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| September 1571 || Fort Chaliyam surrenders to Calicut. The Zamorin destroys the fort.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1572 || Chaliyam is burnt by the Portuguese.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1573 || Parappanangadi town is burnt by the Portuguese.<ref name=Logan /> Pattu Kunjali Marakkar (Marakkar III) obtains permission from Zamorin to build a fortress and dockyard at Puthupattanam (Kottakkal). This fort later came to be called "Fort Marakkar".<ref name="MenonII2" />''"The rise in Ponnani of Pattu Kunjali Marakkar appeared to have signalled a real threat to rulers'' ''such as the Kolathiri and the Samoothiri as much as to the Portuguese."'' – Sanjay Subrahmanyam

in "The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650", Cambridge University Press (2002)<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1577 || The fleet of Muslim ships, carrying rice, is seized by the Portuguese and 3000 sailors are killed.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1578 || Peace negotiations between Calicut and the Portuguese. The Zamorin refuses to agree to construct a fort at Ponnani.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1579 || The Zamorin visits Kodungallur. The Portuguese continue hostilities against the Zamorin and the Malabarians. The rice embargo results in the Famine of 1579.<ref name=Logan />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1584 || Calicut shifts policy towards the Portuguese because of his estrangement with the Marakkar who begins to defy the Zamorin. Treaty of peace with Viceroy Mascarenhas.<ref name=Logan /> He sanctions the Portuguese to build a factory at Ponnani. The decision is much resented by the Marakkars, and they strengthen Fort Marakkar.<ref name="MenonII2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1591 || Zamorin allows the Portuguese to build a factory at Calicut. He lays the foundation of the church, granting them the necessary land and building materials.
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1595 || Possible date of the succession of Marakkar IV (Ponnani Muhammed Kunjali Marakkar<ref name=":2"/>). Another date in the 1570s a few years after the erection Fort Marakkar is also proposed. Muhammed is probably the nephew of the third Marakkar.<ref name="MenonII2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1597 || The Zamorin has grown nervous about the royal pretensions of the Marakkar.<ref name=ThePortugueseEmpireinAsia /> The Marakkar has styled himself "King of Muslims" and "Lord of the Indian Seas".<ref name="MenonII2" /> Father Franciso de Costa is sent to Calicut. Agreement between the Zamorin and the Portuguese on Marakkar IV. The allies decide to proceed together against Fort Marakkar – the Calicut forces by land the Portuguese by sea.<ref name="MenonII2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1599 || Forcible subjection of the Syrian church to Rome at the [[Synod of Diamper]].<ref name=PercivalSpear /> The Archbishop of Goa, Alexis Menezis, visits Kottakkal in 1599.<ref name="Kurup3" />

(First) Siege of Fort Kottakkal (Fort Marakkar) from land by the Calicut forces alone. The siege ends in a frustrating defeat of the Calicut forces. Marakkar IV calls himself "Defender of Islam" and the "Expeller of the Portuguese".<ref name="MenonII2" />

Treaty between the Zamorin of Calicut and the Portuguese. He declares that he would from then on cease persecuting Christians, permit the erection of churches in the kingdom of Calicut, support the Synod of Diamper, release all Christian prisoners, and provide spices for the ships of the Portuguese at the usual prices. In return the Portuguese agree to grant him "cartazes" every year for ships bound for [[Jiddah]], [[Bengal]], [[Aceh]] and the Canara. Most importantly the Zamorin anticipate their help in a joint attack on Kunjali Marakkar's fort at Ponnani.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />
|- style="vertical-align:top"
| 1600 || (Second) Siege of Fort Marakkar by the combined forces of the Portuguese (under Andre Furtado) and the Zamorin of Calicut. The assault on the fort is begun by the Nair force consisting 6,000 men.<ref name="MenonII2" />

The Portuguese execute Marakkar IV, who surrendered in person to the Zamorin, at [[Goa]].<ref name="MenonII2" /> The Zamorin took over Fort Marakkar and the town of Kottakkal.<ref name="MenonII2" />

The relations between the Zamorin and the Portuguese again reverts.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />
|}

== Relations with the Dutch and English ==
In 1602, the Zamorin sent messages to [[Aceh]], where the Verenigde Zeeuwsche Compagnie had a factory, promising the Dutch a fort at Calicut if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of Tanur, and handed over to the Portuguese. These men were later hanged in Goa.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />

A Dutch fleet under Admiral [[Steven van der Hagen]] arrived in Calicut in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with Calicut on 11 November 1604. By this time the kingdom and the port of Calicut was much reduced in importance, which was also the first treaty that the [[Dutch East India Company]] made with an Indian ruler.<ref name="askh" /><ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /> The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the Dutch East India Company was given facilities for trade at Calicut and Ponnani, including spacious storehouses.

The Dutch, some fifteen years after the Zamorin first asked for help, had promised much and delivered almost nothing. The Zamorin finally turned to the English.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /> In September 1610, the English factors at Mocha were approached by the head of the Mappilas there to their shipping in the region from the Portuguese fleets.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />

The arrival of [[East India Company|British]] in [[Kerala]] can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain [[William Keeling]] arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships.<ref name="askh">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |location=Kottayam |isbn=978-81-264-1588-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |access-date=19 July 2020 |archive-date=13 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113141403/https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was in these ships that Sir [[Thomas Roe]] went to visit [[Jahangir]], the fourth [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]], as [[British Empire|British envoy]].<ref name="askh" /> The British concluded a treaty of trade (1616) under which, among others, the English were to assist Calicut in expelling the Portuguese from [[Fort Emmanuel|Fort Kochi]] and [[Cranganore Fort|Fort Cranganore]]. The English set up a factory at Calicut, and a factor, George Woolman, is sent there with a stock of presents. But the Zamorin soon found the English as unreliable as the Dutch where military aid was concerned. The factory was wound up in March, 1617.<ref name="ReferenceA" /><ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" />

Later in 1661, Calicut joined a coalition led by the Dutch to defeat the Portuguese and Kochi and conducted a number of successful campaigns. [[Travancore]] became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of [[History of Kozhikode|Kozhikode]] in the battle of [[Purakkad]] in 1755.<ref name="AHoT 162"/> As a result of the [[Kew Letters]], the Dutch settlements on the Malabar Coast were surrendered to the British in 1795 in order to prevent them being overrun by the French. Dutch Malabar remained with the British after the conclusion of the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]], which traded the colony with [[Bangka Island]].

== Mysore occupation and the decline of the Zamorin ==
{{See also|Mysorean invasion of Kerala}}
[[File:The series of steps leading into the moat between two bastions.jpg|thumb|left|Palghat Fort]]
It was in 1732, at the invitation of the chief of [[Palakkad]], that [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] forces marched to Kerala for the first time. They appeared again in 1735, and in 1737 they raided the Zamorin's frontier outposts. In 1745, the Mysore forces fought three battles with the Calicut warriors.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name=VVHaridas /> In 1756 they invaded Calicut for the fifth time. The chief of Palakkad had placed himself under the protection of the King of Mysore, agreeing to pay an annual tribute of 12,000 ''fanams''. The Faujdar of [[Dindigul]], [[Hyder Ali]], sent Mukhdam Sahib, with 2000 cavalry, 5,000 infantry, and 5 guns to Kerala. The Zamorin tried to buy off the enemy by promising (Treaty, 1756) to refrain from molesting Palakkad and pay 12 [[lakh]] rupees for the expenses of the expedition. However the Zamorin was unable pay anything to Hyder Ali.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
In 1766, 12,000 [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] forces under [[Hyder Ali]] marched to Malabar from [[Mangalore]]. Mysore's intentions were made easy by the help they received from the Muslims in Malabar. Ali Raja of [[Cannanore|Kannur]], a Muslim ruler in northern Kerala, also helped the invading forces. Thiyyar formed part of the army of the Zamorin of Calicut, which fought against Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. The Zamorin bestowed upon Thiyya army head of the [[Cherayi Panicker]].<ref name="fff">{{cite book|last=M.S.A.Rao|year=1987|title=social movements and social transformation a study of two back word|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWEiAQAAMAAJ&q=cherayi+panicker|publisher= manohar publication.|page=24|isbn=9780836421330}}</ref><ref>R.Ranganatha Puja,(1948) Vol.1 [https://books.google.com/books?id=yLg1h6j5HcQC&q=cherayi+panikar Legacy: The world's heritage"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410015803/https://books.google.com/books?id=yLg1h6j5HcQC&q=cherayi+panikar |date=10 April 2023 }} Basel mission book depot, page. 183</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NhNuAAAAMAAJ&q=Calicut:+The+City+of+Truth+Revisited | title=Calicut: The City of Truth Revisited | isbn=9788177481044 | last1=Narayanan | first1=M. G. S. | year=2006 | publisher=University of Calicut }}</ref> The Mysore army conquered northern Kerala up to [[Kochi]] with relative ease. Hyder Ali inflicted a major setback on the Calicut warriors at Perinkolam Ferry on the Kotta River.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> As Mysore edged closer to the outer reaches of the city of Calicut, the Zamorin sent most of his relatives to safe haven in Ponnani, and from there to Travancore, and to avoid the humiliation of surrender committed self-immolation by setting fire to his palace at Mananchira (27 April). Hyder Ali absorbed Malabar district to his state.<ref>Logan, William. ''Malabar''. Asian Educational Services, 1887.</ref><ref name=VVHaridas />[[File:Kozhikode railway station.jpg|thumb|260x260px|Calicut Railway Station was established during the Colonial rule]]But as soon as the Haider Ali marched to Coimbatore, Nair rebellions broke out in Malabar. Some members of the Zamorin family rebelled against the Muslim occupiers. This included the Eralpadu [[Krishna Varma]] with his nephew [[Ravi Varma of Padinjare Kovilakam|Ravi Varma]]. The princes were aided by the British [[East India Company]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://voiceofdharma.com/books/tipu/ |title=Tipu Sultan — Villain Or Hero? |publisher=Voiceofdharma.com |access-date=30 March 2010 |archive-date=29 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429185939/http://voiceofdharma.com/books/tipu/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1768 the Zamorin prince was restored in Calicut, agreeing to pay an annual tribute to Mysore. For nearly six years till 1774 nothing was heard about Hyder Ali.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> In 1774, Mysore forces under Srinivasa Rao occupied the city of Calicut. The prince retired to Travancore in a native vessel. The baton of resistance now passed to his nephew [[Ravi Varma of Padinjare Kovilakam|Ravi Varma]]. Ravi Varma helped the Company occupy Calicut in 1782.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> By the Treaty of Mangalore, concluded in 1784, Malabar was restored to Mysore. In 1785 the oppression of revenue officers led to a rebellion by the Mappilas of [[Manjeri]]. As a reward for aiding to put down the rebels, and partly as an incentive, [[Tipu Sultan]] settled upon Ravi Varma a pension and a ''jaghir'' in 1786. The peace was soon broken and Tipu sent 6,000 troops under Mon. Lally to Kerala.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

Lord Cornwallis invited the Kerala chiefs to join him in 1790, promising to render them in future entirely independent of Mysore and to retain them upon reasonable terms under the protection of the company. Prince Ravi Varma met General Meadows at [[Trichinopoly]] and settled with him the terms of the Calicut's cooperation. After the Third Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar was placed under the control of the company by the Treaty of Seringapatam.<ref name=VVHaridas />

In the settlement negotiations with the Joint Commission in 1792, the Zamorin proved recalcitrant. To pressure him, a portion of his former territories (Payyanadu, Payyormala, Kizhakkumpuram, Vadakkampuram and Pulavayi) was leased to the ruler of Kurumburanadu as manager for the East India Company. Finally, after prolonged negotiations, the hereditary territory of the Zamorin, together with the coin mint and the sea customs, was leased back to him. He was also temporarily given jurisdiction over the petty rulers and, as a mark of the Zamorin's exceptional position in Malabar, the revenue fixed for Beypore, Parappanadu and Vettattunadu was to be paid through him. As previously noted, these tax-payment and jurisdictional arrangements were terminated later and the Zamorin of Calicut became a mere pensioned landlord receiving the "malikhana". On 1 July 1800, Malabar was transferred to the [[Madras Presidency]]. On 15 November 1806 the agreement upon which rested the future political relations between the Zamorin of Calicut and the English was executed.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /><ref name=VVHaridas />

==Governance==
[[File:The Palace of the Zamorin of Calicut (cropped).jpg|thumb|400px|The Palace of the Zamorin of Calicut in 17th century – from Dutch archives]]According to historian M. G. Raghava Varier, at the peak of their reign, the Zamorin's ruled over a region from [[Kollam]] to Panthalayini Kollam ([[Koyilandy]]).<ref name="Varier" /><ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /><ref name="VVHaridas" /> The hereditary local chiefs, more or less independent in their region, acknowledged the over-lordship of the Zamorin in Calicut. The local magnates – conferred with privileges and titles by the Zamorin – were more dependent on Calicut. In times of battles the chiefs and magnates provided the warriors to the Zamorin and were protected in turn when an enemy made encroachment to their dominions.<ref name="VVHaridas" />

Some of the local chiefs had the investiture ceremony, rather similar to that of the Zamorin of Calicut, some claimed kshatriya status, and some of them even used the title "Raja".<ref name="VVHaridas" /> Vettam Udaya Mootha Kovil, Thirumanassheri Namboothiri, Thalappalli Punnathoor Nambadi, Thalappalli Kakkattu Nambadi, Vannilassheri Padinjare Nambadi, Parappur Karippuva Kovil, Chittoor Namboothirippadu, Manakkulathil Mooppil, Parappur Valavil Kovil, Parappur Kayyavil Kovil, Venginnadu Nambadi, Kurumburanadu Madampu Unithiri were some of the local chiefs of the kingdom of Calicut.<ref name="VVHaridas" />

K. V. Krishna Iyer, the court historian in Kozhikode, explains;<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

''Apart from the southern half of Kurumburanadu, Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu, Venkadakkotta, Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarakkadu, Karimpuzha, Nedunganadu, Naduvattom, Kollangode, Koduvayur, and Mankara the kingdom of Kozhikode included the following territories as tributary polities: Kottayam, Payyormala, Pulavayi, Tanore, Chaliyam, Beypore, Parappanadu, Thirunavaya, Thalapalli-Kakkad, Thalapalli-Punnathoor, Chittoor, Chavakkad, Kavalappara, Edappally, Patinjattedam, Cranganore, Kollengodu, Cochin and all of its vassal polities, Paravur, Purakkad, Vadakkumkur, Tekkumkur, Kayamkulam and Quilon.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />''

The kingdom only included the following territories during the late 18th century:<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

''Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu, Venkattakkotta, Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarkkad, Karimpuzha, and Nedunganadu. The Zamorin claimed to be – with more or less influence – the paramount sovereign over Payyormala, Pulavayi, Beypore, Parappanadu, Tanore, Talapalli, Chavakkadu and Kavalappara. Kozhikode had also taken possession of the more full and immediate sovereignty over Kollangode-Venginnadu, Koduvayur and Mankara.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />''

The Zamorin was assisted in the work of government in Calicut by four hereditary chief ministers called "Sarvadhi Karyakkar" and number of ministers called "Karyakkar" and "Polttis". The Karyakkar were appointed and removed by the Zamorin. Adhikaris, Thalachennavars, Achanmar and temple functionaries also belonged to the Polttis.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> There were ritual specialists like Hindu priests of the palaces, astrologers etc. as well as various occupational groups like physicians, weavers, and militiamen all of whom were attached to the royal establishment.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

=== Sarvadhi Karyakkar ===

* Mangattachan – the prime minister
* Tinayancheri Elayatu
* Dharmothu Panikkar – the instructor-in-arms who commanded the Calicut forces
* Varakkal Paranambi – treasury and accounts
* Ramachan Nedungadi

=== Shahbandar Koya ===
Although the Zamorin of Calicut derived greater part of his revenue from taxing the Indian Ocean spice trade, but he still did not run a fully developed mercantilist state. The Zamorins left trade in the hands of Paradesi (Middle Eastern) and Kerala Muslims.<ref name=":2" />

Shahbandar Koya (sometimes Khwaja, popularly known as the "Koya of Kozhikode") was a privileged administrative position in Calicut.<ref name="Kurup3" /> The Shahbandar was the second most important official in most Asian polities after the ruler.<ref>Eric Tagliacozzo, "An Urban Ocean, Notes on the Historical Evolution of Coastal Cities in Greater South East Asia", in David R. Goldfield (ed.), '''Journal of Urban History''', Vol. 33, No. 6, (London: September 2007), p. 913.</ref> Trade at the port of Calicut was controlled by this Muslim merchant-cum-port commissioner. He supervised customs on the behalf of the king, fixed the prices of the commodities, and collected the share to the treasury. As the farmer of customs he also had right collect brokerage and poll tax at the port.<ref name="Kunhali" />

According to tradition, it was a merchant from [[Muscat]], [[Oman]] who induced to the Zamorin to the conquer Valluvanadu. The Koya was subsequently appointed as the "Shahbandar" by the Zamorin of Calicut. He is also given "all the privileges and dignities of a Nair chief, jurisdiction over all the Muslims residing in the bazaar of Calicut, the right to receive a present from the Ilavar (the Tiyyar), the Kammalar (the smiths, carpenters, stone workers etc.) and the [[Kerala Mukkuvar|Mukkuvar]] whenever the Zamorin conferred any honours on them on ceremonial occasions".<ref name="Kunhali" />

=== Revenue and trade ===
The major sources of revenue for the kingdom of Calicut were:<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
{{colbegin}}
* Taxing trade via ports
* Cherikkal lands (royal estates, agricultural lands owned by the Zamorin)
* Amkam (fee for permitting to hold a trial by battle)
* Chunkam (tolls and duties)
* Ela (proceeds of lands confiscated)
* Kola (forced contribution for emergencies)
* Tappu (mulets/unconditional offences)
* Pizha (fines)
* Purushantaram (vassal succession fee)
* Pulyatta pennu (the proceeds from the sale of out-cast women) etc.
* Tirumulkalcha (gifts on various occasions)
* Virinnamittu panam (amount for the royal feast)
* Kannukku panam (amount presented for the death rituals) etc.
{{colend}}

The Zamorin of Calicut derived greater part of his revenues by taxing spice trade.<ref name=ThePortugueseEmpireinAsia /><ref name=Chakravarti>Chakravarti, R., 2012. ''Merchants, Merchandise and Merchantmen: The Western Sea-board of India and the Indian Ocean (500–1500 CE)''. In Om Prakash (Ed.), ''History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization'', Vol. VIII (1), Centre for Studies in Civilization, Delhi: 59–116.</ref> Trade – both coastal and overseas – was dominated the Muslims, though Jews, Chettis from [[Coromandel Coast|Coromandel]] Coast, and Vanias from Gujarat all traded in and from Calicut. The Muslim traders included natives ([[Malabar Muslims|Mappila]]s and Marakkars) as well as Muslims from the Middle East. The foreigners dominated the lucrative Indian Ocean spice trade.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /><ref name="Karashima" />

The goods carried across the Arabian Sea included spices – pepper, ginger and cardamom – and trans-shipped textiles, and coconut products. The import into Calicut consisted of gold and copper, silver, horses (Kannur especially), silk, various aromatics, and other minor items.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /> The Indian coastal trade network encompassed commodities such as coconuts, coir, pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and rice. Rice was a major import item into the kingdom of Calicut from Canara and Coromandel Coast.<ref name="SanjaySubrahmanyam2" /> Low-value but high-volume trade in foodstuffs that passed through the Gulf of Mannar was also handled by the native Muslims from Malabar Coast. The local people were suppliers and consumers of goods in Kozhikde ports.<ref name="Karashima">Karashima, N., (Ed.), 2002. ''Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Testimony of Inscriptions and Ceramic-sherds.'' Taisho University, Tokyo.</ref>

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; float:left; margin-left:15em"
|-
! Maritime corridor
! Nature
! Dominant community
|-
| West Asia – Malabar Coast ([[Red Sea]], and the [[Persian Gulf]])
| International / overseas
| [[Arabs|Muslims from the Middle East]]
|-
| East Asia – Malabar Coast ([[Pegu]], [[Mergui]], and [[Melaka]] in Myanmar and Malaysia and points east)
| International / overseas
| Native Muslims ([[Mappila Muslims|Mappilas]] and [[Marakkar]]s)
|-
| East Coast of India – Malabar Coast (Canara, Coromandel Coast and [[Bay of Bengal]] shores) and Maldives, and [[Ceylon]]
| Domestic / coastal
| Native Muslims (Mappilas and Marakkars), and [[Chettiar|Chettis]] from [[Coromandel Coast|Coromandel]] Coast<ref name=Malekandathil />
|-
| [[Gujarat]] – Malabar Coast
| Domestic / coastal
| [[Gujarati Muslims|Muslims]], and [[Bania (caste)|Vanias]] from Gujarat
|-
| Malabar coastal
| Domestic / coastal
| Muslims – Mappilas
|}

The coins minted in Calicut included Panam (made of gold), Taram (made of silver) and Kasu (made of copper). The officer in-charge of the mint was called the "Goldsmith of Manavikraman". The royal mint was destroyed in 1766.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

* 16 Kasu = 1 Taram<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />
*1 Taram = 1 [[Portuguese real|Portuguese Real]] (Approx.)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Longworth Dames|first=Mansel|title=An account of the countries bordering|publisher=Haklyut Society|year=1518|location=London|pages=52–53}}</ref>
* 16 Tarams = 1 Panam<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

;Ma Haun's Table (1409)<ref name="Malekandathil" />
:* 1 Kochi Panam = 15 Tarams
;Holzschuher's Table (1503)<ref name="Malekandathil" />
:Gold coins:
:*Calicut/Kannur/Kochi Panam (15 carats gold)
:**19 Panams = 1 cruzado (Portuguese) or ducat (European)
:* Kollam Panam (19 carats gold)
:**12 Panams = 1 cruzado (Portuguese) or ducat (European)
:Silver coins:
:* [All Malabar Coast] Taram
:**16 Tarams = 1 Panam
:Copper coins:
:* Kollam Kasu
:**15 Kasus = 1 Panam

Coins in circulation in the pre-Portuguese kingdom of Calicut included gold coins called Pagoda/Pratapa, silver Tangas of Gujarat, of Bijapur, of Vijayanagara and the Larines of Persia, Xerafins of Cairo, the Venetian and the Genoan ducats.<ref name="Malekandathil" /> Other coins in circulation in the kingdom of Calicut – in sometime or other – included Riyal ("Irayal"), Dirhma ("Drama"), Rupee ("Uruppika"), Rasi ("Rachi"), and Venadu Chakram. Venadu coins – it seems – came to circulation after the Mysorean interlude.<ref name="VVHaridas" />

Rasi later gave way to the Kaliyuga Rayan Panam. Of Kaliyuga Rayan Panam there were two varieties. One of these (issued by Kannur) was afterwards imitated by the Zamorin called Virarayan Putiya Panam, to distinguish it from the coin of Kannur, which then became Pazhaya Panam. The four Pazhaya Panams made a Rupee while three and half Putiya Panams equalled a Rupee.<ref name="VVHaridas" />

==Military==
[[File:Mananchira maithanam 1.JPG|312x312px|thumb|Present day location of the Mananchira Palace. The Fort and Palace were destroyed by Tipu Sultan in the 18th century]]Calicut's attitude towards the vanquished chiefs and European governors was generally marked by moderation. The whole conquered area was not ruled directly from Calicut but was ruled by a Calicut official (general, minister or Eradi prince). Sometimes, its former rulers allowed to rule as a vassal or feudatory.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

Calicut forces consisted mainly of feudal levies, brought by the vassal rulers and chiefs. The former were divided into five classes (Commanders of the Five Thousand, of the Thousand, of the Five Hundred, of the Three Hundred, and of the Hundred). Standing armies were kept at strategic locations like Calicut, [[Ponnani]], [[Chavakkad]], Chunganadu etc. Dharmottu Panikkar – the instructor in arms – commanded the warriors. The nominal cavalry was commanded by the Kuthiravattattu Nair. Nair militia was slow moving as compared to the cavalry, and always fought on foot.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> Dharmoth Panicker, [[Cherayi Panicker]] and were also important Army heads in the Samoothiri army.<ref name="fff"/>

The use of firearms and balls had been known before the advent of the Portuguese. The Mappilas formed the main corps of musketeers, led by Thinayancheri Elayathu.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" />

=== Kunjali Marakkars ===
The [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s effectively functioned the [[admiral of the fleet]] of the Calicut Zamorin in the 16th century. The Mappila seamen were famous for their naval guerrilla warfare and hand-to-hand fighting on board.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> The Mappila vessels, small, lightly armed, and highly mobile, were a major threat to the Portuguese shipping all along the Indian west coast.<ref name=":2" /> But the Mappila artillery was inferior, and the vessels were incapable of large scale joint/organised operations.<ref name="KrishnaIyer2" /> Merchants drew Mappila corsairs and used them to transport the spices past Portuguese blockades.<ref name=":32" />

Historians speculate that the Marakkars were primarily suppliers of food materials from the ports of the Coromandel Coast and spices from interior Kerala and Sri Lanka.<ref name=":1">Malekandathil, Pius. "Winds of Change and Links of Continuity: A Study on the Merchant Groups of Kerala and the Channels of Their Trade, 1000–1800." ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'', vol. 50, no. 2/3, 2007, pp. 259–286. ''JSTOR'', www.jstor.org/stable/25165196.</ref> Some assume that the Marakkars, before the beginning of the hostilities with the Portuguese, were traders of rice from Konkan.<ref name="Kurup3" /><ref name="Malekandathil1" /> One Ismail Marakkar seems to be a prominent rice trader in Kochi.<ref name="Kurup3" /> During the early years of Portuguese presence in Kerala the native Muslim merchants of Kochi – such as Cherina/Karine Mecar (Karim Marakkar), Mamale (Muhammed) Marakkar, Mitos Marakkarm, Nino Marakkar, Ali Apule, Coje Mappila and Abraham Mappila etc. – acted as spice suppliers for them.<ref name=Malekandathil1>Pius Malekandathil. "The Portuguese Casados and the Intra-Asian Trade: 1500–1663", in Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (Part One) – Indian History Congress (2001) – Medieval India. p. 387</ref> The Marakkars also supplied food materials for the Portuguese settlements in Kerala. Mamale Marakkar of Cochin was the richest man in the country.<ref name=":1" /> These traders, along with the other big Mappila, and Syrian Christian merchants, also acted as brokers and intermediaries in the purchase of spices and in the sale of the goods brought from Europe.<ref name="Subrahmanyam25" />

It was the commercial Interests of the Portuguese private traders in Cochin that came into the conflict with Mappilas and the (Tamil) Maraikkayar traders.<ref name=":2"/> By the 1520s, open confrontations between the Portuguese and the Mappilas, in southern India and in western Sri Lanka, became a common occurrence.<ref name="MorseStephens1897">{{cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm|title=Albuquerque|author=Henry Morse Stephens|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1897|isbn=978-81-206-1524-3|series=[[Rulers of India series]]|chapter=Chapter 1|access-date=21 June 2023|archive-date=29 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429122432/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31226/31226-h/31226-h.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name="Subrahmanyam25" /> After a series of naval battles, the once powerful Chinna Kutti Ali was forced to sue for peace with the Portuguese in 1540. The peace was soon broken, with the assassination of the Muslim judge of Kannur Abu Bakr Ali (1545), and the Portuguese again came down hard on the Mappilas.<ref name=":2"/><ref name="Subrahmanyam25" /> By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese were finally able to deal with the "Mappila challenge". Kunjali Marakkar IV was defeated and killed, with the help of the Zamorin, in c. 1600.<ref name=":2"/> Even after the execution of Marakkar IV, the title of the Kunjali Marakkar continued to exist for almost century.<ref name="Kurup3" />

The four key Kunjali Marakkars were:<ref name="MenonII2" />

* Kutti Ahmed Ali (Marakkar I)
* Kutti Pokker Ali (Marakkar II)
* Pattu Kunjali Marakkar (Marakkar III)
* Ponnani Muhammed Kunjali (Marakkar IV)

==List of Calicut Zamorins==
[[File:Zamorin of Calicut (1868-1892).jpg|thumb|Zamorin of Calicut (1868–1892). In 1766 Haider Ali of Mysore defeated the Zamorin of Calicut and absorbed Malabar district to his state. After the Third Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar was placed under the control of the British East India company. Later the status of the Zamorins as independent rulers was changed to that of pensioners of the company.]]
[[File:K C Manavedan Raja.jpg|thumb|[[K. C. Manavedan Raja]] (1932–1937)]]
Historical documents rarely mentions the individual names of the [[Zamorins]] of Calicut. Mana Vikrama, Mana Veda and Vira Raya were the only names given to male members in the royal family, the Zamorin always being known as Manavikrama. Mana Veda might be a corruption of the Old Malayalam title "Mana Viyata".<ref name=":0" /> Portuguese historian [[Diogo de Couto]] was the first to attempt the construction of chronological scheme.<ref name="ayyar">Ayyar, KV Krishna. ''The Zamorins of Calicut''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938. Print.</ref>

The following is a list of rulers of Calicut from "The Zamorins of Calicut" (1938) by [[K. V. Krishna Iyer]]. The first column (No.) gives the number of the Zamorin reckoned from the founder of the ruling family, based upon de Couto's assumption that there had been 98 Zamorins before the Zamorin reigning in 1610.<ref name="ayyar" />

=== First dynasty ===
The original seat of the aristocratic clan was Nediyiruppu and the head of the house was known as Nediyiruppu Mutta Eradi, a title enjoyed by the fifth in rank from the Zamorin. Under the Kodungallur Chera rulers the Mutta Eradi governed Ernad with the title of "Ernad Utaiyar". Later the clan abandoned its ancestral house and transferred its residence to the present day Kozhikode.<ref name="ayyar" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
|-
! No. of Zamorin !! Name !! Reign !! Important events
|-
| 1 || Mana Vikrama (Manikkan) || 1124-? || The legendary founder of the ruling family.
|-
| 27 || || 8 years || Kozhikode city is established
|-
| 65 || Rama Varma Kulashekhara || 1339–1347 || [[Ibn Battuta]] at Kozhikode (1342–1347)
|-
| 73 || Raja Raja Varma || 1402–1410 || [[Ma Huan]] at Kozhikode (1403)
|-
| 78 || || 1442–1450 || The visits of [[Abdur Razzaq (traveller)|Abdur Razzak]] (1442) and [[Niccolò de' Conti]] (1444)
|-
| 81 || Mana Vikrama the Great || 1466–1474 || [[Athanasius Nikitin]] (1468–1474) visits Kozhikode.
|-
| 82 || Mana Veda || 1474–1482 ||
|-
| 84 || Manavikraman Raja (Mankurussi) || 1495–1500 || The arrival of [[Vasco da Gama]] (1498)
|-
| 85 || || 1500–1513 || The occupations of Kochi (1503–1504)
|-
| 86 || || 1513–1522 || Treaty with Portuguese (1513), and the erection of the Portuguese fort at Calicut (1514)
|-
| 87 || || 1522–1529 || The expulsion of Portuguese from Calicut
|-
| 88 || || 1529–1531 || The building of Portuguese fort at Chaliyam (1531)
|-
| 89 || || 1531–1540 || Battles with the Portuguese
|-
| 90 || || 1540–1548 || Treaty with Portuguese (1540)
|-
| 91 || || 1548–1560 || Adoption of the chief of Bardela (150) and the battles with the Portuguese.
|-
| 92 || Vira Raya || 1560–1562 ||
|-
| 93 || Mana Vikrama || 1572–1574 || The expulsion of the Portuguese from Chaliyam (1571)
|-
| 94 || || 1574–1578 || Battles with the Portuguese
|-
| 95 || || 1578–1588 || The Portuguese allowed a factory at Ponnani (1584)
|-
| 96 || || 1588–1597 || The settlement of the Portuguese at Calicut (1591)
|-
| 97 || || 1597–1599 || Battles with Marakkar (1598–1599)
|-
| 98 || || 1599–1604 || Capture of Marakkar's stronghold (1600)
|-
| 99 || || 1604–1617 || Siege of Cannanore (1604–1617) and treaties with the Dutch (1604 and 1608) and the English (1615)
|-
| 100 || Mana Vikrama || 1617–1627 ||
|-
| 101 || || 1627–1630 ||
|-
| 102 || || 1630–1637 ||
|-
| 103 || Mana Vikrama (Saktan Tampuran) || 1637–1648 || The uncle of the author of the ''Krishnanatakam''
|-
| 104 || ''Tiruvonam Tirunal'' || 1648–1655 ||
|-
| 105 || Mana Veda || 1655–1658 || The author of the ''Krishnanatakam''
|-
| 106 || ''Asvati Tirunal'' || 1658–1662 || The expulsion of the Portuguese from Kodungallur (1662)
|-
| 107 || ''Puratam Tirunal'' || 1662–1666 || The expulsion of Portuguese from Kochi (1663)
|-
| 108 || || 1666–1668 || Battles with the Dutch
|-
| 109 || || 1668–1671 || The destruction of the Cheraman Sword
|-
| 110 || ''Uttrattati Tirunal'' || 1671–1684 || Cession of Chetwai to the Dutch
|-
| 111 || ''Bharani Tirunal'' Mana Vikrama<ref name="worldstate">{{cite web |author=Ben Cahoon |url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_princes_K-W.html |title=Indian Princely States K-Z |publisher=Worldstatesmen.org |access-date=23 December 2015 |archive-date=13 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130113065437/http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_princes_K-W.html |url-status=live }}</ref> || 1684–1705 || The terror of the Dutch. Two Mamankams (1694 and 1695)
|-
| 112 || Nileswaram Tirunal || 1705–1711 || Adoptions from Nileswaram (1706 and 1707)
|-
| 113 || Vira Raya<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haridas|first=V. V|date=December 2020|title=Ramayanam Kuttu and Kudiyattam|url=http://journalstd.com/gallery/8-dec2020.pdf|journal=Science, Technology and Development|volume=9|pages=59|access-date=21 June 2023|archive-date=11 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211111903/http://journalstd.com/gallery/8-dec2020.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|| 1711–1729 || The Dutch War (1715–1718)
|-
| 114 || Mana Vikrama || 1729–1741 ||
|}

Note: Italic names only indicate the asterism under which the Zamorin is born

=== Second dynasty ===
It seems that the original ruling family came to an end with the 114th Zamorin of Calicut. The 115th Zamorin, the first of the second ruling family, was the oldest of the princes adopted from [[Nileshwaram]] in 1706.<ref name="ayyar" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
|-
! No. of Zamorin !! Name !! Reign !! Important events
|-
| 115 || Zamorin from Kilakke Kovilakam || 1741–1746 ||
|-
| 116 || Putiya Kovilakam || 1746–1758 || The Dutch War (1753–1758)
|-
| 117 || Kilakke Kovilakam || 1758–1766 || Battles with Travancore and the invasion of Mysore, committed suicide. Annexed by Mysore.
|-
| 118|| Putiya Kovilakam|| 1766–1788 ||
|-
| 119 || Kerala Varma Vikrama<ref name="worldstate" /> (Putiya Kovilakam)|| 1788–1798 || Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)
|-
| 120 || Krishna Varma<ref name="worldstate" /> (Putiya Kovilakam) || 1798–1806 || Agreement of 1806 with EIC (died in 1816)
|}

== Zamorin family today ==
{{Quote box |quote="Kerala had many royal families which together may have more than 10,000 descendants. The Kochi family alone has more than 600. All these families had properties taken over by governments without compensation. Many of them are living in penury now. Shouldn't the state pay pensions to all of them then?"<ref name="IndiaToday">M. G. Radhakrishnan. "The inheritance of loss". ''India Today'' [https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/controversy/story/20130805-govt-monthly-pension-zamorin-royal-dynasty-once-ruled-calicut-764985-1999-11-29] 26 July 2013</ref> |source='''K. K. N. Kurup''' |align=right |salign=right |width=39%}}

{{Quote box |quote= Historians say any special treatment to the Zamorins would be against the [Indian] Constitution, which does not grant any privilege on the basis of birth. M. G. S. Narayanan says the Zamorins have not donated any property to the state. "The Zamorin's family had fled from Calicut when Hyder Ali from Mysore invaded Calicut in 1766. When defeat was imminent, the Zamorin committed suicide and set fire to the palace," he says. "That led to Calicut falling into the hands of [Hyder] Ali, his son Tipu Sultan and finally the British [Company] by 1792. The Zamorins had lost all their property by the time they were allowed to return to Calicut by 1800."<ref name="IndiaToday" /> |source='''M. G. S. Narayanan''' |align=right |salign=right |width=39%}}

The Zamorins of Calicut returned to Calicut from Travancore by 1800. During the [[British rule]], Malabar's chief importance laid in producing [[Malabar pepper|pepper]].<ref>Pamela Nightingale, '[[Jonathan Duncan (Governor of Bombay)|Jonathan Duncan]] (bap. 1756, d. 1811)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2009</ref> The company reduced the Zamorins to the position of "pensioned" landlord by giving them an annual payment called ''mali khana''. Payments (mali khana) were taken over by the government of India after independence in 1947.<ref name="IndiaToday" /> The royal family has been trying to get a pension from the various governments over fifty years. The Kerala government decided to award a monthly pension to members of the royal family in 2013.<ref name="IndiaToday" />

At present the Zamorin of Calicut is trustee to 46 Hindu temples (under [[Malabar Devaswom Board]], as Madras H. R & C. E Act 1956) in northern Kerala, including five special grade temples, which generate a substantial revenue. The Zamorin also has a permanent seat on the [[Guruvayur Sree Krishna Temple]]'s managing committee. Zamorin's high school – situated overlooking the [[Tali temple]] – was established in 1877 and the family manages the [[Zamorin's Guruvayurappan College]].<ref>Krishnadas Rajagopal. "Zamorin of Calicut passes away". [http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/zamorin-of-calicut-passes-away/article4553946.ece] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002072759/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/zamorin-of-calicut-passes-away/article4553946.ece|date=2 October 2022}} ''The Hindu'' 28 March 2013</ref><ref name="Deccan Chronicle">Hari Govind. "Zamorin opposes temples' takeover". [https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/080917/zamorin-opposes-temples-takeover.html] ''Deccan Chronicle'' 8 September 2017</ref>

The family has sought the government's help to preserve the artefacts in their private collection. This collection include palm leaf manuscripts, swords, shields and other valuables.<ref>"Zamorin's family seeks govt. help to preserve rare artefacts". ''The Hindu'' [http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/zamorins-family-seeks-govt-help-to-preserve-rare-artefacts/article18478702.ece] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730123302/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/kozhikode/zamorins-family-seeks-govt-help-to-preserve-rare-artefacts/article18478702.ece|date=30 July 2022}} 18 May 2017</ref> Malabar Devaswom Board Commissioner recently proposed to the Kerala state government that the temples under the hereditary (private) trustees – such as the Zamorin – should be attached to the Board.<ref name="Deccan Chronicle"/>

The general administration department data tabled in the Kerala assembly reveals that since 2013, 876 members of Kozhikode Zamorin royal family received a total of Rs 19.51 crore in family and political pensions. This is apart from the pension titled Malikhan being provided to the members of royal families of former princely states of Malabar (part of British India) by the Centre<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2021/Oct/09/kerala-spends-rs-54-crore-yearly-to-give-pension-to-royal-family-members-2369443.html | title=Kerala spends Rs 5.4 crore yearly to give pension to royal family members | date=12 October 2021 }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Kolathunadu]]
* [[Kingdom of Cochin|Kingdom of Cochin (Kochi)]]
*[[Thiruvithamkoor|Travancore]]
*[[Siege of Chale|Siege of Chaliyam]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{colbegin}}
* H. A. R. Gibb, Ed., ''Ibn Battuta- Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354'', New Delhi, Reprint 1986,
* M. L. Dames, Ed., ''The Book of Duarte Barbosa'', Vol. II, (1812), New Delhi, Reprint 1989,
* Lieut. M. J. Rawlandson, Ed. & Trans., ''Tohfut ul Mujahideen'', London, 1833
* Hermann Gundert, Ed., ''Keralotpatti'', in Scaria Zacharia, Ed., ''Keralotpattiyum Mattum'', Kottayam, 1992.
* Albert Gray, Ed., ''The Voyage of Francois Pyrard of Laval'', Vol. I, (1887), New Delhi, Reprint 2000
* William Logan, ''Malabar'', Vol. I, (1887), Madras, Reprint 1951
** Kesavan Veluthat, 'Logan's Malabar: Text and Context' in William Logan, Malabar, Vol. I, (1887), Thiruvananthapuram, 2000
* K. M. Panikkar, ''A History of Kerala (1498–1801)'', Annamalainagar, 1960.
* P. K. S. Raja, ''Medieval Kerala'', (1953), Calicut, 1966.
* A. Sreedhara Menon, ''A Survey of Kerala History'', (1967), Madras, 1991
* N. M. Nampoothiri, ''Samutiri Caritrattile Kanappurangal'', Sukapuram, 1987
* M. G. S. Narayanan, ''Perumals of Kerala'', Calicut. 1996.
* S.F. Dale, ''The Mappilas of Malabar 1498–1922'': Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier, Oxford, 1980
* Kesavan Veluthat, ''Brahman Settlements in Kerala: Historical Studies'', Calicut, 1978.
* Genevieve Bouchon, ''Regent of the Sea: Cannanore's Response to Portuguese Expansion, 1507–1528'', Delhi, 1988.
* Rajan Gurukkal & Raghava Varier, Eds., ''Cultural History of Kerala'', Vol. I, Thiruvananthapuram, 1999.
* K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the Earliest Times to A D 1806.'' Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.
* M. G. S. Narayanan, ''Calicut: The City of Truth Revisited'' Kerala. University of Calicut, 2006
* M. G. S. Narayanan, ''Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy{{snd}}Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cera Perumals of Makotai (c. AD 800–AD 1124).'' Kerala. Calicut University Press, 1996, pp 512.
* Schwartz, Stuart. ''Implicit Understandings'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 665 pp, 1994, 302. {{ISBN|0-521-45880-3}}
* Hamilton, Alex. ''A New Account of the East Indies'', Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 374
* Hart, Henry H. ''The Sea Road to the Indies.'' New York:MacMillan Company, 1950.
* [[Frederic Charles Danvers|Danvers, Frederick Charles]]. ''The Portuguese in India.'' New York:Octagon Books, 1966.
{{colend}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation
| author = S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar | year=1942
| title= Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic Language | publisher=University of Madras
| url= https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLanguage
| access-date = 3 December 2020}} (English translation of the original Arabic version written by Zainudheen Makhdoom in sixteenth century CE)
* {{citation
| author = K. V. Krishna Iyer
| title = Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806
| publisher = Norman Printing Bureau, Kozhikode
| url = https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3379
| year = 1938}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Zamorin of Calicut}}
* [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1400_1499/vascodagama/zamorin/zamorin.html Columbia University]
* [http://calicutpressclub.com/history-of-calicut.htm History of Calicut at ''Calicut Press Club''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426010844/http://www.calicutpressclub.com/history-of-calicut.htm |date=26 April 2012 }}
* [http://www.calicuttalimahakshetra.com/ Tali Temple, Calicut] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525002042/http://www.calicuttalimahakshetra.com/ |date=25 May 2016 }}

{{South Malabar}}
{{Malabar}}
{{Portuguese overseas empire}}
{{Kerala}}

[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Calicut kingdom]]
[[Category:Nair]]
[[Category:Royal titles]]

Devendra Prabhudesai

2026-02-26T05:57:48Z

Ankithreddy: expanded layout further and added references for clarity

'''Devendra Prabhudesai''' is an Indian [[Biography|biographer]] and manager of media relations and corporate affairs for [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].<ref name="sunny">Vijay Lokpally [https://web.archive.org/web/20121104103632/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2009/04/11/stories/2009041199990200.htm Sunny days again]; Devendra Prabhudesai on what inspired him to write a biography on Sunil Gavaskar Apr 11, 2009 The Hindu</ref>

Prabhudesai's first book was ''An Umpire Remembers- the autobiography of Piloo Reporter''. It was published by Rupa and is sponsored by [[Castrol]] India Limited.<ref name="Tele"/> He also authored a 2007 book on the Cricket World Cup<ref>{{Cite web | quote="The 2007 edition of the quadrennial cricket paroxysm has unleashed one apiece by veteran commentator Ashis Ray and Mumbai-based writer Devendra Prabhudesai." "Prabhudesai’s book starts with two negatives. On the cover legendary cricket photographer Patrick Eagar has been rendered as Eadgar, and it marks a shoddy beginning. The book itself is hard-bound and cumbersome ovate in shape, which means you have to be firmly ensconced, preferably in a deep armchair, to delve any further." | title=Rahul Banerji World Cup brings forth literature on cricket March 16, 2007 Dawn the internet edition | date=16 March 2007 | url=https://www.dawn.com/2007/03/16/fea.htm}}</ref> and wrote a biography of [[cricket]]er [[Rahul Dravid]] titled ''The Nice Guy who finished first''.<ref name="Tele">Castrol presents a biography on Rahul Dravid Nov 17, 2005 Televisionpoint.com [http://www.televisionpoint.com/news/newsfullstory.php?id=1132259702]</ref><ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cricket/coach-praises-nice-guy/articleshow/1299916.cms November 18, 2005 Times of India]</ref><ref>"Dravid, said: It is very embarrassing to be sitting up there and hearing nice things being spoken about you. The lessons from this book could well be `follow your passion and if you work well on your hobby who knows may be you might make a living out of it.' I guess I am the luckiest person in the world to follow my hobby as my livelihood, at least for a part of my life." Nov 18, 2005 The Hindu [https://web.archive.org/web/20060304165341/http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/18/stories/2005111802752100.htm]</ref>

His 2009 book ''SMG'' is about cricketer [[Sunil Manohar Gavaskar]], former captain of the Indian cricket team.<ref>I’ll always feel safe in my homeland: Tendulkar Online International News Network [http://www.onlinenews.com.pk/details.php?id=141982] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928011602/http://www.onlinenews.com.pk/details.php?id=141982 |date=2011-09-28 }}</ref> and had an unveiling on Saturday February 21, 2009 in the Mumbai metro.<ref>[http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=57164&n_tit=News+in+Pics+by+Rons+Bantwal%97Feb+24 Picture by Rons Bantwal Daijiworld.com]</ref> Devendra began working on the book in 2006, and said he wanted to pay tribute to his childhood hero.<ref name="sunny"/> The subject of the book, Gavaskar, said of the author: "Devendra, there are some things you know about me which I didn't know myself. Just goes to show how much effort you put in this compilation."<ref name="sunny"/> A write-up about the author and the book called the work a "must read and a worthy addition to your cricket library."<ref name="sunny"/> Another write-up said, "the author has captured the mood of the times and the ethos of Bombay’s cricketing culture."<ref>{{Cite web | author=S. Thyagarahan | url=http://www.hindu.com/lr/2009/06/07/stories/2009060750120300.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627014928/http://www.hindu.com/lr/2009/06/07/stories/2009060750120300.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=June 27, 2009 | work=[[The Hindu]] | title=Spirit of the game | date=June 6, 2009 }}</ref>

Prabhudesai is an alumnus of IES English Medium School, Dadar, commonly known as King George High School.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Prabhudesai, Devendra}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian biographers]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

Thavakalai Chittibabu

2026-02-23T01:41:47Z

Ankithreddy: Creating New Stub Needs Work...

{{Short description|Indian actor}}
{{For|the Indian actor born in 1964|Chitti Babu (Tamil actor)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Thavakalai Chittibabu
| alt =
| birth_date = 29 July 1975
| death_date = 26 February 2017
| death_place = Chennai
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1981-2017
| notable_works = ''[[Mundhanai Mudichu]]''
| television = Maya Machhindra
}}

'''"Thavakalai" Chittibabu''' (1975 – 2017) was an Indian actor and comedian who appeared in predominately [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language films. He has acted in over 500 films in Tamil, [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], [[Kannada]], [[Hindi]] and [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dinamalar.com/news/tamil-nadu-news/news/1719288|title=காமெடி நடிகர் தவக்களை மரணம்|date=2017-02-26|website=Dinamalar|access-date=2020-02-01}}</ref>

== Early life ==
His mother tongue is Tamil. His hometown is [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Chennai]] district. His mother's name is Subbulakshmi and his father's name is Vijayakumar. He was also an actor. He has acted as a group dancer in films in Tamil and Telugu before coming to act ''Mundhanai Mudichu''.

== Film career ==
His father was the co-star agent of ''Poi Satchi'' film, he went to Arunachalam Studios one day with his father while filming. It was then that actor Kullamani introduced him to actor Bhagyaraj. Director K. Bhagyaraj remembers Thavakalai he had always seen in Chennai and chose the film 'Mundhanai Mudichu'. Took him to AVM. He took him to the Gopichettipalayam. After the release of the film, the boy became very busy. He participated in the inaugural, introductory and complimentary ceremonies. He became a big fan of many stage shows in one year. He also acted in a few Telugu films such as ''Nenu Maa Avida'' (1981) before he started acting in Tamil films.

== Television career ==
He also acted many in Tamil television serials. He has acted in ''Maya Machhindra'' serial on Vijay television and ''[[My Dear Bootham (TV series)|My Dear Bootham]]'' on Sun TV.

== Death ==
He lived in Vadapalani, Chennai. He had a heart attack and died on 26 February 2017 at his home.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tamil.webdunia.com/tamil-cinema-news-movie-film/munthanai-mudichu-film-by-debut-actor-thavakalai-death-of-a-heart-attack-117022600012_1.html|title=முந்தானை முடிச்சு படத்தின் மூலம் அறிமுகமான நடிகர் தவக்களை மாரடைப்பால் மரணம்!|last=Sasikala|website=tamil.webdunia.com|language=ta|access-date=2020-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tamil.asianetnews.com/cinema/actor-thavakalai-is-death|title=நடிகர் தவக்களை மரணம்...|website=Asianet News Network Pvt Ltd|language=ta|access-date=2020-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/thavakalai-chitti-babu-passes-away/articleshow/57366938.cms|title=thavakalai chitti babu: 'Thavakalai' Chitti Babu passes away|date=27 February 2017|newspaper=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2020-02-01|archive-date=30 September 2019|archive-url=https://archive.today/20190930163025/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/thavakalai-chitti-babu-passes-away/articleshow/57366938.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
''This is a partial filmography. You can expand it.''
===Tamil films===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1982
|''[[Payanangal Mudivathillai]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1983
|''[[Mundhanai Mudichu]]''
|Thavakkalai
|
|-
|''Naalu Perukku Nandri''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="6" |1984
|''Aathora Aatha''
|
|
|-
|''Neram Nalla Neram''
|
|
|-
|''[[Osai]]''
|Thavakkalai
|
|-
|''Ponnu Pudichirukku''
|
|
|-
|''Thangamadi Thangam''
|
|
|-
|''[[Neengal Kettavai]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1985
|''[[Kaakki Sattai]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Aan Paavam]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1988
|''[[Thaimel Aanai]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Naan Sonnathey Sattam]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1989
|''Manandhal Mahadevan''
|
|
|-
|''[[En Rathathin Rathame]]''
|
|
|-
|1990
|''[[Paattali Magan]]''
|
|
|-
|1992
|''Thangarassu''
|
|
|-
|1993
|''[[Rajadhi Raja Raja Kulothunga Raja Marthanda Raja Gambeera Kathavaraya Krishna Kamarajan]]''
|
|
|-
|1995
|''[[Paattu Vaathiyar]]''
|Ice Cream Seller
|
|-
|1998
|''[[Cheran Chozhan Pandian]]''
|
|
|-
|1999
|''[[Poo Vaasam]]''
|
|
|}

=== Other language films ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Language
!Notes
|-
|1981
|''Nenu Maa Avida''
|
| rowspan="5" |Telugu
|
|-
|1983
|''[[Moodu Mullu]]''
|
|credited as Vichitra Kumar
|-
|1986
|''Naga Devatha''
|
|
|-
|1989
|''Zoo Laka Taka''
|
|
|-
|1997
|''Super Heroes''
|
|
|-
|2017
|''Gandhinagaril Unniyarcha''
|
|Malayalam
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/tamil/Comedy-actor-Thavakalai-passed-away.html# | title=തെന്നിന്ത്യൻ ഹാസ്യതാരം തവക്കള അന്തരിച്ചു }}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:2017 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male comedians]]
[[Category:Tamil comedians]]

Deswali Majhi

2026-02-08T21:43:42Z

Ankithreddy: started basic bio v1

{{Short description|Hinduized section of Santal tribe}}
{{Orphan|date=August 2024}}

{{Infobox caste
|caste_name =Deswali Majhi
|caste_name_in_local=ᱫᱮᱥᱣᱟᱞᱤ ᱢᱟᱺᱡᱷᱤ দেস্বালি মাঝি
|languages =[[Santali language|Santali]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hindi]]
|family_names =Majhi
|religions =[[Hinduism]]
|ethnicity =[[Santal people|Santal]]
|populated_states =[[Jharkhand]], [[West Bengal]]}}

'''Deswali Majhi''' is a Hinduized section of [[Santal people|Santal]] tribe,<ref name="Purulia1985">{{Cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Birendra Ku |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KSBuAAAAMAAJ |title=West Bengal District Gazetteers: Puruliya |publisher=State editor, West Bengal District Gazetteers |year=1985 |pages=130–131 |language=en |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.18270 |archive-date=31 Oct 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> distributed in western region of West Bengal and eastern region of Jharkhand in India. The community took shape after the great [[Santhal rebellion|Santal rebellion]] (1855–56) by adoption of [[Hinduism]] due to oppression faced as a Santal by the Britishers and their proximity to the [[Bengalis|Bengali]] people.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Singh |first1=K. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jw9uAAAAMAAJ |title=India's Communities |last2=India |first2=Anthropological Survey of |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-563354-2 |pages=785–832 |language=en |chapter=Deswali Majhi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 Dec 2010 |others=REPRESENTATION REGARDING INCLUSION OF ‘DESWALI ’ COMMUNITY OF WEST BENGAL IN THE LIST OF SCHEDULED TRIBES |title=COMMITTEE ON PETITIONS (THIRTEENTH LOK SABHA) – TWELFTH REPORT |url=https://eparlib.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/784178/1/13_Petitions_12.pdf |access-date=14 April 2022 |website=Parliament digital library, India}}</ref><ref>{{multiref2|{{Cite book |editor-last2=Pfeffer |editor-first2=Georg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-wsjaChM_QC |title=Contemporary Society: Tribal Studies |editor-last1=Behera |editor-first1=Deepak Kumar |date=1997 |volume=7 |last1=Bhowmick |first1=Pradip |last2=Jana |first2=Shyamal |chapter=Community in search of a new identity : The Santals of West Bengal |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-534-6 |language=en |pages=94–103 }}
|{{Cite journal |last1=Bhowmick |first1=Pradip |last2=Jana |first2=Shyamal |date=2004-12-17 |title=Community in search of a new identity : The Santals of West Bengal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320402629 |via=[[ResearchGate]]}}}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Tribals known as Deswali Manjhis are those Santhals who, before the current tendency among Santhals to regard themselves as Hindus, came within the Hindu fold. According to [[H. H. Risley]], “Deswali Manjhis are a subtribe of Santhals in the south of [[Manbhum|Manbhoom]], who employ Brahmans (for officiating in religious observances) and have adopted portions of Hindu rituals”.|source=''West Bengal District Gazetteers : Puruliya (1985)'', p. 130}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Santhal]]
[[Category:Social groups of Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Social groups of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian castes]]
[[Category:Sub-ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Hindu communities]]

{{India-ethno-stub}}

Mike Westmacott

2026-02-08T17:45:28Z

Ankithreddy: Article updated with latest changes

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox person | name = Mike Westmacott | image = Mike Westmacott 1993.jpg | caption = | birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1925|4|12}} | birth_place = [[Babbacombe]], Torquay, Devon | death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|2012|6|20|1925|4|12}} | death_place = [[Grange-over-Sands]], Cumbria | occupation = Statistician and economist | spouse = | father = | relatives = | known_for = member of the [[1953 British Mount Everest Expedition]] | education = | alma_mater = Corpus Christi College, Oxford | honours = }}

'''Michael Horatio Westmacott''' (12 April 1925 – 20 June 2012) was a prominent British [[mountaineer]] who was a member of the team which made the first ascent of Mount Everest.<ref name=GObit>{{cite news|author=Ed Douglas |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/22/mike-westmacott |title=Mike Westmacott obituary |work=The Guardian|date= 22 June 2012|accessdate=2012-06-23 |location=London}}</ref>

==Biography==
Westmacott was born on 12 April 1925 at Coombe House, St George's Crescent in [[Babbacombe]], Torquay, [[Devon]]. He was the oldest of three children of Horatio Westmacott, who served in the Royal Navy, and Irene Mary Juanita Gwennap Moore. His sisters were Monica Mary Westmacott and Catherine Penelope Westmacott.

Westmacott was educated at [[Radley College]], Radley near [[Abingdon, Oxfordshire]] and [[Corpus Christi College, Oxford]], where, after the war, he read mathematics.<ref name=HJObit>{{cite journal | title = In Memoriam: Michael Westmacott (1925-2012)| url = https://www.himalayanclub.org/hj/68/20/in-memoriam/ | access-date = 23 May 2025 | journal = Himalayan Journal | date =2013 | first = Stephen | last = Goodwin }} </ref>

During [[World War II]] he served as an [[commissioned officer|officer]] with the British Indian Army Corps of Engineers in [[Burma]]. In Burma he was involved in building bridges with the King George V's [[Bengal Engineer Group|Bengal Sappers and Miners]] with 150 Japanese PoWs under his command.<ref name=HJObit/>

After the war Westmacott worked for some years as an agricultural [[statistician]] at [[Rothamsted Research|Rothamsted Experimental Station]]. In 1957 he married Sally, Sarah Ellen Seddon. In the early 1960's he started working for [[Shell International]] as an economist and for a period from 1963 he was stationed in the US.<ref name=GObit/><ref name=AJArrigetch>{{cite journal | title = Arrigetch | url = https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1967_files/AJ%201967%20109-116%20Westmacott%20Arrigetch.pdf | journal =Alpine Journal | date =1967 | page = 109-116 | issn = 0065-6569 | volume =#72 | first = Michael | last=Westmacott | access-date = 23 May 2025}}</ref>

He retired in 1985 and moved to the [[Lake District]]. On 20 June 2012 he died in [[Grange-over-Sands]], Cumbria.

==Mountaineering==
Westmacott climbed extensively in the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[European Alps]]<ref name=HJObit/> before becoming a member of the [[1953 British Mount Everest Expedition]] which was led by [[John Hunt, Baron Hunt|John Hunt]]. While [[Edmund Hillary]] and [[Tenzing Norgay]] were making the first ascent of the {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} Everest mountain in 1953, it was Westmacott and his team of Sherpas who kept open the expedition's vital line of supply and return.

In 1956 he joined [[John Kempe]], [[George Band]], John Streetly, John William Tucker and Dr Donald Stafford Matthews<ref>{{cite book | title = Medicine My Passport | first =Donald Stafford |last = Matthews | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rzIz8DfI-6gC | publisher = G. G. Harrap | date = 1957 | access-date = 23 May 2025 }}</ref> on an expedition to the Peruvian Andes.<ref>{{cite web | title = Huagaruncho | website =MEF – Mount Everest Foundation| access-date = 14 September 2024 |url = https://www.mef.org.uk/expeditions/huagaruncho }}</ref> Streetly and Westmacott successfully made the [[first ascent]] of the {{convert|5723|m|ft}} [[Huagaruncho]] on 17 August 1956.<ref>{{cite journal | title = The Exploration of Huagaruncho: A Peruvian Journey | journal =Geographical Journal| date=December 1957| first1 =G. C. | last1 = Band | first2 = M. H. | last2 = Westmacott | first3 = John | last3 = Kempe | volume =#123 | issue =4 | pages= ‘437–447 | access-date = 14 September 2024 |url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790344 | doi=10.2307/1790344 | jstor =1790344| bibcode =1957GeogJ.123..437B| url-access =subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Westmacott| first = Michael | title=Mountain World 1958/59 |chapter= Huagaruncho | editor-last=Barnes | editor-first=Malcolm |year=1958 | publisher=George Allen and Unwin | pages=65–75 | isbn= }}</ref>

Whilst based in the US he joined a small party in 1964 on the first successful rock climbing expedition to the [[Arrigetch Peaks]] of [[Alaska]]. Westmacott and his wife were members of the teams which made first ascents of several of the area's granite spires.<ref>{{cite journal | title = The Granite Towers of the Arrigetch, Brooks Range | first = Jeanne | last = Bergen | url = https://publications.americanalpineclub.org/articles/12196531500/The-Granite-Towers-of-Arrigetch-Brooks-Range | journal = American Alpine Journal | date = 1965 |issn = 0065-6925 | volume = #15 | issue = 39 | access-date = 23 May 2025 }}</ref><ref name=AJArrigetch/>

A small expedition to the [[Hindu Kush]] in 1968, with his wife, [[Trevor Braham]], and Hugh Thomlinson, led to the first ascent of a {{convert|5681|m|ft|abbr=on}} peak near Wakhikah Rah in NE [[Chitral]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Westmacott| first = Michael | title=A Visit to the Ushnu Gol NE Chitral 1968| url = https://www.himalayanclub.org/hj/29/13/a-visit-to-the-ushnu-gol-ne-chitral-1968/| access-date = 23 May 2025 | journal = Himalayan Journal | date = 1969 }}</ref>

He became president of the [[Alpine Club (UK)|Alpine Club]] (1993–1995)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Griffin |first=Lindsay |title=Alpine Club Handbook 2015 |publisher=Alpine Club |year=2015 |pages=12 |language=English}}</ref> and was instrumental in establishing the Alpine Club's [[Alpine_Club (UK)#Publications|Himalayan Index]].<ref name=GObit/> He was also elected president of the [[Climbers Club]] (1978-1980).

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite news|title=Mike Westmacott|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/sport-obituaries/9352798/Mike-Westmacott.html|work=The Telegraph|accessdate=25 June 2012|date=24 June 2012|location=London}}
* {{cite news|title=Everest expedition climber Westmacott dies, aged 87|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cumbria-18549767|work=BBC News|accessdate=25 June 2012|date=22 June 2012}}
* {{cite news|title=On this day : 1953: Everest stories - Mike Westmacott|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/witness/may/29/newsid_2943000/2943002.stm|publisher=BBC|access-date=25 June 2012|date=29 May 1953}}
* [http://imagingeverest.rgs.org/Units/101.html Royal Geographical Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061231222712/http://imagingeverest.rgs.org/Units/101.html |date=31 December 2006 }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Westmacott, Michael}}
[[Category:1925 births]]
[[Category:2012 deaths]]
[[Category:English mountain climbers]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Alpine Club (UK)]]
[[Category:People educated at Radley College]]
[[Category:Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Oxford]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers]]
[[Category:Indian Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Torquay]]
[[Category:British expatriates in British Burma]]
[[Category:Rothamsted statisticians]]

Himachal Pradesh Lokayukta

2026-02-05T14:06:46Z

Ankithreddy: added a page

{{Short description|Parliamentary ombudsman for Himachal Pradesh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
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}}

'''Himachal Pradesh Lokayukta''' acts as the [[parliamentary ombudsman]] for the state of Himachal Pradesh. It is formed as a high level statutory functionary formed by state of Himachal Pradesh under the [[Himachal Pradesh]] Lokayukta and Upa-Lokayuktas Act, 2014. The position is helpful in enhancing the standard of services in Public Administration through fast track investigations of complaints and grievances by any member of public against state ministers, legislators and other public servants.<ref name="Del Ref7">{{cite news |title=What is a Lokayukta? |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/what-is-a-lokayukta-423575 |access-date=31 August 2021 |publisher=NDTV.com |date=12 July 2010}}</ref> With [[The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013]] adopted by the [[Parliament of India]] coming into force on 16 January 2014, each state in India was required to appoint its [[Lokayukta]] within a year.<ref name="Delhi 1">{{cite news |last1=Seetharaman |first1=G. |title=Delay in appointment of Lokpal & Lokayukta: Who will bell the graft? |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/why-there-is-no-lokpal-at-centre-and-lokayukta-in-many-states/articleshow/66570168.cms |access-date=30 August 2021 |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=10 November 2018}}</ref><ref name="Delhi 2">{{cite news | title=Lok Sabha passes landmark Lokpal Bill |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/lok-sabha-passes-landmark-lokpal-bill/article20701403.ece1 |access-date=30 August 2021 |publisher=|date=18 December 2013 |language=en}}</ref> A bench of Lokayukta should consist of judicial and non-judicial members.<ref name="Delhi Ref8">{{cite news |title=Only four states have appointed judicial, non-judicial members of Lokayukta, says report |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/only-four-states-have-appointed-judicial-non-judicial-members-of-lokayukta-says-report/articleshow/79627314.cms?from=mdr |access-date=31 August 2021 |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=8 December 2020}}</ref>

After getting the recommendation of the committee consisting of State [[Chief Minister]], [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]] of Legislative Assembly, [[Leader of Opposition]], Chairman of Legislative Council and Leader of Opposition of Legislative Council the [[Lokayukta]] of a state is appointed by the [[Governor]]. He cannot be removed from office except in cases of misbehaviour or any other reasons specified in the Act he cannot and the term of service will be for five years.

== History and Administration ==

Himachal Pradesh was one of the few states which established Lokayukta in 1983 but formally got [[President of India|President]]'s approval after the Himachal Pradesh Legislature passed Himachal Pradesh Lokayukta Bill, 2014.<ref name="Hima Ref1">{{cite news |title=President Pranab Mukherjee gives nod to HP Lokayukta bill |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/president-pranab-mukherjee-gives-nod-to-hp-lokayukta-bill/ |access-date=2 September 2021 |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=12 June 2015 |language=en}}</ref> The institution had been finalised as a single member body than the proposed multi-member set up planned by earlier Governments was not accepted by [[Central Government of India|Central Government]]. The single member body with powers of [[Contempt of court|Contempt of Court]] was suggested by Committee headed by Revenue Minister [[Kaul Singh Thakur]] and members from Vidhan Soudha and amended to include Chief Minister, his council of Ministers and other public officials and functionaries. For conducting inquiry on any complaint received relating to offenses covered under the Act from any member of the public against persons covered in the Act, the bill proposed the inclusion of a Director of inquiry heading the Inquiry Department.

The State Lokayukta Act specifies for the maintenance of its receipts and payments and other requisite records as per the rules of Himachal Pradesh Financial Rules, 2009. In addition the institution has to maintain the record of transfer orders of different classes of employees of the Government. As per the Act, the Lokayukta has to furnish details of a number of complaints registered, details of enquiries and investigations conducted, prosecutions approved, charge-sheet filed in a specified form every six months in the month of July and January to the State Government.

== Oath or affirmation ==

Following is the oath of Lokayukta as per the Act.

"I, <name>, having been appointed Lokayukta (or Upa-Lokayukta) do swear in the name of God (or solemnly affirm) that I will bear faith and allegiance to the [[Constitution of India]] as by law established and I will duly and faithfully and to the best of my ability, knowledge and judgment perform the duties of my office without fear or favour, affection or ill-will."

— First Schedule, The Himachal Pradesh Lokayukta and Upa-Lokayuktas Act, 2014

== Powers ==

Lokayukta Act passed by Himachal Pradesh Government in 2014 added powers of Contempt of Court.<ref name="Hima Ref1" /> The Act had been amended to include Chief Minister and Ministers under him and any other public functionaries against whom any complaint for corruption or any abuse of power during service is received. Any member from the public can file the complaint and the official will be prosecuted after the formal investigation is done. Lokayukta has independent powers to investigate and prosecute any government official or public servants who are covered by the act and against whom the complaint is received for abusing his authority for self interest or causes hurt to anyone or any action done intentionally or following corrupt practices negatively impacting the state or individual. Once a complaint is received on allegations of corruption, wrong use of authority and misdeeds by any of public functionaries who may include the Chief Minister, Ministers under him and members of Legislature Assembly, Lokayukta has power to recommend enquiry to necessary authorities and prosecute, if proven.

Lokayukta Rules were amended by Himachal Pradesh Government making it compulsory for every public servant specified in the Act, to file their annual return of assets and liabilities in form 6 before 31 July of each year before the competent authority.<ref name="Hima Ref3">{{cite news |title=In Himachal Pradesh, officials to declare assets to Lokayukta {{!}} Shimla News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/shimla/in-hp-officials-to-declare-assets-to-lokayukta/articleshow/71401189.cms |access-date=2 September 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=2 October 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

== Appointment and Tenure ==

The Lokayukta bill of Himachal Pradesh qualifies any serving judge or former judge of Supreme Court or Chief Justice of a High Court to head the one-member Lokayukta.<ref name="Hima Ref5">{{cite news |title=Himachal Pradesh Lokayukta bill gets President's nod |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/himachal-pradesh-lokayukta-bill-gets-president-s-nod/story-4puv6cUbvjHO7ZbKJq1rMJ.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=12 June 2015 |language=en}}</ref> He/She can hold office for five years or attaining the age of 70 years whichever is earlier.

== See also ==

* [[The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013]]
* [[Goa Lokayukta]]
* [[Delhi Lokayukta]]
* [[Telangana Lokayukta]]
* [[West Bengal Lokayukta]]

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://lokayukta.hp.gov.in// official website]


[[Category:Government of Himachal Pradesh]]
[[Category:Lokayuktas]]

Service Wali Bahu

2026-01-28T02:25:41Z

Ankithreddy: Creating A Biography Added Tags

{{More citations needed|date=April 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2015}}
{{Infobox television
| image =
| caption =
| story = [[Raakesh Paswan]] [[Vandana Tiwari]]
| screenplay = [[Siddhartha Vankar Saurabh]] '''Dialogues''' Amit Jha
| director = Rajesh Ram Singh Sandeep Vijay Vinod Laxmi Kumar
| creative_director = Neha Kothari
| genre = [[Drama]]
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| network = [[Zee TV]]
| location = [[Jharkhand]]
| runtime = 22 Minutes
| starring = [[Abhishek Rawat]] [[Kratika Sengar]]
| creator = Village Boy Productions
| music = [[Aashish Rego]]
| producer = [[Raakesh Paswan]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=y|2015|02|23}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=y|2015|07|17}}
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 123
}}
'''''Service Wali Bahu''''' (Translation: "Working Daughter-in-law"; international Title: [[Zee World|Bride With Benefits]]) is an Indian television drama show, which premiered on 23 February 2015 and It airs on [[Zee TV]].<ref>[http://www.filmibeat.com/television/news/2015/abhishek-rawat-opposite-kratikasengar-in-service-wali-bahu-173439.html Abhishek Rawat Opposite Kratika Sengar In Service Wali Bahu! - Filmibeat]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150308034642/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/concept-of-dowry-system-is-not-the-same-anymore-kratika-sengar/529561-44-124.html Concept of dowry system is not the same anymore Kratika Sengar - IBNLive]</ref> The show produced by [[Raakesh Paswan]], under ''Village Boy Production''.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Kratika-Sengar-and-Abhishek-Rawat-in-Servicewali-Bahu/articleshow/45938614.cms Kratika Sengar and Abhishek Rawat in Servicewali Bahu! - The Times of India]</ref> The show starring with [[Abhishek Rawat]] and [[Kratika Sengar]] in lead roles.<ref>[http://www.mid-day.com/articles/abhishek-rawat-to-play-introvert-in-service-wali-bahu/15977190 Abhishek Rawat to play introvert in 'Service Wali Bahu' - Entertainment]</ref> The show also feature Akshara Singh, [[Vineet Kumar Chaudhary]], Atul Srivastava, Pratichee Mishra, Ramakanth Daayama and Meena Mir in pivotal roles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.worldsnap.com/entertainment/actors-kratika-sengar-and-abhishek-rawat-promote-service-wali-bahu-in-capital-181719.html |title=Actors Kratika Sengar and Abhishek Rawat promote ‘Service Wali Bahu’ in Capital |access-date=25 February 2015 |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319042532/http://news.worldsnap.com/entertainment/actors-kratika-sengar-and-abhishek-rawat-promote-service-wali-bahu-in-capital-181719.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Cast==
*[[Abhishek Rawat]] as Dev Jogeshwar Prasad
*[[Kratika Sengar Dheer]] as Payal Dev Prasad
*[[Vineet Kumar Chaudhary]] as Ayodhya Prasad
*Atul Srivastava as Jogeshwar Prasad(Natru), Payal's Father-in-law/Dev's Father
*[[Akshara Singh]] as Gulkand Ayodhya Prasad
*[[Rammakanth Daayama]] as Bhuvneshwar Rai, Payal's Father
*Pratichee Mishra as Santoshi Prasad, Payal's Mother-in-law
*[[Meena Mir]] as Indu Rai
*Rocky Verma as Dubeyji (Secretary)

==Production and casting==
The show is produced by [[Raakesh Paswan]], under his own ''Village Boy Productions''.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Zee-TV-launches-Service-Wali-Bahu/articleshow/46250360.cms Zee TV launches Service Wali Bahu - The Times of India]</ref> The show feature actors [[Abhishek Rawat]] and [[Kratika Sengar]] in lead roles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indian/ |title=television.com/television/tv-channels/gecs/zee-raises-voice-against-new-age-dowry-via-new-show-service-wali-bahu-150214 Zee raises voice against new-age dowry via new show 'Service Wali Bahu' |access-date=25 February 2015 |archive-date=31 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731065346/http://indian/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Actor [[Abhishek Rawat]] is playing the role of Dev, a jobless person, And actress [[Kratika Sengar]] is playing the role of Payal, a civil engineer.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Abhishek-Rawat-to-play-an-introvert-in-Service-Wali-Bahu/articleshow/46186034.cms Abhishek Rawat to play an introvert in Service Wali Bahu - The Times of India]</ref> The show also feature actors in pivotal roles; [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] actress Akshara Singh, who is playing Payal's sister-in-law, Gulkand, And actor [[Vineet Kumar Chaudhary]] is playing Ayodhya, Gulkand's husband, And actors Atul Srivastava and Pratichee Mishra is playing Dev's parents Jogeshwar and Santoshi Prasad, And Ramakanth Daayama and Meena Mir is playing Payals' parents Bhubneshwar and Indu Rai.<ref>[http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/idiotbox/kratika-abhishek-promote-service-wali-bahu-in-capital_1549374.html Kratika, Abhishek promote 'Service Wali Bahu' in Capital - Zee News]</ref>

The show was promoted in [[Delhi]] on 20 February 2015.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Kratika-Sengar-Abhishek-Rawat-promote-Service-Wali-Bahu-in-Capital/articleshow/46310159.cms Kratika Sengar, Abhishek Rawat promote 'Service Wali Bahu' in Capital - The Times of India]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Official website|http://www.zeetv.com/shows/service-wali-bahu}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Service Wali Bahu}}
[[Category:2015 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Zee TV original programming]]

Chaudhary Raghvendra Singh

2026-01-22T01:33:57Z

Ankithreddy: started some bio v1

{{Short description|Indian real estate developer and founder of DLF (1910–2000)}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Chaudhary Raghvendra Singh
| birth_date = {{Birth date |1910|9|19|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Punjab Province (British India)]], British India, (now [[Haryana]], India)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2000|6|13|1910|9|19|df=y}}
| death_place = India
| occupation = Real estate developer
| known_for = Founder, [[DLF Limited]]
| children = Indira
| relatives = [[Kushal Pal Singh]] (son-in-law)
}}

'''Chaudhary Raghvendra Singh''' (19 September 1910 – 13 June 2000) was an Indian real estate developer known for founding [[DLF (company)|DLF]], then known as Delhi Land and Finance, in 1946.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Roychowdhury |first=Adrija |date=17 April 2022 |title=Delhi Rewind: How DLF built colonies in Delhi for aspirational Partition migrants |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/how-dlf-built-colonies-in-delhi-for-aspirational-partition-migrants-7872784/ |access-date=15 January 2025 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=13 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713171239/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/how-dlf-built-colonies-in-delhi-for-aspirational-partition-migrants-7872784/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Meet our founder |url=https://www.dlf.in/about-us |access-date=15 January 2025 |website=DLF |language=en |archive-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208042500/https://www.dlf.in/about-us |url-status=live }}</ref> He laid the foundations for one of India's largest real estate companies, instrumental in transforming the urban landscape of [[Delhi]] and [[Gurgaon]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" />

== Early life ==
Chaudhary Raghvendra Singh was born on 19 September 1910 in [[Punjab Province (British India)]], British India (now [[Haryana]], India), into a [[Hindu Jat]] family with agricultural and military tradition.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Donthi |first1=Praveen |date=1 January 2014 |title=How the brokers of land and power built the Millennium City |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/reportage/road-gurgaon |work=Caravan |access-date=30 August 2025}}</ref>

== Business career ==
In 1946, Singh established DLF, then known as Delhi Land and Finance, with the aim of developing urban residential colonies in the capital city of Delhi.<ref name=":0" /> His early projects included the creation of neighbourhoods like [[South Extension]], [[Greater Kailash]], and [[Hauz Khas]] in the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name=":0" /> In 1961, the [[Government of India|Indian government]] transferred urban development control to the [[Delhi Development Authority]] (DDA), which restricted private real estate development in Delhi. This prompted Singh and his son-in-law, [[Kushal Pal Singh]], to look for new opportunities outside the capital.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Basu |first=Soma |date=29 November 2024 |title=K.P. Singh: Think like Edwin Lutyens |url=https://www.thehindu.com/real-estate/real-estate-baron-kp-singh-of-dlf-says-visionary-collaborations-and-urgent-action-plans-are-imperative-to-save-our-cities-from-falling-into-a-deeper-chaos/article68914218.ece |access-date=9 January 2024 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> DLF shifted its focus to [[Gurgaon]] (now Gurugram), where his and Kushal Pal's business plans led to the region's transformation into a modern urban hub.<ref>{{cite web |title=Full Story - Founding of DLF |url=https://navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/business/business-news/success-story-of-kushal-pal-singh-who-after-studying-in-london-joined-military-and-then-took-his-father-in-law-empire-to-great-heights/articleshow/108022164.cms |website=Navbharat Times |date=2 January 2024 |access-date=2 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Gurgaon: From Ghost Town to Boomtown |url= https://www.theweekendleader.com/Culture/1393/a-family-enterprise.html|publisher=The Weekend Leader |access-date=2 July 2024}}</ref> In 1995, Kushal Pal became the chairman of DLF.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dutta |first=Arnab |date=5 June 2020 |title=DLF's K P Singh retires at 90, son Rajiv Singh to take over reins |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/dlf-s-k-p-singh-retires-at-90-son-rajiv-singh-to-take-over-reins-120060500065_1.html |access-date=15 January 2025 |website=Business Standard |archive-date=15 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015144319/https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/dlf-s-k-p-singh-retires-at-90-son-rajiv-singh-to-take-over-reins-120060500065_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Singh had a daughter Indira. Indira married Kushal Pal.<ref>{{Cite web |editor-last=Sharma |editor-first=Reema |title=Who Is KP Singh, Real-estate King With Rs 94,536 Crore Net Worth, Who Left Indian Army To Build DLF And Found Love Again At 91 |url=https://zeenews.india.com/companies/who-is-kp-singh-real-estate-king-with-rs-94536-crore-net-worth-who-left-indian-army-to-build-dlf-and-found-love-again-at-91-2622041.html |access-date=15 January 2025 |website=Zee News |language=en |archive-date=5 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705012949/https://zeenews.india.com/companies/who-is-kp-singh-real-estate-king-with-rs-94536-crore-net-worth-who-left-indian-army-to-build-dlf-and-found-love-again-at-91-2622041.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Singh died on 13 June 2000.<ref name=":1" />

== Legacy ==
After Singh's death, his son-in-law, Kushal Pal, expanded DLF into the largest real estate company in India.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Srivastava |first=Samar |date=16 November 2015 |title=DLF: The Ailing Giant |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/article/india-rich-list-2015/dlf-the-ailing-giant/41357/1 |access-date=13 January 2025 |website=Forbes India |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=PTI |date=4 June 2020 |title=DLF’s K.P. Singh retires, wishes he turned Gurgaon into the city he dreamed of |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/dlf-s-k-p-singh-retires-wishes-he-turned-gurgaon-into-the-city-he-dreamed-of-11591282377174.html |access-date=12 January 2025 |website=Mint |archive-date=23 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240723124041/https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/dlf-s-k-p-singh-retires-wishes-he-turned-gurgaon-into-the-city-he-dreamed-of-11591282377174.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.dlf.in DLF Official Website]

[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople in the real estate industry]]

Nagapattinam Port

2026-01-21T17:00:06Z

Ankithreddy:

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox Port
| name = Nagapattinam Port
| image = Tsunami caused damages at Nagapattinam Port on January 1, 2005 (1).jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_caption = Nagapattinam Port in 2004
| country = India
| location = [[Nagapattinam]]
| coordinates = {{coord|10|45|50.6|N|79|50|58.5|E|display=title,inline}}
| locode = IN NGG
| opened = {{start date and age|df=yes|1881}}
| operated = Nagapattinam Port Trust
| owner = Nagapattinam Port Trust, Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways, [[Government of India]]
| type = Coastal breakwater, artificial, large seaport
| sizewater =
| sizeland =
| size =
| berths =
| wharfs =
| piers =
| employees =
| leadershiptitle = Chairman
| leader =
| blankdetailstitle1 = Main trades
| blankdetails1 =
| blankdetailstitle2 = World Port Index Number
| blankdetails2 =
| blankdetailstitle3 = UN/LOCODE
| blankdetails3 = INNAA
| arrivals =
| cargotonnage = 10 lakh tonnes (2017–18)
| containervolume =
| cargovalue =
| passengertraffic =
| revenue =
| profit =
| blankstatstitle1 =
| blankstats1 =
| blankstatstitle2 =
| blankstats2 =
| blankstatstitle3 =
| blankstats3 =
| website =
}}

'''Nagapattinam Port''' (''nākappaṭṭinam'', previously spelt '''Nagapatnam''' or '''Negapatam''') is a port in the South Indian town of [[Nagapattinam]] in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a natural port located in the shores of [[Bay of Bengal]]. The port came to prominence during the period of [[Medieval Cholas]] (9th −12th century CE) and served as their important port for commerce and east bound naval expeditions. Nagapattinam was settled by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and, later, the Dutch under whom it served as the capital of [[Dutch Coromandel]] from 1660 to 1781 CE. In November 1781, the town was conquered by the [[British East India Company]]. The port was an important port for the colonial empires until Thoothukudi port became the primary port in the [[Coromandel Coast]].

The modern day port has a commercial port complex and a dockyard that are protected by a river mouth sand bar facing the port. The port handles only limited amount of edible oil imports. The Nagapttinam lighthouse is the first conventional {{convert|20|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} lighthouse tower built inside the port premises by the British in 1869. The port and the lighthouse are maintained by the Tamil Nadu Maritime Board under the Government of India.

==Geography==
[[File:Tsunami caused damages at Nagapattinam Port on January 1, 2005.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Section of port damaged by Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004]]
The port of Nagapattinam is located in the town of [[Nagapattinam]], a town in the [[South India]]n state of [[Tamil Nadu]], on the banks of [[Bay of Bengal]] and in the mouth of river Kuduvayyar.<ref name=port>{{cite web|title= Nagapattinam Port|url=http://www.tnmaritime.com/goverment_ports.php?port=2|publisher=Tamil Nadu Maritime Board|access-date = 30 October 2012|year=2011}}</ref> The coast along the port is generally flat and the depths along the coast is shallow. Historically, the underwater ridge along the coast is a navigational hazard. The port is deemed unsafe for anchorage especially during the receding monsoon season of November and December.<ref name=S82>[[#Sakhuja|Sakhuja]] 2009, p. 82</ref> Till Tsunami in 2004, a small bridge connected a village named Keechakuppam with Nagapattinam town. The construction of an expanded and an elevated bridge was completed after 2008, which enabled the expansion of the port as well as the fishing harbour. The adjacent land of the port has Kudavayar backwater. As is the case with the Kaveri river tributaries, the estuarine portion of the mouth of Kudavayyar to Bay of Bengal is shallow. The adjoining land once was filled with mangroves, but now remains a marshy land.<ref>{{cite book|title=Building Back Better in India Development, NGOs, and Artisanal Fishers After the 2004 Tsunami|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q6AqEAAAQBAJ&dq=nagapattinam+port&pg=PA142|pages=145–8|year=2021|last=Swamy|first=Raja|isbn=9780817320973|publisher=University of Alabama Press}}</ref> Post Tsunami, many self help groups and the forest department of the Government of Tamil Nadu have been actively involved in creating bioshields, by planting mangrove forest to prevent effects of future disaster.<ref>{{cite book|title=Strengthening Resilience in Post-disaster Situations Stories, Experience and Lessons from South Asia|year=2011|isbn=9788171889044|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7_dmdNJX8nsC|publisher=Academic Foundation|author=Academic Foundation (New Delhi, India), International Development Research Centre (Canada)|editor1-first=Julian F. |editor1-last=Gonsalves|editor2-first= Priyanka |editor2-last=Mohan}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Negapatnam van Choromandel.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Painting of boats in Nagapattinam Port|alt=Dutch engraving showing Nagapatnam c. 1680]]
The port came to prominence during the period of [[Medieval Cholas]] (9th −12th century CE) and served as their important port for commerce and east bound naval expeditions. All the eastern naval expeditions of [[Rajendra Chola I]] (1012–44 CE) were through the port. In the early 16th century the Portuguese started commercial contacts with the town through the port and established a commercial centre in 1554 CE. The Portuguese also conducted missionary enterprise in the town.<ref name=Francis139/> In 1658, the Dutch established an agreement between King [[Vijaya Raghava Nayak|Vijaya Nayakkar]] of [[Thanjavur Nayak kingdom|Thanjavur]] on 5 January 1662. Ten villages were transferred from the Portuguese to the Dutch – Nagapattinam Port, Puthur, Muttam, Poruvalancheri, Anthanappettai, Karureppankadu, AzhingiMangalam, Sangamangalam, Thiruthinamangalam, Manjakollai, Nariyankudi. As per agreement between the first [[Maratha Empire|Maratta]] King [[Ekoji]] of [[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom|Thanjavur]] and the Dutch, Naagapattinam and surrounding villages were handed over to the Dutch on 30 December 1676. In 1690, the capital of [[Dutch Coromandel]] changed from [[Pulicat]] to Nagapattinam.<ref name=Francis139/>

This town fell into the hands of the British in 1781 after the two naval battles between British and French fleets were fought off the coast of Negapatam, as it was then known: the [[Battle of Negapatam (1758)|first in 1758]] as part of the [[Seven Years' War]] and the [[Battle of Negapatam (1782)|second in 1782]] as part of the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The town was [[Siege of Negapatam|taken by the British]] from the Dutch in 1781 (who had been [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|formally brought into the war]] in 1780).<ref name=Francis136>[[#Francis|Francis]] 2002, p. 136</ref> When the Dutch and British [[Treaty of Paris (1784)|reached a peace agreement in 1784]], Nagapattinam was formally ceded to the British. 277 villages with Nagore as the headquarters were handed over to the [[East India Company]].<ref name=Francis139>[[#Francis|Francis]] 2002, p. 139</ref>

From 1799 to 1845 CE Nagapttinam was the headquarters of [[Tanjore District (Madras Presidency)|Tanjore district]].<ref name=Francis161>[[#Francis|Francis]] 2002, p. 161</ref> The town remained one of the chief ports to the [[Madras Presidency]]. The port suffered decline after the inclusion of [[Tranquebar]] and [[Tuticorin]] ports. The port was one of the ports severely affected by the [[tsunami]] which followed the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]].<ref>{{cite web|title=About the town|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/nagapattinam/abc_city.htm|publisher=Nagapattinam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=26 June 2012|year=2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120729053102/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/nagapattinam/abc_city.htm|archive-date=29 July 2012}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nagapattinam district profile|url=http://www.nagapattinam.tn.nic.in/history.html|publisher=Nagapattinam district administration|year=2011|access-date = 26 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nagapattinam district local administration|url=http://www.nagapattinam.tn.nic.in/la.html|publisher=Nagapattinam district administration|year=2011|access-date = 26 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Salient Features of Nagapattinam Municipality|url=http://municipality.tn.gov.in/nagapattinam/abs_municipality.htm|publisher=Nagapattinam Municipality, Government of Tamil Nadu|access-date=26 June 2012|year=2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730103444/http://municipality.tn.gov.in/nagapattinam/abs_municipality.htm|archive-date=30 July 2012}}</ref>

==Commercial activities==
Nagapattinam was the most important port of the Chola empire. The port was also widely used by the Dutch, Portuguese and British as one of the major ports in Coramandel Coast for trading purposes.<ref name=port/> Most of the principal exports to Sri Lanka from the port during the British period were rice, piece goods, live stock, cigars, tobacco and skin. The trade of Nagapattinam was mostly with [[British Ceylon|Ceylon]], [[Straits Settlements]], [[British Burma|Burma]] and to a small extent to the United Kingdom and Spain.<ref name=Francis144>[[#Francis|Francis]] 2002, p. 144</ref> The port also served passenger traffic to Singapore, but was suspended due to a fire accident.<ref name=bus>{{cite news|title= Nagapattinam in TN to be upgraded as all-weather, deep-water port|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/logistics/article2816968.ece|work=The Hindu Business Line|date=20 January 2012|access-date=26 June 2012}}</ref> The modern day port has a commercial port complex and a dockyard that are protected by a river mouth sand bar facing the port.<ref name=Masek>{{Cite book |last1=Strand|first1=Carl Ludvig |first2=John Paul |last2=Masek |title=Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake and Tsunami of December 26, 2004 |year=2008 |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers |location=USA |isbn=978-0-7844-0951-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifv-Ye_3GvwC&q=nagapattinam+tsunami&pg=PA196|pages=235–239}}</ref> The port handles only limited amount of edible oil imports.<ref name=bus/> The Nagapattinam lighthouse is the first conventional {{convert|20|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} lighthouse tower built inside the port premises by the British in 1869.<ref name=Francis162>[[#Francis|Francis]] 2002, p. 162</ref> The port and the lighthouse are maintained by the Tamil Nadu Maritime Board under the Government of India.<ref name=port/> The port has been planned to have a green field, all weather and enhancing capacity to handle 10 lakh tonnes of cargo every year, but the expansion has been opposed by fishing community. The central government plan to convert the port into an economic zone under Sagar Mala project is also opposed by the fishing community fearing restrictions.<ref>{{cite news|series=Tamil Nadu Assembly Elections | title=Upgrading of Nagapattinam port remains a forgotten promise|date=3 March 2021|work=The Hindu|last=R.|first=Krishnamoorthy|url=https://www.thehindu.com/elections/tamil-nadu-assembly/upgrading-of-nagapattinam-port-remains-a-forgotten-promise/article34203325.ece}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|20em}}

==References==
* {{cite book|title=Gazetteer of South India, Volume 1|first=W. |last=Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vERnljM1uiEC&q=negapatam&pg=PA152|publisher=Mittal Publications|year=2002|ref=Francis}}
* {{cite book|title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|ref=Sakhuja|last1=K.|first1=Kesavapany|last2=Sakhuja|first2=Vijay|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2009|isbn=9789812309372}}

[[Category:Ports and harbours of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Nagapattinam district]]

Tooh (song)

2026-01-19T18:03:25Z

Ankithreddy: Creating A Entry W/ Infobox

{{EngvarB|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox song
| name = Tooh
| cover = Tooh (Gori Tere Pyaar Mein) - 2013 Bollywood Single Cover.jpg
| alt = On the foreground a man and a woman wearing black kurta and blue—orange lehnga respectively leaning towards each other, probably while dancing; both of them seemingly in a joyous mood. On the background there is the blurry appearance of a group of people onlooking the pair. The title of song in the middle displayed in neon-lights with the letters "o" in between designed to represent the shape of a human's buttocks.
| type = single
| artist = [[Mika Singh]], [[Mamta Sharma]], [[Shruti Pathak]], [[Vishal Dadlani]]
| album = [[Gori Tere Pyaar Mein#Soundtrack|Gori Tere Pyaar Mein]]
| language = [[Hindi (language)|Hindi]]
| released = {{Start date|df=yes|2013|10|12}} (Single) {{Start date|df=yes|2013|10|09}} (Music video)
| recorded = 2012–2013 Vishal & Shekhar's Studio, [[Mumbai|Bandra, Mumbai]]
| studio =
| venue =
| genre = {{flatlist|
* [[Pop music|Pop]]
* [[Electronic music|Electronic]]
* [[Folk music of Punjab|Punjabi Folk]]
* [[Filmi]]
* [[Item number]]<ref name="Timesofindia.indiatimes.comq">{{cite web | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-29/news-and-interviews/45674594_1_item-numbers-munni-sunidhi-chauhan | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202185611/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-29/news-and-interviews/45674594_1_item-numbers-munni-sunidhi-chauhan | url-status=dead | archive-date=2 February 2014 | title=I don't have to copy anyone: Mamta Sharma | date=29 December 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref>
}}
| length = {{Duration|m=4|s=20}} (Single) {{Duration|m=2|s=22}} (Music Video)
| label = [[Sony Music India]]
| composer = [[Vishal–Shekhar]]
| lyricist = Anvita Dutt
| producer = Abhijit Nalani
| misc = {{External music video|{{YouTube|D3PqPbtSp_o|"Tooh"}}}}
{{Audio sample
| type = song
| file = Gori Tere Pyaar Mein - Tooh 30s Sample.ogg
| description = Tooh 25 second sample. Voices of Mamta Sharma, followed by that of Mika Singh. Note the repetition of the word ''Tooh''.
}}
}}

"'''Tooh'''", a song composed by [[Vishal–Shekhar]] with lyrics by [[Anvita Dutt|Anvita Dutt Guptan]], is performed by [[playback singer]]s [[Mika Singh]] and [[Mamta Sharma]] with backing vocals by [[Vishal Dadlani]] and [[Shruti Pathak]]. The song was the first single to be released digitally from the soundtrack of the 2013 film ''[[Gori Tere Pyaar Mein]]''. The digital release was on 12 October 2013 in India. The music video was released on 9 October and launched on radio on 16 October.

A typical [[filmi]] song and [[item number]], the song's video depicts the fun and humour that prevail at traditional [[Punjabi wedding traditions|Punjabi weddings]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://zeenews.india.com/entertainment/bollywood/tooh-song-from-gori-tere-pyaar-mein-absurd-lyrics-kill-the-fun-of-this-wedding-number_144280.html |title='Tooh' song from 'Gori Tere Pyaar Mein': Absurd lyrics kill the fun of this wedding number! |publisher=Zeenews.india.com |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref>

== Background and composition ==
In an interview with [[radio jockey]], Anuraag Pandey, Vishal–Shekhar revealed that the soundtrack being the second collaboration between Malhotra and them—after 2010s [[I Hate Luv Storys]], they were involved right composing tunes with the completion of each draft of the script from the beginning in their studio (located in Bandra, Mumbai) in presence of Malhotra. During one such session four tunes were composed, the first being the final one based on the opinion of several people; who were asked to present their verdict on the best one.<ref>{{Cite episode
| title = Picture Pandey with Vishal, Shekhar and Punit
| url = http://www.sonyliv.com/watch/bollywood-ep-17-november-3-2013
| access-date = 8 February 2014
| series = T.V. ka Pehla Radio Show
| first = Anuraag
| last = Pandey
| network = [[Sony]]
| location = [[Mumbai]]
| date = 3 November 2013
| number = 17
| transcript = (transcript link)
| time = after 4:00 and before 17:00 (28:52 minutes)
| transcript-url = http://www.sonyliv.com/watch/bollywood-ep-17-november-3-2013
| language = en, hi
}}</ref>

"Tooh" was written by Anvita Dutt Guptan<ref name="All cast and crew">{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/parties-and-events/cast-and-crew-at-dvd-launch-of-tamas/ |title=Gori Tere Pyaar Mein! (2013) | Movie Review, Trailers, Music Videos, Songs, Wallpapers |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=13 August 2011 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref> and produced by Abhijit Nalani.<ref name="CD RN">{{cite AV media notes
| title = [[Gori Tere Pyaar Mein#Soundtrack|Gori Tere Pyaar Mein]]
| others = [[Vishal–Shekhar]]
| date = 2013
| pages = Back cover, Inlay
| location = [[Mumbai]], India
| asin = B00GKP5KWC
}}</ref> It was recorded at [[Vishal–Shekhar]]'s personal studio in Bandra, [[Mumbai]] by [[Audio engineer|recording engineer]]s, Satchith Harve, Abhishek Ghatak and, Gauvrav Gupta—with the tune being mixed by Shekhar Ravjiani himself—and mastering by Chris Gehringer at [[Sterling Sound]], [[New York City]]. The cover was released alongside the single on 9 October 2013 in [[ITunes]] and features the film's lead actors; Khan and Kapoor wearing a black kurta and blue lehnga respectively dancing in a joyous mood.<ref name="iTunes release and track listing" />

An item number,<ref name="Timesofindia.indiatimes.comq"/> and [[Wedding music|wedding song]] aside from being a [[filmi]] number "Tooh" features an array of wedding song "[[paraphernalia]]" including [[Brass instrument|brass]] [[synthesizer]] and [[dhol]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.musicaloud.com/2013/11/10/gori-tere-pyaar-mein-music-review-bollywood-soundtrack/ | title=GORI TERE PYAAR MEIN – MUSIC REVIEW (BOLLYWOOD SOUNDTRACK) | publisher=MusicAloud | work=Vipin | date=10 November 2013 | access-date=8 February 2014}}</ref>

== Music video ==
The video was directed by the director of the film, Punit Malhotra.<ref name="Release with Kareena's 1st Wed Anniversary, second dance number, choreographer"/> The costumes and choreography were done by [[Manish Malhotra]] and [[Remo D'Souza]], respectively. It features [[Kareena Kapoor]] wearing the most elaborate of her six costumes for the film.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/watch-kareena-kapoor-imran-khan-shake-their-tooh-in-new-song-of-gori-tere-pyar-mein/1180798 |title=Watch: Kareena Kapoor, Imran Khan shake their 'Tooh' in new song of 'Gori Tere Pyar Mein' |work=The Financial Express|location=India |date=10 October 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/kareena-kapoor-dons-just-six-costumes-for-gori-tere-pyaar-mein-217484-2013-11-13 |title=Kareena Kapoor dons just six costumes for Gori Tere Pyaar Mein : Bollywood, News – India Today |publisher=Indiatoday.intoday.in |date=14 November 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref>

The video— begins with a group of Indian outfit (mostly [[Sari|sarees]]) wearing females dancing, a man wearing a [[Pagri (turban)|turban]] standing between them. Kapoor appears in a huge hall prepared for hosting a Punjabi wedding; a ''sangeet'' (a type of [[bridal shower]] in north Indian wedding rituals). She along with women of different ages wearing sarees or [[lehnga]]s dance on a stage. In front of the stage are several middle-aged men (wearing white [[Kurta]]s) dancing. [[Imran Khan (Bollywood actor)|Imran Khan]] appears, wearing a black kurta watching the girls on stage. The ''[[baraat]]'' then arrives at a well-lit and decorated bungalow; the bridegroom rides a horse (a custom of traditional [[Northwestern India|north-western]] [[Hindu wedding|Indian weddings]]) and dancers in front of the procession in an alley leading to the bungalow with Khan, wearing a [[tuxedo]], joining them. After the dancing, the video concludes as the duo embrace.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3PqPbtSp_o |title=Tooh – Official Song – Gori Tere Pyaar Mein ft. Imran Khan, Kareena Kapoor |date=9 October 2013 |via=YouTube |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref>

== Release and reception ==
The single was released on [[Music download|digital music]] platform [[ITunes]] on 12 October 2013,<ref name="iTunes release and track listing">{{cite web|title=Tooh (From "Gori Tere Pyaar Mein") – Single|work=[[Vishal–Shekhar]]|publisher=[[ITunes]]|date=12 October 2013|url=https://music.apple.com/in/album/tooh-from-gori-tere-pyaar-mein-single/720008513|archive-url=https://archive.today/20131102122154/https://itunes.apple.com/in/album/tooh-from-gori-tere-pyaar/id720008513|archive-date=2 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> followed by a radio-release on 16 October 2013.<ref name="Release with Kareena's 1st Wed Anniversary, second dance number, choreographer"/> It is the second [[item number]] featuring Kareena Kapoor; the first being "Fevicol Se" from the 2012 film ''[[Dabangg 2]]''.<ref name="Release with Kareena's 1st Wed Anniversary, second dance number, choreographer">{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/bebo-is-tooh-much-leaves-shyness-behind-in-latest-dance-number-213862-2013-10-09 |title=Bebo is 'tooh' much, leaves shyness behind in latest song of Gori Tere Pyaar Mein : Bollywood, News – India Today |publisher=Indiatoday.intoday.in |date=10 October 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref>

=== Reception ===
Upon release, "Tooh" received mixed reviews. Its lyrics were criticised for being objectionable; mediocre and unoriginal, along with the frequent use of the word "Tooh"—<ref name="Koimoi"/><ref name="Rediff"/><ref name="TOI"/> but was noted for its ecstatic and groovy nature.<ref name="Koimoi">{{cite web |url=http://www.koimoi.com/bollywood-movies/music-reviews/gori-tere-pyaar-mein-music-review/ |title=Gori Tere Pyaar Mein! Music Review |publisher=Koimoi.com |date=8 November 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140127171118/http://www.koimoi.com/bollywood-movies/music-reviews/gori-tere-pyaar-mein-music-review/ |archive-date=27 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Rediff">{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/review-gori-tere-pyaar-mein-album-is-pretty-good-/20131117.htm |title=Review: Gori Tere Pyaar Mein album is pretty good – Rediff.com Movies |work=Rediff.com |date=17 November 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="TOI">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/music/music-reviews/Gori-Tere-Pyaar-Mein-Vishal-Shekhar-Shalmali-Kholgade/articleshow/25379604.cms |title=Gori Tere Pyaar Mein |work=The Times of India |date=8 November 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref> The dance steps from the song's music video caught on with revellers adding to the popularity of the single.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://epaper.telegraphindia.com/detail/51440-141530.html | archive-url=https://archive.today/20131227142756/http://epaper.telegraphindia.com/detail/51440-141530.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=27 December 2013 | title=PARTY THE TOP FIVE TAPORI DANCE STEPS OF THE YEAR | work=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]|location=Kolkata | date=22 December 2013 | access-date=27 December 2013}}{{Subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-11-27/mumbai/44518996_1_home-science-women-power-confidence-level | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202185608/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-11-27/mumbai/44518996_1_home-science-women-power-confidence-level | url-status=dead | archive-date=2 February 2014 | title=Freshers jive to 'Dhol Baaje' and 'Tooh' at SVT College of Home Science in Mumbai | date=27 November 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref>

The song's lyrics include multiple instances of the word "Tooh"{{mdash}}[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] for "buttocks",<ref>{{cite web | url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-30/news-interviews/45675445_1_aam-aadmi-gori-tere-pyaar-mein-kareena-kapoor-khan | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103193249/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-12-30/news-interviews/45675445_1_aam-aadmi-gori-tere-pyaar-mein-kareena-kapoor-khan | url-status=dead | archive-date=3 January 2014 | title=Popular desi catchphrases in 2013 | date=30 December 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=26 January 2014}}</ref> which became controversial in India.<ref name="BH">{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/5788 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131124005420/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/features/type/view/id/5788 |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 November 2013 |title=Do 'Tooh' and 'Kiss My A**' make Censors questionable? | Latest Movie Features |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="IE"/><ref name="Poetry goes for a toss"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/2013/nov/201113-simply-outrageous.htm |title=Simply outrageous lyrics in Bollywood! |publisher=Mid-day.com |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref> The [[Central Board of Film Certification]] faced criticism for passing the song without objection, even though it included profanity.<ref name="BH"/><ref name="IE"/><ref name="Poetry goes for a toss"/> Shekhar Ravjiani, one of the song's composers, defended the song, refuting claims that the song is obscene.<ref name="BH"/><ref name="IE"/><ref name="Poetry goes for a toss"/>

The lyrics have also been criticised for their lack of poetry, which was the mainstay of songs in Bollywood classics like ''[[Pyaasa]]'' and ''[[Sujata (1959 film)|Sujata]]''.<ref name="IE"/><ref name="Poetry goes for a toss"/> Lyricist [[Kausar Munir]] blames the attention span of the listeners and the commercial aspect of the films for the rude and offensive lyrics of modern songs; including those of "Tooh".<ref name="BH"/><ref name="IE">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/tooh-party-all-night---the-falling-standards-of-bollywood-lyrics/1192207/0 |title='Tooh, Party all night' – the falling standards of Bollywood lyrics |work=The Indian Express|date=8 November 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Poetry goes for a toss">{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/b-town-banks-on-bawdy-215641-2013-10-26 |title=Poetry goes for a toss as lyrics of songs get vulgar and tasteless : Bollywood, News – India Today |publisher=Indiatoday.intoday.in |date=27 October 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref>

Despite criticism, the song received audiences appreciation; secured high positions in music charts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/watch-kareena-imrans-dil-duffer-in-gori-tere-pyaar-mein/1191101 |title=Watch: Kareena, Imran's 'Dil Duffer' in 'Gori Tere Pyaar Mein' |work=The Financial Express|location=India |date=5 November 2013 |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www1.lite.epaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=24&edlabel=TOIKM&mydateHid=30-12-2013&pubname=&edname=&articleid=Ar02401&format=&publabel=TOI&max=true | title=CHEESY KIYA RE! | work=[[The Times of India]] | author=Jaya Biswas | date=30 December 2013 | access-date=5 January 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106034516/http://www1.lite.epaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=24&edlabel=TOIKM&mydateHid=30-12-2013&pubname=&edname=&articleid=Ar02401&format=&publabel=TOI&max=true | archive-date=6 January 2014 | url-status=dead}} [https://www.scribd.com/doc/196054906/Times-of-India-Publications-30-December-2012-Publication-on-Calcutta-Times Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.koimoi.com/bollywood-popular/badtameez-dil-lungi-dance-gandi-baat-party-all-night-which-is-2013s-best-party-track/ | title=Badtameez Dil, Lungi Dance, Gandi Baat, Party All Night: Which Is 2013′s Best Party Track? | publisher=Koimoi | work=Nayandeep | date=11 January 2014 | access-date=12 January 2014}}</ref> It reached second position in ''[[The Times of India]]'' [[Radio Mirchi]] Top 20 chart{{efn|The chart is the collaborative effort of ''[[The Times of India]]'' and [[Radio Mirchi]].}}<ref name="debut in TOI">{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/musicchart/1081479906.cms?chartid=1&periodtype=4&date=2013-11-01 |title=Music Chart |work=The Times of India |access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref> and ninth position<ref name="BBC 1st">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/asian-download-chart/20131208/asian/|title=Asian Download Top 40 – 8th December 2013 |publisher=Official Charts |date=8 December 2013 |access-date=15 December 2013}}</ref> in the [[BBC Asian Network]] chart, with a run of 11 weeks in the former and eight weeks in the latter.<ref>Other sources:

*{{cite web | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/musicchart/1081479906.cms?chartid=1&periodtype=4&date=2014-01-24 | title=Music Chart | work=The Times of India | date=24 January 2014 | access-date=27 January 2014 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/musicchart/1081479906.cms?chartid=1&periodtype=4&date=2013-11-08 |title=Music Chart |work=The Times of India |access-date=23 November 2013 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.planetbollywood.com/top10Songs.php?id=252 |title=Dhoom 3 enters the chart !! |publisher=Planet Bollywood |work=Atta Khan |date=2013-12-10 |access-date=2013-12-16 }}
*{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/asiannetwork/chart/downloads | title=The Official Asian Download Chart 25th January 2014 | publisher=BBC | date=18 January 2014 | access-date=25 January 2014 | archive-date=27 January 2014 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20140127174333/http://www.bbc.co.uk/asiannetwork/chart/downloads | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}
{{Mika Singh}}
{{Vishal–Shekhar}}

[[Category:2013 songs]]
[[Category:Filmi songs]]
[[Category:2013 singles]]
[[Category:Songs written for Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Mika Singh songs]]
[[Category:Songs in Hindi]]
[[Category:Songs with music by Vishal–Shekhar]]

Tere Bin (2016 TV series)

2026-01-14T11:40:34Z

Ankithreddy: Creating Basic Entry Initial Version...

{{Short description|Indian television series}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Tere_Bin_poster.jpg
| caption = First look
| genre = [[Television drama|Drama]] [[Romance film|Romance]]
| creator = Naresh Borde
| writer = Meer Muneer
| creative_director = Atul Ketkar
| presenter =
| judges =
| starring = [[Gaurav Khanna]] [[Shefali Sharma]] [[Khushboo Tawde]] [[Rohit Bhardwaj]]
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 95
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| producer = Naresh Baburao Borde Amol Baburao Borde
| location = [[Mumbai]], [[India]]
| cinematography =
| camera = [[Multi-camera]]
| runtime = approx 22 minutes
| company = [[Siddhivinayak Productions]]
| channel = [[&TV]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2016|7|18}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=yes|2016|11|25}}
| image_alt =
| list_episodes =
| network =
| released =
}}

'''''Tere Bin''''' (''Without You'') is an Indian [[Hindi-language]] [[television drama]] series, which premiered 18 July 2016 on [[&TV]] at 8pm and ended its run on 25 November 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Tere-Bin-to-replace-Meri-Awaaz-Hi-Pehchaan-Hai/articleshow/53153986.cms|title='Tere Bin' to replace 'Meri Awaaz Hi Pehchaan Hai' - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=12 July 2016 |language=en|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Tere-Bin-A-complex-love-story-on-TV/articleshow/53249579.cms|title='Tere Bin'... A complex love story on TV - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=18 July 2016 |language=en|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref> The series was produced by Shree Sidhivinayak Chitra. [[Gaurav Khanna]], [[Shefali Sharma]] and [[Khushboo Tawde]] played lead roles in the series.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/gaurav-khanna-and-shefali-sharmas-lunchbox-diaries/17500178|title=Gaurav Khanna and Shefali Sharma's 'lunchbox' diaries|date=2016-08-05|website=mid-day|language=en|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.starworldnews.co/gaurav-khanna-shefali-sharma-and-khushboo-tawde-at-the-launch-of-tere-bin/|title=Gaurav Khanna, Shefali Sharma and Khushboo Tawde at the launch of Tere Bin|last=Bachchan|first=Amit|date=2016-07-09|website=Star World News|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-30|archive-date=30 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830204547/http://www.starworldnews.co/gaurav-khanna-shefali-sharma-and-khushboo-tawde-at-the-launch-of-tere-bin/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Plot==
The show is about Dr. Akshay Sinha ([[Gaurav Khanna]]) who sacrificed his love to help his friend's fiance, Vijaya ([[Shefali Sharma]]) because she was pregnant when his friend died. Akshay and Vijaya have been married for 8 years but their marriage is a formal one where they care for each other and live as a family, but don't have the dynamic of a husband and wife.

Eight years later, his love, Dr. Nandini Bhatt ([[Khushboo Tawde]]) returns. He has a hard time explaining to her what happened and why he had to leave her, while Vijaya accepted her marriage with Akshay. She also wants a life as a normal husband and wife, unaware of the fact that Akshay and Nandini are having an affair. Meanwhile, the stress of the situation and keeping it from Vijaya causes him to behave strangely making Vijaya concerned. Akshay first wanted to end his and Vijaya's marriage by that he can be with Nandini. But whenever he tried to reveal his relationship with Nandini he stopped himself from doing that.

Vijaya finally finds the truth of Akshay and Nandini but she challenges Nandini that she will fix their marriage in one month otherwise she will go out from Akshay's life forever. Nandini tries to woo Akshay back into her life and away from Vijaya much to the dismay of her friend Dr. Irfaan Malik ([[Rohit Bhardwaj]]) who has been trying to convince her to move on and has a crush on Nandini that he already confessed to her.

Eventually, Akshay started to realise his priorities and his feelings for Vijaya and he confessed his past relationship with Nandini to Vijaya who told him that she knew the matter some days ago. Then couple confess their love and consummate their marriage. While Nandini realised the fact that now Akshay does not love her anymore and that she has to move on in her life. She decides to marry Irfaan who already loves her and cares for her.

The show ends with Akshay, Vijaya, Irfaan and Nandini starting their lives afresh...

==Cast==
*[[Gaurav Khanna]] as Dr. Akshay Sinha<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-07-06|title=Gaurav Khanna: Wanted to become doctor, now getting to play one on TV|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/gaurav-khanna-wanted-to-become-doctor-now-getting-to-play-one-on-tv/17406179|access-date=2019-08-30|website=mid-day|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-07-05|title=Wanted to become doctor, now getting to play one on TV: Gaurav Khanna|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/wanted-to-become-doctor-now-getting-to-play-one-on-tv-gaurav-khanna-2895746/|access-date=2019-08-30|website=The Indian Express|language=en-IN}}</ref>
*[[Shefali Sharma]] as Vijaya Akshay Sinha<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/shefali-sharma-to-play-lead-in-tere-bin-2866408/|title=Shefali Sharma to play lead in Tere Bin|date=21 June 2016|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|accessdate=21 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Shefali Sharma to play lead in 'Tere Bin'">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Shefali-Sharma-to-play-lead-in-Tere-Bin/articleshow/52850271.cms|title=Shefali Sharma to play lead in 'Tere Bin'|date=21 June 2016|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|accessdate=21 June 2016}}</ref>
* Khushboo Tawde as Dr. Nandini Bhatt<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/khushboo-tawdes-new-look-in-tv-show-inspired-from-piku-2901041/|title=Khushboo Tawde's new look in TV show inspired from 'Piku'|date=2016-07-08|website=The Indian Express|language=en-IN|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/khushboo-tawdes-new-look-in-tv-show-inspired-from-piku/17414190|title=Khushboo Tawde's new look in TV show inspired from 'Piku'|date=2016-07-08|website=mid-day|language=en|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tellychakkar.com/video/tere-bin-dream-come-true-khushboo-tawde-160709|title=Tere Bin is a DREAM come true : Khushboo Tawde|last=Team|first=Tellychakkar|website=Tellychakkar.com|language=en|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref>
* Rohit Bharadwaj as Dr. Irfan Malik<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Tere-Bin-A-complex-love-story-on-TV/articleshow/53249579.cms|title='Tere Bin'... A complex love story on TV - Times of India|website=The Times of India|date=18 July 2016 |language=en|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref>
* Mahi Milan Kanani as Neeti Sinha

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{&TV Programmes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tere Bin (TV series)}}
[[Category:2016 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:&TV original programming]]
[[Category:2016 Indian television series endings]]

Jio Institute

2026-01-06T00:12:27Z

Ankithreddy: added a info

{{Short description|Higher education institution in India}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Jio Institute
| native_name =
| image = Jio Institue Logo.png
| caption =
| type = Private
| established = 2018
| founders = [[Nita Ambani]] [[Mukesh Ambani]]
| endowment =
| chancellor = [[Raghunath Anant Mashelkar|Dr. Raghunath A. Mashelkar]]
| vice_chancellor = [[Dipak C. Jain|Dr. Dipak C. Jain]]
| dean = Dr. Shailesh Kumar
| address = NMSEZ Building 1, Sector 5, Ulwe, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra 410206
| city = Navi Mumbai
| state = Maharashtra
| country = India
| campus = Urban
| website = {{URL|https://www.jioinstitute.edu.in/}}
}}
'''Jio Institute''' is a private institute of higher education based in India.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-21 |title=Jio Institute born out of dream to redefine Higher Education: Nita Ambani |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/education/jio-institute-born-out-of-dream-to-redefine-higher-education-nita-ambani-article-93017261 |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Jio Institute starts, Nita Ambani says it is born out of dream to redefine higher education |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/jio-institute-starts-nita-ambani-says-it-is-born-out-of-dream-to-redefine-higher-education-8859481.html |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=Moneycontrol |language=en}}</ref> It was founded in 2018 by [[Reliance Industries Limited]], one of the largest conglomerates in India<ref>{{Cite web |title=Top 10 Indian companies by market value |url=https://www.businessinsider.in/india/news/top-10-indian-companies-by-market-value/articleshow/74577297.cms |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=Business Insider}}</ref>

== History ==
Jio Institute was founded in 2018 and is based in [[Navi Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]]. The institute is sited on {{convert|800|acre|hectare}} of land. The [[Ministry of Education (India)|Ministry of Education]], issued a Letter of intent to Jio Institute for setting up an '[[Institutes of Eminence]]' under greenfield category which was followed by criticism.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pathak |first=Vikas |date=2018-07-09 |title=Six universities, including Jio Institute, to be ‘institutions of eminence’ |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/education/six-universities-including-jio-institute-to-be-institutions-of-eminence/article24371429.ece |access-date=2023-04-22 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-07-10 |title=HRD ministry issues clarification after 'Institution of Eminence' tag to Jio Institute |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/hrd-ministry-issues-clarification-after-institution-of-eminence-tag-to-jio-institute/articleshow/64923290.cms |access-date=2024-07-18 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The campus of Jio Institute is currently under construction in Karjat, Maharashtra. The institute is expected to be completed by 2023, and will include research centers, libraries, and sports facilities.

== Academics ==
Jio Institute plans to offer undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral programs in various fields such as engineering, humanities, and social sciences.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-20 |title=Jio Institute to start classes on AI, digital media from July 21 |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/education/story/jio-institute-to-start-classes-on-ai-digital-media-from-july-21-342154-2022-07-20 |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
<references />

{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}

[[Category:2018 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures under construction in India]]

Surha Tal Bird Sanctuary

2026-01-05T02:52:16Z

Ankithreddy:

{{Infobox protected area
| name = Surha Tal Bird Sanctuary
| iucn_category = IV
| map = India Uttar Pradesh#India
| relief = 1
| mapframe = Yes
| location = [[Ballia district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
| nearest_city = [[Ballia]]
| coordinates = {{coord|25.85|N|84.18|E|display=inline,title}}
| area = 34.32 km²
| established = 1991
| governing_body = [[Uttar Pradesh Forest Department]]
}}

'''Surha Tal Bird Sanctuary''', officially known as the '''Jai Prakash Narayan Bird Sanctuary''', is a protected area situated in the [[Ballia district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. Established in 1991, the sanctuary is centered around [[Surha Tal]], a large natural perennial lake, and is {{cvt|34.32|sqkm}} in area.<ref name="UPForest">{{cite web |title=Bird Sanctuaries of Uttar Pradesh |url=http://upforest.gov.in/StaticPages/BirdSanctuary.aspx |publisher=Uttar Pradesh Forest Department |access-date=2026-01-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Aggarwal |first=Mayank |date=2022-05-20 |title=A bird sanctuary’s survival is being threatened in Uttar Pradesh |url=https://india.mongabay.com/2022/05/how-a-bird-sanctuarys-survival-is-being-threatened/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=Mongabay-India |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Geography ==
The sanctuary is located in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], near the confluence of the [[Ganges]] and [[Ghaghara]] rivers. The lake is an [[oxbow lake]] formed by the shifting course of the Ganges.<ref>{{Cite web |last=LokMarg |date=2023-03-04 |title=NGT Stays Construction In UP's Surha Tal Bird Sanctuary {{!}} Lokmarg |url=https://lokmarg.com/ngt-stays-construction-in-ups-surha-tal-bird-sanctuary/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=Lokmarg - News Views Blogs |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ynorme |date=2021-11-19 |title=Surha Taal |url=https://www.ynorme.com/blog/surha-taal/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=Ynorme |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Fauna ==
The sanctuary is a critical habitat for both resident and migratory birds. During winters, it hosts species from Siberia and Central Asia, including the [[Greylag goose]], [[Pintail]], [[Common teal]], and [[Bar-headed goose]].<ref name="IBATal">{{cite web |title=Surha Tal Bird Sanctuary |url=http://www.birdlife.org |publisher=BirdLife International |access-date=2026-01-04}}</ref> Local species include [[Sarus crane]], [[Heron]], and [[Cormorant]]. The lake is also rich in various indigenous fish species.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-23 |title=Jai Prakash Narayan (Surha taal) Bird Wildlife Sanctuary - WildTrails {{!}} The One-Stop Destination for all your Wildlife Holidays |url=https://wildtrails.in/jai-prakash-narayan-surha-taal-bird-wildlife-sanctuary/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=wildtrails.in |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== See also ==
* [[Wildlife of Uttar Pradesh]]

[[Category:Protected areas established in 1991]]
[[Category:Ballia district]]
[[Category:Lakes of Uttar Pradesh]]

Malika-i-Jahan (wife of Alauddin Khalji)

2026-01-04T13:45:25Z

Ankithreddy: creating some bio w/ sources

{{About||other people with similar names|Malika-i-Jahan (disambiguation){{!}}Malika-i-Jahan}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Malika-è-Jahan
| title = [[Shahzadi]] of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]
| image =
| caption =
| succession = [[Malik]]a of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]
| reign = {{circa}} 1296–1316
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| burial_place =
| consort = yes
| spouse = [[Alauddin Khalji]]
| issue =
| house = [[Khalji dynasty|Khalji]] ''(by birth)''
| father = [[Jalaluddin Khalji]]
| mother = ''Malika-e-Jahan''
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
| image_size = 270px
}}
'''Malika-i-Jahan''' ("Queen of the World") was the first and chief wife of Sultan [[Alauddin Khalji]],<ref name="Hasan">{{cite book|last1=Hasan|first1=Masudul|title=History of Islam|date=2007|publisher=Adam Publishers & Distributors|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788174350190|page=155|edition= Rev.}}</ref> the
most powerful ruler of the [[Khalji dynasty]] that ruled the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. She was the daughter of Alauddin's predecessor and paternal uncle, Sultan [[Jalaluddin Khalji]], the founder of the Khalji dynasty.

== Family and lineage ==
Malika-i-Jahan was the daughter of Jalaluddin Khalji, the founder and first [[Sultan]] of the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=Medieval India : from Sultanat to the Mughals.|date=2004|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788124110645|page=75|edition= Rev.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Lethbridge|first1=Sir Roper|title=A Short Manual of the History of India: With an Account of India as it is|url=https://archive.org/details/ashortmanualhis01lethgoog|date=1881|publisher=Macmillan and Company|page=[https://archive.org/details/ashortmanualhis01lethgoog/page/n217 190]|language=en}}</ref> Her mother, also titled ''Malika-i-Jahan'', was Jalaluddin's chief wife. She was quite an ambitious lady and held great influence over the Sultan. She also influenced contemporary politics to great extent.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hasan|first1=Masudul|title=History of Islam|date=2007|publisher=Adam Publishers & Distributors|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788174350190|page=88|edition= Rev.}}</ref> Malika-i-Jahan had at least three brothers: Khan-i-Khan, Arkali Khan and Qadr Khan. Her future husband, Alauddin, was the eldest son of Jalaluddin's older brother, Shihabuddin Mas'ud, making Malika-i-Jahan a first-cousin of Alauddin.<ref name="Mehta">{{cite book|last1=Mehta|first1=Jaswant Lal|title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India|date=1980|publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=9788120706170|page=137|language=en}}</ref> After his father's death, Alauddin was brought up by Jalaluddin. His younger brother, Almas Beg, also married a daughter of Jalaluddin.{{sfn|Banarsi Prasad Saksena|1992|p=321}}

== Marriage ==
Malika-i-Jahan married Alauddin long before the Khalji revolution of 1290.<ref name="Mehta" /> Alauddin rose to prominence after the marriage,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Congress|first1=Indian History|title=Proceedings – Indian History Congress|date=1985|volume=45|page=273|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRVDAAAAYAAJ&q=alauddin+khilji+jalaluddin+daughter|access-date=12 November 2017|publisher=Indian History Congress.|language=en}}</ref> for when Jalaluddin became the Sultan of Delhi in 1290, he was appointed as ''Amir-i-Tuzuk'' (equivalent to [[Master of ceremonies]]), while Almas Beg was given the post of ''Akhur-beg'' (equivalent to [[Master of the Horse]]).{{sfn|Kishori Saran Lal|1950|p=41}} The marriage was not a happy one; Malika-i-Jahan took pride in being the daughter of the Sultan, and was neglected by Alauddin due to her haughty demeanour. He fell out with the princess when she attempted to dominate him and exhibited open jealousy and contempt towards his second wife, Mahru, the sister of [[Alp Khan]].<ref name="Mehta" /> Once, while Alauddin and Mahru were together in a garden, Malika-i-Jahan attacked Mahru. In a fit of temper, Alauddin assaulted her. The incident was reported to Jalaluddin, but the Sultan did not take any action against Alauddin.{{sfn|Kishori Saran Lal|1950|p=41}}

Alauddin was also on bad terms with his mother-in-law, who convinced Jalaluddin that he was aiming to carve out an independent kingdom in a remote part of the country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nand|first1=Lokesh Chandra|title=Women in Delhi Sultanate|date=1989|publisher=Vohra Publishers|location=Allahabad, India|isbn=9788185072524|page=85|edition= 1st}}</ref> Fearful of his mother-in-law's influence on the Sultan, Alauddin brought no complaint against his wife.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Journal of Indian History|date=1931|volume=9|page=220|publisher=University of Kerala.|language=en}}</ref> In 1296, Alauddin murdered Jalaluddin and took over the throne, proclaiming himself the new sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ahmed|first1=Farooqui Salma|title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century|date=2011|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=9788131732021|page=69|language=en}}</ref> Malika-i-Jahan never forgave her husband for the murder of her father.<ref name="Hasan" />

== In popular culture ==
Malika-i-Jahan was portrayed by [[Aditi Rao Hydari]] in [[Sanjay Leela Bhansali]]'s period film ''[[Padmaavat]]'' (2018), where she is known as Mehrunissa.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1626801/4-mehrunisa-padmaavat-tiny-special-aditi-rao-hydari/ |title=Mehrunisa in Padmaavat was tiny but special: Aditi Rao Hydari |date=5 February 2018 |work=[[The Express Tribune]] |access-date=16 February 2018 |agency=[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |author=Banarsi Prasad Saksena |author-link=Banarsi Prasad Saksena |chapter=The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji |editor1=Mohammad Habib |editor2=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526) |volume=5 |edition=Second |year=1992 |orig-year=1970 |publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |oclc=31870180 }}
* {{cite book |author=Kishori Saran Lal |author-link=K. S. Lal |title=History of the Khaljis (1290–1320) |year=1950 |publisher=The Indian Press |location=Allahabad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XXqAQAACAAJ |oclc=685167335 }}

[[Category:Alauddin Khalji]]
[[Category:13th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:14th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:Khalji dynasty]]
[[Category:13th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:14th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:14th-century deaths]]
[[Category:13th-century births]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]

Amiya Patra

2026-01-02T20:27:27Z

Ankithreddy: starting new stub.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
'''Amiya Patra''' is an Indian politician belonging to [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-04-01 |title='Mamata taking credit for UPA schemes: CPM's Amiya Patra |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/mamata-taking-credit-for-upa-schemes-cpms-amiya-patra/ |access-date=2025-02-16 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> He was elected to [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] in 1987 and 1991 from [[Taldangra Assembly constituency]].<ref name=vidhansabha1987>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1987/StatisticalReportWestBengal87.pdf |title = General Elections, India, 1987, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref><ref name=vidhansabha1991>{{cite web| url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1991/StatisticalReport-West%20Bengal91.pdf|title = General Elections, India, 1991, to the Legislative Assembly of West Bengal | work= Constituency-wise Data|publisher= Election Commission | access-date = 13 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Election_Results_of_West_Bengal/CNeNAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Amiya+Patra&dq=Amiya+Patra&printsec=frontcover |title=Election Results of West Bengal: Statistics & Analysis, 1952-1991 |publisher=The Committee |isbn=978-81-7626-028-2 |pages=608 |language=en}}</ref> He is a member of Central Committee of CPI(M) since 22 April 2018.{{citation needed|date=July 2025}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patra, Amiya}}
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1987–1991]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:People from Bankura district]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]

{{WestBengal-CPIndiaMarxist-politician-stub}}

Uperodon variegatus

2025-12-18T04:12:54Z

Ankithreddy: Creating First Details Initial Version

{{Short description|Species of amphibian}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Uperodon variegatus-Ramanella variegata.jpg
| image_caption =
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite IUCN
|title=Eluru Dot Frog: ''Uperodon variegatus''
|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/163971293/156579116
|article-number=e.T163971293A156579116
|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2023-1.RLTS.T163971293A156579116.en
|id=163971293
|year=2023
|author1=IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group
|accessdate=July 9, 2025}}</ref>
| taxon = Uperodon variegatus
| authority = ([[Ferdinand Stoliczka|Stoliczka]], 1872)
| synonyms = {{species list
| Hylaedactylus carnaticus | Jerdon, 1853 – ''[[nomen nudum]]''
| Callula variegata | Stoliczka, 1872<ref>Stoliczka, F. 1872. Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal (6):111</ref>
| Callula olivacea | Günther, 1876 "1875"
| Kaloula variegata | (Stoliczka, 1872)
| Ramanella symbioitica | Rao and Ramanna, 1925 }}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=Frost/>
}}

'''''Uperodon variegatus''''', also known as the '''Eluru dot frog''', '''termite nest frog''', '''variable ramanella''', '''variagated ramanella''', '''white-bellied pug snout frog''', or '''variagated globular frog''', is a species of narrow-mouthed frog (family [[Microhylidae]]) that is [[endemic]] to [[India]]. Earlier records from [[Sri Lanka]] refer to what is now known as ''[[Uperodon rohani]]''.<ref name=Frost/> They are seen mostly in the [[monsoon]] season when they may enter homes. They are small in size and the variegated markings and the genus characteristic of having pads on the fingertips but not on their toes make them easy to identify.

==Description==
This species is small and often can be found indoors in homes. The discs on the fingers are triangular. Toes have rudimentary webbing with two metatarsal tubercles. The tibio-tarsal joint reaches shoulder when the hind leg is held along the body. They breed during the rainy season (April–October) and call during this time. Males call at night while afloat in water. They have a single subgular [[vocal sac]].<ref>Ravishankar Dundappa Kanamadi; Channayya Rajashekar Hiremath; Hans Schneider (1993) The advertisement call of the south Indian frog ''Ramanella variegata'' (Microhylidae). Journal of Herpetology 27(2):218-219.</ref><ref>Dutta, S. K., Sushree, J. and Mohanthi-Hejmadi, P., Breeding and development of ''Ramanella variegata'' (Anura; microhylidae). J. Zool. Soc. India, 1990–1991, 42–43, 55–76.</ref> The call has been transcribed as ''ghauy'' ''ghauy''. The [[tadpole]]s are brown or gray with black spots. Sometimes they have a blue spot on each side of the body. The tadpoles are bottom feeders and [[metamorphosis|metamorphose]] within a month.<ref>Daniel, J. C. (1963) Field Guide to the Amphibians of Western India. Part 2. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3):25-37</ref>

==Habitat==
They breed in water in dark cavities and are often found in [[termite mound]]s or under stones.<ref name=IUCN /> Recorded mainly from peninsular India including the dry zone being found even in Madras and West Bengal.<ref>Deuti, Kaushik (1998) Occurrence of ''Ramanella variegata'' (Anura- Microhylidae) in west Bengal with notes on its Distribution in India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc: 95(1):126-127</ref><ref>Murthy, T.S.N. (1968) Notes on a rare and interesting microhylid frog (''Ramanella variegata'' Stol.) from Madras. J. Univ. Bombay 36(3 & 5): 1-3</ref> They have been found to be quite tolerant to water salinity.<ref>Chakko, George (1968) Salinity tolerance in some South Indian Anurans. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section B. 67:233-236 [http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/procb/67/233-236.pdf PDF]</ref>

They have been found to occur with large black scorpions ''[[Heterometrus]]'' sp. and when disturbed they crawl over the scorpions but flattened and froze when the scorpions walked over them. They can burrow in soft soil.<ref>Daniel, J C (1963) Field Guide to the Amphibians of Western India. Part 2. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3):25-37</ref><ref>Rao, C. R. N. & Ramanna, B. S. (1925) On a new genus of the family Engystomatidae (Batrachia). Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1925: 587-97.</ref>

==Threats==
This frog is classified as least concern. It has a large range that includes many protected parks, a large population, and a reasonable tolerance to human-induced changes to its environment. Habitat loss and pollution in the form of fertilizers and pesticides pose some risk, and [[climate change]] may pose a risk in the future by altering sea levels and removing habitat.<ref name=IUCN />

<gallery mode=packed heights=150px>
File:RamanellaVariegata4.jpg
File:Ramanella variegata.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name=Frost>{{cite web |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Microhylidae/Microhylinae/Uperodon/Uperodon-variegatus |title=''Uperodon variegatus'' (Stoliczka, 1872) |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2019 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |access-date=1 July 2019}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Uperodon variegatus}}
{{Wikispecies}}
* [http://ctdbase.org/detail.go?type=taxon&acc=419646 Termite nest frog]

{{Taxonbar|from=Q28042415|from2=Q2709684}}

[[Category:Uperodon|variegatus]]
[[Category:Frogs of India]]
[[Category:Endemic amphibians of India]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Ferdinand Stoliczka]]
[[Category:Amphibians described in 1872]]

Kabaria

2025-09-25T20:06:06Z

Ankithreddy: further cleaned up content and corrected details

{{Short description|Muslim community from Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{for|the insect genus|Kabaria (fly)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}

The '''Kabaria''', sometimes pronounced as Kabariya, are a Muslim community found in the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]] in India, mainly in the [[Awadh]] region. A small number of Kabaria are also found in the [[Terai]] region of [[Nepal]].<ref name=":0">Muslim caste in Uttar Pradesh : (a study of culture contact) by Ansari, G, (Ghaus) Ethnographic and Folklore Society 1960 pages 46 and 47</ref>

==Present circumstances==

The Kabaria are strictly [[endogamous]], and practice both parallel cousin and cross cousin marriages. They speak the [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] dialect, although most [[Lucknow]] Kabaria speak reasonable [[Urdu]], and belong to the [[Sunni]] sect. Like other Indian Muslim [[castes]], they have informal caste council, referred to as a [[Panchayati raj|panchayat]]. The panchayat acts as an instrument of social control, resolving intra community disputes, and punishing community members who transcend cultural norms. Each Kabaria settlement contains its own panchayat, but unlike other communities, they have not set a formal caste association.<ref name=":0" />

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Indian Muslim}}

[[Category:Social groups of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of India]]

Rohan Kapoor (actor)

2025-09-16T16:11:12Z

Ankithreddy: Adding a info.

{{Short description|Indian actor}}
{{for|the Indian badminton player|Rohan Kapoor (badminton)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rohan Kapoor/Ruhan Kapoor
| image = RK -SP.jpg
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption = Ruhan Kapoor
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1965}}
| birth_place = Mumbai
| death_date =
| death_place =
| othername = Ruhan Kapoor
| occupation = Actor, singer
| yearsactive = 1981–present
| parents = [[Mahendra Kapoor]] (Father)
| spouse =
| partner =
| website =[https://www.ruhankapoor.com www.ruhankapoor.com]
}}
'''Rohan Kapoor''' (or '''Ruhan Kapoor''', born 1965){{citation needed|date=April 2024}} is an India actor and singer{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}, son of [[Mahendra Kapoor]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daboo |first=Jerri |url=https://www.google.pt/books/edition/Staging_British_South_Asian_Culture/gJxADwAAQBAJ?hl=fr&gbpv=1&dq=Ruhan+Kapoor&pg=PT79&printsec=frontcover |title=Staging British South Asian Culture: Bollywood and Bhangra in British Theatre |date=2017-11-28 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-19611-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-ruhan-kapoor-remembers-his-father-mahendra-kapoor/20120109.htm | title=The Magical Mahendra Kapoor }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-02-29 |title=Mahendra Kapoor’s son Rohan Kapoor opens up on Hai Preet Jahan Ki Reet Sada song from Purab Aur Paschim: Exclusive! |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/rohan-kapoor-talks-about-the-iconic-song-hai-preet-jahan-ki-reet-sada-from-purab-aur-paschim/articleshow/108107220.cms |access-date=2025-03-12 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> He started his film career at the age of 16 as an assistant director with [[Manoj Kumar]] for the film ''[[Kranti]]''. After that, he became active on the stage with [[Shafi Inamdar]] and even acted for two of his most popular plays – ''[[Neela Kamra]]'' and ''[[Adaa]]''. Yash Chopra gave a break to Rohan as a hero in his film ''[[Faasle]]'' with Farha in the year 1985, then he had a role in ''[[Love 86]]'', in which [[Govinda (actor)|Govinda]] co-starred with Rohan. After that, [[Prakash Mehra]] got Rohan to play in ''[[Imaandaar]]'' in deference to his earlier role with [[Shafi Inamdar]] and [[Sanjay Dutt]], which earned Rohan much critical acclaim from the media as well as moviegoers. Then, many other roles came, including ''[[Masti (1994 film)|Masti]]'', ''Mera Naseeb'', ''[[Maha Kali]]'', and ''[[Sur Asur]]''.

He also started his singing career at the age of nine; he toured the world with his father singing on stage. Then, Rohan made the pop albums ''Oh My Darling'', ''Dil Tera Diwana'' and ''Ishq Rab Ki Dua''.

==Selected filmography==
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Year !!Film !!Role !! Notes
|-
| 1981 ||''[[Kranti]]'' || || Assistant director
|-
| 1985 || ''[[Faasle]]'' || Vijay ||
|-
| 1986 || ''[[Love 86]]'' || Omi ||
|-
| 1987 || ''[[Imaandaar]]'' || Vijay 'Viju' R. Verma ||
|-
|1989
|Wohi Bhayanak Raat
|
|
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|1225454}}
*[http://www.timescontent.com/syndication-photos/reprint/entertainment/172305/ruhan-kapoor.html/ Ruhan Kapoor's performance-Times Content]
*[http://www.glamsham.com/picture-gallery/mahendra-kapoors-76th-birth-anniversary-celebration-gallery/4489/0/event.htm Ruhan Kapoor pays tribute to legendary father]
*[https://www.ruhankapoor.com www.ruhankapoor.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20181128055747/https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/artists/c4eeaac8-493a-4aa8-82ec-555f8d9f6ea2 Ruhan Kapoor BBC Artists page]
*[https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-ruhan-kapoor-remembers-his-father-mahendra-kapoor/20120109.htm Interview of Ruhan Kapoor - Rediff]
*[http://beta.audionetwork.com/composer/ruhan-kapoor_253.aspx Ruhan Kapoor's Biography on Audionetwork]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20181128055747/https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/artists/c4eeaac8-493a-4aa8-82ec-555f8d9f6ea2 Ruhan Kapoor BBC Artist page]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kapoor, Rohan}}
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]

Chinchwad railway station

2025-08-28T13:38:09Z

Ankithreddy: correct intro as per guidelines

{{Short description|Railway station in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Chinchwad
| native_name = चिंचवड
| type = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|30px]] [[Pune Suburban Railway]] station
| style = Indian Railways
| image = Chinchwad Railway Station.JPG
| image_caption =
| address = [[Chinchwad]], [[Pimpri-Chinchwad]]
| country =
| coordinates = {{Coord|18.6397|73.7918|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| line = [[Pune Suburban Railway]] [[Mumbai Dadar–Solapur section]]
| other =
| structure =
| platform = 4
| depth =
| levels =
| tracks = 6
| parking = Yes
| bicycle =
| opened =
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| status = Active
| electrified = Yes
| accessible =
| code = CCH
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| zone = [[Central Railway zone|Central Railway]]
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Pune Suburban Railway|line=Lonavala Line|left=Akurdi |right=Pimpri }}
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-caption = Interactive map
| mapframe-custom = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|frame-align=center|frame-width=300|frame-height=180|zoom=14|type=point|marker=rail}}
}}

'''Chinchwad railway station''' is an important halt on the [[Pune Suburban Railway]]. It connects to the historic centre of Pune and is one of the oldest local railway station. It is located 2.1 km from Chinchwad Bus Terminal, {{stnlnk|Pune Junction}} is 18 km away. Few trains travelling from [[Mumbai]] to Pune or [[Kolhapur]] have their halt on this station. The nearest airport is [[Pune International Airport]] which is 15 km away. This is operated by Central Railway division of [[Indian Railways]]. This station has four platforms and one footbridge.

== Express & Passenger ==

Trains halting at Chinchwad railway station are:-

* [[Mumbai]]–[[Kolhapur]] [[Koyna Express]]
* [[Panvel–Hazur Sahib Nanded Express]]<ref>[http://indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-panvel-hazur-sahib-nanded-express-via-latur-17613/15066/76/1676 Panvel Express (Via Latur)]</ref>
* Pune–Mumbai [[Sinhagad Express]]
* Pune–[[Panvel]] Passenger
* Mumbai–[[Bijapur]] Passenger
* Mumbai–[[Shirdi]] Passenger
* Mumbai–[[Pandharpur]] Passenger
* [[Pune–Bhusaval Express]]
* [[Indore–Pune Superfast Express]]
* [[Indore–Pune Express (via Panvel)]]
* [[Pune–Valsad Express]]
* [[Pune–Ernakulam (Holiday Special) Humsafar Express]]
* [[Pune–Gwalior Weekly Express]]

==Suburban trains==
{{See also|Pune Suburban Railway}}
{{Pune–Lonavala RDT}}

Local or Suburban trains travelling on the [[Pune Junction]]–[[Lonavala]]–Pune Junction or Pune Junction–[[Talegaon]]–Pune Junction routes halt at this station.

===Lonavala / Talegaon Locals===

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Destination
! Train name
! Timmings
! Frequency
|-
| (To) {{stnlnk|Lonavala}}
| Lonavala Local
| 00.42, 04.52,06.12, 06.57, 08.27, 10.32, 11.27, 12.27, 13.27, 16.07, 16.57, 18.07, 18.42, 19.27, 20.27, 21.37 and 22.37.
| Daily
|-
| (To) {{stnlnk|Talegaon}}
| Talegaon Local
| 07.22, 09.27 and 15.27.
| Daily
|}

===Pune Locals===

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! Destination
! Train name
! Timmings
! Frequency
|-
| (From) [[Lonavala Station|Lonavala]]
| Lonavala Local
| 05.53, 07.08, 08.13, 09.08, 11.08, 12.43, 14.53, 15.49, 16.38, 18.13, 19.13, 20.28, 21.33, 22.38, 23.03, 00.08 and 00.38
| Daily
|-
| (From) {{stnlnk|Talegaon}}
| Talegaon Local
| 08.26, 10.21 and 16.21.
| Daily
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.india9.com/i9show/-Maharashtra/Chinchwad/Chinchwad-Railway-Station-36420.htm Chinchwad Railway Station]

{{Neighbourhoods of Pune}}
{{Central Railway}}
{{Pune Suburban Railway}}
{{Railway stations in Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Railway stations in Pune district]]
[[Category:Transport in Pimpri-Chinchwad]]
[[Category:Pune railway division]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Pimpri-Chinchwad]]

Mahendra Nath Pandey

2025-08-23T15:00:37Z

Ankithreddy:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = MN Pandey.jpg
| caption = Pandey in 2024
| office = [[Ministry of Heavy Industries|Minister of Heavy Industries]]
| term_start = 7 July 2021
| termend= 11 June 2024
| primeminister = [[Narendra Modi]]
| predecessor = [[Prakash Javadekar]]
| successor = [[H. D. Kumaraswamy]]
| office1 = [[Minister of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship]]
| term_start1 = 31 May 2019
| term_end1 = 7 July 2021
| primeminister1 = [[Narendra Modi]]
| predecessor1 = [[Dharmendra Pradhan]]
| successor1 = [[Dharmendra Pradhan]]
| office3 = [[Ministry of Human Resource Development|Minister of State, Human Resource Development]]
| successor3 = [[Satya Pal Singh (Uttar Pradesh politician)|Satya Pal Singh]]
| term_start3 = 5 July 2016
| term_end3 = 31 August 2017
| office4 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| term_start4 = 16 May 2014
| termend4 = 4 June 2024
| constituency4 = [[Chandauli (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chandauli]]
| predecessor4 = [[Ramkishun]]
| successor4 = [[Virendra Singh (Varanasi)|Virendra Singh]]
| office2 = President of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] unit
| term_start2 = 31 August 2017
| term_end2 = 16 July 2019
| predecessor2 = [[Keshav Prasad Maurya]]
| successor2 = [[Swatantra Dev Singh]]
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1957|10|15|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Ghazipur district|Pakhapur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
| nationality = [[Indian people|Indian]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| spouse = Pratima Pandey (m.1985)
| mother = Chandrawati Pandey
| father = Sudhakar Pandey
| residence = [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| alma_mater = [[Banaras Hindu University]] ([[Postgraduate education|M.A.]] and [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D]])
| cabinet = [[Second Modi ministry]]
| profession = Agriculturist
| footnotes =
}}
'''Mahendra Nath Pandey''' (born 15 October 1957) is an Indian politician who was Minister of Heavy Industries and Minister for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship of India and [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Lok Sabha]] for [[Chandauli (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chandauli]] from [[2014 Indian general election|2014]] to [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]. He is a member of [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and was the president of the party's Uttar Pradesh unit. He was also Union [[Minister of State]] for [[Ministry of Human Resource Development]] in 2016 and 2017. He was a member of Modi's second ministry. On 30 May 2019, he was appointed as Cabinet minister for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, Government of India.

==Early life==
[[File:Dr. Mahendra Nath Pandey interacting with the media after taking charge as the Union Minister of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, in New Delhi on June 04, 2019.jpg|thumb|Dr. Mahendra Nath Pandey interacting with the media after taking charge as the Union [[Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship|Minister for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship]], along with Shri [[Raj Kumar Singh]], [[Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship|Minister of State for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship]], in New Delhi on June 04, 2019.]]
Pandey was born at [[Ghazipur district|Pakhanpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] to Sudhakar Pandey and Chandrawati Pandey in a [[Brahmin]] family.<ref name="LS">{{cite web |title=Dr. Mahendra Nath Pandey |url=http://164.100.47.194/Loksabha/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=4917 |publisher=Lok Sabha |access-date=9 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Union minister Mahendra Nath Pandey appointed UP BJP chief |url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/8fvHMKhlkn0ENYQbxWfL9I/Union-minister-Mahendra-Nath-Pandey-appointed-UP-BJP-chief.html |publisher=[[Mint (newspaper)|Live Mint]] |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=31 August 2017}}</ref> He received a [[Postgraduate education|postgraduate]] degree in [[Journalism]] and completed his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D]] in [[Hindi]] from [[Banaras Hindu University]].<ref name="LS"/> In 1973, he was elected president of the students' union of [[C.M. Anglo Bengali College]]. Five years later, he became the general secretary of the students' union of Banaras Hindu University.<ref name="DB">{{cite web |title=मोदी के मंत्री को मिली नई जिम्मेदारी, डॉ महेन्द्र पांडेय बने यूपी बीजेपी के अध्यक्ष | trans-title = Modi's minister gets new responsibility, Dr. Mahendra Pandey becomes the president of UP BJP |url=https://www.bhaskar.com/news/UP-LUCK-mahendra-nath-pandey-start-new-inning-as-uttar-pradesh-bjp-president-5683341-NOR.html |publisher=[[Dainik Bhaskar]] |access-date=9 March 2019 |language=hi |date=31 August 2017}}</ref>

Pandey spent five months in prison during [[The Emergency (India)|the Emergency]].<ref name="NDTV">{{cite web |title=ऐसे ही नहीं दी गई है महेंद्रनाथ पांडेय को उत्तर प्रदेश बीजेपी की कमान, इसके पीछे हो सकती है एक रणनीति |trans-title=Mahendra Nath Pandey has simply been not made BJP President of Uttar Pradesh, behind it there might be a strategy |url=https://khabar.ndtv.com/news/uttar-pradesh/why-mahendra-nath-pandey-given-responsibility-of-up-bjp-chief-1744955 |publisher=[[NDTV]] |access-date=9 March 2019 |language=hi |date=1 September 2017 |archive-date=13 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713025026/https://khabar.ndtv.com/news/uttar-pradesh/why-mahendra-nath-pandey-given-responsibility-of-up-bjp-chief-1744955 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="ET">{{cite news |title=BJP picks up Brahmin face Mahendra Nath Pandey to head UP unit ahead of LS polls |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/bjp-picks-up-brahmin-face-to-head-up-unit-ahead-of-ls-polls/articleshow/60311703.cms |newspaper=[[The Economic Times]] |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=1 September 2017|last1=Sharma |first1=Aman }}</ref> In 1978, he joined [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]].<ref name="ET"/> He took part in the [[Ram Janmabhoomi]] movement and was booked under the [[National Security Act (India)|National Security Act]] by the [[Mulayam Singh Yadav]]-led state government.<ref name="ET"/>

In 1991, Pandey was elected to the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] for the first time.<ref name="DB"/> In 1996, he was re-elected to the assembly. He received the portfolio of Minister of State for Housing and Urban Development the following year in the [[Kalyan Singh]] ministry. He also served as Minister of State for Planning (Independent charge) between 1998 and 2000, and Minister of State, Panchayati Raj between 2000 and 2002.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mahendra Nath Pandey: BJP's Brahmin Face in UP |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/mahendra-nath-pandey-bjps-brahmin-face-in-up/945636 |publisher=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook India]] |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=5 July 2016}}</ref>

Ahead of the [[2014 Indian general election]], [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] announced that Pandey would contest from the [[Chandauli (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chandauli constituency]] of [[Purvanchal]].<ref>{{cite web |title=BJP directs Modi wave at eastern UP |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/BJP-directs-Modi-wave-at-eastern-UP/article20758949.ece |publisher=The Hindu Business Line |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=24 April 2014}}</ref> He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] after defeating his nearest rival Anil Maurya of the [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] by a margin of approximately 150,000 votes.<ref name="DB"/><ref name="ET"/> Subsequently, he was made a member of [[Standing committee (India)|Standing Committee]] on [[Ministry of Rural Development (India)|Rural Development]] and Consultative Committee for [[Ministry of Steel|Ministry of Steel and Mines]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Uprety |first1=Ajay |title=BJP keeps Brahmins in UP happy by making Mahendra Pandey state chief |url=https://www.theweek.in/content/archival/news/india/bjp-uttar-pradesh-brahmins-mahendra-nath-pandey.html |publisher=[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]] |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=1 September 2017}}</ref>

On 5 July 2016, in a major cabinet reshuffle, Pandey took the oath of office as Union [[Minister of State]] for [[Ministry of Human Resource Development|Human Resource Development]] in the [[First Modi ministry]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Katiyar |first1=Prema |title=Meet these three new ministers who have found berths in various ministries|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/meet-these-three-new-ministers-who-have-found-berths-in-various-ministries/articleshow/53133375.cms |newspaper=The Economic Times |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=10 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Modi Cabinet reshuffle 2016: Modi surprises – Smriti Irani loses HRD, VK Singh deprived of MoS N-E charge |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/live-cabinet-reshuffle-pm-narendra-modi-cabinet-to-induct-19-new-faces-today/306989/ |publisher=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]] |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=5 July 2016}}</ref> On 31 August 2017, he was replaced by [[Satya Pal Singh (Uttar Pradesh politician)|Satyapal Singh]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Modi's Cabinet reshuffle: Meet the nine new faces |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/modis-cabinet-reshuffle-meet-the-nine-new-faces/satya-pal-singh/slideshow/60347914.cms |publisher=The Economic Times |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=3 September 2017}}</ref> That same day, he was appointed president of the [[Uttar Pradesh]] unit of the BJP, replacing [[Keshav Prasad Maurya]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Mahendra Nath Pandey Appointed Uttar Pradesh BJP Chief |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/mahendra-nath-pandey-appointed-uttar-pradesh-bjp-chief-1744600 |publisher=[[NDTV]] |access-date=9 March 2019 |date=31 August 2017}}</ref>

In the Cabinet announcement made on 31 May 2019, Pandey was given the post of [[Minister of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship]] in the 17th Lok Sabha under Prime Minister Narendra Modi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/national-politics/mahendra-nath-pandey-gets-skill-development-737257.html|title=Mahendra Nath Pandey gets Skill Development|date=2019-05-31|website=Deccan Herald|language=en|access-date=2019-05-31}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=PM Modi allocates portfolios. Full list of new ministers |url=https://www.livemint.com/politics/news/pm-modi-allocates-portfolios-full-list-of-new-ministers-1559288502067.html |work=[[Live Mint]] |date=31 May 2019 }}</ref>

==Personal life==
Pandey's family originally hails from the village of [[Pakhanpur]].<ref name="NDTV"/> He married Pratima Pandey on 8 February 1985 and they have one daughter.<ref name="LS"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|in-lwr}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ramkishun]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of Parliament for [[Chandauli (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chandauli]] |years=2014 – Present}}
{{s-inc}}
|-
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Dharmendra Pradhan]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship|Minister of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship]]|years=30 May 2019 - 7 July 2021}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Dharmendra Pradhan]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Prakash Javadekar]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of Heavy Industries|Minister of Heavy Industries]]|years=7 July 2021 - Present}}
{{s-inc}}
|-
{{s-end}}

{{Second Narendra Modi Cabinet}}
{{Cabinet of Narendra Modi}}
{{16th LS members from Uttar Pradesh |state=expanded}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pandey, Mahendra Nath}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:India MPs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:People from Chandauli district]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1991–1993]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 1997–2002]]
[[Category:Politicians from Ghazipur]]
[[Category:Narendra Modi ministry]]
[[Category:India MPs 2019–2024]]

1996–97 Ranji One Day Trophy

2025-05-19T16:56:53Z

Ankithreddy:

{{Short description|Indian cricket tournament}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox cricket tournament
| name = 1996–97 Ranji One Day Trophy
| fromdate = 21 October
| todate = 22 December 1996
| administrator = [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]]
| cricket format = [[List A cricket|List A]]
| tournament format = [[Round-robin tournament|Round-robin]]
| participants = 27
| matches = 60
| previous_year = 1995–96
| previous_tournament = 1995–96 Ranji One Day Trophy
| next_year = 1997–98
| next_tournament = 1997–98 Ranji One Day Trophy
}}
The '''1996–97 Ranji One Day Trophy''' was the fourth edition of India's annual [[List A cricket]] tournament which became the [[Vijay Hazare Trophy]] in 2007.<ref name="OD96">[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/1/Ranji_Trophy_One_Day_1996-97.html Ranji Trophy One Day 1996/97]. CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 December 2023. {{subscription}}</ref><ref name="TI">[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/IND.html Tournaments in India]. CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 December 2023. {{subscription}}</ref> As in the earlier editions, the 1996–97 tournament was open to teams participating in the [[Ranji Trophy]] and it was organised on a zonal basis without national playoffs or a final, so the aim of each team was to win its zonal championship only.<ref name="Pts">[https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/Tables/1/Ranji_Trophy_One_Day_1996-97.html Ranji Trophy One Day Tables, 1996/97]. CricketArchive. Retrieved 26 December 2023. {{subscription}}</ref>

==Tournament==
All 27 teams from the Ranji Trophy competed and were divided into the five zones used for the [[Duleep Trophy]]: Central (5 teams), East (5), North (6), South (6), and West (5). The format within each zone was [[Round-robin tournament|round-robin]] with the teams playing all of their zonal opponents once. Four points were awarded for a win and [[run rate]] was utilised as a [[Result (cricket)#Tiebreakers|tie-breaker]] within each league.<ref name="Pts"/> The teams played a total of 60 matches from 21 October to 27 December 1996.<ref name="OD96"/> The zonal champions were [[Madhya Pradesh cricket team|Madhya Pradesh]] (Central), [[Assam cricket team|Assam]] (East), [[Delhi cricket team|Delhi]] (North), [[Tamil Nadu cricket team|Tamil Nadu]] (South), and [[Mumbai cricket team|Mumbai]] (West).<ref name="Pts"/>

=== Central Zone ===
{{Single-innings cricket match|date=21 October 1996|time=|daynight=|team1=[[Railways cricket team|Railways]]|team2=[[Madhya Pradesh cricket team|Madhya Pradesh]]|score1=202/6 (50 overs)|runs1=SZ Zuffri 31|wickets1=[[Rajesh Chauhan]] 3/21 (10 overs)|score2=204/6 (49.1 overs)|runs2=[[Chandrakant Pandit]] 73|wickets2=[[Zakir Hussain (Hyderabad cricketer)|Zakir Hussain]] 3/36 (10 overs)|result=Madhya Pradesh won by 4 wickets|report=[https://i.imgci.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/1996-97/IND_LOCAL/RANJI_OD/CENTRAL/I-RLYS_MP_ROD-C_21OCT1996.html Scorecard]|venue=[[Karnail Singh Stadium]], [[Delhi]]|umpires=Yashpal Sharma and VN Kulkarni|motm=|toss=Madhya Pradesh won the toss and elected to field.|rain=|notes=Points : Madhya Pradesh 4; Railways 0}}{{Single-innings cricket match|date=21 October 1996|time=|daynight=|team1=[[Railways cricket team|Railways]]|team2=[[Uttar Pradesh cricket team|Uttar Pradesh]]|score1=248/7 (50 overs)|runs1=Rizwan Shamshad 60|wickets1=PK Hedaoo 3/42 (10 overs)|score2=21/0 (5 overs)|runs2=SK Rao 16|wickets2=|result=No result|report=[https://i.imgci.com/link_to_database/ARCHIVE/1996-97/IND_LOCAL/RANJI_OD/CENTRAL/VIDAR_UP_ROD-C_21OCT1996.html Scorecard]|venue=[[Vidarbha Cricket Association Ground]], [[Nagpur]]|umpires=SJ Phadkar and BS Bhatti|motm=|toss=Uttar Pradesh won the toss and elected to bat.|rain=Rain prevented the completion of the second innings.|notes=}}{{Single-innings cricket match|date=29 October 1996|time=|daynight=|team1=[[Madhya Pradesh cricket team|Madhya Pradesh]]|team2=[[Vidarbha cricket team|Vidarbha]]|score1=245/7 (50 overs)|runs1=[[Jai Prakash Yadav (cricketer)|Jai Prakash Yadav]] 92|wickets1=Lalchand Rajput 2/30 (10 overs)|score2=247/2 (48.3 overs)|runs2=Lalchand Rajput 83*|wickets2=[[Harvinder Sodhi]] 1/33 (9 overs)|result=Vidarbha won by 8 wickets|report=[https://i.imgci.com/db/ARCHIVE/1996-97/IND_LOCAL/RANJI_OD/CENTRAL/MP_VIDAR_ROD-C_29OCT1996.html Scorecard]|venue=[[Nehru Stadium, Indore|Nehru Stadium]], [[Indore]]|umpires=Ramesh Jadhav and K Krishnan|motm=|toss=Madhya Pradesh won the toss and elected to bat.|rain=|notes=}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Vijay Hazare Trophy}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vijay Hazare Trophy, 1996-97}}
[[Category:1996 in Indian cricket]]
[[Category:1997 in Indian cricket]]
[[Category:Domestic cricket competitions in 1996–97]]
[[Category:Vijay Hazare Trophy seasons]]

{{Indian-domestic-cricket-competition-stub}}

Meitei linguistic purism movement

2025-01-01T19:32:08Z

Ankithreddy: added info

{{Short description|Meitei linguistic event}}
{{Contains special characters|Meitei}}
{{Distinguish|Meitei classical language movement}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox event
| title = Movement to attain linguistic purity in the Meitei language

| image = Meitei language written in Meitei script.svg
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
| caption = "Meitei Lon" (literally meaning "[[Meitei language]]"), written in [[Meitei script]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| english_name =
| time =
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| duration = 
| date = 
| venue =
| location =
| coordinates = 
| also_known_as =
| type = [[Linguistic purism]]
| theme =
| cause =
* [[Foreign language anxiety]]
* [[Linguistic insecurity]]
| motive =
| target = [[Linguistic purism|Linguistically pure]] [[Meitei language]]
| first_reporter =
| budget =
| patron =

| organisers =
* Indigenous People's Association of Kangleipak
* [[Meetei Erol Eyek Loinasillol Apunba Lup]]
* [[South East Asia Cultural Organisation]] 
| filmed_by =
| participants = [[Chingsubam Akaba]]
| outcome =
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| displaced =
| inquiries =
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| coroner =
| arrests =
| suspects =
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| awards =
| url =
| blank_label = 
| blank1_label = 
| blank2_label = 
| website = 
| notes =
}}

The '''Meitei linguistic purity movement''' is a political and social [[language reform]] movement that aims to purge the [[Meitei language]] of foreign elements (such as [[loanwords]] from Hindi, Sanskrit, and English) and promote a supposedly [[linguistic purism|purer]] form of Meitei. The movement includes literary, political, and social organisations as well as notable members of government.

The movement has sometimes veered into [[censorship]].

== Manipuri Lexicon Committee==
{{See also|Censorship in India|List of films banned in India}}
During August 2014, {{langx|mni|Meetei Erol Eyek Loinasillol Apunba Lup||United Forum for Safeguarding Manipuri Script and Language|label=none}} (MEELAL) appealed to Meitei-language writers to avoid the use of loanwords from other languages. The Manipuri Lexicon Committee convened to investigate the use of loan words in Meitei works. In September 2014, the Committee approved [[Meitei literature]] textbooks for secondary school classes 9 and 10. During December 2014, MEELAL investigated books published by the Manipur Board of Secondary Education for classes 1-10.<ref name=wg>{{Cite web |last=Gurumayum |first=William |title=Three Manipuri books banned for containing foreign language - Imphal Times |url=https://www.imphaltimes.com/news/item/1522-three-manipuri-books-banned-for-containing-foreign-language |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=www.imphaltimes.com |date=3 December 2014 |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MEELAL for pure Manipuri language - Imphal Times |url=https://www.imphaltimes.com/news/item/630-meelal-for-pure-manipuri-language/amp |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=www.imphaltimes.com|date=10 August 2014 }}</ref>

MEELAL also announced that schools should not keep any books that don't abide by its rules.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}} In December 2014, at MEELAL's head office in Imphal, volunteers tore up and banned three books that were found to contain non-native words. Earlier, the authors had ignored the Lexicon Committee's demands for "correction" of the language. The books were ''Kainya'', a book of poetry by Punshiba Soibam, ''Sahitya Neinarol Anouba'', by Bhorot Sanasam, and ''Manglan Khara Saktam Khara'' a book of short stories by Khundongbam Gokulchandra.<ref name=wg/><ref>{{cite web |title=MEELAL bans books for including `foreign` words |url=https://kanglaonline.in/2014/12/meelal-bans-books-for-including-foreign-words/ |access-date=1 January 2025 |website=KanglaOnline |date=4 December 2014}}</ref>

During December 2014, the Meitei-language film ''Court Marriage'' was banned by MEELAL for containing foreign language words. Its director, Bimol Phibou, was banned from filmmaking for not responding to the organization's summons.<ref name=wg/>

In February 2015, MEELAL sought to ban songs in "fusional" forms of Meitei from [[All India Radio]] and [[Doordarshan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=MEELAL to ban 'fusional' Manipuri songs : 24th feb15 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=29..240215.feb15 |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>

==Native language naming==

In August 2019, the [[Manipur Legislative Assembly]] renamed the former Tulihal International Airport (also known as [[Imphal]] International Airport) to [[Bir Tikendrajit International Airport]]. The change was strongly opposed by the South East Asia Cultural Organisation on the grounds that the government should have chosen an indigenous name, and due to the lack of consultation. The Indigenous People's Association of Kangleipak also urged the government to reconsider its decision and give the airport an indigenous name, suggesting Athouba Koirengsana, which is a Meitei-language name of [[Tikendrajit Singh|Bir Tikendrajit]]. The former official name, [[Tulihal International Airport]] referred to Ebudhou Tulihal, a local guardian deity. The Khongjom War Memorial Trust also opposed the government's decision.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-08-30 |title=Renaming of Imphal Int'l Airport evokes reactions; orgs. demand revocation of resolution - Eastern Mirror |url=https://easternmirrornagaland.com/renaming-of-imphal-intl-airport-evokes-reactions-orgs-demand-revocation-of-resolution/ |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=easternmirrornagaland.com |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bir Tikendrajit International Airport Opposition raised against new name |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2019/8/29/By-Our-Staff-ReporterIMPHAL-Aug-28-Expressing-disappointment-at-the-renaming-of-Tulihal-International-Airport-as-Bir-Tikendrajit-International-Airport-the-Indigenous-People-s-Association-of-Kangl.amp.html |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=www.thesangaiexpress.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-08-26 |title=Manipur passes resolution to rename Imphal Airport in honour of Bir Tikendrajit |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/north-east-india/manipur/manipur-passes-resolution-to-rename-imphal-airport-in-honour-of-bir-tikendrajit-5939168/ |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

In December 2021, MEELAL opposed the Manipri Education Minister's proposal rename the Meitei script, replacing the wholly indigenous {{langx|mni|Meitei mayek||[[Meitei script]]|label=none}} with the [[Sanskritized]] Manipuri eyek.<ref>{{cite web |title=Education minister moots renaming 'MM' as 'Manipuri Eyek' : 15th sep21 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |url=https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=24..150921.sep21 |website=e-pao.net |access-date=28 December 2024}}</ref> MEELAL warned the minister that they and the general public would agitate if he pursued the idea.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MEELAL opposes move to rename 'Meetei Mayek' |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/manipur/meelal-opposes-move-to-rename-meetei-mayek |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=Imphal Free Press |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MEELAL denounces Education Minister's statement |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2021/12/16/IMPHAL-Dec-15Meetei-Eyek-Loinasillol-Apunba-Lup-MEELAL-has-expressed-shock-over-the-Education-M.html |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=www.thesangaiexpress.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Attempt to rename Meetei Mayek wrong: MEELAL : 23rd aug22 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=27..230822.aug22 |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal bar|Asia|History|India|Language|Politics|Society}}
* [[Foreign language anxiety]]
* [[Language shift]]
* [[Linguistic insecurity]]
* [[Schizoglossia]]
* [[Hindi imposition]]
* [[Sanskritisation]]
* [[Pure Tamil movement]]

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite web |title=Changing nature of Meiteilon – Pabung / Papa |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2020/7/6/Changing-nature-of-Meiteilon-Pabung-Papa-.html |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=www.thesangaiexpress.com |language=en}}
* {{Cite web |title=Changing nature of Meiteilon Pabung Papa By Ringo Pebam |url=http://e-pao.net/epPageExtractor.asp?src=MeiteiMayek.Changing_nature_of_Meiteilon_Pabung_Papa_By_Ringo_Pebam.html |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=e-pao.net}}
* {{Cite web |title=Neire Mei Taare words of the new generation By Ringo Pebam |url=http://e-pao.net/epPageExtractor.asp?src=MeiteiMayek.Neire_Mei_Taare_words_of_the_new_generation_By_Ringo_Pebam.html |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=e-pao.net}}
== References ==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Meitei language movements]]

Gajendra Patel

2024-12-19T18:30:24Z

Ankithreddy:

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Gajendra Singh Patel
| image =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1975|2|16|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Barwani]], Madhya Pradesh
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| termstart = 23 May 2019
| constituency = [[Khargone (Lok Sabha constituency)|Khargone]]
| predecessor = [[Subhash Patel]]
| alma_mater= Government College, Barwani 
Indore Christian College, [[Indore]]
| father= Umrao Singh Patel
| mother= Late Sushila Bai Patel
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| spouse = Basanti Patel
| education = [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] [[Bachelor of Laws|LL.B.]]
| profession= Businessperson farmer
| nationality = Indian
| source =https://loksabha.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5067&lastls=17
}}
'''Gajendra Singh Patel''' (born 16 February 1975; {{IPA|hi|gəd͡ʒeːn̪d̪ɾə sɪŋgʱ pəʈeːl}}) is an Indian politician. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]], lower house of the [[Parliament of India]] from [[Khargone (Lok Sabha constituency)|Khargone]], Madhya Pradesh in the [[2019 Indian general election]] as member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/news/politics/khargone-election-results-2019-live-updates-winner-loser-leading-trailing-2154417.html | title=Khargone Election Results 2019 Live Updates: Gajendra Umrao Singh Patel of BJP wins| publisher=News 18 | date=23 May 2019 | accessdate=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/article/khargone-madhya-pradesh-election-2019-khargone-election-results-candidates-voter-population-polling-percentage/413736 | title=Khargone (Madhya Pradesh) Election 2019: BJP fields Gajendra Patel against Congress' Govind Muzaalda | publisher=Times Now News | date=17 May 2019 | accessdate=17 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/khargone-lok-sabha-election-results-2019-live-winner-runner-up/ | title=KHARGONE Lok Sabha Election Results 2019 LIVE Updates: BJP's Gajendra Patel wins | publisher=The Indian Express | date=24 May 2019 | accessdate=17 March 2020}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://loksabha.nic.in/Members/MemberBioprofile.aspx?mpsno=5067&lastls=17 Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]
{{17th LS members from Madhya Pradesh}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patel, Gajendra}}
[[Category:India MPs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Khargone]]
[[Category:People from Barwani]]
[[Category:1975 births]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]

{{MadhyaPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}